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= Varahi =
Varahi ( Sanskrit : वाराही , Vārāhī ) is one of the Matrikas , a group of seven or eight mother goddesses in the Hindu religion . With the head of a sow , Varahi is the shakti ( feminine energy , or sometimes , consort ) of Varaha , the boar Avatar of the god Vishnu . In Nepal , she is called Barahi .
Varahi is worshipped by all the three major schools of Hinduism : Shaktism ( goddess worship ) ; Shaivism ( followers of the god Shiva ) ; and Vaishnavism ( devotion to Vishnu ) . She is usually worshipped at night , and according to secretive Vamamarga Tantric practices . The Buddhist goddesses Vajravārāhī and Marichi are believed to have their origins in the Hindu goddess Varahi .
= = Hindu legends = =
According to the Shumbha @-@ Nishumbha myth of the Devi Mahatmya from the Markandeya Purana religious texts , the Matrikas goddesses appear as shaktis ( feminine powers ) from the bodies of the gods . The scriptures say that Varahi was created from Varaha . She has a boar form , wields a chakra ( discus ) , and fights with a sword . After the battle described in the myth , the Matrikas dance – drunk on their victim 's blood .
According to a latter episode of the Devi Mahatmya that deals with the killing of the demon Raktabija , the warrior @-@ goddess Durga creates the Matrikas from herself and with their help slaughters the demon army . When the demon Shumbha challenges Durga to single combat , she absorbs the Matrikas into herself . In the Vamana Purana , the Matrikas arise from different parts of the Divine Mother Chandika ; Varahi arises from Chandika 's back .
The Markendeya Purana praises Varahi as a granter of boons and the regent of the northern direction , in a hymn where the Matrikas are declared as the protectors of the directions . In another instance in the same Purana , she is described as riding a buffalo . The Devi Bhagavata Purana says Varahi , with the other Matrikas , is created by the Supreme Mother . The Mother promises the gods that the Matrikas will fight demons when needed . In the Raktabija episode , Varahi is described as having a boar form , fighting demons with her tusks while seated on a preta ( corpse ) .
In the Varaha Purana , the story of Raktabija is retold , but here each of Matrikas appears from the body of another Matrika . Varahi appears seated on Shesha @-@ nāga ( the serpent on which the god Vishnu sleeps ) from the posterior of Vaishnavi , the Shakti of Vishnu . Varahi is said to represent the vice of envy ( asuya ) in the same Purana .
The Matsya Purana tells a different story of the origin of Varahi . Varahi , with other Matrikas , is created by Shiva to help him kill the demon Andhakasura , who has the ability – like Raktabija – to regenerate from his dripping blood .
= = Associations = =
The Devi Purana paradoxically calls Varahi the mother of Varaha ( Varahajanani ) as well as Kritantatanusambhava , who emerges from Kritantatanu . Kritantatanu means " death personified " and could be an attribute of Varaha or a direct reference to Yama , the god of death . Elsewhere in the scripture , she is called Vaivasvati and described as engrossed in drinking from a skull @-@ cup . Pal theorizes that the name " Vaivasvati " means that Varahi is clearly identified with Yami , the shakti of Yama , who is also known as Vivasvan . Moreover , Varahi holds a staff and rides a buffalo , both of which are attributes of Yama ; all Matrikas are described as assuming the form of their creator @-@ gods .
In the context of the Matrikas ' association to the Sanskrit alphabet , Varahi is said to govern the pa varga of consonants , namely pa , pha , ba , bha , ma . The Lalita Sahasranama , a collection of 1 @,@ 000 names of the Divine Mother , calls Varahi the destroyer of demon Visukaran . In another context , Varahi , as Panchami , is identified with the wife of Sadashiva , the fifth Brahma , responsible for the regeneration of the Universe . The other Panch Brahmas ( " five Brahmas " ) are the gods Brahma , Govinda , Rudra , and Isvara , who are in charge of creation , protection , destruction , and dissolution respectively . In yet another context , Varahi is called Kaivalyarupini , the bestower of Kaivalya ( " detachment of the soul from matter or further transmigrations " ) – the final form of mukti ( salvation ) . The Matrikas are also believed to reside in a person 's body . Varahi is described as residing in a person 's navel , and governs the manipura , svadhisthana , and muladhara chakras .
Haripriya Rangarajan , in her book Images of Varahi — An Iconographic Study , suggests that Varahi is none other than Vak devi , the goddess of speech .
= = Iconography = =
Varahi 's iconography is described in the Matsya Purana and agamas like the Purva @-@ karnagama and the Rupamandana . The Tantric text Varahi Tantra mentions that Varahi has five forms of Varahi : Svapna Varahi , Canda Varahi , Mahi Varahi ( Bhairavi ) , Krcca Varahi , and Matsya Varahi . The Matrikas , as shaktis of gods , are described to resemble those gods in form , jewellery , and mount , but Varahi inherits only the boar @-@ face of Varaha .
Varahi is usually depicted with her characteristic sow face on a human body with a black complexion comparable to a storm cloud . The scholar Donaldson informs us that the association of a sow and a woman is seen derogatory for the latter , but the association is also used in curses to protect " land from invaders , new rulers , and trespassers " . Rarely , she is described as holding the Earth on her tusks , similar to Varaha . She wears the karaṇḍa mukuṭa , a conical basket @-@ shaped crown . Varahi can be depicted as standing , seated , or dancing . Varahi is often depicted pot @-@ bellied and with full breasts , while most all other Matrikas – except Chamunda – are depicted as slender and beautiful . One belief suggests that since Varahi is identified with the Yoganidra of Vishnu , who holds the universe in her womb ( Bhugarbha Paranmesvari Jagaddhatri ) , that she should be shown as pot @-@ bellied . Another theory suggests that the pot @-@ belly reflects a " maternal aspect " , which Donaldson describes as " curious " because Varahi and Chamunda " best exemplify " the terrible aspect of the Divine Mother . A notable exception is the depiction of Varahi as human @-@ faced and slender at the sixth @-@ century Rameshvara cave ( Cave 21 ) , the Ellora Caves . She is depicted here as part of the group of seven Matrikas . A third eye and / or a crescent moon is described to be on her forehead .
Varahi may be two , four , or six @-@ armed . The Matsya Purana , the Purva @-@ karnagama , and the Rupamandana mention a four @-@ armed form . The Rupamandana says she carries a ghanta ( bell ) , a chamara ( a yak 's tail ) , a chakra ( discus ) , and a gada ( mace ) . The Matsya Purana omits the ghanta and does not mention the fourth weapon . The Purva @-@ Karanagama mentions that she holds the Sharanga ( the bow of Vishnu ) , the hala ( plough ) , and the musula ( pestle ) . The fourth hand is held in the Abhaya ( " protection gesture " ) or the Varada Mudra ( " blessing gesture " ) . The Devi Purana mentions her attributes as being sword , iron club , and noose . Another description says her hair is adorned with a garland with red flowers . She holds a staff and drinking skull @-@ cup ( kapala ) . The Varahini @-@ nigrahastaka @-@ stotra describes her attributes as a plough , a pestle , a skull @-@ cup , and the abhaya mudra . The Vamana Purana describes her seated on Shesha while holding a chakra and a mace . The Agni Purana describes her holding the gada , shankha , sword , and ankusha ( goad ) . The Mantramahodadhi mentions she carries a sword , shield , noose , and goad . In Vaishnava images , since she is associated with Vishnu , Varahi may be depicted holding all four attributes of Vishnu — Shankha ( conch ) , chakra , Gada , and Padma ( lotus ) . The Aparajitapriccha describes her holding a rosary , a khatvanga ( a club with a skull ) , a bell , and a kamandalu ( water @-@ pot ) .
The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes a six @-@ armed Varahi , holding a danda ( staff of punishment ) , khetaka ( shield ) , khadga ( sword ) , and pasha ( noose ) in four hands and the two remaining hands being held in Abhaya and Varada Mudra ( " blessing gesture " ) . She also holds a shakti and hala ( plough ) . Such a Varahi sculpture is found at Abanesi , depicted with the dancing Shiva . She may also be depicted holding a child sitting on her lap , like Matrikas are often depicted .
Matsya Varahi is depicted as two @-@ armed , with spiral @-@ coiled hair and holding a fish ( matsya ) and a kapala . The fish and wine @-@ cup kapala are special characteristics of Tantric Shakta images of Varahi , the fish being exclusive to Tantric descriptions .
The vahana ( vehicle ) of Varahi is usually described as a buffalo ( Mahisha ) . In Vaishnava and Shakta images , she is depicted as either standing or seated on a lotus pitha ( pedestral ) or on her vahana ( a buffalo ) or on its head , or on a boar , the serpent Shesha , a lion , or on Garuda ( the eagle @-@ man vahana of Vishnu ) . In Tantric Shakta images , the vahana may be specifically a she @-@ buffalo or a corpse ( pretasana ) . An elephant may be depicted as her vahana . The goddess is also described as riding on her horse , Jambini . Garuda may be depicted as her attendant . She may also be depicted seated under a kalpaka tree .
When depicted as part of the Sapta @-@ Matrika group ( " seven mothers " ) , Varahi is always in the fifth position in the row of Matrikas , and thus is called Panchami ( " fifth " ) . The goddesses are flanked by Virabhadra ( Shiva 's fierce form ) and Ganesha ( Shiva 's elephant @-@ headed son and wisdom god ) .
= = Worship = =
For worship and temples of Varahi as part of the Sapta @-@ Matrika group , see Matrika Worship
Varahi is worshipped by Shaivas , Vaishnavas , and Shaktas . Varahi is worshipped in the Sapta @-@ Matrikas group ( " seven mothers " ) , which are venerated in Shaktism , as well as associated with Shiva .
Varahi is a ratri devata ( night goddess ) and is sometimes called Dhruma Varahi ( " dark Varahi " ) and Dhumavati ( " goddess of darkness " ) . According to Tantra , Varahi should be worshipped after sunset and before sunrise . Parsurama Kalpasutra explicitly states that the time of worship is the middle of the night . Shaktas worship Varahi by secretive Vamamarga Tantric practices , which are particularly associated with worship by panchamakara – wine , fish , grain , meat , and ritual copulation . These practices are observed in the Kalaratri temple on the bank of the Ganges , where worship is offered to Varahi only in the night ; the shrine is closed during the day . Shaktas consider Varahi to be a manifestation of the goddess Lalita Tripurasundari or as " Dandanayika " or " Dandanatha " – the commander @-@ general of Lalita 's army . The Sri Vidya tradition of Shaktism elevates Varahi to the status of Para Vidya ( " transcendental knowledge " ) . The Devi mahatmya suggests evoking Varahi for longevity . Thirty yantras and thirty mantras are prescribed for the worship of Varahi and to acquire siddhis by her favour . This , according to the scholar Rath , indicates her power . Some texts detailing her iconography compare her to the Supreme Shakti .
Prayers dedicated to Varahi include Varahi Anugrahashtakam , for her blessing , and Varahi Nigrahashtakam , for destruction of enemies ; both are composed in Tamil .
= = = Temples = = =
Apart from the temples in which Varahi is worshipped as part of the Sapta @-@ Matrika , there are notable temples where Varahi is worshipped as the chief deity .
India
A 9th @-@ century Varahi temple exists at Chaurasi about 14 km from Konark , Orissa , where Varahi is installed as Matysa Varahi and is worshipped by Tantric rites . The famous Jaganath temple , Puri , is associated with and sends offerings to a Barahi temple , which is a centre of Tantric activities . In Varanasi , Varahi is worshipped as Patala Bhairavi . In Chennai , there is a Varahi temple in Mylapore , while a bigger temple is being built near Vedanthangal . Ashadha Navaratri , in the Hindu month of Ashadha ( June / July ) , is celebrated as a nine @-@ day festival in honour of Varahi at the Varahi shrine at Brihadeeswarar temple ( a Shaiva temple ) , Thanjavur . The goddess is decorated with different types of alankarams ( ornaments ) every day . Full moon days are considered sacred to Varahi . An ancient Varahi devi temple worshipped as Uttari Bhawani is situated in Gonda District . In Gujarat , there is a Varahi temple in a village named Dadhana where the goddess is venerated as the Gotra @-@ devi of a surname " Dadhaniya " Another temple in Gujarat is located in Talaja town of Bhavnagar district where idol of goddess was brought from hathasani village near palitana The idol of goddess was found by digging in shetrunji river in that area .
Maha Varahi temple is located in Peelamedu ( 118 , Sowripalayam Pirivu ) , Coimbatore , Tamil Nadu . This temple has both Maha varahi and Goddess Dhandanatha ( Varthali ) , the commander in chief of Goddess Lalitha ( Sri Raja Rajeshwari 's ) army . This temple is run by Sri Varahi Mantralayam Trust . Varahi homam happens here on every panchami . This temple performs Dasamahavidhya homam ( the 10 cosmic forms of goddess ) . Homa for Goddess Bagalamukhi and Goddess Dhumavathi ( Dhumra Varahi ) are done on amavasai ( new moon ) and pournami ( full moon ) .
Nepal
A Barahi temple is situated in the middle of Phewa Lake , Nepal . Here , Barahi , as she is known as in Nepal , is worshipped in the Matysa Varahi form as an incarnation of Durga and an Ajima ( " grandmother " ) goddess . Devotees usually sacrifice male animals to the goddess on Saturdays . Jaya Barahi Mandir , Bhaktapur , is also dedicated to Barahi .
Other countries
Devi Varahi Ambika Homam is done at the Parashakthi temple in Pontiac , Michigan , USA on every Amavaasya ( New moon ) night . Devi Varahi was installed at the Temple in February 2005 by Yanthra Prana prateeshta . Varahi was installed in Sri Maha Muthu Mariamman temple Lunas , Kedah on 21 February 2014 . That is the only Varahi Amman temple in the Malaysia .
= = In Buddhism = =
Vajravarahi ( " vajra @-@ hog " or Buddhist Varahi ) , the most common form of the Buddhist goddess Vajrayogini , originated from the Hindu Varahi . Vajravarahi is also known as Varahi in Buddhism . Vajravarahi inherits the fierce character and wrath of Varahi . Both are invoked to destroy enemies . The sow head of Varahi is also seen as the right @-@ side head attached to the main head in one of Vajravarahi 's most common forms . The hog head is described in Tibetan scriptures to represent the sublimation of ignorance ( " moha " ) . According to Elizabeth English , Varahi enters the Buddhist pantheon through the yogatantras . In the Sarvatathagatatattvasamgaraha , Varahi is described initially as a Shaiva sarvamatr ( " all @-@ mother " ) located in hell , who is converted to the Buddhist mandala by Vajrapani , assuming the name Vajramukhi ( " vajra @-@ face " ) . Varahi also enters the Heruka @-@ mandala as an attendant goddess . Varahi , along with Varttali ( another form of Varahi ) , appears as the hog @-@ faced attendant of Marichi , who also has a sow face – which may be an effect of the Hindu Varahi .
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= Climate of the Tampa Bay area =
The Tampa Bay area has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa ) , with warm and humid summers with frequent thunderstorms and drier winters with freezing temperatures occurring every 2 – 3 years . The area experiences a significant summer wet season , as nearly two @-@ thirds of the annual precipitation falls in the months of June through September . The area is listed by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) as being in hardiness zone 10 , which is about the northern limit of where coconut palms and royal palms can be grown . Highs usually range between 65 and 95 ° F ( 18 and 35 ° C ) year round . Though known for hot summers , Tampa 's official high has never reached 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) – the city 's all @-@ time record temperature is 99 ° F ( 37 ° C ) . St. Petersburg 's all @-@ time record high is exactly 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) .
Pinellas County lies on a peninsula between Tampa Bay and the Gulf of Mexico , and much of the city of Tampa lies on a smaller peninsula jutting out into Tampa Bay . This proximity to large bodies of water both moderates temperatures and introduces large amounts of humidity into the atmosphere . In general , the local communities farthest from the coast have larger temperature ranges , both during a single day and throughout the seasons of the year .
= = Seasonal weather = =
= = = Spring = = =
Spring in the Tampa area is usually mild and dry , with highs in the 70s ( around 25 C ) and lows in the 50s ( around 13 C ) . However , the calm is occasionally disturbed by the arrival of late @-@ season cold fronts . The collision of a cold air mass with warm and humid local air can create a squall line which brings brief heavy rain , strong winds , and sometimes small tornadoes to the area . A dramatic example of this was the Storm of the Century in March 1993 , but other smaller @-@ scale events ( such as the brief but intense squall which caused a freighter to strike and partially collapse the original Sunshine Skyway bridge in May 1980 ) occur almost every year .
= = = Summer = = =
Temperatures are hot from around mid @-@ May through mid @-@ October , which coincides approximately with the rainy season . Summertime weather is very consistent , with highs in the low 90s ° F ( around 32 ° C ) , lows in the mid @-@ 70s ° F ( around 24 ° C ) , accompanied by high humidity and an almost daily chance of afternoon thundershowers .
The typical summer weather pattern is for heat @-@ produced thermals , powered by either the Gulf or Atlantic sea breeze ( and occasionally both simultaneously ) , to build puffy white cumulus clouds into threatening thunderheads over the interior of the Florida peninsula . Usually , the resulting storms drift slowly westward to the bay area , though they may rain themselves out before reaching Tampa if the easterly winds are light or the sea breeze from the Gulf of Mexico is too strong . Occasionally , the storms survive to move out over the Gulf of Mexico , where they can be seen at night from the beaches as spectacular light shows . Nighttime storms offshore are driven by the land @-@ breeze front which is the dermal counterpart of the daytime sea @-@ breeze front .
The afternoon storms typically bring brief periods of heavy rain with frequent cloud @-@ to @-@ ground lightning , and are usually followed by a pleasantly clear and cooler evening . At times , they can grow severe , bringing gusty winds , small hail , and torrential rain , and an occasional tornado . While Florida does rank # 1 in the USA in terms of tornadoes per square mile , the majority of the twisters are small , weak , and short @-@ lived . Waterspouts are relatively common in Tampa Bay and off the gulf coast during strong summer thunderstorms , occasionally moving onshore as a short @-@ lived tornado .
Though the Tampa Bay area is sometimes referred to as the " Lightning Capital of the World " , it is more accurately called the “ Lightning Capital of North America ” if measured by average number of days with thunderstorm activity per year . During the summer , west @-@ central Florida receives as much lightning as the world ’ s true lightning leaders such as the Lake Victoria region of Africa and the central Amazon River Basin . However , there are few thunderstorms in the Tampa Bay area from approximately October to May , decreasing the yearly average .
Every year , Florida averages 10 deaths and 30 injuries from lightning strikes , with several of these usually occurring in or around Tampa . University of Florida lightning expert Martin A. Uman has calculated that the average resident is within a half @-@ mile of 10 to 15 lightning strikes every year . TECO Energy , the local electric utility , spends over USD $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 annually to repair transformers and other equipment damaged by lightning strikes .
= = = Autumn = = =
Both the temperature and the average rainfall decline as September turns to October . Highs moderate into the 80s , and the lessening heat leads to lower evaporation @-@ generated humidity and fewer convection @-@ generated thundershowers , which are unusual after around mid @-@ October . While everyday rain is less frequent , the hurricane season extends until the end of November , and the area is sometimes affected by a drenching hurricane or tropical storm during the fall .
= = = Winter = = =
Winters in the Tampa Bay Area are generally dry and mild ; highs during the season average near 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) with mostly sunny skies . The occasional passage of a cold front will bring rain followed by a few days of cooler temperatures . Lows rarely drop below freezing 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) , an occurrence which happens , on average , once every other year . While deep freezes are very infrequent , serious cold snaps are a significant concern due to the diverse range of freeze @-@ sensitive agriculture and aquaculture industries in the area .
Frozen precipitation is very rare in the area . In the Great Blizzard of 1899 , Tampa suffered its one and only known blizzard , with " bay effect " snow coming off Tampa Bay .
The last officially measurable snow in Tampa fell on January 19 , 1977 . While the accumulation amounted to less than 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) , the area is quite unaccustomed to and unprepared for frozen precipitation , so various schools , businesses , and roads closed , at least until the snow melted away that afternoon . Many residents of southern Pinellas County reported a light snowfall on December 23 , 1989 . However , no snow fell at official weather stations , and the weather record indicates that light sleet fell on St. Petersburg that day .
The winter of 2009 @-@ 2010 was one of the coldest in local history . Both Tampa and St. Petersburg set records for consecutive days in which the high temperature did not reach 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) , and Tampa experienced ten consecutive days with a low temperature below freezing . Much of the area received a " wintry mix " of rain , sleet , and possibly a few snowflakes on January 9 – 10 .
Tampa 's all @-@ time record low temperature is 18 ° F ( − 8 ° C ) and St. Petersburg 's is 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) , both occurring during the same cold snap on December 13 , 1962 .
During El Niño , the Tampa Bay area receives cooler and wetter conditions during the dry season while during La Niña , the Tampa Bay area becomes drier and warmer than normal .
= = = Precipitation and sunshine trends = = =
Due to the frequent summer thunderstorms , Tampa has a pronounced wet season , receiving an average total of 28 inches ( 710 mm ) of rain from June and September but only about 18 inches ( 460 mm ) during the remaining eight months of the year combined . The historical averages during the late summer , especially September , are augmented by tropical cyclones , which can easily deposit many inches of rain in one day . Outside of the summer rainy season , most of the area 's precipitation is delivered by the occasional passage of a weather front .
Tampa 's precipitation data falls near the median for the area . Nearby communities to the interior tend to receive a bit more rain every year ; those closer to the coast a bit less .
The area receives plentiful sunshine throughout the year , averaging a total of 2920 hours , or 66 @.@ 7 % of the possible total . The daily sunshine amount is highest in May , when the sun 's angle of incidence has increased the hours of daylight and the rainy season has not yet begun .
= = Tropical systems = =
June through November is hurricane season in the Atlantic Basin and Caribbean Sea , with the most tropical activity occurring between mid @-@ August to mid @-@ October . Rain dropped by tropical systems is an important component of the area 's annual precipitation and is vital for replenishing the water supply of communities around Tampa Bay .
The area feels some effect from passing tropical systems almost every year , but direct hits are uncommon . Estimates of the probability of a hurricane making landfall in the Tampa Bay area during any given year range from 1 in 25 to 1 in 50 . While the historical record has shown that the area is vulnerable to a large storm ( such as the Great Gale of 1848 , which destroyed most of the village of Tampa ) , Tampa Bay has not seen the landfall of any hurricane since 1946 , and has not taken a hit from a major hurricane since 1921 .
= = = The 2004 Tropical Season = = =
The 2004 Atlantic Hurricane Season was historically busy for the Tampa Bay area . The region was affected by a record four hurricanes that year ; Frances , Jeanne , Charley , and to a lesser extent , Ivan . Jeanne and Frances passed over Tampa as tropical storms after making their way across the state from the east coast . Charley was forecast to make a direct hit on Tampa Bay from the south @-@ southwest , which would have been the worst @-@ case scenario for local storm surge flooding . But the storm made a sudden and unexpected turn to the northeast and brought only tropical storm force winds to the region , devastating the Ft . Myers / Port Charlotte area instead . Ivan also threatened the area as it moved north up the eastern Gulf of Mexico . It remained far to the west of central Florida , however , and brought only a bit of rain and wind to Tampa Bay before eventually slamming into coastal Alabama and the Florida Panhandle .
= = Tampa and St. Petersburg climate summaries = =
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= The Little Mermaid ( 1989 film ) =
The Little Mermaid is a 1989 American animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Based on the Danish fairy tale of the same name by Hans Christian Andersen , The Little Mermaid tells the story of a beautiful mermaid princess who dreams of becoming human . Written , directed , and produced by Ron Clements and John Musker , with music by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman ( who also served as a co @-@ producer ) , the film features the voices of Jodi Benson , Christopher Daniel Barnes , Pat Carroll , Samuel E. Wright , Jason Marin , Kenneth Mars , Buddy Hackett , and René Auberjonois .
The 28th Disney animated feature film , The Little Mermaid was released to theaters on November 17 , 1989 to largely positive reviews , garnering $ 84 million at the domestic box office during its initial release , and $ 211 million in total lifetime gross worldwide . After the success of the 1988 Disney / Amblin film Who Framed Roger Rabbit , The Little Mermaid is given credit for breathing life back into the art of Disney animated feature films after a string of critical or commercial failures produced by Disney that dated back to the early 1970s . It also marked the start of the era known as the Disney Renaissance .
A stage adaptation of the film with a book by Doug Wright and additional songs by Alan Menken and new lyricist Glenn Slater opened in Denver in July 2007 and began performances on Broadway January 10 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Ariel , a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old mermaid princess , is dissatisfied with underwater life and is curious about the human world . With her best friend Flounder , Ariel collects human artifacts and goes to the surface of the ocean to visit Scuttle the seagull , who offers very inaccurate knowledge of human culture . She ignores the warnings of her father King Triton , the ruler of Atlantica , and his adviser and court composer Sebastian that contact between merpeople and humans is forbidden .
One night , Ariel , Flounder , and an unwilling Sebastian travel to the ocean surface to watch a celebration for the birthday of Prince Eric on a ship . Ariel quickly becomes enamored with Eric . The birthday celebration is cut short by a violent storm which wrecks the ship and tosses Eric overboard . Ariel saves him from drowning and brings him to shore . She sings to him , but quickly leaves as soon as he regains consciousness to avoid being discovered . Fascinated by the memory of her voice , Eric vows to find who saved and sang to him , and Ariel vows to find a way to join him and his world . Noticing a change in Ariel 's behavior , Triton questions Sebastian about her behavior and learns of her love for Eric . Furious , Triton confronts Ariel in her grotto , where she and Flounder store human artifacts , and destroys the objects with his trident to her dismay . After Triton leaves , two eels named Flotsam and Jetsam convince Ariel to visit Ursula the sea witch .
Ursula makes a deal with Ariel to transform her into a human for three days in exchange for Ariel 's voice , which Ursula puts in a nautilus shell . Within these three days , Ariel must receive the " kiss of true love " from Eric . If Ariel gets Eric to kiss her , she will remain a human permanently , otherwise , she will transform back into a mermaid and belong to Ursula . Ariel agrees and is then given human legs and taken to the surface by Flounder and Sebastian . Eric finds Ariel on the beach and takes her to his castle , unaware that she is the one who had saved him earlier . Ariel spends time with Eric , and at the end of the second day , they almost kiss but are thwarted by Flotsam and Jetsam . Angered at their narrow escape , Ursula disguises herself as a beautiful young woman named Vanessa and appears onshore singing with Ariel 's voice . Eric recognizes the song and , in her disguise , Ursula casts a hypnotic enchantment on Eric to make him forget about Ariel .
The next day , Ariel finds out that Eric will be married to the disguised Ursula . Scuttle discovers that Vanessa is actually Ursula in disguise , and informs Ariel who immediately pursues the wedding barge . Sebastian informs Triton , and Scuttle disrupts the wedding with the help of various animals . In the chaos , the nautilus shell around Ursula 's neck is broken , restoring Ariel 's voice and breaking Ursula 's enchantment over Eric . Realizing that Ariel is the girl who saved his life , Eric rushes to kiss her , but the sun sets and Ariel transforms back into a mermaid . Ursula reveals herself and kidnaps Ariel . A furious Triton confronts Ursula and demands Ariel 's release , but the deal is inviolable . At Ursula 's urging , Triton agrees to take Ariel 's place as Ursula 's prisoner , giving up his trident . Ariel is released as Triton transforms into a polyp and loses his authority over Atlantica . Ursula declares herself the new ruler , but before she can use the trident , Eric hits her with a harpoon . Ursula tries to strike down Eric , but Ariel interferes , causing Ursula to inadvertently kill Flotsam and Jetsam . Enraged , Ursula uses the trident to grow into monstrous proportions .
Ariel and Eric reunite on the surface just before Ursula grows past and towers over the two . She then gains full control of the entire ocean , creating a storm and bringing sunken ships to the surface . Just as Ursula attempts to kill Ariel , Eric steers a wrecked ship towards Ursula , impaling her with the ship 's splintered bowsprit . With Ursula destroyed , Triton and the other polyps in Ursula 's garden revert into their original forms . Realizing that Ariel truly loves Eric , Triton willingly changes her from a mermaid into a human and blesses her marriage to Eric . Ariel and Eric marry on a ship and depart .
= = Cast = =
Jodi Benson as Princess Ariel
Christopher Daniel Barnes as Prince Eric
Pat Carroll as Ursula
Jodi Benson as Vanessa ( Ursula 's human alter @-@ ego )
Samuel E. Wright as Sebastian
Jason Marin as Flounder
Kenneth Mars as King Triton
Buddy Hackett as Scuttle
Ben Wright as Grimsby
Paddi Edwards as Flotsam and Jetsam
Edie McClurg as Carlotta the maid
Kimmy Robertson and Caroline Vasicek as Ariel 's Sisters
Will Ryan as Harold the Seahorse
Frank Welker as Max the Sheepdog
René Auberjonois as Chef Louis
= = Production = =
= = = Story development = = =
The Little Mermaid was originally planned as part of one of Walt Disney 's earliest feature films , a proposed package film featuring vignettes of Hans Christian Andersen tales . Development started soon after Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in the late 1930s , but was delayed due to various circumstances .
In 1985 , Ron Clements became interested in a film adaptation of The Little Mermaid while he was serving as a director on The Great Mouse Detective ( 1986 ) alongside John Musker . Clements discovered the Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale while browsing through a bookstore . Believing the story provided an " ideal basis " for an animated feature film and keen on creating a film that took place underwater , Clements wrote and presented a two @-@ page treatment of Mermaid to Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg at a " gong show " idea suggestion meeting . Katzenberg passed the project over , because at that time the studio was in development on a sequel to their live @-@ action mermaid comedy Splash ( 1984 ) and felt The Little Mermaid would be too similar a project . The next day , however , Katzenberg approved of the idea for possible development , along with Oliver & Company . While in production in the 1980s , the staff found , by chance , original story and visual development work done by Kay Nielsen for Disney 's proposed 1930s Andersen feature . Many of the changes made by the staff in the 1930s to Hans Christian Andersen 's original story were coincidentally the same as the changes made by Disney writers in the 1980s .
That year Clements and Musker expanded the two @-@ page idea into a 20 @-@ page rough script , eliminating the role of the mermaid 's grandmother and expanding the roles of the Merman King and the sea witch . However , the film 's plans were momentarily shelved as Disney focused its attention on Who Framed Roger Rabbit and Oliver & Company as more immediate releases . In 1987 , songwriter Howard Ashman became involved with the writing and development of Mermaid after he was asked to contribute a song to Oliver & Company . He proposed changing the minor character Clarence , the English @-@ butler crab , to a Jamaican crab and shifting the music style throughout the film to reflect this . At the same time , Katzenberg , Clements , Musker , and Ashman revised the story format to make Mermaid a musical with a Broadway @-@ style story structure , with the song sequences serving as the tentpoles of the film . Ashman and composer Alan Menken , both noted for their work as the writers of the successful Off @-@ Broadway stage musical Little Shop of Horrors , teamed up to compose the entire song score . In 1988 , with Oliver out of the way , Mermaid was slated as the next major Disney release .
= = = Animation = = =
More money and resources were dedicated to Mermaid than any other Disney animated film in decades . Aside from its main animation facility in Glendale , California , Disney opened a satellite feature animation facility during the production of Mermaid in Lake Buena Vista , Florida ( near Orlando , Florida ) , within Disney @-@ MGM Studios Theme Park at Walt Disney World . Opening in 1989 , the Disney @-@ MGM facility 's first projects were to produce an entire Roger Rabbit cartoon short , Roller Coaster Rabbit , and to contribute ink and paint support to Mermaid . Another first for recent years was the filming of live actors and actresses for motion reference material for the animators , a practice used frequently for many of the Disney animated features produced under Walt Disney 's supervision . Broadway actress Jodi Benson was chosen to play Ariel , and Sherri Lynn Stoner , a former member of Los Angeles ' Groundlings improvisation comedy group , acted out Ariel 's key scenes .
Mermaid 's supervising animators included Glen Keane and Mark Henn on Ariel , Duncan Marjoribanks on Sebastian , Andreas Deja on King Triton , and Ruben Aquino on Ursula . Originally , Keane had been asked to work on Ursula , as he had established a reputation for drawing large , powerful figures , such as the bear in The Fox and the Hound ( 1981 ) and Professor Ratigan in The Great Mouse Detective ( 1986 ) . Keane , however , was assigned as one of the two lead artists on the petite Ariel and oversaw the " Part of Your World " musical number . He jokingly stated that his wife looks exactly like Ariel " without the fins . " The character 's body type and personality were based upon that of Alyssa Milano , then starring on TV 's Who 's the Boss ? and the effect of her hair underwater was based on both footage of Sally Ride when she was in space , and scenes of Stoner in a pool for guidance in animating Ariel 's swimming .
The design of the villainous Ursula was based upon drag performer Divine . An additional early inspiration before Divine was Joan Collins in her role as Alexis Carrington in the television show Dynasty , due to a suggestion from Howard Ashman , who was a fan of the series . Pat Carroll was not Clements and Musker 's first choice to voice Ursula ; the original script had been written with Bea Arthur of the Disney @-@ owned TV series The Golden Girls in mind . After Arthur turned the part down , actresses such as Nancy Marchand , Nancy Wilson , Roseanne , Charlotte Rae , and Elaine Stritch were considered for the part . Stritch was eventually cast as Ursula , but clashed with Howard Ashman 's style of music production and was replaced by Carroll . Various actors auditioned for additional roles in the film , including Jim Carrey for the role of Prince Eric , and comedians Bill Maher and Michael Richards for the role of Scuttle .
The underwater setting required the most special effects animation for a Disney animated feature since Fantasia in 1940 . Effects animation supervisor Mark Dindal estimated that over a million bubbles were drawn for this film , in addition to the use of other processes such as airbrushing , backlighting , superimposition , and some computer animation . The artistic manpower needed for Mermaid required Disney to farm out most of the underwater bubble effects animation in the film to Pacific Rim Productions , a China @-@ based firm with production facilities in Beijing . An attempt to use Disney 's famed multiplane camera for the first time in years for quality " depth " shots failed because the machine was reputedly in dilapidated condition . The multiplane shots were instead photographed at an outside animation camera facility .
The Little Mermaid was the last Disney feature film to use the traditional hand @-@ painted cel method of animation . Disney 's next film , The Rescuers Down Under , used a digital method of coloring and combining scanned drawings developed for Disney by Pixar called CAPS ( Computer Animation Production System ) , which would eliminate the need for cels , the multiplane camera , and many of the optical effects used for the last time in Mermaid . A CAPS prototype was used experimentally on a few scenes in Mermaid , and one shot produced using CAPS — the penultimate shot in the film , of Ariel and Eric 's wedding ship sailing away under a rainbow — appears in the finished film . Computer @-@ generated imagery was used to create some of the wrecked ships in the final battle , a staircase behind a shot of Ariel in Eric 's castle , and the carriage Eric and Ariel are riding in when she bounces it over a ravine . These objects were animated using 3D wireframe models , which were plotted as line art to cels and painted traditionally .
= = = Music = = =
The Little Mermaid was considered by some as " the film that brought Broadway into cartoons " . Alan Menken wrote the Academy Award winning score , and collaborated with Howard Ashman on the songs . One of the film 's most prominent songs , " Part of Your World " , was nearly cut from the film when it seemingly tested poorly with an audience of school children , who became rowdy during the scene . This caused Jeffrey Katzenberg to feel that the song needed to be cut , an idea that was resisted by Musker , Clements , and Keane . Both Muscker and Clements cited the similar situation of the popular song " Over the Rainbow " nearly being cut from 1939 's The Wizard of Oz when appealing to Katzenberg . Keane pushed for the song to remain until the film was in a more finalized state . During a second test screening , the scene , now colorized and further developed , tested well with a separate child audience , and the musical number was kept .
= = Release = =
The film was originally released on November 17 , 1989 , followed by a November 14 , 1997 , reissue . After the success of the 3D re @-@ release of The Lion King , Disney announced a 3D re @-@ release of The Little Mermaid scheduled for September 13 , 2013 , but this was cancelled on January 14 , 2013 , due to the under @-@ performances of other Disney 3D re @-@ releases . The 3D version was released on Blu @-@ ray instead , but it did play a limited engagement at the El Capitan Theatre from September to October 2013 . On September 20 , 2013 , The Little Mermaid began playing in select theaters where audiences could bring iPads and use an app called Second Screen Live . The film was also screened out of competition at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival .
= = = Home media = = =
In a then atypical and controversial move for a new Disney animated film , The Little Mermaid was released as part of the Walt Disney Classics line of VHS and Laserdisc home video releases in May 1990 , six months after the release of the film . Before Mermaid , only a select number of Disney 's catalog animated films had been released to home video , as the company was afraid of upsetting its profitable practice of theatrically reissuing each film every seven years . Mermaid became that year 's top @-@ selling title on home video , with over 10 million units sold ( including 7 million in its first month ) . This success led future Disney films to be released soon after the end of their theatrical runs , rather than delayed for several years .
Following Mermaid 's 1997 re @-@ release in theaters , a new VHS version was released in March 1998 as part of the Masterpiece Collection and included a bonus music video of Jodi Benson singing " Part of Your World " during the end credits , replacing " Under the Sea " as the end credit song . The VHS sold 13 million units and ranked as the third best @-@ selling video of the year .
The Little Mermaid was released in a Limited Issue " bare @-@ bones " DVD in 1999 , with a standard video transfer . The film was re @-@ released on DVD on October 3 , 2006 , as part of the Walt Disney Platinum Editions line of classic Walt Disney animated features , including the song " Kiss the Girl " performed by Ashley Tisdale . Deleted scenes and several in @-@ depth documentaries were included , as well as an Academy Award @-@ nominated short film intended for the shelved Fantasia 2006 , The Little Match Girl . The DVD sold 1 @.@ 6 million units on its first day of release , and over 4 million units during its first week , making it the biggest animated DVD debut for October . By year 's end , the DVD had sold about 7 million units and was one of the year 's top ten selling DVDs . The Platinum Edition DVD was released as part of a " Little Mermaid Trilogy " boxed set on December 16 , 2008 . The Platinum Edition of the film , along with its sequels , went on moratorium in January 2009 . The film was re @-@ released on 3 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray / DVD / Digital Copy Combo , a 2 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray / DVD combo and 3D Blu @-@ ray on October 1 , 2013 , as part of the Walt Disney Diamond Editions line .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Early in the production of The Little Mermaid , Jeffrey Katzenberg cautioned Clements , Musker , and their staff , reminding them that since Mermaid was a " girl 's film " , it would make less money at the box office than Oliver & Company , which had been Disney 's biggest animated box office success in a decade . However , by the time the film was closer to completion , Katzenberg was convinced Mermaid would be a hit and the first animated feature to earn more than $ 100 million and become a " blockbuster " film .
During its original 1989 theatrical release , Mermaid earned $ 84 @,@ 355 @,@ 863 at the North American box office , falling just short of Katzenberg 's expectations but earning 64 % more than Oliver . The film was theatrically reissued on November 14 , 1997 , on the same day as Anastasia , a Don Bluth animated feature for Fox Animation Studios . The reissue brought $ 27 @,@ 187 @,@ 616 in additional gross . The film also drew $ 99 @.@ 8 million in box office earnings outside the United States and Canada between both releases , resulting in a total international box office figure of $ 211 million .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Little Mermaid received largely positive reviews from critics . Review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film has a 93 % " Certified Fresh " score based on 67 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads " The Little Mermaid ushered in a new golden era for Disney animation with warm and charming hand @-@ drawn characters and catchy musical sequences " . Roger Ebert , film critic for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , was enthusiastic about the film and wrote that , " The Little Mermaid is a jolly and inventive animated fantasy — a movie that 's so creative and so much fun it deserves comparison with the best Disney work of the past . " Ebert also commented positively on the character of Ariel , stating , " ... Ariel is a fully realized female character who thinks and acts independently , even rebelliously , instead of hanging around passively while the fates decide her destiny . " The staff of TV Guide wrote a positive review , praising the film 's return to the traditional Disney musical as well as the film 's animation . Yet they also wrote that the film is detracted by the juvenile humor and the human characters ' eyes . While still giving a positive review , they stated that the film " can 't compare to the real Disney classics ( which appealed equally to both kids and adults ) . " The staff of Variety praised the film for its cast of characters , Ursula in particular , as well as its animation , stating that the animation " proves lush and fluid , augmented by the use of shadow and light as elements like fire , sun and water illuminate the characters . " They also praised was the musical collaboration between Howard Ashman and Alan Menken " whose songs frequently begin slowly but build in cleverness and intensity . "
Todd Gilchrist of IGN wrote a positive review of the film , stating that the film is " an almost perfect achievement . " Gilchrist also praised how the film revived interest in animation as it was released at a time when interest in animation was at a lull . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post wrote a mixed review of the film , referring to it as a " likably unspectacular adaptation of the Hans Christian Andersen classic . " Hinson went on to write that the film is average even at its highest points . He wrote that while there is nothing wrong with the film , it would be difficult for children to identify with Ariel and that the characters seemed bland . Hinson concluded his review saying that the film is " accomplished but uninspiring , The Little Mermaid has enough to please any kid . All that 's missing is the magic . " Empire gave a positive review of the film , stating that " [ The Little Mermaid is ] a charmer of a movie , boasting all the ingredients that make a Disney experience something to treasure yet free of all the politically correct , formulaic elements that have bogged down the more recent productions . "
In April 2008 – almost 20 years after the film 's initial release in 1989 – Yahoo ! users voted " The Little Mermaid " as No. 14 on the top 30 animated films of all time . Later , when Yahoo ! updated the list in June of the same year , the film remained on the list but dropped six slots to end at # 20 . ( Only three other traditionally animated Disney animated films - Aladdin , Beauty and the Beast , and The Lion King , respectively - scored above it in the poll even after the update . ) In 2011 , Richard Corliss of TIME Magazine named it one of " The 25 All @-@ TIME Best Animated Films " .
The Little Mermaid , Disney 's first animated fairy tale since Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) , is an important film in animation history for many reasons . Chief among these are its re @-@ establishment of animation as a profitable venture for The Walt Disney Company , as the company 's theme parks , television productions , and live @-@ action features had overshadowed the animated output since the 1950s . Mermaid was the second film , following Oliver & Company , produced after Disney began expanding its animated output following its successful live action / animated film Who Framed Roger Rabbit , and became Disney 's first animated major box office and critical hit since The Rescuers in 1977 . Walt Disney Feature Animation was further expanded as a result of Mermaid and increasingly successful follow @-@ ups — Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) , Aladdin ( 1992 ) , and The Lion King ( 1994 ) . The staff increased from 300 members in 1988 to 2 @,@ 200 in 1999 spread across three studios in Burbank , California , Lake Buena Vista , Florida , and Montreuil , Seine @-@ Saint @-@ Denis , France .
In addition , Mermaid signaled the re @-@ establishment of the musical film format as a standard for Disney animated films . The majority of Disney 's most popular animated films from the 1930s on had been musicals , though by the 1970s and 1980s the role of music had been de @-@ emphasized in the films . 1988 's Oliver & Company had served as a test of sorts to the success of the musical format before Disney committed to the Broadway @-@ style structure of The Little Mermaid .
= = = Accolades = = =
In January 1990 , The Little Mermaid earned three Academy Award nominations , making it the first Disney animated film to earn an Academy Award nomination since The Rescuers in 1977 . The film won two of the awards , for Best Song ( " Under the Sea " ) and Best Score . The film also earned four Golden Globe nominations , including Best Picture — Comedy or Musical , and won the awards for Best Song ( " Under the Sea " ) and Best Score .
In addition to the box office and critical success of the film itself , the Mermaid soundtrack album earned two awards at the 33rd Grammy Awards in 1991 : the Grammy Award for Best Album for Children and the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media . Bolstered by the film 's success and the soundtrack 's Oscars , Golden Globes and Grammy Awards , was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in September 1990 for shipments of two million copies of the soundtrack album , an unheard of feat for an animated film at the time . To date , the soundtrack has been certified six times platinum .
The Little Mermaid won two Academy Awards for Best Original Score as well as Best Song for Alan Menken and Howard Ashman 's " Under the Sea " , sung by Samuel E. Wright in a memorable scene . Another song from the film , " Kiss the Girl " , was nominated but lost to " Under the Sea " . The film also won two Golden Globes for Best Original Score as well Best Original Song for " Under the Sea " . It was also nominated in two other categories , Best Motion Picture and another Best Original Song . Menken and Ashman also won a Grammy Award in 1991 for " Under the Sea . "
American Film Institute Lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Ursula — Nominated Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Under the Sea — Nominated
AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals — Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 — Nominated Animated Film
= = = Controversy = = =
Controversy arose regarding the artwork for the cover for the Classics VHS cassette when the film was first released on video when close examination of the artwork revealed an oddly shaped structure on the castle , closely resembling a human penis . Disney and the cover designer insist it was an accident , resulting from a late night rush job to finish the cover artwork . The questionable object does not appear on the cover of the second releasing of the movie . A second allegation is that a clergyman is seen with an erection during a scene late in the film . The clergyman is a short man , dressed in Bishop 's clothing , and a small bulge is slightly noticeable in a few of the frames that are actually later shown to be the stubby @-@ legged man 's knees , but the image is small and is very difficult to distinguish . The combined incidents led an Arkansas woman to file suit against The Walt Disney Company in 1995 , though she dropped the suit two months later .
= = Live action film = =
Deadline reports that Disney are in early development for an Live action version of the film .
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= Joseph J. Romm =
Joseph J. Romm ( born June 27 , 1960 ) is an American author , blogger , physicist and climate expert who advocates reducing greenhouse gas emissions and global warming and increasing energy security through energy efficiency , green energy technologies and green transportation technologies . Romm is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science . In 2009 , Rolling Stone magazine named Romm to its list of " 100 People Who Are Changing America " , and Time magazine named him one of its " Heroes of the Environment ( 2009 ) " , calling him " The Web 's most influential climate @-@ change blogger " .
Romm is a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress , where he founded their climate blog , Climate Progress , part of their Think Progress website . In 2008 , Time magazine named Romm 's blog one of the " Top 15 Green Websites " . In 2009 , Thomas L. Friedman , in The New York Times , called Climate Progress " the indispensable blog " , and in 2010 , Time included it in a list of the 25 " Best Blogs of 2010 " . Romm has also written for other energy and news sources .
In the 1990s , Romm served as Acting Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy . He has published several books on global warming and energy technology . His 2006 book , Hell and High Water summarized observations and forecasts of climate change , discussed technology and policy solutions , and criticized political disinformation used to undermine climate science . Romm 's 2012 book , Language Intelligence , concerns persuasion and the effective use of rhetoric . He is the Chief Science Advisor for documentary series Years of Living Dangerously , which won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . His 2015 book , Climate Change : What Everyone Needs to Know , covers basic climate science in a Q & A format .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Romm was born and grew up in Middletown , New York , the youngest of three sons of Al Romm , managing editor of the Times Herald @-@ Record newspaper , and Ethel Grodzins Romm , an author , retired project manager , and former CEO of a technology company . Romm 's brother David was the host and producer of Shockwave Radio Theater , and his brother Daniel is a physician . His uncle is physicist Lee Grodzins . Romm graduated from Middletown High School in 1978 .
Romm then attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1982 and a Ph.D. in 1987 , both in physics . He pursued part of his graduate work at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . In 1987 , Romm was awarded an American Physical Society Congressional Science Fellowship for the U.S. House of Representatives , where he provided science and security policy advice on the staff of Representative Charles E. Bennett .
From 1988 to 1990 , Romm worked as Special Assistant for International Security at the Rockefeller Foundation . From 1991 to 1993 , he was a researcher at the Rocky Mountain Institute . He co @-@ authored the 1994 Rocky Mountain Institute Report , Greening the Building and the Bottom Line : Increasing Productivity Through Energy @-@ Efficient Design . For the Global Environment and Technology Foundation , he performed the first environmental analysis of a system integrating cogenerating fuel cells , fly wheels , and power electronics aimed at achieving very high @-@ availability power . In 1990 and 1991 , Romm taught a course entitled " Rethinking National Security " at Columbia University 's School of International and Public Affairs .
In 1992 , Romm published The Once and Future Superpower , a book describing his views on how to spend the peace dividend to restore America 's economic , energy and environmental security . In 1993 , he wrote Defining National Security : The Nonmilitary Aspects , for the Council on Foreign Relations , describing how America 's security depends on non @-@ military factors such as how it obtains energy . In 1994 , Romm published Lean and Clean Management , a book that discussed management techniques that can reduce the impact of manufacturing and other industries on the environment while increasing productivity and profits . He co @-@ authored , with Charles B. Curtis , " MidEast Oil Forever , " the cover story of the April 1996 issue of the Atlantic Monthly , which predicted higher oil prices within a decade and discussed alternative energy strategies . The same year , he co @-@ authored a paper for the ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings on " Policies to Reduce Heat Islands " . In 1999 , Romm published Cool Companies : How the Best Businesses Boost Profits and Productivity by Cutting Greenhouse Gas Emissions , the first book to benchmark corporate best practices for using advanced energy technologies , including fuel cells , to reduce greenhouse gas emissions .
= = = Service at the U.S. Department of Energy = = =
Romm served as Acting Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy , in charge of the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy during 1997 and as Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary from August 1995 through June 1998 , and Special Assistant for Policy and Planning from 1993 to July 1995 . This office , with an annual budget at the time of $ 1 billion and 550 employees , assists businesses in the industrial , utility , transportation and buildings sectors to develop and use advanced clean energy technologies to cut costs , increase reliability , and reduce pollution .
As Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary , Romm was in charge of all policy and technology analysis and programmatic development for the Office , which was then developing PEM fuel cells , microturbines , advanced cogeneration , superconductivity , building controls , photovoltaics and other renewables , biofuels , and hydrogen production and storage . Among other projects , he initiated , supervised , and publicized a comprehensive technical analysis in 1997 by five national laboratories of how energy technologies can best reduce greenhouse gas emissions cost @-@ effectively , entitled Scenarios of U.S. Carbon Reductions .
= = = 1998 to 2006 = = =
After leaving the Department of Energy , Romm was the executive director and founder of the non @-@ profit Center for Energy and Climate Solutions , an organization based in the Washington DC area that helped businesses and U.S. States adopt high @-@ leverage strategies for saving energy and cutting pollution and greenhouse gas emissions . He was also a principal of the Capital E Group , which consulted on technology assessment and sustainable design services for clean energy technologies , and sat on the Advisory Board of Securing America 's Future Energy . While at Capital E Group , Romm was also a registered lobbyist , representing the interests of clients Ion America and Sunpower Corp.
During these years , Romm wrote widely on global warming and energy technologies that can reduce global warming . His 2004 book , The Hype about Hydrogen , argues that putting off the implementation of current green technologies in favor of waiting for technological breakthroughs in hydrogen cars is a dangerous distraction that will delay urgently needed government action on reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . In reviewing the book , Daniel I. Sperling , a member of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's California Air Resources Board , offered dissenting views . In 2004 , Romm also wrote the National Commission on Energy Policy 's report , " The Car and Fuel of the Future " , which was rated the # 1 Hottest Article on Energy Policy by ScienceDirect . He was also the principal investigator for the National Science Foundation project , Future Directions for Hydrogen Energy Research and Education ( 2004 ) . Romm is interviewed in the 2006 documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car ? , directed by Chris Paine and narrated by Martin Sheen . In the film , Romm gives a presentation intended to show that the government 's " hydrogen car initiative " was a bad policy choice and a distraction that was delaying the exploitation of more promising technologies , such as electric and hybrid cars that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase America 's energy security . As of 2010 , Romm continued to view hydrogen as a " breakthrough technology illusion " .
Romm 's 2006 book Hell and High Water projects that humans have a window of opportunity of only about a decade to head off the most catastrophic effects of global warming . It calls upon Americans to demand government action to encourage and require the use of current emission @-@ cutting technologies . Tyler Hamilton , in his review of the book for The Toronto Star , wrote : " Whereas the first third of Romm 's book presents overwhelming and disturbing evidence that human @-@ caused greenhouse gases are the primary ingredients behind global warming , the pages that follow offer alarming detail on how the U.S. public is being misled by a federal government ( backed by conservative political forces ) that is intent on inaction , and that 's also on a mission to derail international efforts to curb emissions . " Technology Review wrote that Hell and High Water " provides an accurate summary of what is known about global warming and climate change , a sensible agenda for technology and policy , and a primer on how political disinformation has undermined climate science . "
= = = Climate Progress and recent years = = =
Since late 2006 , Romm has been a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress , founding their climate blog , Climate Progress , which focuses on climate science , policy and reporting . In 2008 , Time magazine named his blog one of the " Top 15 Green Websites " , writing that it " counters bad science and inane rhetoric with original analysis delivered sharply . ... Romm occupies the intersection of climate science , economics and policy . Resist temptation to lump him in with knee @-@ jerk enviros . On his blog and in his December 2006 book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . " In 2010 , Time magazine wrote , " Viewing climate change through the prism of national security , Romm analyzes breaking energy news and the relevant research , but most important , he challenges the beliefs and conclusions of the mainstream media on climate @-@ change issues . " As of 2016 , Romm continues to contribute to the site . Romm also writes for other top internet energy and news sites , including The Huffington Post , Grist , Slate , CNN , and Salon.com. His July 2012 New York Times opinion piece was called " Without Carbon Controls , We Face a Dust Bowl " .
Romm has testified numerous times before congressional committees on energy and global warming issues , offering his views on government action to curb global warming . For example , in July 2012 , he testified before a Natural Resources Subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives on the 2012 U.S. drought and wildfires . In March of the same year , he testified before the House Energy & Commerce Committee on the " The American Energy Initiative " and rising gasoline prices . In 2010 , he testified before the House Ways and Means Committee on how to optimize " Energy Tax Incentives Driving the Green Job Economy " , and in 2007 , he testified before the House Committee on Science and Technology on the subject of " Fuels for the Future " , specifically the use of liquid fuel from coal , which he believes would accelerate global warming . He also lectures on energy technology , global warming and how the media portrays climate change .
Romm 's 2010 book , Straight Up is " largely a selection of his best blog postings over the past few years related to climate change issues " . TreeHugger describes the book as " a whirlwind tour through the state of climate change , the media that so badly neglects it , the politicians who attempt to address it ( and those who obstruct their efforts and ignore [ the ] science ) , and the clean energy solutions that could help get us out of the mess . " In 2011 , Romm sat on the panel of the Green Car Summit of the Washington Auto Show . His 2012 book , Language Intelligence , concerns persuasion and the effective use of rhetoric . Ed Markey commented on the book , " Joe masterfully ... scripts ways to master the metaphor , and incorporate irony . Solutions the reader can use for speeches , social media , or just winning the debate around the kitchen table . " Romm wrote an article for Time magazine in August 2012 using the research from Language Intelligence to analyze whether Mitt Romney or Barack Obama is the more effective communicator . In speeches and lectures since then , Romm has advocated that scientists use the principles of effective communication outlined in the book ( instead of their usual , technical , neutral style ) to better explain the dangers of , and solutions to , climate change to lay people and the media .
Romm is the chief science editor for the documentary TV series Years of Living Dangerously , about the impact of and solutions to climate change . The first season of the series ran in 2014 on the Showtime network . He wrote " Climate Change 101 : An Introduction " , for the series ' website . A second season is scheduled to run in 2016 on the National Geographic Channel . The first season won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . In 2015 , The Weather Channel included Romm as one of " the world 's 25 most compelling voices " on climate in its series The Climate 25 . That year , Romm also wrote the book Climate Change : What Everyone Needs to Know , a primer on the topic , in Q & A format . Ralph Benko in Forbes magazine wrote that the " impressive book ... lucidly presents the case both for deep concern and optimism " .
= = Media comment and interviews = =
Romm is often cited , quoted or interviewed by journalists to explain the impact of public policy and energy technologies and applications on global warming and energy security , or to explain causes and impacts of climate change or the influence of the media . For example , In 2009 , MSNBC relied on him to assess natural gas hydrates , and he was featured on 60 Minutes discussing the scientific evidence that " clean coal " is not clean . In 2010 , MSNBC 's Countdown with Keith Olbermann program interviewed Romm on how the military is taking action on climate change to improve national security ; Guernica Magazine interviewed him on the science and politics of global warming ; The New Yorker asked him to comment on the Koch @-@ funded exhibit on evolution and climate change at the National Museum of Natural History ; and The Atlantic and CBS News each reviewed a media call by Romm concerning the relationship between the January 2010 snowstorms in Washington , DC and global warming .
In 2011 , The Washington Post linked with approval to Romm 's review of the scientific literature on climate change . Time magazine explored Romm 's critique of Matthew Nisbet and praised his analysis of the decline of media coverage regarding climate change . National Geographic quoted him about the part that the media has played in the dearth of information about climate reaching the public . The same year , Technology Review quoted Romm regarding the relationship between government @-@ assisted deployment and rapid innovation in energy technologies , and the Toronto Star quoted him regarding President Obama 's 2011 State of the Union address . In 2012 in The New York Times , economist Paul Krugman cited Romm on the connection between drought and Climate change , and The Atlantic interviewed and cited him on the reluctance of the Democrats to discuss climate change . National Geographic quoted him about disappearing arctic ice and the effect of climate change on the polar bear , and Current TV 's Bill Press interviewed Romm about record @-@ breaking heat .
In 2014 Businessweek quoted Romm regarding the lack of commercial viability of hydrogen fuel cells for cars , and The Guardian quoted him concerning international cooperation on climate change . In 2015 , The Guardian quoted Romm about historic high global temperatures , and MarketWatch quoted him on actions that Donald Trump might take concerning climate agreements if he were to be elected president . Later that year , Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists interviewed him about nuclear power and climate change . The Wall Street Journal quoted Romm in 2016 about the cost and pace of change in clean energy technology .
= = Romm 's views = =
The New York Times " Dot Earth " column reviewed Romm 's views on global warming solutions on November 24 , 2008 , including his belief that , to combat global warming , humans cannot wait for new technologies and scientific breakthroughs ; that instead we must " deploy existing and near @-@ term low @-@ carbon technologies as fast as is humanly possible " . In his blog , Romm has described the technology solutions that he believes can control global warming . The New York Times also quoted Romm as stating that , to solve the climate crisis , " We will need a WWII @-@ style approach " . The article noted Romm 's belief that " credible people " and the press should publicly support the notion that government action is needed to help solve the global warming crisis . In particular , the press should explain how current news stories , such as hurricanes , droughts and insect infestations are related to global warming .
According to U.S. News & World Report , Romm believes that global warming " is advancing more swiftly than most people think and than the mainstream media usually report . He has called for significantly ramping up government spending on clean energy technology , halting the construction of new coal plants , rapidly increasing the use of energy @-@ efficient technologies , and imposing a cap @-@ and @-@ trade system to sharply limit carbon dioxide emissions " . In 2006 , in a radio interview , Romm stated , " Global warming is going to transform this country and our transportation and the way we live our lives . If we don 't act pretty soon , in an intelligent fashion , then change will be forced upon us by the radically changed climate ... global warming is the issue of the century " . In March 2009 , Romm summarized and updated his views in an " introduction " to his blog , and in another post , setting forth a summary of " global warming impacts " .
In 2011 , Romm stated that " Feeding some 9 billion people by mid @-@ century in the face of a rapidly worsening climate may well be the greatest challenge the human race has ever faced . " Romm 's 2010 book , Straight Up notes : " the bottom line is that the economic cost of action is low , whereas the cost of inaction is incalculably greater " . Romm calculates that deployment of existing technologies on the massive scale that can save the climate can be accomplished at the cost of 0 @.@ 12 percent of global GDP per year . He also asks in the book , " will the United States be a global leader in creating jobs and exports in clean energy technologies , or will we be importing them from Europe , Japan , and the likely clean energy leader in our absence , China . " In 2005 , with respect to the U.S. Congress 's actions on climate , including its votes on the XL Pipeline , Romm told The Guardian : " Future generations suffering from the consequences of our inaction will be bewildered that the legislative body of the richest country in the world could devote so little effort to ameliorating the climate problem and so much effort to making it worse . "
Romm has been critical of media coverage of global warming . In his 2010 book , Straight Up , he wrote , " Historically , even the most respected newspapers have fallen into the trap of giving the same credence – and often the same amount of space – to a handful of U.S. scientists , most receiving funds from the fossil fuel industry , as they give to hundreds of the world 's leading climate scientists . No surprise that much of the public has ended up with a misimpression about the remarkable strength of our scientific understanding and the need for action " . He concludes , " more and more pieces are being written by senior political reporters , who know very little about global warming " . Romm also believes that scientists and politicians need to be more effective communicators about climate change .
= = Reputation = =
In 2008 , Romm was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for " distinguished service toward a sustainable energy future and for persuasive discourse on why citizens , corporations , and governments should adopt sustainable technologies " . In 2009 , Rolling Stone magazine named Romm to its list of " 100 People Who Are Changing America " , quoting journalist David Roberts as follows : " Joe combines two qualities you don 't often find together . A deep knowledge of technology , policy and science along with genuine moral passion . " Former Houston , Texas mayor Bill White called Romm " the nation ’ s leading expert on energy efficiency . " U.S. News & World Report featured Romm as one of eight " key players " who were " Driving Public Policy in Washington " , calling Romm an " oft @-@ cited expert on climate change issues , and a go @-@ to witness at congressional hearings " . Time magazine named Romm one of its " Heroes of the Environment ( 2009 ) " , writing , " He combines ... intellect with a strong sense of moral outrage . He also possesses a Jon Stewart @-@ like quality for pointing out the absurdity of his opponents . " Time named his blog as one of the " Top 15 Green Websites " , and Technorati ranked it as the leading " Green site " in 2009 . The same year , Thomas L. Friedman , in The New York Times , called Climate Progress " the indispensable blog " .
In 2010 , Time included Romm 's blog in a list of the 25 " Best Blogs of 2010 " and one of the " Top Five Blogs TIME Writers Read Daily " . The same year , TreeHugger named Romm 's blog the " Best Politics Website " , adding , " this is the art of blogging at its best " . The UK 's The Guardian ranked Climate Progress at the top of its list of blogs in its " Top 50 Twitter climate accounts to follow " . Reviewing Romm 's 2010 book Straight Up , Bill McKibben wrote that Romm " knows his climate science ... [ and ] has been a persuasive voice for the most important truth about global warming : that it is a far worse problem than either politicians or the general public understand . ... Romm has been consistent in insisting that we have much of the technology necessary to at least begin tackling the problem . " He called Romm " a tireless foil to the ' right @-@ wing disinformation machine ' that has tried – with great success ... to delay action by confusing and disheartening Americans about global warming . ... It requires a thick skin to take on the daily task of dealing with the disinformers , but Romm has the taste for this kind of blood sport , and the talent as well . " In 2011 , The New York Times called Romm " one of the country ’ s most influential writers on climate change " . In 2012 , Planetsave wrote that Romm is " considered the world ’ s best blogger on climate science , and politics related to it . "
= = Personal life = =
Romm lives in Washington , D.C. He has long had an interest in comedy . From 1994 through 2007 , he was a regular contributor to The Style Invitational , a weekly humor contest run by The Washington Post . His entries appeared 343 times , including 16 winning entries , and he was the first " Rookie of the Year " . Among his submissions was the winning entry of what was later declared to be the best overall week 's results of the Style Invitational 's first decade . ( A discarded first draft of some famous line : " We hold these truths to be , like , du @-@ uuh . " )
= = = Books by Romm = = =
Romm , Joseph ( 1992 ) . The Once and Future Superpower : How to Restore America 's Economic , Energy , and Environmental Security . New York : William Morrow & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 688 @-@ 11868 @-@ 2 .
Romm , Joseph ( 1993 ) . Defining National Security : The Nonmilitary Aspects . Washington : Council on Foreign Relations . ISBN 0 @-@ 87609 @-@ 135 @-@ 4 .
Romm , Joseph ( 1994 ) . Lean and Clean Management : How to Boost Profits and Productivity by Reducing Pollution . New York : Kodansha Amer Inc . ISBN 1 @-@ 56836 @-@ 037 @-@ 1 .
Romm , Joseph ( 1999 ) . Cool Companies : How the Best Businesses Boost Profits and Productivity by Cutting Greenhouse Gas Emissions . New York : Island Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55963 @-@ 709 @-@ 9 .
Romm , Joseph ( 2004 ) . The Hype about Hydrogen , Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate . New York : Island Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55963 @-@ 703 @-@ X. An updated edition was published in 2005 ( ISBN 1 @-@ 55963 @-@ 704 @-@ 8 ) . The book has also been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff @-@ boom .
Romm , Joseph ( 2006 ) . Hell and High Water : Global Warming — the Solution and the Politics — and What We Should Do . New York : William Morrow . ISBN 0 @-@ 06117 @-@ 212 @-@ X.
Romm , Joseph ( 2010 ) . Straight Up : America 's Fiercest Climate Blogger Takes on the Status Quo Media , Politicians , and Clean Energy Solutions . New York : Island Press . ISBN 9781597267168 .
Romm , Joseph ( 2012 ) . Language Intelligence : Lessons on Persuasion from Jesus , Shakespeare , Lincoln , and Lady Gaga . CreateSpace . ISBN 1477452222 .
Romm , Joseph ( 2015 ) . Climate Change : What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0190250178 .
= = = Selected journal articles and reports = = =
Report : " The Self @-@ Limiting Future of Nuclear Power " AmericanProgressAction.org , 2008
" The Car and Fuel of the Future " , Energy Policy , 34 ( 2006 ) , pp. 2609 – 14
" Future Directions for Hydrogen Energy Research and Education " ( Principal Investigator ) , Report to the National Science Foundation , November 2004
" The internet and the new energy economy " , Resources , Conservation and Recycling , p . 36 ( 2002 ) pp. 197 – 210
" Combined Heat and Power for Saving Energy and Carbon in Buildings " ( with Kaarsberg , Koomey , Rosenfeld and Teagen ) , Proceedings of 1998 ACEEE Summer Study , Pacific Grove , CA , 1999
Report : " The Internet Economy and Global Warming " ( with Arthur H. Rosenfeld and Susan Herrmann ) , Center for Energy and Climate Solutions , The Global Environment and Technology Foundation , 1999 – 2000
" Engineering @-@ Economic Studies of Energy Technologies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions : Opportunities and Challenges " ( with Brown , Levine , Rosenfeld and Koomey ) , Annual Review of Energy and the Environment , 1998
" A Roadmap for U.S. Carbon Reductions " ( with Levine , Brown , and Petersen ) , Science , January 30 , 1998 , vol . 279 , no . 5351 , pp. 669 – 70
" Cool Communities : Strategies for Heat Island Mitigation and Smog Reduction " ( with Rosenfeld , Hashem Akbari and Melvin Pomerantz ) , Energy and Buildings 28 ( 1998 ) pp. 51 – 62
" Policies to Reduce Heat Islands " " Policies to Reduce Heat Islands " ( with Rosenfeld , Akbari , Pomerantz and Haider G. Taha ) , 1996 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings , Pacific Grove , CA . Vol . 9 , p . 177
" Greening the Building and the Bottom Line : Increasing Productivity Through Energy @-@ Efficient Design " ( with Browning ) , Rocky Mountain Institute , November 1994 ( peer @-@ reviewed by U.S. Green Building Council ) ; first published as Proceedings of 1994 ACEEE Summer Study , Pacific Grove , CA
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= Digimon Racing =
Digimon Racing ( デジモンレーシング , Dejimon Rēshingu ) is a racing video game developed by Griptonite Games and published by Bandai ( now Namco Bandai Games ) for the Game Boy Advance . Part of the Digimon media franchise and video game series , it utilizes Digimon 's characters and elements . Its gameplay largely resembles that of traditional racing games , but also utilizes elements of kart racing and action games . Its eleven playable characters can be increased to over 40 via Digivolution .
Digimon Racing uses Mode 7 and voice acting . The game was initially announced at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2003 and later exhibited at E3 2004 . It was released on April 1 , 2004 in Japan ; April 30 in Europe ; and September 13 in North America . It received mixed reviews from critics upon release , with criticism directed at its resemblance to other kart racers of the time and praise at some aesthetic and gameplay aspects .
= = Gameplay = =
Digimon Racing is a racing video game that utilizes characters and elements from Digimon as well as those of traditional racing games . The game follows a group of Digimon competing in a racing tournament within the Digital World , home to all Digimon . The purpose of the grand prix is to determine who is the best racer ; thus , they use specially designed karts that equate all contestants in terms of ability .
Digimon Racing 's gameplay largely resembles that of traditional racing games . It focuses on competing against seven CPU @-@ controlled characters in cup races consisting of three laps . The usage of items to attack opponents and improve one 's own condition is an integral part of the gameplay , and adds an element of kart racing games . A new feature in the game is " kart hopping " : using the karts to jump onto opponents , slowing them down . This adds an element of action gameplay . Digivolution , a recurring theme in Digimon , also plays a role in the game . Driving over energy hotspots scattered throughout the tracks increases an energy meter located at the bottom left of the game 's HUD . As the meter increases , the player traverses the Digimon 's evolutionary line , becoming more powerful and ultimately gaining the ability to use a special attack .
The game 's fifteen tracks — four of which are available immediately — are based on conventional video game environments such as jungles , volcanoes , and cities . After completing a track for the first time , the player unlocks a time trial mode for this track , and a boss battle . The action @-@ oriented boss battles involve defeating a generally static Digimon using items scattered throughout the areas , which are not designed as race tracks . The player can also compete in single races unrelated to the story in any unlocked tracks . The game uses the Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter or Game Link Cable accessories for a multiplayer racing mode supporting up to four players .
= = = Playable characters = = =
The game features eleven Digimon as playable characters . Eight characters are available immediately ; the rest are unlockable by completing cup races . However , the Digivolution mechanic increases the total number of playable Digimon to over 40 . The cast predominantly includes popular Digimon from the Digimon anime . Characters ' racing abilities differ through their ranking in three areas : speed , handling and acceleration .
= = Development = =
Unlike previous games in the series which were developed by Japanese companies , Digimon Racing 's development was handled by the Kirkland , Washington , United States @-@ based Griptonite Games . However , Digimon series veteran Bandai ( now Namco Bandai Games ) returned to publish the game . It was the first original Digimon game for the Game Boy Advance , since Digimon Battle Spirit and Digimon Battle Spirit 2 were ports of WonderSwan Color games . The game uses the Mode 7 engine to create three @-@ dimensional gameplay on the handheld console otherwise incapable of such a feat . It occasionally uses voice acting during races , uncommon in Game Boy Advance games . The game was initially announced at E3 2003 . It was later exhibited at E3 2004 , with the North American release announced for August 2004 . Upon completion of development , the game received a rating of " E " ( Everyone ) from the Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) and " 3 + " from Pan European Game Information ( PEGI ) .
= = Reception = =
Digimon Racing 's release fell on April 1 , 2004 in Japan ; April 30 in Europe ; and September 13 in North America . The game received mixed reviews from critics upon release ; it has a score of 62 % at Metacritic and 63 @.@ 67 % at Game Rankings . Critics criticized the game for its close resemblance to other kart racers of the time . IGN 's Craig Harris and 1UP.com 's Garnett Lee stated that Digimon Racing 's gameplay mirrored that of Crash Nitro Kart and the Mario Kart series respectively . Aside from the familiar format , critics praised specific aesthetic points such as the graphics and music ( GameZone 's Michael Lafferty ) and the tracks ' layouts and themes ( Lee ) . Aspects of the gameplay were also praised , such as control ( Harris and Lee ) , multiplayer mode ( Lee ) , replay value , and kart hopping ( Harris ) . Nintendo Power stated that " [ t ] he racing action is similar to that of other kart games , but the Digimon influence adds a fun gameplay edge . " Famitsu 's four reviewers gave the game scores of 5 , 5 , 7 , and 6 out of 10 , respectively , resulting in a total score of 23 out of 40 . Allgame 's T.J. Deci gave the game three stars out of five , although he did not provide a more thorough review .
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= Jeffrey Spender =
FBI Special agent Jeffrey Frank Spender is a fictional character in the American Fox television series The X @-@ Files , a science fiction show about a government conspiracy to hide or deny the truth of alien existence . Spender ( along with his partner , Diana Fowley ) was in control of the X @-@ Files office after Fox Mulder 's and Dana Scully 's forced leaves in " The Beginning " . The X @-@ Files office is concerned with cases with particularly mysterious or possibly supernatural circumstances that were left unsolved and shelved by the FBI . Portrayed by Canadian actor Chris Owens , Spender was a recurring character during the fifth , sixth and final seasons of The X @-@ Files .
Federal Bureau of Investigation Special agent Spender made his first appearance in the fifth season 1998 episode " Patient X " . During his earlier appearances in the series , because of Mulder 's belief in extraterrestrial life , Spender acted unfriendly towards him . But when re @-@ appearing in the ninth season , Spender had moved on to respect and agree with Mulder 's beliefs , which is proven to him in " Two Fathers " , when he sees and helps to kill an alien rebel .
= = Character arc = =
Spender was a skeptic who was assigned to The X @-@ Files after Fox Mulder 's forced leave . Spender is the son of the " Cigarette Smoking Man " , and the " Cigarette Smoking Man 's " ex @-@ wife , multiple abductee Cassandra Spender . Heavily involved in the Syndicate at that time , the " Cigarette Smoking Man " abandoned the family when Spender was 12 years old . Subsequently , his mother was driven insane by what she claims were multiple alien abductions . Shortly after Samantha Mulder was abducted and then returned , Jeffrey and Samantha were raised together by his father in California . Spender met Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully in 1998 . The same year , the " Cigarette Smoking Man " began sending him letters ; however Spender returned them unopened . After his father set fire on The X @-@ Files in " The End " , Spender with Agent Diana Fowley start working on the X @-@ Files . Spender got orders from the " Cigarette Smoking Man " to push and eventually get Mulder and Scully fired from the FBI , which he eventually does in " Two Fathers " . Later on he reinstates Mulder and Scully to The X @-@ Files but is shot in the head and apparently killed by his father in " One Son " .
Three years later it is revealed in " William " , that he survived the gunshot , but was subjected to horribly disfiguring experiments at the hand of his father . Posing as Mulder , he infiltrated Scully 's house , and injected William with a magnetite substance to seemingly " cure " the baby of his telekinetic powers . The motivation or repercussions of his actions are never fully explained . He testified for the defense during Mulder 's murder trial in " The Truth " . He also revealed during the trial that Teena Mulder was having an affair with the " Cigarette Smoking Man " , and that he and Fox Mulder are half @-@ brothers . A DNA test conducted on a disfigured Spender in the episode " William " initially led agents Scully , Doggett and Reyes to believe he was Mulder thus lending further credence to Spender 's claim that both he and Mulder are the children of the " Cigarette Smoking Man " .
= = Conceptual history = =
= = = Creation and early development = = =
Chris Owens had previously portrayed the Cigarette Smoking Man in the episodes , " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " and " Demons " , he had portrayed The Great Mutato in " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " on the show before being cast as Spender . Owens had also landed a guest role on The X @-@ Files spin @-@ off Millennium . Chris Carter and David Duchovny were so pleased with his portrayal of The Great Mutato that he was picked for the role , without making an audition . Most of the crew members reacted positively to the selection . When creating the character of Spender , Carter had no long term plans for Owens involvement , meaning that Spender 's involvement wouldn 't differ much from different previous recurring characters of the show . Michal Suchanek made a small cameo appearance in " The Red and the Black " as a young version of Spender .
However , as the fifth season 's production period entered its final months , rumors began to circulate – especially among the production crew members in Vancouver , Canada – about the future of the series , particularly concerning whether the show would be moving to Los Angeles , California for the sixth season and whether the new recurring character of Jeffrey Spender was planned ( in case David Duchovny cut back his commitment to the series ) to become a replacement for Duchovny 's character of Fox Mulder – either as a part @-@ time or full @-@ fledged substitute . Other , contradictory rumors that Owens heard were that either he or Duchovny would appear in only eight episodes of the sixth season and that his casting as Spender was a sign that the series would either be leaving Vancouver or staying there . According to the actor himself , he always knew that Duchovny would not be leaving the series but only discovered that The X @-@ Files would indeed be moving to Los Angeles when the official announcement was made .
According to Owens , he first learned of Spender 's seeming demise in " One Son " via the usual way – when Chris Carter phoned the actor to discuss his latest script – and , upon Carter telling him that Jeffrey Spender would make an heroic exit from the series ' story arc , Owens questioned himself about this news as he was slightly unable to believe that he was leaving the series so soon . Apparently , the news of Spender 's departure from the series was confirmed for him shortly thereafter , however , when he received the episode 's script .
When it came time to film Spender 's final scene in " One Son " , actor William B. Davis became upset , saying that he didn 't want to shoot Owens and adding that he enjoyed working with the actor . On the other hand , Davis had no trouble with slapping Owens , in a scene of " Two Fathers " in which Spender is twice hit by the Cigarette Smoking Man .
= = = Later development in Season 9 = = =
Three years after Spender had been written out of the series and actor Chris Owens had moved to Toronto , Canada , Owens received an unexpected phone call from David Duchovny , who said that The X @-@ Files ' production crew was filming the series ' finale as well as another episode late in the season , and that he wanted to bring Spender back for these two episodes . Duchovny reassured Owens that Spender 's survival of the shooting years earlier could be explained away via the plot device of an alien injection but mentioned that the experience would not be fun for Owens , as he would be " under all that shit " ; Owens did not realize what Duchovny meant until he got to the studio and saw the makeup for Spender 's disfigured appearance , a sight that shocked Owens .
= = Reception = =
Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker called Chris Owens portrayal of Spender " gloriously stiff @-@ necked " . Lon Grahnke from The Chicago Sun @-@ Times responded positively to the character , calling Spender " devious " . Shortly after the premiere of " Terms of Endearment " , Owens started to notice " strange reactions " from people on the street . He assumed their odd expressions were those of " annoyance " with his character because of his actions . One day , one particularly aggravated fan of the series actually shook his finger at Owens and called him a " Paper shredder ! " .
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= Titan ( moon ) =
Titan ( or Saturn VI ) is the largest moon of Saturn . It is the only natural satellite known to have a dense atmosphere , and the only object other than Earth where clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found .
Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn . Frequently described as a planet @-@ like moon , Titan 's diameter is 50 % larger than Earth 's natural satellite , the Moon , and it is 80 % more massive . It is the second @-@ largest moon in the Solar System , after Jupiter 's moon Ganymede , and is larger than the smallest planet , Mercury , although only 40 % as massive . Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens , Titan was the first known moon of Saturn , and the sixth known planetary satellite .
Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material . Much as with Venus before the Space Age , the dense opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan 's surface until new information accumulated when the Cassini – Huygens mission arrived in 2004 , including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in Titan 's polar regions . The geologically young surface is generally smooth , with few impact craters , although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found .
The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen ; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen @-@ rich organic smog . The climate — including wind and rain — creates surface features similar to those of Earth , such as dunes , rivers , lakes , seas ( probably of liquid methane and ethane ) , and deltas , and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth . With its liquids ( both surface and subsurface ) and robust nitrogen atmosphere , Titan 's methane cycle is analogous to Earth 's water cycle , although at the much lower temperature of about 94 K ( − 179 @.@ 2 ° C ) .
= = History = =
Titan was discovered on March 25 , 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens . Huygens was inspired by Galileo 's discovery of Jupiter 's four largest moons in 1610 and his improvements in telescope technology . Christiaan , with the help of his brother Constantijn Huygens , Jr . , began building telescopes around 1650 and discovered the first observed moon orbiting Saturn with one of the telescopes they built .
He named it simply Saturni Luna ( or Luna Saturni , Latin for " Saturn 's moon " ) , publishing in the 1655 tract De Saturni Luna Observatio Nova ( A New Observation of Saturn 's Moon ) . After Giovanni Domenico Cassini published his discoveries of four more moons of Saturn between 1673 and 1686 , astronomers fell into the habit of referring to these and Titan as Saturn I through V ( with Titan then in fourth position ) . Other early epithets for Titan include " Saturn 's ordinary satellite " . Titan is officially numbered Saturn VI because after the 1789 discoveries the numbering scheme was frozen to avoid causing any more confusion ( Titan having borne the numbers II and IV as well as VI ) . Numerous small moons have been discovered closer to Saturn since then .
The name Titan , and the names of all seven satellites of Saturn then known , came from John Herschel ( son of William Herschel , discoverer of Mimas and Enceladus ) in his 1847 publication Results of Astronomical Observations Made at the Cape of Good Hope . He suggested the names of the mythological Titans ( Ancient Greek : Τῑτάν ) , brothers and sisters of Cronus , the Greek Saturn . In Greek mythology , the Titans were a race of powerful deities , descendants of Gaia and Uranus , that ruled during the legendary Golden Age .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Titan orbits Saturn once every 15 days and 22 hours . Like the Moon and many of the satellites of the giant planets , its rotational period is identical to its orbital period ; Titan is thus tidally locked in synchronous rotation with Saturn , and permanently shows one face to the planet . Because of this , there is a sub @-@ Saturnian point on its surface , from which the planet would always appear to hang directly overhead . Longitudes on Titan are measured westward , starting from the meridian passing through this point . Its orbital eccentricity is 0 @.@ 0288 , and the orbital plane is inclined 0 @.@ 348 degrees relative to the Saturnian equator . Viewed from Earth , Titan reaches an angular distance of about 20 Saturn radii ( just over 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 750 @,@ 000 mi ) ) from Saturn and subtends a disk 0 @.@ 8 arcseconds in diameter .
The small , irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion is locked in a 3 : 4 orbital resonance with Titan . A " slow and smooth " evolution of the resonance — in which Hyperion would have migrated from a chaotic orbit — is considered unlikely , based on models . Hyperion probably formed in a stable orbital island , whereas the massive Titan absorbed or ejected bodies that made close approaches .
= = Bulk characteristics = =
Titan is 5 @,@ 151 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 201 mi ) in diameter , compared to 4 @,@ 879 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 032 mi ) for the planet Mercury , 3 @,@ 474 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 159 mi ) for the Moon , and 12 @,@ 742 kilometres ( 7 @,@ 918 mi ) for Earth . Before the arrival of Voyager 1 in 1980 , Titan was thought to be slightly larger than Ganymede ( diameter 5 @,@ 262 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 270 mi ) ) and thus the largest moon in the Solar System ; this was an overestimation caused by Titan 's dense , opaque atmosphere , which extends many kilometres above its surface and increases its apparent diameter . Titan 's diameter and mass ( and thus its density ) are similar to those of the Jovian moons Ganymede and Callisto . Based on its bulk density of 1 @.@ 88 g / cm3 , Titan 's bulk composition is half water ice and half rocky material . Though similar in composition to Dione and Enceladus , it is denser due to gravitational compression .
Titan is likely differentiated into several layers with a 3 @,@ 400 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @,@ 100 mi ) rocky center surrounded by several layers composed of different crystal forms of ice . Its interior may still be hot and there may be a liquid layer consisting of a " magma " composed of water and ammonia between the ice Ih crust and deeper ice layers made of high @-@ pressure forms of ice . The presence of ammonia allows water to remain liquid even at a temperature as low as 176 K ( − 97 ° C ) ( for eutectic mixture with water ) . Evidence for such an ocean was uncovered by the Cassini probe in the form of natural extremely @-@ low @-@ frequency radio waves in Titan 's atmosphere . Titan 's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of extremely @-@ low @-@ frequency radio waves , so they may instead be reflecting off the liquid – ice boundary of a subsurface ocean . Surface features were observed by the Cassini spacecraft to systematically shift by up to 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) between October 2005 and May 2007 , which suggests that the crust is decoupled from the interior , and provides additional evidence for an interior liquid layer . Further supporting evidence for a liquid layer and decoupled ice shell comes from the way the gravity field varies as Titan orbits Saturn . Comparison of the gravity field with the RADAR @-@ based topography observations also suggests that the ice shell may be substantially rigid .
= = Formation = =
The moons of Jupiter and Saturn are thought to have formed through co @-@ accretion , a similar process to that believed to have formed the planets in the Solar System . As the young gas giants formed , they were surrounded by discs of material that gradually coalesced into moons . However , whereas Jupiter possesses four large satellites in highly regular , planet @-@ like orbits , Titan overwhelmingly dominates Saturn 's system and possesses a high orbital eccentricity not immediately explained by co @-@ accretion alone . A proposed model for the formation of Titan is that Saturn 's system began with a group of moons similar to Jupiter 's Galilean satellites , but that they were disrupted by a series of giant impacts , which would go on to form Titan . Saturn 's mid @-@ sized moons , such as Iapetus and Rhea , were formed from the debris of these collisions . Such a violent beginning would also explain Titan 's orbital eccentricity .
In 2014 , analysis of Titan 's atmospheric nitrogen suggested that it has possibly been sourced from material similar to that found in the Oort cloud and not from sources present during co @-@ accretion of materials around Saturn .
= = Atmosphere = =
Titan is the only known moon with a significant atmosphere , and its atmosphere is the only nitrogen @-@ rich dense atmosphere in the Solar System aside from Earth 's . Observations of it made in 2004 by Cassini suggest that Titan is a " super rotator " , like Venus , with an atmosphere that rotates much faster than its surface . Observations from the Voyager space probes have shown that Titan 's atmosphere is denser than Earth 's , with a surface pressure about 1 @.@ 45 atm . It is also about 1 @.@ 19 times as massive as Earth 's overall , or about 7 @.@ 3 times more massive on a per surface area basis . It supports opaque haze layers that block most visible light from the Sun and other sources and renders Titan 's surface features obscure . Titan 's lower gravity means that its atmosphere is far more extended than Earth 's . The atmosphere of Titan is opaque at many wavelengths and a complete reflectance spectrum of the surface is impossible to acquire from orbit . It was not until the arrival of the Cassini – Huygens spacecraft in 2004 that the first direct images of Titan 's surface were obtained .
Titan 's atmospheric composition in the stratosphere is 98 @.@ 4 % nitrogen with the remaining 1 @.@ 6 % composed mostly of methane ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) and hydrogen ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 % ) . There are trace amounts of other hydrocarbons , such as ethane , diacetylene , methylacetylene , acetylene and propane , and of other gases , such as cyanoacetylene , hydrogen cyanide , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , cyanogen , argon and helium . The hydrocarbons are thought to form in Titan 's upper atmosphere in reactions resulting from the breakup of methane by the Sun 's ultraviolet light , producing a thick orange smog . Titan spends 95 % of its time within Saturn 's magnetosphere , which may help shield it from the solar wind .
Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan 's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years — a short time compared to the age of the Solar System . This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself . The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior , released via eruptions from cryovolcanoes .
On April 3 , 2013 , NASA reported that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan , based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan .
On June 6 , 2013 , scientists at the IAA @-@ CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan .
On September 30 , 2013 , propene was detected in the atmosphere of Titan by NASA 's Cassini spacecraft , using its composite infrared spectrometer ( CIRS ) . This is the first time propene has been found on any moon or planet other than Earth and is the first chemical found by the CIRS . The detection of propene fills a mysterious gap in observations that date back to NASA 's Voyager 1 spacecraft 's first close flyby of Titan in 1980 , during which it was discovered that many of the gases that make up Titan 's hazy brown colored haze were hydrocarbons , theoretically formed via the recombination of radicals created by the Sun 's ultraviolet photolysis of methane .
On October 24 , 2014 , methane was found in polar clouds on Titan .
= = Climate = =
Titan 's surface temperature is about 94 K ( − 179 @.@ 2 ° C ) . At this temperature , water ice has an extremely low vapor pressure , so the little water vapor present appears limited to the stratosphere . Titan receives about 1 % as much sunlight as Earth . Before sunlight reaches the surface , about 90 % has been absorbed by the thick atmosphere , leaving only 0 @.@ 1 % of the amount of light Earth receives .
Atmospheric methane creates a greenhouse effect on Titan 's surface , without which Titan would be far colder . Conversely , haze in Titan 's atmosphere contributes to an anti @-@ greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight back into space , cancelling a portion of the greenhouse effect and making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere .
Titan 's clouds , probably composed of methane , ethane or other simple organics , are scattered and variable , punctuating the overall haze . The findings of the Huygens probe indicate that Titan 's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane and other organic compounds onto its surface .
Clouds typically cover 1 % of Titan 's disk , though outburst events have been observed in which the cloud cover rapidly expands to as much as 8 % . One hypothesis asserts that the southern clouds are formed when heightened levels of sunlight during the southern summer generate uplift in the atmosphere , resulting in convection . This explanation is complicated by the fact that cloud formation has been observed not only after the southern summer solstice but also during mid @-@ spring . Increased methane humidity at the south pole possibly contributes to the rapid increases in cloud size . It was summer in Titan 's southern hemisphere until 2010 , when Saturn 's orbit , which governs Titan 's motion , moved Titan 's northern hemisphere into the sunlight . When the seasons switch , it is expected that ethane will begin to condense over the south pole .
= = Surface features = =
The surface of Titan has been described as " complex , fluid @-@ processed , [ and ] geologically young " . Titan has been around since the Solar System 's formation , but its surface is much younger , between 100 million and 1 billion years old . Geological processes may have reshaped Titan 's surface . Titan 's atmosphere is twice as thick as Earth 's , making it difficult for astronomical instruments to image its surface in the visible light spectrum . The Cassini spacecraft is using infrared instruments , radar altimetry and synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) imaging to map portions of Titan during its close fly @-@ bys . The first images revealed a diverse geology , with both rough and smooth areas . There are features that may be volcanic in origin , disgorging water mixed with ammonia onto the surface . However , there is also evidence that Titan 's ice shell may be substantially rigid , which would suggest little geologic activity .
There are also streaky features , some of them hundreds of kilometers in length , that appear to be caused by windblown particles . Examination has also shown the surface to be relatively smooth ; the few objects that seem to be impact craters appeared to have been filled in , perhaps by raining hydrocarbons or volcanoes . Radar altimetry suggests height variation is low , typically no more than 150 meters . Occasional elevation changes of 500 meters have been discovered and Titan has mountains that sometimes reach several hundred meters to more than 1 kilometer in height .
Titan 's surface is marked by broad regions of bright and dark terrain . These include Xanadu , a large , reflective equatorial area about the size of Australia . It was first identified in infrared images from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1994 , and later viewed by the Cassini spacecraft . The convoluted region is filled with hills and cut by valleys and chasms . It is criss @-@ crossed in places by dark lineaments — sinuous topographical features resembling ridges or crevices . These may represent tectonic activity , which would indicate that Xanadu is geologically young . Alternatively , the lineaments may be liquid @-@ formed channels , suggesting old terrain that has been cut through by stream systems . There are dark areas of similar size elsewhere on Titan , observed from the ground and by Cassini ; at least one of these , Ligeia Mare , Titan 's second @-@ largest sea , is almost a pure methane sea .
= = = Lakes = = =
The possibility of hydrocarbon seas on Titan was first suggested based on Voyager 1 and 2 data that showed Titan to have a thick atmosphere of approximately the correct temperature and composition to support them , but direct evidence was not obtained until 1995 when data from Hubble and other observations suggested the existence of liquid methane on Titan , either in disconnected pockets or on the scale of satellite @-@ wide oceans , similar to water on Earth .
The Cassini mission confirmed the former hypothesis , although not immediately . When the probe arrived in the Saturnian system in 2004 , it was hoped that hydrocarbon lakes or oceans would be detected from the sunlight reflected off their surface , but no specular reflections were initially observed . Near Titan 's south pole , an enigmatic dark feature named Ontario Lacus was identified ( and later confirmed to be a lake ) . A possible shoreline was also identified near the pole via radar imagery . Following a flyby on July 22 , 2006 , in which the Cassini spacecraft 's radar imaged the northern latitudes ( that were then in winter ) , a number of large , smooth ( and thus dark to radar ) patches were seen dotting the surface near the pole . Based on the observations , scientists announced " definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane on Saturn 's moon Titan " in January 2007 . The Cassini – Huygens team concluded that the imaged features are almost certainly the long @-@ sought hydrocarbon lakes , the first stable bodies of surface liquid found outside of Earth . Some appear to have channels associated with liquid and lie in topographical depressions . The liquid erosion features appear to be a very recent occurrence : channels in some regions have created surprisingly little erosion , suggesting erosion on Titan is extremely slow , or some other recent phenomena may have wiped out older riverbeds and landforms . Overall , the Cassini radar observations have shown that lakes cover only a few percent of the surface , making Titan much drier than Earth . Although most of the lakes are concentrated near the poles ( where the relative lack of sunlight prevents evaporation ) , a number of long @-@ standing hydrocarbon lakes in the equatorial desert regions have also been discovered , including one near the Huygens landing site in the Shangri @-@ La region , which is about half the size of Utah 's Great Salt Lake . The equatorial lakes are probably " oases " , i.e. the likely supplier is underground aquifers .
In June 2008 , the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer on Cassini confirmed the presence of liquid ethane beyond doubt in Ontario Lacus . On December 21 , 2008 , Cassini passed directly over Ontario Lacus and observed specular reflection in radar . The strength of the reflection saturated the probe 's receiver , indicating that the lake level did not vary by more than 3 mm ( implying either that surface winds were minimal , or the lake 's hydrocarbon fluid is viscous ) .
Specular reflections are indicative of a smooth , mirror @-@ like surface , so the observation corroborated the inference of the presence of a large liquid body drawn from radar imaging . The observation was made soon after the north polar region emerged from 15 years of winter darkness .
On July 8 , 2009 , Cassini 's VIMS observed a specular reflection indicative of a smooth , mirror @-@ like surface , off what today is called Jingpo Lacus , a lake in the north polar region shortly after the area emerged from 15 years of winter darkness .
Early radar measurements made in July 2009 and January 2010 indicated that Ontario Lacus was extremely shallow , with an average depth of 0 @.@ 4 – 3 m , and a maximum depth of 3 to 7 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 0 ft ) . In contrast , the northern hemisphere 's Ligeia Mare was initially mapped to depths exceeding 8 m , the maximum discernable by the radar instrument and the analysis techniques of the time . Later science analysis , released in 2014 , more fully mapped the depths of Titan 's three methane seas and showed depths of more than 200 meters ( 660 ft ) . Ligeia Mare averages from 20 to 40 m ( 66 to 131 ft ) in depth , while other parts of Ligeia did not register any radar reflection at all , indicating a depth of more than 200 m ( 660 ft ) . While only the second largest of Titan 's methane seas , Ligeia " contains enough liquid methane to fill three Lake Michigans . "
During a flyby on 26 September 2012 , Cassini 's radar detected in Titan 's northern polar region what is likely a river with a length of more than 400 kilometers . It has been compared with the much larger Nile river on Earth . This feature ends in Ligeia Mare .
During six flybys of Titan from 2006 to 2011 , Cassini gathered radiometric tracking and optical navigation data from which investigators could roughly infer Titan 's changing shape . The density of Titan is consistent with a body that is about 60 % rock and 40 % water . The team 's analyses suggest that Titan 's surface can rise and fall by up to 10 metres during each orbit . That degree of warping suggests that Titan 's interior is relatively deformable , and that the most likely model of Titan is one in which an icy shell dozens of kilometres thick floats atop a global ocean . The team 's findings , together with the results of previous studies , hint that Titan 's ocean may lie no more than 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) below its surface . On July 2 , 2014 , NASA reported the ocean inside Titan may be as salty as the Dead Sea . On September 3 , 2014 , NASA reported studies suggesting methane rainfall on Titan may interact with a layer of icy materials underground , called an " alkanofer , " to produce ethane and propane that may eventually feed into rivers and lakes .
= = = Impact craters = = =
Radar , SAR and imaging data from Cassini have revealed few impact craters on Titan 's surface . These impacts appear to be relatively young , compared to Titan 's age . The few impact craters discovered include a 440 kilometres ( 270 mi ) wide two @-@ ring impact basin named Menrva seen by Cassini 's ISS as a bright @-@ dark concentric pattern . A smaller , 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) wide , flat @-@ floored crater named Sinlap and a 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) crater with a central peak and dark floor named Ksa have also been observed . Radar and Cassini imaging have also revealed a number of " crateriforms " , circular features on the surface of Titan that may be impact related , but lack certain features that would make identification certain . For example , a 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) wide ring of bright , rough material known as Guabonito has been observed by Cassini . This feature is thought to be an impact crater filled in by dark , windblown sediment . Several other similar features have been observed in the dark Shangri @-@ la and Aaru regions . Radar observed several circular features that may be craters in the bright region Xanadu during Cassini 's April 30 , 2006 flyby of Titan .
Many of Titan 's craters or probable craters display evidence of extensive erosion , and all show some indication of modification . Most large craters have breached or incomplete rims , despite the fact that some craters on Titan have relatively more massive rims than those anywhere else in the Solar System . However , there is little evidence of formation of palimpsests through viscoelastic crustal relaxation , unlike on other large icy moons . Most craters lack central peaks and have smooth floors , possibly due to impact @-@ generation or later eruption of cryovolcanic lava . Although infill from various geological processes is one reason for Titan 's relative deficiency of craters , atmospheric shielding also plays a role ; it is estimated that Titan 's atmosphere reduces the number of craters on its surface by a factor of two .
The limited high @-@ resolution radar coverage of Titan obtained through 2007 ( 22 % ) suggested the existence of a number of nonuniformities in its crater distribution . Xanadu has 2 – 9 times more craters than elsewhere . The leading hemisphere has a 30 % higher density than the trailing hemisphere . There are lower crater densities in areas of equatorial dunes and in the north polar region ( where hydrocarbon lakes and seas are most common ) .
Pre @-@ Cassini models of impact trajectories and angles suggest that where the impactor strikes the water ice crust , a small amount of ejecta remains as liquid water within the crater . It may persist as liquid for centuries or longer , sufficient for " the synthesis of simple precursor molecules to the origin of life " .
= = = Cryovolcanism and mountains = = =
Scientists have long speculated that conditions on Titan resemble those of early Earth , though at a much lower temperature . The detection of argon @-@ 40 in the atmosphere in 2004 indicated that volcanoes had spawned plumes of " lava " composed of water and ammonia . Global maps of the lake distribution on Titan 's surface revealed that there is not enough surface methane to account for its continued presence in its atmosphere , and thus that a significant portion must be added through volcanic processes .
Still , there is a paucity of surface features that can be unambiguously interpreted as cryovolcanoes . One of the first of such features revealed by Cassini radar observations in 2004 , called Ganesa Macula , resembles the geographic features called " pancake domes " found on Venus , and was thus initially thought to be cryovolcanic in origin , although Kirk et al. refuted this hypothesis at the American Geophysical Union annual meeting in December 2008 . The feature was found to be not a dome at all , but appeared to result from accidental combination of light and dark patches . In 2004 Cassini also detected an unusually bright feature ( called Tortola Facula ) , which was interpreted as a cryovolcanic dome . No similar features have been identified as of 2010 . In December 2008 , astronomers announced the discovery of two transient but unusually long @-@ lived " bright spots " in Titan 's atmosphere , which appear too persistent to be explained by mere weather patterns , suggesting they were the result of extended cryovolcanic episodes .
In March 2009 , structures resembling lava flows were announced in a region of Titan called Hotei Arcus , which appears to fluctuate in brightness over several months . Though many phenomena were suggested to explain this fluctuation , the lava flows were found to rise 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above Titan 's surface , consistent with it having been erupted from beneath the surface .
A mountain range measuring 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) long , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) high was also discovered by Cassini in 2006 . This range lies in the southern hemisphere and is thought to be composed of icy material and covered in methane snow . The movement of tectonic plates , perhaps influenced by a nearby impact basin , could have opened a gap through which the mountain 's material upwelled . Prior to Cassini , scientists assumed that most of the topography on Titan would be impact structures , yet these findings reveal that similar to Earth , the mountains were formed through geological processes . In December 2010 , the Cassini mission team announced the most compelling possible cryovolcano yet found . Named Sotra Patera , it is one in a chain of at least three mountains , each between 1000 and 1500 m in height , several of which are topped by large craters . The ground around their bases appears to be overlaid by frozen lava flows .
If volcanism on Titan really exists , the hypothesis is that it is driven by energy released from the decay of radioactive elements within the mantle , as it is on Earth . Magma on Earth is made of liquid rock , which is less dense than the solid rocky crust through which it erupts . Because ice is less dense than water , Titan 's watery magma would be denser than its solid icy crust . This means that cryovolcanism on Titan would require a large amount of additional energy to operate , possibly via tidal flexing from nearby Saturn . The low @-@ pressure ice , overlaying a liquid layer of ammonium sulfate , ascends buoyantly , and the unstable system can produce dramatic plume events . Titan is resurfaced through the process by grain @-@ sized ice and ammonium sulfate ash , which helps produce a wind @-@ shaped landscape and sand dune features .
In 2008 Jeffrey Moore ( planetary geologist of Ames Research Center ) proposed an alternate view of Titan 's geology . Noting that no volcanic features had been unambiguously identified on Titan so far , he asserted that Titan is a geologically dead world , whose surface is shaped only by impact cratering , fluvial and eolian erosion , mass wasting and other exogenic processes . According to this hypothesis , methane is not emitted by volcanoes but slowly diffuses out of Titan 's cold and stiff interior . Ganesa Macula may be an eroded impact crater with a dark dune in the center . The mountainous ridges observed in some regions can be explained as heavily degraded scarps of large multi @-@ ring impact structures or as a result of the global contraction due to the slow cooling of the interior . Even in this case , Titan may still have an internal ocean made of the eutectic water – ammonia mixture with a temperature of 176 K ( − 97 ° C ) , which is low enough to be explained by the decay of radioactive elements in the core . The bright Xanadu terrain may be a degraded heavily cratered terrain similar to that observed on the surface of Callisto . Indeed , were it not for its lack of an atmosphere , Callisto could serve as a model for Titan 's geology in this scenario . Jeffrey Moore even called Titan Callisto with weather .
= = = Dark terrain = = =
In the first images of Titan 's surface taken by Earth @-@ based telescopes in the early 2000s , large regions of dark terrain were revealed straddling Titan 's equator . Prior to the arrival of Cassini , these regions were thought to be seas of liquid hydrocarbons . Radar images captured by the Cassini spacecraft have instead revealed some of these regions to be extensive plains covered in longitudinal dunes , up to 330 ft ( 100 m ) high about a kilometer wide , and tens to hundreds of kilometers long . Dunes of this type are always aligned with average wind direction . In the case of Titan , steady zonal ( eastward ) winds combine with variable tidal winds ( approximately 0 @.@ 5 meters per second ) . The tidal winds are the result of tidal forces from Saturn on Titan 's atmosphere , which are 400 times stronger than the tidal forces of the Moon on Earth and tend to drive wind toward the equator . This wind pattern , it was theorized , causes granular material on the surface to gradually build up in long parallel dunes aligned west @-@ to @-@ east . The dunes break up around mountains , where the wind direction shifts .
The longitudinal ( or linear ) dunes were initially presumed to be formed by moderately variable winds that either follow one mean direction or alternate between two different directions . However , subsequent observations indicate that the dunes point to the east although climate simulations indicate Titan 's surface winds blow toward the west . At less than 1 meter per second , they are not powerful enough to lift and transport surface material . Recent computer simulations indicate that the dunes may instead be the result of rare storm winds that happen only every fifteen years when Titan is in equinox . These storms produce strong downdrafts , flowing eastward at up to 10 meters per second when they reach the surface .
The " sand " on Titan is likely not made up of small grains of silicates like the sand on Earth , but rather might have formed when liquid methane rained and eroded the water @-@ ice bedrock , possibly in the form of flash floods . Alternatively , the sand could also have come from organic solids produced by photochemical reactions in Titan 's atmosphere . Studies of dunes ' composition in May 2008 revealed that they possessed less water than the rest of Titan , and are thus most likely derived from organic soot like hydrocarbon polymers clumping together after raining onto the surface . Calculations indicate the sand on Titan has a density of one @-@ third that of terrestrial sand .
= = Observation and exploration = =
Titan is never visible to the naked eye , but can be observed through small telescopes or strong binoculars . Amateur observation is difficult because of the proximity of Titan to Saturn 's brilliant globe and ring system ; an occulting bar , covering part of the eyepiece and used to block the bright planet , greatly improves viewing . Titan has a maximum apparent magnitude of + 8 @.@ 2 , and mean opposition magnitude 8 @.@ 4 . This compares to + 4 @.@ 6 for the similarly sized Ganymede , in the Jovian system .
Observations of Titan prior to the space age were limited . In 1907 Spanish astronomer Josep Comas i Solà observed limb darkening of Titan , the first evidence that the body has an atmosphere . In 1944 Gerard P. Kuiper used a spectroscopic technique to detect an atmosphere of methane .
The first probe to visit the Saturnian system was Pioneer 11 in 1979 , which revealed that Titan was probably too cold to support life . It took images of Titan , including Titan and Saturn together in mid to late 1979 . The quality was soon surpassed by the two Voyagers .
Titan was examined by both Voyager 1 and 2 in 1980 and 1981 , respectively . Voyager 1 's trajectory was designed to provide an optimized Titan flyby , during which the spacecraft was able to determine the density , composition , and temperature of the atmosphere , and obtain a precise measurement of Titan 's mass . Atmospheric haze prevented direct imaging of the surface , though in 2004 intensive digital processing of images taken through Voyager 1 's orange filter did reveal hints of the light and dark features now known as Xanadu and Shangri @-@ la , which had been observed in the infrared by the Hubble Space Telescope . Voyager 2 , which would have been diverted to perform the Titan flyby if Voyager 1 had been unable to , did not pass near Titan and continued on to Uranus and Neptune .
= = = Cassini – Huygens = = =
Even with the data provided by the Voyagers , Titan remained a body of mystery — a large satellite shrouded in an atmosphere that makes detailed observation difficult . The mystery that had surrounded Titan since the 17th @-@ century observations of Christiaan Huygens and Giovanni Cassini was revealed by a spacecraft named in their honor .
The Cassini – Huygens spacecraft reached Saturn on July 1 , 2004 , and began the process of mapping Titan 's surface by radar . A joint project of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and NASA , Cassini – Huygens has proved a very successful mission . The Cassini probe flew by Titan on October 26 , 2004 , and took the highest @-@ resolution images ever of Titan 's surface , at only 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) , discerning patches of light and dark that would be invisible to the human eye . Huygens landed on Titan on January 14 , 2005 , discovering that many of its surface features seem to have been formed by fluids at some point in the past . Titan is the most distant body from Earth to have a space probe land on its surface . On July 22 , 2006 , Cassini made its first targeted , close fly @-@ by at 950 kilometres ( 590 mi ) from Titan ; the closest flyby was at 880 kilometres ( 550 mi ) on June 21 , 2010 . Liquid has been found in abundance on the surface in the north polar region , in the form of many lakes and seas discovered by Cassini .
= = = = Huygens landing site = = = =
The Huygens probe landed just off the easternmost tip of a bright region now called Adiri . The probe photographed pale hills with dark " rivers " running down to a dark plain . Current understanding is that the hills ( also referred to as highlands ) are composed mainly of water ice . Dark organic compounds , created in the upper atmosphere by the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun , may rain from Titan 's atmosphere . They are washed down the hills with the methane rain and are deposited on the plains over geological time scales .
After landing , Huygens photographed a dark plain covered in small rocks and pebbles , which are composed of water ice . The two rocks just below the middle of the image on the right are smaller than they may appear : the left @-@ hand one is 15 centimeters across , and the one in the center is 4 centimeters across , at a distance of about 85 centimeters from Huygens . There is evidence of erosion at the base of the rocks , indicating possible fluvial activity . The surface is darker than originally expected , consisting of a mixture of water and hydrocarbon ice . The " soil " visible in the images is interpreted to be precipitation from the hydrocarbon haze above .
In March 2007 , NASA , ESA , and COSPAR decided to name the Huygens landing site the Hubert Curien Memorial Station in memory of the former president of the ESA .
= = = Proposed or conceptual missions = = =
There have been several conceptual missions proposed in recent years for returning a robotic space probe to Titan . Initial conceptual work has been completed for such missions by NASA , the ESA and JPL . At present , none of these proposals have become funded missions .
The Titan Saturn System Mission ( TSSM ) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Saturn 's moons . It envisions a hot @-@ air balloon floating in Titan 's atmosphere for six months . It was competing against the Europa Jupiter System Mission ( EJSM ) proposal for funding . In February 2009 it was announced that ESA / NASA had given the EJSM mission priority ahead of the TSSM .
There was also a notional concept for a Titan Mare Explorer ( TiME ) , which would be a low @-@ cost lander that would splash down in a lake in Titan 's northern hemisphere and float on the surface of the lake for three to six months .
Another mission to Titan proposed in early 2012 by Jason Barnes , a scientist at the University of Idaho , is the Aerial Vehicle for In @-@ situ and Airborne Titan Reconnaissance ( AVIATR ) : an unmanned plane ( or drone ) that would fly through Titan 's atmosphere and take high @-@ definition images of the surface of Titan . NASA did not approve the requested $ 715 million , and the future of the project is uncertain .
Another lake lander project was proposed in late 2012 by the Spanish @-@ based private engineering firm SENER and the Centro de Astrobiología in Madrid . The concept probe is called Titan Lake In @-@ situ Sampling Propelled Explorer ( TALISE ) . The major difference compared to the TiME probe would be that TALISE is envisioned with its own propulsion system and would therefore not be limited to simply drifting on the lake when it splashes down .
A Discovery Program contestant for its mission # 13 is Journey to Enceladus and Titan ( JET ) , an astrobiology Saturn orbiter that would assess the habitability potential of Enceladus and Titan .
In 2015 , NASA 's Innovative Advanced Concepts ( NIAC ) awarded a Phase II grant to a proposal in order to mature the concept of a submarine to explore the seas of Titan .
= = Prebiotic conditions and life = =
Titan is thought to be a prebiotic environment rich in complex organic chemistry with a possible subsurface liquid ocean serving as a biotic environment .
Although the Cassini – Huygens mission was not equipped to provide evidence for biosignatures or complex organic compounds , it showed an environment on Titan that is similar , in some ways , to ones theorized for the primordial Earth . Scientists surmise that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan , with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan .
= = = Formation of complex molecules = = =
The Miller – Urey experiment and several following experiments have shown that with an atmosphere similar to that of Titan and the addition of UV radiation , complex molecules and polymer substances like tholins can be generated . The reaction starts with dissociation of nitrogen and methane , forming hydrogen cyanide and acetylene . Further reactions have been studied extensively .
In October 2010 , Sarah Horst of the University of Arizona reported finding the five nucleotide bases — building blocks of DNA and RNA — among the many compounds produced when energy was applied to a combination of gases like those in Titan 's atmosphere . Horst also found amino acids , the building blocks of protein . She said it was the first time nucleotide bases and amino acids had been found in such an experiment without liquid water being present .
On April 3 , 2013 , NASA reported that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan .
= = = Possible subsurface habitats = = =
Laboratory simulations have led to the suggestion that enough organic material exists on Titan to start a chemical evolution analogous to what is thought to have started life on Earth . Although the analogy assumes the presence of liquid water for longer periods than is currently observable , several theories suggest that liquid water from an impact could be preserved under a frozen isolation layer . It has also been theorized that liquid @-@ ammonia oceans could exist deep below the surface . Another model suggests an ammonia – water solution as much as 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) deep beneath a water @-@ ice crust with conditions that , although extreme by terrestrial standards , are such that life could indeed survive . Heat transfer between the interior and upper layers would be critical in sustaining any subsurface oceanic life . Detection of microbial life on Titan would depend on its biogenic effects . That the atmospheric methane and nitrogen might be of biological origin has been examined , for example .
= = = Methane and life at the surface = = =
It has been suggested that life could exist in the lakes of liquid methane on Titan , just as organisms on Earth live in water . Such organisms would inhale H2 in place of O2 , metabolize it with acetylene instead of glucose , and exhale methane instead of carbon dioxide .
Although all living things on Earth ( including methanogens ) use liquid water as a solvent , it is speculated that life on Titan might instead use a liquid hydrocarbon , such as methane or ethane . Water is a stronger solvent than methane . However , water is also more chemically reactive , and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis . A life @-@ form whose solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the risk of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way .
In 2005 , astrobiologist Chris McKay argued that if methanogenic life did exist on the surface of Titan , it would likely have a measurable effect on the mixing ratio in the Titan troposphere : levels of hydrogen and acetylene would be measurably lower than otherwise expected .
In 2010 , Darrell Strobel , from Johns Hopkins University , identified a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers , arguing for a downward flow at a rate of roughly 1025 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan 's surface ; as Strobel noted , his findings were in line with the effects McKay had predicted if methanogenic life @-@ forms were present . The same year , another study showed low levels of acetylene on Titan 's surface , which were interpreted by McKay as consistent with the hypothesis of organisms consuming hydrocarbons . Although restating the biological hypothesis , he cautioned that other explanations for the hydrogen and acetylene findings are more likely : the possibilities of yet unidentified physical or chemical processes ( e.g. a surface catalyst accepting hydrocarbons or hydrogen ) , or flaws in the current models of material flow . Composition data and transport models need to be substantiated , etc . Even so , despite saying that a non @-@ biological catalytic explanation would be less startling than a biological one , McKay noted that the discovery of a catalyst effective at 95 K ( − 180 ° C ) would still be significant .
As NASA notes in its news article on the June 2010 findings : " To date , methane @-@ based life forms are only hypothetical . Scientists have not yet detected this form of life anywhere . " As the NASA statement also says : " some scientists believe these chemical signatures bolster the argument for a primitive , exotic form of life or precursor to life on Titan 's surface . "
In February 2015 , a hypothetical cell membrane capable of functioning in liquid methane in Titan conditions was modeled . Composed of small molecules containing carbon , hydrogen , and nitrogen , it would have the same stability and flexibility as cell membranes on Earth , which are composed of phospholipids , compounds of carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and phosphorus . This hypothetical cell membrane was termed an " azotosome " , a combination of " azote " , French for nitrogen , and " liposome " .
= = = Obstacles = = =
Despite these biological possibilities , there are formidable obstacles to life on Titan , and any analogy to Earth is inexact . At a vast distance from the Sun , Titan is frigid , and its atmosphere lacks CO2 . At Titan 's surface , water exists only in solid form . Because of these difficulties , scientists such as Jonathan Lunine have viewed Titan less as a likely habitat for life , than as an experiment for examining theories on the conditions that prevailed prior to the appearance of life on Earth . Although life itself may not exist , the prebiotic conditions on Titan and the associated organic chemistry remain of great interest in understanding the early history of the terrestrial biosphere . Using Titan as a prebiotic experiment involves not only observation through spacecraft , but laboratory experiments , and chemical and photochemical modeling on Earth .
= = = Panspermia hypothesis = = =
It is hypothesized that large asteroid and cometary impacts on Earth 's surface may have caused fragments of microbe @-@ laden rock to escape Earth 's gravity , suggesting the possibility of transpermia . Calculations indicate that a number of these would encounter many of the bodies in the Solar System , including Titan . On the other hand , Jonathan Lunine has argued that any living things in Titan 's cryogenic hydrocarbon lakes would need to be so different chemically from Earth life that it would not be possible for one to be the ancestor of the other .
= = = Future conditions = = =
Conditions on Titan could become far more habitable in the far future . Five billion years from now , as the Sun becomes a red giant , its surface temperature could rise enough for Titan to support liquid water on its surface making it habitable . As the Sun 's ultraviolet output decreases , the haze in Titan 's upper atmosphere will be depleted , lessening the anti @-@ greenhouse effect on the surface and enabling the greenhouse created by atmospheric methane to play a far greater role . These conditions together could create a habitable environment , and could persist for several hundred million years . This was sufficient time for simple life to evolve on Earth , although the presence of ammonia on Titan would cause chemical reactions to proceed more slowly .
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= Kaddish ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Kaddish " is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by producer Howard Gordon and directed by Kim Manners . The episode originally aired on the Fox network on February 16 , 1997 . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology , or overarching history . The episode received a Nielsen household rating 10 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers . It received moderately positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Isaac Luria ( Harrison Coe ) , a Jewish man , is killed by a group of teenagers working for a racist shop owner . One of the assailants , however , is soon strangled to death and the fingerprints on his neck are Isaac 's . Despite other factors , Mulder becomes convinced that a Golem is attempting to avenge Isaac 's murder .
" Kaddish " was written by Gordon due to his fascination with the legend of the Golem from the Kabbalah . Originally , the script called for the antagonist to be an African American " Louis Farrakhan @-@ like " character , but Fox was concerned that the show 's increasing popularity with black viewers would be damaged by this , and Gordon agreed to make the villains into , in his words , " cartoonish neo @-@ Nazis " . Gastown , Vancouver stood in for many of the exterior shots that were supposed to be Brooklyn . No Jewish synagogue would rent out their space for the episode , so Shaughnessy Heights United Church was renovated to look like one . This included completely redecorating the pews , carpet , and light fixtures , as well as crafting a Jewish altar . The episode 's title is a reference to the Jewish mourning prayer service ( Hebrew : קדיש ) . Furthermore , " Kaddish " has been critically examined for its themes concerning love and hate .
= = Plot = =
In Brooklyn , New York , a group of Hasidic Jews gather at a cemetery for the funeral of Isaac Luria ( Harrison Coe ) , who had been beaten and shot to death by a gang of three young Neo @-@ Nazis . The last to leave is Isaac 's betrothed , Ariel ( Justine Miceli ) , and her father , Jacob Weiss ( David Groh ) . During nightfall , a dark figure enters the cemetery and crafts a man @-@ shaped sculpture out of mud .
When one of Isaac 's assailants is found strangled with the dead man 's fingerprints on his body , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are called in to investigate . Scully suggests that the murder was an act of retribution , and argues that the evidence was staged to look like revenge from beyond the grave . When the agents visit Ariel and Jacob , their request for the exhumation of Isaac 's body angers the old man .
Mulder and Scully then interview Curt Brunjes ( Jonathan Whittaker ) , a racist owner of a copy shop across the street from the market where Isaac worked . Mulder tells Brunjes that the other two boys , who work for Brunjes , are in danger . Scully mentions that there is a rumor spreading that Isaac has risen from the grave to avenge his death . The two boys , who are eavesdropping on the conversation , are terrified at this prospect .
That night , the boys dig up Isaac 's grave and find his body intact . While retrieving tools from the car , one of the boys is brutally murdered . The next morning , Mulder and Scully find a book on Jewish mysticism buried with Isaac 's body ; it mysteriously bursts into flames . On the book is Jacob 's name . The agents search for Jacob , finding him in a synagogue with the hanged body of the last remaining boy . Although Jacob admits to both of the murders , Mulder believes that a Golem — a creature from Jewish mysticism — is the true murderer .
Later , Brunjes is found murdered and Mulder and Scully watch the shop 's surveillance tape . They discover that the Golem has features similar to Isaac . Mulder deduces that , because Ariel and Isaac were not officially wed in a Jewish synagogue , Ariel created the Golem out of love to serve as a surrogate for her late husband . The two agents arrive at the synagogue to find Ariel and the creature exchanging wedding vows . After an intense fight , in which Jacob and Mulder are both wounded , Ariel declares her love for Isaac and returns the creature to dust .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Kaddish " was written by producer Howard Gordon and directed by Kim Manners . The episode was dedicated to the memory of Lillian Katz , Gordon 's grandmother . The episode 's title is a reference to the Jewish mourning prayer service . Gordon was inspired to write the episode based on his heritage . He noted , " I was always compelled by the Golem mythology . We had never dealt with the horrors of anti @-@ Semitism and the power of the word [ on The X @-@ Files ] . And because I 'm Jewish , it was something that was really compelling to me personally . " The idea to create a story centering on a Golem , however , had been proposed several times before by " probably every Jewish writer who 's passed through " , according to Gordon .
Gordon claimed that he had wanted to write a story like " Kaddish " since the first season , but that the " emotional basis " had eluded him . The inspiration for Gordon was the communal ring featured in the episode . The ring was a real Jewish relic owned by a rabbi who survived the Holocaust . In fact , the rabbi had used it to wed two of Gordon 's friends . During that wedding , Gordon developed a " Romeo and Juliet @-@ like " story that revolved around themes of love and wanting to bring a loved one back from the dead .
In order to ensure his story would be chosen to air , Gordon decided to play up the elements of anti @-@ Semitism . Originally , however , the script called for both the protagonists and the antagonists to be African Americans , and the main protagonist to be a " Louis Farrakhan @-@ like " character . Gordon later rewrote the script because he realized " black anti @-@ Semitism is a very subtle and difficult subject and not what I needed in my dramatic structure . " To create the kind of hate propaganda that Brunjes and his printshop made in the episode , Gordon contacted the Anti @-@ Defamation League and requested samples . The articles that were presented were used in the episode , with only " minor alterations " .
= = = Casting and characterization = = =
Justine Miceli was chosen to play the role of Ariel ; she based her character 's sorrowful demeanor on the memory of her own father 's death due to cancer . Although she is not Jewish , Miceli was assisted by a friend 's rabbi in order to successfully play the part ; he helped her learn the proper pronunciation for many of the Jewish prayers used in the episode . Gordon was adamant that he did not want Jacob Weiss to be portrayed in a stereotypical way . Initially , he was dismayed when actor David Groh affected a distinct Yiddish accent , for fear that Weiss ' scenes could " lapse into parody rather easily " . Gordon , however , stated that Groh had a " certain verisimilitude " and that it was " the right choice " to have the accent .
Many fans on the internet were hoping that the episode would reveal whether or not Mulder is Jewish . In the episode , however , Mulder is unable to identify a Jewish book , states that he does not know Hebrew , and quips that Jesus returned from the dead . When asked whether or not Mulder is Jewish , Gordon said that he did not think that he is , nor did he think he is " even half @-@ Jewish " . He did , however , note that " there 's something about David [ Duchovny ] that could be Jewish or that has a Jewish sensibility . "
= = = Filming and music = = =
The scene featuring the burning book was difficult to film . For some unknown reason , the pyrotechnics required to create the fire refused to cooperate . David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson ended up spending hours trying to shoot the scene . Gastown , Vancouver — described as " the only area in Vancouver that even remotely resembles residential Queens in New York " — stood in for many of the exterior shots . Shots at the Weiss ' apartment were filmed at the Winter 's Hotel . Originally , the production team was going to remove the hotel 's neon sign , but director Manners , instead , decided to " move the camera another five feet " to prevent " prohibitive " expenses .
Unfortunately for the series , no Jewish synagogue would rent out their space for the episode . The scenes in the synagogue were actually filmed at Shaughnessy Heights United Church . The church was chosen because it possessed a " gothic interior " and " stained glass windows " that " resembled many New York synagogues " . The church was booked for two weeks so that the entire interior could be redecorated to look like a legitimate Jewish temple . This included completely redecorating the pews , carpet , and light fixtures , as well as crafting a Jewish altar . During the construction of the altar , a Hebrew translation of the Ten Commandments was scheduled to be created . However , the series ' on @-@ set Hebrew advisor was not available and so , according to art director Gary Allen , the staff ended up " faking " the text .
Series composer Mark Snow mixed in " clarinet , violin , and cello solos " to the episode 's score . In addition , he admits to borrowing elements of J.S. Bach 's Fugue in G minor , " Little " , BWV 578 piece . He noted , " the aim was to wind up somewhere between a Klezmer band and Schindler 's List . "
= = Themes = =
Gordon said that love is the central conceit of the episode . Although , in the myth of the Golem , the creature is soulless , Gordon took " some liberties " with the legend . He wanted " Kaddish " to " literally be about resurrection " . Ariel creates an imperfect reflection of her husband by crafting the Golem from mud . In essence , she is trying to play God , a role that Gordon later likened to Victor Frankenstein , the scientist from Mary Shelley 's famous novel Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus ( 1823 ) . However , Ariel and Frankenstein differ in the fact that Ariel 's flaw was related to her " loving [ Isaac ] too much , not being able to let go , because of the cruelty and injustice of what she suffered . " In this manner , Ariel 's motivation for creating the Golem are " slightly more romantically skewed " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , analyzed Gordon 's portrayal of racism and anti @-@ Semitism . They wrote that Gordon " makes [ a ] very convincing point " when he argues that hatemongers like Carl Brunjes — who are openly hateful of other cultures but would never , personally , hurt them — are " just as guilty " as openly violent individuals , such as the " three Nazi thugs who beat and shoot a defenceless man . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Kaddish " originally aired on the Fox network on February 16 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on December 17 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 3 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers .
The episode received moderately positive reviews from television critics . Andy Meisler , in his book I Want to Believe : The Official Guide to the X @-@ Files Volume 3 , called the episode " one of the best non @-@ mythological episodes of the fourth season " due to its " seamless integration of character development , social commentary and the supernatural . " Juliette Harrisson of Den of Geek named " Kaddish " the best stand @-@ alone episode of season four and called its conceit " absolutely real and utterly tragic " despite being " highly fantastical " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club rated the episode " B + " , claiming that , while it was " the sort of episode that works best if you enjoy it for its style and presentation without getting too caught up in the script " , it felt " appropriate " . Handlen did , however , criticize the episode 's characterization of Scully , noting that her scientific counter @-@ arguments were " becoming less about applying common sense to madness , and more just arguing for arguing 's sake . "
Shearman and Pearson awarded the episode three stars out of five and called it " one of [ Gordon 's ] best " . Furthermore , the two praised many aspects of the script , particularly the " real anger " which made the episode " something special " . Despite this , they felt that the plot " offer [ ed ] nothing unexpected " and that its position , after the revelation that Scully has cancer in " Leonard Betts " caused it to look " as if it 's cheating on the consequences of Scully 's illness " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . She called it a " flawed yet unusually affecting episode " . Vitaris cited the Golem 's disintegration as " a leitmotif , a reminder of death , a beautiful way to translate into visual terms the depth of Ariel 's grief . "
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= Walter de Coventre =
Walter de Coventre ( died 1371 or 1372 ) was a 14th @-@ century Scottish ecclesiastic . There is no direct evidence of his birthdate , his family , or his family 's origin , although he may have come from the region around Abernethy ( in modern @-@ day Perth and Kinross ) , where a family with the name de Coventre is known to have lived . Walter appeared in the records for the first time in the 1330s , as a student at the University of Paris . From there he went on to the University of Orléans , initially as a student before becoming a lecturer there . He studied the arts , civil law and canon law , and was awarded many university degrees , including two doctorates . His studies were paid for , at least partially , by his benefices in Scotland . Despite holding perhaps more than five benefices at one stage , he did not return to Scotland until the late 1350s .
Following his return to Scotland , Walter soon became Dean of Aberdeen Cathedral . From there he became engaged in high @-@ level ecclesiastical affairs with the Scottish church and political affairs with the Earl of Mar. Sometime before June 1361 , the cathedral chapter of Dunblane elected him Bishop of Dunblane . He went to France to secure confirmation from the Pope at Avignon , who authorised his consecration . Walter was bishop for 10 years after returning home to Scotland . Records of his episcopate are thin , but there are enough to allow a modest reconstruction of his activities : he presided over legal disputes , issued a dispensation for an important irregular marriage , attended parliaments , and acted as an envoy of the Scottish crown in England . He died in either 1371 or 1372 .
= = Background = =
Walter de Coventre was typical of a new class of men in 14th @-@ century Scotland , the university @-@ educated career cleric from the lower nobility . Such men often acquired university education through their family resources , through the patronage of more substantial nobles , or through church influence , particularly support from the pope and his court . Patronage gave access to the resources needed to finance the considerable expense of a 14th @-@ century university education , particularly through the presentation of benefices , gifts of land or income made by the church .
Scotland had no universities in de Coventre 's time , requiring travel either to England or Continental Europe to acquire a university education . Continental Europe , particularly France , was the favoured destination , partly because of bad relations between Scotland and England . After their university education , some Scottish graduates chose to remain abroad and teach at a foreign university or to serve the papacy ; most returned to Scotland and offered their services to the king , a magnate , or an ecclesiastical institution . The ultimate reward for such services was a bishopric , which brought wealth , prestige , and a " job for life " .
Walter de Coventre 's life is not well documented . There are no biographies , and no histories or chronicles devote any space to him . His activities can be traced only through a small number of incidental references in legal deeds , church documents and papal records . No modern historian has written a monograph about him , and the most extensive attempt to reconstruct his life in modern literature is a two @-@ page entry in D. E. R. Watt 's Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Graduates to A.D. 1410 ( 1977 ) . James Hutchison Cockburn , in his Medieval Bishop of Dunblane and their Church ( 1959 ) devoted seven less extensively sourced pages , but they emphasized the analysis of a few events during de Coventre 's episcopate , and the events of his time .
During most of de Coventre 's recorded lifetime Scotland was ruled by King David II . Coming to the throne at age five , King David was driven into exile in France at the age of ten . In the 1330s , civil war raged in Scotland as those loyal to David fought Edward Balliol and his English backers . In some sense , the conflict became a side @-@ show of the Hundred Years ' War , and David resided at Château Gaillard in northern France for much of his exile , until he could return to Scotland in 1341 . In 1346 , in response to a plea from France to come to its aid , David led an army into England only to be taken prisoner at Neville 's Cross ; he remained in captivity until he was ransomed in 1357 . David 's exile in France corresponded with Walter 's own period in that country , prompting one historian to suggest that Walter was part of David 's court while both were in northern France , and that Walter subsequently benefited from the relationship .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and personal background = = =
James Hutchison Cockburn , a historian of Dunblane 's medieval bishops , assumed that Walter 's surname derived from the town of Coventry in England . D. E. R. Watt has suggested that the medieval settlement of Coventre or Covintrie near Abernethy in the diocese of Dunblane was the origin of the name .
There is no direct evidence of de Coventre 's family , but two other men bearing the name " de Coventre " are known to have been active during Walter 's lifetime . A " John de Coventre " is found registered as a student at the University of Paris on 21 January 1331 . Before December 1341 , when he resigned , John de Coventre held the parish church of Inverarity , Angus , in the diocese of St Andrews . On 7 December 1345 , a William de Coventre , also from the diocese of Dunblane , held a canonry and prebends ( a cathedral priesthood with stipends ) in the diocese of Ross and the Collegiate Church of Abernethy , when he was granted the church of Inverarity that had previously been held by John de Coventre . William thus appears to have succeeded John ( and later Walter succeeded William ) to all of these benefices .
Watt suggested that all three were brothers , John the first @-@ born , William the second @-@ born , and Walter the youngest of the three . He further suggested that the family was probably closely connected to Margaret de Abernethy , heiress of the old lay abbots and lords of Abernethy . Margaret had patronage over both the church of Abernethy and , as probable owner of the barony of Inverarity , the church there .
= = = Early life = = =
= = = = Education = = = =
De Coventre received a B. A. under John de Waltirstone from the University of Paris by Lent , 1333 . Although he had probably completed a Licentiate in the Arts and a Master of Arts by 1335 , because of gaps in the Paris records it is not certain that he was a Master until April 1345 .
He moved on to study civil law at the University of Orléans , and by 24 March 1337 , he was serving as the proctor of the Scottish Nation in Orléans . By 7 December 1345 , he had received a Licentiate in Civil Law . On 20 December 1348 he was at Avignon as an envoy of his university , and while there he obtained a grace regarding his own benefice holding from Pope Clement VI . On 7 October 1349 , Pope Clement granted an indult to Walter allowing him to be absent from his cure while he continued his studies at Orléans .
He may already have been a Doctor of Civil Law by that point , because in the following year , on 22 November 1350 , he is found as such acting as the Regent of Orléans presenting a candidate for licence . Having studied civil law for the highest qualification available , de Coventre moved on to canon law . By 28 March 1351 , he possessed a Bachelorate in Decrees ( canon law ) . This was perhaps why on 16 April 1353 , he obtained from Pope Innocent VI another grace for himself . Precisely when he obtained his doctorate is unclear , but he was D. U. J. ( doctor utriusque juris ) , Doctor of Both Laws , by 4 September 1359 .
= = = = Benefices = = = =
Walter 's first known benefices were a canonry ( with prebend ) in the Collegiate Church of Abernethy and a prebend in the diocese of Ross , northern Scotland , which he was holding by 12 April 1345 . None of these benefices , neither parish nor office , are known by name . While Walter would retain his Ross benefice until becoming Bishop of Dunblane , he lost his Abernethy benefice at some point between 20 December 1348 and 28 March 1351 . During that period he obtained another unnamed prebend in exchange for the Abernethy prebend . Walter is only the second known canon of Abernethy Collegiate Church .
On 12 April 1345 , he was granted a canonry in the diocese of Dunkeld with expectation of a prebend , but does not appear to have obtained this in practice , although he did obtain a different Dunkeld canonry with prebend on 12 May 1352 . This he retained until his consecration as Bishop of Dunblane in 1361 . Walter also obtained a fourth prebend in this period . He had been pursuing a benefice in the diocese of St Andrews , and while he was granted this on 28 March 1351 , the grant was still not effective by 16 April 1353 , when he was granted a prebend in the diocese of Moray instead . This was not effective either , but Walter did eventually obtain a St Andrews diocese benefice , namely the church of Inverarity in Angus , which had become vacant on the death of its incumbent , William de Coventre , probably Walter 's older brother . On 7 December 1345 , Walter was appointed ( provided ) as Archdeacon of Dunblane , his most substantial benefice to date , but the appointment does not appear to have been carried through .
Walter obtained one more benefice during this period . On 20 December 1348 , he was made Dean of Aberdeen Cathedral , a high @-@ ranking office which Walter was not technically eligible to hold without a papal grace , being only a sub @-@ deacon in orders . The deanery had been made vacant by the death of the long @-@ serving Gilbert Fleming . Although in July the Pope had given it as an extra prebend for Annibald de Ceccano , Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum , this had been cancelled by 20 December , when it was given to Walter instead .
These benefices provided an income without the obligation to perform any pastoral services . Their revenues were assigned to pay for his studies , leaving poorly paid vicars to carry out the pastoral work . Walter remained as a teacher and official at Orléans , perhaps without returning to Scotland at all , until the late 1350s , by when he would have been absent from his native country for more than 25 years . In an Aberdeen document dated 12 July 1356 , it was noted that he was still absent from his post .
= = = Bishop of Dunblane = = =
= = = = Return to Scotland and episcopal election = = = =
Walter cannot be traced back in Scotland with certainty before his appearance as a witness to a charter of Thomas , Earl of Mar , on 9 July 1358 . He may have returned a year earlier , as a document dated sometime between November 1357 and April 1359 records him in the sheriffdom of Forfar ( royal demesne in Angus ) assisting a justice ayre . He appears again on 4 September 1359 , witnessing another charter of Earl Thomas at the latter 's residence of Kildrummy Castle .
Following the death in 1361 of William de Cambuslang , Bishop of Dunblane , Walter was elected by the Dunblane cathedral chapter to be the new bishop . On his election , Walter possessed no benefices in the diocese , and had had none since giving up his Abernethy prebend a decade before . However , it was probably the diocese of his birth , and he had almost become archdeacon of the diocese in 1345 .
Walter , bishop @-@ elect , travelled to the papal court at Avignon , and was provided ( appointed ) as bishop by Pope Innocent on 18 June 1361 . The papal letter of provision expressed displeasure that the chapter ( by electing ) and Walter ( by accepting the election ) were ignoring a previous papal reservation of the bishopric . Pope Innocent quashed the election , but nevertheless agreed to appoint ( provide ) Walter to the bishopric .
Walter may have been consecrated soon after , probably by 23 August . It was on that date that he presented a roll of petitions to the Pope on behalf of several Scotsmen , including Michael de Monymusk , future Bishop of Dunkeld . On 20 September , Bishop Walter made a " promise of services " to the papacy , the first payment of which was delivered to Avignon in 1363 by Walter 's proctor .
= = = = Early episcopate = = = =
Walter had returned to Scotland by 30 June 1362 , when his presence is attested at Partick near Glasgow . The document in which Walter is mentioned recorded that William Rae , Bishop of Glasgow , along with his cathedral chapter , agreed to put a dispute to arbitration .
The remainder of his episcopate is not well documented . His only surviving episcopal deed was issued at Abernethy on 8 February 1365 . The deed authorised the reduction of canons at Abernethy Collegiate Church from ten to five , adding the consent of the patroness Margaret , Countess of Angus . These details are also recorded in a papal letter to the Bishop of St Andrews in 1373 :
Recently a petition of the secular Prior and Chapter [ of Abernethy ] for confirmation described how the [ Collegiate ] Church was founded by lay patrons for a prior and five canons . At a later date some of the patrons were eager to augment its rents , and the number of canons was hopefully raised to ten . No such augmentation took place , and because of wars , fires and ruin the Prior and Chapter were brought to straits . Bishop Walter , therefore , with the assent of the patrons and King David , reduced the canons to five .
The changes were confirmed by the Pope on 31 October 1375 , several years after Bishop Walter 's death .
A document of Inchaffray Abbey , preserved in the original ( as opposed to a later copy ) , recorded that Bishop Walter had been involved in settling a dispute involving Inchaffray , an abbey which lay in his diocese . Inchaffray 's dispute was with Naomhán Mac Eóghainn ( Nevin MacEwen ) and his wife Mairead ( Mariota ) . Under Abbot Symon de Scone , previous Abbot of Inchaffray , the abbey had given some lands in exchange for 40 marks to Mairead 's father Maol Mhuire ( Malmoran ) of Glencarnie .
Under the new abbot , Abbot John , the abbey sought the return of those lands . The case appears to have gone to Bishop Walter 's consistorial court , which he held at the chapel of Innerpeffry . Here Naomhán and Mairead agreed to accept a payment of 40 marks in exchange for returning the documents of ownership given to them by the abbot and for acknowledging the abbey 's ownership . The couple pledged to honour the agreement by swearing an oath on the chapel 's Gospels . The case then proceeded to a hearing held under Robert Stewart , Earl of Strathearn and High Steward of Scotland ( later King Robert II ) , at Perth , where the couple were forced under the threat of severe penalties to swear again never to renew their claim . The decision was sealed by the witnesses , including Bishop Walter , at a Perth church on 30 November 1365 .
= = = = Final years = = = =
On 13 March 1366 , Walter was commissioned by the papacy to authorise dispensation for the irregular marriage between John Stewart , Earl of Carrick ( much later King Robert III ) and Annabella Drummond .
Bishop Walter attended at least five meetings of the Scottish national parliament during his episcopate . He was present at the Scone parliament of 27 September 1367 , which discussed royal revenues and relations with the English crown . He was also present at the Scone parliament of June 1368 , and the Perth parliament of 6 March 1369 ; the latter discussed royal business , relations with the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Norway , and law and order in the Scottish Highlands . Robert Stewart , Thomas , Earl of Mar , Uilleam III , Earl of Ross , and other Highland lords , were ordered to impose greater control in their regions . Bishop Walter took part in two parliamentary committees , the first a clerical committee devoted to general business , and the second a judicial committee authorised to review earlier legal judgments in the kingdom .
The parliament 's discussions on Anglo @-@ Scottish relations preceded peace negotiations later in the year , at which Bishop Walter was one of the Scottish envoys . There was some urgency behind the matter , in view of the impending end to the five @-@ year Anglo @-@ Scottish truce agreed by King Edward III of England on 20 May 1365 . King David travelled to London , where he resided in May and June , in order to take part in the negotiations . Walter and the rest of the embassy , which included four other bishops , were in London by June 1369 , the month in which Edward agreed to a new truce . When it was ratified by the Scots at Edinburgh on 20 July , Bishop Walter was again present , as a witness .
Walter attended the Perth parliament of 18 February 1370 , and was named as one of the members of a special committee " for the deliberation concerning the consideration of common justice " . He is mentioned for the last time swearing fealty to the new king , Robert II , at his accession parliament at Scone on 27 March 1371 . Walter de Coventre must have died later in 1371 or in very early 1372 , because on 27 April 1372 , the Pope appointed Andrew Magnus to the vacant bishopric of Dunblane .
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= Darrun Hilliard =
Darrun Hilliard II ( born April 13 , 1993 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Detroit Pistons of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He attended Liberty High School in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania , where he was a two @-@ time Associated Press first @-@ team selection . As a senior in high school , he averaged 19 @.@ 7 points per game . Hilliard committed to play college basketball for the Villanova Wildcats and coach Jay Wright . He showed steady improvement every year , going from 4 @.@ 8 points per game as a freshman to 14 @.@ 3 points per game as a senior as he helped Villanova reach the NCAA Tournament in three straight seasons . As a senior , he was named to the first @-@ team All @-@ Big East and was honored as Big 5 Player of the Year .
= = Early life = =
Hilliard was born on April 13 , 1993 to Charlene Jenkins and Darrun Hilliard . His mother is a representative for an insurance company . His father played basketball at the high school level and first introduced his son to the sport when he was five years old . The younger Hilliard also played football growing up , but preferred basketball . His favorite NBA player was Allen Iverson . He used to bike to Philadelphia Eagles practices as a kid .
= = High school career = =
Hilliard attended Liberty High School in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania , where he was a two @-@ time Associated Press first @-@ team selection . Despite eating , writing , and throwing a football right handed , Hilliard shoots left @-@ handed . As a freshman , he measured 6 ' 1 . His parents split up after his freshman year , and he developed a unique bond with Liberty assistant coach Mike Bachman . As a junior , he averaged 18 points and six rebounds per game and shot 52 percent from the field . Hilliard led the Hurricanes to PIAA state semifinals , where Liberty lost to Penn Wood . In the loss to Penn Wood , Hilliard had 26 points . He was named Morning Call player of the year as a junior . In addition , he was selected to the First Team Class AAAA .
Hilliard averaged 19 @.@ 7 points per game as a senior . He was named Express @-@ Times player of the year after leading the Hurricanes to the second round of the PIAA playoffs . Hilliard scored 1 @,@ 413 points in his high school career , finishing second in Liberty history to Warren West . He committed to Villanova in November 2010 . When Hilliard informed his mother he was receiving a full scholarship to Villanova , she did not understand and was trying to figure how much she would have to pay for her son 's education . In addition to his basketball prowess , Hilliard was the quarterback on his high school football team and could throw the ball 65 yards .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Villanova coach Jay Wright considered redshirting Hilliard in his freshman season , but Wright decided against it after a rash of injuries to his players . He had 13 points in back @-@ to @-@ back games against Penn and Missouri in December 2011 . As a freshman , Hilliard averaged 4 @.@ 8 points , 2 @.@ 5 rebounds and 18 @.@ 1 minutes per game in 29 games and shot 29 @.@ 2 percent from behind the 3 @-@ point arc . During the season , he reached out to his family and friends to see if he made the right decision to come to Villanova . He said , " Freshman year was probably my toughest year of basketball " , due to difficulties in adjusting to a new coach and teammates . He described himself as a mentally unstable 17 @-@ year @-@ old .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In his sophomore season ( 2012 – 13 ) , he averaged 11 @.@ 4 points in just under 30 minutes a game . This proved to be his breakout season and he would go on to start all 34 games that year . He helped Villanova defeat a few top five teams that season . In a comeback win over # 5 Louisville on January 22 , he made a 3 @-@ point play after making a steal at halfcourt which helped spark the rally . In a 75 – 71 overtime victory over # 3 Syracuse on January 26 , 2013 , he had 25 points and six assists in 38 minutes . As a result of his play against Syracuse , Hilliard was honored as Big East Player of the Week and Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week . He also helped them beat then # 5 Georgetown on March 6 by the score of 67 – 57 . In that game , he had 14 points and three steals .
Villanova enjoyed a 20 – 14 season after a down year and reached the NCAA Tournament where they were seeded ninth and matched up with eight seed North Carolina in the first round . Hilliard had a strong showing in a 78 – 71 loss to North Carolina , scoring 18 points .
= = = Junior = = =
Hilliard improved in most offensive categories in the 2013 – 14 season , his junior year . He averaged 14 @.@ 3 points per game that season and improved his three @-@ point shooting percentage to 41 @.@ 4 percent ( up from 31 @.@ 5 percent the year before ) . He made 70 three @-@ pointers that year out of 169 attempts . Hilliard scored 20 points on 8 @-@ of @-@ 13 shooting against Marquette in a 94 – 85 victory on January 25 , 2014 . In an 82 – 79 win over Providence , he hit a crucial 3 @-@ pointer with a minute left in overtime . In a 73 – 56 win over Marquette on March 2 at the Wells Fargo Center , he established a new career high with 26 points on 7 @-@ of @-@ 11 shooting from the field .
Villanova compiled a 29 – 5 record and won the Big East regular season championship and Battle for Atlantis title despite not being ranked in the preseason . In the 2014 NCAA Tournament , Hilliard scored 16 points to help Villanova get past Milwaukee . Villanova lost to eventual national champion Connecticut in the Round of 32 , with Hilliard adding 13 points in the 77 – 65 loss . He was an honorable mention all @-@ Big East selection at the conclusion of the regular season . He shared Big East Most Improved Player award with teammate Daniel Ochefu . Hilliard joined teammate Ryan Arcidiacono on the All @-@ Big 5 Second Team .
= = = Senior = = =
Coming into the 2014 – 15 season , Hilliard was named to the Preseason Second Team All @-@ Big East . He averaged 14 @.@ 3 points , 3 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 2 @.@ 1 assists per game as a senior . Villanova was ranked in the top ten for most of the season thanks to a balanced offense . Hilliard scored 23 points on December 20 in an overtime victory over Syracuse , hitting 9 @-@ of @-@ 17 shots . He hit two free throws to give the Wildcats the first lead of the game in overtime before being kicked in the face and tested for concussion @-@ like symptoms . Against Creighton on January 25 , 2015 , he scored 24 points and made 6 @-@ of @-@ 10 three @-@ pointers in a 71 – 50 victory at home . On February 14 , in a 78 – 75 victory over Butler , Hilliard scored a career @-@ high 31 points and also set a career high with 8 three @-@ pointers made out of 13 attempts . He also hit the game @-@ winning three @-@ pointer with 1 @.@ 5 seconds to play in the game . Eight of his nine field goals in that game were three @-@ pointers , and his eight rebounds were one short of a career @-@ high . He averaged 18 @.@ 7 points during a nine @-@ game stretch that included the Butler game .
Hilliard led the Wildcats to a 33 – 3 season . His final game at Villanova was a 71 @-@ 68 upset at the hands of N.C. State in the NCAA Tournament Round of 32 , despite contributing 27 points . Hilliard finished his Villanova career with 1 @,@ 511 points , 18th highest in school history ; 400 rebounds ; and 176 steals . Hilliard was a 2014 – 15 Men 's All @-@ District II Team selection by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association . The Sporting News selected him to be a Second Team All American . Hilliard was one of three players , along with LaDontae Henton and Kris Dunn , to be named to the All Big East First Team . He was named to the First Team All @-@ District V by the National Association of Basketball Coaches , and was named Big 5 Player of the Year . After the season he was invited to the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Detroit Pistons ( 2015 – present ) = = =
Prior to the 2015 NBA draft , Hilliard signed with James Dunleavy as his agent . He was listed in the 55 @-@ 70 range among NBA Draft prospects by several media agencies . On June 25 , 2015 , Hilliard was selected 38th overall by the Detroit Pistons in the second round of the draft . Hilliard attributed the decision to a productive workout with the team . After averaging 9 @.@ 4 points per game in Orlando Summer League play , on July 20 , Hilliard signed a three @-@ year deal with the Pistons , with one year being guaranteed . Coach Stan Van Gundy praised Hilliard 's shooting prowess , despite a poor showing in the Summer League .
He broke his nose during training camp after engaging in a pickup game . The injury required surgery and he needed to wear a mask . On November 23 , he made his NBA debut in a 109 – 88 loss against the Milwaukee Bucks , recording two points and three rebounds in 12 minutes . During his rookie season , he received multiple assignments to the Grand Rapids Drive , the Pistons ' D @-@ League affiliate .
On June 30 , 2016 , Hilliard was ruled out of the 2016 NBA Summer League after he suffered a stress fracture of the lower back .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
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= Upper Pine Bottom State Park =
Upper Pine Bottom State Park is a 5 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) Pennsylvania state park in Lycoming County , Pennsylvania in the United States . The park is in Cummings Township on Pennsylvania Route 44 and is surrounded by the Tiadaghton State Forest . It is on Upper Pine Bottom Run , which gave the park its name and is a tributary of Pine Creek . Upper Pine Bottom State Park is in the Pine Creek Gorge , where the streams have cut through five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods .
The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area were the Susquehannocks , followed by the Iroquois , Lenape , and Shawnee . Upper Pine Bottom Run was the site of a furnace for pig iron in 1814 , the first sawmill was built on it in 1815 , and in 1825 an earlier bridle path across its headwaters became a turnpike . The lumber industry led to the clearcutting of the area in the 19th century . The state forest was started in 1898 and the park was formed from it in the early 1920s as a Class B public camp . The Civilian Conservation Corps had a camp on the run and improved the park in the 1930s , but it was not transferred to the Bureau of State Parks until 1962 . Though it began as a public campsite and once had a picnic pavilion , as of 2009 it is for day use only and its only facilities are a few picnic tables and a parking area .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park is one of the smallest state parks in Pennsylvania , and is maintained by staff from nearby Little Pine State Park . In addition to picnics , its chief use is as a parking area for local hunters , anglers , hikers , cross @-@ country skiers , snowmobilers , and all @-@ terrain vehicle riders . Upper Pine Bottom Run is state @-@ approved and stocked for trout fishing in season . Second @-@ growth forest now covers the region ; the surrounding state forest and park are home to a variety of flora and fauna
= = History = =
= = = Native Americans = = =
Humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10 @,@ 000 BC . The first settlers were Paleo @-@ Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools . The hunter @-@ gatherers of the Archaic period , which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC , used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts . The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi @-@ permanent villages and horticulture , between 1000 BC and 1500 AD . Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles , burial mounds , pipes , bows and arrows , and ornaments .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park is in the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . They were a matriarchal society that lived in stockaded villages of large long houses . Upper Pine Bottom Run is at the southern end of the Pine Creek Gorge , and the mountains surrounding the gorge were " occasionally inhabited " by the Susquehannocks . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes .
After this , the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois . They lived in long houses , primarily in what is now New York , and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers . The Iroquois and other tribes used the Pine Creek Path through the gorge , traveling between a path on the Genesee River in modern New York in the north , and the Great Shamokin Path along the West Branch Susquehanna River in the south . The Seneca tribe of the Iroquois believed that the Pine Creek Gorge was sacred land and never established a permanent settlement there , though they did use the path through the gorge and had seasonal hunting camps along it .
To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks , the Iroquois encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) . The valleys of Pine Creek and its tributaries in Cummings Township were used by the Iroquois and Algonkian tribes as a hunting ground . Historians believe that there may have been a Shawnee village and burial ground just to the north of Little Pine State Park on Little Pine Creek , just a few miles from what became Upper Pine Bottom State Park .
The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin . In October 1784 , the United States acquired a large tract of land , including what is now Upper Pine Bottom State Park , from the Iroquois in the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix ( this acquisition is known as the Last Purchase in Pennsylvania ) . In the years that followed , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania ; however some isolated bands of natives remained in the Pine Creek Gorge until the War of 1812 .
= = = Lumber and turnpike = = =
The land that became Cummings Township was first settled by European Americans in 1784 . Lycoming County was formed from a part of Northumberland County on April 13 , 1795 . Upper Pine Bottom Run was originally " famed for the wonderful white pine forest that clothed all the bottomlands " , and the region was covered with eastern white pine and eastern hemlock trees , which lumbermen harvested . To accommodate larger @-@ scale lumber operations and the large quantities of pine logs which these floated downstream to the West Branch Susquehanna River , the Pennsylvania General Assembly declared Pine Creek a public highway on March 16 , 1798 .
The area surrounding Upper Pine Bottom State Park has been a wilderness for much of its history . In 1806 – 1807 a bridle path was cut through the woods just west of the source of Upper Pine Bottom Run as part of a 72 @-@ mile ( 116 km ) path between Jersey Shore ( to the south , at the mouth of Pine Creek ) and Coudersport ( to the northwest , on the Allegheny River in Potter County ) . The bridle path was widened to a road to accommodate wagons in 1812 .
The new road soon brought industry to the region . The discovery of iron ore along the road led seven men to form a company to manufacture iron . In 1814 they built a furnace to produce pig iron on Upper Pine Bottom Run . It took one to two days to haul the ore to the furnace , and other supplies had to be transported 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the furnace on steep mountain roads . These costs were too high , and the furnace lost almost $ 7 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 104 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) before closing in 1817 . The ruins of the iron furnace were visible through much of the 19th century .
The first two sawmills were built on Upper Pine Bottom Run in 1815 and 1817 . In 1817 , Michael and Henry Wolf also arrived in the area from Berks County and built a sawmill near the mouth of Little Pine Creek , which is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) downstream along Pine Creek from the mouth of Upper Pine Bottom Run . The Wolfs ' sawmill and the land they cleared for farming helped establish the unincorporated village of Waterville , which became the most significant population center in Cummings Township , and is about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) southeast of Upper Pine Bottom State Park .
The Jersey Shore and Coudersport Turnpike was built along the former bridle path between 1825 and 1834 . The turnpike , which operated until 1860 , had toll booths every 5 miles ( 8 km ) and charged a horse @-@ drawn wagon $ 1 @.@ 68 to travel the entire road . A post office was established in nearby Waterville in 1849 ; the early businesses included two stores and a hotel , which still stands . Pennsylvania Route 44 , which passes through the park , still follows the course of the former path and turnpike between Haneyville ( at the western end of Upper Pine Bottom Run ) and Coudersport .
Economic development and increased settlement led the Pennsylvania General Assembly to establish Cummings Township in 1832 from land taken from parts of Mifflin and Brown Townships . The new township was named for John Cummings , who was an associate judge in the local court system at the time . Early industry in the township included lumber and quarries for flag and building stone . In 1839 Clinton County was formed from the western part of Lycoming County , with much of the eastern border of the new county formed by the turnpike .
In 1851 the Susquehanna Boom opened on the West Branch Susquehanna River at Williamsport . The log boom , a series of artificial islands with chains between them to catch logs , led to an expansion of the lumber industry and to Williamsport 's nickname , " Lumber Capital of the World " . In 1852 , the 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) upstream of the mouth of Upper Pine Bottom Run were made a public highway by the state legislature , and by 1888 the West Branch Lumber Company owned the headwaters of Upper Pine Bottom Run .
The lumber era did not last ; the old @-@ growth forests were clearcut by the early 20th century and the Pine Creek Gorge was stripped bare . Nothing was left except the discarded , dried @-@ out tree tops , which became a fire hazard , so much of the land burned and was left barren . In the spring of 1894 a fire burned in what is now Tiadaghton State Forest along Route 44 to near Haneyville . In the summer of 1908 the area around the park burned again , in a fire that stretched from Galeton to Jersey Shore . The soil was depleted of nutrients , fires baked the ground hard , and jungles of blueberries , blackberries , and mountain laurel covered the clearcut land , which became known as the " Pennsylvania Desert " . Disastrous floods swept the area periodically and much of the wildlife was wiped out .
= = = State forest and park = = =
As the timber was exhausted and the land burned , many companies simply abandoned their holdings . Conservationists like Joseph Rothrock became concerned that the forests would not regrow if they were not managed properly . They called for the state to purchase land from the lumber companies and for a change in the philosophy of forest management . In 1895 Rothrock was appointed the first commissioner of the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters , the forerunner of today 's Department of Conservation and Natural Resources . In 1897 the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed legislation which authorized the purchase of " unseated lands for forest reservations " and the first Pennsylvania state forest lands were acquired the following year .
On July 13 , 1898 , the state bought a 409 @-@ acre ( 166 ha ) tract of land in Cummings Township for $ 72 @.@ 99 ( $ 2076 in 2016 terms ) . This was the first purchase for what became Tiadaghton State Forest , which surrounds Upper Pine Bottom State Park . Most of the major purchases for it were made between 1900 and 1935 . As of 2009 , the Tiadaghton State Forest covered 146 @,@ 500 acres ( 59 @,@ 300 ha ) , chiefly in Lycoming County with small tracts in Clinton , Potter , Tioga , and Union Counties . The largest section of the state forest is in the Pine Creek valley .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park traces its existence to the early 1920s , when the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry built 31 campsites on state forest land between 1921 and 1925 . The park was originally established as " Upper Pine Bottom Class B Public Camp " and named for the stream that flows through it . Class B camps were on secondary highways and were " used primarily by hikers , hunters , fishermen , vacationists , and picknickers who desire to go far into the woods and make their stay comfortable " . Each Class B camp had a lean @-@ to shelter for camping , potable water , picnic tables , a fireplace , garbage can , and a latrine . There was no charge to use any of the camps , but stays were limited to two consecutive nights .
During the Great Depression , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) set up nine camps in Tiadaghton State Forest . The camps included two near Upper Pine Bottom State Park : CCC Camp S @-@ 82 @-@ Pa ( Waterville , also known as Haneyville ) was on Upper Pine Bottom Run about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) west of the park and operated from May 1933 to 1941 ; CCC Camp S @-@ 129 @-@ Pa ( Little Pine ) was at the site of nearby Little Pine State Park and operated from 1933 to 1937 . The CCC planted large numbers of trees in the state forest , did work in the park , and built a pavilion at the site in 1936 . Although the roof of a structure was still visible in the park in a 1959 aerial photo , as of 2009 there are no pavilions or other buildings in the park . The United States ' entry into the Second World War led to the end of the CCC and all its camps were closed by the summer of 1942 .
In 1950 the park was known as " Upper Pine Bottom State Forest Picnic Area " and was mentioned in a New York Times article on the Pine Creek Gorge . On November 11 , 1954 , the Pennsylvania Geographic Board made the picnic area name official . The Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry 's Division of State Parks became the Bureau of State Parks in 1962 and Upper Pine Bottom ( and all state parks and picnic areas ) were transferred to it from Forestry that year . In 1972 , Upper Pine Bottom was one of 10 state forest picnic areas kept by the Bureau of State Parks ( 35 were transferred to the Bureau of Forestry ) , and Forrey 's 1984 History of Pennsylvania 's State Parks referred to it as a state forest picnic area . The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( Penn DOT ) 1990 map still called it a picnic area , but Cupper 's 1993 Our Priceless Heritage : Pennsylvania 's State Parks 1893 – 1993 called it a state park , as did the Penn DOT 2002 map .
As of 2016 Upper Pine Bottom State Park is a roadside park for day use only , with a small parking lot and a few picnic tables . In addition to picnics , its chief use is as a parking area for local hunters , anglers , hikers , cross country skiers , and snowmobilers . Staff from nearby Little Pine State Park maintain Upper Pine Bottom , and it is one of the smallest state parks in Pennsylvania . Prouty Place State Park , a picnic area to the northwest in Potter County , is also 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) . Only Sand Bridge State Park , another picnic area to the south in Union County , is smaller , at 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) .
= = Geology and climate = =
Although the rock formations exposed in Upper Pine Bottom State Park and the Pine Creek Gorge are at least 300 million years old , the gorge itself formed about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , in the last ice age . Pine Creek had flowed northeasterly until then , but was dammed by rocks , soil , ice , and other debris deposited by the receding Laurentide Continental Glacier . The dammed creek formed a lake near what would later be the village of Ansonia in Shippen Township in Tioga County , and the lake 's glacial meltwater overflowed the debris dam , reversing the flow of Pine Creek . The creek flooded to the south and quickly carved a deep channel on its way to the West Branch Susquehanna River .
The land on which Upper Pine Bottom State Park sits was part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America about 300 million years ago , in the Pennsylvanian subperiod . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in the Pine Creek drainage basin : sandstone , shale , conglomerates , limestone , and coal .
The park is at an elevation of 938 feet ( 286 m ) on the Allegheny Plateau , which formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago , when the part of Gondwana that became Africa collided with what became North America , forming Pangaea . Although the gorge and its surroundings seem to be mountainous , the area is a dissected plateau . Years of erosion have cut away the soft rocks , forming the valleys , and left the hardest of the ancient rocks relatively untouched on the top of sharp ridges , giving them the appearance of " mountains " .
Five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods are present in Upper Pine Bottom State Park and Cummings Township . The youngest of these , which forms the highest points in the township , is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation , a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone , siltstone , and shale , as well as anthracite coal . Low @-@ sulfur coal was once mined at three locations within the Pine Creek watershed , and there is a coal deposit between the headwaters of Upper Pine Bottom and Lower Pine Bottom Runs . Below this is the late Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation , which is formed with grayish @-@ red shale , siltstone , sandstone , and conglomerate .
Next below these is the Mississippian Burgoon Sandstone , which is buff colored with shale , coal , and conglomerate inclusions . Below this is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation , which is made of relatively soft grayish @-@ red shale and olive @-@ gray sandstone . The lowest and oldest layer is the red shale and siltstone of the Catskill Formation , some 375 million years old . This layer is relatively soft and easily eroded , which helped to form the Pine Creek Gorge . The source of Upper Pine Bottom Run is on Mauch Chunk rock , and the stream cuts deeper as it flows east to Pine Creek . In the park Upper Pine Bottom Run has cut through layers of Burgoon sandstone and Huntley Mountain rock , and downstream of the park to its mouth the deepest parts of the valleys are made of the Catskill Formation .
The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate , with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges ( difference between the daily high and low ) of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . The mean annual precipitation for the Pine Creek watershed is 36 to 42 inches ( 914 to 1 @,@ 070 mm ) . January is the coldest month at Upper Pine Bottom State Park , July the warmest , and June the wettest . The highest recorded temperature at the park was 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) in 1988 , and the record low was − 19 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) in 1982 .
= = Ecology = =
Descriptions from early explorers and settlers give an idea of what the Pine Creek Gorge was like before it was clearcut . The forest was up to 85 percent hemlock and white pine ; hardwoods made up the rest . The Pine Creek watershed , which Upper Pine Bottom Run is part of , was home to large predators such as wolves , lynx , wolverines , panthers , fishers , bobcats and foxes ; all except the last three are locally extinct as of 2007 . The area had herds of American bison , elk and white @-@ tailed deer , and large numbers of black bears , river otters , and beavers . Rattlesnakes and insects plagued early explorers and settlers in the region .
The virgin forests cooled the land and streams , and centuries of accumulated organic matter in the forest soil caused slow percolation of rainfall into the creeks and runs so that they flowed more evenly year @-@ round . Pine Creek and its tributaries were home to large numbers of fish , including trout , but dams downstream on the Susquehanna River have eliminated the shad and eels once found here by blocking their migrations . Habitat for land animals was destroyed by the clearcutting of forests , but there was also a great deal of hunting , with bounties paid for large predators .
Upper Pine Bottom Run 's virgin white pines were all clearcut , but in 1925 the Department of Forests and Waters reported " thrifty young growth has now taken in its place " . In the 1920s chestnut blight killed almost all the American chestnut trees in the Tiadaghton State Forest , and oak trees suffered from oak leaf tier moths in the 1950s and oak leaf roller moths in 1967 . Gypsy moths defoliated the state forest between 1978 and 1982 . As of 2009 the surrounding state forest is " dominated by mixed oak forests " , along with hardwoods such as ash , beech , birch , cherry , and maple , as well as hemlock and pine . The Pine Creek Gorge is home to over 225 species of wildflowers , plants and trees , 40 species of mammals , 245 species of birds , and 26 species of fish . Common animals include deer , squirrels , bear , eagles , wild turkey , and ravens .
= = Recreation = =
As of 2009 recreational opportunities within the 5 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) Upper Pine Bottom State Park were limited to picknicking and fishing . Although the park was established in the early 1920s as a campground with a latrine , the park today has no campsites or sanitary facilities . Upper Pine Bottom Run was listed in a guide for trout and bass fishing in 1885 , and in 1925 the Department of Forests and Waters said there was good fishing and hunting in the camp . Brown trout over 20 inches ( 51 cm ) long were reported in the stream in 1994 . In 2009 , all of Upper Pine Bottom Run has been designated as approved trout waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission , which means that it is stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park also serves as a parking area and access point for the surrounding state forest , where recreational opportunities include hiking and hunting . The most common game animals are black bear , ruffed grouse , white @-@ tailed deer , and wild turkey . The state forest trails are also open to mountain biking and horseback riding , and in winter are used for cross @-@ country skiing and snowmobiling . Just north of the park is the 19 @-@ mile ( 31 km ) Haneyville ATV Trail system for all @-@ terrain vehicles . The parking area for the trail is on PA 44 at the site of the former CCC camp S @-@ 82 @-@ Pa , and the history of the stream is reflected in the names of three of the trails in the system : Furnace Trail ( for the iron furnace ) , CCC Trail , and Plantation Loop ( for the plantations of trees planted by the CCC ) .
= = Nearby state parks = =
The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Upper Pine Bottom State Park :
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= SpongeBob 's Last Stand =
" SpongeBob 's Last Stand " is the eighth episode of the seventh season and the 134th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on April 22 , 2010 , in celebration of Earth Day .
The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In this episode , SpongeBob and Patrick protest the construction of a highway that would destroy Jellyfish Fields .
The episode was written by Aaron Springer , Steven Banks , and Derek Iversen , and was directed by Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi . Upon release , the episode met positive reviews . On March 16 , 2010 , the episode became available on DVD .
Similar to that of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , the episode was originally planned to be the final episode of the series , but Nickelodeon decided to keep it on afterwards .
= = Plot summary = =
Early one day , SpongeBob and Patrick become the first visitors to a new section of Jellyfish Fields . As they wander in the area , they discover a sign that states that a " super highway " will be built through Jellyfish Fields . Believing that the highway will pollute and ultimately destroy Jellyfish Fields , SpongeBob resolves to prevent the highway 's creation .
SpongeBob asks Mr. Krabs for assistance , but he supports the highway , as it can bring more customers to the Krusty Krab . SpongeBob then shows Mr. Krabs the highway 's blueprint , which shows that the highway with concrete columns will run over the Krusty Krab and end directly at the Chum Bucket , revealing that Plankton is responsible for the highway 's development . Mr. Krabs thus decides to support SpongeBob . They both go to the Chum Bucket and ask Plankton to not develop the highway , but he states that , already , the whole rest of the town has unanimously voted to build the highway .
Refusing to give up , SpongeBob and Patrick peacefully petition to stop the highway . Nobody listens to them , however , and they are quickly exiled for their actions . Shortly after arriving there , they see a parade meant to commemorate the groundbreaking of the highway . It is rapidly built and , as SpongeBob predicted , it turns Jellyfish Fields into a wasteland .
A few days later , the Krusty Krab 's business quickly dwindles due to the highway . Believing that no one will come to the Krusty Krab , Mr. Krabs decides to finally give Plankton the Krabby Patty formula . Mere seconds before he does , however , the jellyfish from Jellyfish Fields invade Bikini Bottom and start attacking civilians . Seeing this as an opportunity to demolish the highway , SpongeBob makes an appeal to the people , who agree to destroy it . Everybody in Bikini Bottom turns against Plankton and destroys the pavement and the columns of the highway ( Plankton , who thinks his highway is unremovable , tries to save it but gets run over ) . Jellyfish Fields is restored instantly to its natural state .
= = Production = =
" SpongeBob 's Last Stand " was written by Aaron Springer , Steven Banks , and Derek Iversen . Springer also served as storyboard director . Directed by Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi , the episode was part of Nickelodeon 's 2010 Earth Day celebration . The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on April 22 , 2010 , following a two @-@ hour marathon of nature @-@ themed SpongeBob episodes . A tie @-@ in game to the episode was released online prior to its television airing . According to Nickelodeon , " [ kids will ] learn about the environment through different levels at different Bikini Bottom locales . "
Nickelodeon officially announced the episode on a press release on April 5 , 2010 . According to the network , " SpongeBob and Patrick learn the ' Shelly Super Highway ' is coming to Bikini Bottom - right through Jellyfish Fields ! They must find a way to galvanize their neighbors , or it could be the end for Jellyfish Fields forever . " It was promoted as SpongeBob 's campaign to save the jellyfish . Writer Banks told that the episode never set out to teach environmental lessons . He said " When you entertain someone and make it funny , sometimes you can get a message across [ ... ] Not that we 're out here to send messages everywhere . " The episode featured two musical numbers , including " Give Jellyfish Fields a Chance " , a salute to the 1960s protest songs with similarities to John Lennon 's " Give Peace a Chance " . Banks , on the song , said that " [ It is a ] sort of Bob Dylan meets John Lennon . "
On March 16 , 2010 , prior to the episode 's television airing , the episode was released on the DVD compilation of the same name in the United States and Canada , on July 18 , 2011 in region 2 , and on June 6 , 2011 in region 4 . The DVD features six other episodes including " Pet or Pests " , " Komputer Overload " , " Gullible Pants " , " Overbooked " , " No Hat for Pat " , and " Toy Store of Doom " . It was also released on the series ' season seven DVD compilation , alongside 25 other episodes .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , Nickelodeon averaged 2 @.@ 1 million total viewers . SpongeBob SquarePants was ranked as the number @-@ one program on broadcast and basic cable in April and scored the number @-@ one telecast , " SpongeBob 's Last Stand " , with kids 2 @-@ 11 for the month .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . Paul Mavis of DVD Talk said " [ the episode have ] a nicely worked @-@ out story and strong , integrated gags . He added " it 's a particularly well @-@ crafted entry . " C. S. Strowbridge of The Numbers said " There are a number of funny gags on this double @-@ length short , but it feels padded . It 's also heavy @-@ handed . I do like that they have a message to go with the jokes , but it would have been more effective if it were more subtle . " Josh Rode of DVD Verdict described the episode as " decent " . Shannon Gosney of The Mommy @-@ Files said " there were many parts where my boys just burst out laughing . Even I found myself laughing at times . "
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= Texas Giant =
The New Texas Giant is a steel roller coaster located at Six Flags Over Texas in Arlington , Texas . The ride opened in 2011 after an 18 @-@ month refurbishment of the former Texas Giant wooden roller coaster . Manufactured by Rocky Mountain Construction , the New Texas Giant stands 153 ft ( 47 m ) tall and features a 79 ° drop stretching 147 ft ( 45 m ) . The ride also features multiple turns banked up to 115 ° and over 4 @,@ 506 feet ( 1 @,@ 373 m ) of track .
The original Texas Giant was manufactured by Dinn Corporation and designed by Curtis D. Summers . For more than a decade after its opening in 1990 , the Texas Giant remained popular , ranking in the Golden Ticket Awards as the number one wooden roller coaster in 1998 and 1999 . However , throughout the 2000s the ride 's popularity declined as a result of the ride becoming rougher . Despite maintenance attempts by the park , Six Flags Over Texas announced the ride 's closure in 2009 . Much of the original wooden structure was kept , with the track being replaced with steel .
After the ride 's relaunch in 2011 as the New Texas Giant , its popularity returned , winning Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride of 2011 and ranking highly in industry polls . On July 19 , 2013 , a woman died after falling from the ride , resulting in modifications and additions to the ride 's restraint system .
= = History = =
The Texas Giant was originally constructed by Dinn Corporation , with Curtis D. Summers as the designer . The ride was made up of over 900 @,@ 000 board feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m3 ) of wood . The trains were manufactured by Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters . The Texas Giant officially opened on March 17 , 1990 . At opening , the ride was the world 's tallest wooden roller coaster , standing 143 feet ( 44 m ) high .
Following the ride 's opening it had several modifications and renovations , which included reprofiling parts of the ride , shortening the seven @-@ car trains to six @-@ car trains , and performing maintenance on the wooden track . Six Flags Over Texas performed over 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) of trackwork on the ride in the 2008 – 2009 offseason , with the ultimate aim of improving the ride 's smoothness . Although the maintenance did improve the ride , park officials needed a more permanent solution . Initial speculation indicated the ride would be removed entirely from the park ; however , Six Flags Over Texas denied any intention or consideration to do so . In March 2009 , the park announced the closure of Texas Giant prior to a $ 10 million renovation . Following Fright Fest for that year , the ride closed on November 1 , 2009 .
Renovations began almost immediately and involved the removal of all of the wooden track and modifications to some of the support structure . On March 3 , 2010 , Six Flags Over Texas and Rocky Mountain Construction ( RMC ) unveiled the steel I @-@ Box track which would be used on the refurbished ride . The track was developed over the course of three years by RMC owner Fred Grubb , and Ride Centerline , LLC engineers Alan Schilke and Dody Bachtar . The steel track was designed to be a replacement for any existing wooden track structure , with the rail shape , approximate weight , and dimensions remaining the same . Schilke designed the layout for the New Texas Giant , giving specifications to Grubb for manufacturing at RMC 's Idaho plant . There , two @-@ dimensional plates of steel were machine @-@ welded to form the three @-@ dimensional track parts . The redevelopment saw much of the track get reprofiled ; the lift hill was increased by 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , the first drop was steepened to 79 degrees , and several overbanked turns ( ranging from 90 ° to 115 ° ) were added . The renovated ride , dubbed the New Texas Giant , reopened on April 4 , 2011 .
= = = 2013 accident = = =
On July 19 , 2013 , a 52 @-@ year @-@ old woman fell to her death while riding the Texas Giant . A park official released a statement saying , " We are committed to determining the cause of this tragic accident and will utilize every resource throughout this process ... When we have new information to provide , we will do so . Our thoughts , prayers and full support remain with the family . " The ride was closed indefinitely pending further investigation . On September 10 , 2013 , Six Flags Over Texas released a statement stating that the park has finished its investigation on the recent incident , with several parties ruling out mechanical failure . The New Texas Giant reopened on September 14 , 2013 , with all three trains featuring re @-@ designed restraint bar pads and seat belts . The incident saw Six Flags introduce seat belts as secondary restraints on other roller coasters within their chain .
= = Characteristics = =
As the name suggests , New Texas Giant is located within the Texas section of Six Flags Over Texas . It was Rocky Mountain Construction 's first installation of I @-@ Box track . New Texas Giant operates with three trains manufactured by Gerstlauer . The trains are themed to 1961 Cadillac Devilles . Each train is made up of six cars , each seating riders in two rows of two . Riders are restrained through the use of an individual hydraulic lap bar and a seat belt .
The table below compares the original Texas Giant , with the updated New Texas Giant ride . The original ride by Dinn Corporation was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) smaller than its Rocky Mountain Construction counterpart . As a result , the refurbished ride features a steeper and longer first drop , and thus achieves a faster speed . Additionally , a 540 ° helix after the mid @-@ course brake run was converted into a 180 ° turnaround resulting in the track length of the ride being shortened by approximately 400 feet ( 120 m ) .
= = Ride experience = =
The New Texas Giant begins with a right turn out of the station . This leads directly to a 153 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 47 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , riders drop 147 feet ( 45 m ) at an angle of 78 ° . A double up leads into a 90 ° overbanked turn , a dip and a 95 ° overbanked turn . Another dip and rise leads the train into a 115 ° overbanked turn . The exit from the overbanked turn leads into a small air @-@ time hill , which delivers the greatest negative g @-@ force on the ride , before ascending up into the mid @-@ course brake run . The train drops from the brake run and continues through a series of low @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground air @-@ time hills and directional changes . This runs through three separate tunnels , finishing with the final brake run and short path back to the station .
= = Reception = =
The original Texas Giant was well received , though its popularity had declined towards the end of its operation . Following its 2010 renovation , the ride 's popularity returned .
In Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards Texas Giant ranked as the number one wooden roller coaster for 1998 and 1999 . Its ranking slowly declined to position 32 in 2009 , its final year of operation as a wooden roller coaster . Following its 2010 renovation , the New Texas Giant again ranked highly in the Golden Ticket Awards ( this time amongst steel roller coasters ) , achieving ranks of 6 and 5 in 2011 and 2012 , respectively . The ride also won a Golden Ticket Award for being the Best New Ride of 2011 .
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= Rings of Neptune =
The rings of Neptune consist primarily of five principal rings and were first discovered ( as " arcs " ) in 1984 in Chile by Patrice Bouchet , Reinhold Häfner and Jean Manfroid at La Silla Observatory ( ESO ) during an observing program proposed by André Brahic and Bruno Sicardy from Paris Observatory , and at Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory by F. Vilas and L.-R. Elicer for a program led by William Hubbard . They were eventually imaged in 1989 by the Voyager 2 spacecraft . At their densest , they are comparable to the less dense portions of Saturn 's main rings such as the C ring and the Cassini Division , but much of Neptune 's ring system is quite tenuous , faint and dusty , more closely resembling the rings of Jupiter . Neptune 's rings are named after astronomers who contributed important work on the planet : Galle , Le Verrier , Lassell , Arago , and Adams . Neptune also has a faint unnamed ring coincident with the orbit of the moon Galatea . Three other moons orbit between the rings : Naiad , Thalassa and Despina .
The rings of Neptune are made of extremely dark material , likely organic compounds processed by radiation , similar to that found in the rings of Uranus . The proportion of dust in the rings ( between 20 % and 70 % ) is high , while their optical depth is low to moderate , at less than 0 @.@ 1 . Uniquely , the Adams ring includes five distinct arcs , named Fraternité , Égalité 1 and 2 , Liberté , and Courage . The arcs occupy a narrow range of orbital longitudes and are remarkably stable , having changed only slightly since their initial detection in 1980 . How the arcs are stabilized is still under debate . However , their stability is probably related to the resonant interaction between the Adams ring and its inner shepherd moon , Galatea .
= = Discovery and observations = =
The first mention of rings around Neptune dates back to 1846 when William Lassell , the discoverer of Neptune 's largest moon Triton , thought he had seen a ring around the planet . However , his claim was never confirmed and it is likely that it was an observational artifact . The first reliable detection of a ring was made in 1968 by stellar occultation , although that result would go unnoticed until 1977 when the rings of Uranus were discovered . Soon after the Uranus discovery , a team from Villanova University led by Harold J. Reitsema began searching for rings around Neptune . On 24 May 1981 , they detected a dip in a star 's brightness during one occultation ; however , the manner in which the star dimmed did not suggest a ring . Later , after the Voyager fly @-@ by , it was found that the occultation was due to the small Neptunian moon Larissa , a highly unusual event .
In the 1980s , significant occultations were much rarer for Neptune than for Uranus , which lay near the Milky Way at the time and was thus moving against a denser field of stars . Neptune 's next occultation , on 12 September 1983 , resulted in a possible detection of a ring . However , ground @-@ based results were inconclusive . Over the next six years , approximately 50 other occultations were observed with only about one @-@ third of them yielding positive results . Something ( probably incomplete arcs ) definitely existed around Neptune , but the features of the ring system remained a mystery . The Voyager 2 spacecraft made the definitive discovery of the Neptunian rings during its fly @-@ by of Neptune in 1989 , passing by as close as 4 @,@ 950 km ( 3 @,@ 080 mi ) above the planet 's atmosphere on 25 August . It confirmed that occasional occultation events observed before were indeed caused by the arcs within the Adams ring ( see below ) . After the Voyager fly @-@ by the previous terrestrial occultation observations were reanalyzed yielding features of the ring 's arcs as they were in 1980s , which matched those found by Voyager almost perfectly .
Since Voyager 's fly @-@ by , the brightest rings ( Adams and Le Verrier ) have been imaged with the Hubble Space Telescope and Earth @-@ based telescopes , owing to advances in resolution and light @-@ gathering power . They are visible , slightly above background noise levels , at methane @-@ absorbed wavelengths in which the glare from Neptune is significantly reduced . The fainter rings are still far below the visibility threshold .
= = General properties = =
Neptune possesses five distinct rings named , in order of increasing distance from the planet , Galle , Le Verrier , Lassell , Arago and Adams . In addition to these well @-@ defined rings , Neptune may also possess an extremely faint sheet of material stretching inward from the Le Verrier to the Galle ring , and possibly farther in toward the planet . Three of the Neptunian rings are narrow , with widths of about 100 km or less ; in contrast , the Galle and Lassell rings are broad — their widths are between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 km . The Adams ring consists of five bright arcs embedded in a fainter continuous ring . Proceeding counterclockwise , the arcs are : Fraternité , Égalité 1 and 2 , Liberté , and Courage . The first three names come from " liberty , equality , fraternity " , the motto of the French Revolution and Republic . The terminology was suggested by their original discoverers , who had found them during stellar occultations in 1984 and 1985 . Four small Neptunian moons have orbits inside the ring system : Naiad and Thalassa orbit in the gap between the Galle and Le Verrier rings ; Despina is just inward of the Le Verrier ring ; and Galatea lies slightly inward of the Adams ring , embedded in an unnamed faint , narrow ringlet .
The Neptunian rings contain a large quantity of micrometer @-@ sized dust : the dust fraction by cross @-@ section area is between 20 % and 70 % . In this respect they are similar to the rings of Jupiter , in which the dust fraction is 50 % – 100 % , and are very different from the rings of Saturn and Uranus , which contain little dust ( less than 0 @.@ 1 % ) . The particles in Neptune 's rings are made from a dark material ; probably a mixture of ice with radiation @-@ processed organics . The rings are reddish in color , and their geometrical ( 0 @.@ 05 ) and Bond ( 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 02 ) albedos are similar to those of the Uranian rings ' particles and the inner Neptunian moons . The rings are generally optically thin ( transparent ) ; their normal optical depths do not exceed 0 @.@ 1 . As a whole , the Neptunian rings resemble those of Jupiter ; both systems consist of faint , narrow , dusty ringlets and even fainter broad dusty rings .
The rings of Neptune , like those of Uranus , are thought to be relatively young ; their age is probably significantly less than that of the Solar System . Also , like those of Uranus , Neptune 's rings probably resulted from the collisional fragmentation of onetime inner moons . Such events create moonlet belts , which act as the sources of dust for the rings . In this respect the rings of Neptune are similar to faint dusty bands observed by Voyager 2 between the main rings of Uranus .
= = Inner rings = =
The innermost ring of Neptune is called the Galle ring after Johann Gottfried Galle , the first person to see Neptune through a telescope ( 1846 ) . It is about 2 @,@ 000 km wide and orbits 41 @,@ 000 – 43 @,@ 000 km from the planet . It is a faint ring with an average normal optical depth of around 10 − 4 , and with an equivalent depth of 0 @.@ 15 km . The fraction of dust in this ring is estimated from 40 % to 70 % .
The next ring is named the Le Verrier ring after Urbain Le Verrier , who predicted Neptune 's position in 1846 . With an orbital radius of about 53 @,@ 200 km , it is narrow , with a width of about 113 km . Its normal optical depth is 0 @.@ 0062 ± 0 @.@ 0015 , which corresponds to an equivalent depth of 0 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 2 km . The dust fraction in the Le Verrier ring ranges from 40 % to 70 % . The small moon Despina , which orbits just inside of it at 52 @,@ 526 km , may play a role in the ring 's confinement by acting as a shepherd .
The Lassell ring , also known as the plateau , is the broadest ring in the Neptunian system . It is the namesake of William Lassell , the English astronomer who discovered Neptune 's largest moon , Triton . This ring is a faint sheet of material occupying the space between the Le Verrier ring at about 53 @,@ 200 km and the Arago ring at 57 @,@ 200 km . Its average normal optical depth is around 10 − 4 , which corresponds to an equivalent depth of 0 @.@ 4 km . The ring 's dust fraction is in the range from 20 % to 40 % .
There is a small peak of brightness near the outer edge of the Lassell ring , located at 57 @,@ 200 km from Neptune and less than 100 km wide , which some planetary scientists call the Arago ring after François Arago , a French mathematician , physicist , astronomer and politician . However , many publications do not mention the Arago ring at all .
= = Adams ring = =
The outer Adams ring , with an orbital radius of about 63 @,@ 930 km , is the best studied of Neptune 's rings . It is named after John Couch Adams , who predicted the position of Neptune independently of Le Verrier . This ring is narrow , slightly eccentric and inclined , with total width of about 35 km ( 15 – 50 km ) , and its normal optical depth is around 0 @.@ 011 ± 0 @.@ 003 outside the arcs , which corresponds to the equivalent depth of about 0 @.@ 4 km . The fraction of dust in this ring is from 20 % to 40 % — lower than in other narrow rings . Neptune 's small moon Galatea , which orbits just inside of the Adams ring at 61 @,@ 953 km , acts like a shepherd , keeping ring particles inside a narrow range of orbital radii through a 42 : 43 outer Lindblad resonance . Galatea 's gravitational influence creates 42 radial wiggles in the Adams ring with an amplitude of about 30 km , which have been used to infer Galatea 's mass .
= = = Arcs = = =
The brightest parts of the Adams ring , the ring arcs , were the first elements of Neptune 's ring system to be discovered . The arcs are discrete regions within the ring in which the particles that it comprises are mysteriously clustered together . The Adams ring is known to comprise five short arcs , which occupy a relatively narrow range of longitudes from 247 ° to 294 ° . In 1986 they were located between longitudes of :
247 – 257 ° ( Fraternité ) ,
261 – 264 ° ( Égalité 1 ) ,
265 – 266 ° ( Égalité 2 ) ,
276 – 280 ° ( Liberté ) ,
284 @.@ 5 – 285 @.@ 5 ° ( Courage ) .
The brightest and longest arc was Fraternité ; the faintest was Courage . The normal optical depths of the arcs are estimated to lie in the range 0 @.@ 03 – 0 @.@ 09 ( 0 @.@ 034 ± 0 @.@ 005 for the leading edge of Liberté arc as measured by stellar occultation ) ; the radial widths are approximately the same as those of the continuous ring — about 30 km . The equivalent depths of arcs vary in the range 1 @.@ 25 – 2 @.@ 15 km ( 0 @.@ 77 ± 0 @.@ 13 km for the leading edge of Liberté arc ) . The fraction of dust in the arcs is from 40 % to 70 % . The arcs in the Adams ring are somewhat similar to the arc in Saturn 's G ring .
The highest resolution Voyager 2 images revealed a pronounced clumpiness in the arcs , with a typical separation between visible clumps of 0 @.@ 1 ° to 0 @.@ 2 ° , which corresponds to 100 – 200 km along the ring . Because the clumps were not resolved , they may or may not include larger bodies , but are certainly associated with concentrations of microscopic dust as evidenced by their enhanced brightness when backlit by the Sun .
The arcs are quite stable structures . They were detected by ground @-@ based stellar occultations in the 1980s , by Voyager 2 in 1989 and by Hubble Space Telescope and ground @-@ based telescopes in 1997 – 2005 and remained at approximately the same orbital longitudes . However some changes have been noticed . The overall brightness of arcs decreased since 1986 . The Courage arc jumped forward by 8 ° to 294 ° ( it probably jumped over to the next stable co @-@ rotation resonance position ) while the Liberté arc had almost disappeared by 2003 . The Fraternité and Égalité ( 1 and 2 ) arcs have demonstrated irregular variations in their relative brightness . Their observed dynamics is probably related to the exchange of dust between them . Courage , a very faint arc found during the Voyager flyby , was seen to flare in brightness in 1998 ; it was back to its usual dimness by June 2005 . Visible light observations show that the total amount of material in the arcs has remained approximately constant , but they are dimmer in the infrared light wavelengths where previous observations were taken .
= = = Confinement = = =
The arcs in the Adams ring remain unexplained . Their existence is a puzzle because basic orbital dynamics imply that they should spread out into a uniform ring over a matter of years . Several theories about the arcs ' confinement have been suggested , the most widely publicized of which holds that Galatea confines the arcs via its 42 : 43 co @-@ rotational inclination resonance ( CIR ) . The resonance creates 84 stable sites along the ring 's orbit , each 4 ° long , with arcs residing in the adjacent sites . However measurements of the rings ' mean motion with Hubble and Keck telescopes in 1998 led to the conclusion that the rings are not in CIR with Galatea .
A later model suggested that confinement resulted from a co @-@ rotational eccentricity resonance ( CER ) . The model takes into account the finite mass of the Adams ring , which is necessary to move the resonance closer to the ring . A byproduct of this theory is a mass estimate for the Adams ring — about 0 @.@ 002 of the mass of Galatea . A third theory proposed in 1986 requires an additional moon orbiting inside the ring ; the arcs in this case are trapped in its stable Lagrangian points . However Voyager 2 's observations placed strict constraints on the size and mass of any undiscovered moons , making such a theory unlikely . Some other more complicated theories hold that a number of moonlets are trapped in co @-@ rotational resonances with Galatea , providing confinement of the arcs and simultaneously serving as sources of the dust .
= = Exploration = =
The rings were investigated in detail during the Voyager 2 spacecraft 's flyby of Neptune in August 1989 . They were studied with optical imaging , and through observations of occultations in ultraviolet and visible light . The spaceprobe observed the rings in different geometries relative to the Sun , producing images of back @-@ scattered , forward @-@ scattered and side @-@ scattered light . Analysis of these images allowed derivation of the phase function ( dependence of the ring 's reflectivity on the angle between the observer and Sun ) , and geometrical and Bond albedo of ring particles . Analysis of Voyager 's images also led to discovery of six inner moons of Neptune , including the Adams ring shepherd Galatea .
= = Properties = =
* A question mark means that the parameter is not known .
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= Now You Know ( Desperate Housewives ) =
" Now You Know " is the fourth season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama series , Desperate Housewives , and the 71st episode overall . The episode premiered on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on September 30 , 2007 . It was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw .
In the episode , Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) learns that she is expecting a child while Bree ( Marcia Cross ) continues to fake her own pregnancy . Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) begins an affair with her ex @-@ husband , Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) and Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) tries to conceal her cancer from her friends and children . The episode also introduces Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) , Susan 's old friend who returns to the neighborhood after being away for 12 years .
" Now You Know " drew over 19 million viewers , becoming the fourth most watched program of the week across all networks . Nevertheless , it was the least watched Desperate Housewives season premiere at the time . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who agreed that the episode showed significant improvement over the show 's third season . Critics also praised the addition of Delany to the cast . ABC and the show 's producers received viewer backlash due to an alleged slur against Filipino doctors included in the episode .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the residents living in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane . In previous episodes , Bree Hodge ( Marcia Cross ) sends her pregnant teenage daughter , Danielle ( Joy Lauren ) , to a convent and fakes her own pregnancy . Bree plans to raise Danielle 's child as her own . Lynette Scavo ( Felicity Huffman ) is diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma . Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) marry while Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) breaks up with Edie Britt ( Nicollette Sheridan ) , leading her to seemingly hang herself . Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) marries Mayor Victor Lang ( John Slattery ) ; however , after overhearing him confess that he only married her to secure the Latino vote for his potential candidacy in the election for governor , she seeks comfort with Carlos , her ex @-@ husband .
= = = Episode = = =
Edie 's suicide attempt is revealed to be a ploy to manipulate Carlos into staying in their relationship ; however , when Carlos does not show up in time to rescue her , she almost dies . He brings her to the hospital and is forced to call off plans to run away with Gabrielle .
One month later , former Wisteria Lane resident Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) moves back to the neighborhood after twelve years of absence with her husband , Adam ( Nathan Fillion ) , and teenage daughter , Dylan ( Lyndsy Fonseca ) . Katherine had known Susan before moving away under mysterious circumstances . Susan 's daughter , Julie ( Andrea Bowen ) , is puzzled to learn that Dylan has no recollection of their childhood friendship or of her life on Wisteria Lane . Later , in a cryptic conversation , Adam asks Katherine if they made a mistake in moving back , and Katherine reminds him that they did not have a choice .
Lynette and her husband , Tom ( Doug Savant ) , have been keeping her cancer a secret from their children and friends . She wears a wig to hide her baldness from the chemotherapy . Muriel ( Julia Campbell ) , an uptight PTA mother , nags Lynette to organize a school event , forcing Lynette to reveal her illness to everyone . After recovering from her suicide attempt , Edie discovers that Carlos has $ 10 million in an offshore bank account . She promises he can trust her with the secret , just as she can trust him not to break her heart . Meanwhile , Victor confronts Gabrielle about her unwillingness to sell her house and commit to their marriage . Dissatisfied with their relationships , Carlos and Gabrielle reignite an affair .
Bree and her husband , Orson ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , find it increasingly difficult to stage her fake pregnancy . Their hoax is almost revealed at a neighborhood barbecue when a fork stabs her pregnancy stomach pads . Orson suggests coming clean to avoid the humiliation if their lies were to be discovered , but Bree tells him that this child is her second chance at successfully raising a child . Meanwhile , Susan worries that Mike is dissatisfied with their marriage , especially after Adam , her new gynecologist , reveals that she may be entering menopause . However , Adam later informs Susan that his earlier assessment was a mistake and that she is pregnant .
= = Production = =
" Now You Know " was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . The episode featured the debut of Dana Delany as Katherine Mayfair , a former Wisteria Lane resident who moves back to the neighborhood . Cherry describes the character as " a woman who was clearly different in the past ... an alpha female who goes up against all @-@ out women , especially Bree . " Cherry developed Katherine with the intention of making her " a character everyone loves to hate , " citing J. R. Ewing ( Larry Hagman ) from Dallas and Amanda Woodward ( Heather Locklear ) from Melrose Place as inspirations . Cherry ensured that character would have " a comedic point of view , " unlike the Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) character from the series ' second season , stating : " In the second season we went to the mystery that was just kind of dark and stopped the action . [ This time ] we 're using humor , drama , pathos , everything [ the Mayfairs ] have to offer . "
Delany auditioned for the role of Bree for the series ' pilot episode in 2004 . Cherry offered her the role three times , but she rejected it , and Marcia Cross was hired soon after . Delany turned down the role because she believed the Bree character was too similar to her character on Pasadena . Cherry acknowledged that while Delany captured the slyness he had originally intended for the character , Cross ultimately became the better choice : " Marcia , who will be the first to tell you , ' I 'm not funny , I never get the joke , ' her Bree was kind of oblivious to her own Breeness . Interestingly enough , when we went forward with the show , it became a much funnier character than I envisioned . " While developing the Katherine character , Cherry immediately offered the role to Delany . " That 's unusual in Hollywood , " Delany commented . " Usually when you say ' no , ' they hold it against you for the rest of your career . I 've experienced that . "
Cherry offered Nathan Fillion the role of Katherine 's second husband , Adam . Fillion was asked to choose what type of doctor his character would be . He recalled , " I said I 'd be a gynecologist so I could interact with all the women . " Known mostly for his work in the sci @-@ fi genre , Fillion considered his role on Desperate Housewives a return to his roots , as he had acted on the soap opera One Life to Live earlier in his career . Tuc Watkins auditioned for the role and was cast as Bob Hunter on the series a few weeks later . Lyndsy Fonseca joined the cast as Katherine 's daughter , Dylan . Fonseca stated that her character 's mother keeps Dylan " on a rigorous schedule and a short leash . Almost like a dog . "
The episode continued Lynette 's cancer storyline , which Cherry intended to be both emotional and comical . He notes , " we established from very early on that she 's suffering from non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma , so we never once let the audience think she 's going to die . It 's more about examining how your friends and family react to you when you 're sick . " " We don 't want to do some ridiculous she @-@ might @-@ die thing . That 's not our point in dealing with the disease . It was mostly to see what being sick does to you and the people around you . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards = = =
Marcia Cross submitted this episode for consideration of her work for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards . She was placed in the Top 10 , but did not garner a nomination .
= = = Viewership and ratings = = =
According to ABC , " Now You Know " was watched by 19 @.@ 32 million viewers . It held a 12 @.@ 2 rating / 18 share , the night 's best rating across all networks , and placed as the fourth most @-@ watched program of the week , behind CSI on CBS , and Dancing with the Stars and Grey 's Anatomy on ABC . " Now You Know " was the least @-@ watched season premiere of Desperate Housewives at the time , drawing about five million fewer viewers than the third season premiere a year earlier , a 23 percent decrease in viewership . According to The New York Times , viewership was down due to an increase in DVR usage .
= = = Critical = = =
Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack praised the Bree storyline , calling its scenes the best of the episode . He was critical of the Lynette storyline and highlighted its implausibility , calling it " a cop @-@ out and just an excuse for drama . " However , he appreciated the scene in which Lynette reveals her cancer to her friends . Stack enjoyed the addition of the Mayfair family , stating that although he was not a fan of Delany 's acting , " seems perfect for this role and looks to be a choice adversary for Bree . " He also praised the set @-@ up for their mystery storyline . Stack was critical of the Edie character , opining : " She used to be funny and sexy , but now she 's just a big loon . " He dismissed Susan 's storyline as " lame " and deemed the character " obnoxious . " He also noted the significant absence of the Gabrielle character . Robert Bianco of USA Today declared that the show was " back in fine form . " He called the episode amusing , opining that the episode " launched a plethora of promising stories while introducing welcome new residents Dana Delany and Nathan Fillion . " TV Guide 's Matt Roush enjoyed the episode , complimenting the addition of the new cast members . Regarding the Katherine character , he wrote , " while she 's obviously harboring a dark secret , at least there 's no one trapped in the basement , " referencing the Betty Applewhite storyline from the second season . He identified the Susan and Mike storyline as problematic , as " She 's so annoying , and he 's so boring . " Roush also noted that Felicity Huffman was " making the most of her cancer storyline . "
= = = Filipino controversy = = =
Following the episode 's broadcast , the show 's producers and ABC were criticized for including an alleged racial slur in the episode . In the scene in which the Susan character is informed she may be entering menopause , she replies : " OK , before we go any further , can I check these diplomas ? Just to make sure they aren 't , like , from some med school in the Philippines ? " Viewers called ABC to complain and an online petition had gathered 30 @,@ 000 signatures by October 3 , 2007 , three days after the episode 's original broadcast . Several politicians and medical professionals of Filipino descent , including Health Secretary Francisco Duque III on Manila , condemned ABC for airing the line . On October 4 , ABC announced that the episode had been removed from online platforms in order for the line to be removed ; the line was also removed from future broadcasts and DVD productions of the episode . Nevertheless , network boycotts and other forms of protest continued .
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= Wadsworth Jarrell =
Wadsworth Aikens Jarrell is an African @-@ American painter , sculptor and printmaker . Born in Albany , Georgia , he moved to Chicago , Illinois , where he attended the Art Institute of Chicago . After graduation , he became heavily involved in the local art scene and through his early work he explored the working life of blacks in Chicago and found influence in the sights and sounds of jazz music . In the late 1960s he opened WJ Studio and Gallery , where he , along with his wife , Jae , hosted regional artists and musicians .
Mid @-@ 1960s Chicago saw a rise in racial violence leading to the examination of race relations and black empowerment by local artists . Jarrell became involved in the Organization of Black American Culture , a group that would serve as a launching pad for the era 's black art movement . In 1967 , OBAC artists created the Wall of Respect , a mural in Chicago that depicted African American heroes and is credited with triggering the political mural movement in Chicago and beyond . In 1969 , Jarrell co @-@ founded AFRICOBRA : African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists . AFRICOBRA would become internationally acclaimed for their politically themed art and use of " coolade colors " in their paintings .
Jarrell 's career took him to Africa in 1977 , where he found inspiration in the Senufo people of Ivory Coast , Mali and Burkina Faso . Upon return to the United States he moved to Georgia and taught at the University of Georgia . In Georgia , he began to use a bricklayer 's trowel on his canvases , creating a textured appearance within his already visually active paintings . The figures often seen in his paintings are abstract and inspired by the masks and sculptures of Nigeria . These Nigerian arts have also inspired Jarrell 's totem sculptures . Living and working in Cleveland , Jarrell continues to explore the contemporary African American experience through his paintings , sculptures , and prints . His work is found in the collections of the National Museum of African American History and Culture , High Museum of Art , The Studio Museum in Harlem and the University of Delaware .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Jarrell was born in Albany , Georgia , in 1929 to Solomon Marcus and Tabitha Jarrell . Named after the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , he was the youngest of six children . A year after Jarrell 's birth the family moved to a 28 @-@ acre farm near Athens , Georgia , where they grew vegetables and cotton . Jarrell 's father was a carpenter and furniture maker who had his own business , the S.M. Jarrell Furniture Store . All three Jarrell boys worked there , one of them learning to cane chairs . Their father 's artistic ability and mother 's skill as a quilt @-@ maker contributed to the entire family 's love for art . As a child , Jarrell first attended a one @-@ room schoolhouse where he was encouraged by his teacher , Jessie Lois Hall , to explore his artistic side . He then went to a private Baptist school starting in the seventh grade before transferring to Athens High in the tenth grade . In high school his talent for art was apparent as he started creating his own comic strip , cartoons for the school paper , and illustrations for sports events , finally taking up oil painting . As a young man interested in art during the late 1930s and early 1940s he learned about painting and illustration through magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and Collier 's . Unable to figure out the distinction between illustration and painting , Jarrell thought " artists eventually got rich - but it was illustrators making the large sums of money . "
Jarrell 's relationship with his mother became closer once his father and one of his brothers left to work at a shipyard during World War II . His father died of malaria while working there . While in high school , Jarrell helped his mother tend the farm , but did not like the work . After graduating from high school , he joined the Army , was stationed at Fort Polk , Louisiana and served briefly in Korea . At Fort Polk he became company artist and made extra money designing shirts and making paintings for fellow soldiers .
= = = Higher education and current life = = =
After military service , Jarrell moved to Chicago where his sister Nellie attended Northwestern University . It was in Chicago where Jarrell would have his first museum experiences . Growing in up Georgia , African Americans were not allowed to visit museums until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , therefore these early museum visits made a major impression on him . A year later he enrolled at the Art Institute of Chicago for advertising art and graphic design , where he attended night classes . His days were spent working at the International Paint company where he mixed paint . He also took classes at the Ray Vogue School for Commercial Arts . He began attending the Art Institute full @-@ time in 1954 . Jarrell eventually lost interest in commercial art and focused on classes about painting and drawing , gaining inspiration from instructor Laura McKinnon and her ideas about spatial relationship theory . In 1958 , he graduated with his original major ( s ) , retaining a strong desire to pursue the life of a fine artist . At this time he also met artist Jeff Donaldson , who became a friend who influenced his career . In 1959 , the year of his first marriage , he became an advertising photographer , taking photos of type and lettering styles . The couple would divorce shortly after the marriage .
In 1963 , Jarrell met Elaine Annette Johnson , known as Jae , who ran a clothing boutique , the woman who became his second wife on June 2 , 1967 . They spent their honeymoon in Nassau and on January 7 , 1968 , Wadsworth Jr. was born . During the pregnancy Jae closed her boutique and moved into Jarrell 's studio , running a mail order service instead . As the social and economic world of Chicago declined , gang violence threatened the family 's neighborhood . After their second child , Jennifer , was born the family decided to move to the New York area . In May 1971 , they made the move , first heading to Waterbury , Connecticut , then New Haven before spending three months in Boston . The family then moved to Washington , D.C. where Jarrell began teaching at Howard University in 1971 , recruited by Jeff Donaldson . At Howard he pursued his MFA , focusing on African culture , specifically the Senufo people . The couple would have another daughter , Roslyn Angela , in 1972 . S
Struggling to fit in at Howard , unable to make tenure , and with concerns about the increasing crime rates in Washington , in 1977 the family decided to move once again , this time to Athens , Georgia . Shortly after the move Jarrell became an assistant professor at the University of Georgia . He and his wife started a high @-@ end educational toy company that stemmed from their children 's love for similar toys when living in Washington , D.C .. They opened a small shop called Tadpole Toys and Hobby Center in Athens to great reception . However , as a result of poor sales in May 1982 they were forced to close it . Soon afterwards , Jarrell received tenure at the University . In 1988 , he retired from his position and from teaching as a whole in order to focus on his creative work . By 1994 all three children were grown ; the two daughters attended the Art Institute of Chicago , and Wadsworth Jr. became a seafarer . That year , Jae and daughter Jennifer moved to New York to find a place to live , settling in SoHo , where they were joined by Jarrell a few months later . Currently , Jarrell and Jae live and work in Cleveland , Ohio .
= = Artistic career = =
" Every year you are reminded of George Washington 's birthday ... my kids learn about this at school , but nothing is said about black heroes . If white Americans can engage in what I call repetitious advertising , then I feel justified in advertising for black Americans . " - Wadsworth Jarrell , 1978
= = = Chicago = = =
After graduation from the Art Institute , Jarrell lived off his wages from mixing paint and furthered his skills in his studio for a year . He started to submit his work to competitions , being accepted at the Chicago Show at the Navy Pier and the Union League Show . Jarrell produced artworks inspired by theories learned in school and scenes of everyday life in black Chicago . With an interest in horse racing , jazz clubs and bars , he often took a sketchpad on his explorations , eventually creating paintings like Neon Row ( 1958 ) , a street scene , Shamrock Inn ( 1962 ) , a bar scene , and The Jockeys # 1 ( 1962 ) , from a visit to a horse racing track . These themes would recur throughout his career . His early works display the " two @-@ dimensional illusionism " he learned in school : linear and geometric perspective with overlapping objects receding to a vanishing point on the horizon . Color is used to depict movement and stability , a contrast seen in Shamrock Inn and The Jockeys # 1 , however , Jarrell 's palette had evolved into brighter and bolder color combinations , at times contrasting in their final execution . The influence of post @-@ impressionism is evident in these earlier works , in line with art education trends at the time .
A notable turning point for his career came in 1963 when a watercolor ( similar to Jazz Giants # 1 ( 1962 ) ) was accepted for the Art Institute 's " 2nd Biennial Drawing , Watercolor and Print Exhibition . " The exhibit earned him prizes , media attention , and the opportunity to exhibit his work at other galleries throughout the Midwest . He moved to a large studio in the Hyde Park neighborhood and continued expanding on his work and focusing on musical and sport related themes . His pigment application became rapid , whether he was depicting a jazz musician or a jockey on his horse , allowing the image to express strong movement . Cockfight ( 1965 ) shows the evolution of Jarrell 's work : intense color bands , swirls , and at times a psychedelic appearance to the bird in focus , a style that became a mainstay in his work .
Influenced by his honeymoon in the Caribbean , Jarrell became interested in the effects of man @-@ made and natural sunlight on the environment . Experimentation with pigments , media , imagery and design allowed him to create artworks that fully expressed his intended messages . Referring to works such as Nassau ( 1968 ) and Sign of the Times ( 1966 ) , Jarrell commented : " The colors of the Bahamas influenced my use of color and my approach to my work . " With Sign of the Times he shows a street scene , his first attempt at a painting involving social interaction . In 1968 , Jarrell became art director at Sander Line Graphics , only to quit shortly thereafter to become self @-@ employed . Aside from creating his art he also started a successful mail @-@ order photo processing business . Soon after Jarrell and Jae decided to open a gallery space below their studio : WJ Studio and Gallery . While the studio and gallery flourished , Jarrell taught part @-@ time art classes at Wadsworth Elementary School and considered moving to New York , seeking refuge in the heart of the art world .
= = = = Wall of Respect = = = =
In 1964 Chicago experienced two major race riots . Triggered by Civil Rights struggles and angst , more riots followed in subsequent years and the Black Power movement came into fruition . Artists began to explore ways to express black pride , self @-@ determination and self @-@ reliance leading in 1966 to the Organization of Black American Culture ( OBAC ) . Artist Norman Parish asked Jarrell to attend a meeting for OBAC 's Artists ' Workshop . The meetings would consist of artists bringing their work to be critiqued and reflect on ideas of the black experience in art , leading to the concept behind Wall of Respect . The mural consisted of African American heroes and personalities , each artist deciding who should be depicted in their section . Sylvia Abernathy designed the layout , giving Jarrell a 12 × 14 foot space to share with photographer Bill Abernathy . Jarrell focused on a favorite theme , rhythm and blues , and featured portrayals of James Brown , B.B. King , Billie Holiday , Muddy Waters , Aretha Franklin and Dinah Washington . The Artists ' Workshop would sour towards the end of the project : there were controversies stemming from the painting in Norman Parish 's section , conflicts regarding copyrights being sold without permission , disagreements on law enforcement involvement , as well as deceit . Nevertheless the Wall was considered a success , triggering the creation of liberation themed murals in Chicago and beyond .
= = = = WJ Studio and Gallery = = = =
In 1968 , Jarrell and his wife opened WJ Studio and Gallery , below their home and studio . The space not only showcased the couple 's work and that of other artists but went on to display the talents of Chicago poets and musicians . Jarrell 's love for blues and jazz music made it easy for him to access the city 's talent and his involvement with OCAC provided him with contacts in the poetry world . Artists such as Muhal Richard Abrams , John Stubblefield , Henry Threadgill , Anthony Braxton and the Chicago Art Ensemble would perform at the space . The gallery also served as a gathering place for the likes of Jeff Donaldson , Barbara Jones @-@ Hogu , Gerald Williams and others , who would come to discuss concepts of a relevant black art aesthetic . The group struggled : Jarrell described the search as an attempt to find " a collective concept that would say ' black art ' at a glance . " Eventually , the group made a breakthrough while listing principles and ideas regarding the concept of black art ; the term " coolade colors " was contributed by a fabric designer . The term covered the bright fashion of stylish African American men of the time , which Jarrell described as " loud lime , pimp yellows , hot pinks , high @-@ key color clothing . " The final concept for their aesthetic search would be message oriented art , revolving around socially aware content . African design would be included and meaningfulness for black people would be a necessity . This group 's formation would be considered one of the best aligned and organized collectives in the Black Arts Movement . This group went on to form COBRA .
= = = = COBRA and the black aesthetic = = = =
Like many African American grass roots organizations , Jarrell 's gallery group struggled to carry the torch after the deaths of Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. Jarrell and his fellow Chicago artists took the path of non @-@ violence by way of their artistic talents and a sense of ownership through their contributions at WJ Studio and Gallery . With these ideals backing them and their new aesthetic philosophy , the group took on the name COBRA – Coalition of Black Revolutionary Artists . With the creation of COBRA , Jarrell completed his first work that conceptualized the concept behind the group , Black Family ( 1969 ) , which utilized the color scheme of the coolade colors such as light blue and orange contrasting with white areas , which heightened the bright colors ' intensity . This technique allowed Jarrell to create what he described as an " intuitive space , " drawing the viewer 's attention towards the family on the canvas : a caring mother , protective father and two relaxed children . With a father depicting strength and honesty , and what Robert Douglas describes as a " heroic quality , " to the painting , Jarrell expresses important aspects of the COBRA ideal . Writing also appears on the canvas , with the word " blackness " represented by the letter B. The group decided to go from focusing on themed exhibitions to encouraging artworks that " portray the general problems of black people or attempt to visualize some solutions to them . "
= = = = AFRICOBRA 's beginnings = = = =
" AFRICOBRA artists are visual griots of the African American community , an imagery that illuminates the beauty and glory of the Africans ' experience in the West . They present to us an iconography bestowed on them by the pressing and always exciting culture of the African American . " - Larry Neal
In 1969 , COBRA revised their philosophy and artistic concept to expand their concern for black liberation and civil rights on an international level . Inspired by the words of Malcolm X , " All black people , regardless of their land base , have the same problems , the control of their land and economics by Europeans or Euro @-@ Americans . " , they changed their name to AfriCOBRA : African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists . Jarrell 's work had evolved to bring the focus figure to the foreground of his paintings , as seen in Coolade Lester ( 1970 ) , a portrait of musician Lester Lashley . Letters make another appearance : D ( down ) , B ( black ) , F ( fine ) and Q ( question ) . The work is described as a " humanistic portrayal of the genius of Africans in the creation of jazz . " Other works by Jarrell at the time became politically and socially charged with the aesthetics put forth by AfriCOBRA . Homage to a Giant ( 1970 ) is Jarrell 's first tribute to Malcolm X. This work is used by Jarrell to speak for the black struggle against oppression and the death of student protestors fighting for that cause . Four images of Malcolm X are painted alongside those of Huey Newton , Jesse Jackson and Stokley Carmichael . " B " makes its usual appearance representing " blackness " and " badness " as well as a quote from Ossie Davis 's eulogy at Malcolm 's funeral . This piece , along with Coolade Lester , appeared in AFRI @-@ COBRA 's first exhibition in 1970 at the Studio Museum in Harlem : " AFRI @-@ COBRA I : Ten in Search of a Nation . " The response to the show was one of misunderstanding by many viewers , with the result that the concepts presented were interpreted as " protest art . "
" AFRICOBRA II " was held in 1971 at the Studio Museum in Harlem before it traveled to five other museums and galleries . Jarrell exhibited Revolutionary and Black Prince ( both 1971 ) at the show . These two portraits are described by art historian Robert Douglas as displaying " Jarrell 's masterful understanding of portraiture , rendered through a chiaroscuro technique employing a multitude of meticulously painted B 's in different sizes and coolade hues . " Revolutionary is a homage to Angela Davis . She wears a Revolutionary Suit that was designed by Jae Jarrell for the AFRICOBRA II exhibition . Prints were made of the work . However , in the original , the cartridge belt is attached to the canvas , an idea of Jae 's . The words " love " , " black " , " nation " , " time " , " rest " , " full of shit " , " revolution " , and " beautiful " burst out of her head on the canvas . The message " I have given my life in the struggle . If I have to lose my life , that is the way it will be , " travels down her chest and left arm . " B " , as usual , represents " blackness " " bad " and in this painting " beautiful " . The work epitomizes the goal by AFRICOBRA artists to use all space possible in their creations , described as " jam @-@ packed and jelly tight . " Revolutionary was reviewed by Nancy Tobin Willig as " a portrait of a young black woman screaming slogans – with a bandoleer loaded with real bullets slung over her shoulder . Jarrell 's painting is an overstatement . It is not art as the weapon . It is the weapon as art . " Black Prince is Jarrell 's second tribute to Malcolm X. " B " appears in the painting , as well as " P " ; " PRINCE " and " BLACK " which travel throughout Malcolm 's face and hand . The quote " I believe in anything necessary to correct unjust conditions , political , economic , social , physical . Anything necessary as long as it gets results , " is painted across his chest and arm . Their second show , " AFRICOBRA III " , opened in 1973 . Critics were more aware of the aesthetic and movement at this show ; critic Paul Richard commented that the works of Nelson Stevens , Jeff Donaldson and Jarrell " together contradict something I have long believed : that art that is so blatantly political is not art at all . "
= = = Out east = = =
Despite the offers for a position he received from Jeff Donaldson , who was running Howard University 's art department , Jarrell sought to remain independent and the family moved to New York . Jarrell obtained work as a photographer in Boston , eventually choosing to accept Donaldson 's offer , moving the family in time for Jarrell to teach photography classes during the fall semester . During this time " AFRICOBRA II " traveled to Howard and Jarrell exhibited Together We Will Win ( 1973 ) , showing black " warriors , " children , women and workers " offering solutions to African people 's problems , " and Liberation Soldiers , ( 1972 ) , depicting the Black Panthers . Both works included the use of aluminum and gold foil glued to the canvas . In 1973 the final AFRICOBRA show , " AFRICOBRA III " was held . However , members still continued to meet and practice the ideals put forward by the group .
= = = = African influences = = = =
Jarrell 's studies of African art and the Senufo people appeared as a major influence during the mid @-@ 1970s . Paintings such as Prophecy , Reorientation and Navaga depict human figures that appear blended with Senufo sculptures . Navaga ( 1974 ) shows a seated woodcarver , holding a staff he works on , appearing to be made of wood himself . He wears clothing of and is surrounded by coolade colors . The face is that of Jarrell 's father , manipulated into a Senufo sculptural style . In the triptych Prophecy Jarrell shows African women as Senufo figures holding sculptures of the Yoruba deity Shango , and is described as " jam @-@ packed " with imagery , making it hard to decipher in a short time .
In winter of 1977 Jarrell and Jae visited Lagos , Nigeria , as part of the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture , making this the couple 's first international exhibition . Other AFRICOBRA members journeyed there as well . Jarrell was influenced heavily by the bronze lost @-@ wax castings of Benin and the woodcarving and textile arts of Oshogbo , which he believed solidified the mission of AFRI @-@ COBRA 's symbolic work through " intuitive space . " Jarrell also revisited his passion for horse racing , attending the Grand Durbar in Kaduna . On Jarrell 's return , AFRI @-@ COBRA formed their next show " AFRI @-@ COBRA / Farafindugu " ; farafindugu inferring " black world " in Mandinka . The exhibit , at the African American Museum in Philadelphia , featured two works by Jarrell created as a response to his journey to Africa : Mojo Workin and Soweto ( both 1977 ) . Mojo Workin featured a contribution from his then six @-@ year @-@ old eldest daughter , Jennifer . She created the drawing The Magic Lady and with Jarrell 's painting it was believed that mojo was expressed when others encountered the work . This is one of the first times Jarrell uses a stained canvas . Soweto reflects the struggles of African people , specifically those suffering from the apartheid in South Africa . The painting is named after the city of Soweto , where a massacre of students occurred in 1976 . Continuing to be inspired by his travels to Nigeria , Jarrell completed the work Zulu Sunday which was created to express similarities between African Americans and Nigerians through a celebration of a Sunday afternoon social affair . The painting shows Zulus dressed in ornate traditional dress , socializing on the street , unified by a sunburst .
= = = Georgia = = =
In 1977 the Jarrells moved from Washington , D.C. to Athens , Georgia . With his children getting older and the couple 's toy company struggling to stay afloat , Jarrell became assistant professor at the University of Georgia . His position at the university assured him studio space . In 1979 he had two solo shows and participated in three AFRICOBRA exhibitions . His work continued to be socially and politically aware with paintings like Festival # 1 ( 1978 ) showing brilliant Senufo figures , a work supporting South Africans at war . African imagery became more apparent in his paintings with zigzag patterns and lizards appearing , representing " that Africans , as the first people , have the right to speak on their own behalf , " as seen in Midnight Poet at 125th Street & Lenox ( 1979 ) . In 1979 Jarrell received grant money to create a 52 x 31 foot mural at the East Athens Community Center . A team of art students helped Jarrell and Jae to complete the work , titled Ascension , which remains in Athens today .
By the mid @-@ 1980s Jarrell was being represented by the Fay Gold Gallery in Atlanta . In 1984 the family moved to Atlanta when Jae accepted a teaching position at The Lovett School . Jarrell continued to commute to Athens to teach . The move to Atlanta provided more income for the family while allowing Jarrell to sell more work and spark relationships with potential customers , galleries and museums in the region . Jarrell became the painting professor for the University 's Studies Abroad Program in 1986 . For two months he lived in Cortona , Italy with Jae and his two daughters , while Wadsworth Jr. remained in Atlanta finishing high school . The opportunity allowed him to explore the country , visiting historic sites throughout Italy and the Venice Biennale . Upon his return he was promoted to full professor at the university in February 1987 , but he resigned in 1988 .
During the 1990s Jarrell continued to explore aspects of black life in his paintings . Dudes on the Street ( 1991 ) is a depiction of black life in the city ; two cartoon @-@ like men and two women stand on the street with an expired parking meter next to them . The background features a ribs restaurant and a record shop , with coolade colors drenching the entire landscape . Robert Douglas compared the piece to Chicken Shack by Archibald Motley , stating " both artists have fulfilled the mission of celebrating black life . " Two paintings about boxing were created during this time as well : Stride of a Legend / Tribute to Papa Tall , a tribute to Muhammad Ali and textile designer Papa Tall of Senegal , and The Champion ( 1991 ) a portrayal Evander Holyfield .
= = = = Horse racing revisited = = = =
While in Georgia Jarrell revisited his interest in horse racing . He became interested in African American jockeys , creating the paintings The Jocks # 2 ( 1981 ) and Master Tester ( 1981 ) and Homage to Isaac Murphy ( 1981 ) . The Jocks # 2 is a group portrait of James " Soup " Perkins , William Walker , Jimmy Winkfield and Isaac Murphy . The figures appear like a Kemetic wall painting with hints of green and light blue . At the center is Isaac Murphy , a legendary jockey of the Kentucky Derby , wearing a glowing crown . A full tribute to Murphy is seen in Homage to Isaac Murphy , a large polyptych consisting of four canvasses . Cut out leaf motifs are adhered to the canvas and applied with acrylic stains , which make the motif 's appear as negative space on the surface of the painting . Zigzags are prominent , a lizard appears to represent speed , a lawn jockey , and the dates of Murphy 's wins , titles and horse names are at the top . The painting is finished with a stylized portrait of Murphy and cowry shells are glued to the canvas representing the money won by Murphy during his career . Master Tester is an abstract of horse trainer Marshall Lilly , riding a horse , wearing a derby hat . In 1993 Jarrell would have a solo show , titled " Edge Cutters , " at the Kentucky Derby Museum in Lexington , Kentucky .
= = = = The bricklayer 's trowel & jazz tributes = = = =
In December 1982 Jarrell was commissioned by Westinghouse Electric Company to create a three @-@ hundred @-@ foot mural in their Athens headquarters , to boost the morale of the employees . The mural was the first time he used a bricklayer 's trowel in his work , a tool introduced to him by Adger Cowans . The Apple Birds and The Return of the Apple Birds , from 1983 , show his dramatic use of the trowel . The paintings were inspired by a drawing by his daughter , Jennifer , at the age of two . The Apple Birds were drawn by and talked about by Jennifer as having apple @-@ shaped heads with stems at the top , long arms and short bodies . Zigzags , geometric shapes and layers make up the environment that the Apple Birds live in on the canvas . The trowel is used throughout to create 3 @-@ D layers and overlaps .
Jarrell created many jazz tributes starting in the 1980s . Cookin ' n Smokin ' ( 1986 ) is a tribute to jazz musician Oscar Peterson , who is shown playing piano with a sunburst design around his head . To the left of Peterson is bass player Ray Brown . Both figures have large heads , their faces have exaggerated features similar to African masks , and are described as being " midpoint between naturalism and abstraction " by Robert Douglas . The trowel is used throughout to blend color . Jazz Giants ( 1987 ) , another jazz tribute , shows Dizzy Gillespie , Harry Carney , Johnny Hodges and Cootie Williams performing . Leaf patterns and circles common in Jarrell 's work are seen throughout . The trowel is used to create recognizable portraits of the musicians , with the paint on a white background appearing as if a woodcut . Priestess ( 1988 ) depicts another jazz icon , Nina Simone , who appears twice - playing piano and singing solo , backed by a band . 1979 's I Remember Bill is a memorial to Jarrell 's friend guitarist Bill Harris , originally of The Clovers . Jarrell occasionally traveled with Harris , hanging his paintings behind Harris as he performed . The painting is a large mixed @-@ media polyptych of shaped canvas , and a painted six @-@ stringed guitar sits on the top of the work . The painting features glued on photographs of Harris and two painted portraits of the musician , surrounded by Jarrell 's signature symbols , designs and patterns .
Other works include : Corners of Jazz ( 1988 ) , a large mural featuring Ray Charles , Lester Young , and Billie Holiday , Shon 'nuf ( 1989 ) , featuring Ray Charles , At the Three Deuces ( 1991 ) with Miles Davis , Charlie Parker and Sam Potter , Basie at the Apollo ( 1992 ) with Count Basie 's orchestra , The Empress ( 1992 ) for Bessie Smith , and Lady & Prez # 2 , showing Holiday and Young performing together .
= = = Sculpture = = =
Inspired by his trip to Italy , Jarrell created the sculpture Tribute to Ovambo Bellows , a conical @-@ shaped painted tribute to the Ovambo people , which would be the basis for a new shift in his work , towards sculpture . The new works would be categorized by their heavy spiritual nature , reflective of African culture and heritage . Hausa Space - a Village ( 1993 ) represents the villages Jarrell visited in Nigeria . The houses that he saw were decorated with icons and symbols of spiritual and ritual meaning , painted in bright colors . These decorations are used to fight evil spirits , while Jarrell 's pieces speak for peace . Many of the sculptures blend elements of African art and design ; Sorcerer ( 1993 ) and Messenger of Information ( 1993 ) show his earlier influences from Senufo art and other inspirations related to the design , spirituality and people of Africa . Totem – like sculptures began to be created in 1995 . The three sculptures making up the Ensemble series ( 1995 ) each stand over five feet tall and are painted with brilliant colors , topped off with a small animal . For the first time , in Days of the Kings ( 1995 ) , horse racing appears in Jarrell 's sculptures . Sixteen totems serve as tributes to African Americans in horse racing , reminiscent of the designs of the Bijogo and Alberto Giacometti . Epiphany ( 1996 ) memorializes the Million Man March , held in Washington , D.C. the previous year , an event that Jarrell described as one of the most important of that century . This piece , and other works , were later exhibited at the 1996 Summer Olympics .
= = = Reception = = =
Dr. Stacy Morgan , association professor in the department of American Studies at the University of Alabama , describes Jarrell 's work as " a remarkable body of vibrant , stylistically innovative and politically engaged art . "
= = Notable awards = =
First prize , 1988 , Atlanta Life Invitational Exhibition , Southeastern Center for Contemporary Art
Cover , 1985 , Art Papers
Excellence in painting award , 1985 , Southern Home Shows Exposition
Award , 1974 , District of Columbia Commission on the Arts
Artist @-@ in @-@ Residence , 1974 , District of Columbia Public Schools
= = Notable exhibitions = =
= = = Solo exhibitions = = =
Edge Cutters . 1993 , Kentucky Derby Museum .
Large Format . 1987 , Southwest Atlanta Hospital .
Paintings and Sculptures , Wadsworth Jarrell . 1987 , Albany Museum of Art .
The Power and the Glory . 1979 , University of Georgia .
Going Home . , 1976 , Howard University .
= = = Group exhibitions = = =
AFRI @-@ COBRA : No Middle Ground . 1992 , Museum of Science and Industry , Chicago , Illinois .
Twelfth Annual Atlanta Life Invitational Exhibition . 1992 , Herndon Plaza , Atlanta .
Vital Signs . 1991 , Atlanta Contemporary Art Center .
AFRI @-@ COBRA : The First Twenty Years . 1990 , Florida A & M University .
Horse Flesh . 1990 , Kentucky Derby Museum .
Beaches Annual Exhibition . 1989 , Museum of Contemporary Art Jacksonville .
Artists in Georgia 1988 . , 1988 Atlanta Contemporary Art Center .
The Art in Atlanta . 1988 , Southeastern Center for Contemporary Art .
Birmingham Biennial . 1987 , Birmingham Museum of Art .
AFRICOBRA USA . 1987 , Sermac Gallery , Fort @-@ de @-@ France , Martinique .
Ot Och In . 1986 , Malmö konstmuseum .
Artists in Georgia . 1985 , Georgia Museum of Art .
Atlanta in France . 1985 , Chapelle de la Sorbonne .
U.S.A. Volta Del Sud . 1985 , Palazzo Venezia .
Commemoration to Soweto . AFRI @-@ COBRA , 1980 , United Nations Headquarters .
Directions and Dimensions . 1980 , Mississippi Museum of Natural Science .
Artists in Georgia . 1980 , High Museum of Art .
Artists in Schools . 1976 , Delaware Art Museum .
Directions in Afro @-@ American Art. 1974 , Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art .
= = Notable collections = =
High Museum of Art
Museum of Contemporary Art of Georgia
National Museum of African American History and Culture
Nortel
The Studio Museum in Harlem
University of Delaware
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= Injection moulding =
Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting material into a mould . Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials , including metals , ( for which the process is called diecasting ) , glasses , elastomers , confections , and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers . Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel , mixed , and forced into a mould cavity , where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity . After a product is designed , usually by an industrial designer or an engineer , moulds are made by a mouldmaker ( or toolmaker ) from metal , usually either steel or aluminum , and precision @-@ machined to form the features of the desired part . Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts , from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars . Advances in 3D printing technology , using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics , can be used for some simple injection moulds .
Parts to be injection moulded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the moulding process ; the material used for the part , the desired shape and features of the part , the material of the mould , and the properties of the moulding machine must all be taken into account . The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this breadth of design considerations and possibilities .
= = Applications = =
Injection moulding is used to create many things such as wire spools , packaging , bottle caps , automotive parts and components , Gameboys , pocket combs , some musical instruments ( and parts of them ) , one @-@ piece chairs and small tables , storage containers , mechanical parts ( including gears ) , and most other plastic products available today . Injection moulding is the most common modern method of manufacturing plastic parts ; it is ideal for producing high volumes of the same object .
= = Process characteristics = =
Injection moulding uses a ram or screw @-@ type plunger to force molten plastic material into a mould cavity ; this solidifies into a shape that has conformed to the contour of the mould . It is most commonly used to process both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers , with the volume used of the former being considerably higher . Thermoplastics are prevalent due to characteristics which make them highly suitable for injection moulding , such as the ease with which they may be recycled , their versatility allowing them to be used in a wide variety of applications , and their ability to soften and flow upon heating . Thermoplastics also have an element of safety over thermosets ; if a thermosetting polymer is not ejected from the injection barrel in a timely manner , chemical crosslinking may occur causing the screw and check valves to seize and potentially damaging the injection moulding machine .
Injection moulding consists of high pressure injection of the raw material into a mould which shapes the polymer into the desired shape . Moulds can be of a single cavity or multiple cavities . In multiple cavity moulds , each cavity can be identical and form the same parts or can be unique and form multiple different geometries during a single cycle . Moulds are generally made from tool steels , but stainless steels and aluminum moulds are suitable for certain applications . Aluminum moulds typically are ill @-@ suited for high volume production or parts with narrow dimensional tolerances , as they have inferior mechanical properties and are more prone to wear , damage , and deformation during the injection and clamping cycles ; however , aluminum moulds are cost @-@ effective in low @-@ volume applications , as mould fabrication costs and time are considerably reduced . Many steel moulds are designed to process well over a million parts during their lifetime and can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to fabricate .
When thermoplastics are moulded , typically pelletized raw material is fed through a hopper into a heated barrel with a reciprocating screw . Upon entrance to the barrel the temperature increases and the Van der Waals forces that resist relative flow of individual chains are weakened as a result of increased space between molecules at higher thermal energy states . This process reduces its viscosity , which enables the polymer to flow with the driving force of the injection unit . The screw delivers the raw material forward , mixes and homogenizes the thermal and viscous distributions of the polymer , and reduces the required heating time by mechanically shearing the material and adding a significant amount of frictional heating to the polymer . The material feeds forward through a check valve and collects at the front of the screw into a volume known as a shot . A shot is the volume of material that is used to fill the mould cavity , compensate for shrinkage , and provide a cushion ( approximately 10 % of the total shot volume , which remains in the barrel and prevents the screw from bottoming out ) to transfer pressure from the screw to the mould cavity . When enough material has gathered , the material is forced at high pressure and velocity into the part forming cavity . To prevent spikes in pressure , the process normally uses a transfer position corresponding to a 95 – 98 % full cavity where the screw shifts from a constant velocity to a constant pressure control . Often injection times are well under 1 second . Once the screw reaches the transfer position the packing pressure is applied , which completes mould filling and compensates for thermal shrinkage , which is quite high for thermoplastics relative to many other materials . The packing pressure is applied until the gate ( cavity entrance ) solidifies . Due to its small size , the gate is normally the first place to solidify through its entire thickness . Once the gate solidifies , no more material can enter the cavity ; accordingly , the screw reciprocates and acquires material for the next cycle while the material within the mould cools so that it can be ejected and be dimensionally stable . This cooling duration is dramatically reduced by the use of cooling lines circulating water or oil from an external temperature controller . Once the required temperature has been achieved , the mould opens and an array of pins , sleeves , strippers , etc. are driven forward to demould the article . Then , the mould closes and the process is repeated .
For a two shot mold , two separate materials are incorporated into one part . This type of injection molding is used to add a soft touch to knobs , to give a product multiple colors , to produce a part with multiple performance characteristics .
For thermosets , typically two different chemical components are injected into the barrel . These components immediately begin irreversible chemical reactions which eventually crosslinks the material into a single connected network of molecules . As the chemical reaction occurs , the two fluid components permanently transform into a viscoelastic solid . Solidification in the injection barrel and screw can be problematic and have financial repercussions ; therefore , minimizing the thermoset curing within the barrel is vital . This typically means that the residence time and temperature of the chemical precursors are minimized in the injection unit . The residence time can be reduced by minimizing the barrel 's volume capacity and by maximizing the cycle times . These factors have led to the use of a thermally isolated , cold injection unit that injects the reacting chemicals into a thermally isolated hot mould , which increases the rate of chemical reactions and results in shorter time required to achieve a solidified thermoset component . After the part has solidified , valves close to isolate the injection system and chemical precursors , and the mould opens to eject the moulded parts . Then , the mould closes and the process repeats .
Pre @-@ moulded or machined components can be inserted into the cavity while the mould is open , allowing the material injected in the next cycle to form and solidify around them . This process is known as Insert moulding and allows single parts to contain multiple materials . This process is often used to create plastic parts with protruding metal screws , allowing them to be fastened and unfastened repeatedly . This technique can also be used for In @-@ mould labelling and film lids may also be attached to moulded plastic containers .
A parting line , sprue , gate marks , and ejector pin marks are usually present on the final part . None of these features are typically desired , but are unavoidable due to the nature of the process . Gate marks occur at the gate which joins the melt @-@ delivery channels ( sprue and runner ) to the part forming cavity . Parting line and ejector pin marks result from minute misalignments , wear , gaseous vents , clearances for adjacent parts in relative motion , and / or dimensional differences of the mating surfaces contacting the injected polymer . Dimensional differences can be attributed to non @-@ uniform , pressure @-@ induced deformation during injection , machining tolerances , and non @-@ uniform thermal expansion and contraction of mould components , which experience rapid cycling during the injection , packing , cooling , and ejection phases of the process . Mould components are often designed with materials of various coefficients of thermal expansion . These factors cannot be simultaneously accounted for without astronomical increases in the cost of design , fabrication , processing , and quality monitoring . The skillful mould and part designer will position these aesthetic detriments in hidden areas if feasible .
= = History = =
American inventor John Wesley Hyatt together with his brother Isaiah , Hyatt patented the first injection moulding machine in 1872 . This machine was relatively simple compared to machines in use today : it worked like a large hypodermic needle , using a plunger to inject plastic through a heated cylinder into a mould . The industry progressed slowly over the years , producing products such as collar stays , buttons , and hair combs .
The German chemists Arthur Eichengrün and Theodore Becker invented the first soluble forms of cellulose acetate in 1903 , which was much less flammable than cellulose nitrate . It was eventually made available in a powder form from which it was readily injection moulded . Arthur Eichengrün developed the first injection moulding press in 1919 . In 1939 , Arthur Eichengrün patented the injection molding of plasticized cellulose acetate .
The industry expanded rapidly in the 1940s because World War II created a huge demand for inexpensive , mass @-@ produced products . In 1946 , American inventor James Watson Hendry built the first screw injection machine , which allowed much more precise control over the speed of injection and the quality of articles produced . This machine also allowed material to be mixed before injection , so that colored or recycled plastic could be added to virgin material and mixed thoroughly before being injected . Today screw injection machines account for the vast majority of all injection machines . In the 1970s , Hendry went on to develop the first gas @-@ assisted injection moulding process , which permitted the production of complex , hollow articles that cooled quickly . This greatly improved design flexibility as well as the strength and finish of manufactured parts while reducing production time , cost , weight and waste .
The plastic injection moulding industry has evolved over the years from producing combs and buttons to producing a vast array of products for many industries including automotive , medical , aerospace , consumer products , toys , plumbing , packaging , and construction .
= = Examples of polymers best suited for the process = =
Most polymers , sometimes referred to as resins , may be used , including all thermoplastics , some thermosets , and some elastomers . Since 1995 , the total number of available materials for injection moulding has increased at a rate of 750 per year ; there were approximately 18 @,@ 000 materials available when that trend began . Available materials include alloys or blends of previously developed materials , so product designers can choose the material with the best set of properties from a vast selection . Major criteria for selection of a material are the strength and function required for the final part , as well as the cost , but also each material has different parameters for moulding that must be taken into account . Common polymers like epoxy and phenolic are examples of thermosetting plastics while nylon , polyethylene , and polystyrene are thermoplastic . Until comparatively recently , plastic springs were not possible , but advances in polymer properties make them now quite practical . Applications include buckles for anchoring and disconnecting outdoor @-@ equipment webbing .
= = Equipment = =
Injection moulding machines consist of a material hopper , an injection ram or screw @-@ type plunger , and a heating unit . Also known as presses , they hold the moulds in which the components are shaped . Presses are rated by tonnage , which expresses the amount of clamping force that the machine can exert . This force keeps the mould closed during the injection process . Tonnage can vary from less than 5 tons to over 9 @,@ 000 tons , with the higher figures used in comparatively few manufacturing operations . The total clamp force needed is determined by the projected area of the part being moulded . This projected area is multiplied by a clamp force of from 1 @.@ 8 to 7 @.@ 2 tons for each square centimeter of the projected areas . As a rule of thumb , 4 or 5 tons / in2 can be used for most products . If the plastic material is very stiff , it will require more injection pressure to fill the mould , and thus more clamp tonnage to hold the mould closed . The required force can also be determined by the material used and the size of the part ; larger parts require higher clamping force .
= = = Mould = = =
Mould or die are the common terms used to describe the tool used to produce plastic parts in moulding .
Since moulds have been expensive to manufacture , they were usually only used in mass production where thousands of parts were being produced . Typical moulds are constructed from hardened steel , pre @-@ hardened steel , aluminum , and / or beryllium @-@ copper alloy . The choice of material to build a mould from is primarily one of economics ; in general , steel moulds cost more to construct , but their longer lifespan will offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of parts made before wearing out . Pre @-@ hardened steel moulds are less wear @-@ resistant and are used for lower volume requirements or larger components ; their typical steel hardness is 38 – 45 on the Rockwell @-@ C scale . Hardened steel moulds are heat treated after machining ; these are by far superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan . Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell @-@ C ( HRC ) . Aluminum moulds can cost substantially less , and when designed and machined with modern computerized equipment can be economical for moulding tens or even hundreds of thousands of parts . Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mould that require fast heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated . The moulds can be manufactured either by CNC machining or by using electrical discharge machining processes .
Injection moulding die with side pulls
= = = = Mould design = = = =
The mould consists of two primary components , the injection mould ( A plate ) and the ejector mould ( B plate ) . These components are also referred to as moulder and mouldmaker . Plastic resin enters the mould through a sprue or gate in the injection mould ; the sprue bushing is to seal tightly against the nozzle of the injection barrel of the moulding machine and to allow molten plastic to flow from the barrel into the mould , also known as the cavity . The sprue bushing directs the molten plastic to the cavity images through channels that are machined into the faces of the A and B plates . These channels allow plastic to run along them , so they are referred to as runners . The molten plastic flows through the runner and enters one or more specialized gates and into the cavity geometry to form the desired part .
The amount of resin required to fill the sprue , runner and cavities of a mould comprises a " shot " . Trapped air in the mould can escape through air vents that are ground into the parting line of the mould , or around ejector pins and slides that are slightly smaller than the holes retaining them . If the trapped air is not allowed to escape , it is compressed by the pressure of the incoming material and squeezed into the corners of the cavity , where it prevents filling and can also cause other defects . The air can even become so compressed that it ignites and burns the surrounding plastic material .
To allow for removal of the moulded part from the mould , the mould features must not overhang one another in the direction that the mould opens , unless parts of the mould are designed to move from between such overhangs when the mould opens ( using components called Lifters ) .
Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw ( the axis of the cored position ( hole ) or insert is parallel to the up and down movement of the mould as it opens and closes ) are typically angled slightly , called draft , to ease release of the part from the mould . Insufficient draft can cause deformation or damage . The draft required for mould release is primarily dependent on the depth of the cavity : the deeper the cavity , the more draft necessary . Shrinkage must also be taken into account when determining the draft required . If the skin is too thin , then the moulded part will tend to shrink onto the cores that form while cooling and cling to those cores , or the part may warp , twist , blister or crack when the cavity is pulled away .
A mould is usually designed so that the moulded part reliably remains on the ejector ( B ) side of the mould when it opens , and draws the runner and the sprue out of the ( A ) side along with the parts . The part then falls freely when ejected from the ( B ) side . Tunnel gates , also known as submarine or mould gates , are located below the parting line or mould surface . An opening is machined into the surface of the mould on the parting line . The moulded part is cut ( by the mould ) from the runner system on ejection from the mould . Ejector pins , also known as knockout pins , are circular pins placed in either half of the mould ( usually the ejector half ) , which push the finished moulded product , or runner system out of a mould.The ejection of the article using pins , sleeves , strippers , etc. may cause undesirable impressions or distortion , so care must be taken when designing the mould .
The standard method of cooling is passing a coolant ( usually water ) through a series of holes drilled through the mould plates and connected by hoses to form a continuous pathway . The coolant absorbs heat from the mould ( which has absorbed heat from the hot plastic ) and keeps the mould at a proper temperature to solidify the plastic at the most efficient rate .
To ease maintenance and venting , cavities and cores are divided into pieces , called inserts , and sub @-@ assemblies , also called inserts , blocks , or chase blocks . By substituting interchangeable inserts , one mould may make several variations of the same part .
More complex parts are formed using more complex moulds . These may have sections called slides , that move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction , to form overhanging part features . When the mould is opened , the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using stationary “ angle pins ” on the stationary mould half . These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause the slides to move backward when the moving half of the mould opens . The part is then ejected and the mould closes . The closing action of the mould causes the slides to move forward along the angle pins .
Some moulds allow previously moulded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer to form around the first part . This is often referred to as overmoulding . This system can allow for production of one @-@ piece tires and wheels .
Two @-@ shot or multi @-@ shot moulds are designed to " overmould " within a single moulding cycle and must be processed on specialized injection moulding machines with two or more injection units . This process is actually an injection moulding process performed twice and therefore has a much smaller margin of error . In the first step , the base color material is moulded into a basic shape , which contains spaces for the second shot . Then the second material , a different color , is injection @-@ moulded into those spaces . Pushbuttons and keys , for instance , made by this process have markings that cannot wear off , and remain legible with heavy use .
A mould can produce several copies of the same parts in a single " shot " . The number of " impressions " in the mould of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation . A tool with one impression will often be called a single impression ( cavity ) mould . A mould with 2 or more cavities of the same parts will likely be referred to as multiple impression ( cavity ) mould . Some extremely high production volume moulds ( like those for bottle caps ) can have over 128 cavities .
In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mould a series of different parts in the same tool . Some toolmakers call these moulds family moulds as all the parts are related . Examples include plastic model kits .
= = = = Mould storage = = = =
Manufacturers go to great lengths to protect custom moulds due to their high average costs . The perfect temperature and humidity level is maintained to ensure the longest possible lifespan for each custom mould . Custom moulds , such as those used for rubber injection moulding , are stored in temperature and humidity controlled environments to prevent warping .
= = = Tool materials = = =
Tool steel is often used . Mild steel , aluminum , nickel or epoxy are suitable only for prototype or very short production runs . Modern hard aluminum ( 7075 and 2024 alloys ) with proper mould design , can easily make moulds capable of 100 @,@ 000 or more part life with proper mould maintenance .
= = = Machining = = =
Moulds are built through two main methods : standard machining and EDM . Standard machining , in its conventional form , has historically been the method of building injection moulds . With technological development , CNC machining became the predominant means of making more complex moulds with more accurate mould details in less time than traditional methods .
The electrical discharge machining ( EDM ) or spark erosion process has become widely used in mould making . As well as allowing the formation of shapes that are difficult to machine , the process allows pre @-@ hardened moulds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is required . Changes to a hardened mould by conventional drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften the mould , followed by heat treatment to harden it again . EDM is a simple process in which a shaped electrode , usually made of copper or graphite , is very slowly lowered onto the mould surface ( over a period of many hours ) , which is immersed in paraffin oil ( kerosene ) . A voltage applied between tool and mould causes spark erosion of the mould surface in the inverse shape of the electrode .
= = = Cost = = =
The number of cavities incorporated into a mould will directly correlate in moulding costs . Fewer cavities require far less tooling work , so limiting the number of cavities in @-@ turn will result in lower initial manufacturing costs to build an injection mould .
As the number of cavities play a vital role in moulding costs , so does the complexity of the part 's design . Complexity can be incorporated into many factors such as surface finishing , tolerance requirements , internal or external threads , fine detailing or the number of undercuts that may be incorporated .
Further details , such as undercuts or any feature causing additional tooling , will increase the mould cost . Surface finish of the core and cavity of molds will further influence the cost .
Rubber injection moulding process produces a high yield of durable products , making it the most efficient and cost @-@ effective method of moulding . Consistent vulcanization processes involving precise temperature control significantly reduces all waste material .
= = Injection process = =
With injection moulding , granular plastic is fed by a forced ram from a hopper into a heated barrel . As the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw @-@ type plunger , the plastic is forced into a heated chamber , where it is melted . As the plunger advances , the melted plastic is forced through a nozzle that rests against the mould , allowing it to enter the mould cavity through a gate and runner system . The mould remains cold so the plastic solidifies almost as soon as the mould is filled .
= = = Injection moulding cycle = = =
The sequence of events during the injection mould of a plastic part is called the injection moulding cycle . The cycle begins when the mould closes , followed by the injection of the polymer into the mould cavity . Once the cavity is filled , a holding pressure is maintained to compensate for material shrinkage . In the next step , the screw turns , feeding the next shot to the front screw . This causes the screw to retract as the next shot is prepared . Once the part is sufficiently cool , the mould opens and the part is ejected .
= = = Scientific versus traditional moulding = = =
Traditionally , the injection portion of the molding process was done at one constant pressure to fill and pack the cavity . This method , however , allowed for a large variation in dimensions from cycle @-@ to @-@ cycle . More commonly used now is scientific or decoupled moulding , a method pioneered by RJG Inc . In this the injection of the plastic is " decoupled " into stages to allow better control of part dimensions and more cycle @-@ to @-@ cycle ( commonly called shot @-@ to @-@ shot in the industry ) consistency . First the cavity is filled to approximately 98 % full using velocity ( speed ) control . Although the pressure should be sufficient to allow for the desired speed , pressure limitations during this stage are undesirable . Once the cavity is 98 % full , the machine switches from velocity control to pressure control , where the cavity is " packed out " at a constant pressure , where sufficient velocity to reach desired pressures is required . This allows part dimensions to be controlled to within thousandths of an inch or better .
= = = Different types of injection moulding processes = = =
Although most injection moulding processes are covered by the conventional process description above , there are several important moulding variations including , but not limited to :
Die casting
Metal injection moulding
Thin @-@ wall injection moulding
Injection moulding of liquid silicone rubber
A more comprehensive list of injection moulding processes may be found here : [ 1 ]
= = Process troubleshooting = =
Like all industrial processes , injection moulding can produce flawed parts . In the field of injection moulding , troubleshooting is often performed by examining defective parts for specific defects and addressing these defects with the design of the mould or the characteristics of the process itself . Trials are often performed before full production runs in an effort to predict defects and determine the appropriate specifications to use in the injection process .
When filling a new or unfamiliar mould for the first time , where shot size for that mould is unknown , a technician / tool setter may perform a trial run before a full production run . He starts with a small shot weight and fills gradually until the mould is 95 to 99 % full . Once this is achieved , a small amount of holding pressure will be applied and holding time increased until gate freeze off ( solidification time ) has occurred . Gate freeze off time can be determined by increasing the hold time , and then weighing the part . When the weight of the part does not change , it is then known that the gate has frozen and no more material is injected into the part . Gate solidification time is important , as it determines cycle time and the quality and consistency of the product , which itself is an important issue in the economics of the production process . Holding pressure is increased until the parts are free of sinks and part weight has been achieved .
= = = Moulding defects = = =
Injection moulding is a complex technology with possible production problems . They can be caused either by defects in the moulds , or more often by the moulding process itself .
Methods such as industrial CT scanning can help with finding these defects externally as well as internally .
= = = Tolerances = = =
Moulding tolerance is a specified allowance on the deviation in parameters such as dimensions , weights , shapes , or angles , etc . To maximize control in setting tolerances there is usually a minimum and maximum limit on thickness , based on the process used . Injection moulding typically is capable of tolerances equivalent to an IT Grade of about 9 – 14 . The possible tolerance of a thermoplastic or a thermoset is ± 0 @.@ 200 to ± 0 @.@ 500 millimeters . In specialised applications tolerances as low as ± 5 µm on both diameters and linear features are achieved in mass production . Surface finishes of 0 @.@ 0500 to 0 @.@ 1000 µm or better can be obtained . Rough or pebbled surfaces are also possible .
= = Power requirements = =
The power required for this process of injection moulding depends on many things and varies between materials used . Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide states that the power requirements depend on " a material 's specific gravity , melting point , thermal conductivity , part size , and molding rate . " Below is a table from page 243 of the same reference as previously mentioned that best illustrates the characteristics relevant to the power required for the most commonly used materials .
= = Robotic moulding = =
Automation means that the smaller size of parts permits a mobile inspection system to examine multiple parts more quickly . In addition to mounting inspection systems on automatic devices , multiple @-@ axis robots can remove parts from the mould and position them for further processes .
Specific instances include removing of parts from the mould immediately after the parts are created , as well as applying machine vision systems . A robot grips the part after the ejector pins have been extended to free the part from the mould . It then moves them into either a holding location or directly onto an inspection system . The choice depends upon the type of product , as well as the general layout of the manufacturing equipment . Vision systems mounted on robots have greatly enhanced quality control for insert moulded parts . A mobile robot can more precisely determine the placement accuracy of the metal component , and inspect faster than a human can .
= = Gallery = =
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= John Mylne ( 1611 – 1667 ) =
John Mylne ( 1611 – 24 December 1667 ) , sometimes known as " John Mylne junior " , or " the Younger " , was a Scottish master mason and architect , who served as Master Mason to the Crown of Scotland . Born in Perth , he was the son of John Mylne , also a master mason , and Isobel Wilson .
Practising as a stonemason , he also took on the role of architect , designing as well as building his projects . He was one of the last masters of Scottish Renaissance architecture , before new styles were imported by his successors . Alongside his professional career , he also served as a soldier and politician . He married three times but had no surviving children .
= = Career = =
Mylne learned his trade from his father , assisting him with projects including the sundial at Holyrood Palace . In 1633 Mylne was made a burgess of the royal burgh of Edinburgh , and was admitted to the Edinburgh lodge of masons , both due to his father 's position . He was first appointed to the town council in 1636 and , in the same year , was appointed master mason to the Crown , succeeding his father .
His building projects were concentrated in Edinburgh , where , from 1637 , he served as principal master mason to the city . For ten years he was involved in the construction of the Tron Kirk on the High Street , which opened in 1647 . The Tron was built to house the congregation of St Giles ' , which had been raised to cathedral status , and was laid out in the new T @-@ plan form with the pulpit in the centre , to suit reformed worship . The design was informed by contemporary Dutch architecture and , in particular , by the work of Hendrick de Keyser whose Architectura Moderna showcased his church designs in the Netherlands . Mylne worked on the building with master wright John Scott who was responsible for the timber work . The building was executed in a Dutch influenced style with both gothic and classical details . The church was not fully complete before Mylne 's death and was subsequently remodelled in the 18th century . A new spire was added in the 19th century following a fire , but Mylne 's work can be seen in the body of the kirk . The carved tympanum was executed by Mylne 's brother Alexander .
From 1637 to 1649 he was also engaged on the design of Cowane 's Hospital in Stirling , which was executed by Stirling mason James Rynd . Mylne also carved the statue of its founder for the facade . In 1642 , Mylne surveyed the crumbling remains of Jedburgh Abbey , for which services he was made a burgess of Jedburgh . He built the choir , steeple , and north aisle of Airth Old Church , commencing 15 July 1647 .
From 1643 to 1659 , he served as master mason for the construction of Heriot 's Hospital ( now a school ) , succeeding William Aytoun . The building had been started in 1628 by William Wallace , and would not be finally completed until 1700 ; Mylne rebuilt one or two of the towers in 1648 . Also in 1648 , Mylne was engaged to repair the crown steeple of St. Giles ' .
Projects in the 1650s included the building of fortifications in Leith , and the addition of artillery emplacements to Edinburgh 's town wall . He undertook a division of Greyfriars Kirk , to serve two congregations , and constructed a professor 's house for Edinburgh University , which was demolished in the 18th century .
Following the Restoration of Charles II , Mylne was reconfirmed in his post of Royal Master Mason , and was commissioned in 1663 to survey the upper floors of Holyrood Palace . The resulting plans are the earliest surviving architectural drawings from Scotland , and are held in the Bodleian Library in Oxford . His design for the completion of the palace went unexecuted , with the work eventually being carried out by Sir William Bruce in the 1670s .
In 1666 John Mylne designed and was engaged to build Panmure House , near Forfar , for the 2nd Earl of Panmure . After his death , the work was continued by Alexander Nisbet , possibly with the assistance of William Bruce . This house , demolished in 1950 , resembled Heriot 's Hospital and other Scottish 17th @-@ century buildings , rather than looking forward to the new classical styles which would be introduced by Bruce . During the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War of 1665 – 1667 , Mylne designed and built fortifications at Lerwick , which were later reconstructed as Fort Charlotte . He provided a design for Linlithgow 's tolbooth in 1667 , but following his death another mason was sought , and a different design built . Another scheme was for Leslie House , carried out after his death by Robert Mylne , again with the advice of Bruce .
Mylne 's architectural works are in the Scottish Renaissance tradition , which combined gothic and classical elements , together with mannerist ornament , often derived from imported pattern books . Colvin describes Mylne as " the leading master of the last phase of Scottish mannerism " . By the 1660s , Mylne 's work was becoming old @-@ fashioned , as the European @-@ inspired Palladian began to be imported by William Bruce .
= = Political and military service = =
In 1640 , Mylne joined the Scottish army which invaded northern England during the Second Bishop 's War . He was promoted in 1646 to Captain of Pioneers , and Master Gunner of Scotland .
As well as serving on Edinburgh 's town council from 1636 to 1664 , Mylne played several other political roles in his life . In 1652 , he served as part of a commission sent to the English Parliament in London , to discuss a possible Treaty of Union . From 1654 to 1659 he represented Edinburgh at the Convention of Royal Burghs , and in 1662 he was elected a burgh commissioner for Edinburgh , attending Charles II 's first Scottish parliament .
= = Death = =
In 1667 Mylne was in discussions with the town of Perth for construction of a new market cross . However , he died at Edinburgh in December . He was buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard , Edinburgh , where a monument , erected by his nephew and apprentice Robert Mylne , still stands . Another memorial was erected by the Freemasons at their meeting place , St. Mary 's Chapel , although this former church was demolished in the 18th century . His portrait hangs in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery . Robert Mylne succeeded him as master mason to the crown .
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= Hurricane Gracie =
Hurricane Gracie was a major hurricane that formed in September 1959 , the strongest during the 1959 Atlantic hurricane season and the most intense to strike the United States since Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . The system was first noted as an area of thunderstorms east of the Lesser Antilles which moved just north of the Greater Antilles , quickly intensifying into a hurricane on September 22 . Gracie was a storm that was very difficult to forecast , with its movement unpredictable . After five days of erratic motion , Gracie became a major hurricane which struck South Carolina , and weakened as it moved up the Appalachians , bringing much needed rain to a drought @-@ plagued region . Much of the destruction related with Gracie was centered on Beaufort , South Carolina . Gracie became an extratropical cyclone on September 30 while moving through the Eastern United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of squally weather was first noted a few hundred miles east of the Lesser Antilles on September 18 . The convective area organized into a tropical depression near the north coast of Hispaniola on September 20 . After moving west @-@ northwestward for a day , it turned northeastward , where upper level winds were very favorable and steering currents were very weak . On September 22 Gracie was named as a tropical depression before it developed into Tropical Storm Gracie , followed by reaching hurricane strength later that night . It turned to the east on September 25 , and turned back west to west @-@ northwest on September 27 as a stable anticyclone built in to its north .
Gracie quickly strengthened and reached its peak of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) winds on September 29 , but cooler air and land interaction weakened it to a 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) Category 3 major hurricane at the time of its landfall at 1625 UTC over St. Helena Sound near the south end of Edisto Island in South Carolina . After landfall , Gracie moved inland and north and became extratropical on September 30 .
= = Preparations = =
A hurricane watch was issued for the coast of the United States from Savannah , Georgia to Wilmington , North Carolina at 1600 UTC on September 28 , which were quickly updated to hurricane warnings by 1900 UTC the same day . By 1900 UTC , gale warnings were in effect from Daytona Beach , Florida to Savannah , Georgia as well as from Wilmington to Morehead City , North Carolina . At 1200 UTC on September 29 , gale warnings were dropped south of Brunswick , Georgia . At 2200 UTC , gale warnings were extended northward to Cape May , New Jersey , including Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay . At 0400 UTC on September 30 , all warnings south of Cape Hatteras were dropped , leaving gale warnings in effect from Cape Hatteras northward . At 1000 UTC , small craft were advised to remain in port from Cape May northward to Block Island , Rhode Island . By 1600 UTC , due to Gracie 's continued weakening , all remaining gale warnings were downgraded to small craft warnings .
= = Impact = =
= = = Georgia and South Carolina = = =
Storm surge flooding was minimal due to the storm 's landfall near the time of low tide . However , Charleston still recorded their highest tide since 1940 . Along the coast of southern South Carolina , the storm tide was measured up to 11 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) above mean lower low water ( the average level of the lowest low tide each day ) . The United States Coast Guard vessel Bramble evacuated people stranded in Savannah and Charleston on September 30 . Gracie killed 10 people in South Carolina and Georgia , mainly due to wind and rain @-@ induced automobile accidents , falling trees and electrocution by live wires . The Garden Club of South Carolina replaced numerous trees after the storm . Wind damage was quite significant across South Carolina , particularly the city of Beaufort , South Carolina , with many downed trees , telephone poles , and streetlights . Also , numerous windows were shattered and shingles were torn off of roofs . A number of creeks overflowed causing floodwaters that , in areas , were several feet deep . The opening of the Beaufort Center of the University of South Carolina was delayed due to Gracie . It would be 30 years before another major hurricane struck South Carolina ; Hurricane Hugo in September 1989 .
= = = Elsewhere in the United States = = =
Heavy rains fell well ahead of the storm along an inverted trough extending north of the storm , causing 6 @.@ 79 inches ( 172 mm ) between the mornings of September 28 and September 29 at Norfolk , Virginia . The highest rainfall amount measured during the storm was 13 @.@ 20 inches ( 335 mm ) at Big Meadows . The storm spawned seven tornadoes in all . A few of the tornadoes which accompanied the dissipating storm through Virginia killed twelve people near Charlottesville , Virginia . Other tornadoes touched down in the Carolinas and Pennsylvania . For the most part , rainfall from Gracie was beneficial as it moved up the Appalachians since the area had been in a drought preceding the cyclone .
= = Long @-@ term impact = =
Edisto Beach , South Carolina was changed forever by Gracie , due to human efforts to renourish the beach after its passage . Most of the shell hash beach currently at Edisto was placed there after Gracie . In order to expand the beach , an inland marsh was excavated and moved to the shoreline . This created highly desirable beach front property which led to new development along the coast seaward of Palmetto Boulevard , but also created an environmental catastrophe along the nearby ocean floor . A species of isopod which grows in coastal estuaries , the Cyathura Polita , disappeared after the passage of this hurricane from the Ashepoo River in South Carolina . The Kermadec petrel , a bird , was swept to Lookout Mountain Sanctuary in Pennsylvania during Gracie , marking the first time it appeared in North America .
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= All Singing , All Dancing =
" All Singing , All Dancing " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 4 , 1998 . In the fourth clip show aired by The Simpsons , Homer claims he hates singing , so Marge shows family videos of musical numbers from the previous seasons of the series . The original material was directed by Mark Ervin and written by Steve O 'Donnell . It was executive produced by David Mirkin . It features guest appearances from George Harrison , Patrick Stewart , and Phil Hartman , although these are all clips and none of them recorded original material for the episode .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Bart rent the film Paint Your Wagon , expecting it to be a shoot @-@ em @-@ up Western . Homer is dismayed to find out that it is actually a musical , and expresses his distaste for such films . Marge is baffled by this , saying that he ironically loves singing . The family starts delivering their dialogue in song form , and Marge decides to prove that Homer loves to sing by showing family videos . Several clips are shown of various songs from past episodes , but Homer is not convinced . At this moment , Snake breaks into their house and holds them hostage . However once he hears them singing , Snake decides that they would not make good hostages and leaves .
The family continues to sing and more videos are shown . Snake again breaks into the house and claims that he got a song stuck in his head and the only way to get rid of it is to kill the Simpsons . He tries to shoot them , but discovers that his gun is out of ammunition and leaves again .
After more clips , Snake returns for a final time , with ammunition , and aims his gun at them , but the family reveals that they are done singing . Snake declares that he has no problems with them and leaves .
= = Songs = =
The clip show features several full songs from previous episodes of The Simpsons .
Many of them are among the most popular songs from the show . " Who Needs The Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart ? " and " We Do " had previously been nominated for best song at the Primetime Emmy Awards , and " We Put the Spring in Springfield " won the award in 1997 .
= = Production = =
The episode is the fourth and penultimate clip show episode of The Simpsons . It was put together by Steve O 'Donnell , who wrote this episode and " The Joy of Sect " ( which , in production order , preceded this episode ) . Executive producer David Mirkin hated doing clip shows and " wouldn 't do them if we had a choice " and this is referenced at the end of the episode . The episode contains two " screw the audience act breaks " in which a major problem is presented before the commercial but suddenly ends after the break . The episode also had problems with the censors as they objected to scenes of Snake pointing his shotgun at the Simpsons ' baby daughter , Maggie . In spite of this , " All Singing , All Dancing " is one of the few episodes of The Simpsons that has been given a G @-@ rating on American television .
= = Cultural references = =
Clint Eastwood is dressed as the Man with No Name from the Dollars Trilogy films . The film Paint Your Wagon is referenced at the beginning of the episode . The film does star Eastwood and Lee Marvin and was directed by Joshua Logan , but the writers did not base their parody or the song on the film at all . The man in the film that confronts Clint Eastwood is modelled after Lee Van Cleef .
Several of the songs featured in the episode are references to actual musicals . " Springfield , Springfield " , sung by Bart and Milhouse , is a reference to " New York , New York " , from On the Town . Krusty 's " Send in the Clowns " uses different lyrics than the original version by Stephen Sondheim . Lyle Lanley 's " The Monorail Song " takes references from a performance by character Professor Harold Hill in The Music Man , including Lanley 's costume and " the crowd 's mindless acceptance of his deceitful proposal " . " See My Vest " is a parody of the song " Be Our Guest " , sung by Angela Lansbury in the 1991 film Beauty and the Beast . While at the First Church of Springfield , Bart substitutes the lyrics from Iron Butterfly 's " In @-@ A @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Vida " to " In the Garden of Eden " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " All Singing , All Dancing " finished 26th in ratings for the week of December 29 , 1997 – January 4 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 9 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
Although he normally hates clip shows , David Mirkin liked this episode because of the singing and dancing and called the clips " truly wonderful " . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote " for a clips show , it 's not bad . The only one missing really is " Dr Zaius " from " A Fish Called Selma " . In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner wrote , " when songs spring up one at a time , you might notice a clever line or two , or the way that they serve the same kind of plot @-@ advancing or energy @-@ generating purposes they do in Singin ' in the Rain or Cats , but piled together in [ " All Singing , All Dancing " ] , they amount to a sort of Simpsonian side project : Springfield : The Musical . And ... it 's a very impressive side project at that . " The episode was nominated for a 1998 Emmy Award , in the " Music Direction " category . A review of The Simpsons season 9 DVD release in the Daily Post noted that it includes " super illustrated colour commentaries " on " All Singing , All Dancing " and " Lost Our Lisa " . Isaac Mitchell @-@ Frey of the Herald Sun cited the episode as a " low moment " of the season , noting it " recycles parts of previous episodes " .
Michael Dunne analyzed the episode in his book American Film Musical Themes and Forms , and gave examples from it while explaining that singing and dancing performances are generally not seen as acceptable in the television medium . He notes that Homer calls singing " fruity " and " the lowest form of communication " during the episode . However , Dunne also notes the fact that Homer himself sings " his objection that musicals are fake and phony " . Dunne describes the frame narrative as establishing Marge as " more favorably disposed toward musicals than the males in her house " . Dunne concluded that " musicals come out on top in this episode , but the victory is marginal at best " . Of the episode itself , Dunne wrote that " the parodies contained in the show demonstrate that its creators are familiar enough with various forms of musical performance to echo them and confident enough that their viewers will catch the references " .
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= Audition Day =
" Audition Day " is the fourth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 62nd overall episode of the series . The episode was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on November 5 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Craig Castaldo , Nick Fondulis , Daniel Genalo , Marceline Hugot , Angela Grovey , Michael Mulheren , David Perlman , and Brian Williams . There are cameos by Gilbert Gottfried , Martin Scorsese , and Christopher Walken , though , the three did not appear as themselves , but provided their voices in the episode .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) attempt to rig The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) auditions to guarantee that their preferred candidate ( Fondulis ) will be selected by their boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) . Meanwhile , Jack learns a valuable lesson about humanity when he becomes infected with bedbugs .
" Audition Day " has received generally good reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 5 @.@ 940 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Writer Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) of the show TGS with Tracy Jordan have decided to rig the TGS auditions — in which they are in search of a new cast member on the show — by planning to add bad actors so that their preferred choice , Jayden Michael Taylor ( Nick Fondulis ) , gets hired by their boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) . TGS cast member Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) learns that the auditions are taking place and worries that her position on the show will be lessened with the arrival of a new actor . Although Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , the star of the show , reassures Jenna that the two have nothing to worry about , she remains uneasy . Later , Jenna discovers that Liz and Pete want Jayden to be cast , but she pleads with Liz to pull Jayden out of his audition . Jenna hates him for humiliating her after working together on a play , but Liz does not change her mind about Jayden . Jenna eventually figures out what Liz and Pete are scheming , so she and Tracy go out and find people ( Angela Grovey and David Perlman ) and bring them to the TGS auditions .
Meanwhile , Jack learns from NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) that he has bedbugs . As a result of being ostracized due to his condition , and now feeling compassionate , Jack tells Liz to give everyone a chance to audition , after catching her trying to get rid of people trying out . During the audition process , Jack , Liz , and Pete witness auditions from TGS staff writers Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , J.D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) , NBC news anchor Brian Williams , Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) , the daughter of General Electric ( GE ) CEO Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) , former TGS cast member Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) , and a robot street performer ( Daniel Genalo ) . During Jayden 's audition , Liz realizes that Jayden 's supposed references — Gilbert Godfried , Martin Scorsese , and Christopher Walken — were not legit and that Jayden impersonated them . She confronts him about this , however , Jayden plans to blackmail Liz with a camera marked by her fingerprints — that features provocative photos of Jayden , to make it look like Liz would only hire him if he would let her take pictures of his genitals . Liz tries to stop Jack from casting Jayden , though Jack has made up his mind in hiring the robot street performer . Jack casts him after he shook his hand without being concerned that Jack had bedbugs .
= = Production = =
" Audition Day " was written by 30 Rock supervising producer Matt Hubbard , his first episode for the fourth season , and his eighth writing credit overall . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , making it her eighth for the series . " Audition Day " originally aired in the United States on November 5 , 2009 , on NBC as the fourth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 62nd overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on October 29 , 2009 .
Actress Marceline Hugot made her seventh appearance on the show as Kathy Geiss , the daughter of GE CEO Don Geiss , after appearing in the episodes " Jack Gets in the Game " , " Succession " , " Sandwich Day " , " Cooter " , " Do @-@ Over " , and " Reunion " . News anchor Brian Williams , of NBC Nightly News , made his second appearance as himself with this episode , in which he auditions to become a cast member of TGS . He first appeared in the season three episode " The Ones " . In one scene of " Audition Day " , a homeless man keeps his distance from Jack Donaghy after Jack said he had bedbugs . The homeless man was credited as Moonvest and played by Craig Castaldo , or known as Radio Man . Castaldo has made numerous appearances on 30 Rock . At the end of the credits , Gilbert Gottfried , Martin Scorsese , and Christopher Walken are credited as doing their actual voices on Liz Lemon 's phone .
Jack hiring the robot street performer in " Audition Day " was first introduced in the fourth season premiere episode " Season 4 " . Actor Cheyenne Jackson made his 30 Rock debut as Danny Baker in " The Problem Solvers " , the next episode . Jackson did not play the robot in this episode , instead actor Daniel Genalo played the character . This is the last episode to feature Lonny Ross as Josh Girard until the 100th episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of this episode , Jack tells Liz " That 's what I 'm talking about . Human empathy , it 's as useless as the Winter Olympics ... this February on NBC . " Realizing Kenneth might know what is going on with the TGS auditions , Jenna floats towards him with the wind in her hair , and when Kenneth sees her he calls her " Vampyr ! " . Later , Jenna reveals to Liz that she has been brought into auditions , similar to what Liz and Pete are doing with rigging the TGS auditions , to make actress Kim Cattrall seem grounded and human .
Jenna mentions that she met Jayden 20 years ago . The scene then flashes back to Jenna getting dissed by a young Jayden . The costume she is wearing is essentially the same costume that Jane Krakowski wore 20 years previously in the Broadway musical Starlight Express . In addition , Jayden is dressed similar to the street urchin Gavroche in Les Misérables because the young boy playing that role on Broadway was also providing the voice of Control in Starlight .
During her audition , Kathy sings as Scottish amateur singer Susan Boyle who gained worldwide attention for her performance of the song " I Dreamed a Dream " from the musical Les Misérables on the reality show Britain 's Got Talent . Kathy 's performance ( sung by operatic soprano Lisette Oropesa ) gets Liz and Jack teared up , similar to Boyle 's performance on Britain 's Got Talent . It is revealed that Dot Com once portrayed the character Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin in Anton Chekhov 's play The Seagull . When Kenneth refuses to embrace him , Jack asks him " Et tu , Kenneth ? " , prompting Kenneth to explain in Latin why he will not embrace Jack due to his bedbugs .
During his meeting with fellow GE executives , in which Jack is not allowed to be with them due to his bedbugs condition , a telepresence system — a television screen in which the executives can be seen — is placed in Jack 's office to witness the meeting . One of the executives ( Michael Mulheren ) asks Jack if he likes the Cisco Systems equipment , which he does , calling it " the gold standard by which all business technology is judged . Cisco : The Human Network " , then after an argument with the executives , they mute him , prompting Jack to say " Did you just mute me ! ? Did you just use Cisco 's cutting edge SureMute ™ technology to mute me ! ? " Some reviewers wondered whether or not 30 Rock continued doing more product placement with the addition of Cisco Systems , as they have done in the past with Snapple , Verizon , and SoyJoy .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Audition Day " was watched by 5 @.@ 940 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode constituted a six percent drop in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " Stone Mountain " . During its original broadcast , " Audition Day " ranked third in its 9 : 30 p.m. slot , behind CBS ' CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger noted " I use the phrase ' funny forgives a lot ' in my 30 Rock reviews when an episode fails to cohere but is still entertaining . [ ... ] That changed with ' Audition Day ' , which still wasn 't 30 Rock at its peak but which had one perfect , hilarious sequence that almost singlehandedly redeemed the episode for me . " He enjoyed Jack 's scene in the subway , calling it " the funniest moment " from the episode , and " one of the funniest things Alec Baldwin has done on the show in a long time " . TV Squad 's Bob Sassone wrote that he did not enjoy Jack 's plot , explaining that the bedbug bit " got to be a little too much " , and much preferred Jenna and Tracy 's storyline " because it fit in with the auditioning plot . " Time contributor James Poniewozik opined that this was an " amusing episode overall " , and was glad that it gave Scott Adsit 's Pete " something to do " here . Los Angeles Times 's Meredith Blake was favorable towards " Audition Day " , writing it was a " fine return to form " , following the airing of " Stone Mountain " , which she disliked . IGN contributor Robert Canning said this episode of 30 Rock had fun , comedic chaos , and that it " worked well , but never quite reached the hilarity tipping point . " He disliked that Brian Williams ' cameo was ruined by the promos " because the surprise of the bit would have been far funnier than what the bit actually turned out to be . " Canning said the auditions were " fun , though not a complete knockout " , enjoyed the fact that Kathy participated in the auditions and her Susan Boyle reference " had great timing " , and was " let down " by the revelation that Jayden was psychotic , noting it " [ s ] eemed like a bit of a cop out to the story as a whole . " In conclusion , Canning gave this episode an 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 rating .
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin said he did not laugh much during the broadcast of " Audition Day " , but admitted he grinned during the closing segment of the episode in which Jack is in the subway along with a group quartet . Rabin said he enjoyed Brian Williams 's " array of characters " , during his audition , and gave this episode a B- grade rating . Sean Gandert of Paste wrote that the episode " had a good premise ... but I wasn 't really feeling the whole thing . " Gandert reported that the new cast member angle was " predictable and not too interesting , as well as the audition process in general . "
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= In Utero ( album ) =
In Utero is the third and final studio album by the American rock band Nirvana , released on September 21 , 1993 , by DGC Records . Nirvana intended the record to diverge significantly from the polished production of its previous album , Nevermind ( 1991 ) . To capture a more abrasive and natural sound , the group hired engineer Steve Albini to record In Utero during a two @-@ week period in February 1993 at Pachyderm Studio in Cannon Falls , Minnesota . The music was recorded quickly with few studio embellishments , and the song lyrics and album packaging incorporated medical imagery that conveyed frontman Kurt Cobain 's outlook on his publicized personal life and his band 's newfound fame .
Soon after recording was completed , rumors circulated in the press that DGC might not release the album in its original state , as the record label felt that the result was not commercially viable . Although Nirvana publicly denied the statements , the group was not fully satisfied with the sound Albini had captured . Albini declined to alter the album further , and ultimately the band hired R.E.M. producer Scott Litt to make minor changes to the album 's sound and remix the singles " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " All Apologies " .
Upon release , In Utero entered the Billboard 200 chart at number one and received critical acclaim as a drastic departure from Nevermind . The record has been certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , and has sold 15 million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
Nirvana broke into the musical mainstream with its major label debut album Nevermind in 1991 . Despite modest sales estimates — the band 's record company , DGC Records , forecast sales of 50 @,@ 000 copies — Nevermind became a huge commercial success popularized the Seattle grunge movement and alternative rock in general . Nevertheless , all three members of Nirvana — singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain , bassist Krist Novoselic , and drummer Dave Grohl — later expressed dissatisfaction with the sound of the album , citing its production as too polished . Early in 1992 , Cobain told Rolling Stone that he was sure that the band 's next album would showcase " both of the extremes " of its sound , saying " it 'll be more raw with some songs and more candy pop on some of the others . It won 't be as one @-@ dimensional [ as Nevermind ] " . Cobain wanted to start work on the album in the summer of 1992 , but the band was unable as Cobain and his bandmates lived in different cities , and the singer and his wife Courtney Love were expecting the birth of their daughter Frances Bean . DGC had hoped to have a new album by the band ready for a late @-@ 1992 holiday season release ; since work on it proceeded slowly , the label released the compilation album Incesticide in December 1992 .
In a Melody Maker interview published in July 1992 , Cobain told the English journalist Everett True he was interested in recording with Jack Endino ( who had produced the group 's 1989 debut album Bleach ) and Steve Albini ( former frontman of the noise rock band Big Black and producer for various independent releases ) . Cobain said he would then choose the best material from the sessions for inclusion on the group 's next album . In October 1992 , Nirvana recorded several songs ( mainly as instrumentals ) during a demo session with Endino in Seattle ; they later re @-@ recorded many of these songs for In Utero . Endino recalled that the band did not ask him to produce its next record , but noted that the band members constantly debated working with Albini . The group recorded another set of demos while on tour in Brazil in January 1993 . One of the recordings from this session , the long improvisational track " Gallons of Rubbing Alcohol Flow Through the Strip " , was included as a hidden track on non @-@ US copies of In Utero .
Nirvana ultimately chose Albini to record its third album . Albini had a reputation as a principled and opinionated individual in the American independent music scene . While there was speculation that the band chose Albini to record the album due to his underground credentials , Cobain told Request magazine in 1993 , " For the most part I wanted to work with him because he happened to produce two of my favorite records , which were Surfer Rosa [ by Pixies ] and Pod [ by The Breeders ] . " Inspired by those albums , Cobain wanted to utilize Albini 's technique of capturing the natural ambiance of a room via the usage and placement of several microphones , something previous Nirvana producers had been averse to trying . Months before the trio had even approached Albini about the recording , rumors circulated that he was slated to record the album . Albini sent a disclaimer to the British music press denying involvement , only to get a call from Nirvana 's management a few days later about the project . Although he considered the group to be " R.E.M. with a fuzzbox " and " an unremarkable version of the Seattle sound " , Albini told Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad he accepted because he felt sorry for the band members , whom he perceived to be " the same sort of people as all the small @-@ fry bands I deal with " , at the mercy of their record company . Before the start of recording sessions , the band sent Albini a tape of the demos it had made in Brazil . In return , Albini sent Cobain a copy of the PJ Harvey album Rid of Me to give him an idea of the acoustics at the studio where they would record .
= = Recording = =
The members of Nirvana and Albini decided on a self @-@ imposed two @-@ week deadline for recording the album . Wary of interference by DGC , Albini suggested the band members pay for the sessions with their own money , which they agreed to . Studio fees totaled US $ 24 @,@ 000 , while Albini took a flat fee of $ 100 @,@ 000 for his services . Despite the suggestions of Nirvana 's management company Gold Mountain , Albini refused to take percentage points on record sales , even though he stood to earn about $ 500 @,@ 000 in royalties . While a common practice among producers in the music industry , Albini refused to take royalties because he considered it to be immoral and " an insult to the artist " .
In February 1993 , Nirvana traveled to Pachyderm Studio in Cannon Falls , Minnesota , to record the album . Albini did not meet the band members until the first day of recording , though he had spoken to them beforehand about the type of album they wanted to make . Albini observed that " they wanted to make precisely the sort of record that I 'm comfortable doing " . The group stayed in a house located on the studio grounds during the recording sessions . Novoselic compared the isolated conditions to a gulag ; he added , " There was snow outside , we couldn 't go anywhere . We just worked . " For most of the sessions , the only people present were the band members , Albini , and technician Bob Weston . The band made it clear to DGC and Gold Mountain that it did not want any intrusion during the album production , going as far as not playing any of the work in progress for its record label A & R representative . To prevent the group 's managers and label from interfering , Albini instituted a strict policy of ignoring everyone except for the band members ; the producer explained that everyone associated with the group aside from the musicians themselves were " the biggest pieces of shit I ever met " .
The album sessions began slowly but would ultimately gain momentum ; the band arrived at Pachyderm Studio without their equipment , and spent much of the first three days there waiting for it to arrive by mail . However , once recording began on February 13 , work moved quickly . On most days the group began work around midday , took breaks for lunch and dinner , and continued work through midnight . Cobain , Novoselic , and Grohl recorded their basic instrumental tracks together as a band . The group utilized this set @-@ up on all songs except for faster compositions like " Very Ape " and " Tourette 's " , where the drums were recorded separately in a nearby kitchen due to its natural reverb . Albini surrounded Grohl 's drum kit with about 30 microphones . Cobain added additional guitar tracks to about half the songs , then added guitar solos , and finally vocals . The band did not discard takes , and kept virtually everything it captured on tape . Albini felt he was more an engineer than a producer ; despite his personal opinions , he ultimately let the band judge which were decent takes . He said , " Generally speaking , [ Cobain ] knows what he thinks is acceptable and what isn 't acceptable [ ... ] He can make concrete steps to improve things that he doesn 't think are acceptable . " Cobain reportedly recorded all his vocal tracks in six hours . The band completed recording in six days ; Cobain had originally anticipated disagreements with Albini , whom the singer heard " was supposedly this sexist jerk " , but called the process " the easiest recording we 've ever done , hands down " . The only disruption occurred a week into the sessions , when Courtney Love arrived because she missed Cobain . The band , Love , and Albini refused to go into specifics , but Weston 's girlfriend ( who served as the studio 's chef ) stated that Love created tension by criticizing Cobain 's work and being confrontational with everyone present .
The album was mixed over five days . This rate was quick by Nirvana 's standards , but not for Albini , who was used to mixing entire albums in a day or two . On occasions when work on a song mix was not producing desired results , the band and Albini took the rest of the day off to watch nature videos , set things on fire , and make prank phone calls for amusement . The sessions were completed on February 26 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Albini sought to produce a record that sounded nothing like Nevermind . He felt the sound of Nevermind was " sort of a standard hack recording that has been turned into a very , very controlled , compressed radio @-@ friendly mix [ ... ] That is not , in my opinion , very flattering to a rock band . " Instead , the intention was to capture a more natural and visceral sound . Albini refused to double @-@ track Cobain 's vocals and instead recorded him singing alone in a resonant room . The producer noted the intensity of the singer 's vocals on some tracks ; he said , " There 's a really dry , really loud voice at the end of ' Milk It ' ... that was also done at the end of ' Rape Me ' , where [ Cobain ] wanted the sound of him screaming to just overtake the whole band . " Albini achieved the album 's sparse drum sound by simply placing several microphones around the room while Dave Grohl performed , picking up the natural reverberation of the room . Albini explained , " If you take a good drummer and put him in front of a drum kit that sounds good acoustically and just record it , you 've done your job . "
Azerrad asserted in his 1993 biography Come as You Are : The Story of Nirvana that the music of In Utero showcased divergent sensibilities of abrasiveness and accessibility that reflected the upheavals Cobain experienced prior to the album 's completion . He wrote , " The Beatlesque ' Dumb ' happily coexists beside the all @-@ out frenzied punk graffiti of ' Milk It , ' while ' All Apologies ' is worlds away from the apoplectic ' Scentless Apprentice . ' It 's as if [ Cobain ] has given up trying to meld his punk and pop instincts into one harmonious whole . Forget it . This is war . " Cobain believed , however , that In Utero was not " any harsher or any more emotional " than any of Nirvana 's previous records . Novoselic concurred with Azerrad 's comments that the album 's music leaned more towards the band 's " arty , aggressive side " ; the bassist said , " There 's always been [ Nirvana ] songs like ' About a Girl ' and there 's always been songs like ' Paper Cuts ' ... Nevermind came out kind of ' About a Girl ' -y and this [ album ] came out more ' Paper Cuts ' " . Cobain cited the track " Milk It " as an example of the more experimental and aggressive direction the band 's music had been moving in the months prior to the sessions at Pachyderm Studio . Novoselic viewed the album 's singles " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " All Apologies " as " gateways " to the more abrasive sound of the rest of the album , telling journalist Jim DeRogatis that once listeners played the record they would discover " this aggressive wild sound , a true alternative record " .
Several of the songs on In Utero had been written years prior to recording ; some of them dated back to 1990 . With tracks like " Frances Farmer Will Have Her Revenge on Seattle " , Cobain favored long song titles in reaction to contemporary alternative rock bands that utilized single @-@ word titles . Cobain continued to work on the lyrics while recording at Pachyderm Studio . Nonetheless , Cobain told Darcey Steinke in Spin in 1993 that in contrast to Bleach and Nevermind , the lyrics were " more focused , they 're almost built on themes . " Michael Azerrad asserted that the lyrics were less impressionistic and more straightforward than in previous Nirvana songs . Azerrad also noted that " [ v ] irtually every song contains some image of sickness and disease " . In a number of songs Cobain made reference to books he had read . " Frances Farmer Will Have Her Revenge on Seattle " was inspired by Shadowland , a 1978 biography of actress Frances Farmer , whom Cobain had been fascinated with ever since he read the book in high school . The song " Scentless Apprentice " was written about Perfume : The Story of a Murderer , a historical horror novel about a perfumer 's apprentice born with no body odor of his own but with a highly developed sense of smell , and who attempts to create the " ultimate perfume " by killing virgin women and taking their scent .
Cobain stated in a 1993 interview with The Observer that " for the most part [ In Utero ] ' s very impersonal " . The songwriter also told Q that year that the abundance of infant and childbirth imagery on the album and his newfound fatherhood were coincidental . However , Azerrad argued that much of the album contains personal themes , noting that Grohl held a similar view . Grohl said , " A lot of what he has to say is related to a lot of the shit he 's gone through . And it 's not so much teen angst anymore . It 's a whole different ball game : rock star angst . " Cobain downplayed recent events ( " I really haven 't had that exciting a life " ) and told Azerrad that he did not want to write a track that explicitly expressed his anger at the media , but the author countered that " Rape Me " seemed to deal with that very issue . While Cobain said the song was written long before his troubles with drug addiction became public , he agreed that the song could be viewed in that light . " Serve the Servants " contains comments about Cobain 's life , both as a child and as an adult . The opening lines " Teenage angst has paid off well / Now I 'm bored and old " were a reference to Cobain 's state of mind in the wake of Nirvana 's success . Cobain dismissed the media attention given to the effect his parents ' divorce had on his life with the line " That legendary divorce is such a bore " from the chorus , and directly addressed his father with the lines " I tried hard to have a father / But instead I had a dad / I just want you to know that I don 't hate you anymore / There is nothing I could say that I haven 't thought before " . Cobain said he wanted his father to know he did not hate him , but had no desire to talk to him .
= = Packaging and title = =
Cobain originally wanted to name the album I Hate Myself and I Want to Die , a phrase that had originated in his journals in mid @-@ 1992 . At the time , the singer used the phrase as a response whenever someone asked him how he was doing . Cobain intended the album title as a joke ; he stated he was " tired of taking this band so seriously and everyone else taking it so seriously " . Novoselic convinced Cobain to change the title due to fear that it could potentially result in a lawsuit . The band then considered using Verse Chorus Verse — a title taken from its song " Verse Chorus Verse " , and an earlier working title of " Sappy " — before eventually settling on In Utero . The final title was taken from a poem written by Courtney Love .
The art director for In Utero was Robert Fisher , who had designed all of Nirvana 's releases on DGC . Most of the ideas for the artwork for the album and related singles came from Cobain . Fisher recalled that " [ Cobain ] would just give me some loose odds and ends and say ' Do something with it . ' " The cover of the album is an image of a Transparent Anatomical Manikin , with angel wings superimposed . Cobain created the collage on the back cover , which he described as " Sex and woman and In Utero and vaginas and birth and death " , that consists of model fetuses , a turtle shell and models of turtles , and body parts lying in a bed of orchids and lilies . The collage had been set up on the floor of Cobain 's living room and was photographed by Charles Peterson after an unexpected call from Cobain . The album 's track listing and re @-@ illustrated symbols from Barbara G. Walker 's The Woman 's Dictionary of Symbols and Sacred Objects were then positioned around the edge of the collage .
= = Production controversy and remixing = =
After the recording sessions were completed , Nirvana sent unmastered tapes of the album to several individuals , including the president of DGC 's parent company Geffen Records Ed Rosenblatt and the group 's management company Gold Mountain . When asked about the feedback he received , Cobain told Michael Azerrad , " The grown @-@ ups don 't like it . " He said he was told his songwriting was " not up to par " , the sound was " unlistenable " , and that there was uncertainty that mainstream radio would welcome the sound of Albini 's production . There were few people at Geffen or Gold Mountain who wanted the band to record with Albini to begin with , and Cobain felt he was receiving an unstated message to scrap the sessions and start all over again . Cobain was upset and said to Azerrad , " I should just rerecord this record and do the same thing we did last year because we sold out last year — there 's no reason to try and redeem ourselves as artists at this point . I can 't help myself — I 'm just putting out a record I would like to listen to at home . " However , a number of the group 's friends liked the album , and by April 1993 Nirvana was intent on releasing In Utero as it was . According to Cobain , " Of course , they want another Nevermind , but I 'd rather die than do that . This is exactly the kind of record I would buy as a fan , that I would enjoy owning . "
The band members began to have doubts about the record 's sound . During this time Cobain admitted , " The first time I played it at home , I knew there was something wrong . The whole first week I wasn 't really interested in listening to it at all , and that usually doesn 't happen . I got no emotion from it , I was just numb . " The group concluded that the bass and lyrics were inaudible and approached Albini to remix the album . The producer declined ; as he recalled , " [ Cobain ] wanted to make a record that he could slam down on the table and say , ' Listen , I know this is good , and I know your concerns about it are meaningless , so go with it . ' And I don 't think he felt he had that yet ... My problem was that I feared a slippery slope . " The band attempted to fix its concerns with the record during the mastering process with Bob Ludwig at his studio in Portland , Maine . Novoselic was pleased with the results , but Cobain still did not feel the sound was perfect .
Soon afterward , in April 1993 Albini remarked to the Chicago Tribune that he doubted Geffen would release the completed album . Albini commented years later that in a sense he felt he spoke about the situation " from a position of ignorance , because I wasn 't there when the band was having their discussions with the record label . All I know is ... we made a record , everybody was happy with it . A few weeks later I hear that it 's unreleasable and it 's all got to be redone " . While Albini 's remarks in the article drew no immediate reply from the group or its label , Newsweek ran a similar article soon afterwards that did . Nirvana denied there was any pressure from its label to change the album 's sound , sending a letter to Newsweek that said that the article 's author " ridiculed our relationship with our label based on totally erronous [ sic ] information " ; the band also reprinted the letter in a full @-@ page ad in Billboard . Rosenblatt insisted in a press release that Geffen would release anything the band submitted , and label founder David Geffen made the unusual move of personally calling Newsweek to complain about the article .
Nirvana wanted to do further work on the recorded tracks , and considered working with producer Scott Litt and remixing some tracks with Andy Wallace ( who had mixed Nevermind ) . Albini vehemently disagreed , and claimed he had an agreement with the band that it would not modify the tracks without his involvement . Albini initially refused to give the album master tapes to Gold Mountain , but relented after a phone call from Novoselic . The band decided against working with Wallace and chose to remix and augment the songs " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " All Apologies " with Litt at Seattle 's Bad Animals Studio in May 1993 . Furthermore , a remix of " Pennyroyal Tea " by Scott Litt ( at Bad Animals on November 22 , 1993 ) appears on the censored Wal @-@ Mart and Kmart versions of In Utero ; this remix is also available on the band 's 2002 best @-@ of compilation , Nirvana , and is the same mix that appeared on the single . One song , " I Hate Myself and Want to Die " , was omitted from the final track listing as Cobain felt there were too many " noise " songs on the album . The rest of the album was left unaltered aside from a remastering which sharpened the bass guitar sound and increased the volume of the vocals by approximately three decibels . Albini was critical of the album 's final mix ; he said , " The end result , the record in the stores doesn 't sound all that much like the record that was made . Though it 's still them singing and playing their songs , and the musical quality of it still comes across . "
= = Release and reception = =
To avoid over @-@ hyping the album , DGC Records took a low @-@ key approach to promoting In Utero ; the company 's head of marketing told Billboard before the album 's release that the label was taking a promotional strategy similar to that of Nevermind , and explained that the label would " set things up , duck , and get out of the way " . The label aimed its promotion at alternative markets and press , and released the album on vinyl record as part of this strategy . In contrast to the previous album , the label did not release any of In Utero 's singles commercially in the United States . DGC sent promo copies of the album 's first single " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " to American college , modern rock , and album @-@ oriented rock radio stations in early September , but the label did not target Top 40 radio . Despite the label 's promotion , the band was convinced that In Utero would not be as successful as Nevermind . Cobain told Jim DeRogatis , " We 're certain that we won 't sell a quarter as much , and we 're totally comfortable with that because we like this record so much . "
In Utero was released on September 13 , 1993 on vinyl record and cassette tape in the United Kingdom , and on September 14 on vinyl in the United States , with the American vinyl pressing limited to 25 @,@ 000 copies . Although the album was issued on compact disc in the UK on September 14 , a full domestic release did not occur until September 21 . In Utero debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart , selling 180 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . Meanwhile , retail chain stores Wal @-@ Mart and Kmart refused to sell the album . According to The New York Times , Wal @-@ Mart claimed it did not carry the album due to lack of consumer demand , while Kmart representatives explained that the album " didn 't fit within our merchandise mix " . In truth , both chains feared that customers would be offended by the artwork on the album 's back cover . DGC issued a new version of the album with reworked packaging to the stores in March 1994 . This version featured edited album artwork , listed the name of " Rape Me " as " Waif Me " , and included a Scott Litt remix of " Pennyroyal Tea " . A spokesperson for Nirvana explained that the band decided to edit the packaging because as kids Cobain and Novoselic were only able to buy music from the two chain stores ; as a result they " really want to make their music available to kids who don 't have the opportunity to go to mom @-@ and @-@ pop stores " .
In Utero received acclaim from critics , although some reviews were mixed . Time 's Christopher John Farley stated in his review of the album , " Despite the fears of some alternative @-@ music fans , Nirvana hasn 't gone mainstream , though this potent new album may once again force the mainstream to go Nirvana . " Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke said that the album is " a lot of things – brilliant , corrosive , enraged and thoughtful , most of them all at once . But more than anything , it 's a triumph of the will . " Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne commented " Kurt Cobain hates it all " , and noted that the sentiment pervades the record . Browne argued , " The music is often mesmerizing , cathartic rock & roll , but it is rock & roll without release , because the band is suspicious of the old @-@ school rock cliches such a release would evoke . " NME magazine 's John Mulvey had doubts about the record ; he concluded , " As a document of a mind in flux – dithering , dissatisfied , unable to come to terms with sanity – Kurt [ Cobain ] should be proud of [ the album ] . As a follow @-@ up to one of the best records of the past ten years it just isn 't quite there . " Ben Thompson of The Independent commented that in spite of the album 's more abrasive songs , " In Utero is beautiful far more often than it is ugly " , and added , " Nirvana have wisely neglected to make the unlistenable punk @-@ rock nightmare they threatened us with . " Q magazine felt that the album showcases Cobain 's songwriting abilities and wrote , " If this is how Cobain is going to develop , the future is lighthouse @-@ bright " . Several critics ranked In Utero as one of the best releases of the year . It placed first and second in the album categories of the Rolling Stone and Village Voice Pazz & Jop year @-@ end critics ' polls , respectively . Additionally , The New York Times included it on its list of the top ten albums of the year . The album was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 1994 Grammy Awards .
That October , Nirvana embarked on its first American tour in two years to promote the album . A second single , a split release that featured " All Apologies " and " Rape Me " , was issued in December in the United Kingdom . The band began a six @-@ week European leg of the tour in February 1994 , but it was cancelled after Cobain suffered a drug overdose in Rome on March 6 . Cobain agreed to enter drug rehabilitation , but the singer went missing soon afterwards , and on April 8 he was found dead in his Seattle home as the result of suicide by a shotgun blast . The intended third single from In Utero , " Pennyroyal Tea " , was cancelled in the wake of Cobain 's death and the subsequent dissolution of Nirvana ; limited promotional copies were released in Britain . Three days after Cobain 's body was discovered , In Utero moved back up the Billboard charts , from number 72 to number 27 .
In the ensuing years , In Utero has continued to perform commercially and gather critical praise . In a 2003 Guitar World article that commemorated the tenth anniversary of the album 's release , Cobain biographer Charles R. Cross argued that In Utero was " a far better record [ than Nevermind ] and one that only 10 years later seems to be an influential seed spreader , judging by current bands . If it is possible for an album that sold four million copies to be overlooked , or underappreciated , then In Utero is that lost pearl . " That same year , Pitchfork Media placed In Utero at number 13 on its list of the 100 best albums of the 1990s . In 2004 Blender ranked it at number 94 in its " 100 Greatest American Albums of All Time " list , while in 2005 , Spin placed it at number 51 on its " 100 Greatest Albums 1985 – 2005 " retrospective . Rolling Stone has ranked it at number 435 on its list " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , and number 7 on its list the " 100 Best Albums of the Nineties " . In 2005 , In Utero was ranked number 358 in Rock Hard magazine 's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time . In Utero has been certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of over five million units , and has sold 4 @,@ 258 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan . To commemorate the album 's 20th anniversary , DGC reissued In Utero in several different formats in September 2013 . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
Bonus track on non @-@ American pressings
" Gallons of Rubbing Alcohol Flow Through the Strip " ( Cobain , Grohl , Novoselic ) – 7 : 28
= = Personnel = =
Nirvana
Kurt Cobain - guitar , lead vocals , art direction , design , photography
Krist Novoselic - bass guitar
Dave Grohl - drums , backing vocals
Additional personnel
Steve Albini – producer , engineer
Robert Fisher – art direction , design , photography
Alex Grey – illustrations
Adam Kasper – second engineer
Michael Lavine – photography
Scott Litt – mixing
Bob Ludwig – audio mastering
Karen Mason – photography
Charles Peterson – photography
Kera Schaley – cello on " All Apologies " and " Dumb "
Neil Wallace – photography
Bob Weston – technician
= = Charts = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Battle of Tawahin =
The Battle of Tawahin ( Arabic : وقعة الطواحين Waqʿat al @-@ Ṭawāhīn , " Battle of the Mills " ) was fought in 885 between the forces of the Abbasid Caliphate under Abu 'l @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Muwaffaq ( the future Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tadid ) and the autonomous Tulunid ruler of Egypt and Syria , Khumarawayh . The battle took place near Ramlah ( modern Israel ) and ended with a Tulunid victory .
Following Khumarawayh 's ascension to power in 884 , the Abbasid central government decided to reassert its control over the provinces ruled by him and invaded northern Syria that year . By early 885 the conflict was proceeding favorably for the Abbasids , forcing Khumarawayh to personally take the field and try to stop their advance toward Egypt . In the battle that followed , the Abbasid troops initially defeated the Tulunids and plundered Khumarawayh 's camp , but were then ambushed by a Tulunid reserve force and routed in turn .
As a result of the battle , the Abbasid forces were forced to withdraw from Syria , and Tulunid control over the province was reaffirmed . In the following year the Abbasid government agreed to a treaty which formally recognized Khumarawayh 's rule over both Egypt and Syria .
= = Background = =
Ahmad ibn Tulun , a Turkish soldier , had managed to become governor of Egypt in 868 . By using the country 's immense wealth to raise an army of his own , and exploiting the instability of the central Abbasid government , over the next years he became de facto autonomous , although he continued to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Abbasid caliph — for most of his reign the powerless al @-@ Mu 'tamid — and to forward some tax revenue to the central government . Ibn Tulun 's power made him a major rival to the real power behind the Abbasid throne , al @-@ Mu 'tamid 's brother and regent al @-@ Muwaffaq . The latter tried in 877 to wrest Egypt from Ibn Tulun , but the attempt failed spectacularly , and in the following year Ibn Tulun extended his area of control over Syria up to the border zone with the Byzantine Empire in the north and up to al @-@ Raqqah in the western Jazira in the east , immediately adjacent to the Abbasid metropolitan province of Iraq .
Relations between Ibn Tulun and al @-@ Muwaffaq were further strained when al @-@ Mu 'tamid tried to play off the two men against each other to regain his own authority and independence . In 882 the caliph attempted to escape from his brother 's control by fleeing to Ibn Tulun 's domain , but he was apprehended en route by Ishaq ibn Kundaj , the governor of the Jazira and Mosul , and was sent back to Iraq . This led to a formal breach in relations ; al @-@ Muwaffaq ordered that Ibn Tulun be publicly cursed in mosques throughout the empire and stripped of his governorships in favour of Ishaq ibn Kundaj , while Ibn Tulun similarly had al @-@ Muwaffaq publicly cursed , declared him deposed from his position as al @-@ Mu 'tamid 's second heir and proclaimed a " holy war " against him .
When Ibn Tulun died in May 884 , he was succeeded by his second son , Khumarawayh , with the approval of the Tulunid grandees but not the Abbasid court . Immediately al @-@ Muwaffaq ended the ongoing negotiations that he had been conducting with Ibn Tulun , and refused to recognize Khumarawayh 's rule over Egypt and Syria . A prominent Tulunid general , Ahmad ibn Muhammad al @-@ Wasiti , then defected to al @-@ Muwaffaq , and urged him to make war on the " young and inexperienced " Khumarawayh and recover the latter 's provinces for the central government .
= = Prelude : Abbasid invasion of Syria = =
The initial Abbasid invasion was led by Ishaq ibn Kundaj , appointed as the nominal governor of Syria and Egypt , and another general , Muhammad ibn Diwdad Abu 'l @-@ Saj . After receiving encouragement from al @-@ Muwaffaq , who promised to send them reinforcements , the two commanders marched into Syria in mid @-@ 884 . The Tulunid governor of Damascus soon defected to their side , and they were able to take control of Antioch , Hims and Aleppo . Upon learning of the Abbasid advance , Khumarawayh sent troops to Syria . The Tulunid army first proceeded to Damascus , where they succeeded in forcing its rebel governor to flee , and then advanced to Shayzar on the Orontes . The onset of winter , however , resulted in a lull in hostilities , and both sides remained in their camps to wait out the season .
Eventually the reinforcements that al @-@ Muwaffaq had promised arrived from Iraq , under the command of his own son , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas . The combined Abbasid forces advanced to Shayzar , where the Tulunid army was still encamped . The latter was caught completely by surprise and was defeated ; many of the Egyptians were killed in the fighting . The survivors fled to Damascus , but upon learning that the Abbasid army was headed for them they abandoned the city , allowing the Abbasids to retake it in February 885 . The Tulunid forces continued south to Ramlah in the district of Palestine , where they wrote to Khumarawayh of what had transpired . Khumarawayh now decided to personally lead his troops against the Abbasids , and departed from Egypt for Syria .
At the same time , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas set out from Damascus and headed for Ramlah , during which he learned of Khumarawayh 's arrival in Syria . At this point , however , the Abbasid offensive was hampered by a dispute between its commanders , which was caused when Abu 'l @-@ Abbas accused Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj of cowardice . In response to this insult , the two generals decided to abandon the campaign , and left Abu 'l @-@ Abbas to face Khumarawayh 's forces by himself .
= = Battle of Tawahin = =
The two armies met at a village called at @-@ Tawahin ( " the Mills " ) , situated between Ramlah and Damascus , on 5 / 6 April 885 ( although later Egyptian sources like al @-@ Maqrizi give the date , probably erroneously , as 7 August ) . Khumarawayh reportedly had a significant numerical advantage , thanks in part to the departure of Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj ; according to al @-@ Kindi , the Tulunid army numbered 70 @,@ 000 while Abu 'l @-@ Abbas had only 4 @,@ 000 men . Despite this , the first engagement between the two armies went favorably for the Abbasids . Khumarawayh quickly lost his nerve and fled , according to al @-@ Tabari , " on the back of a donkey " back to Egypt with part of his army .
Believing that they had won the battle , the Abbasid troops proceeded to plunder the Tulunid camp , with Abu 'l @-@ Abbas installing himself in Khumarawayh 's own tent . A part of the Tulunid army , however , under Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar , had remained behind and prepared to ambush Abu 'l @-@ Abbas ' forces . Once the Abbasids , secure in their success , " had already laid down their arms and settled in their quarters " , Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar 's men attacked and routed them , inflicting severe casualties and killing several senior commanders . Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , who mistakenly thought that Khumarawayh had returned to the fight , decided to flee with what men he had left , and the Tulunids plundered his camp in turn .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the battle , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas and a " very few " of his men who had managed to escape made a disorganized retreat to the north . They first reached Damascus , whose inhabitants refused to allow him entry , and then proceeded to Tarsus near the Byzantine frontier . After spending some time at Tarsus , they were ousted from the city by its residents in mid @-@ 885 , at which point Abu 'l @-@ Abbas decided to withdraw from Syria and return to Iraq .
Khumarawayh learned of the outcome of the battle in Egypt . Rejoicing upon hearing of Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar 's victory , he quickly sent back his forces to Syria and re @-@ established his authority over it . A large part of the Abbasid army was captured and transported to Egypt , where Khumarawayh , in a gesture aimed at reconciliation with the caliphal government , allowed those soldiers who wanted to return to Iraq depart without ransom , while offering the rest the opportunity to settle in Egypt .
The victorious Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar went to Damascus , where he rebelled against Khumarawayh , but was defeated and killed .
Over the next couple of years , Khumarawayh followed up on the victory and succeeded in considerably extending his realm . In late 886 , he launched an offensive against the Jazira ; Ishaq ibn Kundaj was defeated and forced to flee , and the province came under the Tulunid sphere of influence . Shortly after this , Khumarawayh began negotiations with al @-@ Muwaffaq , and a treaty was signed in December 886 whereby the Abbasid government recognized Khumarawayh as hereditary ruler in his possessions for thirty years . Subsequent attempts by both Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj to retake the Jazira failed , and Ishaq ibn Kundaj eventually submitted to Khumarawayh . In 890 Yazman al @-@ Khadim , the governor of Tarsus , also declared allegiance to him , thus bringing Cilicia under Tulunid control as well .
The Tulunid triumph was to prove ephemeral , however . In 893 Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , now Caliph , succeeded in regaining the Jaziran provinces by treaty , and after Khumarawayh 's death in 896 , took advantage of Tyulunid weakness to recover northern Syria and Cilicia as well . Finally , in 905 the Abbasids launched a campaign that rapidly brought about the end of Tulunid autonomy and fully re @-@ incorporated their lands into the Caliphate .
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= Hegemony or Survival =
Hegemony or Survival : America 's Quest for Global Dominance is a study of the " American Empire " written by the American linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky , a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . It was first published in the United States in November 2003 by Metropolitan Books , and later republished in the United Kingdom by Penguin Books .
Chomsky 's main argument in Hegemony or Survival is that the socio @-@ economic elite who control the United States have pursued an " Imperial Grand Strategy " since the end of World War II in order to maintain global hegemony through military , political and economic means . He argues that in doing so they have repeatedly shown a total disregard for democracy and human rights , in stark contrast to the US government 's professed support for those values . Furthermore , he argues that this continual pursuit of global hegemony now threatens the existence of the human species itself because of the increasing proliferation of weapons of mass destruction .
Drawing historical examples from 1945 through to 2003 to support his argument , Chomsky looks at the US government 's support for regimes responsible for mass human rights abuses ( including ethnic cleansing and genocide ) , namely El Salvador , Colombia , Turkey , Israel , Egypt , South Africa and Indonesia . He also discusses US support for militant dissident groups widely considered " terrorists " , particularly in Nicaragua and Cuba , as well as direct military interventions , such as the Vietnam War , NATO bombing of Yugoslavia , Afghan War and Iraq War , in order to further its power and grasp of resources . In doing so , he highlights that US foreign policy – whether controlled by Republican or Democratic administrations – still follows the same agenda of gaining access to lucrative resources and maintaining US world dominance .
Mainstream press reviews in the US were mixed and were largely negative in the UK , although a review in Asia was more positive . In a speech before the UN General Assembly in September 2006 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez openly praised the work . Sales of the book surged after the recommendation , its rank on Amazon.com rising to # 1 in paperback and # 6 in hardcover in only a few days .
= = Background = =
Noam Chomsky ( 1928 – ) was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe . Becoming academically involved in the field of linguistics , Chomsky gained a PhD and secured a teaching job at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In the field of linguistics , he is credited as the creator or co @-@ creator of the Chomsky hierarchy and the universal grammar theory , achieving international recognition for his work .
Politically , Chomsky had held radical leftist views since childhood , identifying himself with anarcho @-@ syndicalism and libertarian socialism . A staunch critic of U.S. foreign policy , he arose to public attention for these views in 1967 , when The New York Times published his article , " The Responsibility of Intellectuals " , a criticism of the Vietnam War . His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent : The Political Economy of the Mass Media ( 1988 ) , co @-@ written with Edward S. Herman , an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media .
Chomsky is the author of over 100 books , and has been described as a prominent cultural figure . According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992 , Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992 , and was the eighth most cited source overall .
The book was published as the first in The American Empire Series , edited for Metropolitan Books by Steve Fraser and Tom Engelhardt . The series had been devised as a vehicle for works of anti @-@ imperialism that were critical of U.S. foreign policy . Engelhardt informed an interviewer that the series reflected their " counterinterventionary impulse " and represented an attempt to reclaim " the word " from the political right in the U.S. They agreed to publish with Metropolitan because it was co @-@ run by Engelhardt and Sara Bershtel . In conjunction with the publication of the book , Chomsky answered a series of public questions on the website of The Washington Post .
= = Synopsis = =
Chomsky 's first chapter , " Priorities and Prospects " , provides an introduction to U.S. global dominance at the start of 2003 . He looks at the role of propaganda – employed by government and mass media – in shaping public opinion in both the U.S. and United Kingdom , arguing that it allows a wealthy elite to thrive at the expense of the majority . As evidence for the manner in which the media shapes public opinion on foreign policy , he discusses the role of the U.S. government in protecting its economic interests in Nicaragua , first by supporting the military junta of General Somoza and then by supporting the Contra militias , in both instances leading to mass human rights abuses which were ignored by the mainstream U.S. media .
Chapter two , " Imperial Grand Strategy " , looks at the U.S. government 's belief that it should take part in " preventative war " against states who threaten its global hegemony , despite the illegality of these actions under international law . Chomsky argues that the targets of U.S. preventative war must be weak , yet important and easy to depict as a threat to the U.S. populace . Using the 2003 invasion of Iraq as an example , he discusses how the U.S. government and media portrayed the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein as a threat to the U.S. and other Middle Eastern states , something which Chomsky argues it was not .
Chapter three , " The New Era of Enlightenment " , explores further examples of U.S. interventionism in world affairs . Criticising the standard U.S. government claim that such interventionism is for humanitarian purposes , Chomsky maintains that it is an attempt to further the power of U.S. capitalism , with little interest in the welfare of the people involved . Using the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo as an example , he argues that western forces intervened not to protect Albanian Kosovans from Serbian aggression ( as they claimed ) , but to humiliate and weaken Serbian President Slobodan Milosovic , who had remained resistant to western demands for years . He asserts that western criticism of foreign human rights abuses is politically motivated , highlighting that while the U.S. were intervening in Kosovo , they were simultaneously supporting the governments of Turkey , Colombia and Indonesia , all of whom were involved in widespread human rights abuses and ethnic cleansing .
In the fourth chapter , " Dangerous Times " , Chomsky focuses primarily on U.S. interventionism throughout Latin America , which the government has defended through its Monroe Doctrine . He discusses the U.S. campaign to topple the socialist government of Fidel Castro in Cuba , highlighting both its economic embargo of the island and its financial backing for militant groups that attack Cuban targets , including the perpetrators of the Bay of Pigs invasion and the bombing of Cubana Flight 455 . He furthermore discusses the U.S. government 's role in training Latin American right wing paramilitary squads , who have perpetrated widespread human rights abuses across the region .
Chapter five , " The Iraq Connection " , looks at the background to the 2003 Iraq War , beginning with an analysis of the activities of the Reagan administration in the 1980s , who focused their military efforts in Central America and the Middle East . Chomsky argues that Reagan 's administration utilized fear and nationalist rhetoric to distract the public from the poor economic situation that the U.S. was facing , finding scapegoats in the form of the leftist governments of Libya , Grenada and Nicaragua , as well as the international drug trade . He examines the long relationship that the U.S. had with the Hussein 's Iraqi government , noting that they actively supported Hussein throughout the Iran – Iraq War , Al @-@ Anfal Campaign and the Halabja poison gas attack , only turning against their former ally after his Invasion of Kuwait in 1990 . Proceeding to critique the idea that the Bush II administration was genuinely concerned about threats to U.S. security , he criticises their attempts to undermine international efforts to prevent the militarization of space , the abolition of biological warfare , and the fight against global pollution , as well as the fact that they ignored all warnings that the Iraq invasion would cause a worldwide anti @-@ American backlash . Exploring the dismissive attitude that the U.S. took towards European governments who opposed the war , namely France and Germany , he critiques the idea that the U.S. wanted to install a democratic government in Iraq , arguing that they wanted to install a puppet regime that would be obedient to U.S. corporate interests .
In the sixth chapter , " Dilemmas of Dominance " , Chomsky explores the relationship that the U.S. has had with Eastern Europe since the collapse of the Soviet Union and with East Asia since the Second World War . In the former , Chomsky argues , the U.S. has allied itself with the capitalist reformers who have advocated privatization and neoliberalism at the expense of the welfare state , leading to increased poverty and demographic decline across the region . In the latter , he has explored the role that the U.S. has played – through the likes of the San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951 – in supporting capitalist development , but trying to ensure its own economic hegemony at the same time .
Chapter seven , " Cauldron of Animosities " , opens with a discussion of U.S. support for the increasing militarization of Israel and its illegal development of nuclear weapons , something Chomsky believes threatens peace in the Middle East by encouraging nations like Iran and Iraq to do the same . He explores the longstanding western exploitation of the Middle East for its oil resources , first by the British Empire and subsequently by the U.S. post @-@ World War II , and then looks at the U.S. ' role in the Israeli – Palestinian conflict , continually supporting Israel both militarily and politically , furthering human right abuses against the Palestinian people and repeatedly sabotaging the peace process .
The eighth chapter , " Terrorism and Justice : Some Useful Truisms " , looks at what Chomsky calls " a few simple truths " regarding the criteria that is accepted for a conflict to be internationally recognized as a " just war " . He argues that these truisms are continually ignored when it comes to the actions of the U.S. and her allies . Exploring the concepts of " terror " and " terrorism " , he argues that the U.S. only use the term to refer to the actions of their enemies , and never to their own actions , no matter how similar they may be . As an example of such double standards , he highlights the public outcry at the killing of Leon Klinghoffer , a disabled American murdered by Palestinian militants in 1985 , contrasting it with the complete U.S. ignorance of the Israeli military 's killing of a disabled Palestinian , Kemal Zughayer , in 2002 . Focusing in on the Afghan War – widely described as a " just war " in the U.S. press – he criticizes such a description , arguing that the conflict was opposed by the majority of the world 's population , including the Afghan people .
In the final chapter , " A Passing Nightmare " , Chomsky turns his attention to weapons of mass destruction . He argues that rather than helping to eradicate nuclear , chemical and biological weaponry , the U.S. has continually increased its number of nuclear warheads , thereby encouraging other nations to do the same , putting the world in jeopardy of nuclear holocaust . Discussing the role of the U.S. in creating ballistic missile defense systems and encouraging the militarization of outer space , he notes that the U.S. government have continually undermined international treatise to decrease the number of weapons of mass destruction , because the American socio @-@ economic elite believe that " hegemony is more important than survival . " However , he argues that there is still hope for humanity if the citizens of the world – the " Second Superpower " – continue to criticize and oppose the actions of the U.S. government .
= = Main arguments = =
= = = U.S. Imperial Grand Strategy = = =
Chomsky 's primary argument in Hegemony or Survival is that the United States government has pursued an " Imperial Grand Strategy " in order to maintain its status as the world 's foremost superpower since at least the end of the Second World War . Adopting the term " Imperial Grand Strategy " from international affairs specialist John Ikenberry of Princeton University , he quotes Ikenberry on the nature of this doctrine and the manner in which it considers the " rule of force " to be more important than the " rule of law " , thereby ignoring international law . Quoting liberal statesman Dean Acheson , Chomsky asserts that the purpose of this strategy is to prevent any challenge to the " power , position , and prestige of the United States " .
Noting that economic decision making in the United States is highly centralized among a select socio @-@ economic elite who control big business , he argues that this elite play a dominant role in this Imperial Grand Strategy because they consistently maintain a strong influence over successive U.S. governments . As a result , he argues that U.S. foreign policy has focused on gaining and maintaining unrestricted access to markets , energy supplies , and strategic resources across the world . Chomsky goes on to categorize the specific purposes of the doctrine as :
containing other centers of global power within the " overall framework of order " managed by the United States ; maintaining control of the world 's energy supplies ; barring unacceptable forms of independent nationalism ; and overcoming " crisis of democracy " within domestic enemy territory .
Chomsky argues that as a part of this strategy , the U.S. has regularly engaged in " preventative war " , which he highlights is illegal under international law and could be categorised as a war crime . Preventative war refers to conflict waged to prevent a nation ever reaching the stage where it could become a potential threat , and according to Chomsky , under the regimes of Ronald Reagan , George H.W. Bush and his son George W. Bush it has actively involved attacking " an imagined or invented threat " such as Grenada and Iraq . He differentiates this " preventative war " from " preemptive war " , which he argues can be justifiable under international law in cases of self @-@ defence . Examining examples of preventative war waged by the United States , he notes that all of the nations that have been attacked have shared the same three characteristics : 1 ) they are " virtually defenseless " , 2 ) they are " important enough to be worth the trouble " and 3 ) there has been a way to portray them as " the ultimate evil and an imminent threat to our survival . "
= = = The Bush administration and the invasion of Iraq = = =
Chomsky argues that the Republican neoconservative administration of President George W. Bush , elected to the presidency in 2001 , differed from earlier administrations in one key respect : it was open about adhering to the Imperial Grand Strategy , outright declaring that it would be willing to use force to ensure U.S. global hegemony despite international condemnation . Chomsky sees this as being in contrast to previous administrations , who had never explicitly informed the public that they adhered to such a doctrine . Instead , earlier administrations had discussed their intentions within elite circles which were known only to specialists or readers of dissident literature . Thus , where once only the socio @-@ economic elite and their left @-@ wing critics knew of the Imperial Grand Strategy , now the entire American populace are potentially aware of it . He considers this a " significant difference . "
In Chomsky 's view , the invasion of Iraq by a U.S. and U.K. coalition must be seen in the wider context of the U.S. government 's Imperial Grand Strategy . He claims that the Iraq invasion fits the three criteria that he has highlighted for being classified as a U.S. target for preventative war . Considering the country " virtually defenseless " against the superior might of the western armed forces , he also notes that securing control of the country would be an important move for the U.S. socio @-@ economic elite , gaining unlimited access to the country 's lucrative oil resources and asserting their own military might to intimidate other nations into compliance . He also argued that government and media propaganda also set out to forge an erroneous link between Iraq President Saddam Hussein and Al @-@ Qaeda , playing on the American people 's horror of the 9 / 11 attacks . Furthermore , he stated that they also wrongly claimed that the Iraqi government was developing weapons of mass destruction to be used against the U.S. or its allies . Chomsky remarks that the 2003 invasion of Iraq is particularly significant because it signals the " new norm " in international relations , and that in future the U.S. might be willing to wage a preventative war against " Iran , Syria , the Andean region , and a number of others . "
= = Reviews = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
Writing in the International Affairs journal , Michael T. Boyle of the Australian National University reviewed Hegemony or Survival alongside Immanuel Wallerstein 's The Decline of American Power : The U.S. in a Chaotic World ( 2003 ) , considering both to be " well @-@ considered if imperfect arguments " that the Bush administration 's foreign policy was in keeping with a long history of U.S. interference in global affairs . Praising its " prescient " appearance and its analysis of the historical evidence , Boyle did present some criticism of the book . In stressing the Bush administration 's continuity with earlier presidencies , Boyle argued that Chomsky had neglected to highlight the differences between the Bush administration and its predecessors , in particular its willingness to break relationships with long @-@ standing allies . Furthermore , Boyle opined that Chomsky had failed to offer a " compelling explanation " for why the U.S. government was willing to declare war on Iraq in 2003 , a conflict that was far costlier and riskier than the 1980s military adventures in Nicaragua and Grenada .
Journalism lecturer David Blackall of the University of Wollongong reviewed Chomsky 's book for the Asia Pacific Media Educator . He noted that it would polarize readers between those whose anti @-@ imperialist beliefs would be reinforced and those who would denounce Chomsky 's ideas as conspiracy theories . He thought the book was important in reminding readers that the War on Terror was keeping the US public in fear and was ensuring an ongoing international market for weaponry . However , he thought that there were " recurring attribution problems " in Chomsky 's text , for instance by referring to the international press as if it were a homogeneous entity with a single point of view . Ultimately , he thought that the book had something to teach educators of journalism : that " [ w ] hen there is a desire of the power elite to move on an issue , and the population is generally opposed , then the issue is removed from the political arena and from the news media priorities – distraction being a primary method . "
Eliza Mathews of the University of Queensland published a review of the book in the Journal of Australian Studies . She considered it similar to other books criticizing Bush 's administration , such as those of Michael Moore , John Dean , and Bob Woodward , but thought it novel in acknowledging prior policy . She thought some of his research to be " inadequate " in supporting his arguments , relying too heavily on newspaper reports and not verifying secondary sources . In other instances , she thought it unsatisfactory that Chomsky used his own work as a reference . She thought that despite being aimed at a wide audience , the text was not " light reading " , and expressed dislike at Chomsky 's " sarcastic tone " .
= = = Press reviews = = =
Views in the U.S. press were mixed . In a review for The New York Times , current U.S. ambassador to the United Nations , Harvard scholar , and Pulitzer Prize winner Samantha Power described the book as a " raging and often meandering assault " on U.S. foreign policy . Believing that Chomsky divides the world into two camps , the oppressor and the oppressed , she asserts that in Hegemony or Survival he portrays the U.S. as " the prime oppressor , [ who ] can do no right " , meanwhile overlooking the crimes of the oppressed . Arguing that he completely ignores the concept that the U.S. might undertake any foreign interventions with good intentions , she asserts that his book is not easy to read , and that his " glib and caustic tone " are distracting . Furthermore , she highlights problems with his use of end notes , particularly when some of these notes simply reference his earlier publications . Although disagreeing with his arguments , she believed that reading his book was " sobering and instructive " , having value in illustrating how many non @-@ Americans viewed the U.S. and highlighting many of the " structural defects " in U.S. foreign policy . Furthermore , recognizing that Chomsky 's " critiques have come to influence and reflect mainstream opinion elsewhere in the world , " she concedes that Chomksy 's analysis has a coherence that , for many , resolves much of the post @-@ 9 / 11 confusion and disillusionment stemming from the Bush administration 's standard response to the question , " Why do they hate us ? " .
Carol Armbrust discussed Chomsky 's book critically in The Antioch Review , claiming that his writing style was " a monumental turnoff " and that only those who already agreed with Chomsky 's political views would read the book . Claiming that his opinions constituted " conspiracy theories " , she compared his arguments to adding " two and two " together and getting " minus six " . Conversely , Publishers Weekly considered it " highly readable " and thought it both " cogent and provocative " , representing a significant addition to the debate on U.S. foreign policy .
Views in the British press were largely negative . Writing in The Observer , journalist Nick Cohen wrote disparagingly of Hegemony or Survival , describing Chomsky as a " master of looking @-@ glass politics " , exemplifying a trend in the western Left for being more interested in anti @-@ Americanism than in opposing the " fascist " regime of Saddam Hussein . Focusing his critique primarily on Chomsky and his readership than the book itself , he refers to its " convoluted prose " , and remarks that its argument is " dense and filled with non sequiturs " . In a shorter review published in The Observer , Oliver Robinson described the work as an " unequivocally incensed , if meandering " study of U.S. foreign policy .
Piyush Mathur reviewed the work for Asia Times Online , a joint Thai @-@ Hong Kongese publication . Praising the book , Mathur argued that by being a U.S. citizen who was willing to criticise his own government , Chomsky was showing " a way beyond parochialism " that avoided nationalistic or ethnocentric intentions . Highlighting Chomsky 's " wry humor and sarcasm " , he notes that the author " successfully shows that the American emperor , while preaching modesty to the rest , himself struts about rather ostentatiously . " Mathur also turned his attention to the most prominent press reviews of the book that appeared in the U.S. and U.K. , those of Power and Cohen . He argues that the former 's review was " hardly charitable " , and that she had narrowly framed Hegemony or Survival as a critique purely of the Bush administration , something Mathur stated it clearly was not . Turning to Cohen 's " venomous " review , he highlights that it actually dealt very little with Chomsky 's book , instead offering a diatribe against the Left , one which consisted of a " thoroughly convoluted vagueness " . Ultimately , Mathur notes that the " strangely defensive and rather parochial posture " adopted by Power and Cohen was " entirely in line " with the reception that Chomsky had received from the Anglo @-@ American world .
= = = Hugo Chávez 's endorsement = = =
In September 2006 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez held up a Spanish @-@ language copy of Hegemony or Survival during his speech at the United Nations . Chávez praised the work as an " excellent book to help us understand what has been happening in the world throughout the 20th century " . He urged everyone present to read it , including those in the U.S. , remarking that " I think that the first people who should read this book are our brothers and sisters in the United States , because their threat is right in their own house . " A vocal anti @-@ imperialist and prominent critic of U.S. foreign policy , particularly in his native Latin America , Chávez went on to describe U.S. President Bush as the " devil " in his speech .
In the U.S. , demand for the book dramatically increased . Within a week , sales had risen tenfold ; it reached number 1 on amazon.com 's best @-@ seller list , and number 6 in the best @-@ seller lists of the bookstore chains Borders Group and Barnes & Noble . A prominent critic of Chomsky 's political views , Alan Dershowitz of Harvard Law School , told The New York Times that he believed most of those buying Hegemony or Survival would not read it , remarking that " I don 't know anybody who 's ever read a Chomsky book " . Furthermore , he related that the MIT professor " does not write page turners , he writes page stoppers . There are a lot of bent pages in Noam Chomsky 's books , and they are usually at about Page 16 . "
In response to Chávez 's endorsement , Chomsky told The New York Times that he would be " happy to meet " the Venezuelan President , asserting that he was " quite interested " in what his administration had achieved and thought many of Chávez 's views to be " quite constructive " . This meeting came about in August 2009 , when Chomsky visited the Latin American country . In a press conference to commence the meeting , Chávez made reference to the intellectual 's work , remarking " Hegemony or survival ; we opt for survival " , before comparing Chomsky 's thesis with the concept of " Socialism or Barbarism " advocated by German Marxist Rosa Luxemburg in the early 20th century . Speaking through an interpreter , Chomsky replied that " I write about peace and criticize the barriers to peace ; that 's easy . What 's harder is to create a better world ... and what 's so exciting about at last visiting Venezuela is that I can see how a better world is being created . " He went on to Venezolana de Televisión , where he commented on the U.S. government 's role in orchestrating the 2009 Honduran coup d 'état to overthrow leftist President Manuel Zelaya . He also expressed cautious support for the leftist reforms being implemented by Chávez 's administration , remarking his opinion that their moves " toward the creation of another socio @-@ economic model could have a global impact if these projects are successfully carried out " .
In summer 2011 , Chomsky expressed criticism of Chávez 's government over the controversial imprisonment of judge María Lourdes Afiuni , who had been detained since December 2009 . He asserted that he was " convinced that she must be set free , not only due to her physical and psychological health conditions , but in conformance with the human dignity the Bolivarian revolution presents as a goal . " In December 2011 , Chomsky reiterated this position , sending a letter to Chávez asking him to include the judge in his " Christmas @-@ time pardons " . Afiuni was released on June 14 , 2013 .
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= Don Dunstan =
Donald Allan " Don " Dunstan AC , QC ( 21 September 1926 – 6 February 1999 ) was a South Australian politician . He entered politics as the Member for Norwood in 1953 , became leader of the South Australian Branch of the Australian Labor Party in 1967 , and was Premier of South Australia between June 1967 and April 1968 , and again between June 1970 and February 1979 .
The son of a business executive , Dunstan grew up as part of the Adelaide establishment . He excelled academically before experiencing his progressive political awakening while training in law and arts at the University of Adelaide . His upper @-@ class background and scholarly bearing made him unusual for the Labor Party at the time , but he rose quickly and entered parliament at the age of 26 . Dunstan quickly achieved prominence as Labor 's standout performer , a charismatic and aggressive debater in an era of sedate political conduct . The dominant political figure at the time was Premier Thomas Playford IV , then leading the Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) through a 27 @-@ year hold on power , aided by a system of electoral malapportionment dubbed the Playmander , which gave undue weight to the LCL 's rural base since its introduction by the LCL in 1936 . Dunstan stridently pursued the LCL over the Playmander .
In the late 1950s , Dunstan became well known for his campaign against the death penalty being imposed on Max Stuart , who was convicted of rape and murder of a small girl . He harried Playford aggressively over the matter , creating an uproar over what he saw as an unfair process . Playford eventually relented , and appeared shaken thereafter ; the event was seen as a turning point in the LCL 's decline , and Labor gained momentum . During Labor 's time in opposition , Dunstan was prominent in securing some reforms in Aboriginal rights , and was at the forefront of Labor abandoning the White Australia Policy .
Labor conducted an extensive campaign in marginal LCL seats at the 1965 election , resulting in 21 of 39 seats , with Frank Walsh and the Labor Party taking power . As Deputy Premier and Attorney @-@ General , the youthful and charismatic Dunstan made his older peers look lethargic as television became increasingly ubiquitous . The LCL opposition changed leaders and installed the young Steele Hall , worrying Labor as the elderly Walsh appeared bumbling in contrast . This resulted in Labor replacing Walsh with Dunstan . Despite maintaining a much larger vote over the LCL , Labor lost two seats at the 1968 election , with the LCL forming government with support of an independent . Dunstan responded by increasing his attacks on the Playmander and was able to convincingly sustain Playmander attacks with the effect of convincing the LCL into watering down the malapportionment . Again with little change in Labor 's vote but with the Playmander removed , Labor won 27 of 47 seats at the 1970 election . With a fairer seat and boundary system in place , Dunstan won three more elections , in 1973 , 1975 and 1977 .
A reformist , Dunstan brought profound change to South Australian society . His socially progressive administration saw Aboriginal land rights recognised , homosexuality decriminalised , the first female judge appointed , the first non @-@ British governor , Sir Mark Oliphant , and later , the first indigenous governor Sir Douglas Nicholls . He enacted consumer protection laws , reformed and expanded the public education and health systems , abolished the death penalty , relaxed censorship and drinking laws , created a ministry for the environment , enacted anti @-@ discrimination law , and implemented electoral reforms such as the overhaul of the Legislative Council of parliament , lowered the voting age to 18 , enacted universal suffrage , and completely abolished malapportionment , changes which gave him a less hostile parliament and allowed him to enact his reforms . He established Rundle Mall , enacted measures to protect buildings of historical heritage , and encouraged a flourishing of the arts , with support for the Adelaide Festival Centre , the State Theatre Company , and the establishment of the South Australian Film Corporation . He encouraged cultural exchanges with Asia , multiculturalism and an increase in the state 's culinary awareness and sophistication . He is recognised for his role in reinvigorating the social , artistic and cultural life of South Australia during his nine years in office , remembered as the Dunstan Decade . However , there were also problems ; the economy began to stagnate , and the large increases to burgeoning public service generated claims of waste . One of Dunstan 's pet projects , a plan to build a new city at Monarto to alleviate urban pressures in Adelaide , was abandoned when economic and population growth stalled , with much money and planning already invested . After four consecutive election wins , Dunstan 's administration began to falter in 1978 following his dismissal of Police Commissioner Harold Salisbury , as controversy broke out over whether he had improperly interfered with a judicial investigation . In addition , policy problems and unemployment began to mount , as well as unsubstantiated rumours of corruption and personal impropriety . Dunstan became increasingly short @-@ tempered , and the strain was increased by the death of his second wife . His resignation from the premiership and politics in 1979 was abrupt after collapsing due to ill health , but he would live for another 20 years , remaining a vocal and outspoken campaigner for progressive social policy .
= = Early life = =
Dunstan was born on 21 September 1926 in Suva , Fiji to Francis Vivian Dunstan and Ida May Dunstan ( née Hill ) ( Australian parents of Cornish descent ) . His parents had moved to Fiji in 1916 after his father took up a position as manager of the Adelaide Steamship Company . He spent the first seven years of his life in Fiji , starting his schooling there . Dunstan was beset by illness , and his parents sent him to South Australia hoping that the drier climate would assist his recovery . He lived in Murray Bridge for three years with his mother 's parents before returning to Suva for a short period during his secondary education . During his time in Fiji , Dunstan mixed easily with the Indian settlers and indigenous people , something that was frowned upon by the whites on the island .
He won a scholarship in classical studies and attended St Peter 's College , a traditional private school for the sons of the Adelaide establishment . He developed public speaking and acting skills , winning the College 's public speaking prize for two consecutive years . In 1943 , he portrayed the title role in a production of John Drinkwater 's play Abraham Lincoln , and according to the school magazine , he " was the chief contributor to the success of the occasion . " His academic strengths were in classical history and languages , and he disliked mathematics . He gained a reputation as a maverick , and said that his headmaster called him a " congenital rebel " multiple times . During this time , Dunstan did not board and lived in the seaside suburb of Glenelg with relatives . Dunstan completed his secondary schooling in 1943 , ranking in the top 30 overall in the statewide matriculation examinations .
In his youth , influenced by his uncle , former Liberal Lord Mayor of Adelaide Sir Jonathan Cain , Dunstan was a supporter of the conservative Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) and handed out how @-@ to @-@ vote cards for the party at state elections . Dunstan later said of his involvement with the Liberals : " I do not call it snobbery to deride the Establishment in South Australia , I admit that I was brought up into it , and I admit that it gave me a pain . " When asked of his roots , he said " I 'm a refugee from it and thank God for somewhere honest to flee to ! "
His political awakening happened during his university years . Studying law and arts at the University of Adelaide , he became very active in political organisations , joining the University Socialist Club , Fabian Society , the Student Representative Council and the Theatre Group . A two @-@ week stint in the Communist Party was followed by membership in the Australian Labor Party . Dunstan was markedly different from the general membership of the Labor Party of the time ; upon applying for membership at Trades Hall , a Labor veteran supposedly muttered " how could that long @-@ haired prick be a Labor man ? " His peculiarities , such as his upper @-@ class accent , were a target of derision by the working @-@ class Labor old guard throughout his early political involvement . Dunstan funded his education by working in theatre and radio during his university years . He eventually graduated with a double degree , with arts majors in Latin , comparative philology , history and politics , and he came first in political science .
Whilst living in Norwood and studying at university , Dunstan met his first wife , Gretel Dunstan ( née Elsasser ) , whose Jewish family had fled Nazi Germany to Australia . They married in 1949 , and moved , after Dunstan graduated , to Fiji where he was admitted to the bar and began his career as a lawyer . They returned to Adelaide in 1951 and settled in George Street , Norwood , with the couple 's young daughter , Bronwen . The family was forced to live in squalor for a number of years while Dunstan established his legal practice ; during this time , they took in boarders as a source of extra income . Gretel later gave birth to two sons , Andrew and Paul .
= = Political beginnings = =
Dunstan was nominated as the Labor candidate for the electoral district of Norwood at the 1953 election . His campaign was noted for his colourful methods to sway voters : posters of his face were placed on every pole in the district , and Labor supporters walked the streets advocating Dunstan . He targeted in particular the large Italian migrant population of the district , distributing translated copies of a statement the sitting LCL member Roy Moir had made about immigrants . Moir had commented that " these immigrants are of no use to us — a few of them are tradesmen but most of them have no skills at all . And when they intermarry we 'll have all the colours of the rainbow " . Dunstan won the seat and was elected to the South Australian House of Assembly . His son Andrew was born nine months after the win .
Dunstan was to become the most vocal opponent of the LCL Government of Sir Thomas Playford , strongly criticising its practice of electoral malapportionment , known as the Playmander , a pun on the term gerrymander . This system gave a disproportionate electoral weight to the LCL 's rural base , with votes worth as much as ten times others − at the 1968 election the rural seat of Frome had 4 @,@ 500 formal votes , while the metropolitan seat of Enfield had 42 @,@ 000 formal votes . He added colour and flair to debate in South Australian politics , changing the existing " gentlemanly " method of conducting parliamentary proceedings . He did not fear direct confrontation with the incumbent government and attacked it with vigour — up to this point most of his Labor colleagues had become dispirited by the Playmander , and were resigned to the ongoing dominance of Playford and LCL , so they were sought to influence policy through collaborative legislating . In 1954 , the LCL introduced the Government Electoral Bill , which was designed to further accentuate the undue weight on rural voters . During the debate , Dunstan decried this " immoral Bill ... I cannot separate it from the motives of those who put it forward . Since it is immoral , so are they . " Such language , unusually aggressive by the prevailing standards , resulted in Dunstan 's removal from the parliamentary chambers after he refused a request from the Speaker to retract his remark . The first parliamentarian to be expelled in years , Dunstan found himself on the front pages of newspapers for the first time . Nevertheless , he was not able to build up much of a profile in his first few years as The Advertiser , the dominant newspaper in the city , had a policy of ignoring the young politician 's activities — its editor Lloyd Dumas was the father of one of Dunstan 's first girlfriends .
= = Max Stuart trial = =
In December 1958 there occurred an event that initially had nothing to do with Playford , but eventually intensified into a debacle that was regarded as a turning point in his premiership and marked the end of his rule . Dunstan was prominent in pressuring Playford during this time .
A young girl was found raped and murdered , and Max Stuart , an Aborigine , was convicted and sentenced to be executed . Stuart 's lawyer claimed that the confession was forced , and appeals to the Supreme and High Courts were dismissed . Amid objections against the fairness of the trial among an increasing number of legal academics and judges , The News brought much attention to Stuart 's plight with an aggressive , tabloid @-@ style campaign .
When Playford and the Executive Council decided not to reprieve Stuart , an appeal to the Privy Council was made to stall the execution . Spearheaded by Dunstan , Labor then tried to introduce legislation to stall the hanging . Amid hue and cry , Playford started a Royal Commission to review the case . However , two of the commissioners had already been involved in the trial and one of the appeals . This provoked worldwide controversy with claims of bias from Dunstan and Labor , who also attacked Playford for what they regarded as a too @-@ restrictive scope of inquiry .
The Royal Commission began its work and the proceedings were followed closely and eagerly debated by the public . As Playford did not commute Stuart 's sentence , Dunstan introduced a bill to abolish capital punishment . The vote was split along party lines and was thus defeated , but Dunstan used the opportunity to attack the Playmander with much effect in the media , portraying the failed legislation as an unjust triumph of a malapportioned minority who had a vengeance mentality over an electorally repressed majority who wanted a humane outcome .
Amid the continuing uproar , Playford decided to grant clemency . The Royal Commission concluded that the guilty verdict was sound . Although a majority of those who spoke out against the handling of the matter — including Dunstan — thought that Stuart was probably guilty , the events provoked heated and bitter debate in South Australian society and destabilised Playford 's administration , while bringing much publicity to Dunstan .
From 1959 onwards , the LCL government clung to power with the support of two independents , as Labor gained momentum . Always at the forefront , Dunstan lambasted the government for perceived underspending on social welfare , education , health and the arts . Dunstan heavily promoted himself as a reformer .
In 1960 , Dunstan became president of the State Labor Party . The year also saw the death of Opposition Leader Mick O 'Halloran and his replacement by Frank Walsh . Dunstan attempted to win both the position of Opposition Leader and , failing that , Deputy Leader . However , the Labor caucus was sceptical of his age and inexperience , and he failed to gain either position , albeit narrowly .
= = Ascent to power = =
Federally , Dunstan , together with fellow Fabian Gough Whitlam , set about removing the White Australia policy from the Labor platform . The older trade @-@ unionist @-@ based members of the Labor Party vehemently opposed changing the status quo . However , the " New Guard " of the party , of which Dunstan was a part , were determined to bring about its end . Attempts in 1959 and 1961 failed , with Labor leader Arthur Calwell stating , " It would ruin the Party if we altered the immigration policy ... it was only cranks , long hairs , academics and do @-@ gooders who wanted the change " . However , Dunstan persisted in his efforts , and in 1965 it was removed from the Labor platform at their national conference ; Dunstan personally took credit for the change . Whitlam would later bring about the comprehensive end of the White Australia policy in 1973 as Prime Minister .
Dunstan pursued similar reforms with respect to Indigenous Australians . In 1962 , the Aboriginal Affairs Bill was introduced to liberalise constraints that had been placed on Indigenous Australians in the past and had effectively resulted in segregation . The initial proposal still retained some restrictions , placing more controls over full @-@ blooded Aborigines . Dunstan was prominent in Labor 's opposition to the double standards , and called for abolition of race @-@ based restrictions , saying that social objectives could be achieved without explicit colour @-@ based schemes . He was successful in forcing amendments to liberalise controls on property and the confinement of Indigenous Australians to reserves . However , his attempt to remove the different standards required of part and full @-@ blooded Aborigines failed , as did his proposal to ensure that at least half of the members of the Aboriginal Affairs Board be Indigenous Australians . Despite the passage of the bill , restrictions remained in place and Dunstan questioned the policy of assimilation of Aborigines , which he saw as the diluting of their distinctive cultures .
Labor won the seats of Glenelg and Barossa at the 1965 election , after winning the seats of Chaffey and Unley at the 1962 election . Labor thus finally overcame the Playmander and formed government for the first time in 32 years , with Frank Walsh as Premier of South Australia . Despite winning 55 percent of the primary vote , the Playmander was still strong enough that Labor won only 21 of 39 seats , a two @-@ seat majority . Dunstan became Attorney @-@ General and Minister of Community Welfare and Aboriginal Affairs . He was far and away the youngest member of the cabinet ; he was the only minister under 50 , and only one of three under 60 . Dunstan had a major impact on Government policy as Attorney @-@ General . Having only narrowly lost out on the leadership in 1960 , Dunstan became the obvious successor to the 67 @-@ year @-@ old Walsh , who was due to retire in 1967 under Labor rules of the time .
The Walsh Government implemented significant reform in its term of office . Liquor , gambling and entertainment laws were overhauled and liberalised , social welfare was gradually expanded and Aboriginal reserves were created . Strong restrictions on Aboriginal access to liquor were lifted . Women 's working rights were granted under the mantra of " equal pay for work of equal value " , and racial discrimination legislation was enacted . Town planning was codified in law , and the State Planning Authority was created to oversee development . Workers were given more rights and the bureaucracy of the education department was liberalised . Much of the reform was not necessarily radical and was primarily to " fill the gaps " that the previous LCL government had left . Despite a consistently higher statewide vote , Labor were consistently outnumbered 16 – 4 in the Legislative Council , so some desired legislation did not make it through . In 1965 , the legislature convened for 65 days , the most for 34 years , but many bills were still yet to be debated .
Many bills were watered down , but due to public disinterest , outcry was minimal . In particular , the council blocked electoral reform legislation , paving the way for a probable LCL win at the next election . Such was Dunstan 's pre @-@ eminence during his term as Attorney @-@ General that the cabinet was often called the " Dunstan Ministry " .
An economic depression had begun in South Australia after the Labor government gained office in 1965 ; unemployment went from the lowest in the country to the second highest , while immigration levels dropped . Labor was not responsible for the depression , although it initially did little to alleviate it . The Liberals seized on this opportunity , blaming it on " twelve months of Socialist administration in South Australia " and branding it the " Dunstan Depression " .
In the 1966 federal election , Labor suffered a swing against it of 11 @.@ 8 % in South Australia , double the national average . If this was replicated at a state election , it was projected that Labor would only hold 10 of the 39 seats . The Liberals dropped Playford as the state leader , and the younger and more progressive Steele Hall took his place . In a dire situation with the next state election looming , Labor changed leaders with Walsh , a " neanderthal figure in the television age " , standing down in May 1967 . Much of the Labor Right faction , as well as Walsh , was opposed to Dunstan taking the leadership , but no other MPs had the same charisma or eloquence . Eventually , Dunstan won the leadership over Des Corcoran , winning fourteen votes to eleven on the strength of rural and marginal Laborites , having trailed by one vote on the first count before less popular candidates were eliminated .
Dunstan 's first Premiership was eventful , with a steady stream of reform and attempts to end the depression . The latter half of 1967 saw the beginnings of a slight recovery , with unemployment dipping and industrial capacity steadying . The 1967 – 68 budget ran into deficit , allocating funds to energise the economic engine whilst Dunstan lambasted the Federal Government for neglecting the South Australian economy , demanding it take a degree of responsibility for its ills .
= = Elections 1968 – 1970 = =
In preparation for the 1968 election , Labor campaigned heavily around its leader , and this resonated with voters ; in surveys conducted in parts of the metropolitan area , 84 % of respondents declared their approval of Dunstan . In a presidential @-@ style election campaign , Hall and Dunstan journeyed across the state advocating their platforms , and the major issues were the leaders , the Playmander and the economy . Television saw its first major use in the election , and Dunstan , an astute public speaker , successfully mastered it . With his upbeat style , Dunstan also made an impact in the print media , which had long been a bastion of the LCL . Despite winning a 52 % majority of the primary vote , and 54 % of the two @-@ party preferred count , Labor lost two seats , resulting in a hung parliament : the LCL and Labor each had 19 seats . Had 21 votes in the rural seat of Murray gone the other way , Labor would have retained power . The balance of power rested with the chamber 's lone independent , Tom Stott , who was offered the speakership by the LCL in return for his support on the Assembly floor . Stott , a conservative , agreed to support the LCL .
There was a degree of speculation in the press that Dunstan would call for a new election because of the adverse outcome . However , Dunstan realised the futility of such a move and instead sought to humiliate the LCL into bringing an end to malapportionment . Although Stott 's decision to support the LCL ended any realistic chance of Dunstan remaining premier , Dunstan did not immediately resign his commission , intending to force Hall and the LCL to demonstrate that they had support on the floor of the Assembly when it reconvened . He used the six weeks before the start of the new legislature to draw attention to malapportionment . Protests were held on 15 March in Light Square . There , Dunstan spoke to a crowd of more than 10 @,@ 000 : " We need to show that the people of SA feel that at last the watershed has been reached in this , and that they will not continue to put up with a system which is as undemocratic as the present one in SA . " On 16 April , the first day of the new House 's sitting , Dunstan lost a confidence vote . With it now clear that the LCL had control of the House , Dunstan tendered his resignation to Governor Edric Bastyan . Hall was then sworn in as premier . However , the six weeks of protesting had brought nationwide criticism of the unfairness of the electoral system and put more pressure on the LCL to relent to reforms ; it has been seen as one of the most important political events of its time .
With the end of Playford 's tenure , the LCL had brought younger , more progressive members into its ranks . The Hall Government continued many of the social reforms that the Walsh / Dunstan governments had initiated ; most of these at the instigation of Hall or his Attorney @-@ General , Robin Millhouse . Abortion was partially legalised , and planning for the Festival Centre began . The conservative and rural factions of the League , notably in the Legislative Council dominated by the landed gentry , were bitterly opposed to some reforms , and more than once Hall was forced to rely on Labor support to see bills passed . The LCL began to break apart ; what had once been a united party was now factionalised — four distinct groups across the political spectrum appeared within the party . The economy of South Australia began to pick up under Hall , returning to full employment . During the term in opposition , Des Corcoran became Dunstan 's deputy , and the pair worked together well despite any rift that may have been caused by the struggle to succeed Walsh .
Hall also enacted a complete reform of the electoral system . He was embarrassed that the LCL was in a position to win government despite having clearly lost the first @-@ preference vote , and was committed to a fairer electoral system . The reforms were significant , but did not go as far as the change to " one vote one value " that Labor and Dunstan had demanded . The lower house formerly had 39 seats — 13 in Adelaide and 26 in the country . Now , 47 seats were to be contested : 28 in Adelaide and 19 in the country . While there was still a slight rural weighting ( since Adelaide accounted for two @-@ thirds of the state 's population ) , with Adelaide now electing a majority of the legislature , historical results made a Labor win at the next election likely . Under the Playmander , Labor usually dominated Adelaide . In most years , the LCL won almost no seats in the capital outside of the wealthy eastern crescent and around Holdfast Bay . Under the circumstances , conventional wisdom was that Hall undertook electoral reform knowing he was effectively handing the premiership to Dunstan at the next election .
Stott withdrew support in 1970 over the Chowilla Dam , a dispute over the location of a dam on the Murray River , and South Australia went to the polls . The dam controversy was not much of an election issue , and attempts by the Democratic Labor Party to portray Dunstan as a communist over his opposition to ongoing Australian support for South Vietnam had little effect . The LCL campaigned heavily on Hall , while Dunstan promised sweeping social reform , artistic transformation and more community services . He said " We 'll set a new standard of social advancement that the whole of Australia will envy . We believe South Australia can set the pace . It can happen here . We can do it . " Dunstan won the 1970 election easily , taking 27 seats compared with the LCL 's 20 . Although the share of the votes had been similar to 1968 , the dilution of the Playmander had changed the share of the seats . As Labor had attained a majority of the popular vote for a long period , and because malapportionment had been largely ended , the political scientists Neal Blewett and Dean Jaensch said " a Dunstan decade seems assured " .
= = Dunstan decade = =
Dunstan wasted no time in organising his new ministry , taking several portfolios for himself , and again taking the position of Treasurer of South Australia . Deputy Premier Des Corcoran took on most infrastructure portfolios — Marine and Harbours , and Public Works . Corcoran became the face of the Dunstan ministry in its relationship with the Labor caucus , with his ability to use his strong manner to settle disputes . Bert Shard became Health Minister , overseeing the construction and planning of new , major public hospitals : the Flinders Medical Centre and Modbury Hospital . Hugh Hudson took on the Education portfolio , an important role in a government that was determined to bring about profound change to the South Australian education system . Geoff Virgo , the new Transport Minister , was to deal with the Metropolitan Adelaide Transport Study ( MATS ) plans . Len King was made Attorney @-@ General and Aboriginal Affairs Minister despite being a new member of parliament . Dunstan formed a strong circle of loyal ministers around him , in a style radically different from his predecessors .
Soon after the election , Dunstan travelled to Canberra for the annual Premiers ' Conference as the sole Labor premier . His Government , on a mandate to dramatically increase funding in key areas , sought to appropriate further finances from the Federal Government . This brought Dunstan into conflict with Prime Minister John Gorton , and federal funding to SA was not increased . An appeal was made to the Federal Grants Commission , and Dunstan was awarded more than he had hoped for . In addition to the money received from the Grants Commission , funds were diverted from water @-@ storage schemes in the Adelaide Hills over the advice of engineers , and cash reserves were withdrawn from the two government @-@ owned banks . The monies were subsequently used to finance health , education and arts schemes .
On the death in office of Governor Sir James Harrison in 1971 , Dunstan finally had the chance to appoint the governor of his choosing : Sir Mark Oliphant , a physicist who had worked on the Manhattan Project . Dunstan had never been happy that governors were usually British ex @-@ servicemen ; it was a personal goal of his to see an active and notable South Australian take on the role . Although the post was ceremonial , Oliphant brought energy to the role , and he used his stature to decry damage to the environment caused by deforestation , excessive open @-@ cut mining and pollution . Oliphant 's tenure was successful and held in high regard , although he did come into conflict with the premier at times as both men were outspoken and strong @-@ willed .
In 1972 , the first major developments in regard to the state 's population growth occurred . Adelaide 's population was set to increase to 1 @.@ 3 million and the MATS plan and water @-@ storage schemes were in planning to accommodate this . These were summarily rejected by the Dunstan Government , which planned to build a new city 83 kilometres from Adelaide , near Murray Bridge . The city , to be known as Monarto , was to be built on farmland to the west of the existing town . Dunstan was very much against allowing Adelaide 's suburbs to further sprawl , and thus Monarto was a major focus of his government . He argued that the new South Eastern Freeway would allow a drive of only 45 minutes from Adelaide , that the city was not far from current industry , and that water could be readily supplied from the River Murray . The government hoped that Adelaide would not sprawl into the Mount Lofty Ranges to the east and that the bureaucracy would be dispersed from the capital . In contrast , public servants feared being forced into the rural settlement . Critics — of which there were many — derided the project as " Dunstan 's Versailles in the bush " . Environmental activists aired fears of the effects of Monarto on the River Murray , which was already suffering from pollution and salinity problems . Later on , it was noticed that there was hard bedrock underneath the ground , raising drainage problems .
From 1970 to 1973 , much legislation passed through the South Australian Parliament . Workers saw increases in welfare , drinking laws were further liberalised , an Ombudsman was created , censorship was liberalised , seat belts were made mandatory , the education system was overhauled , and the public service was gradually increased ( doubling in size during the Dunstan era ) . Adelaide 's water supply was fluoridated in 1971 and the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 18 . A Commissioner of Consumer Affairs was created , a demerit point system was introduced to penalise poor driving practices in an attempt to cut the road toll , and compensation for workers was improved . Police autonomy and powers were restricted following a rally in opposition to the Vietnam War , which was broken up by police , although Dunstan had wanted the demonstrators to be able to close off the street . A royal commission was called into the police commissioner 's disregard for Dunstan 's orders , and resulted in legislation giving the government more control over the police ; the commissioner then retired . The dress code for the Parliament was relaxed during this period , the suit and tie was no longer seen as obligatory , and Dunstan himself caused media frenzy when he arrived at Parliament House in 1972 wearing pink shorts that ended above his knees . After his departure from public life he admitted that his sartorial statement may have gone beyond the limits . Nevertheless , his fashion sense resulted in his being voted " the sexiest political leader in Australia " by Woman 's Day in 1975 , and the image of Dunstan in the shorts remains iconic .
In 1972 Dunstan separated from his wife and moved into a small flat in Kent Town , adjacent to Norwood . The family home was sold as two of the children were already studying in university . In 1974 the couple were finally divorced . Dunstan notes this period as being initially a " very bleak and lonely " time for him .
In absence of his family , he made new friends and acquaintances . Friends living nearby would come to his apartment for conversation and good food — cooking was Dunstan 's hobby . Dunstan bought another house in 1974 , partially financed from a then @-@ unpublished cookbook . In 1976 , Don Dunstan 's Cookbook was published — the first cookbook released by a serving Australian leader . More generally , Dunstan promoted a revolution in fine dining in the state . Encouraged by Dunstan 's enthusiasm for multiculturalism , many new restaurants were opened by proprietors and the diversity of cuisine increased . He also promoted the viticulture industry through his patronage of wine festivals .
Having played a part in Labor 's abandonment of the White Australia Policy at national level , Dunstan was also prominent in promoting multiculturalism . He was well known for his attendance at and patronage of Cornish , Italian and Greek Australian cultural festivals and his appreciation of Asian art , and sought to build on cultural respect to create trade links with Asia . Dunstan 's involvement in such cultural exchanges was also credited with generating strong support for Labor from ethnic and non @-@ Anglo @-@ Saxon immigrant communities , although it was viewed with suspicion by some in the Anglo @-@ Saxon establishment . Dunstan himself later recalled : " When I proposed the establishment of a Cornish Festival , in Australia 's " Little Cornwall " , people of Cornish descent came flocking . "
Having been vocal in criticising Playford for sacrificing heritage to the march of development , Dunstan was prominent in protecting historic buildings from being bulldozed for high @-@ rise office blocks . In 1972 , the government intervened to purchase and thereby save Edmund Wright House on King William Street from being replaced with a skyscraper . In 1975 , the Customs House at Semaphore was purchased to save it from demolition . His support of heritage preservation overlapped with his promotion of gourmet dining when his personal efforts helped to save the historic Ayers House on North Terrace , having it converted into a restaurant to avoid demolition . In contrast , there were also some controversial developments . Part of the rocky Hallett Cove on Gulf St Vincent in Adelaide 's southern suburbs was developed for housing , as were vineyards in Morphettville , Tea Tree Gully , Modbury , and Reynella . This attracted criticism , as Dunstan was prominent in promoting South Australian viticulture and enotourism .
In pursuit of economic links with the nations of South @-@ East Asia , Dunstan came into contact with the leaders of the Malaysian state of Penang in 1973 . Striking a note with Chong Eu Lim , the Chief Minister , Dunstan set about organising cultural and economic engagement between the two states . " Penang Week " was held in Adelaide in July , and in return , " South Australia Week " was held in Penang 's capital , George Town . In the same year , the Adelaide Festival Centre was opened — Australia 's first multifunction performing arts complex .
Over a six @-@ year period , government funding for the arts was increased by a factor of seven and in 1978 , the South Australian Film Corporation commenced work . During Dunstan 's time in charge , acclaimed films such as Breaker Morant , Picnic at Hanging Rock and Storm Boy were made in the state . Dunstan 's support of the arts and fine dining was credited by commentators with attracting artists , craftspeople and writers into the state , helping to change its atmosphere .
The South Australian Legislative Council , the Upper House in the Parliament , was , due to its limited electoral roll , overwhelmingly non @-@ Labor . Unlike the Lower House , its members were elected only by voters who met certain property and wealth requirements . Combined with the remains of the " Playmander " malapportionment , it was difficult for the Labor Party to achieve the representation it wished . The Legislative Council either watered down or outright rejected a considerable amount of Labor legislation ; bills to legalise homosexuality , abolish corporal and capital punishment and allow gambling and casinos were rejected . A referendum had indicated support for Friday night shopping , but Labor legislation was blocked in the upper house by the LCL .
Dunstan called an election for March 1973 , hoping to gain a mandate to seek changes to the Council . The LCL were badly disunited ; the more liberal wing of the party under Hall joined Dunstan in wanting to introduce universal suffrage for the upper house , while the more conservative members of the LCL did not . The conservatives then decided to limit Hall 's powers , resulting in his resignation and creation of the breakaway Liberal Movement ( LM ) , which overtly branded itself as a semi @-@ autonomous component within the LCL . Labor capitalised on the opposition divisions to secure an easy victory . They campaigned under the slogan " South Australia 's Doing Well with Labor " , while the LCL was hampered by infighting ; many LCL candidates were claiming different leaders in their electoral material depending on their factional allegiance . The Labor Party won with 51 @.@ 5 % of the primary vote and secured a second consecutive majority government with 26 seats . It was only the second time that a Labor government in South Australia had been re @-@ elected for a second term , the first being the early Thomas Price Labor government . It would be the first five @-@ year @-@ incumbent Labor government however . They also gained two more seats in the Legislative Council to have six of the twenty members . Labor entered the new term with momentum when a fortnight after the election , the LCL purged LM members from its ranks , forcing them to either quit the LM or leave the LCL and join the LM as a distinct party .
Dunstan saw reform of the Legislative Council as an important goal , and later a prime achievement , of his Government . Labor , as a matter of party policy , wanted to see the Legislative Council abolished . Dunstan , seeing this as unfeasible in his term , set about to reform it instead . Two bills were prepared for Legislative Council reform ; one to lower the voting age to 18 and introduce universal suffrage , and another to make councillors elected from a single statewide electorate under a system of proportional representation . The LCL initially blocked both bills , stating that it would only accept them if modifications were made to the second one . Changes were conceded ; unlike the House of Assembly , voting would not be compulsory and the preference system was to be slightly altered . Once the amendments were made , the legislation was passed .
During his second term , Dunstan started efforts to build a petrochemical complex at Redcliff , near Port Augusta . Negotiations were held with several multinational companies , but nothing eventuated . Legislation was passed to create a Land Commission and introduce urban land price controls . However , a bill to create " a right to privacy " was defeated in the upper house after protests from journalists , as was legislation to mandate refunds to consumers for returning beverage containers and therefore promote recycling . In 1975 , Dunstan declared Australia 's first legal nude bathing reserve .
Prior to the 1975 federal and state elections , Australia , and South Australia in particular , had been hit by a series of economic problems . The 1973 oil crisis had massively increased the cost of living , domestic industry began to erode due to a lack of cost @-@ competitiveness , and government funds were waning . In response , the Dunstan Government sold loss @-@ making railways to the Commonwealth and brought in new taxes to allow wage rises . The changes had unexpected consequences : inflation , already high , increased markedly , and workers were still displeased with wages . The LCL , now known as the Liberal Party , had rebuilt after internal schism and had modernised to make themselves more appealing to the public . Having called an early election , Dunstan appealed to the electorate and pushed blame onto the Whitlam Government for South Australia 's problems . In a television address just days before the election , he said : " My Government is being smeared and it hurts . They want you to think we are to blame for Canberra 's mistakes . The vote on Saturday is not for Canberra , not for Australia , but for South Australia . "
Labor remained the largest party in Parliament , but lost the two @-@ party preferred vote at 49 @.@ 2 % and saw its numbers decrease from 26 to 23 . The LCL held 20 seats , the Liberal Movement two , the Country Party one , and the last remaining with an independent , the nominally Labor Mayor of Port Pirie , Ted Connelly . Dunstan appealed to Connelly and offered him the role of Speaker . However , the reforms to the Legislative Council 's election bore fruit . Of the 11 seats up for election , Labor won six with 47 @.@ 3 % of the vote , and the LM two , allowing Labor a total of 10 seats . This meant they could now , with the help of the LM , push through reforms opposed by the Liberals .
It was the first time that a Labor government in South Australia had been re @-@ elected for a third term , and would be the first seven @-@ year @-@ incumbent Labor government .
Dunstan continued to try to push through further legislation ; he sought to expand on the Hall Government 's electoral @-@ boundaries reform , to bring it closer to one vote one value . The legislation sought to establish 47 electoral districts containing roughly equal numbers of voters ( with a 10 % tolerance ) . Redistributions were to be presided over by an independent boundaries commission . The bill passed with the support of the breakaway LM in the upper house — former Premier Steele Hall and his former Attorney @-@ General Robin Millhouse .
One famous demonstration of Dunstan 's charismatic style and media savvy came in January 1976 . A psychic predicted that , due to Dunstan and the state 's social liberalisation — which he saw as sinful — God would destroy Adelaide with a tsunami caused by an earthquake . This was publicised by the media , prompting a not insignificant number of residents to sell their property and leave ; some businesses had clearance sales while many who decided to stay indulged in doomsday parties . Dunstan promised to stand on the seashore at Glenelg and wait for the imminent destruction . He did so on 20 January , the day of the predicted storm , and nothing happened , although he made newspaper headlines in the United Kingdom for his defiance .
In 1976 , the Dunstan Government stepped up its legislative efforts . Some bills , such as the one to remove the sodomy law and decriminalise male homosexuality , had been initially blocked by the Legislative Council . However , the bill to abolish capital punishment passed with ease , and the homosexuality law reforms eventually passed in September . Rape law was properly codified and defined as a crime within marriage for the first time in Australia . Shopping hours , previously the most restrictive in the nation , became the most open . Following a royal commission , Friday night shopping was introduced for the city and Thursday night shopping for the suburbs . The deposits on beverage containers was finally passed . The first signs of Monarto 's eventual failure began to appear : birth rates started dropping significantly , immigration slowed and the economy was stagnant . South Australia 's robust population growth , previously the highest per capita among the states , came to an abrupt halt . However , state money continued to be poured into the Monarto project , despite the fact that the Whitlam government cut funding to $ 600 @,@ 000 in 1975 , while his Liberal successor Malcolm Fraser gave nothing at all the following year . However , by the time Monarto was eventually scrapped after Dunstan 's departure , no less than $ 20 million had been used to buy land , plant trees and formulate development plans , and the failed project is often seen as Dunstan 's greatest failure . In addition , the federal government removed subsidies for shipbuilding at Whyalla , forcing the operations to be scaled down .
In 1973 Adele Koh , a Malaysian journalist formerly living in Singapore , was appointed to work for Dunstan . She had been expelled by the Singaporean Government of Lee Kuan Yew for criticising its policies . The newspaper she had been working for , the Singapore Herald , was shut down by the government and she then moved to Australia . A relationship developed in 1974 between her and Dunstan , and they were married in 1976 in a small ceremony at his residence . Dunstan was much older than his wife , who was in her 30s .
After Oliphant 's term had expired , Dunstan appointed the first Indigenous Australian Governor , Sir Douglas Nicholls , a former football player and clergyman . Following Nicholls ' resignation due to ill health in 1977 , a second consecutive clergyman took the post , Methodist Keith Seaman . However , this appointment was not successful ; Seaman became involved in an unspecified scandal and made a statement admitting to a " grave impropriety " , without elaborating further . He did not resign and kept a low profile from then on . Dunstan also appointed Dame Roma Mitchell to become the nation 's first female Supreme Court judge . She later said " I doubt anybody else in those days would have pushed for a woman " , and that Dunstan enjoyed creating a legacy of equality among social groups .
Dunstan broke new ground in Australian politics with his policies on native title for Aborigines . The North West Aboriginal Reserve ( NWAR ) covered more than 7 % of the state 's land , and was inhabited by the Pitjantjatjara people . In 1977 , when the NWAR was about to be transferred to the Aboriginal Lands Trust , a tribal delegation asked for the lands to be given to the traditional owners . Dunstan agreed to an investigation , and subsequently introduced the Pitjantjatjara Land Rights Bill . This bill proposed for a tribal body , the Anangu Pitjantjatjaraku , to take control of the NWAR and further lands after the claims were cleared by an independent tribunal . It also proposed to allow the body to decide mining proposals on the land and receive royalties . This aroused discontent among mining interests , but a bipartisan parliamentary committee endorsed the bill and it was tabled . However , Labor lost power before the bill was passed and although the new Liberal government said they would remove the mining restrictions , mass public rallies forced them to relent , and a bill similar to Dunstan 's was passed . The legislation , the bedrock of which was laid by Dunstan , was the most reformist in Australia , and in the 1980s , more than 20 % of the land was returned to its traditional owners .
Dunstan called another snap election in September at the 1977 election ; he hoped to recover from the previous election , the outcome of which had been affected by the dismissal of the Federal Labor Government . As the remnants of the Playmander had been abolished , conditions were more favourable for Labor and they wanted to end their reliance on the casting vote of the speaker . The campaign proceeded smoothly and exploited the unpopularity of the federal Liberal government , using the jingle " Thank the Lord for South Australia " . Labor won an absolute majority with 51 @.@ 6 % of the primary vote and 27 seats .
It was the first time that a Labor government in South Australia had been re @-@ elected for a fourth term , and would be the first nine @-@ year @-@ incumbent Labor government .
= = = Salisbury affair and departure from office = = =
The South Australian Police had since 1949 a " Special Branch " in its forces for the purposes of surveillance and espionage . Conceived earlier as an " intelligence branch " in 1939 for the purposes of spying on the large German Australian community in World War II , it had amassed information on tens of thousands of individuals and organisations . While such an operation was of concern to Dunstan and his government for civil liberty reasons , its apparent party @-@ political bias was even more concerning to them . In particular , the branch held information files on Labor parliamentarians , communists , church leaders , trade unionists and so @-@ called " pink files " on gay community activists dating from the time before homosexuality was decriminalised . Only two Labor MPs , from both federal and state parliaments , did not have files , whereas the branch held significantly fewer files relating to Liberal figures . Dunstan had known of the existence of the branch since 1970 , but said that he had been assured by the police commissioner that its files were not systematically focused on left @-@ wing political figures .
However , Peter Ward , a journalist and former Dunstan staffer published a story about the files . An inquiry was conducted into the branch by Justice White of the Supreme Court of South Australia , and the report was placed in Dunstan 's hands on 21 December 1977 . It said that the dossiers did exist and that they were " scandalously inaccurate , irrelevant to security purposes and outrageously unfair to hundreds , perhaps thousands , of loyal and worthy citizens " . It also noted that the reports overwhelmingly focused on left @-@ wing politicians and activists , and that Dunstan had been misled by the police commissioner . After reviewing the report , Dunstan sacked Police Commissioner Harold Salisbury in January and threatened to release the report to the public . However , Salisbury had a reputation as a man of integrity , and controversy erupted regarding the inquiry and Dunstan 's actions , and whether he had already known about the true contents of the files for several years , as claimed by Ward . A Royal Commission under Justice Mitchell , set up at the instigation of the Liberals , investigated the matter . The inquiry cleared the Dunstan Government of any error , as it had not known about the Special Branch 's activities earlier . Dunstan sacked Salisbury for misleading Parliament about the existence of the " pink files " and many of the Special Branch files were burnt . Salisbury retired to the United Kingdom with a $ 160 @,@ 000 payout ; a book , The Salisbury Affair by Stewart Cockburn , was written about the debacle .
There were initially no other major controversies for Dunstan , although the economy remained poor and the Redcliff complex was still in limbo as an agreement with Dow was still to be finalised . The financial difficulties forced a freeze on public sector expansion and hospital developments , and there were claims of theft and mismanagement in the health system , but the Liberals were in a disorganised state and unpopular , so they were not able to pressure Dunstan effectively .
Towards the end of the year , political and media scrutiny began to grow on Dunstan , who began to grow uneasy in his dealings with the press . Soon after the Salisbury dismissal , he walked out of a stormy media conference after refusing to be drawn on the rumoured sacking of Seaman from the gubernatorial role . Increasing innuendo about Dunstan 's private life and allegations of corruption and economic mismanagement were worsened by Dunstan 's self @-@ righteous tendencies . The premier angrily denied claims that he was using government funds to build an opulent residence in Malaysia as well as claims about his sexual lifestyle . He pre @-@ emptively called a press conference on one occasion to denounce what he called " idiot rumours " and he further claimed that " reactionary forces " and " right wing journalists " were engaged in a witchhunt against his " decent and responsible government " .
Dunstan also faced difficulties on policy issues . Factional cracks began to appear in Labor and the discovery of uranium deposits near the northern outback town of Roxby Downs put the premier in a bind . The uranium was seen as a valuable economic boost in difficult times , but a government ban on its mining on safety grounds was still in force . Dunstan was opposed to uranium mining but he was seen as lacking in conviction by environmentalists , as well as being criticised by industrialists . By May , his approval rating had fallen to 57 % , down from 80 % just two years earlier , while unemployment increased . It was also widely anticipated that a book named It 's Grossly Improper would soon be released , containing embarrassing allegations about Dunstan 's private life .
Dunstan 's wife Adele was diagnosed with advanced lung cancer in May 1978 . She died in October after Dunstan had cared for her at her bedside for months ; her death seriously affected him and his own health began to suffer . Together with Mike Rann , his Press Secretary , speechwriter and eventually Premier , who had worked with him in 1978 on a series of speeches on Aboriginal Land Rights , industrial democracy and women 's rights , he made a uranium fact @-@ finding trip to Europe to study safe methods of nuclear power and waste disposal . By the summer that followed , Dunstan fell extremely ill . When Parliament resumed , he collapsed on the floor of the House and was forced to use a walking stick ; his doctor advised him that he required six months of rest to recover . The Liberal Opposition seized on the state of affairs and charged that the Labor Party was " as ailing as the man who led it " . In a stage @-@ managed press conference on 15 February 1979 , Dunstan announced his retirement as premier from his room in Calvary Hospital while shaking and wearing a dressing gown .
The political scientist Andrew Parkin said that one of Dunstan 's main achievements was to debunk the notion that state governments and parliaments lacked the ability to make significant reforms with profound impacts . He cited Dunstan 's sweeping social reforms and the fact that many other state governments followed South Australia 's lead as evidence of this .
= = Life after politics = =
After Dunstan 's resignation from parliament , deputy Des Corcoran took his place as party leader and Premier . At the subsequent Norwood by @-@ election , Dunstan 's seat was retained by Labor . Corcoran soon called the 1979 election . Corcoran 's lack of media savvy , the Advertiser 's bias towards the Liberals at this election , and the public 's widespread dissatisfaction with the economy and bus strikes , brought about an 8 @.@ 4 percent two @-@ party swing against Labor , leaving the party with only 19 seats against the Liberals on 25 seats . The Tonkin Liberal Government came to power and began reducing the size of the public service and abandoned the Monarto project . Dunstan took a trip to Europe after being released from hospital , staying in Perugia for five months and pursuing Italian studies . He subsequently returned home and lived quietly in Adelaide for three years without finding work that appealed to him , such as that related to the shaping of public policy .
During this time he became increasingly disillusioned with South Australian political affairs . A book by two Adelaide journalists , It 's Grossly Improper , was released in November and sold out within a week . It alleged inappropriate use of government funds and a homosexual affair with a restaurateur , John Ceruto , in return for political favours . There was initial fanfare and speculation as to the authenticity of its claims ; Dunstan dismissed the book as a " farrago of lies " in his 1981 memoirs , entitled Felicia .
From May 1980 to early 1981 he acted as editor for the magazine POL . In 1982 , he moved to the neighbouring state of Victoria , and was appointed the Director of Tourism . This sparked an outcry in South Australia due to the two states ' traditional rivalry . For his part , Dunstan said that he had yearned to be given a role in shaping and building the future of his native state , but that he had been snubbed for three years . He said that public figures in South Australia had told him that his high profile and ability to overshadow others could have caused a loss of face to them , and thus his departure would be seen favourably by them , while Victoria 's offer gave him an opportunity to be constructive . Dunstan was appointed to the Victorian Economic Development Corporation on 12 July 1983 , resigning on 23 June 1986 . Dunstan stayed in the Director of Tourism role until 1986 , when he returned to Adelaide after falling out with the government of John Cain . His retirement from these positions followed the provocative publication of a photograph of him with Monsignor Porcamadonna , member of the gay community Order of Perpetual Indulgence , taken after he had launched a collection of coming out stories by gay historian Gary Wotherspoon .
He was the national president of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign ( 1982 – 87 ) , president of the Movement for Democracy in Fiji ( from 1987 ) , and national chairman of Community Aid Abroad ( 1992 – 93 ) . Dunstan was an adjunct professor at the University of Adelaide from 1997 to 1999 and portrayed himself in the 1989 Australian independent film Against the Innocent .
In his retirement , Dunstan continued to be a passionate critic of economic rationalism ( neoliberalism ) and privatisation , particularly of South Australia 's water , gas and electricity supplies . During the 1990s he wrote essays for the Adelaide Review magazine strongly criticising both the Federal Labor Governments of Bob Hawke and Paul Keating , the Federal Liberal Government of John Howard and the State Liberal Governments of Dean Brown and John Olsen . He remained an advocate for multiculturalism and cultural diversity , often writing about the dangers of racism . A year before his death , the ailing Dunstan decried Labor 's economic rationalism in front of 5 @,@ 000 at the Gough Whitlam Lecture . In his last interview , he decried economic rationalism as the " nonsense of the Chicago school with which we 've been beset " . Regardless of the acclaim in which he was held during his decade in power , Dunstan was largely overlooked for honours after leaving office and largely ignored by the state 's elite . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia in June 1979 , but no national parks , gardens , buildings or performance venues were named after him .
In 1986 he met his future partner , Stephen Cheng , with whom he opened a restaurant called " Don 's Table " in 1994 . He lived with Cheng in their Norwood home for the rest of his life . Dunstan was afflicted by illness in his final years . He was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1993 before contracting an inoperable lung cancer , which led to his death on 6 February 1999 . A public memorial service was held on 9 February at the Adelaide Festival Centre as a tribute to Dunstan 's love of the arts . In attendance were former Labor Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam and Bob Hawke , Federal Opposition Leader Kim Beazley , Premier John Olsen , and State Opposition Leader Mike Rann . Thousands more gathered outside the centre in Elder Park along the banks of the River Torrens . State flags were flown at half @-@ mast and the memorial service was televised live .
= = Legacy = =
The Don Dunstan Foundation was established at the University of Adelaide shortly before his death to push for progressive change and to honour Dunstan 's memory . Dunstan had spent his last months helping to lay the platform for its establishment . At the inauguration of the body , Dunstan had said " What we need is a concentration on the kind of agenda which I followed and I hope that my death will be useful in this " . The foundation 's primary work is the giving of scholarships ; an additional aim is to promote causes championed by Dunstan such as human rights , social equality , multiculturalism and aboriginal rights .
Since its commencement in 2003 , the Adelaide Film Festival has presented The Don Dunstan Award in recognition of outstanding contribution by an individual to the Australian film industry . Deemed by the Adelaide Film Festival 's Board to have " enriched Australian screen culture through their work " , its recipients include David Gulpilil , Rolf de Heer , Scott Hicks and others . After receiving the award in 2013 , Hicks acknowledged Dunstan 's vision for the creation of a film industry in South Australia as being instrumental to his professional development .
A theatre in the Festival Centre was renamed the Dunstan Playhouse .
The Electoral Commission of South Australia 's 2012 redistribution included renaming the seat of Norwood to Dunstan which came into existence as of the 2014 election . In 2014 a biography Don Dunstan Intimacy & Liberty by Dino Hodge , written with the co @-@ operation of Dunstan 's family and former lovers , was published .
In 1988 Dunstan donated a collection of files pertaining to his political , professional and personal life , photographs , press clippings , speeches and press releases , audiovisual material , books from his library , some items of clothing and other memorabilia to Flinders University Library , where it can be viewed and accessed for research purposes ( see External links ) .
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= Oligonucleotide synthesis =
Oligonucleotide synthesis is the chemical synthesis of relatively short fragments of nucleic acids with defined chemical structure ( sequence ) . The technique is extremely useful in current laboratory practice because it provides a rapid and inexpensive access to custom @-@ made oligonucleotides of the desired sequence . Whereas enzymes synthesize DNA and RNA only in a 5 ' to 3 ' direction , chemical oligonucleotide synthesis does not have this limitation , although it is , most often , carried out in the opposite , 3 ' to 5 ' direction . Currently , the process is implemented as solid @-@ phase synthesis using phosphoramidite method and phosphoramidite building blocks derived from protected 2 ' -deoxynucleosides ( dA , dC , dG , and T ) , ribonucleosides ( A , C , G , and U ) , or chemically modified nucleosides , e.g. LNA , BNA .
To obtain the desired oligonucleotide , the building blocks are sequentially coupled to the growing oligonucleotide chain in the order required by the sequence of the product ( see Synthetic cycle below ) . The process has been fully automated since the late 1970s . Upon the completion of the chain assembly , the product is released from the solid phase to solution , deprotected , and collected . The occurrence of side reactions sets practical limits for the length of synthetic oligonucleotides ( up to about 200 nucleotide residues ) because the number of errors accumulates with the length of the oligonucleotide being synthesized . Products are often isolated by high @-@ performance liquid chromatography ( HPLC ) to obtain the desired oligonucleotides in high purity . Typically , synthetic oligonucleotides are single @-@ stranded DNA or RNA molecules around 15 – 25 bases in length .
Oligonucleotides find a variety of applications in molecular biology and medicine . They are most commonly used as antisense oligonucleotides , small interfering RNA , primers for DNA sequencing and amplification , probes for detecting complementary DNA or RNA via molecular hybridization , tools for the targeted introduction of mutations and restriction sites , and for the synthesis of artificial genes .
= = History = =
The evolution of oligonucleotide synthesis saw four major methods of the formation of internucleosidic linkages and has been reviewed in the literature in great detail .
= = = Early work and contemporary H @-@ phosphonate synthesis = = =
In the early 1950s , Alexander Todd ’ s group pioneered H @-@ phosphonate and phosphate triester methods of oligonucleotide synthesis . The reaction of compounds 1 and 2 to form H @-@ phosphonate diester 3 is an H @-@ phosphonate coupling in solution while that of compounds 4 and 5 to give 6 is a phosphotriester coupling ( see phosphotriester synthesis below ) .
Thirty years later , this work inspired , independently , two research groups to adopt the H @-@ phosphonate chemistry to the solid @-@ phase synthesis using nucleoside H @-@ phosphonate monoesters 7 as building blocks and pivaloyl chloride , 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 6 @-@ triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride ( TPS @-@ Cl ) , and other compounds as activators . The practical implementation of H @-@ phosphonate method resulted in a very short and simple synthetic cycle consisting of only two steps , detritylation and coupling ( Scheme 2 ) . Oxidation of internucleosidic H @-@ phosphonate diester linkages in 8 to phosphodiester linkages in 9 with a solution of iodine in aqueous pyridine is carried out at the end of the chain assembly rather than as a step in the synthetic cycle . If desired , the oxidation may be carried out under anhydrous conditions . Alternatively , 8 can be converted to phosphorothioate 10 or phosphoroselenoate 11 ( X = Se ) , or oxidized by CCl4 in the presence of primary or secondary amines to phosphoramidate analogs 12 . The method is very convenient in that various types of phosphate modifications ( phosphate / phosphorothioate / phosphoramidate ) may be introduced to the same oligonucleotide for modulation of its properties .
Most often , H @-@ phosphonate building blocks are protected at the 5 ' -hydroxy group and at the amino group of nucleic bases A , C , and G in the same manner as phosphoramidite building blocks ( see below ) . However , protection at the amino group is not mandatory .
= = = Phosphodiester synthesis = = =
In the 1950s , Har Gobind Khorana and co @-@ workers developed a phosphodiester method where 3 ’ -O @-@ acetylnucleoside @-@ 5 ’ -O @-@ phosphate 2 ( Scheme 3 ) was activated with N , N ' -dicyclohexylcarbodiimide ( DCC ) or 4 @-@ toluenesulfonyl chloride ( Ts @-@ Cl ) . The activated species were reacted with a 5 ’ -O @-@ protected nucleoside 1 to give a protected dinucleoside monophosphate 3 . Upon the removal of 3 ’ -O @-@ acetyl group using base @-@ catalyzed hydrolysis , further chain elongation was carried out . Following this methodology , sets of tri- and tetradeoxyribonucleotides were synthesized and were enzymatically converted to longer oligonucleotides , which allowed elucidation of the genetic code . The major limitation of the phosphodiester method consisted in the formation of pyrophosphate oligomers and oligonucleotides branched at the internucleosidic phosphate . The method seems to be a step back from the more selective chemistry described earlier ; however , at that time , most phosphate @-@ protecting groups available now had not yet been introduced . The lack of the convenient protection strategy necessitated taking a retreat to a slower and less selective chemistry to achieve the ultimate goal of the study .
= = = Phosphotriester synthesis = = =
In the 1960s , groups led by R. Letsinger and C. Reese developed a phosphotriester approach . The defining difference from the phosphodiester approach was the protection of the phosphate moiety in the building block 1 ( Scheme 4 ) and in the product 3 with 2 @-@ cyanoethyl group . This precluded the formation of oligonucleotides branched at the internucleosidic phosphate . The higher selectivity of the method allowed the use of more efficient coupling agents and catalysts , which dramatically reduced the length of the synthesis . The method , initially developed for the solution @-@ phase synthesis , was also implemented on low @-@ cross @-@ linked " popcorn " polystyrene , and later on controlled pore glass ( CPG , see " Solid support material " below ) , which initiated a massive research effort in solid @-@ phase synthesis of oligonucleotides and eventually led to the automation of the oligonucleotide chain assembly .
= = = Phosphite triester synthesis = = =
In the 1970s , substantially more reactive P ( III ) derivatives of nucleosides , 3 ' -O @-@ chlorophosphites , were successfully used for the formation of internucleosidic linkages . This led to the discovery of the phosphite triester methodology . The group led by M. Caruthers took the advantage of less aggressive and more selective 1H @-@ tetrazolidophosphites and implemented the method on solid phase . Very shortly after , the workers from the same group further improved the method by using more stable nucleoside phosphoramidites as building blocks . The use of 2 @-@ cyanoethyl phosphite @-@ protecting group in place of a less user @-@ friendly methyl group led to the nucleoside phosphoramidites currently used in oligonucleotide synthesis ( see Phosphoramidite building blocks below ) . Many later improvements to the manufacturing of building blocks , oligonucleotide synthesizers , and synthetic protocols made the phosphoramidite chemistry a very reliable and expedient method of choice for the preparation of synthetic oligonucleotides .
= = Synthesis by the phosphoramidite method = =
= = = Building blocks = = =
= = = = Nucleoside phosphoramidites = = = =
As mentioned above , the naturally occurring nucleotides ( nucleoside @-@ 3 ' - or 5 ' -phosphates ) and their phosphodiester analogs are insufficiently reactive to afford an expedite synthetic preparation of oligonucleotides in high yields . The selectivity and the rate of the formation of internucleosidic linkages is dramatically improved by using 3 ' -O- ( N , N @-@ diisopropyl phosphoramidite ) derivatives of nucleosides ( nucleoside phosphoramidites ) that serve as building blocks in phosphite triester methodology . To prevent undesired side reactions , all other functional groups present in nucleosides have to be rendered unreactive ( protected ) by attaching protecting groups . Upon the completion of the oligonucleotide chain assembly , all the protecting groups are removed to yield the desired oligonucleotides . Below , the protecting groups currently used in commercially available and most common nucleoside phosphoramidite building blocks are briefly reviewed :
The 5 ' -hydroxyl group is protected by an acid @-@ labile DMT ( 4 @,@ 4 ' -dimethoxytrityl ) group .
Thymine and uracil , nucleic bases of thymidine and uridine , respectively , do not have exocyclic amino groups and hence do not require any protection .
Although the nucleic base of guanosine and 2 ' -deoxyguanosine does have an exocyclic amino group , its basicity is low to an extent that it does not react with phosphoramidites under the conditions of the coupling reaction . However , a phosphoramidite derived from the N2 @-@ unprotected 5 ' -O @-@ DMT @-@ 2 ' -deoxyguanosine is poorly soluble in acetonitrile , the solvent commonly used in oligonucleotide synthesis . In contrast , the N2 @-@ protected versions of the same compound dissolve in acetonitrile well and hence are widely used . Nucleic bases adenine and cytosine bear the exocyclic amino groups reactive with the activated phosphoramidites under the conditions of the coupling reaction . By the use of additional steps in the synthetic cycle or alternative coupling agents and solvent systems , the oligonucleotide chain assembly may be carried out using dA and dC phosphoramidites with unprotected amino groups . However , these approaches currently remain in the research stage . In routine oligonucleotide synthesis , exocyclic amino groups in nucleosides are kept permanently protected over the entire length of the oligonucleotide chain assembly .
The protection of the exocyclic amino groups has to be orthogonal to that of the 5 ' -hydroxy group because the latter is removed at the end of each synthetic cycle . The simplest to implement , and hence the most widely used , strategy is including a base @-@ labile protection group on the exocyclic amino groups . Most often , two protection schemes are used .
In the first , the standard and more robust scheme ( Figure ) , Bz ( benzoyl ) protection is used for A , dA , C , and dC , while G and dG are protected with isobutyryl group . More recently , Ac ( acetyl ) group is used to protect C and dC as shown in Figure .
In the second , mild protection scheme , A and dA are protected with isobutyryl or phenoxyacetyl groups ( PAC ) . C and dC bear acetyl protection , and G and dG are protected with 4 @-@ isopropylphenoxyacetyl ( iPr @-@ PAC ) or dimethylformamidino ( dmf ) groups . Mild protecting groups are removed more readily than the standard protecting groups . However , the phosphoramidites bearing these groups are less stable when stored in solution .
The phosphite group is protected by a base @-@ labile 2 @-@ cyanoethyl group . Once a phosphoramidite has been coupled to the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotide and the phosphite moieties have been converted to the P ( V ) species , the presence of the phosphate protection is not mandatory for the successful conducting of further coupling reactions .
In RNA synthesis , the 2 ' -hydroxy group is protected with TBDMS ( t @-@ butyldimethylsilyl ) group. or with TOM ( tri @-@ iso @-@ propylsilyloxymethyl ) group , both being removable by treatment with fluoride ion .
The phosphite moiety also bears a diisopropylamino ( iPr2N ) group reactive under acidic conditions . Upon activation , the diisopropylamino group leaves to be substituted by the 5 ' -hydroxy group of the support @-@ bound oligonucleotide ( see " Step 2 : Coupling " below ) .
= = = = Non @-@ nucleoside phosphoramidites = = = =
Non @-@ nucleoside phosphoramidites are the phosphoramidite reagents designed to introduce various functionalities at the termini of synthetic oligonucleotides or between nucleotide residues in the middle of the sequence . In order to be introduced inside the sequence , a non @-@ nucleosidic modifier has to possess at least two hydroxy groups , one of which is often protected with the DMT group while the other bears the reactive phosphoramidite moiety .
Non @-@ nucleosidic phosphoramidites are used to introduce desired groups that are not available in natural nucleosides or that can be introduced more readily using simpler chemical designs . A very short selection of commercial phosphoramidite reagents is shown in Scheme for the demonstration of the available structural and functional diversity . These reagents serve for the attachment of 5 ' -terminal phosphate ( 1 ) , NH2 ( 2 ) , SH ( 3 ) , aldehydo ( 4 ) , and carboxylic groups ( 5 ) , CC triple bonds ( 6 ) , non @-@ radioactive labels and quenchers ( exemplified by 6 @-@ FAM amidite 7 for the attachment of fluorescein and dabcyl amidite 8 , respectively ) , hydrophilic and hydrophobic modifiers ( exemplified by hexaethyleneglycol amidite 9 and cholesterol amidite 10 , respectively ) , and biotin amidite 11 .
= = = Synthetic cycle = = =
Oligonucleotide synthesis is carried out by a stepwise addition of nucleotide residues to the 5 ' -terminus of the growing chain until the desired sequence is assembled . Each addition is referred to as a synthetic cycle ( Scheme 5 ) and consists of four chemical reactions :
= = = = Step 1 : De @-@ blocking ( detritylation ) = = = =
The DMT group is removed with a solution of an acid , such as 2 % trichloroacetic acid ( TCA ) or 3 % dichloroacetic acid ( DCA ) , in an inert solvent ( dichloromethane or toluene ) . The orange @-@ colored DMT cation formed is washed out ; the step results in the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotide precursor bearing a free 5 ' -terminal hydroxyl group . It is worth remembering that conducting detritylation for an extended time or with stronger than recommended solutions of acids leads to depurination of solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotide and thus reduces the yield of the desired full @-@ length product .
= = = = Step 2 : Coupling = = = =
A 0 @.@ 02 – 0 @.@ 2 M solution of nucleoside phosphoramidite ( or a mixture of several phosphoramidites ) in acetonitrile is activated by a 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 7 M solution of an acidic azole catalyst , 1H @-@ tetrazole , 5 @-@ ethylthio @-@ 1H @-@ tetrazole , 2 @-@ benzylthiotetrazole , 4 @,@ 5 @-@ dicyanoimidazole , or a number of similar compounds . A more extensive information on the use of various coupling agents in oligonucleotide synthesis can be found in a recent review . The mixing is usually very brief and occurs in fluid lines of oligonucleotide synthesizers ( see below ) while the components are being delivered to the reactors containing solid support . The activated phosphoramidite in 1 @.@ 5 – 20 @-@ fold excess over the support @-@ bound material is then brought in contact with the starting solid support ( first coupling ) or a support @-@ bound oligonucleotide precursor ( following couplings ) whose 5 ' -hydroxy group reacts with the activated phosphoramidite moiety of the incoming nucleoside phosphoramidite to form a phosphite triester linkage . The coupling of 2 ' -deoxynucleoside phosphoramidites is very rapid and requires , on small scale , about 20 s for its completion . In contrast , sterically hindered 2 ' -O @-@ protected ribonucleoside phosphoramidites require 5 @-@ 15 min to be coupled in high yields . The reaction is also highly sensitive to the presence of water , particularly when dilute solutions of phosphoramidites are used , and is commonly carried out in anhydrous acetonitrile . Generally , the larger the scale of the synthesis , the lower the excess and the higher the concentration of the phosphoramidites is used . In contrast , the concentration of the activator is primarily determined by its solubility in acetonitrile and is irrespective of the scale of the synthesis . Upon the completion of the coupling , any unbound reagents and by @-@ products are removed by washing .
= = = = Step 3 : Capping = = = =
The capping step is performed by treating the solid support @-@ bound material with a mixture of acetic anhydride and 1 @-@ methylimidazole or , less often , DMAP as catalysts and , in the phosphoramidite method , serves two purposes .
After the completion of the coupling reaction , a small percentage of the solid support @-@ bound 5 ' -OH groups ( 0 @.@ 1 to 1 % ) remains unreacted and needs to be permanently blocked from further chain elongation to prevent the formation of oligonucleotides with an internal base deletion commonly referred to as ( n @-@ 1 ) shortmers . The unreacted 5 ' -hydroxy groups are , to a large extent , acetylated by the capping mixture .
It has also been reported that phosphoramidites activated with 1H @-@ tetrazole react , to a small extent , with the O6 position of guanosine . Upon oxidation with I2 / water , this side product , possibly via O6 @-@ N7 migration , undergoes depurination . The apurinic sites thus formed are readily cleaved in the course of the final deprotection of the oligonucleotide under the basic conditions ( see below ) to give two shorter oligonucleotides thus reducing the yield of the full @-@ length product . The O6 modifications are rapidly removed by treatment with the capping reagent as long as the capping step is performed prior to oxidation with I2 / water .
The synthesis of oligonucleotide phosphorothioates ( OPS , see below ) does not involve the oxidation with I2 / water , and , respectively , does not suffer from the side reaction described above . On the other hand , if the capping step is performed prior to sulfurization , the solid support may contain the residual acetic anhydride and N @-@ methylimidazole left after the capping step . The capping mixture interferes with the sulfur transfer reaction , which results in the extensive formation of the phosphate triester internucleosidic linkages in place of the desired PS triesters . Therefore , for the synthesis of OPS , it is advisable to conduct the sulfurization step prior to the capping step .
= = = = Step 4 : Oxidation = = = =
The newly formed tricoordinated phosphite triester linkage is not natural and is of limited stability under the conditions of oligonucleotide synthesis . The treatment of the support @-@ bound material with iodine and water in the presence of a weak base ( pyridine , lutidine , or collidine ) oxidizes the phosphite triester into a tetracoordinated phosphate triester , a protected precursor of the naturally occurring phosphate diester internucleosidic linkage . Oxidation may be carried out under anhydrous conditions using tert @-@ Butyl hydroperoxide or , more efficiently , ( 1S ) - ( + ) - ( 10 @-@ camphorsulfonyl ) -oxaziridine ( CSO ) . The step of oxidation is substituted with a sulfurization step to obtain oligonucleotide phosphorothioates ( see Oligonucleotide phosphorothioates and their synthesis below ) . In the latter case , the sulfurization step is best carried out prior to capping .
= = = Solid supports = = =
In solid @-@ phase synthesis , an oligonucleotide being assembled is covalently bound , via its 3 ' -terminal hydroxy group , to a solid support material and remains attached to it over the entire course of the chain assembly . The solid support is contained in columns whose dimensions depend on the scale of synthesis and may vary between 0 @.@ 05 mL and several liters . The overwhelming majority of oligonucleotides are synthesized on small scale ranging from 40 nmol to 1 μmol . More recently , high @-@ throughput oligonucleotide synthesis where the solid support is contained in the wells of multi @-@ well plates ( most often , 96 or 384 wells per plate ) became a method of choice for parallel synthesis of oligonucleotides on small scale . At the end of the chain assembly , the oligonucleotide is released from the solid support and is eluted from the column or the well .
= = = = Solid support material = = = =
In contrast to organic solid @-@ phase synthesis and peptide synthesis , the synthesis of oligonucleotides proceeds best on non @-@ swellable or low @-@ swellable solid supports . The two most often used solid @-@ phase materials are controlled pore glass ( CPG ) and macroporous polystyrene ( MPPS ) .
CPG is commonly defined by its pore size . In oligonucleotide chemistry , pore sizes of 500 , 1000 , 1500 , 2000 , and 3000 Å are used to allow the preparation of about 50 , 80 , 100 , 150 , and 200 @-@ mer oligonucleotides , respectively . To make native CPG suitable for further processing , the surface of the material is treated with ( 3 @-@ aminopropyl ) triethoxysilane to give aminopropyl CPG . The aminopropyl arm may be further extended to result in long chain aminoalkyl ( LCAA ) CPG . The amino group is then used as an anchoring point for linkers suitable for oligonucleotide synthesis ( see below ) .
MPPS suitable for oligonucleotide synthesis is a low @-@ swellable , highly cross @-@ linked polystyrene obtained by polymerization of divinylbenzene ( min 60 % ) , styrene , and 4 @-@ chloromethylstyrene in the presence of a porogeneous agent . The macroporous chloromethyl MPPS obtained is converted to aminomethyl MPPS .
= = = = Linker chemistry = = = =
To make the solid support material suitable for oligonucleotide synthesis , non @-@ nucleosidic linkers or nucleoside succinates are covalently attached to the reactive amino groups in aminopropyl CPG , LCAA CPG , or aminomethyl MPPS . The remaining unreacted amino groups are capped with acetic anhydride . Typically , three conceptually different groups of solid supports are used .
Universal supports . In a more recent , more convenient , and more widely used method , the synthesis starts with the universal support where a non @-@ nucleosidic linker is attached to the solid support material ( compounds 1 and 2 ) . A phosphoramidite respective to the 3 ' -terminal nucleoside residue is coupled to the universal solid support in the first synthetic cycle of oligonucleotide chain assembly using the standard protocols . The chain assembly is then continued until the completion , after which the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotide is deprotected . The characteristic feature of the universal solid supports is that the release of the oligonucleotides occurs by the hydrolytic cleavage of a P @-@ O bond that attaches the 3 ’ -O of the 3 ’ -terminal nucleotide residue to the universal linker as shown in Scheme 6 . The critical advantage of this approach is that the same solid support is used irrespectively of the sequence of the oligonucleotide to be synthesized . For the complete removal of the linker and the 3 ' -terminal phosphate from the assembled oligonucleotide , the solid support 1 and several similar solid supports require gaseous ammonia , aqueous ammonium hydroxide , aqueous methylamine , or their mixture and are commercially available . The solid support 2 requires a solution of ammonia in anhydrous methanol and is also commercially available .
Nucleosidic solid supports . In a historically first and still popular approach , the 3 ' -hydroxy group of the 3 ' -terminal nucleoside residue is attached to the solid support via , most often , 3 ’ -O @-@ succinyl arm as in compound 3 . The oligonucleotide chain assembly starts with the coupling of a phosphoramidite building block respective to the nucleotide residue second from the 3 ’ -terminus . The 3 ’ -terminal hydroxy group in oligonucleotides synthesized on nucleosidic solid supports is deprotected under the conditions somewhat milder than those applicable for universal solid supports . However , the fact that a nucleosidic solid support has to be selected in a sequence @-@ specific manner reduces the throughput of the entire synthetic process and increases the likelihood of human error .
Special solid supports are used for the attachment of desired functional or reporter groups at the 3 ’ -terminus of synthetic oligonucleotides . For example , the commercial solid support 4 allows the preparation of oligonucleotides bearing 3 ’ -terminal 3 @-@ aminopropyl linker . Similarly to non @-@ nucleosidic phosphoramidites , many other special solid supports designed for the attachment of reactive functional groups , non @-@ radioactive reporter groups , and terminal modifiers ( e.c. cholesterol or other hydrophobic tethers ) and suited for various applications are commercially available . A more detailed information on various solid supports for oligonucleotide synthesis can be found in a recent review .
= = = Oligonucleotide phosphorothioates and their synthesis = = =
Oligonucleotide phosphorothioates ( OPS ) are modified oligonucleotides where one of the oxygen atoms in the phosphate moiety is replaced by sulfur . Only the phosphorothioates having sulfur at a non @-@ bridging position as shown in figure are widely used and are available commercially . The replacement of the non @-@ bridging oxygen with sulfur creates a new center of chirality at phosphorus . In a simple case of a dinucleotide , this results in the formation of a diastereomeric pair of Sp- and Rp @-@ dinucleoside monophosphorothioates whose structures are shown in Figure . In an n @-@ mer oligonucleotide where all ( n – 1 ) internucleosidic linkages are phosphorothioate linkages , the number of diastereomers m is calculated as m = 2 ( n – 1 ) . Being non @-@ natural analogs of nucleic acids , OPS are substantially more stable towards hydrolysis by nucleases , the class of enzymes that destroy nucleic acids by breaking the bridging P @-@ O bond of the phosphodiester moiety . This property determines the use of OPS as antisense oligonucleotides in in vitro and in vivo applications where the extensive exposure to nucleases is inevitable . Similarly , to improve the stability of siRNA , at least one phosphorothioate linkage is often introduced at the 3 ' -terminus of both sense and antisense strands . In chirally pure OPS , all @-@ Sp diastereomers are more stable to enzymatic degradation than their all @-@ Rp analogs . However , the preparation of chirally pure OPS remains a synthetic challenge . In laboratory practice , mixtures of diastereomers of OPS are commonly used .
Synthesis of OPS is very similar to that of natural oligonucleotides . The difference is that the oxidation step is replaced by sulfur transfer reaction ( sulfurization ) and that the capping step is performed after the sulfurization . Of many reported reagents capable of the efficient sulfur transfer , only three are commercially available :
3- ( Dimethylaminomethylidene ) amino @-@ 3H @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ dithiazole @-@ 3 @-@ thione , DDTT ( 3 ) provides rapid kinetics of sulfurization and high stability in solution . The reagent is available from several sources .
3H @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ benzodithiol @-@ 3 @-@ one 1 @,@ 1 @-@ dioxide ( 4 ) also known as Beaucage reagent displays a better solubility in acetonitrile and short reaction times . However , the reagent is of limited stability in solution and is less efficient in sulfurizing RNA linkages .
N , N , N 'N ' -Tetraethylthiuram disulfide ( TETD ) is soluble in acetonitrile and is commercially available . However , the sulfurization reaction of an internucleosidic DNA linkage with TETD requires 15 min , which is more than 10 times as slow as that with compounds 3 and 4 .
= = = Automation = = =
In the past , oligonucleotide synthesis was carried out manually in solution or on solid phase . The solid phase synthesis was implemented using , as containers for the solid phase , miniature glass columns similar in their shape to low @-@ pressure chromatography columns or syringes equipped with porous filters . Currently , solid @-@ phase oligonucleotide synthesis is carried out automatically using computer @-@ controlled instruments ( oligonucleotide synthesizers ) and is technically implemented in column , multi @-@ well plate , and array formats . The column format is best suited for research and large scale applications where a high @-@ throughput is not required . Multi @-@ well plate format is designed specifically for high @-@ throughput synthesis on small scale to satisfy the growing demand of industry and academia for synthetic oligonucleotides . A number of oligonucleotide synthesizers for small scale synthesis and medium to large scale synthesis are available commercially .
= = = First Commercially available Oligonucleotide Synthesizers = = =
In March of 1982 a practical course was hosted by the Department of Biochemistry , Technische Hochschule Darmstadt , Germany . M.H. Caruthers , M.J. Gait , H.G. Gassen , H.Koster , K. Itakura , and C. Birr among others attended . The program comprised practical work , lectures , and seminars on solid @-@ phase chemical synthesis of oligonucleotides . A select group of 15 students attended and had an unprecedented opportunity to be instructed by the esteemed teaching staff .
Along with manual exercises , several prominent automation companies attended the course . Biosearch of Novato , CA , Genetic Design of Watertown , MA , were two of several companies to demonstrate automated synthesizers at the course . Biosearch presented their new SAM I synthesizer . The Genetic Design had developed their synthesizer from the design of its sister companies ( Sequemat ) solid phase peptide sequencer . The Genetic Design arranged with Dr Christian Birr ( Max @-@ Planck @-@ Institute for Medical Research ) [ 1 ] a week before the event to convert his solid phase sequencer into the semi @-@ automated synthesizer . The team led by Dr Alex Bonner and Rick Neves converted the unit and transported it to Darmstadt for the event and installed into the Biochemistry lab at the Technische Hochschule . As the system was semi @-@ automatic , the user injected the next base to be added to the growing sequence during each cycle . The system worked well and produced a series of test tubes filled with bright red trityl color indicating complete coupling at each step . This system was later fully automated by inclusion of an auto injector and was designated the Model 25A .
= = = Mid to Large Scale Oligonucleotide Synthesis - A History = = =
Large scale oligonucleotide synthesizers were often developed by augmenting the capabilities of a preexisting instrument platform . One of the first mid scale synthesizers appeared in the late 1980s , manufactured by the Biosearch company in Novato , CA ( The 8800 ) . This platform was originally designed as a peptide synthesizer and made use of a fluidized bed reactor essential for accommodating the swelling characteristics of polystyrene supports used in the Merrifield methodology . Oligonucleotide synthesis involved the use of CPG ( controlled pore glass ) which is a rigid support and is more suited for column reactors as described above . The scale of the 8800 was limited to the flow rate required to fluidize the support . Some novel reactor designs as well as higher than normal pressures enabled the 8800 to achieve scales that would prepare 1 mmole of oligonucleotide . In the mid 1990s several companies developed platforms that were based on semi @-@ preparative and preparative liquid chromatographs . These systems were well suited for a column reactor approach . In most cases all that was required was to augment the number of fluids that could be delivered to the column . Oligo synthesis requires a minimum of 10 and liquid chromatographs usually accommodate 4 . This was an easy design task and some semi @-@ automatic strategies worked without any modifications to the preexisting LC equipment . PerSeptive Biosystems as well as Pharmacia ( GE ) were two of several companies that developed synthesizers out of liquid chromatographs . Genomic Technologies , Inc. was one of the few companies to develop a large scale oligonucleotide synthesizer that was , from the ground up , an oligonucleotide synthesizer . The initial platform called the VLSS for very large scale synthesizer utilized large Pharmacia liquid chromatograph columns as reactors and could synthesize up to 75 millimoles of material . Many oligonucleotide synthesis factories designed and manufactured their own custom platforms and little is known due to the designs being proprietary . The VLSS design continued to be refined and is continued in the QMaster synthesizer which is a scaled down platform providing milligram to gram amounts of synthetic oligonucleotide .
The current practices of synthesis of chemically modified oligonucleotides on large scale have been recently reviewed .
= = = Synthesis of oligonucleotide microarrays = = =
One may visualize an oligonucleotide microarray as a miniature multi @-@ well plate where physical dividers between the wells ( plastic walls ) are intentionally removed . With respect to the chemistry , synthesis of oligonucleotide microarrays is different from the conventional oligonucleotide synthesis in two respects :
Oligonucleotides remain permanently attached to the solid phase , which requires the use of linkers that are stable under the conditions of the final deprotection procedure .
The absence of physical dividers between the sites occupied by individual oligonucleotides , a very limited space on the surface of the microarray ( one oligonucleotide sequence occupies a square 25 × 25 μm ) and the requirement of high fidelity of oligonucleotide synthesis dictate the use of site @-@ selective 5 ' -deprotection techniques . In one approach , the removal of the 5 ' -O @-@ DMT group is effected by electrochemical generation of the acid at the required site ( s ) . Another approach uses 5 ' -O- ( α @-@ methyl @-@ 6 @-@ nitropiperonyloxycarbonyl ) ( MeNPOC ) protecting group , which can be removed by irradiation with UV light of 365 nm wavelength .
= = Post @-@ synthetic processing = =
After the completion of the chain assembly , the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotide is fully protected :
The 5 ' -terminal 5 ' -hydroxy group is protected with DMT group ;
The internucleosidic phosphate or phosphorothioate moieties are protected with 2 @-@ cyanoethyl groups ;
The exocyclic amino groups in all nucleic bases except for T and U are protected with acyl protecting groups .
To furnish a functional oligonucleotide , all the protecting groups have to be removed . The N @-@ acyl base protection and the 2 @-@ cyanoethyl phosphate protection may be , and is often removed simultaneously by treatment with inorganic bases or amines . However , the applicability of this method is limited by the fact that the cleavage of 2 @-@ cyanoethyl phosphate protection gives rise to acrylonitrile as a side product . Under the strong basic conditions required for the removal of N @-@ acyl protection , acrylonitrile is capable of alkylation of nucleic bases , primarily , at the N3 @-@ position of thymine and uracil residues to give the respective N3- ( 2 @-@ cyanoethyl ) adducts via Michael reaction . The formation of these side products may be avoided by treating the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotides with solutions of bases in an organic solvent , for instance , with 50 % triethylamine in acetonitrile or 10 % diethylamine in acetonitrile . This treatment is strongly recommended for medium- and large scale preparations and is optional for syntheses on small scale where the concentration of acrylonitrile generated in the deprotection mixture is low .
Regardless of whether the phosphate protecting groups were removed first , the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotides are deprotected using one of the two general approaches .
( 1 ) Most often , 5 ' -DMT group is removed at the end of the oligonucleotide chain assembly . The oligonucleotides are then released from the solid phase and deprotected ( base and phosphate ) by treatment with aqueous ammonium hydroxide , aqueous methylamine , their mixtures , gaseous ammonia or methylamine or , less commonly , solutions of other primary amines or alkalies at ambient or elevated temperature . This removes all remaining protection groups from 2 ' -deoxyoligonucleotides , resulting in a reaction mixture containing the desired product . If the oligonucleotide contains any 2 ' -O @-@ protected ribonucleotide residues , the deprotection protocol includes the second step where the 2 ' -O @-@ protecting silyl groups are removed by treatment with fluoride ion by various methods . The fully deprotected product is used as is , or the desired oligonucleotide can be purified by a number of methods . Most commonly , the crude product is desalted using ethanol precipitation , size exclusion chromatography , or reverse @-@ phase HPLC . To eliminate unwanted truncation products , the oligonucleotides can be purified via polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or anion @-@ exchange HPLC followed by desalting .
( 2 ) The second approach is only used when the intended method of purification is reverse @-@ phase HPLC . In this case , the 5 ' -terminal DMT group that serves as a hydrophobic handle for purification is kept on at the end of the synthesis . The oligonucleotide is deprotected under basic conditions as described above and , upon evaporation , is purified by reverse @-@ phase HPLC . The collected material is then detritylated under aqueous acidic conditions . On small scale ( less than 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 02 mmol ) , the treatment with 80 % aqueous acetic acid for 15 – 30 min at room temperature is often used followed by evaporation of the reaction mixture to dryness in vacuo . Finally , the product is desalted as described above .
For some applications , additional reporter groups may be attached to an oligonucleotide using a variety of post @-@ synthetic procedures .
= = Characterization = =
As with any other organic compound , it is prudent to characterize synthetic oligonucleotides upon their preparation . In more complex cases ( research and large scale syntheses ) oligonucleotides are characterized after their deprotection and after purification . Although the ultimate approach to the characterization is sequencing , a relatively inexpensive and routine procedure , the considerations of the cost reduction preclude its use in routine manufacturing of oligonucleotides . In day @-@ by @-@ day practice , it is sufficient to obtain the molecular mass of an oligonucleotide by recording its mass spectrum . Two methods are currently widely used for characterization of oligonucleotides : electrospray mass spectrometry ( ES MS ) and matrix @-@ assisted laser desorption / ionization time @-@ of @-@ flight mass spectrometry ( MALDI @-@ TOF ) . To obtain informative spectra , it is very important to exchange all metal ions that might be present in the sample for ammonium or trialkylammonium [ e.c. triethylammonium , ( C2H5 ) 3NH + ] ions prior to submitting a sample to the analysis by either of the methods .
In ES MS spectrum , a given oligonucleotide generates a set of ions that correspond to different ionization states of the compound . Thus , the oligonucleotide with molecular mass M generates ions with masses ( M – nH ) / n where M is the molecular mass of the oligonucleotide in the form of a free acid ( all negative charges of internucleosidic phosphodiester groups are neutralized with H + ) , n is the ionization state , and H is the atomic mass of hydrogen ( 1 Da ) . Most useful for characterization are the ions with n ranging from 2 to 5 . Software supplied with the more recently manufactured instruments is capable of performing a deconvolution procedure that is , it finds peaks of ions that belong to the same set and derives the molecular mass of the oligonucleotide .
To obtain more detailed information on the impurity profile of oligonucleotides , liquid chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry ( LC @-@ MS or HPLC @-@ MS ) or capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry ( CEMS ) are used .
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= Joe Tinker =
Joseph Bert Tinker ( July 27 , 1880 – July 27 , 1948 ) was an American professional baseball player and manager . He played from 1902 through 1916 for the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) and the Chicago Whales of the Federal League .
Born in Muscotah , Kansas , Tinker began playing semi @-@ professional baseball in Kansas in the late 19th century . He began his professional career in 1900 in minor league baseball and made his MLB debut with the Cubs in 1902 . Tinker was a member of the Chicago Cubs dynasty that won four pennants and two World Series championships between 1906 and 1910 . After playing one season with Cincinnati in 1913 , he became one of the first stars to jump to the upstart Federal League in 1914 . After leading the Whales to the pennant in 1915 , he returned to the Cubs as their player @-@ manager in 1916 , his final season in MLB .
Tinker returned to minor league baseball as a part @-@ owner and manager for the Columbus Senators before moving to Orlando , Florida , to manage the Orlando Tigers . While in Orlando , Tinker developed a real estate firm , which thrived during the Florida land boom of the 1920s . However , the 1926 Miami hurricane and Great Depression cost Tinker most of his fortune , and he returned to professional baseball in the late 1930s .
With the Cubs , Tinker was a part of a great double @-@ play combination with teammates Johnny Evers and Frank Chance that was immortalized as " Tinker @-@ to @-@ Evers @-@ to @-@ Chance " in the poem " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " . However , Evers and Tinker feuded off the field . Tinker was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946 , the same year as Evers and Chance . He has also been honored by the Florida State League and the city of Orlando .
= = Early life = =
Tinker was born in Muscotah , Kansas . His twin sister died at a young age . When Tinker was two , his family moved to Kansas City , Kansas . There , he began to play baseball for his school 's team when he was 14 years old . He played in semi @-@ professional baseball for Hagen 's Tailors in 1898 , winning the city championship . In 1899 , he played for a team based in Parsons , Kansas , until it disbanded . He then joined a team representing Coffeyville , Kansas , as a third baseman , for the remainder of the year .
Tinker started his professional baseball career in 1900 , at the age of 19 , when Billy Hulen , a teammate of Tinker 's with the Coffeyville squad , recommended him to George Tebeau , the manager of the Denver Grizzlies of the Western League . Playing as a second baseman for Denver , Tinker batted .219 in his first 32 games . Tebeau sold Tinker to the Great Falls Indians of the Montana State League in June . Great Falls sold Tinker to the Helena Senators , also in the Montana State League , for $ 200 later in the season due to the team 's financial insolvency .
In 1901 , Tinker batted .290 for the Portland Webfoots of the Pacific Northwest League as their third baseman . He led the league with 37 stolen bases . Receiving interest from the Chicago Cubs and the Cincinnati Reds of the National League ( NL ) , Tinker decided on the Cubs when teammate Jack McCarthy told him that he felt mistreated from his time with the Reds .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
When he purchased Tinker 's contract , Cubs manager Frank Selee was seeking a replacement at shortstop for Barry McCormick , who had joined the St. Louis Browns of the rival American League . Tinker won the job during spring training . As a rookie in 1902 , Tinker batted .261 , but also led NL shortstops with 72 errors . Johnny Evers , also a rookie , played second base for the Cubs . With Frank Chance , the team 's first baseman , the trio first played together on September 13 , 1902 , and collaborated on their first double play on September 15 .
In the 1903 season , Tinker 's batting average improved to .291 , and he also contributed 70 RBIs . Tinker led all NL shortstops in the 1906 season with a .944 fielding percentage . On September 14 , 1905 , Tinker and Evers engaged in a fistfight on the field because Evers had taken a cab to the stadium and left his teammates behind in the hotel lobby . They did not speak for years following this event .
Tinker led all shortstops in the NL in double plays turned in the 1905 season . Led by Tinker , Evers and Chance , the Cubs had a 116 – 36 win @-@ loss record in the 1906 season , a record for victories that only was matched by the Seattle Mariners in the 2001 season , in which the Mariners played ten more games than the 1906 Cubs . Tinker batted .167 in the 1906 World Series as the Chicago White Sox defeated the Cubs in six games . Prior to the 1907 season , Tinker underwent surgery for appendicitis . Tinker batted only .154 in the 1907 World Series , but the Cubs defeated the Detroit Tigers in five games .
In the 1908 season , Tinker played all 157 games on the Cubs ' schedule . In addition to batting .266 , he led the team with 146 hits , six home runs , 14 triples , and a .391 slugging percentage . He also led the league with 570 assists . In the game characterized by Merkle 's Boner , Tinker hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run against Christy Mathewson of the New York Giants , prior to Fred Merkle 's baserunning gaffe . In the 1908 NL playoff game , which was a replay of the Merkle game , Tinker hit a leadoff triple off of Mathewson in the third inning , which ignited a four @-@ run rally that helped Chicago to clinch the pennant . Tinker then batted .263 as the Cubs defeated the Tigers in the 1908 World Series in five games . Tinker also hit a home run off of Bill Donovan , the first home run hit in a World Series following the 1905 rules agreement .
In 1909 , Tinker , who earned $ 1 @,@ 500 , demanded a $ 2 @,@ 500 salary . He accepted a $ 200 raise . The Cubs reached the 1910 World Series , and though Tinker batted .333 in the series , the Cubs lost to the Philadelphia Athletics in five games . Following the 1910 season , Tinker threatened to quit the Cubs and play baseball in Australia over a salary dispute .
Tinker led the NL with 486 assists in the 1911 season and led all shortstops in putouts with 333 . In August 1911 , Chance suspended Tinker for the remainder of the season for using profanity , though he was reinstated two days later .
Garry Herrmann , the owner of the Reds , identified Tinker as an ideal candidate to become his player @-@ manager for the 1912 season . According to Tinker , shareholders of the Reds approached Tinker about his interest in the job , and he then met with Charles W. Murphy , the Cubs ' owner , and Chance , then serving as the Cubs ' manager . They forbade him from taking the role with Cincinnati , which left Tinker unhappy . Herrmann began to listen to entreaties from his players , who wanted to retain Clark Griffith as manager , but decided to hire Hank O 'Day . In the 1912 season , Tinker had a .282 batting average , and scored 80 runs and recorded 75 RBIs , both career records . He again led the league in putouts by a shortstop , with 354 . Tinker finished in fourth place in the Chalmers Award voting following the season , behind Larry Doyle , Honus Wagner , and Chief Meyers .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
Murphy named Evers the new manager of the Cubs for the 1913 season . Tinker did not want to play for Evers and met with Murphy and Evers to discuss his transfer to the Reds . Murphy was unhappy with Tinker 's high salary demands , which led him to agree to trade Tinker to the Cincinnati Reds in December 1912 . The Reds received Tinker , Harry Chapman and Grover Lowdermilk in exchange for Red Corriden , Bert Humphries , Pete Knisely , Mike Mitchell , and Art Phelan . He signed a contract for an undisclosed salary .
Tinker missed several weeks during the 1913 season when he gave blood for his wife 's blood transfusion . Tinker finished the season with a .317 batting average , .445 slugging percentage , and a .968 fielding percentage , all career highs , in 110 games . However , the Reds as a team struggled , finishing the season with a 64 – 89 win @-@ loss record . Due to the Reds ' struggles , Herrmann challenged Tinker 's managerial style and sought his resignation . Tinker refused to resign .
= = = Chicago Whales and Cubs = = =
In October 1913 , Tinker and Herrmann conferred , leading to Tinker signing a contract to remain the Reds manager for the 1914 season . However , Herrmann fired Tinker in November , leaving him to seek a contract from another team . Tinker complained that Herrmann did not seek his input on player transactions , while Herrmann charged that Tinker did not accept his authority .
Charles Ebbets , owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers , viewed Tinker as a good replacement for the released Bob Fisher , their shortstop in 1913 . The Cubs , Giants , Pittsburgh Pirates , and Philadelphia Phillies were also interested in acquiring Tinker . Ebbets secured Tinker 's release from the Reds for $ 15 @,@ 000 , with another $ 10 @,@ 000 to be paid to Tinker . The teams also agreed to swap players , with Earl Yingling and Herbie Moran going to Cincinnati and Dick Egan joining Brooklyn . Ebbets entered contract negotiations with Tinker .
However , Tinker never received the $ 10 @,@ 000 promised to him by Ebbets . He insisted on a $ 10 @,@ 000 salary for the 1914 season , higher than the $ 5 @,@ 000 Brooklyn was willing to pay . Tinker was willing to accept a three @-@ year contract if it paid $ 7 @,@ 500 per season . Tinker decided to jump to the Federal League rather than sign with Brooklyn , signing a three @-@ year contract worth $ 36 @,@ 000 . He was considered the first " star " player to jump to the Federal League , though he signed with the Federal League the same day as Mordecai Brown .
Joining the Chicago Whales in the Federal League , Tinker served as player @-@ manager . In his role , he signed other major league players to the Federal League , though he could not lure American League pitchers Walter Johnson from the Washington Senators or Smoky Joe Wood from the Boston Red Sox . The Whales drew more fans than the Cubs in those two seasons . The Whales finished in second place in 1914 , with Tinker batting .259 despite suffering a broken rib during the season . Tinker tore a muscle in May 1915 , ending his season prematurely . With Tinker managing , the Whales won the pennant in 1915 . However , the league folded after the 1915 season .
Charles Weeghman , the owner of the Whales , purchased the Cubs and consolidated his two Chicago rosters , retaining Tinker as his manager . Due to the high combined salaries of the Cubs and Whales , which included Brown and Roger Bresnahan , Tinker was tasked with releasing extraneous players from their contracts . He served as the player @-@ manager of the Cubs for the 1916 season .
= = = Career summary = = =
Tinker was the starting shortstop for the Chicago Cubs from 1902 to 1912 . He was a speedy runner , stealing an average of 28 bases a season and even stealing home twice in one game on July 28 , 1910 . He also excelled at fielding , often leading the National League in a number of statistical categories ( including four times in fielding percentage ) . During his decade with the Cubs , they went to the World Series four times , winning in 1907 and 1908 .
Despite being just an average hitter , batting .268 for his career in an era of high batting averages , Tinker had a good amount of success against fellow Hall of Famer Christy Mathewson , batting .350 against the Hall of Fame pitcher over his career . In Mathewson 's 1912 book , Pitching in a Pinch , he referred to Tinker as " the worst man I have to face in the National League . "
Tinker is perhaps best known for the " Tinker to Evers to Chance " double play combination in the poem " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " , written by the New York Evening Mail newspaper columnist Franklin Pierce Adams in July 1910 . The poem was written as a lamentation from the perspective of a New York Giants fan on how the team is consistently defeated by the Chicago Cubs .
Tinker was also noted as a fighter . In addition to fighting Evers , Tinker defeated Egan in a fight after a game and fought Rabbit Maranville during a game . In 1908 , he was arrested for assault when he got into a fight with a fan at a saloon he owned . He was acquitted of the charge .
= = Later life = =
In December 1916 , Tinker became part @-@ owner of the Columbus Senators of the American Association , with Thomas E. Wilson serving as the principal owner . The duo paid $ 65 @,@ 000 for 75 % ownership of the team . Tinker also served as the team 's manager . He allowed Grover Hartley to succeed him as manager in 1919 and chose Bill Clymer to manage the team for the 1920 season , leading Hartley to request a trade .
Tinker 's wife continued to suffer through poor health , so Tinker sold his interest in the Columbus team after the 1920 season and moved to Orlando , Florida . Tinker became owner and manager of the Orlando Tigers of the Florida State League . The team became known as the " Tinker Tigers " and won the league 's championship . Tinker also scouted for the Reds .
Tinker 's wife committed suicide on Christmas Day , 1923 , with a revolver during an apparent nervous breakdown . He remarried in 1926 , to Mary Ross Eddington of Orlando . Jack Hendricks of the Reds served as Tinker 's best man . He married his third wife , Susanna Margaret Chabot , in 1942 .
Tinker ended his involvement in professional baseball , focusing instead on his real estate ventures during the Florida land boom of the 1920s . He developed a successful real estate firm , buying and selling land in Orange County and Seminole County . He purchased the Longwood Hotel , now listed on the National Register of Historic Places , in 1926 . Tinker convinced Reds owner Garry Herrmann to use his stadium in Orlando for their spring training site in 1923 .
Tinker made up to $ 250 @,@ 000 in his real estate business . However , his fortunes began to change in 1926 , when the stock market receded and the 1926 Miami hurricane damaged significant areas of South Florida . During the Great Depression , he was forced to liquidate most of his real estate holdings . Tinker owned a billiard parlor during the Depression . He opened one of Orlando 's first bars after the end of Prohibition . He also returned to baseball . Tinker scouted the Philadelphia Athletics ' hitters for the Cubs prior to the 1929 World Series .
During the 1930 season , Tinker returned to baseball as a coach for the Buffalo Bisons of the International League , who were managed by Clymer . Tinker became the manager of the Jersey City Skeeters of the International League after the dismissal of Nick Allen in August . The owner of the Springfield Ponies of the Eastern League attempted to convince Tinker to manage his team in 1931 . Tinker assumed managerial duties of the Orlando Gulls in mid @-@ May 1937 , succeeding Nelson Leach . However , he resigned the position in July of that year , as the team was unable to pay his salary . During World War II , Tinker worked at Orlando Air Force Base as a boiler inspector .
According to some tellings , Tinker and Evers did not speak to one another again following their fight for 33 years , until they were asked to participate in the radio broadcast of the 1938 World Series , played between the Cubs and the New York Yankees . Neither Tinker nor Evers knew the other had been invited . However , in 1929 , Tinker joined with Evers in signing a 10 @-@ week contract to perform a theatrical skit on baseball in different cities across the United States .
Tinker had serious health problems in his later life . Complications of diabetes mellitus and Bright 's disease left Tinker near death in 1936 , when his physician believed he had 24 hours to live , and 1944 , when he was placed in an oxygen tent . However , he returned to health and scouted minor league players for the Boston Braves in 1946 . Tinker developed an infection relating to diabetes that in 1947 required the amputation of a toe and persisted until his left leg above the knee was amputated as well . Tinker died at Orange Memorial Hospital in Orlando on July 27 , 1948 , his 68th birthday , of complications from diabetes . He was buried in Greenwood Cemetery and survived by his four children .
= = Honors = =
Tinker was elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946 . Evers and Chance were inducted that same year . Local leaders in Orlando held a testimonial dinner in his honor in 1947 .
Tinker Field , a stadium in the shadow of the Citrus Bowl , and the Tinker Building , Tinker 's office in Orlando , are on the National Register of Historic Places . Tinker was posthumously inducted into the Florida State League Hall of Fame in 2009 , in its inaugural class .
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= Palestinian fedayeen =
Palestinian fedayeen ( from the Arabic fidā 'ī , plural fidā 'iyūn , فدائيون ) are militants or guerrillas of a nationalist orientation from among the Palestinian people . Most Palestinians consider the fedayeen to be " freedom fighters " , while most Israelis consider them to be terrorists .
Considered symbols of the Palestinian national movement , the Palestinian fedayeen drew inspiration from guerrilla movements in Vietnam , China , Algeria and Latin America . The ideology of the Palestinian fedayeen was mainly left @-@ wing nationalist , socialist or communist , and their proclaimed purpose was to defeat Zionism , claim Palestine and establish it as " a secular , democratic , nonsectarian state " . The meaning of a secular , democratic and non @-@ sectarian , however greatly diverged among fedayeen factions .
Emerging from among the Palestinian refugees who fled or were expelled from their villages as a result of the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , in the mid @-@ 1950s the fedayeen began mounting cross @-@ border operations into Israel from Syria , Egypt and Jordan . The earliest infiltrations were often to access the lands agricultural products they had lost as a result of the war , or to attack Israeli military , and sometimes civilian targets . The Gaza Strip , the sole territory of the All @-@ Palestine Government — an independent Palestinian state declared in October 1948 , became the focal point of the Palestinian fedayeen activity . Fedayeen attacks were directed on Gaza and Sinai borders with Israel , and as a result Israel undertook retaliatory actions , targeting the fedayeen that also often targeted the citizens of their host countries , which in turn provoked more attacks .
Fedayeen actions were cited by Israel as one of the reasons for its launching of the Sinai Campaign of 1956 , the 1967 War , and the 1978 and 1982 invasions of Lebanon . Palestinian fedayeen groups were united under the umbrella the Palestine Liberation Organization after the defeat of the Arab armies in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , though each group retained its own leader and independent armed forces .
= = Definitions of the term = =
The words " Palestinian " and " fedayeen " have had different meanings to different people at various points in history . According to the Sakhr Arabic @-@ English dictionary , fida 'i — the singular form of the plural fedayeen — means " one who risks his life voluntarily " or " one who sacrifices himself " . In their book , The Arab @-@ Israeli Conflict , Tony Rea and John Wright have adopted this more literal translation , translating the term fedayeen as " self @-@ sacrificers " .
In his essay , " The Palestinian Leadership and the American Media : Changing Images , Conflicting Results " ( 1995 ) , R.S. Zaharna comments on the perceptions and use of the terms " Palestinian " and " fedayeen " in the 1970s , writing :
" Palestinian became synonymous with terrorists , skyjackers , commandos , and guerrillas . The term fedayeen was often used but rarely translated . This added to the mysteriousness of Palestinian groups . Fedayeen means " freedom fighter . "
Edmund Jan Osmańczyk 's Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements ( 2002 ) defines fedayeen as " Palestinian resistance fighters " , whereas Martin Gilbert 's The Routledge Atlas of the Arab @-@ Israeli Conflict ( 2005 ) defines fedayeen as " Palestinian terrorist groups " . Robert McNamara refers to the fedayeen simply as " guerrillas " , as do Zeev Schiff and Raphael Rothstein in their work Fedayeen : Guerrillas Against Israel ( 1972 ) . Fedayeen can also be used to refer to militant or guerrilla groups that are not Palestinian . ( See Fedayeen for more . )
Beverly Milton @-@ Edwards describes the Palestinian fedayeen as " modern revolutionaries fighting for national liberation , not religious salvation , " distinguishing them from mujahaddin ( i.e. " fighters of the jihad " ) . While the fallen soldiers of both mujahaddin and fedayeen are called shahid ( i.e. " martyrs " ) by Palestinians , Milton nevertheless contends that it would be political and religious blasphemy to call the " leftist fighters " of the fedayeen .
= = History = =
= = = 1948 to 1956 = = =
Palestinian immigration into Palestine first emerged among the Palestinian refugees of the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War , living in camps in Jordan ( including the Jordania @-@ occupied West Bank ) , Lebanon , Egypt ( including the Egyptian protectorate in Gaza ) , and Syria . Initially , most infiltrations were economic in nature , with Palestinians crossing the border seeking food or the recovery of property lost in the 1948 war .
Between 1948 and 1955 , immigration by Palestinians into Israel was opposed by Arab governments , in order to prevent escalation into another war . The problem of establishing and guarding the demarcation line separating the Gaza Strip from the Israeli @-@ held Negev area proved vexing , largely due to the presence of over 200 @,@ 000 Palestinian Arab refugees in this Gaza area . The terms of the Armistice Agreement restricted Egypt ’ s use and deployment of regular armed forces in the Gaza strip . In keeping with this restriction , the Egyptian Government ’ s solution was to form a Palestinian para @-@ military police force . The Palestinian Border police was created in December 1952 . The Border police were placed under the command of ‘ Abd @-@ al @-@ Man ’ imi ‘ Abd @-@ al @-@ Ra ’ uf , a former Egyptian air brigade commander , member of the Muslim Brotherhood and member of the Revolutionary Council . 250 Palestinian volunteers started training in March 1953 , with further volunteers coming forward for training in May and December 1953 . Some Border police personnel were attached to the Military Governor ’ s office , under ‘ Abd @-@ al- ‘ Azim al @-@ Saharti , to guard public installations in the Gaza strip . After an Israeli raid on an Egyptian military outpost in Gaza in February 1955 , during which 37 Egyptian soldiers were killed , the Egyptian government began to actively sponsor fedayeen raids into Israel .
The first struggle by Palestinian fedayeen may have been launched from Syrian territory in 1951 , though most counterattacks between 1951 and 1953 were launched from Jordanian territory . According to Yeshoshfat Harkabi ( former head of Israeli military intelligence ) , these early infiltrations were limited " incursions " , initially motivated by economic reasons , such as Palestinians crossing the border into Israel to harvest crops in their former villages . Gradually , they developed into violent robbery and deliberate ' terrorist ' attacks as fedayeen replaced the ' innocent ' refugees as the perpetrators .
In 1953 , Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion tasked Ariel Sharon , then security chief of the Northern Region , with setting up of a new commando unit , Unit 101 , designed to respond to fedayeen infiltrations ( see retribution operations ) . After one month of training , " a patrol of the unit that infiltrated into the Gaza Strip as an exercise , encountered Palestinians in al @-@ Bureij refugee camp , opened fire to rescue itself and left behind about 30 killed Arabs and dozens of wounded . " In its five @-@ month existence , Unit 101 was also responsible for carrying out the Qibya massacre on the night of 14 – 15 October 1953 , in the Jordanian village of the same name . Cross @-@ border operations by Israel were conducted in both Egypt and Jordan " to ' teach ' the Arab leaders that the Israeli government saw them as responsible for these activities , even if they had not directly conducted them . " Moshe Dayan felt that retaliatory action by Israel was the only way to convince Arab countries that , for the safety of their own citizens , they should work to stop fedayeen infiltrations . Dayan stated , " We are not able to protect every man , but we can prove that the price for Jewish blood is high . "
According to Martin Gilbert , between 1951 and 1955 , 967 Israelis were killed in what he claims as " Arab terrorist attacks " , a figure Benny Morris characterizes as " pure nonsense " . Morris explains that Gilbert 's fatality figures are " 3 @-@ 5 times higher than the figures given in contemporary Israeli reports " and that they seem to be based on a 1956 speech by David Ben @-@ Gurion in which he uses the word nifga 'im to refer to " casualties " in the broad sense of the term ( i.e. both dead and wounded ) . According to the Jewish Agency for Israel between 1951 and 1956 , 400 Israelis were killed and 900 wounded in fedayeen attacks . Dozens of these attacks are today cited by the Israeli government as " Major Arab Terrorist Attacks against Israelis prior to the 1967 Six @-@ Day War " . According to the Jewish Virtual Library , while the attacks violated the 1949 Armistice Agreements prohibiting hostilities by paramilitary forces , it was Israel that was condemned by the United Nations Security Council for its counterattacks .
United Nations reports indicate that between 1949 and 1956 , Israel launched more than seventeen raids on Egyptian territory and 31 attacks on Arab towns or military forces .
From late 1954 onwards , larger scale Fedayeen operations were mounted from Egyptian territory . The Egyptian government supervised the establishment of formal fedayeen groups in Gaza and the northeastern Sinai . General Mustafa Hafez , commander of Egyptian army intelligence , is said to have founded Palestinian fedayeen units " to launch terrorist raids across Israel 's southern border , " nearly always against civilians . In a speech on 31 August 1955 , Egyptian President Nasser said :
Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes , the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine .... There will be no peace on Israel 's border because we demand vengeance , and vengeance is Israel 's death .
In 1955 , it is reported that 260 Israeli citizens were killed or wounded by the fedayeen . Some believe fedayeen attacks contributed to the outbreak of the Suez Crisis ; they were cited by Israel as the reason for undertaking the 1956 Sinai Campaign . Others argue that Israel " engineered eve @-@ of @-@ war lies and deceptions .... to give Israel the excuse needed to launch its strike " , such as presenting a group of " captured fedayeen " to journalists , who were in fact Israeli soldiers .
In 1956 , Israeli troops entered Khan Yunis in the Egyptian controlled Gaza Strip , conducting house @-@ to @-@ house searches for Palestinian fedayeen and weaponry . During this operation , 275 Palestinians were killed , with an additional 111 killed in Israeli raids on the Rafah refugee camp . Israel claimed these killings resulted from " refugee resistance " , a claim denied by refugees ; there were no Israeli casualties .
= = = Suez Crisis = = =
On 29 October 1956 , the first day of Israel 's invasion of the Sinai Peninsula , Israeli forces attacked " fedayeen units " in the towns of Ras al @-@ Naqb and Kuntilla . Two days later , fedayeen destroyed water pipelines in Kibbutz Ma 'ayan along the Lebanese border , and began a campaign of mining in the area which lasted throughout November . In the first week of November , similar attacks occurred along the Syrian and Jordanian borders , the Jerusalem corridor and in the Wadi Ara region — although the state armies of both those countries are suspected as the saboteurs . On 9 November , four Israeli soldiers were injured after their vehicle was ambushed by fedayeen near the city of Ramla ; and several water pipelines and bridges were sabotaged in the Negev .
During the invasion of Sinai , Israeli forces killed fifty defenseless fedayeen on a lorry in Ras Sudar . ( Reserve Lieutenant Colonel Saul Ziv told Maariv in 1995 he was haunted by this killing . ) After Israel took control of the Gaza Strip , dozens of fedayeen were summarily executed , mostly in two separate incidents . Sixty @-@ six were killed in screening operations in the area ; while a US diplomat estimated that of the 500 fedayeen captured by the Israeli Defense Forces ( IDF ) , " about 30 " were killed .
= = = 1956 to 1967 = = =
Between the 1956 war and the 1967 war , Israeli civilian and military casualties on all Arab fronts , inflicted by regular and irregular forces ( including those of Palestinian fedayeen ) , averaged one per month — an estimated total of 132 fatalities .
During the mid and late 1960s , there emerged a number of independent Palestinian fedayeen groups who sought " the liberation of all Palestine through a Palestinian armed struggle . " The first incursion by these fedayeen may have been the 1 January 1965 commando infiltration into Israel , to plant explosives that destroyed a section of pipeline designed to divert water from the Jordan River into Israel . In 1966 , the Israeli military attacked the Jordanian @-@ controlled West Bank village of Samu , in response to Fatah raids against Israel 's eastern border , increasing tensions leading to the Six @-@ Day War .
= = = 1967 to 1987 = = =
Fedayeen groups began joining the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) in 1968 . While the PLO was the " unifying framework " under which these groups operated , each fedayeen organization had its own leader and armed forces and retained autonomy in operations . Of the dozen or so fedayeen groups under the PLO framework , the most important were the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) headed by George Habash , the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) headed by Nayef Hawatmeh , the PFLP @-@ General Command headed by Ahmed Jibril , as @-@ Sa 'iqa ( affiliated with Syria ) , and the Arab Liberation Front ( backed by Iraq ) .
The most severe act of sabotage of the fedayeen occurred on 4 July 1969 , when a single militant placed three pounds of explosives under the manifold of eight pipelines carrying oil from the Haifa refinery to the dockside . As a result of the explosion , three pipelines were temporarily out of commission and a fire destroyed over 1 @,@ 500 tons of refined oil .
= = = = West Bank = = = =
In the late 1960s , attempts were made to organize fedayeen resistance cells among the refugee population in the West Bank . The stony and empty terrain of the West Bank mountains made the fedayeen easy to spot ; and Israeli collective punishment against the families of fighters resulted in the fedayeen being pushed out of the West Bank altogether , within a few months . Yasser Arafat reportedly escaped arrest in Ramallah by jumping out a window , as Israeli police came in the front door . Without a base in the West Bank , and prevented from operating in Syria and Egypt , the fedayeen concentrated in Jordan .
= = = = Jordan = = = =
After the influx of a second wave of Palestinian refugees from the 1967 war , fedayeen bases in Jordan began to proliferate , and there were increased fedayeen attacks on Israel . Fedayeen fighters launched ineffective bazooka @-@ shelling attacks on Israeli targets across the Jordan River , while " brisk and indiscriminate " Israeli retaliations destroyed Jordanian villages , farms and installations , causing 100 @,@ 000 people to flee the Jordan Valley eastward . The increasing ferocity of those Israeli reprisals directed at Jordanians ( not Palestinians ) for fedayeen raids into Israel became a growing cause of concern for the Jordanian authorities .
One such Israeli reprisal was in the Jordanian town of Karameh , home to the headquarters of an emerging fedayeen group called Fatah , led by Yasser Arafat . Warned of large @-@ scale Israeli military preparations , many fedayeen groups , including the PFLP and the DFLP , withdraw their forces from the town . Advised by a pro @-@ Fatah Jordanian divisional commander to withdraw his men and headquarters to nearby hills , Arafat refused , stating " We want to convince the world that there are those in the Arab world who will not withdraw or flee . " Fatah remained , and the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued .
On the night of 21 March 1968 , Israel attacked Karameh with heavy weaponry , armored vehicles and fighter jets . Fatah held its ground , surprising the Israeli military . As Israel 's forces intensified their campaign , the Jordanian Army became involved , causing the Israelis to retreat in order to avoid a full @-@ scale war . By the battle 's end , 100 Fatah militants had been killed , 100 wounded and 120 @-@ 150 captured ; Jordanian fatalities were 61 soldiers and civilians , 108 wounded ; and Israeli casualties were 28 soldiers killed and 69 wounded . 13 Jordanian tanks were destroyed in the battle ; while the Israelis lost 4 tanks , 3 half tracks , 2 armoured cars , and an airplane shot down by Jordanian forces .
The Battle of Karameh raised the profile of the fedayeen , as they were regarded the " daring heroes of the Arab world " . Despite the higher Arab death toll , Fatah considered the battle a victory because of the Israeli army 's rapid withdrawal . Such developments prompted Rashid Khalidi to dub the Battle of Karameh the " foundation myth " of the Palestinian commando movement , whereby " failure against overwhelming odds [ was ] brilliantly narrated as [ an ] heroic triumph . "
Financial donations and recruitment increased as many young Arabs , including thousands of non @-@ Palestinians , joined the ranks of the organization . The ruling Hashemite authorities in Jordan grew increasingly alarmed by the PLO 's activities , as they established a " state within a state " , providing military training and social welfare services to the Palestinian population , bypassing the Jordanian authorities . Palestinian criticism of the poor performance of the Arab Legion ( the King 's army ) was an insult to both the King and the regime . Further , many Palestinian fedayeen groups of the radical left , such as the PFLP , " called for the overthrow of the Arab monarchies , including the Hashemite regime in Jordan , arguing that this was an essential first step toward the liberation of Palestine . "
In the first week of September 1970 , PFLP forces hijacked three airplanes ( British , Swiss and German ) at Dawson 's field in Jordan . To secure the release of the passengers , the demand to free PFLP militants held in European jails was met . After everyone had disembarked , the fedayeen destroyed the airplanes on the tarmac .
= = = = Black September in Jordan = = = =
On 16 September 1970 , King Hussein ordered his troops to strike and eliminate the fedayeen network in Jordan . Syrian troops intervened to support the fedayeen , but were turned back by Jordanian armour and Israeli army overflights . Thousands of Palestinians were killed in the initial battle — which came to be known as Black September — and thousands more in the security crackdown that followed . By the summer of 1971 , the Palestinian fedayeen network in Jordan had been effectively dismantled , with most of the fighters setting up base in southern Lebanon instead .
= = = = Gaza Strip = = = =
The emergence of a fedayeen movement in the Gaza Strip was catalyzed by Israel 's occupation of the territory during the 1967 war . Palestinian fedayeen from Gaza " waged a mini @-@ war " against Israel for three years before the movement was crushed by the Israeli military in 1971 under the orders of then Defense Minister , Ariel Sharon .
Palestinians in Gaza were proud of their role in establishing a fedayeen movement there when no such movement existed in the West Bank at the time . The fighters were housed in refugee camps or hid in the citrus groves of wealthy Gazan landowners , carrying out raids against Israeli soldiers from these sites .
The most active of the fedayeen groups in Gaza was the PFLP , an offshoot of the Arab Nationalist Movement ( ANM ) — who enjoyed instant popularity among the already secularized , socialist population who had come of age during Egyptian President Nasser 's rule of Gaza . The emergence of armed struggle as the liberation strategy for the Gaza Strip reflected larger ideological changes within the Palestinian national movement toward political violence .
" The ideology of armed struggle was , by this time , broadly secular in content ; Palestinians were asked to take up arms not as part of a jihad against the infidel but to free the oppressed from the Zionist colonial regime . The vocabulary of liberation was distinctly secular . "
The " radical left " dominated the political scene , and the overarching slogan of the time was , " We will liberate Palestine first , then the rest of the Arab world . "
During Israel 's 1971 military campaign to contain or control the fedayeen , an estimated 15 @,@ 000 suspected fighters were rounded up and deported to detention camps in Abu Zneima and Abu Rudeis in the Sinai . Dozens of homes were demolished by Israeli forces , rendering hundreds of people homeless . According to Milton @-@ Edwards , " This security policy successfully instilled terror in the camps and wiped out the fedayeen bases . " The destruction of the secular infrastructure , paved the way for the rise of the Islamic movement , which began organizing as early as 1969 – 1970 , led by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin .
= = = = Lebanon = = = =
On 3 November 1969 , the Lebanese government signed the Cairo Agreement which granted Palestinians the right to launch attacks on Israel from southern Lebanon in coordination with the Lebanese Army . After the expulsion of the Palestinian fedayeen from Jordan and a series of Israeli raids on Lebanon , the Lebanese government granted the PLO the right to defend Palestinian refugee camps there and to possess heavy weaponry . After the outbreak of 1975 Lebanese Civil War , the PLO increasingly began to act once again as a " state within a state " . On 11 March 1978 , twelve fedayeen led by Dalal Mughrabi infiltrated Israel from the sea and hijacked a bus along the coastal highway , killing 38 civilians in the ensuing gunfight between them and police . Israel invaded southern Lebanon in the 1978 Israel @-@ Lebanon conflict , occupying a 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) wide area there to put an end to Palestinian attacks on Israel , but fedayeen rocket strikes on northern Israel continued .
Israeli armoured artillery and infantry forces , supported by air force and naval units again entered Lebanon on 6 June 1982 in an operation code @-@ named " Peace for Galilee " , encountering " fierce resistance " from the Palestinian fedayeen there . Israel 's occupation of southern Lebanon and its siege and constant shelling of the capital Beirut in the 1982 Lebanon War , eventually forced the Palestinian fedayeen to accept an internationally brokered agreement that moved them out of Lebanon to different places in the Arab world . The headquarters of the PLO was moved out of Lebanon to Tunis at this time . The new PLO headquarters was destroyed during an Israeli airstrike in 1985 .
During a September 2 , 1982 press conference at the United Nations , Yasser Arafat stated that , " Jesus Christ was the first Palestinian fedayeen who carried his sword along the path on which the Palestinians today carry their cross . "
= = = First Intifada = = =
On 25 November 1987 , PFLP @-@ GC launched an attack , in which two fedayeen infiltrated northern Israel from an undisclosed Syrian @-@ controlled area in southern Lebanon with hang gliders . One of them was killed at the border , while the other proceeded to land at an army camp , initially killing a soldier in a passing vehicle , then five more in the camp , before being shot dead . Thomas Friedman said that judging by commentary in the Arab world , the raid was seen as a boost to the Palestinian national movement , just as it had seemed to be almost totally eclipsed by the Iran – Iraq War . Palestinians in Gaza began taunting Israeli soldiers , chanting " six to one " and the raid has been noted as a catalyst to the First Intifada .
During the First Intifada , armed violence on the part of Palestinians was kept to a minimum , in favor of mass demonstrations and acts of civil disobedience . However , the issue of the role of armed struggle did not die out altogether . Those Palestinian groups affiliated with the PLO and based outside of historic Palestine , such as rebels within Fatah and the PFLP @-@ GC , used the lack of fedayeen operations as their main weapon of criticism against the PLO leadership at the time . The PFLP and DFLP even made a few abortive attempts at fedayeen operations inside Israel . According to Jamal Raji Nassar and Roger Heacock , "
[ … ] at least parts of the Palestinian left sacrificed all to the golden calf of armed struggle when measuring the degree of revolutionary commitment by the number of fedayeen operations , instead of focusing on the positions of power they doubtless held inside the Occupied Territories and which were major assets in struggles over a particular political line . "
During the First Intifada , but particularly after the signing of the Oslo Accords , the fedayeen steadily lost ground to the emerging forces of the mujahaddin , represented initially and most prominently by Hamas . The fedayeen lost their position as a political force and the secular nationalist movement that had represented the first generation of the Palestinian resistance became instead a symbolic , cultural force that was seen by some as having failed in its duties .
= = = Second Intifada and current situation = = =
After being dormant for many years , Palestinian fedayeen reactivated their operations during the Second Intifada . In August 2001 , ten Palestinian commandos from the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) penetrated the electric fences of the fortified army base of Bedolah , killing an Israeli major and two soldiers and wounding seven others . One of the commandos was killed in the firefight . Another was tracked for hours and later shot in head , while the rest escaped . In Gaza , the attack produced " a sense of euphoria — and nostalgia for the Palestinian fedayeen raids in the early days of the Jewish state . " Israel responded by launching airstrikes at the police headquarters in Gaza City , an intelligence building in the central Gaza town of Deir al @-@ Balah and a police building in the West Bank town of Salfit . Salah Zeidan , head of the DFLP in Gaza , stated of the operation that , " It 's a classic model — soldier to soldier , gun to gun , face to face [ ... ] Our technical expertise has increased in recent days . So has our courage , and people are going to see that this is a better way to resist the occupation than suicide bombs inside the Jewish state . "
Today , the fedayeen have been eclipsed politically by the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) , which consists of the major factions of the PLO , and militarily by Islamist groups , particularly Hamas . Already strained relations between Hamas and the PNA collapsed entirely when the former took over the Gaza Strip in 2007 . Although the fedayeen are leftist and secular , during the most recent hostilities between Israel and the Gaza Strip , fedayeen groups fought alongside and in coordination with Hamas even though a number of the factions were previously sworn enemies of them . The al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs Brigades , an armed faction loyal to the Fatah @-@ controlled PNA , undermined Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas by lobbing rockets into southern Israel in concert with rivals Hamas and the Islamic Jihad . According to researcher Maha Azzam , this symbolized the disintegration of Fatah and the division between the grassroots organization and the current leadership . The PFLP and the Popular Resistance Committees also joined in the fighting .
To rival the PNA and increase Palestinian fedayeen cooperation , a Damascus @-@ based coalition composed of representatives of Hamas , Islamic Jihad , the PFLP , as @-@ Sa 'iqa , the Palestinian Popular Struggle Front , the Revolutionary Communist Party , and other anti @-@ PNA factions within the PLO , such as Fatah al @-@ Intifada , was established during the Gaza War in 2009 .
= = Philosophical grounding and objectives = =
The objectives of the fedayeen were articulated in the statements and literature they produced , which were consistent with reference to the aim of destroying Zionism . In 1970 , the stated aim of the fedayeen was establishing Palestine as " a secular , democratic , nonsectarian state . " Robert Freedman writes that for some fedayeen groups , the secular aspect of the struggle was " merely a slogan for assuaging world opinion , " while others strove " to give the concept meaningful content . " Prior to 1974 , the fedayeen position was that any Jew who renounced Zionism could remain in the Palestinian state to be created . After 1974 , the issue became less clear and there were suggestions that only those Jews who were in Palestine prior to " the Zionist invasion " , alternatively placed at 1947 or 1917 , would be able to remain .
In The Intifada : Its Impact on Israel , the Arab World , and the Superpowers , Bard O 'Neill writes that the fedayeen attempted to study and borrow from all of the revolutionary models available , but that their publications and statements show a particular affinity for the Cuban , Algerian , Vietnamese , and Chinese experiences .
= = = Infighting and breakaway movements = = =
During the post @-@ Six @-@ Day War era , individual fedayeen movements quarreled over issues about the recognition of Israel , alliances with various Arab states , and ideologies . A faction led by Nayef Hawatmeh and Yasser Abed Rabbo split from PFLP in 1974 , because they preferred a Maoist and non @-@ Nasserist approach . This new movement became known as the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) . In 1974 , the PNC approved the Ten Point Program ( drawn up by Arafat and his advisers ) , and proposed a compromise with the Israelis . The Program called for a Palestinian national authority over every part of " liberated Palestinian territory " , which referred to areas captured by Arab forces in the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War ( present @-@ day West Bank and Gaza Strip ) . Perceived by some Palestinians as overtures to the United States and concessions to Israel , the program fostered internal discontent , and prompted several of the PLO factions , such as the PFLP , DFLP , as @-@ Sa 'iqa , the Arab Liberation Front and the Palestine Liberation Front , among others , to form a breakaway movement which came to be known as the Rejectionist Front .
During the Lebanese Civil War ( 1975 – 1990 ) , the PLO aligned itself with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement . Although they were initially backed by Syrian president Hafez al @-@ Assad , when he switched sides in the conflict , the smaller pro @-@ Syrian factions within the Palestinian fedayeen camp , namely as @-@ Sa 'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command fought against Arafat 's Fatah @-@ led PLO . In 1988 , after Arafat and al @-@ Assad partially reconciled , Arafat loyalists in the refugee camps of Bourj al @-@ Barajneh and Shatila attempted to force out Fatah al @-@ Intifada — a pro @-@ Syrian Fatah breakaway movement formed by Said al @-@ Muragha in 1983 . Instead , al @-@ Muragha 's forces overran Arafat loyalists from both camps after bitter fighting in which Fatah al @-@ Intifada received backing from the Lebanese Amal militia .
The PLO and other Palestinian armed movements became increasingly divided after the Oslo Accords in 1993 . They were rejected by the PFLP , DFLP , Hamas , and twenty other factions , as well as Palestinian intellectuals , refugees outside of the Palestinian territories , and the local leadership of the territories . The Rejectionist fedayeen factions formed a common front with the Islamists , culminating in the creation of the Alliance of Palestinian Forces . This new alliance failed to act as a cohesive unit , but revealed the sharp divisions among the PLO , with the fedayeen finding themselves aligning with Palestinian Islamists for the first time . Disintegration within the PLO 's main body Fatah increased as Farouk Qaddoumi — in charge of foreign affairs — voiced his opposition to negotiations with Israel . Members of the PLO @-@ Executive Committee , poet Mahmoud Darwish and refugee leader Shafiq al @-@ Hout resigned from their posts in response to the PLO 's acceptance of Oslo 's terms .
= = = Tactics = = =
Until 1968 , fedayeen tactics consisted largely of hit @-@ and @-@ run raids on Israeli military targets . A commitment to " armed struggle " was incorporated into PLO Charter in clauses that stated : " Armed struggle is the only way to liberate Palestine " and " Commando action constitutes the nucleus of the Palestinian popular liberation war . "
Preceding the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 , the fedayeen carried out several campaigns of sabotage against Israeli infrastructure . Common acts of this included the consistent mining of water and irrigation pipelines along the Jordan River and its tributaries , as well as the Lebanese @-@ Israeli border and in various locations in the Galilee . Other acts of sabotage involved bombing bridges , mining roads , ambushing cars and vandalizing ( sometimes destroying ) houses . After the Six @-@ Day War , these incidents steadily decreased with the exception of the bombing of a complex of oil pipelines sourcing from the Haifa refinery in 1969 .
The IDFs counterinsurgency tactics , which from 1967 onwards regularly included the use of home demolitions , curfews , deportations , and other forms of collective punishment , effectively precluded the ability of the Palestinian fedayeen to create internal bases from which to wage " a people 's war " . The tendency among many captured guerrillas to collaborate with the Israeli authorities , providing information that led to the destruction of numerous " terrorist cells " , also contributed to the failure to establish bases in the territories occupied by Israel . The fedayeen were compelled to establish external bases , resulting in frictions with their host countries which led to conflicts ( such as Black September ) , diverting them from their primary objective of " bleeding Israel " .
= = = = Airplane hijackings = = = =
The tactic of exporting their struggle against Israel beyond the Middle East was first adopted by the Palestinian fedayeen in 1968 . According to John Follain , it was Wadie Haddad of the PFLP who , unconvinced with the effectiveness of raids on military targets , masterminded the first hijacking of a civilian passenger plane by Palestinian fedayeen in July 1968 . Two commandos forced an El Al Boeing 747 en route from Rome to Tel Aviv to land in Algiers , renaming the flight " Palestinian Liberation 007 " . While publicly proclaiming that it would not negotiate with terrorists , the Israelis did negotiate . The passengers were released unharmed in exchange for the release of sixteen Palestinian prisoners in Israeli jails . The first hijacking of an American airliner was conducted by the PFLP on 29 August 1969 . Robert D. Kumamoto describes the hijacking as a response to an American veto of a United Nations Security Council resolution censuring Israel for its March 1969 aerial attacks on Jordanian villages suspected of harbouring fedayeen , and for the impending delivery of American Phantom jets to Israel . The flight , en route to Tel Aviv from Rome , was forced to land in Damascus where , Leila Khaled , one of the two fedayeen to hijack the plane proclaimed that , " this hijacking is one of the operational aspects of our war against Zionism and all who support it , including the United States ... [ ; ] it was a perfectly normal thing to do , the sort of thing all freedom fighters must tackle . " Most of the passengers and crew were released immediately after the plane landed . Six Israeli passengers were taken hostage and held for questioning by Syria . Four women among them were released after two days , and the two men were released after a week of intensive negotiations between all the parties involved . Of this PFLP hijacking and those that followed at Dawson 's field , Kumamoto writes : " The PFLP hijackers had seized no armies , mountaintops , or cities . Theirs was not necessarily a war of arms ; it was a war of words - a war of propaganda , the exploitation of violence to attract world attention . In that regard , the Dawson 's Field episode was a publicity goldmine . "
George Habash , leader of the PFLP , explained his view of the efficacy of hijacking as a tactic in a 1970 interview , stating , " When we hijack a plane it has more effect than if we killed a hundred Israelis in battle . " Habash also stated that after decades of being ignored , " At least the world is talking about us now . " The hijacking attempts did indeed continue . On 8 May 1972 , a Sabena Airlines 707 was forced to land in Tel Aviv after it was commandeered by four Black September commandos who demanded the release of 317 fedayeen fighters being held in Israeli jails . While the Red Cross was negotiating , Israeli paratroopers disguised as mechanics stormed the plane , shot and killed two of hijackers and captured the remaining two after a gunfight that injured five passengers and two paratroopers .
The tactics employed by the Black September group in subsequent operations differed sharply from the other " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill PLO attacks of the day " . The unprecedented level of violence evident in multiple international attacks between 1971 and 1972 included the Sabena airliner hijacking ( mentioned above ) , the assassination of the Jordanian Prime Minister in Cairo , the Massacre at Lod airport , and the Munich Olympics massacre . In The Dynamics of Armed Struggle , J. Bowyer Bell contends that " armed struggle " is a message to the enemy that they are " doomed by history " and that operations are " violent message units " designed to " accelerate history " to this end . Bell argues that despite the apparent failure of the Munich operation which collapsed into chaos , murder , and gun battles , the basic fedayeen intention was achieved since , " The West was appalled and wanted to know the rationale of the terrorists , the Israelis were outraged and punished , many of the Palestinians were encouraged by the visibility and ignored the killings , and the rebels felt that they had acted , helped history along . " He notes the opposite was true for the 1976 hijacking of an Air France flight redirected to Uganda where the Israelis scored an " enormous tactical victory " in Operation Entebbe . While their death as martyrs had been foreseen , the fedayeen had not expected to die as villains , " bested by a display of Zionist skill . "
= = = = Affiliations with other guerrilla groups = = = =
Several fedayeen groups maintained contacts with a number of other guerrilla groups worldwide . The IRA for example had long held ties with Palestinians , and volunteers trained at fedayeen bases in Lebanon . In 1977 , Palestinian fedayeen from Fatah helped arrange for the delivery of a sizable arms shipment to the Provos by way of Cyprus , but it was intercepted by the Belgian authorities .
The PFLP and the DFLP established connections with revolutionary groups such as the Red Army Faction of West Germany , the Action Directe of France , the Red Brigades of Italy , the Japanese Red Army and the Tupamaros of Uruguay . These groups , especially the Japanese Red Army participated in many of the PFLP 's operations including hijackings and the Lod Airport massacre . The Red Army Faction joined the PFLP in the hijackings of two airplanes that landed in Entebbe Airport .
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= Devotions upon Emergent Occasions =
Devotions upon Emergent Occasions , or in full Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions , and severall steps in my Sicknes , is a prose work by the English metaphysical poet and cleric in the Church of England John Donne , published in 1624 . It covers death , rebirth and the Elizabethan concept of sickness as a visit from God , reflecting internal sinfulness . The Devotions were written in December 1623 as Donne recovered from a serious but unknown illness – believed to be relapsing fever or typhus . Having come close to death , he described the illness he had suffered from and his thoughts throughout his recovery with " near super @-@ human speed and concentration " . Registered by 9 January , and published soon after , the Devotions is one of only seven printed works attributed to Donne which were printed during his lifetime .
The Devotions is divided into 23 parts , each consisting of 3 sub @-@ sections , called the ' meditation ' , the " expostulation ' and a prayer . The 23 sections are chronologically ordered , each covering his thoughts and reflections on a single day of the illness . Famously , the 17th devotion , Meditation XVII , includes the phrases " No man is an Iland " ( often modernised as " No man is an island " ) and " ... for whom the bell tolls " . The work as a whole is considered similar to 17th @-@ century devotional writing generally , and particularly to Donne 's Holy Sonnets . Some academics have also identified political strands running through the work , from a polemic Arminian denunciation of Puritanism to advice to the young Prince Charles .
= = Background = =
Donne was born on 21 January 1572 to the elder John Donne , a wealthy ironmonger and one of the wardens of the Worshipful Company of Ironmongers , and his wife Elizabeth . After his father 's death when he was four , Donne was , instead of being prepared to enter a trade , trained as a gentleman scholar ; his family used the money his father had made from ironmongering to hire private tutors who taught him grammar , rhetoric , mathematics , history and foreign languages . Elizabeth soon remarried to a wealthy doctor , ensuring that the family remained comfortable ; as a result , despite being the son of an ironmonger and portraying himself in his early poetry as an outsider , Donne refused to accept that he was anything other than a gentleman . After study at Hart Hall , Oxford , Donne 's private education eventually saw him study at Lincoln 's Inn , one of the Inns of Court , where he occupied his time with history , poetry , theology and " Humane learning and languages " . It was at Lincoln 's Inn that Donne first began writing poetry , looking upon it as " a life @-@ sign or minor irritation " rather than something that defined him .
In November 1623 , Donne fell seriously ill . London was the scene of a ' spotted ' or relapsing fever , which hit its victims unexpectedly and left them conscious but physically helpless . What disease Donne suffered from is not known . Writers have suggested typhus as a likely culprit , but Donne 's writings on the subject reference multiple diseases . Clara Lander , writing in Studies in English Literature 1500 – 1900 , suggests that the typhus may have exacerbated the enteritis Donne had suffered from since childhood .
Donne was of the opinion – as were many others of the age – that illness reflected a state of internal sinfulness , and constituted a visit from God . Despite being ordered to rest , he insisted that a pen and paper be given to him , and he wrote down his impressions of the disease . After his recovery , in December , these became Devotions upon Emergent Occasions , one of his few published prose works , and also one of only seven printed works of which he acknowledged authorship . Written with " near super @-@ human speed and concentration " , the work was registered with the Stationers ' Company by 9 January 1624 . It was published that year , and again in 1634 and 1638 . The full , albeit rarely used , title is Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions , and severall steps in my Sicknes .
= = Contents = =
Structurally , Devotions consists of 23 chronologically ordered sections – representing the length , in days , of Donne 's illness . Each one contains a ' meditation ' , in which he describes a stage of his illness , an ' expostulation ' containing his reaction to that stage , and finally a prayer in which he makes peace with the disease . In the five editions published during the 17th century , the book opens with a Latin preface , titled " Stationes , sive Periodi in Morbo , ad quas referuntur Meditationes sequentes " . Also 23 sections long , each line of the preface is followed by what purports to be an English translation of the Latin . Joan Webber argues that these lines constitute a poem , in dactylic hexameter ; David Novarr disputes this , arguing that Stationes " has none of Donne 's customary wit , drama , and imagination " . Instead , it represents the Stations of the Cross , or supplicatio stativa . Mary Arshagouni , writing in Modern Philology , argues that the stationes indeed constitute a poem – or , at least , something more than a mere table of contents . The Latin lines play @-@ off the English translations , and contain nuanced meaning not found in the English that better represents the sections to which they refer .
Following the stationes , the 23 meditations begin . Each section , taken in an isolated way , follows the same pattern : Donne states some element of his illness or treatment , and then expands upon his statement to develop a theme that culminates with him becoming closer to God . Perhaps the most famous of the meditations is Meditation XVII , which begins with the statement :
Nunc lento sonitu dicunt , Morieris ( Now this Bell , tolling softly for another , saies to me , Thou must die ) .
This statement , or title , is then expanded on . Donne first concludes that he may not be aware that the bell is tolling , saying " hee for whom this Bell tolls may be so ill , as that he knowes not it tolls for him ; And perchance I may thinke my selfe so much better than I am , as that they who are about mee , and see my state , may have caused it to toll for mee , and I know not that " . This is then expanded with the realisation that , even if the bell is tolling for others , it is a matter of concern for Donne , as :
No man is an Iland , intire of it selfe ; every man is a peece of the Continent , a part of the maine ; if a Clod bee washed away by the Sea , Europe is the lesse , as well as if a Promontorie were , as well as if a Mannor of thy friends or of thine owne were ; any mans death diminishes me , because I am involved in Mankinde ; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls ; It tolls for thee . [ Donne 's original spelling and punctuation ]
Donne then argues that if someone dies , anyone has the right to use their death as long as they do so valuably , considering it a treasure . He writes that :
If a man carry treasure in bullion , or in a wedge of gold , and have none coined into currant Monies , his treasure will not defray him as he travells . Tribulation is Treasure in the nature of it , but it is not currant money in the use of it , except wee get nearer and nearer our home , Heaven , by it . Another man may be sicke too , and sick to death , and this affliction may lie in his bowels , as gold in a Mine , and be of no use to him ; but this bell , that tells me of his affliction , digs out , and applies that gold to mee if by this consideration of anothers danger , I take mine owne into contemplation , and so secure my selfe , by making my recourse to my God , who is our onely securitie .
The death of an individual – signified by the tolling of the bell – is thus a treasure buried at the bottom of a mine : only of value if it is given to someone who makes good use of it . In this he refers to the work of Augustine of Hippo , specifically On Christian Doctrine , in which Augustine describes the knowledge of pagans as gold and silver : something that can be involved in Christian purposes if appropriated properly . Donne , twisting this idea , is arguing that the death of any individual is something others can learn from , should they understand it properly .
= = Style and meaning = =
Stylistically , the Devotions is an example of 17th @-@ century devotional writing , and has been compared by Roger Rollin , professor of literature at Clemson University , to the Holy Sonnets and considered , in effect , a sequel . In the context of 17th century devotional writing , Rollin uses the Devotions to demonstrate that , in his view , such writings were " more public than private , [ serving as ] vehicles for the diagnosis of spiritual malaise and as sources of remedies " . Lander argued that the full title signifies " growth of the spirit through physical ordeal " , and in doing so draws on the devotional works of Joseph Hall . Thomas F. Van Laan , writing in Studies in Philology , draws parallels between Donne 's style and the Ignatian exercises : a set of structured mental exercises designed to bring an individual closer to understanding God .
A number of literary theorists have approached the Devotions as politically themed . Richard Strier , in particular , identifies the Devotions as an " Arminian polemic " , arguing that it was highly atypical of Donne to actually publish works , rather than merely let them circulate amongst friends . Both before and after ordination , Donne actively resisted publication , normally only publishing works that had been the result of a commission , such as The Anniversaries or Pseudo @-@ Martyr . The Devotions , however , were " literally rushed " into print , with the volume being handed to the printers a month after he had recovered from his disease . Strier argues that Donne 's rationale for publishing the Devotions matches his rationale for publishing a sermon , the Encaenia , the same year , to assert the importance of " places , and of dayes , and of all outward meanes " , because he felt some sense of urgency about what he had to say . This is coupled with Devotion XVI , in which Donne explicitly comes out against Puritanism and is simultaneously " purposely militant " , deliberately frustrating the other extreme from Puritanism , where " the Arminianism and the polemical anti @-@ puritanism of the volume becomes explicit " .
Dave Gray and Jeanne Shami , writing in the Modern Language Quarterly , argue that it was not just a work of political rhetoric but a work of political advice , aimed at Prince Charles , to whom it was dedicated . The political situation at the time was complex , as King James was ill and Charles attempting to gain control of the government . Gray and Shami highlight the noted line " No man is an island " ; while most interpret it spiritually , they argue that it was a reminder to the prince and his advisors that " even private actions have public consequences " . The veiled nature of the political references was deliberate ; it allowed the work to be acceptable to the censors , but accessible to Charles and those close to him . In the event that they rejected the underlying message , it would also be accessible to other prominent and influential political figures .
Lander argues that the structure of the work is itself symbolic . As well as the division of the poem into 23 parts , each signifying and describing one day of Donne 's illness , each part is itself split in three – representing the Trinity . The use of three elements – Meditation , Expostulation , and Prayer – also matches the three services found in the Book of Common Prayer , a common influence on devotional writers of Donne 's era .
= = Critical response = =
The Devotions have received a mixed reaction from critics . Evelyn Simpson described it as " a curious little book " , and wrote that " [ a ] s a manual of devotion [ the Devotions ] compares unfavourably with the Devotions of Bishop Andrewes or the Holy Living of Jeremy Taylor . It is too introspective , too metaphysical , too much overloaded with learning of different kinds " . Helen C. White described it as the output of an " anxious and restless mind " .
Arshagouni , on the other hand , describes the Devotions as
Donne 's most mature , perhaps most complex work : a remarkable , sustained prose @-@ poem that not only expresses conflicting and powerful internal emotions but also consciously provides its readers with a touching model of the experiences of God 's elect in confronting the inexorable course of human sinfulness that characterizes life on earth .
Helen Wilcox writes that " the mixture of elaborate rhetoric , painstaking argument , and the frank details of his melancholic ' ridling distemper ' creates a particularly powerful impact " and draws particular attention to Meditation XVII , noting that despite the apparent self @-@ interest of the Devotions , that piece highlights Donne 's recognition of the ultimate interconnectedness of humanity . Meditation XVII was also the focus of Robert Jungman , who , writing in American Notes and Queries , noted it as the most forceful statement of Donne 's theme in what was ultimately a " powerful psychological analysis " .
In wider popular culture , several phrases from the Devotions , particularly Meditation XVII , have become commonly quoted , including " No man is an Iland " ( often modernised as " No man is an island " ) and " ... for whom the bell tolls " . Thomas Festa , writing in Notes and Queries , identifies similarities between Thomas Browne 's Christian Morals and Donne 's Meditation XIV .
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= Gravesend Blockhouse =
Gravesend Blockhouse was an artillery fortification constructed as part of Henry VIII 's Device plan of 1539 , in response to fears of an imminent invasion of England by France and the Holy Roman Empire . It was built at Gravesend in Kent along a strategic point along the River Thames and was operational by 1540 . A two @-@ storey , D @-@ shaped building built from brick and stone , it had a circular bastion overlooking the river and gun platforms extending out to the east and west . It functioned in conjunction with Tilbury Fort on the other side of the river , and was repaired in 1588 to deal with the threat of Spanish invasion , and again in 1667 when the Dutch navy raided the Thames . A 1778 report recommended alterations to the blockhouse and its defences , leading to the remodelling of the gun platforms and the construction of the new , larger New Tavern Fort alongside it . In the 1830s the government decided to rely entirely on the newer fort and the old blockhouse was demolished in 1844 . Its remains were uncovered in archaeological excavations between 1975 and 1976 .
= = 16th century = =
= = = Background = = =
Gravesend Blockhouse was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry then broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England now appeared certain .
= = = Device of 1539 = = =
Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline . Under this programme of work the River Thames was protected with a mutually reinforcing network of blockhouses at Gravesend , Milton , and Higham on the south side of the river , and Tilbury and East Tilbury on the opposite bank .
The fortifications were strategically placed . London and the newly constructed royal dockyards of Deptford and Woolwich were vulnerable to seaborne attacks arriving up the Thames estuary , which was then a major maritime route , with 80 percent of England 's exports passing through it . The village of Milton and the adjacent town of Gravesend , only 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) apart , formed a particularly important communications point along the river . They were the centre for the " Long Ferry " traffic of passengers into the capital , and for the " Cross Ferry " over the river to Tilbury , resulting in the local riverbank becoming lined with wharfs . This was also the first point that an invasion force would be able to easily disembark along the Thames , as before this point the mudflats along the sides of the estuary would have made landings difficult .
= = = Construction = = =
Gravesend Blockhouse was designed by the Clerk of the King 's Works , James Nedeham , and the Master of Ordnance , Christopher Morice , with Robert Lorde serving as the paymaster for the project and Lionel Martin , John Ganyn and Mr Travers acting as the local overseers . The Crown bought the land for the fort , along with the space for Gravesend Blockhouse , from William Burston for £ 66 ; it is uncertain how much the building work cost , but earlier estimates in 1539 had suggested that it would cost £ 211 to build such a blockhouse , including the 150 @,@ 000 bricks and quantities of stone , chalk , lime , timber and labour that would be needed . The work was quickly completed , and by 1540 the blockhouse was fully operational .
It was approximately 28 by 21 metres ( 92 by 69 ft ) in size , two storeys tall , forming a D @-@ shape , with a circular bastion at the front , extending into the Thames ; another circular bastion jutted out from the side of the fort . The bulk of the building was made of brick , faced with ashlar stone , with external walls 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) thick . Two walls ran alongside either side of the blockhouse , parallel with the river , forming part of the adjacent platforms for mounting additional guns ; in 1600 , the east platform was described as being 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide . The rear of the blockhouse was overlooked by higher ground and would have been hard to defend .
The fort was initially commanded by Captain James Crane , with a garrison of ten men , including his second in command , a porter , six gunners and two soldiers . As time went on , not all of the gunners worked full @-@ time at the fort , some living and working in the town itself . It is uncertain how many artillery pieces the blockhouse was initially equipped with , although it is known that the five blockhouses along the Thames had 108 brass and iron guns in total between them in 1540 .
= = = Use = = =
In 1553 , orders were issued for the artillery pieces to be removed from Gravesend Blockhouse and taken to the Tower of London , although the historian Victor Smith casts doubt on whether this was actually carried out . In 1588 , however , there was a renewed threat of invasion , this time from Spain ; the Spanish Armada sailed from A Coruña , while a separate invasion force was prepared in Flanders , threatening London ; Rober Dudley , the Earl of Leicester was put in charge of the defences along the Thames .
When Dudley inspected the blockhouse , Gravesend was found to be in poor condition . The gun platforms were unable to bear the weight of cannons , and the defences needed additional artillery and gunpowder ; the permanent garrison by now only comprised five gunners . One estimate that summer suggested that 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of structural timber , 300 iron spikes and 10 cartloads of smaller pieces of timber were needed for the repairs .
Plans were made to seal off the river with a chain or a boom stretching between the blockhouse and Tilbury Fort on the other bank , which was eventually accomplished at a cost of £ 305 . Further work was carried out on the defences , possibly including raising earthworks and establishing watch @-@ houses . Fears of an invasion persisted for many years afterwards and in 1598 Charles Howard , the Lord High Admiral , expressed his concerns about the effectiveness of the Gravesend Blockhouse in protecting the Thames .
= = 17th century = =
A 1600 survey showed 10 pieces of artillery to be ineffective , while the gun platforms on either side of the fort were in bad condition and 2 @,@ 828 feet ( 862 m ) of planking , 650 joists and over 19 cartloads of other timber was needed for the repairs . Little investment was forthcoming under James I or Charles I and by 1630 the garrison 's pay was in arrears , with the fort was in need of repairs estimated at £ 1 @,@ 248 . In 1631 the blockhouse was equipped with two brass demi @-@ culverins and sakers , and an iron culverin , six demi @-@ culverins , four sakers and one minion ; the brass guns , which were needed for naval units , were exchanged for iron weapons in 1635 .
In 1642 civil war broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and those of Parliament . Gravesend was controlled by Parliament , who placed it under the command of a military governor who oversaw both this fort and Tilbury , and was used to control traffic entering London and to search for spies . Charles II regained the throne in 1660 and was petitioned by several royalists who claimed that they should be restored to the command of the blockhouse ; William Leonard was ultimately successful . The defences were repaired and may have been occasionally used by the King as a banqueting hall .
The Dutch fleet raided up the Thames in June 1667 , but did not approach Gravesend Blockhouse due to the threat posed by its guns . The fort , under the command of Sir John Griffith , was in reality not well prepared for war . £ 400 was spent on upgrading the blockhouse , artillery was sent from the Tower of London to reinforce the local guns and four infantry companies were detached to guard the site . The risk of attack ended with the signing of the Peace of Breda that July , and the blockhouse did not see action . Shortly after the Dutch raids , Sir John was removed from his post for apparently demanding payments from ships passing by the blockhouse , a complaint which was repeated in later years under subsequent captains .
= = 18th – 19th centuries = =
By the start of the 18th century a complex of building had grown up around the original blockhouse , which now had a pier , a dock and two wharfs alongside it , and a large house built by the King 's brother , James the Duke of York , after his return to England , as well as the two lines of approximately 20 guns stretching on either side along the river ; it had a garrison of a sergeant , 20 soldiers and a gunner on loan from Tilbury Fort . The blockhouse itself was no longer used to mount guns but instead acted as the magazine for the wider fortification , being able to store 2 @,@ 500 barrels of gunpowder . Under the terms of the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 , the number of artillery pieces was reduced to ten , and a survey in 1766 reported that Gravesend was in good condition and equipped with ten 9 lb guns .
Amid rising concerns over the threat of a French invasion , Sir Thomas Page surveyed the blockhouse in 1778 and concluded that its guns were too closely packed together and that they could not easily fire down @-@ river , proposing that a larger fort be built along the Thames to the east to rectify this problem . New Tavern Fort was constructed shortly afterwards and the eastern Gravesend Blockhouse gun platform was redesigned and extended as part of the work . Two volunteer militia companies were established in 1794 and 1797 to support the blockhouse and in 1805 it was equipped with 19 32 lb guns .
Concerns continued to be raised that the blockhouse 's guns could not fire downriver and by the 1830s it had been decided to focus investment on the New Tavern and Tilbury forts . The blockhouse itself fell out of use as a magazine in 1834 , being briefly used as a government store , and the adjacent gun platforms were sold off in 1835 . The blockhouse building was subsequently demolished in 1844 .
= = 20th – 21st centuries = =
The site of the former Gravesend Blockhouse was excavated in 1975 and 1976 by the Kent Archaeological Society , uncovering parts of the original building . The site , which lies in the grounds of the Clarendon Royal Hotel , was protected under UK law as a scheduled monument in 1979 .
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= Big Wapwallopen Creek =
Big Wapwallopen Creek ( also known as Wapwallopen Creek or Big Wap ) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 23 miles ( 37 km ) long and flows through Bear Creek Township , Fairview Township , Rice Township , Wright Township , Dorrance Township , Hollenback Township , Nescopeck Township , and Conyngham Township . The watershed of the creek has an area of 53 @.@ 2 square miles ( 138 km2 ) . The creek has three named tributaries : Balliet Run , Watering Run , and Bow Creek . The creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery and is also Class A Wild Trout Waters for part of its length . However , it is considered to be impaired by organic enrichment and / or low levels of dissolved oxygen and its pH ranges from moderately acidic to slightly alkaline .
Big Wapwallopen Creek has three large waterfalls , all of which are more than 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high . The creek flows through the Wapwallopen Gorge in its lower reaches , where it descends 210 feet ( 64 m ) . It mainly flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale . The creek has existed for several million years , but the portion of its course that flows through the Wapwallopen Gorge is less than 20 @,@ 000 years old . The creek 's watershed is mainly rural and most of it is forested . It is the main source of flooding in six townships .
Wapwallopen Creek is named after a Native American village that historically existed on the creek . The Delaware tribe inhabited the area by 1675 and the Shawnee tribe also historically inhabited the area . Numerous mills were built on the creek in the 1700s and 1800s , including two powder mills in the Wapwallopen Gorge . The second powder mill was built in 1859 by E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company and was one of the largest powder mills in the United States at the time . That powder mill operated until 1912 . Numerous bridges were built across the creek in the 1900s . The Wapwallopen Gorge is listed on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory . It is possible to canoe on 10 @.@ 3 miles ( 16 @.@ 6 km ) of the creek , but there are some unrunnable points .
= = Course = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek begins in Crystal Lake in Bear Creek Township . It flows west for several tenths of a mile and enters Fairview Township . The creek turns west @-@ southwest for approximately a mile , passing Arbutus Peak to the south and crossing Pennsylvania Route 437 . It then turns west @-@ northwest for several tenths of a mile before turning southwest and then west , crossing Pennsylvania Route 309 . It passes through Pole Bridge Swamp and begins flowing along the border between Rice Township and Wright Township . Over the next couple of miles , the creek gradually turns south @-@ southwest , still following the township line . It then passes through Hickory Swale and receives Bow Creek , its first named tributary , from the left . It turns southwest for several tenths of a mile before turning south and then southwest . It then turns west for more than a mile before turning southwest for a few miles , receiving the tributary Watering Run from the left before entering Dorrance Township and crossing Interstate 81 . The creek then turns south for a few tenths of a mile before turning west and then southwest for a few miles , passing Feys Grove . It eventually turns west @-@ southwest and enters Hollenback Township . After a few miles , the creek turns south for a short distance and receives Balliet Run , its last named tributary , from the left . It then turns west @-@ northwest for more than a mile before turning south . At this point , the creek turns west again and enters a gorge . After several tenths of a mile , it turns north again , still flowing through the gorge and crossing the border between Hollenback Township and Nescopeck Township several times . The creek then turns west @-@ northwest and begins flowing along the border between Nescopeck Township and Conyngham Township . After approximately a mile , it leaves the gorge and crosses Pennsylvania Route 239 . It then reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River just southwest of Wapwallopen .
Big Wapwallopen Creek joins the Susquehanna River 166 @.@ 64 miles ( 268 @.@ 18 km ) upriver of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek has three named tributaries : Balliet Run , Watering Run , and Bow Creek . The creek also has numerous unnamed tributaries . Balliet Run joins Big Wapwallopen Creek 5 @.@ 18 miles ( 8 @.@ 34 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 7 @.@ 23 square miles ( 18 @.@ 7 km2 ) . Watering Run joins Big Wapwallopen Creek 8 @.@ 46 miles ( 13 @.@ 62 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 3 @.@ 87 square miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km2 ) . Bow Creek joins Big Wapwallopen Creek 11 @.@ 90 miles ( 19 @.@ 15 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 4 @.@ 69 square miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Two unnamed tributaries of Big Wapwallopen Creek include " Big Wapwallopen Creek Tributary E " and " Big Wapwallopen Creek Tributary H " . Their watersheds have areas of 3 @.@ 61 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) and 3 @.@ 40 square miles ( 8 @.@ 8 km2 ) , respectively .
= = Hydrology = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek is considered to be impaired . The cause of the impairment is organic enrichment and / or low levels of dissolved oxygen . The likely source of the impairment is municipal point @-@ source pollution , such as sewage . The creek has a United States Geological Survey stream gage near Wapwallopen .
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth in 1975 and 1976 ranged from 9 @.@ 4 to 13 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0094 to 0 @.@ 0130 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of hydrogen ions ranged from 0 @.@ 00003 to 0 @.@ 00127 milligrams per liter ( 3 @.@ 0 × 10 − 8 to 1 @.@ 269 × 10 − 6 oz / cu ft ) milligrams per liter in December 1975 and February to August 1976 and the concentration of carbon dioxide ranged from 0 @.@ 7 to 30 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00070 to 0 @.@ 02997 oz / cu ft ) during the same time period . Between December 1975 and August 1976 , the ammonia concentration ranged from 0 @.@ 026 to 0 @.@ 090 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 to 9 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) .
In the mid 1970s , the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrates in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth ranged from 0 @.@ 60 to 1 @.@ 96 milligrams per liter ( 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 7 to 1 @.@ 13 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) . The concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrites ranged from 0 @.@ 026 to 0 @.@ 076 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 to 7 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The phosphorus concentration ranged from 0 @.@ 050 to 0 @.@ 500 milligrams per liter ( 5 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 to 0 @.@ 000499 oz / cu ft ) , the sulfate concentration ranged from 10 @.@ 0 to 36 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0100 to 0 @.@ 0360 oz / cu ft ) , and the chloride concentration ranged from 6 @.@ 0 to 13 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0060 to 0 @.@ 0130 oz / cu ft ) .
In 1975 and 1976 , the calcium concentration in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth ranged from 5 @.@ 60 to 9 @.@ 60 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00559 to 0 @.@ 00959 oz / cu ft ) . The magnesium concentration ranged between 0 @.@ 50 and 5 @.@ 50 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00050 and 0 @.@ 00549 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of iron ranged from less than 10 to 3 @,@ 150 micrograms per liter ( 5 @.@ 8 × 10 − 9 to 1 @.@ 8208 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) .
The turbidity of Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth was measured several times in 1975 and 1976 . It ranged from less than one Jackson Turbidity Unit to 50 Jackson Turbidity Units . The specific conductance of the creek ranged from 70 to 100 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The creek 's pH ranged from 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 5 in December 1975 and February to August 1976 . The concentration of water hardness in the creek between December 1975 and August 1976 ranged from 12 to 42 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 012 to 0 @.@ 042 oz / cu ft ) .
Between 1920 and 2013 , the average annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at Wapwallopen was more than 100 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 8 m3 / s ) five times : in 1928 , in 1978 , in 1994 , in 2004 , and in 2001 . The average annual discharges in these years were 105 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 3 @.@ 00 m3 / s ) , 108 @.@ 3 cubic feet per second ( 3 @.@ 07 m3 / s ) , 105 @.@ 4 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 98 m3 / s ) , 100 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 84 m3 / s ) , and 141 @.@ 1 cubic feet per second ( 4 @.@ 00 m3 / s ) , respectively . The average annual discharge of the creek has been less than 40 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 1 m3 / s ) four times : in 1931 and 1932 , in 1965 , and in 2001 . The values in these years were 33 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 94 m3 / s ) , 36 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 04 m3 / s ) , 30 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 87 m3 / s ) and 39 @.@ 6 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 12 m3 / s ) . The average annual discharge of the creek in 2013 was 52 @.@ 3 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 48 m3 / s )
The peak annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at its mouth has a 10 percent chance of reaching 3350 cubic feet per second . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 6550 cubic feet per second and a 1 percent chance of reaching 8400 cubic feet per second . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 15 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second . The peak annual discharge of the creek at the confluence of Balliet Run has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1900 cubic feet per second . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 3050 cubic feet per second and a 1 percent chance of reaching 3600 cubic feet per second . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 5200 cubic feet per second .
The peak annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek upstream of the tributary Watering Run has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 220 cubic feet per second ( 35 m3 / s ) , a 2 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 080 cubic feet per second ( 59 m3 / s ) , a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 530 cubic feet per second ( 72 m3 / s ) , and a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 770 cubic feet per second ( 107 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge of the creek upstream of the tributary Bow Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 588 cubic feet per second ( 16 @.@ 7 m3 / s ) , a 2 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 025 cubic feet per second ( 29 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) , a 1 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 253 cubic feet per second ( 35 @.@ 5 m3 / s ) and a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 904 cubic feet per second ( 53 @.@ 9 m3 / s ) .
= = Geography , geology , and climate = =
The elevation near the mouth of Big Wapwallopen Creek is 495 feet ( 151 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is between 1 @,@ 920 and 1 @,@ 940 feet ( 590 and 590 m ) above sea level . The gradient of the creek for its first 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) is 257 @.@ 5 feet per mile ( 48 @.@ 77 m / km ) . For the next 14 miles ( 23 km ) it is only 42 @.@ 9 feet per mile ( 8 @.@ 13 m / km ) . From there to the creek 's mouth , the gradient is 69 @.@ 8 feet per mile ( 13 @.@ 22 m / km ) . The mean elevation of the creek 's watershed upstream of State Route 3012 / Hobbie Road is 1 @,@ 330 feet ( 410 m ) above sea level .
Big Wapwallopen Creek is in the ridge and valley physiographic province . It flows off the southwestern edge of the Pocono Plateau . Closer to its mouth , there are three large waterfalls on the creek . All of the waterfalls are more than 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high with the highest being 45 feet ( 14 m ) high . The uppermost waterfall cuts through red sandstone . The falls are known as the Upper Falls , the Middle Falls , and the Lower Falls , respectively . Big Wapwallopen Creek has a long stretch of rapids formed from numerous small ledges and boulders . The creek flows through a gorge known as the Wapwallopen Gorge or ( locally ) as the Powder Hole . The gorge is in Conyngham Township , Hollenback Township , and Nescopeck Township . The creek drops a total of 210 feet ( 64 m ) in the gorge . Within the gorge , there are large floodplains that are relatively forested and flat . The gorge was likely created several million years ago by the precursor to Big Wapwallopen Creek . However , the creek 's original channel in this location was slightly to the west of its current one . It moved to its present channel 20 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last Ice Age , when glaciers covered the area for a thousand years . Along most of the creek 's length , it cut through glacial material to flow through its preglacial valley . However , at the site of the Wapwallopen Gorge it failed to do this and instead carved a new path through bedrock . The old glacial valley of Big Wapwallopen Creek was broad and gently sloping .
Big Wapwallopen Creek has been described as a small creek . The topography of the creek 's watershed mainly consists of broken hills , with a few swamps and lakes . Nescopeck Mountain is on the watershed 's southeastern border .
The channel of Big Wapwallopen Creek is sinuous and flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale . The creek is surrounded by steep , high hills with a height of 200 to 300 feet ( 61 to 91 m ) for its last 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . In the Wapwallopen Gorge , it cuts through a rib of gray siltstone belonging to the Trimmers Rock Formation . This rock formation dates to 380 million years ago ( the late Devonian ) and covers the northern three quarters of the gorge . It mainly consists of gray siltstone , shale , and sandstone . The southern quarter of the gorge has bedrock consisting of the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation . This formation contains siltstone , sandstone , shale , and claystone . The Soil Infiltration Index near the creek at State Route 3012 / Hobbie Road is 3 @.@ 51 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 cm ) .
The Carbondale coal formation occurs near Big Wapwallopen Creek and also appears as far away as the Wyoming Valley . The coal formation is estimated to be 60 to 70 miles ( 97 to 113 km ) long , several miles wide , and 20 to 25 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 6 m ) thick . It is lighter in color and burns more easily than the Mauch Chunk coal or the Lehigh Coal .
The annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek ranges from 35 to 45 inches ( 89 to 114 cm ) . The average rate of precipitation where the creek crosses State Route 3012 / Hobbie Road is 41 @.@ 60 inches ( 105 @.@ 7 cm ) per year and the average rate for the whole drainage basin is 44 inches ( 110 cm ) per year . A precipitation intensity of 2 @.@ 80 inches ( 7 @.@ 1 cm ) in 24 hours is expected to occur at this site once every two years . The water temperature of the creek was measured several times from late 1975 to 1976 . The values ranged from 0 @.@ 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 ° F ) in January 1976 to 26 @.@ 0 ° C ( 78 @.@ 8 ° F ) in August 1976 . The rate of groundwater recharge in the creek 's watershed is 14 @.@ 2 inches ( 36 cm ) per year , or 32 percent of the annual precipitation rate . It ranges from 218 to 721 gallons per minute per square mile , with an average of 469 gallons per minute per square mile . The rate of evapotranspiration ranges from 16 @.@ 57 to 41 @.@ 85 inches ( 42 @.@ 1 to 106 @.@ 3 cm ) per year , with an average of 23 @.@ 73 inches ( 60 @.@ 3 cm ) per year .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek has an area of 53 @.@ 2 square miles ( 138 km2 ) . At the confluence of the tributary Balliet Run , its watershed has an area of 32 @.@ 74 square miles ( 84 @.@ 8 km2 ) . Upstream of the tributary Watering Run , its watershed has an area of 14 @.@ 52 square miles ( 37 @.@ 6 km2 ) and upstream of the tributary Bow Creek , its watershed has an area of only 7 @.@ 30 square miles ( 18 @.@ 9 km2 ) . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Berwick . However , the source is in the quadrangle of Wilkes @-@ Barre East . The creek also passes through the quadrangles of Wilkes @-@ Barre West , Freeland , and Sybertsville . The creek is in the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin and its watershed is in the south @-@ central part of Luzerne County . It flows in a general southwesterly direction . A total of 84 percent of the upper 43 @.@ 8 square miles ( 113 km2 ) of the watershed is forested land . A total of 1 percent is storage land . The creek 's mouth is located approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) to the southwest of the city of Wilkes @-@ Barre . The community of Mountain Top is located at the headwaters of the creek . The historical community of Glen Summit Springs was also at the headwaters of the creek .
Big Wapwallopen Creek flows through a rural valley with steep slopes . The uppermost 4 @.@ 7 miles ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) of Big Wapwallopen Creek are all on private land . A dammed reservoir with an area of 494 acres ( 200 ha ) is located on the creek at its headwaters . This reservoir is known as Crystal Lake and it is primarily used as a public water supply . However , it is capable of reducing peak discharges on the creek in Fairview Township .
Big Wapwallopen Creek is one of the main sources of flooding in Rice Township and Wright Township . It is also a primary flooding source in Conyngham Township , Dorrance Township , Fairview Township , Hollenback Township , and Nescopeck Township . However , in Conyngham Township , a 100 year flood of the creek would only inundate a small and undeveloped area .
A tract of land known as American Legion Post 781 is in the vicinity of Big Wapwallopen Creek in Wright Township . The tract is owned by the North Branch Land Trust and has an area of 254 @.@ 5 acres ( 103 @.@ 0 ha ) . The watershed of the creek is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away from the planned Bell Bend Nuclear Power Plant . The two sites are separated by the Susquehanna River .
The designated use of Big Wapwallopen Creek is use for aquatic life .
= = History = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1192144 . The creek is also known as Wapwallopen Creek or Big Wap.'
Big Wapwallopen Creek is named after a Native American village on the Susquehanna River near the creek . The Delaware and Shawnee tribes historically had camps and wigwams on the creek . The Delaware tribe was hunting and fishing in the vicinity of the creek 's watershed as early as 1675 .
The first land grant in Nescopeck Township was located to the west of Big Wapwallopen Creek . It was known as the Campania Tract and it was surveyed to Daniel Grant in 1769 . The tract was patented to George Campbell in 1773 . Prince Maximilian of Wied visited the area near the creek during his travels in North America .
Nathan Beach constructed a mill on Big Wapwallopen Creek in the Wapwallopen Gorge in 1795 . The mill eventually burned down by accident . Cornelius Garrison built a mill on the creek in southwestern Wright Township in 1833 . A mill owned by Samuel Heller was operational on the creek as late as the late 1800s . In 1856 , William Silver also built a powder mill in the Wapwallopen Gorge . He then sold partial ownership of the mill to G.P. Parrish . However , early in 1859 , a freshet and an explosion destroyed the mill and caused Silver 's and Parrish 's company went bankrupt . E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company bought the site in April 1859 and constructed the powder mills known as the Wapwallopen Mills there . At that time , the mills were one of the largest powder mills in the United States . While the mills were in operation , there were fatal explosions every eight years and the infrastructure was destroyed by flooding numerous times . However , by 1868 , the mills were producing 70 @,@ 000 tons of black powder per year . The mills operated until 1912 , when the Du Pont company moved the machinery to Moosic due to increasing costs of shipping black powder and also a desire to consolidate operations . Only ruins remain today . There were still some gristmills on the creek as late as 1955 .
The artist Thomas Addison Richards created a graphite @-@ on @-@ wove @-@ paper drawing of Big Wapwallopen Creek in 1852 . The Crystal Spring Water Company was chartered on April 11 , 1861 . It got its water supply from the upper reaches of the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek . In the 1800s , F.K. Miller constructed a tannery on a tributary of the creek in southeastern Dorrance Township . By 1865 , the community of Dorrance had a gristmill , four sawmills , and a tavern on the creek .
Historically , there was a timbering industry in the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek . It was carried out by J.C. Patterson . However , the timbering was completed by the 1870s on several properties . In the early 1900s , the main industry in the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek was agriculture . However , the creek 's main stem and Crystal Lake were used as a water supply by the Spring Brook Water Supply Company . A small hydroelectric plant and several mills operated in the lower reaches of the creek . In the early 1900s , the main population centers in the watershed included Wapwallopen , Hobbie , and Briggsville . Their populations were 450 , 113 , and 60 , respectively . The Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey historically passed through the upper part of the creek 's watershed and the Wilkes @-@ Barre and Hazleton Railway also passed through the creek 's drainage basin . The Albert Methodist Church was moved from the Powder Glen near Wapwallopen in the early 1900s and dedicated in 1927 .
In March 1936 , Big Wapwallopen Creek flooded in Rice Township to a depth of 18 inches ( 46 cm ) over Nuangola Road . The two largest floods in Hollenback Township occurred in August 1955 and June 1972 . During these flooding events , discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at the Hobbie Road Bridge was 3140 and 5410 cubic feet per second , respectively . The gage heights were 9 @.@ 23 feet ( 2 @.@ 81 m ) and 11 @.@ 04 feet ( 3 @.@ 36 m ) , respectively . The floodwaters reached a depth of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) on Hobbie Road and many nearby homes were flooded .
A metal truss bridge carries T @-@ 392 / Faux Road over Big Wapwallopen Creek . It is 44 @.@ 0 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 m ) long . A masonry arch bridge with a length of 26 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) was built across the creek in 1897 and repaired in 1963 . Another metal truss bridge was built over the creek in 1908 and is 85 @.@ 0 feet ( 25 @.@ 9 m ) long . Three concrete tee beam bridges with lengths of 40 @.@ 0 feet ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) , 42 @.@ 0 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) , and 46 @.@ 9 feet ( 14 @.@ 3 m ) were constructed over the creek in 1925 and the third was repaired in 1963 . A concrete slab bridge with a length of 29 @.@ 9 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) was built across the creek in 1930 and a concrete tee beam with a length of 34 @.@ 1 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) was built over the creek in 1957 . A prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of 68 @.@ 9 feet ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) was built over it in 1958 . Another bridge of the same type , but with two spans and a length of 99 @.@ 1 feet ( 30 @.@ 2 m ) was built over the creek in 1961 .
Two prestressed box beam or girders bridges with three spans were built across Big Wapwallopen Creek in 1965 and repaired in 1982 . Both carried Interstate 81 and were 144 @.@ 0 feet ( 43 @.@ 9 m ) long . A concrete culvert bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 239 was built over the creek in 1970 . This bridge is 65 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 8 m ) long . A prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of 37 @.@ 1 feet ( 11 @.@ 3 m ) was built over the creek in 1993 . A prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of 44 @.@ 0 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 m ) was constructed across the creek in 1996 .
The Big Wapwallopen Creek Watershed Association is based on Dorrance .
= = Biology = =
The drainage basin of Big Wapwallopen Creek is designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth . They also do so in all three of the creek 's named tributaries . A 4 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) long stretch of the creek from Crystal Lake to a powerline crossing upstream of Nuangola Road is designated as Class A Wild Trout Waters for both brook trout and brown trout . The tributaries Bow Creek and Balliet Run are also Class A Wild Trout Waters .
Big Wapwallopen Creek is stocked with trout . It was stocked with rainbow trout a month before the fishing season in 2014 , on March 5 . It has also been stocked with brook trout at times . Minnows and suckers have been observed within the creek .
A major fish kill occurred in Big Wapwallopen Creek in 1967 . A tank of a caustic substance was accidentally overturned and its contents spilled into the creek , polluting it for a stretch running from approximately 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) from the tributary Bow Creek to Legion Road / Legislative Route 40112 . Approximately 4000 fish were killed , most of them minnows , suckers , and trout .
Hemlock trees form a canopy over Big Wapwallopen Creek in some places . The Wapwallopen Gorge is listed as a Locally Significant site on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory . Hemlock and yellow birch are common at the gorge 's upper end . However , river birch and sycamore are more common at the lower end of the gorge . The area has been affected by trash dumping and graffiti . There are riparian forests along Big Wapwallopen Creek in the American Legion Post 781 land tract . The tract of land also contains some wet areas such as vernal pools and marshes . These areas provide breeding grounds for reptiles , amphibians , fish , and aquatic invertebrates .
= = Recreation = =
It is possible to canoe on 10 @.@ 3 miles ( 16 @.@ 6 km ) of Big Wapwallopen Creek during snowmelt or within two days of heavy rain . The difficulty rating ranges from 1 to 2 + , though at least one of the waterfalls in the Wapwallopen Gorge is unrunnable . Edward Gertler 's book Keystone Canoeing describes the scenery as " good to excellent " and describes the creek as " short and scenic " and a " clear brook " . There are also hiking opportunities along the lower reaches of the creek .
There are also three swimming holes , known collectively as the Powder Hole , on Big Wapwallopen Creek . As of 2001 , these have the highest injury and death rate of any swimming hole in the area . Between 1986 and 2001 , at least three people died at the swimming holes and three others were severely injured .
A Jewish camp known as Camp Davidowitz was historically situated along Big Wapwallopen Creek . It was 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Hazleton and had an area of 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) .
As of 1998 or 2006 , the Lance Corporation owns the Wapwallopen Gorge . They permit public access for recreational purposes . The creek is designated as Approved Trout Waters from a powerline crossing upstream of Nuangola Road downstream to county road . In 2016 , it opened for trout fishing on April 16 .
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= Scyllarides latus =
Scyllarides latus , the Mediterranean slipper lobster , is a species of slipper lobster found in the Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic Ocean . It is edible and highly regarded as food , but is now rare over much of its range due to overfishing . Adults may grow to 1 foot ( 30 cm ) long , are camouflaged , and have no claws . They are nocturnal , emerging from caves and other shelters during the night to feed on molluscs . As well as being eaten by humans , S. latus is also preyed upon by a variety of bony fish . Its closest relative is S. herklotsii , which occurs off the Atlantic coast of West Africa ; other species of Scyllarides occur in the western Atlantic Ocean and the Indo @-@ Pacific . The larvae and young animals are largely unknown .
= = Distribution = =
Scyllarus latus is found along most of the coast of the Mediterranean Sea ( one exception being the northern Adriatic Sea ) , and in parts of the eastern Atlantic Ocean from near Lisbon in Portugal south to Senegal , including the islands of Madeira , the Azores , the Selvagens Islands and the Cape Verde Islands . In Senegal , it occurs together with a related species Scyllarides herklotsii , which it closely resembles .
= = Description = =
S. latus can grow to a total body length about 45 centimetres ( 18 in ) , although rarely more than 30 cm ( 12 in ) . This is equivalent to a carapace length of up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . An individual may weigh as much as 1 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) . As in all slipper lobsters , the second pair of antennae are enlarged and flattened into " shovels " or " flippers " . Despite the name " lobster " , slipper lobsters such as Scyllarides latus have no claws , and nor do they have the protective spines of spiny lobsters . Instead , the exoskeleton , and particularly the carapace , are thicker than in clawed lobsters and spiny lobsters , acting as resilient armour . Adults are cryptically coloured , and the carapace is covered in conspicuous , high tubercles .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Substrate = = =
S. latus lives on rocky or sandy substrates at depths of 4 – 100 metres ( 13 – 328 ft ) . They shelter during the day in natural dens , on the ceilings of caves , or in reefs , preferring situations with more than one entrance or exit .
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of S. latus consists generally of molluscs . The preferred prey is , according to different sources , either limpets or bivalves . The prey , which S. latus can detect even under 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) of sediment , is opened by careful use of the strong pointed pereiopods . They will also eat oysters and squid , but not sea urchins or muricid snails . They eat more in warmer seasons , getting through 3 @.@ 2 oysters per day in July , but only 0 @.@ 2 oysters per day in January .
= = = Predators = = =
The most significant predator of S. latus is the grey triggerfish , Balistes capriscus , although a number of other fish species have also been reported to prey on S. latus , including dusky groupers ( Epinephelus guaza ) , combers ( Serranus spp . ) , Mediterranean rainbow wrasse ( Coris julis ) , red groupers ( Epinephelus morio ) and gag groupers ( Mycteroperca microlepis ) . An Octopus vulgaris has been observed to eat S. latus in an artificial setting , but it is unclear whether S. latus is preyed on by octopuses in nature .
= = Life cycle = =
Male Scyllarus latus carry spermatophores at the base of the last two pairs of pereiopods in April . Fertilisation has not been observed in this species , but most reptant decapods mate with the ventral surfaces together . Between July and August , females carry around 100 @,@ 000 eggs on their enlarged , feathery pleopods . The eggs develop from being a bright orange colour to a dark brown before being shed into the water after around 16 days of development . There is normally only one generation per year .
The larvae are much less well known than the adults . An initial 1 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 05 in ) long naupliosoma stage , which swims using its antennae , moults into the first of eleven phyllosoma stages , which swim using their thoracic legs . The last phyllosoma stage may reach a size of 48 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and can be up to 11 months old ; most of the intermediate phyllosoma stages have not been observed . A single nisto ( juvenile has been recorded , having been caught off Reggio Calabria in 1900 , but only recognised as being a juvenile S. latus in 2009 . Young adults are also rare ; a museum specimen with a carapace length of 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) is the smallest adult yet observed . Adults moult annually , and probably migrate to cooler waters with a temperature of 13 – 18 ° C ( 55 – 64 ° F ) to do so . The old exoskeleton softens over a period of 10 – 22 days before being shed , and the new , pale exoskeleton takes around three weeks to harden completely . Smaller individuals typically gain weight over the course of a moult , but this difference is less pronounced in larger animals .
= = Behaviour = =
Scyllarides latus is mostly nocturnal in the wild , since most of its predators are diurnal . While sheltering , S. latus tends to be gregarious , with several individuals sharing the same shelter . When confronted with a predator , S. latus has no claws or spines to repel the predator , and instead either clings to the substrate , or swims away with powerful flexion of the abdomen , or " tail @-@ flips " . Larger lobsters can exert a stronger grip than smaller ones , with a force of up to 150 newtons ( equivalent to a weight of 15 kilograms or 33 pounds ) required to dislodge the largest individuals .
Predator avoidance may also explain the frequent behaviour where S. latus will carry food items back to a shelter before consuming them . When two S. latus individuals compete for a food item , they may use the enlarged second antennae to flip their opponent over , by wedging the antennae underneath the opponent 's body and quickly raising them . An alternative strategy is to grip an opponent and begin the tail @-@ flipping movement , or to engage in a tug of war .
= = Taxonomy = =
Scyllarides latus was originally classified in the genus Scyllarus , along with the four other slipper lobsters known at the time ( Scyllarus arctus , Scyllarides aequinoctialis , Thenus orientalis and Arctides guineensis ) . Separate genera were first introduced by William Elford Leach in 1815 , namely Thenus and Ibacus . In 1849 , Wilhem de Haan divided the genus Scyllarus into two genera , Scyllarus and Arctus , but made the error of including the type species of Scyllarus in the genus Arctus . This was first recognised by the ichthyologist Theodore Gill in 1898 , who synonymised Arctus with Scyllarus , and erected a new genus Scyllarides to hold the species that De Haan had placed in Scyllarus . Scyllarides is placed in the subfamily Arctidinae , which is differentiated from other subfamilies by the presence of multiarticulated exopods on all three maxillipeds , and a three @-@ segmented palp on the mandible . The only other genus in the subfamily , Arctides , is distinguished by having a more highly sculptured carapace , with an extra spine behind each eye , and a transverse groove on the first segment of the abdomen .
The only other species of Scyllarides to occur in the Eastern Atlantic is Scyllarides herklotsii , which differs from S. latus mostly in the ornamentation on the carapace ; while in S. latus the tubercles ( lumps projecting from the surface ) are high and pronounced , they are lower and more rounded in S. herklotsii .
= = = Type specimen = = =
The type locality given by Pierre André Latreille in his original description of the species was simply " Mediterranée " ( Mediterranean Sea ) , without designating a type specimen . Lipke Holthuis later chose a lectotype for the species , which was the animal illustrated by Cornelius Sittardus , and published in Conrad Gesner 's Historiae animalium in 1558 ( book 4 , p . 1097 ) . This illustration , originally a watercolour but reproduced by Gesner in a woodcut , had been mentioned by Latreille in his description as being particularly fine , and is all that remains of the type specimen . Given that Sittardus was working in Rome at the time , it is likely that the type specimen was a fresh specimen from the Tyrrhenian Sea near Rome .
= = Human consumption = =
S. latus is edible , but it is a relatively rare species , and is therefore of little interest to fisheries . However , it is caught in small numbers throughout its distribution , mostly in trammel nets , by trawling and in lobster pots . An annual catch of 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 – 6 @,@ 600 lb ) has been reported for Israel . Catching by hand has become increasingly frequent , since the advent of SCUBA diving made the animal 's habitat more accessible to humans . This may have affected population sizes of S. latus in some areas .
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= SMS Leipzig =
For other ships of this name , see SMS Leipzig ( 1875 ) and SMS Leipzig ( 1918 ) .
SMS Leipzig ( " His Majesty 's Ship Leipzig " ) was the sixth of seven Bremen @-@ class cruisers of the Imperial German Navy , named after the city of Leipzig . She was begun by AG Weser in Bremen in 1904 , launched in March 1905 and commissioned in April 1906 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Leipzig was capable of a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Leipzig spent her career on overseas stations ; at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was cruising off the coast of Mexico . After rejoining with the East Asia Squadron , she proceeded to South American waters , where she participated in the Battle of Coronel , where the German squadron overpowered and sank a pair of British armored cruisers . A month later , she again saw action at the Battle of the Falkland Islands , which saw the destruction of the East Asia Squadron . Leipzig was chased down and sunk by the cruisers HMS Glasgow and HMS Kent ; the majority of her crew was killed in the battle , with only 18 survivors .
= = Construction = =
Leipzig was ordered under the contract name " N " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1904 and launched on 21 March 1905 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 April 1906 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 61 m ( 18 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 816 t ( 3 @,@ 756 long tons ; 4 @,@ 206 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Leipzig carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 690 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . She was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
Franz von Hipper served as the ship 's first commanding officer , from her commissioning in April until September , when Leipzig was deployed overseas , and was assigned to the East Asia Squadron , along with the armored cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the light cruisers Emden and Nürnberg . The ship was cruising off the west coast of Mexico at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 to show the flag in the Americas . In addition , Leipzig had been tasked with safeguarding German nationals in Mexico during a period of unrest . She spent the first weeks of the conflict patrolling for British @-@ flagged merchantmen off San Francisco before stopping in the Galapagos Islands on 18 August , on her way to South America . A week later , Leipzig sank a British freighter carrying sugar and then proceeded to the Peruvian coast by the 28th . She stopped in Guaymas in neutral Mexico to take on a fresh load of coal on 8 September .
On 14 October , she joined the rest of Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron at Easter Island ; she brought with her three colliers . On 18 October , the Squadron departed , bound for South America ; they stopped in the Juan Fernández Islands while en route , and by 26 October , they were approaching Mas a Fuera . They then steamed to Valparaiso , Chile , where they received intelligence that indicated that the British cruiser HMS Glasgow was anchored in Coronel . Von Spee decided to proceed to Coronel to ambush the British ship when it left port . Glasgow was in fact joined by the armored cruisers HMS Good Hope and HMS Monmouth .
= = = Battle of Coronel = = =
While patrolling off Coronel , Leipzig stopped a Chilean barque and searched her , but since she was a neutral vessel , and not carrying contraband , the Germans let her go . At 16 : 00 on 1 November , Leipzig spotted a column of smoke in the distance , followed by a second ship at 16 : 17 , and a third at 16 : 25 . The British spotted Leipzig at approximately the same time , and the two squadrons formed into lines of battle . Leipzig was the third ship in the German line , behind the two armored cruisers . At 18 : 07 , von Spee issued the order " Fire distribution from left " , meaning that each ship would engage its opposite number ; the Germans fired first , at 18 : 34 .
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau quickly wrecked their British counterparts , while Leipzig fired at Glasgow without success . At 18 : 49 , Glasgow hit Leipzig , but the shell was a dud and did not explode . Leipzig and Dresden hit Glasgow five times before von Spee ordered Leipzig to close with the stricken Good Hope and torpedo it . A rain squall obscured the ship , and by the time Leipzig reached Good Hope 's position , the latter had sunk . Unaware of the sinking of Good Hope , no rescue operations were mounted by Leipzig 's crew . By 20 : 00 , Leipzig encountered Dresden in the gathering darkness , and the two initially mistook each other for hostile warships , though they quickly established their identity . Leipzig emerged from the battle essentially unscathed , and with no wounded crewmen .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Coronel , von Spee decided to return to Valparaiso to receive further orders ; while Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Nürnberg went into the harbor , Leipzig and Dresden escorted the colliers to Mas a Fuera . The rest of the East Asia Squadron joined them there on 6 November ; the cruisers restocked their coal and other supplies . On 10 November , Leipzig and Dresden were sent to Valparaiso , arriving on the 13th . Five days later , they rejoined the Squadron approximately 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) west of Robinson Crusoe Island ; the unified Squadron then proceeded to the Gulf of Penas , arriving on 21 November . There , they coaled and prepared to make the long voyage around Cape Horn . The British , shocked by their defeat at Coronel , had meanwhile dispatched the powerful battlecruisers HMS Invincible and HMS Inflexible , under the command of Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee , to hunt down and destroy von Spee 's ships . They departed Britain on 11 November and reached the Falkland Islands on 7 December , having been joined on the way by the armored cruisers Carnarvon , Kent , and Cornwall and the light cruisers Bristol and the battered Glasgow .
= = = Battle of the Falkland Islands = = =
On 26 November , the East Asia Squadron departed the Gulf of Penas , bound for Cape Horn and the Atlantic and reached the Cape on 2 December . While off the Cape , Leipzig took the Canadian sailing ship Drummuir as a prize ; the ship was carrying 2 @,@ 750 t ( 2 @,@ 710 long tons ; 3 @,@ 030 short tons ) of coal , which was transferred to the colliers Baden and Santa Isabel at Picton Island . On the night of 6 December , von Spee held a conference with the ship commanders to discuss his proposed attack on the Falklands ; Fregattenkapitän Haun , the commander of Leipzig , along with the commanders from Gneisenau and Dresden , opposed the plan and favored bypassing the Falklands to wage commerce war off La Plata . Nevertheless , von Spee made the decision to attack the Falklands on the morning of 8 December .
The Germans approached Port Stanley , the capital of the Falklands , early on the morning of 8 December ; the British quickly spotted them , and raised steam to go out and meet them . Von Spee initially thought the smoke clouds to be the British burning their coal stocks to prevent the Germans from seizing them . Upon realizing the presence of the powerful British squadron , he broke off the attack and turned to flee . The British quickly steamed out of the harbor in pursuit . By 12 : 55 , the battlecruisers had caught up to the retreating Germans , and opened fire on Leipzig , the last ship in the German line , though she was not hit . Von Spee ordered the light cruisers to detach and flee while Scharnhorst and Gneisenau turned on their pursuers , in the hope that he could cover their escape . In response , Sturdee sent his cruisers to chase down Nürnberg , Dresden , and Leipzig .
Glasgow pursued Leipzig , and quickly caught up , opening fire by 14 : 40 . After about twenty minutes of firing , Leipzig was hit ; she turned to port to open the range , before turning to starboard in order to bring her full broadside into action . In the ensuing action , both ships were hit several times , forcing Glasgow to break off and fall behind the more powerful armored cruisers . Leipzig was battered severely by Cornwall and Kent and set on fire ; she nevertheless remained in action and continued to fight . In the course of the engagement , Leipzig hit Cornwall eighteen times , causing a significant list to port . She fired three torpedoes at the British ships , but failed to score any hits with them . At 19 : 20 , Haun issued the order to scuttle his wrecked ship ; the British approached and opened fire on the stricken cruiser at close range , killing large numbers of the crew . The British also destroyed a cutter filled with survivors , killing all of them . Leipzig finally capsized and sank at 21 : 05 , with Haun going down with his ship . Only eighteen men were pulled from the freezing water .
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= Red panda =
The red panda ( Ailurus fulgens ) , also called the lesser panda , the red bear @-@ cat , and the red cat @-@ bear , is a mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China . It has reddish @-@ brown fur , a long , shaggy tail , and a waddling gait due to its shorter front legs , and is slightly larger than a domestic cat . It is arboreal , feeds mainly on bamboo , but also eats eggs , birds , and insects . It is a solitary animal , mainly active from dusk to dawn , and is largely sedentary during the day .
The red panda has been classified as Endangered by the IUCN because its wild population is estimated at less than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals and continues to decline due to habitat loss and fragmentation , poaching , and inbreeding depression , although red pandas are protected by national laws in their range countries .
The red panda is the only living species of the genus Ailurus and the family Ailuridae . It has been previously placed in the raccoon and bear families , but the results of phylogenetic research provide strong support for its taxonomic classification in its own family Ailuridae , which along with the weasel , raccoon and skunk families is part of the superfamily Musteloidea . Two subspecies are recognized . It is not closely related to the giant panda .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The head and body length of a red panda measures 50 to 64 cm ( 20 to 25 in ) , and its tail is 28 to 59 cm ( 11 to 23 in ) . Males weigh 3 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 2 kg ( 8 @.@ 2 to 13 @.@ 7 lb ) and females 3 to 6 @.@ 0 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 2 lb ) . They have long , soft , reddish @-@ brown fur on the upper parts , blackish fur on the lower parts , and a light face with tear markings and robust cranio dental features . The light face has white badges similar to those of a raccoon , but each individual can have distinctive markings . Their roundish heads have medium @-@ sized upright ears , black noses , and very dark eyes - almost pitch black . Their long bushy tails with six alternating yellowish red transverse ochre rings provide balance and excellent camouflage against their habitat of moss- and lichen @-@ covered trees . The legs are black and short with thick fur on the soles of the paws . This fur serves as thermal insulation on snow @-@ covered or icy surfaces and conceals scent glands which are also present on the anus .
The red panda is specialized as a bamboo feeder with strong , curved and sharp semi @-@ retractile claws standing inward for grasping narrow tree branches , leaves , and fruit . Like the giant panda , it has a “ false thumb ” which is an extension of the wrist bone . When descending a tree head @-@ first , the red panda rotates its ankle to control its descent , one of the few climbing species to do so .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red panda is endemic to the temperate forests of the Himalayas , and ranges from the foothills of western Nepal to China in the east . Its easternmost limit is the Qinling Mountains of the Shaanxi Province in China . Its range includes southern Tibet , Sikkim and Assam in India , Bhutan , the northern mountains of Burma , and in south @-@ western China , in the Hengduan Mountains of Sichuan and the Gongshan Mountains in Yunnan . It may also live in south @-@ west Tibet and northern Arunachal Pradesh , but this has not been documented . Locations with the highest density of red pandas include an area in the Himalayas that has been proposed as having been a refuge for a variety of endemic species in the Pleistocene . The distribution range of the red panda should be considered disjunct , rather than continuous . A disjunct population inhabits the Meghalaya Plateau of north @-@ eastern India .
During a survey in the 1970s , signs of red pandas were found in Nepal 's Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve . Their presence was confirmed in spring 2007 when four red pandas were sighted at elevations ranging from 3 @,@ 220 to 3 @,@ 610 m ( 10 @,@ 560 to 11 @,@ 840 ft ) . The species ' westernmost limit is in Rara National Park located farther west of the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve . Their presence was confirmed in 2008 .
The red panda lives between 2 @,@ 200 and 4 @,@ 800 m ( 7 @,@ 200 and 15 @,@ 700 ft ) altitude , inhabiting areas of moderate temperature between 10 and 25 ° C ( 50 and 77 ° F ) with little annual change . It prefers mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests , especially with old trees and dense understories of bamboo .
The red panda population in Sichuan Province is larger and more stable than the Yunnan population , suggesting a southward expansion from Sichuan into Yunnan in the Holocene .
The red panda has become extirpated from the Chinese provinces of Guizhou , Gansu , Shaanxi , and Qinghai .
= = = Distribution of subspecies = = =
Distribution of the red panda is disjointed , with two extant subspecies :
Western red panda A. f. fulgens ( Cuvier , 1825 ) lives in the western part of its range , in Nepal , Assam , Sikkim , and Bhutan .
Styan 's red panda A. f. styani lives in the east @-@ north @-@ eastern part of its range , in southern China and northern Burma .
A. f. styani has been described by Thomas in 1902 based on one skull from a specimen collected in Sichuan . Pocock distinguished A. f. styani from A. f. fulgens by its longer winter coat and more abundant blackness in the pelage , bigger skull , more strongly curved forehead , and more robust teeth . His description is based on skulls and skins collected in Sichuan , Myitkyina close to the border of Yunnan , and Upper Burma .
The Styan 's red panda is supposedly larger and darker in color than the Western member of the species , but with considerable variation in both subspecies , and some individuals may be brown or yellowish brown rather than red .
The Brahmaputra River is often considered the natural division between the two subspecies , where it makes a curve around the eastern end of the Himalayas , although some authors suggest A. f. fulgens extends farther eastward , into China .
= = Biology and behavior = =
= = = Behavior = = =
The red panda is territorial ; it is solitary except during mating season . The species is generally quiet except for some twittering , tweeting , and whistling communication sounds . It has been reported to be both nocturnal and crepuscular , sleeping on tree branches or in tree hollows during the day and increasing its activity in the late afternoon and early evening hours . It sleeps stretched out on a branch with legs dangling when it is hot , and curled up with its tail over the face when it is cold . This panda is very heat sensitive , with an optimal “ well @-@ being ” temperature between 17 and 25 ° C ( 63 and 77 ° F ) , and cannot tolerate temperatures over 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) .
Shortly after waking , red pandas clean their fur like a cat , licking their front paws and then rubbing their backs , torsos , and sides . They also rub their backs and bellies along the sides of trees or rocks . Then they patrol their territories , marking with urine and a weak musk @-@ smelling secretion from their anal glands . They search for food running along the ground or through the trees . Red pandas may alternately use their fore paws to bring food to their mouths or place food directly into their mouths .
Predators of the red panda include the snow leopard , martens ( Mustelidae ) , and humans . If they feel threatened or sense danger , they may try to escape by climbing a rock column or tree . If they can no longer flee , they stand on their hind legs to make themselves appear larger and use the sharp claws on their front paws to defend themselves . The red panda Futa became a visitor attraction in Japan for his ability to stand upright for ten seconds at a time .
= = = Diet = = =
Red pandas are excellent climbers , and forage largely in trees . They eat mostly bamboo , and may eat small mammals , birds , eggs , flowers , and berries . In captivity , they were observed to eat birds , flowers , maple and mulberry leaves , and bark and fruits of maple , beech , and mulberry .
Like the giant panda , they cannot digest cellulose , so they must consume a large volume of bamboo to survive . Their diets consist of about two @-@ thirds bamboo , but they also eat mushrooms , roots , acorns , lichens , and grasses . Occasionally , they supplement their diets with fish and insects . They do little more than eat and sleep due to their low @-@ calorie diets .
Bamboo shoots are more easily digested than leaves , exhibiting the highest digestibility in summer and autumn , intermediate digestibility in the spring , and lowest digestibility in the winter . These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo . Red pandas process bamboo poorly , especially the cellulose and cell wall components . This implies microbial digestion plays only a minor role in their digestive strategy . To survive on this poor @-@ quality diet , they have to eat the high @-@ quality sections of the bamboo plant , such as the tender leaves and shoots , in large quantities , over 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) of fresh leaves and 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) of fresh shoots daily . This food passes through the digestive tract fairly rapidly ( about 2 – 4 hr ) so as to maximize nutrient intake . Red pandas can taste artificial sweeteners , such as aspartame , the only nonprimates known to do so .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Red pandas are able to reproduce around 18 months of age , and are fully mature at two to three years . Adults rarely interact in the wild except to mate . Both sexes may mate with more than one partner during the mating season from mid @-@ January to early March . A few days before birth , females begin to collect material , such as brushwood , grass , and leaves , to build a nest , which is normally located in a hollow tree or a rock crevice . After a gestation period of 112 to 158 days , the female gives birth in mid @-@ June to late July to one to four blind and deaf cubs weighing 110 to 130 g ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 6 oz ) each .
After birth , the mother cleans the cubs and can then recognize each by its smell . At first , she spends 60 % to 90 % of her time with the cubs . After the first week , the mother starts spending more time outside the nest , returning every few hours to nurse and groom the cubs . She moves the young frequently among several nests , all of which she keeps clean . The cubs start to open their eyes at about 18 days of age . By about 90 days , they have achieved full adult fur and coloring , and begin to venture out of the nest . They also start eating solid foods at this point , weaning at around six to eight months of age . The cubs stay with their mother until the next litter is born in the following summer . Males rarely help raise the young , and only if they live in pairs or in small groups .
Their average lifespan is between eight and 10 years , but individuals have been known to reach 15 years .
= = Threats = =
The primary threats to red pandas are direct harvest from the wild , live or dead , competition with domestic livestock resulting in habitat degradation , and deforestation resulting in habitat loss or fragmentation . The relative importance of these factors is different in each region , and is not well understood . For instance , in India , the biggest threat seems to be habitat loss followed by poaching , while in China , the biggest threat seems to be hunting and poaching . A 40 % decrease in red panda populations has been reported in China over the last 50 years , and populations in western Himalayan areas are considered to be lower .
Deforestation can inhibit the spread of red pandas and exacerbate the natural population subdivision by topography and ecology , leading to severe fragmentation of the remaining wild population . Fewer than 40 animals in four separate groups share resources with humans in Nepal 's Langtang National Park , where only 6 % of 1 @,@ 710 km2 ( 660 sq mi ) is preferred red panda habitat . Although direct competition for food with domestic livestock is not significant , livestock can depress bamboo growth by trampling .
Small groups of animals with little opportunity for exchange between them face the risk of inbreeding , decreased genetic diversity , and even extinction . In addition , clear @-@ cutting for firewood or agriculture , including hillside terracing , removes old trees that provide maternal dens and decreases the ability of some species of bamboo to regenerate .
In south @-@ west China , red pandas are hunted for their fur , especially for the highly valued bushy tails from which hats are produced . In these areas , the fur is often used for local cultural ceremonies . In weddings , the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide . The " good @-@ luck charm " red panda @-@ tail hats are also used by local newly @-@ weds . This practice may be quite old , as the red panda seems to be depicted in a 13th @-@ century Chinese pen @-@ and @-@ ink scroll showing a hunting scene . Little or no mention of the red panda is made in the culture and folklore of Nepal .
In the past , red pandas were captured and sold to zoos . Angela Glatston reported she had personally handled 350 red pandas in 17 years .
Due to CITES , this number has decreased substantially in recent years , but poaching continues , and red pandas are often sold to private collectors at exorbitant prices . In some parts of Nepal and India , red pandas are kept as pets .
The red panda has a naturally low birth rate ( usually single or twin births per year ) , and a high death rate in the wild .
= = Conservation = =
The red panda is listed in CITES Appendix I. The species has been classified as endangered in the IUCN Red List since 2008 because the global population is estimated at about 10 @,@ 000 individuals , with a decreasing population trend ; only about half of the total area of potential habitat of 142 @,@ 000 km2 ( 55 @,@ 000 sq mi ) is actually being used by the species . Due to their shy and secretive nature , and their largely nocturnal habits , observation of red pandas is difficult . Therefore , population figures in the wild are determined by population density estimates and not direct counts .
Worldwide population estimates range from fewer than 2 @,@ 500 to between 16 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 individuals . In 1999 , the total population in China was estimated at between 3 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 individuals . In 2001 , the wild population in India was estimated at between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 individuals . Estimates for Nepal indicate only a few hundred individuals . No records from Bhutan or Burma exist .
Reliable population numbers are hard to find , partly because other animals have been mistaken for the red panda . For instance , one report from Burma stated that red pandas were still fairly common in some areas , and was accompanied by a photograph of a " red panda " as proof . The photograph in question depicted a species of civet .
The red panda is protected in all range countries , and hunting is illegal . Beyond this , conservation efforts are highly variable between countries :
China has 35 protected areas covering about 42 @.@ 4 % of red panda habitat .
India has 20 protected areas with known or possible red panda populations in Sikkim , Arunachal Pradesh , and West Bengal such as Khangchendzonga National Park , Namdapha National Park , and Singalila National Park , and a coordinated conservation policy for the red panda .
In Nepal , known populations occur in Langtang National Park , Sagarmatha National Park , Makalu Barun National Park , Rara National Park , Annapurna Conservation Area , Kanchenjunga Conservation Area , and in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve .
Bhutan has five protected areas that support red panda populations .
Burma has 26 protected areas , of which at least one hosts red panda populations .
= = = In situ initiatives = = =
A community @-@ managed forest in Ilam District of eastern Nepal is home to 15 red pandas which generate household income through tourism activities , including home stays . Villagers in the high @-@ altitude areas of Arunachal Pradesh have formed the Pangchen Red Panda Conservation Alliance comprising five villages with a community @-@ conserved forest area of 200 km2 ( 77 sq mi ) at an altitude of 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) to over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) .
= = = In captivity = = =
The red panda is quite adaptable to living in captivity , and is common in zoos worldwide . By 1992 , more than 300 births had occurred in captivity , and more than 300 individuals lived in 85 institutions worldwide . By 2001 , 182 individuals were in North American zoos alone . As of 2006 , the international studbook listed more than 800 individuals in zoos and parks around the world . Of these , 511 individuals of subspecies A. f. fulgens were kept in 173 institutions and 306 individuals of subspecies A. f. styani were kept in 81 institutions .
The international studbook is currently managed at the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands . In cooperation with the International Red Panda Management Group , they coordinate the Species Survival Plan in North America , the European Endangered Species Programme in Europe , and other captive @-@ breeding programs in Australia , India , Japan , and China . In 2009 , Sarah Glass , curator of red pandas and special exhibits at the Knoxville Zoo in Knoxville , Tennessee , was appointed as coordinator for the North American Red Panda Species Survival Plan . The Knoxville Zoo has the largest number of captive red panda births in the Western Hemisphere ( 101 as of August 2011 ) . Only the Rotterdam Zoo has had more captive births worldwide .
The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park in Darjeeling , India , successfully released four captive @-@ bred red pandas to the wild in August and November 2003 .
Three red panda cubs were born in captivity at Hamilton Zoo in New Zealand in December 2012 , doubling the number held there .
= = As pets = =
The most often cited example of keeping red pandas as pets is by Indira Gandhi . Pandas were presented to Gandhi 's family as a gift and they were then housed in " a special tree house " .
= = Phylogenetics = =
The taxonomic classification of the red panda has been controversial since it was discovered . French zoologist Frédéric Cuvier initially described the red panda in 1825 , and classified it as a close relative of the raccoon ( Procyonidae ) , though he gave it the genus name Ailurus , ( from Ancient Greek αἴλουρος , " cat " ) , based on superficial similarities with domestic cats . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective fulgens , " shining " . At various times , it has been placed in the Procyonidae , Ursidae , with Ailuropoda in the Ailuropodinae ( until this family was moved into the Ursidae ) , and in its own family , the Ailuridae . This uncertainty comes from difficulty in determining whether certain characteristics of Ailurus are phylogenetically conservative or are derived and convergent with species of similar ecological habits .
Evidence based on the fossil record , serology , karyology , behavior , anatomy , and reproduction reflect closer affinities with Procyonidae than Ursidae . However , ecological and foraging specializations and distinct geographical distribution in relation to modern procyonids support classification in the separate family Ailuridae .
Recent molecular systematic DNA research also places the red panda into its own family , Ailuridae , a part of the broad superfamily Musteloidea that also includes the skunk , raccoon , and weasel families .
It is not a bear , nor closely related to the giant panda , nor a raccoon , nor a lineage of uncertain affinities . Rather it is a basal lineage of musteloid , with a long history of independence from its closest relatives ( skunks , raccoons , and otters / weasels / badgers ) .
The two subspecies are A. f. fulgens and A. f. styani . However , the name Ailurus fulgens refulgens is sometimes incorrectly used for A. f. styani . This stems from a lapsus made by Henri Milne @-@ Edwards in his 1874 paper " Recherches pour servir à l 'histoire naturelle des mammifères comprenant des considérations sur la classification de ces animaux " , making A. f. refulgens a nomen nudum . The most recent edition of Mammal Species of the World still shows the subspecies as A. f. refulgens . This has been corrected in more recent works , including A guide to the Mammals of China and Handbook of the Mammals of the World , Volume 1 : Carnivores .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
The red panda is considered a living fossil and only distantly related to the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ) , as it is naturally more closely related to the other members of the superfamily Musteloidea to which it belongs . The common ancestor of both pandas ( which also was an ancestor for all living bears , pinnipeds -the walrus and seals- and musteloids -raccoons , skunks , weasels , otters ... ) can be traced back to the Early Tertiary period tens of millions of years ago , with a wide distribution across Eurasia .
Fossils of the extinct red panda Parailurus anglicus have been unearthed from China in the east to Britain in the west . In 1977 , a single tooth of Parailurus was discovered in the Pliocene Ringold Formation of Washington . This first North American record is almost identical to European specimens and indicates the immigration of this species from Asia . In 2004 , a tooth from a red panda species never before recorded in North America was discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in Tennessee . The tooth dates from 4 @.@ 5 – 7 million years ago . This species , described as Pristinailurus bristoli , indicates that a second , more primitive ailurine lineage inhabited North America during the Miocene . Cladistic analysis suggests that Parailurus and Ailurus are sister taxa . Additional fossils of Pristinailurus bristoli were discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in 2010 and in 2012 . The frequency with which panda fossils are being found at Gray Fossil Site suggests the species played a large role in the overall ecosystem of the area .
The discovery in Spain of the postcranial remains of Simocyon batalleri , a Miocene relative to the red panda , supports a sister @-@ group relationship between red pandas and bears . The discovery suggests the red panda 's " false thumb " was an adaptation to arboreal locomotion — independent of the giant panda 's adaptation to manipulate bamboo — one of the most dramatic cases of convergent evolution among vertebrates .
= = = Taxonomic history = = =
The first known written record of the red panda occurs in a 13th @-@ century Chinese scroll depicting a hunting scene between hunters and the red panda .
Major General Thomas Hardwicke ’ s 1821 presentation of an article titled " Description of a new Genus of the Class Mammalia , from the Himalaya Chain of Hills Between Nepaul and the Snowy Mountains " at the Linnean Society in London is usually regarded as the moment the red panda became a bona fide species in Western science . Hardwicke proposed the name " wha " and explained : " It is frequently discovered by its loud cry or call , resembling the word ‘ Wha ’ , often repeating the same : hence is derived one of the local names by which it is known . It is also called Chitwa . " Hardwicke 's paper was not published until 1827 , by which time Frédéric Cuvier had published his description and a figure . Hardwicke 's originally proposed taxonomic name was removed from the 1827 publication of his paper with his permission , and naming credit is now given to Cuvier .
Frédéric Cuvier had received the specimen he described from his brother 's stepson , Alfred Duvaucel , who had sent it " from the mountains north of India " . He was the first to use both the binomial name Ailurus fulgens and the vernacular name panda in his description of the species published in 1825 in Histoire naturelle des mammifères . Ailurus is adopted from the ancient Greek word αἴλουρος ( ailouros ) , meaning " cat " . The specific epithet fulgens is Latin for " shining , bright " . Panda is the French name for the Roman goddess of peace and travellers , who was called upon before starting a difficult journey . Whether this is the origin of the French vernacular name panda remains uncertain . Later publications claim the name was adopted from a Himalayan language .
In 1847 , Hodgson described a red panda under the name Ailurus ochraceus , of which Pocock concluded it represents the same type as Ailurus fulgens , since the description of the two agree very closely . He subordinated both types to the Himalayan red panda subspecies Ailurus fulgens fulgens .
= = Local names = =
The red panda 's local names differ from place to place . The Lepcha people call it sak nam . In Nepal , the species is called bhalu biralo ( bear @-@ cat ) and habre . The Sherpa people of Nepal and Sikkim call it ye niglva ponva and wah donka . The word wậː is Sunuwari meaning bear ; in Tamang language , a small , red bear is called tāwām . In the Kanchenjunga region of eastern Nepal , the Limbus know red pandas as kaala , which literally means dark because of their underside pelage ; villagers of Tibetan origin call them hoptongar .
Additionally , Pocock lists the vernacular names ye and nigálya ponya ( Nepal ) ; thokya and thongwa ( Limbu ) ; oakdonga or wakdonka and woker ( Bhotia ) ; saknam sunam ( Lepcha ) . Nigálya may originate from the Nepali word निङालो niṅālo or nĩgālo meaning a particular kind of small bamboo , namely Arundinaria intermedia , but also refers to a kind of small leopard , or cat @-@ bear . The word pónya may originate from the Nepali word पञ ् जा pajā meaning claw , or पौँजा paũjā meaning paw of an animal . Nigálya pónya may translate to bamboo claw or paw .
Nigálya pónya , nyala ponga , and poonya are said to mean eater of bamboo . The name panda could originate from panjā .
In modern Chinese , the red panda is called xiăoxióngmāo ( 小熊猫 / 小熊貓 , lesser or small panda ) , or 红熊猫 / 紅熊貓 ( hóngxióngmāo , red panda ) . In contrast , the giant panda is called dàxióngmāo ( 大熊猫 / 大熊貓 , giant or big panda ) , or simply xióngmāo ( 熊猫 / 熊貓 , panda , literally bear @-@ cat ) .
In English , the red panda is also called lesser panda , though " red " is generally preferred . Many other languages also use red or variations of shining / gold or lesser / small in their names for this species . For instance , червена панда in Bulgarian , panda roux in French , and panda rojo in Spanish all mean red panda . Since at least as far back as 1855 , one of its French names has been panda éclatant ( shining panda ) . In Finnish , it is called kultapanda ( gold panda ) . Variations of lesser panda occur in French petit panda ( small panda ) , Spanish panda menor ( lesser panda ) , Dutch kleine panda ( small panda ) , Russian малая панда ( malaya panda , " small panda " ) , Korean 애기판다 ( aeki panda , " baby panda " ) , and Japanese レッサーパンダ ( ressā panda , a transliteration of English " lesser panda " ) .
Other names attributed to this species include fire cat , bright panda , and common panda .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The red panda was recognized as the state animal of Sikkim in the early 1990s , and was the mascot of the Darjeeling Tea Festival .
In 2005 , Babu , a male red panda at Birmingham Nature Centre in Birmingham , England , escaped and briefly became a media celebrity , before being recaptured . He was subsequently voted " Brummie of the Year " , the first animal to receive this honor . Rusty , a male red panda at the National Zoo in Washington , DC , similarly attracted media attention when he briefly escaped in 2013 .
The name of the Firefox web browser is said to have been derived from a nickname of the red panda .
An anthropomorphic red panda was featured as Master Shifu , the Kung Fu teacher , in the 2008 film Kung Fu Panda , and its sequels Kung Fu Panda 2 in 2011 and Kung Fu Panda 3 in 2016 . Some comments on the original film showed a lack of awareness about the red panda in the U.S. at the time it was released . Although most of the reviewers got the species correct , some nevertheless mistook it for a tiny wolf , a rodent , and a lemur . In an interview , Dustin Hoffman also indicated he did not know much about the animal when he first agreed to voice the character . The red panda Futa inspired the character of Pabu , the so @-@ called " fire ferret " animal companion ( primarily of Bolin ) , in the U.S. animated TV series The Legend of Korra .
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= The Judy Garland Show =
The Judy Garland Show was an American musical variety television series that aired on CBS on Sunday nights during the 1963 @-@ 1964 television season . Despite a sometimes stormy relationship with Judy Garland , CBS had found success with several television specials featuring the star . Garland , who for years had been reluctant to commit to a weekly series , saw the show as her best chance to pull herself out of severe financial difficulties .
Production difficulties beset the series almost from the beginning . The series had three different producers in the course of its 26 episodes and went through a number of other key personnel changes . With the change in producers also came changes to the show 's format , which started as comedy / variety but switched to an almost purely concert format .
While Garland herself was popular with critics , the initial variety format and her co @-@ star , Jerry Van Dyke , were not . The show competed with Bonanza , then the fourth most popular program on television , and consistently performed poorly in the ratings . Although fans rallied in an attempt to save the show , CBS cancelled it after a single season .
TV Guide included the series in their 2013 list of 60 shows that were " Cancelled Too Soon " .
= = Garland and CBS = =
Garland 's history with CBS prior to the series was a checkered one . She had previously headlined several specials for the network . The first was the inaugural episode of the Ford Star Jubilee which aired in 1955 . The special , the first full @-@ scale color telecast on CBS , was a ratings triumph , garnering a 34 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating . This success led to Garland 's signing a three @-@ year , $ 300 @,@ 000 contract with the network . Only a single special aired , a live General Electric Theater episode in 1956 , before the pact was terminated . The relationship between CBS and Garland and her then @-@ husband and manager , Sid Luft , dissolved in acrimony in 1957 after they and agent Freddie Fields were unable to come to terms with the network over the format of her next special . Garland filed a US $ 1 @.@ 4 million lawsuit against CBS for libel and breach of contract ( CBS filed a counterclaim ) that was not settled until 1961 , when Garland and CBS each agreed to drop their claims and negotiations began for a new round of Garland specials for the network .
The first of two specials under this new relationship aired in February 1962 and was entitled The Judy Garland Show . This special , guest starring Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin , was nominated for four Emmy awards . Garland signed the deal for the weekly series in December 1962 . Garland 's final special was the awkwardly @-@ titled Judy Garland and Her Guests Phil Silvers and Robert Goulet , presented in March 1963 . Alternately promoted as a preview and a pilot for Garland 's upcoming regular series , this special too was nominated for an Emmy .
= = Production = =
Judy Garland 's four @-@ year contract for the series called for 26 weekly shows , for which Garland 's corporation , Kingsrow Enterprises , would be paid $ 140 @,@ 000 per episode . Of that Garland was guaranteed between $ 25 @,@ 000 and $ 30 @,@ 000 per show . Kingsrow Enterprises would also retain ownership of the tapes , allowing Garland to sell the series into syndication . Although Garland had said as early as 1955 that she would never do a weekly television series , in the early 1960s she was in a financially precarious situation . Garland was several hundred thousand dollars in debt to the Internal Revenue Service , having failed to pay taxes in 1951 and 1952 , and the commercial disappointment of the film A Star is Born meant that her share of any profits from that film would be eaten up immediately . A successful run on television would secure Garland 's financial future .
= = = The George Schlatter episodes ( Episodes 1 @-@ 5 ) = = =
The Judy Garland Show was initially slated to be taped in New York City . The network initially offered the producer 's job to Bob Banner , who was at the time producing a series for Garry Moore . Although he was interested , he declined to relocate from the West Coast . Bob Finkel , whose credits included shows for Dinah Shore and Andy Williams , was next approached but similarly refused to relocate . Veteran producer and director Bill Hobin , then heading up Sing Along with Mitch , was approached to produce and direct the program . Already based in the East , Hobin eagerly accepted . Unbeknownst to Hobin , George Schlatter had been lobbying on the West Coast for the producer job and was signed to produce . Ultimately Hobin bowed out of the producer slot and Schlatter became the producer while Hobin was retained to direct .
With the producer question settled , Schlatter set about assembling the crew for the series . Mort Lindsey was hired to conduct the show 's orchestra . Gary Smith , who had designed the earlier Sinatra / Martin special , was signed as art director . Multiple Academy Award @-@ winner Edith Head was engaged to design Garland 's costumes while Ray Agyahan , who Schlatter knew from their work together with Dinah Shore , was hired to costume Garland 's guests . Mel Tormé was brought on as musical arranger and to write special musical material and would also appear as a guest on the program . Choreography duties were taken by Danny Daniels . Comedian Jerry Van Dyke was engaged as a series regular .
In addition to musical performances from Garland and the week 's guest stars , the series ' initial format included the recurring segments " Born in a Trunk " ( the name taken from a number in A Star is Born ) in which Garland would tell stories of her show business career and sing a related song , and " Tea for Two " which would feature her chatting with a surprise guest . Van Dyke would perform comedy sketches , sometimes with Garland or the guests . Garland would close each episode by singing the song " Maybe I 'll Come Back . " The obscure novelty song , selected by Garland and Schlatter over CBS 's objections ( the network wanted a few bars of Over the Rainbow ) , included the line " And President Coolidge is a cousin of mine . " Garland as a running gag would substitute a different name for Coolidge 's each week .
Although initially planned for an East Coast shoot , The Judy Garland Show was taped in Studio 43 at CBS Television City in Los Angeles . The network had gone to great expense to prepare the studio , including an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 to raise the stage and install a separate revolving stage . Garland 's dressing room was a 110 ft × 40 ft trailer which had been decorated as a replica of her newly purchased Brentwood home . The corridor that led from her dressing room to the stage was painted to resemble the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz .
The first taping commenced on June 24 , 1963 . Garland 's old friend and frequent MGM co @-@ star Mickey Rooney was , at Garland 's insistence , her first guest — although , because the network elected to air the series out of production order , this was actually the tenth episode to be broadcast .
= = = The Norman Jewison episodes ( Episodes 6 @-@ 13 ) = = =
On August 2 , after six weeks of taping and five completed shows , Schlatter was fired as producer by James Aubrey , Jr . , president of CBS . Production was suspended for five weeks . But according to Mel Tormé in his book The Other Side of the Rainbow , Garland was the one who fired Schlatter . Also fired were several of the writing staff and choreographer Danny Daniels . Replacing Schlatter as executive producer was Norman Jewison , who shared a vision for the series that was closer to that of Aubrey 's . That vision was that Garland was too glamorous for television and that she needed her series to present her in a more conventional light . Veteran musical variety show writers John Aylesworth and Frank Peppiatt were brought in as well . Jewison , who had agreed to serve as producer through the thirteenth episode , implemented changes designed to " make the sacred cow less sacred , " including Garland 's subjection to Van Dyke 's jokes that denigrated her issues with her weight , her reputation for unreliability and her career highs and lows . Jewison also introduced a new recurring feature , " Be My Guest , " with Tormé 's writing tailored material for the week 's guest to perform with Garland near the top of each show .
The Judy Garland Show premiered on September 29 , during Jewison 's run as producer . The episode chosen to be the premiere was Jewison 's second completed episode , the seventh produced episode overall . Reviews were generally favorable ( see below ) , though Jerry Van Dyke 's supporting role was heavily criticized ; Van Dyke was let go from the cast after the tenth produced episode . Jewison himself left after episode thirteen , as he had intended .
= = = The Bill Colleran episodes ( Episodes 14 @-@ 26 ) = = =
After Jewison , Bill Colleran joined the show as Garland 's selection for its third executive producer . Colleran revamped the format yet again , doing away with the insulting humor and focusing the show more on Garland and her singing , although there were still comedy elements in Colleran 's initial episodes with guests such as Bob Newhart and Shelley Berman . As well , Ken Murray was briefly featured as a regular , showing his home movies of Hollywood stars , but was dropped after four episodes .
Ratings continued to be poor , and CBS announced the cancellation of The Judy Garland Show on January 22 , 1964 . Officially , it was reported that it was Garland who exited the series , as explained in a letter released by CBS , supposedly from Garland to Aubrey advising him that she wanted to spend more time caring for her children .
Despite The Judy Garland Show 's announced cancellation , it was allowed to finish out the 1963 / 64 season , and continued to tape episodes for broadcast . The final seven episodes taped after the cancellation notice jettisoned any pretense of sustaining a comedy / variety element , and simply presented Judy Garland " In Concert " — sometimes solo for the entire episode , sometimes with musical guests such as Lena Horne , Diahann Carroll or Mel Tormé .
During these final episodes , following Show 22 specifically , Tormé was fired and was replaced by Bobby Cole , a musician Garland had met recently in New York . Tormé would later file suit for breach of contract and write a tell @-@ all book about the series , The Other Side of the Rainbow : With Judy Garland on the Dawn Patrol .
= = On the air = =
The first episode of The Judy Garland Show aired on September 29 , 1963 . The show , featuring guest star Donald O 'Connor , was the seventh one taped . Episodes would continue to be shown out of sequence throughout the series ' run . The show scored an 18 @.@ 7 rating and reviews were largely positive . Variety wrote " If Judy Garland ... is of a mind to work every week with the same dedication and zeal that characterized her premiere this week , Bill Paley and his associates should be in clover . ... Miss Garland was in fine fettle . " The San Francisco Chronicle characterized the show as " tasteful , elegant and exciting . " Not every review was as glowing , with the New York Herald Tribune noting " Miss Garland is fine , just fine . The rest of the show , however , needs help . " Other negative reviews were in a similar vein , focusing on Van Dyke in particular and the show 's format and writing in general .
CBS publicly responded to the critiques by issuing a statement through talent chief Michael Dann . " We have decided that [ Judy ] should never appear in sketches and never play any character but herself . And she 'll be singing more songs , more medleys , more standards . Songs are her babies . We told her what we think and she 's listening . She 's far too insecure about television to exercise her own judgment . She knows what 's good for her . "
Behind the scenes , however , the network continued to tinker with the show . In addition to the replacement of key production staff and constantly revising the format , Garland was also summoned to New York to receive such bits of information as she was touching her guests too much and was instructed to stop . As well , Van Dyke was let go almost immediately after the reviews came out , taping his last show on October 11 .
Nevertheless , numerous episodes featuring Van Dyke had already completed taping and would continue to air , meaning that the changes in the show 's format would not be apparent to viewers for several weeks . Accordingly , reviews about the show 's format ( as opposed to Garland 's singing ) continued to be negative , as the Garland @-@ deprecating humor continued to attract criticism rather than viewers . Saturday Evening Post reviewer Richard Warren Lewis wrote , " The absurd notion of debasing Judy 's reputation as a legendary figure and molding her show into an imitation of other prosaic variety shows has been a disaster where it hurts most , in the audience @-@ rating polls . " Indeed , Garland 's show was averaging an 18 rating , about half of the audience represented by Bonanza and its 35 rating .
After the departure of Jewison as producer and of Jerry Van Dyke ( whose exit from the show was lauded by one contemporary reviewer as " a marvelous idea but it came too late " ) the focus of the show changed yet again to emphasize Garland 's performances , singly and with guests . This format , including several " Judy Garland in Concert " solo episodes , would remain more or less intact for the remainder of the series . Despite continuing positive critical comment about Garland 's performances , the ratings remained flat . Fans of the show formed a " Save The Judy Garland Show committee " and organized an early letter @-@ writing campaign on behalf of the series but their efforts were not enough to spare the show from cancellation . The final Judy Garland Show , another concert episode , was broadcast on March 29 , 1964 .
= = Episode list = =
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= Evergreen ( Echo & the Bunnymen album ) =
Evergreen is the seventh studio album by the English rock band Echo & the Bunnymen . It is their first album since reforming after they disbanded in 1993 . Vocalist Ian McCulloch and guitarist Will Sergeant had previously worked together as Electrafixion before they were rejoined by bassist Les Pattinson under the name Echo & the Bunnymen in early 1997 . The album was recorded at Doghouse Studios in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames and was produced by McCulloch and the band 's manager Paul Toogood but was credited to the whole band .
Following a successful return to live performances and the release of the single " Nothing Lasts Forever " , the album was released in July 1997 . Two further singles – " I Want to Be There " and " Don 't Let It Get You Down " – followed the album 's release . The album received good reviews from the music press and was received well by the public , reaching number eight on the UK Albums Chart .
= = Background = =
After leaving Echo & the Bunnymen in 1988 to pursue a solo career , vocalist Ian McCulloch released two albums that were not commercial successes . Despite McCulloch 's departure and drummer Pete de Freitas 's death , guitarist Will Sergeant and bassist Les Pattinson decided to recruit three new members – Noel Burke ( vocals ) , Jake Brockman ( keyboards ) and Damon Reece ( drums ) – and continue with the same band name , which angered McCulloch . The Bunnymen released one further album , Reverberation ( 1990 ) , which critics and fans alike received poorly . WEA Records subsequently dropped the group , who went on to break @-@ up in early 1993 .
McCulloch met former Smiths guitarist Johnny Marr in 1993 and they wrote and recorded an album , tentatively titled Touch Down . The album was to be released in early 1994 ; however , despite McCulloch and Marr being happy with the album , Rob Dickins at WEA felt it was missing some element . Dickins suggested to McCulloch that Sergeant be brought in to do some work . McCulloch was initially sceptical because he had not spoken with Sergeant since de Freitas 's funeral ; however , he did give the idea some thought . Before McCulloch had chance to contact Sergeant , a mutual friend persuaded the pair to meet socially . While McCulloch and Sergeant were being reacquainted , the tapes from the McCulloch and Marr sessions disappeared . McCulloch was not upset about this as he and Sergeant had started working together as Electrafixion .
With McCulloch influenced by American alternative rock bands such as Nirvana and The Smashing Pumpkins , the group employed a heavier sound than Echo & the Bunnymen 's previous work . After successfully touring the United Kingdom and refusing to play any Echo & the Bunnymen material , Electrafixion released their only album , Burned , in September 1995 . Despite critics giving the album good reviews , sales of it and the follow @-@ up singles were disappointing . After embarking on a tour of the United States in 1996 , Electrafixion eventually gave in to fan pressure and began to introduce Echo & the Bunnymen material to their live set . Sergeant felt that as the band were playing Echo & the Bunnymen songs , they might as well reform Echo & the Bunnymen ; however , McCulloch was initially opposed to the idea . McCulloch changed his mind and , having persuaded Pattinson to come out of retirement , Echo & the Bunnymen was reformed in mid @-@ 1996 . McCulloch felt Echo & the Bunnymen could not reform without Pattinson and described the bassist 's involvement as " integral " . McCulloch went on to say it was important to " feel like the original group " . He has also said , " Right from the first demo [ of Evergreen ] we realised that we 'd still got that chemistry . "
= = Recording and packaging = =
The recording of Evergreen started at the beginning of 1997 when Echo & the Bunnymen entered Doghouse Studios in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames . The production of the album was undertaken by McCulloch and Paul Toogood , the band 's new manager , although it was credited to the band in the liner notes to the album . With Oasis in the next studio , Liam Gallagher contributed backing vocals to the track " Nothing Lasts Forever " . McCulloch said , " We just hit it off right away , and after a few beers he ended up singing on the record . " McCulloch also said that Gallagher " insisted we put tambourine on [ ' Nothing Lasts Forever ' ] " which " took [ it ] to another level " . Adam Peters , who had previously worked on the band 's 1984 album Ocean Rain , was brought in to provide string arrangements for the album . Using musicians from the London Metropolitan Orchestra , Peters recorded string passages for seven tracks from the album at Abbey Road Studios in London . With Clif Norrell , who had previously worked with R.E.M. , finishing the mixing of the album , the recording was completed by the end of March 1997 .
The photograph used on the front cover of the album was shot by Norman Watson , who also directed the videos for two of the singles from the album – " Nothing Lasts Forever " , which was to become the lead single from the album , and " I Want to Be There " . The cover was shot in Marrakech in early May 1997 and echoes the cover of the band 's 1980 debut album Crocodiles . The cover picture shows the band against a backdrop of trees at night . However , in place of the band 's former drummer de Freitas , who died in a motorcycle accident , the photograph shows the remaining band members with a car .
= = Releases and reception = =
The live debut of " Nothing Lasts Forever " was at the Cream nightclub in Liverpool in early May 1997 at Echo & the Bunnymen 's first concert since reforming . This was followed by two sold @-@ out concerts at the Mercury Lounge in New York and a number of festival appearances in the US , UK and Europe before Evergreen was released on 14 July 1997 by London Records . A limited edition version containing a bonus disc titled History of the Peel Sessions 1979 – 1997 was released at the same time . The bonus disc contains tracks that were recorded live for John Peel 's show on BBC Radio 1 between 1979 and 1997 . Following the album , two more singles were released – " I Want to Be There ( When You Come ) " in September 1997 and " Don 't Let It Get You Down " in November 1979 . The album was reissued in 1999 with the addition of four live tracks .
Reviewing Evergreen for Allmusic , Ned Raggett described it as " an attractive piece of work " when it " shines at its best " . Although he noted , " Replacement drummer Michael Lee fills in [ for de Freitas ] adequately but not completely , rendering what was a special group something less so . " The reviewer for British music magazine Melody Maker , called the album a " triumph " for fans as well as acknowledging that the album was unlikely to impress people who were not familiar with their work . The album was described in Rolling Stone magazine as " a stunning comeback " . Jeremy Helligar for Entertainment Weekly was not as keen and described the reunion as having " the feel of a non @-@ event " .
Evergreen became Echo & the Bunnymen 's fifth album to make the Top 10 of the UK Albums Chart when it reached number eight during its first week of release and stayed on the chart for seven weeks . " Nothing Lasts Forever " reached number eight on the UK Singles Chart , although the follow @-@ up singles " I Want to Be There ( When You Come ) " and " Don 't Let It Get You Down " fared less well reaching numbers thirty and fifty respectively .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Echo & the Bunnymen .
= = Personnel = =
Ian McCulloch – vocals , guitar , piano
Will Sergeant – guitar
Les Pattinson – bass
Adam Peters – keyboards , arrangement ( strings ) , conductor ( strings )
Michael Lee – drums
Ed Shearmur – piano on " Nothing Lasts Forever "
London Metropolitan Orchestra – strings
Echo & the Bunnymen – producer
Marak Phythian – engineer
Cenzo Townsend – engineer
Markus Butler – assistant engineer
Clif Norrell – mixing
Richard Woodcraft – mixing assistant
Don C. Tyler – digital editing
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Guy Massey – recording ( strings )
Alex Scannell – recording assistant ( strings )
Norman Watson – photography
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= Hull City A.F.C. =
Hull City Association Football Club ( / ˈhʌl ˈsɪti / ) is a professional association football club based in Hull , East Riding of Yorkshire , England . It was founded in 1904 . The club participates in the Premier League , the top tier of English football – and their greatest achievement in cup competitions came in 2014 , when the team reached the final of the FA Cup . In 2007 – 08 they achieved promotion to the top flight of English football for the first time in their history by winning the Championship play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium . Their highest league finish was for the 2013 – 14 season , in which they finished 16th in the Premier League table .
Hull City play their home games at the KCOM Stadium . They previously played at Boothferry Park and moved to their current home in 2002 . Boothferry Park has been demolished and has been replaced by a housing development . They traditionally play in black and amber , often with a striped shirt design , hence their nickname The Tigers . The club 's mascots are Roary the Tiger and his sister Amber .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Hull City Association Football Club was founded in June 1904 ; previous attempts to found a football club had proved difficult because of the dominance in the city of rugby league teams such as Hull F.C. and Hull Kingston Rovers . The club was unable to apply for membership of the Football League for the 1904 – 05 season and instead played only in friendlies , the first of which was a 2 – 2 draw with Notts County on 1 September 1904 with 6 @,@ 000 in attendance . These early matches were played at the Boulevard , the home of Hull F.C. The club 's first competitive football match was in the FA Cup preliminary round , drawing 3 – 3 with Stockton on 17 September , but they were eliminated after losing the replay 4 – 1 on 22 September . After disputes with landlords at the Boulevard , Hull City moved to Anlaby Road Cricket Ground . After having played 44 friendly fixtures the previous season , Hull City were finally admitted into the Football League Second Division for the 1905 – 06 season . Other teams competing in the league that season included the likes of Manchester United and Chelsea , as well as Yorkshire rivals Barnsley , Bradford City and Leeds City . Hull defeated Barnsley 4 – 1 at home in their first game and finished the season in fifth place .
Hull City and Grimsby Town were the only two professional teams which had official permission to play league football on Christmas Day because of the demands of the fish trade , but that tradition has now disappeared following the dramatic reduction of their trawler fleets in recent years . The following season a new ground was built for Hull City across the road from the cricket ground . Still under the managership of Ambrose Langley , Hull continued to finish consistently in the top half of the table . They came close to promotion in the 1909 – 10 season , recording what would be their highest finish until they matched it in 2008 . Hull finished third , level on points with second placed Oldham Athletic , missing promotion on goal average by 0 @.@ 29 of a goal . Hull regularly finished in the top half of the table before the First World War , but after the war the team finished in the bottom half in seven seasons out of eleven , culminating in relegation to the Third Division North in 1930 .
= = = Mid @-@ 20th century = = =
Hull 's greatest achievement in cup competitions until 2014 was in 1930 , when they reached the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . The cup run saw Hull knock out the eventual champions of the Second and Third Divisions ; Blackpool and Plymouth Argyle respectively . They then knocked out Manchester City , to meet Newcastle United in the quarter @-@ finals . The first game at St James ' Park finished as a 1 – 1 draw , but in the replay Hull beat Newcastle 1 – 0 . The semi @-@ final match against Arsenal took place at Elland Road in Leeds , the game ended 2 – 2 , and was taken to a replay in Birmingham . Arsenal knocked Hull out at Villa Park , the game ending 1 – 0 .
After the Second World War , the club moved to another new ground , Boothferry Park . In the 1948 – 49 season , managed by former England international Raich Carter , Hull won the Third Division North championship . " Yo @-@ yoing " between the second and third tiers of English football , Hull City had promotion seasons from the Third to the Second Division again in 1959 and 1966 , winning the Third Division in the latter season . Hull also became the first team in the world to go out of a cup competition on penalties , beaten by Manchester United in the semi @-@ final of the Watney Cup on 1 August 1970 . By the early 1980s , Hull City were in the Fourth Division , and financial collapse led to receivership .
Don Robinson took over as chairman and appointed Colin Appleton as the new manager . Both had previously held the equivalent roles with non @-@ league Scarborough . Promotion to Division Three followed in 1983 , with a young team featuring the likes of future England international Brian Marwood , future England manager Steve McClaren , centre @-@ forward Billy Whitehurst , and the prolific goal @-@ scorer Les Mutrie . When Hull City missed out on promotion by one goal the following season , Appleton left to manage Swansea City .
= = = Decline in the late 20th century = = =
Hull reached the Second Division in 1985 under player @-@ manager Brian Horton . They remained there for the next six years before finally going down in 1991 , by which time the club 's manager was Terry Dolan . Hull finished 14th in the Third Division in the 1991 – 92 season , meaning that they would be competing in the new Second Division the following season . In their first season in the rebranded division , Hull narrowly avoided another relegation , but the board kept faith in Dolan and over the next two seasons they achieved mid @-@ table finishes . Financial difficulties hampered City 's progress , as key players such as Alan Fettis and Dean Windass had to be sold to fend off winding @-@ up orders . In the 1995 – 96 season Hull were relegated to the Third Division .
In 1997 the club was purchased by former tennis player David Lloyd , who sacked Dolan as manager and replaced him with Mark Hateley after Hull could only finish in 17th place in the table . Hull 's league form was steadily deteriorating to the point that relegation to the Football Conference was looking a real possibility . Lloyd sold the club in November 1998 to a South Yorkshire @-@ based consortium , but retained ownership of Boothferry Park . Hateley departed in November 1998 , with the club at the foot of the table . He was replaced by 34 @-@ year @-@ old veteran player Warren Joyce , who steered the club to safety with games to spare . Hull City fans refer to this season as " The Great Escape " . Despite this feat , Joyce was replaced in April 2000 by the more experienced Brian Little .
Despite briefly being locked out of Boothferry Park by bailiffs and facing the possibility of liquidation , Hull qualified for the Third Division play @-@ offs in the 2000 – 01 season , losing in the semi @-@ finals to Leyton Orient . A boardroom takeover by former Leeds United commercial director Adam Pearson had eased the club 's precarious financial situation and all fears of closure were banished .
= = = 21st century resurgence = = =
The new chairman ploughed funds into the club , allowing Little to rebuild the team . Hull occupied the Third Division promotion and play @-@ off places for much of the 2001 – 02 season , but Little departed two months before the end of the season and Hull slipped to 11th place under his successor Jan Mølby .
Hull began the 2002 – 03 season with a number of defeats , which saw relegation look more likely than promotion , and Mølby was sacked in October as Hull languished fifth from bottom in the league . Peter Taylor was named as Hull 's new manager and in December 2002 , just two months after his appointment , Hull relocated to the new 25 @,@ 400 @-@ seater KC Stadium after 56 years at Boothferry Park . At the end of the season Hull finished 13th .
Hull were Third Division runners @-@ up in 2003 – 04 and League One runners @-@ up in 2004 – 05 ; these back @-@ to @-@ back promotions took them into the Championship , the second tier of English football . The 2005 – 06 season , the club 's first back in the second tier , saw Hull finish in 18th place , 10 points clear of relegation and their highest league finish for 16 years .
However , Taylor left the club to take up the manager 's job at Crystal Palace and Colchester United 's Phil Parkinson was confirmed as his replacement , but was sacked on 4 December 2006 with Hull in the relegation zone , despite having spent over £ 2 million on players during the summer . Phil Brown took over as caretaker manager , and took over permanently in January 2007 , having taken Hull out of the relegation zone . Brown brought veteran striker Dean Windass back to his hometown club on loan from Bradford City , and his eight goals helped secure Hull 's Championship status as they finished in 21st place .
Adam Pearson sold the club to a consortium led by Paul Duffen in June 2007 , stating that he " had taken the club as far as I could " , and would have to relinquish control in order to attract " really significant finance into the club " . Under Paul Duffen and manager Phil Brown , Hull City improved greatly on their relegation battle of 2006 – 07 and qualified for the play @-@ offs after finishing the season in third place . They beat Watford 6 – 1 on aggregate in the semi @-@ finals and played Bristol City in the Final on 24 May 2008 , which Hull won 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium , with Hull native Dean Windass scoring the winning goal . Their ascent from the bottom division of the Football League to the top division of English football in just five seasons is the third @-@ fastest ever .
Despite being one of the favourites for relegation in the 2008 – 09 season , Hull began life in the Premier League by beating Fulham 2 – 1 on the opening day in their first ever top flight fixture . With only one defeat in their opening nine games , including away wins at Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur , Hull City found themselves ( temporarily ) joint @-@ top of the Premier League table on points ( third on goal difference ) , following a 3 – 0 victory over West Bromwich Albion — ten years previously , they had been bottom of the fourth tier of English football . Hull 's form never replicated the highs of the early autumn , with the team winning only two more games over the remainder of the season , but secured their top @-@ flight status on the last day of the season due to other results .
On 29 October 2009 , chairman Paul Duffen resigned his position with the club , and was replaced by former chairman Adam Pearson on 2 November 2009 . On 15 March 2010 , manager Phil Brown was put on gardening leave after a run of four defeats left Hull in the relegation zone . Brown 's replacement was former Crystal Palace and Charlton boss Iain Dowie , and the appointment was met with some disbelief by supporters who were hoping for a " bigger name " replacement . Hull City 's relegation from the Premier League was confirmed on 3 May 2010 , after a 2 – 2 draw at Wigan Athletic . Both Brown and Dowie had their contracts terminated , and Leicester City 's Nigel Pearson was confirmed as the new manager .
A reported block on player transfers into the club , set in place by the Hull City board on 28 July 2010 until transfers out would substantially reduce the £ 39 million @-@ per @-@ year wage bill , at first cast doubt on the new manager 's efforts to build a squad capable of a quick return to the Premier League ; nevertheless , Pearson brought several transfers and loan signings into the club in his bid to strengthen the squad for the season 's campaign . The team set a new club record on 12 March 2011 with 14 away matches unbeaten , breaking a previous record held for over 50 years . This 17 @-@ match streak was finally broken by Bristol City on the last day of the 2010 – 11 season , Hull losing the match 3 – 0 .
On 15 November 2011 , Nigel Pearson left the club to return to Leicester . Nick Barmby was appointed as his successor , but was sacked in May 2012 after publicly criticising the club 's owners in an interview given to a local newspaper . In the same month , the club 's consultancy agreement with Adam Pearson was terminated . On 8 June 2012 , Steve Bruce was appointed manager of the club on a three @-@ year deal , and he guided Hull back to the Premier League by drawing with League champions Cardiff City on the final day of the season .
On 13 April 2014 , the club reached its first FA Cup Final after defeating Sheffield United 5 – 3 in the semi @-@ final at Wembley Stadium . Their place in the 2014 – 15 UEFA Europa League , regardless of whether they won the 2013 – 14 FA Cup , was confirmed on 3 May as Everton 's failure to win meant that Hull 's FA Cup Final opponents Arsenal would compete in the 2014 – 15 UEFA Champions League . Hull City will enter in the third qualifying round , in their first ever European campaign . The FA Cup final on 17 May saw Hull go 2 – 0 up within the first ten minutes , before losing 3 – 2 after extra time .
On 31 July 2014 , Hull made their debut in European competition , in the UEFA Europa League third qualifying round , with a 0 – 0 draw against Slovakian side FK AS Trenčín before winning the second leg 2 – 1 a week later . An error from keeper Allan McGregor gave them a 1 – 0 loss away to Belgian outfit Lokeren in the first leg of their play @-@ off tie on 21 August 2014 with the second leg in East Riding of Yorkshire ending in a 2 – 1 victory , but away goals marked the end of Hull 's first foray into European football .
In March 2015 Steve Bruce signed a further three @-@ year deal with the club . Hull were relegated from the Premier League after the 2014 – 15 season , finishing eighteenth with 35 points after a 0 – 0 draw against Manchester United , along with Newcastle United securing their Premier League Status after beating West Ham United 2 – 0 . In October 2015 Hull beat Leicester City in a penalty @-@ shootout to take them through to their first ever quarter @-@ final appearance in the Football League Cup .
= = Name change = =
= = = 2013 : Initial application = = =
In August 2013 , owner Assem Allam announced that the club has re @-@ registered as " Hull City Tigers Ltd , " and that the team would be marketed as " Hull City Tigers , " removing the " Association Football Club " that had been part of the name since the club 's formation in 1904 . Vice @-@ chairman Ehab Allam said " AFC " would remain on the club badge for the 2013 – 14 season , but removed thereafter .
In response , a Premier League spokesman said , " We have not been informed of a change in the name of the actual club . They will still be known as Hull City as far as the Premier League is concerned when results or fixtures are published . "
According to its Chairman , by 2014 , the club would be further renamed " Hull Tigers , " because , as he claimed , " in marketing , the shorter the name the more powerful [ it is ] , " while " Association Football Club " made the name too long . Allam stated he dislikes the word " City " , as it is too " common " and a " lousy identity " , since it is associated also with other clubs , such as Leicester City , Bristol City and Manchester City . He told David Conn of The Guardian that " in a few years many clubs will follow and change their names to something more interesting and I will have proved I am a leader , " adding that if he were the owner of Manchester City , he would change their name to " Manchester Hunter . "
Allam justified the intended name change as part of his plans to create " additional sources of revenue " for the club , after Hull City Council refused to sell him the stadium freehold so he could develop , as he had stated , " a sports park " on the site . The council has refused to sell in order , as they stated , " to preserve the annual Hull Fair held on the adjacent car park . " After the collapse of the negotiations , Allam stated : " I had in mind £ 30 million to spend on the infrastructure of the club , to increase the stadium by 10 @,@ 000 and to have commercial activities around the stadium — cafeterias , shops , supermarkets — to have all this to create income for the club so that in the future it can be self @-@ financing and not relying on me . " He asked rhetorically , " What if I dropped dead tomorrow ? "
Supporters ' groups expressed opposition to the name change . Bernard Noble , chairman of Hull City 's official supporters club said he was disappointed , although he agreed that Allam had saved the club from liquidation and that it was " his club " . Blogger Rick Skelton called the name change " a pointless exercise " and said , " Mr Allam 's assertion that the name ' Hull City ' is irrelevant and too common , is as disgusting a use of the English language as his new name for the club . " Before the first home match of the season on 24 August 2013 , a group of supporters marched in protest against the name change , and unfurled a banner that read , " Hull City AFC : a club not a brand " . Allam dismissed complaints by the fans , stating " nobody questions my decisions in my business . "
In a comment published on 1 December 2013 in The Independent in response to supporters ' chants and banners of " City Till ( sic ) We Die " , Allam said , " They can die as soon as they want , as long as they leave the club for the majority who just want to watch good football . " The supporters responded with chants of " We 're Hull City , we 'll die when we want " during that day 's home match against Liverpool . Manager Steve Bruce credited the controversy for creating " a fantastic atmosphere " but added , " I have got to have a conversation with him because I don 't think he quite understands what it means in terms of history and tradition . " However , Bruce also said that , because of the money Allam had invested in the club , " If he thinks Hull Tigers is his way forward then we have to respect it . "
On 11 December 2013 , a spokesman for Hull City announced that the club had formally applied to the Football Association to have its name changed to " Hull Tigers " from the 2014 – 15 season onwards . The FA Council , which has " absolute discretion " in deciding whether to approve the plan or not , stated the next day that it would follow a " consultation process " with stakeholders , " including the club 's supporter groups . "
= = = 2014 : Resistance and rejection = = =
Some brand and marketing experts have come out in support of the name change . Nigel Currie , director of sports marketing agency Brand Rapport , stated that " the whole process has been conducted badly with the supporters , but [ the name change ] is a pretty sound idea . " Simon Chadwick , professor of Sport Business Strategy and Marketing at the Coventry University Business School , opined that the objective of opening up lucrative new markets for shirt sales , merchandise and broadcast deals shows commercial vision and could bring benefits , but " this needs to be backed up by a proper marketing strategy and investment . " He said , " it 's no use thinking changing the name or the colour of the shirt will pay instant dividends . " David Stern , commissioner of the National Basketball Association in the United States , warned : " I would say a wise owner [ of a sports club ] would view his ownership as something of a public trust , in addition to the profit motive , and you really do want to allow the fans a little bit more input than I think is being allowed , with respect to Hull . "
On 17 March 2014 , the FA membership committee advised that the name change application be rejected at the FA Council meeting on 9 April . In response , the club published a statement saying the FA was " prejudiced " and criticised the committee 's consultation with the City Till We Die opposition group . The following week , the club opened a ballot of season ticket holders over the name change . Opponents of the name change criticised as " loaded " the questions , which asked respondents to choose between " Yes to Hull Tigers with the Allam family continuing to lead the club " , " No to Hull Tigers " and " I am not too concerned and will continue to support the club either way " , on the grounds that voters were not given the option to reject the name while keeping the Allam family as owners . Of 15 @,@ 033 season ticket holders , 5 @,@ 874 voted in all , with 2 @,@ 565 voting in favour of the change and 2 @,@ 517 against , while 792 chose the " not too concerned " option .
On 9 April 2014 , the FA Council announced its decision , carried by a 63 @.@ 5 % vote of its members , to reject the club 's application for a name change . The club responded by stating it will appeal the decision . However , since there is no appeal process with the FA and its Council , the decision is final . On 11 September 2014 , Allam confirmed an appeal has been submitted to the Court of Arbitration for Sport . He also held a news conference confirming the club had been put up for sale due to the English FA 's decision on 9 April 2014 .
In October 2014 , interviewed by the BBC , Allam confirmed that he would " not invest a penny more in the club " unless he is allowed to change the club 's name to Hull Tigers . In the same interview , Allam said , " I have never been a football fan . I am still not a football fan . I am a community fan . "
= = = 2015 : Re @-@ application = = =
In March 2015 , an independent panel appointed by the Court of Arbitration for Sport ruled that the decision of the Football Association Council to block the name change " cannot stand " on account of the process having been " flawed . "
In July 2015 , the Football Supporters Federation confirmed that a 70 / 30 decision was made in favour of Hull City A.F.C. not changing their name after an FA vote . Greg Dyke , chairman of the FA , reportedly voted yes to a change .
= = Colours and crest = =
For most of the club 's history , Hull have worn black and amber shirts with black shorts . These black and amber colours are where Hull 's nickname , The Tigers , originated from . However , in the club 's first match against Notts County in 1904 , white shirts were worn , with black shorts and black socks . During their first season in the League , Hull wore black and amber striped shirts and black shorts , which they continued to wear until the Second World War with the exception of the 1935 – 36 season , in which they wore sky blue shirts . Following the end of the Second World War , Hull spent another season wearing sky blue , but changed to plain amber shirts , which they wore until the early 1960s , when they swapped back to stripes .
During the mid @-@ 1970s and early 1980s , the strip was constantly changing between the two versions of plain shirts and stripes . During the late 1980s , red was added to the kits but its duration went no further than this . The early 1990s featured two " tiger skin " designs , which have since featured in several articles listing the " worst ever " football kits . The 1998 – 99 season introduced a kit with cross @-@ fading amber and white stripes , another experiment that proved unpopular . After the start of the 21st century , the club wore plain amber shirts until 2004 , when the club celebrated its centenary by wearing a kit similar to the design of the one worn 100 years ago .
In 1935 , Hull City 's first shirt badge mirrored the familiar three crowns civic emblem of Kingston @-@ upon @-@ Hull , which was displayed on the sky blue shirts worn in the 1935 – 36 season . Following that season , the team went without wearing a badge until 1947 , when the club crest depicted a tiger 's head in an orange @-@ shaded badge . This was worn up until 1957 , when it was changed to just the tiger 's head . This was worn for three years , when the shirt again featured no emblem . Then , in 1971 , the club returned to showing the tiger 's head on the shirt . This was used for four years , until the club 's initials of HCAFC were shown for four years . After this , a logo with the tiger 's head with the club 's name underneath was used from 1979 until 1998 . The next logo , which remains the club 's current logo , features the tiger 's head in an amber shield with the club 's name , along with the club 's nickname , The Tigers .
Hull changed their crest in June 2014 , becoming one of few English league teams without the club name on their crest .
= = = Kit manufacturers and sponsors = = =
= = Stadium = =
Between 1904 and 1905 , Hull City played their home games at The Boulevard . This ground was used by Hull on a contract which allowed them to use it when not used for Rugby League , at a cost of £ 100 per annum . Hull built their own ground , Anlaby Road , which was opened in 1906 . With the threat of the rerouting of the railway line through the Anlaby Road ground , the club was convinced it needed to secure its future by owning its own ground . They negotiated the deal for land between Boothferry Road and North Road in 1929 , which was financed by a £ 3 @,@ 000 loan from the FA . Due to the club 's financial difficulties , no work took place for three years , and development then stopped until 1939 . In that year a proposal to build a new multi @-@ purpose sports stadium on the site temporarily halted the club 's plans to relocate , but when this plan failed the club resolved to continue with the stalled development of the site , in anticipation of moving to the new stadium in 1940 . The outbreak of war , however , meant that the redevelopment again came to a halt , as the site was taken over by the Home Guard .
During the Second World War , Anlaby Road was damaged by enemy bombing , the repair cost of which was in the region of £ 1 @,@ 000 . The Cricket Club served notice to quit at the same time , and so in 1943 the tenancy was officially ended . Hull were forced to return to the Boulevard Ground from 1944 until 1945 because of the poor condition of the planned stadium at Boothferry Road . The new stadium was finally opened under the revised name of Boothferry Park on 31 August 1946 .
Hull City , along with one of the city 's rugby league sides , Hull F.C. , moved into the newly built KC Stadium in 2002 . The KC Stadium was named " Best Ground " at the 2006 Football League Awards .
= = Finances = =
In the club ’ s annual report for the 12 @-@ month period up to 31 July 2009 , auditors Deloitte stated that £ 4 @.@ 4 million had gone out of the club and stadium company to owner Russell Bartlett ’ s holding companies in loans , while at least £ 2 @.@ 9 million of it was used in the take @-@ over itself of the club . A further £ 560 @,@ 000 was paid , according to the audit , by the stadium company to Bartlett ’ s holding companies in " management fees , " while at least £ 1 million was owed to him personally as a " salary . " After the warning from Deloitte , Bartlett gave the club a £ 4 million loan , " which brought the money he had taken out and put in since taking over to about even . "
The corporate entity that owns the football club , " The Hull City Association Football Club ( Tigers ) Ltd , " is currently owned by Allamhouse Limited , a private , limited @-@ liability company with a share capital of £ 10 million ( as of October , 2012 ) , registered in Jersey . The beneficial owners of Allamhouse Limited , established in 2009 , are the Allam family .
On an " Opacity Score " of 100 , where zero indicates complete openness and 100 complete secrecy , the company which owns the club has been rated by Christian Aid at 87 .
Hull City 's corporate accounts , as of July 2013 , show a £ 25 @.@ 6 million loss , on revenues of £ 11 million , after player and management costs of " just under £ 23 million . " The club has " future tax losses " available of more than £ 45 million . Another Assam Allam company , Allam Marine , also wholly owned by Allamhouse Limited , revealed in its 2012 accounts that " utilisation of tax losses from group companies " reduced its tax liability by £ 3 @.@ 8 million over 2011 and 2012 .
As reported , HM Revenue and Customs are in the process of an inquiry at Hull City AFC , as part of the British tax authorities ' targeting of football clubs over " tax @-@ free payments to players under image rights ' deals and the provision of benefits in kind . For Hull City AFC , the provision for benefits in kind was reported at £ 682 @,@ 000 as of July 2011 , growing to £ 810 @,@ 000 by July 2012 .
= = Statistics and records = =
Andy Davidson holds the record for Hull City league appearances , having played 579 matches . Garreth Roberts comes second , having played 487 matches . Chris Chilton is the club 's top goalscorer with 222 goals in all competitions ; Chilton also holds the club record for goals scored in the League ( 193 ) , FA Cup ( 16 ) and League Cup ( 10 ) .
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was their 11 – 1 win against Carlisle United in the Third Division North on 14 January 1939 . Their biggest win in the top flight was achieved on 28 December 2013 , with a 6 – 0 victory over Fulham .
Their heaviest defeat in the league was 8 – 0 against Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1911 . Their heaviest top flight defeat was a 6 – 1 defeat to Liverpool on 26 September 2009 .
Hull City 's record home attendance is 55 @,@ 019 , for a match against Manchester United on 26 February 1949 at Boothferry Park , with their highest attendance at their current stadium , the KC Stadium , 25 @,@ 030 set on 9 May 2010 against Liverpool for the last match of the season .
The highest transfer fee received for a Hull City player is £ 12 @.@ 5 million from Southampton for Shane Long . The highest transfer fee paid for a player is for Abel Hernández from Italian side Palermo , for a fee reported to be approximately £ 9 @.@ 5 million .
= = = European record = = =
Notes
3Q : Third qualifying round
PO : Play @-@ off round
= = Players = =
As of 1 July 2016 .
= = = First team squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Player of the Year = = =
= = Managers = =
As of 5 June 2016
Only professional , competitive matches are counted .
* Caretaker manager
† Temporary Football Management Consultant
= = Current backroom staff = =
As of 31 December 2014 .
= = Related teams = =
= = = Reserves and Juniors = = =
Hull City Reserves play in the Reserve League East Division . The team plays home fixtures at the Church Road Ground , home of North Ferriby United . Hull City Juniors play in the Football League Youth Alliance , playing their home fixtures at Winterton Rangers ' home stadium .
= = = Hull City Women = = =
Hull City Women play in the Northern Combination Women 's Football League . In the 2006 – 07 season , the team finished seventh in the table with 33 points .
= = Rivalries = =
According to a 2003 poll , Hull City fans consider their main rival to be Yorkshire neighbours Leeds United .
The club also has a traditional rivalry with Sheffield United . In 1984 , Sheffield United won promotion at Hull City 's expense with the teams level on points and goal difference and separated only by goals scored , with 33 of United 's goals scored by former Hull City striker Keith Edwards . City 's final game of the season against Burnley had been rescheduled due to bad weather and took place after their promotion rivals had finished their campaign ; Hull went into the game knowing that a three @-@ goal victory would mean promotion , but in front of a crowd which included a number of United fans could manage only a 2 – 0 win , ensuring that United went up instead .
Distant rivals include teams from across the Humber Estuary in Lincolnshire , Scunthorpe United and former league club Grimsby Town . With Scunthorpe 's promotion from League One , the 2007 – 08 Championship season saw the return of a " Humber Derby " . Additionally , non @-@ league Lincoln City and League Two club York City are said to consider Hull amongst their rivals .
The club 's main hooligan firm appears to be the Hull City Psychos , dating back to the 1960s .
= = Honours and achievements = =
Football League Championship and predecessors ( level 2 of the English football league system )
Runners @-@ up : 2012 – 13
Play @-@ off winners : 2007 – 08 , 2015 – 16
Football League One and predecessors ( level 3 of the English football league system )
Champions : 1965 – 66
Runners @-@ up : 1958 – 59 , 2004 – 05
Promoted : 1984 – 85
Football League Two and predecessors ( level 4 of the English football league system )
Runners @-@ up : 1982 – 83 , 2003 – 04
Football League Third Division North
Champions : 1932 – 33 , 1948 – 49
FA Cup
Runners @-@ up : 2014
Semi @-@ finalists : 1930
Football League Cup
Quarter @-@ finalists : 2015 – 16
Football League Trophy
Runners @-@ up : 1984
Watney Cup
Runners @-@ up : 1974
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= Andrew Simpson ( sailor ) =
Andrew James Simpson , MBE ( 17 December 1976 – 9 May 2013 ) , nicknamed " Bart " , was an English sailor . He won a gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , as crew for skipper Iain Percy in the Star class representing Great Britain . Simpson was killed in the capsize of the catamaran he was crewing on 9 May 2013 , while training for the America 's Cup in San Francisco Bay .
= = Career = =
Simpson started his competitive sailing career in the Laser class , before switching to the heavier Finn class . He claimed the bronze medal at the 2003 ISAF Sailing World Championships in Cadiz in the Finn class ; his training partner Ben Ainslie took the gold , with Great Britain topping the medal table .
Simpson then moved to the two @-@ man Star class , partnering lifelong friend Percy ; they won a bronze medal at the 2007 ISAF Sailing World Championships in Cascais to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics . The pair won the gold medal in Beijing in the Star class . After winning the Olympic gold , Percy and Simpson took a break from Star sailing and were in the TeamORIGIN afterguard for the 2010 America 's Cup . In 2010 , he and Percy won the Star World Championships in Rio de Janeiro .
Simpson and Percy made the podium in every meeting of the ISAF Sailing World Cup in 2012 , including gold at the Hyeres French World Cup regatta . They competed at the 2012 Olympic Games , again in the Star class , failing to defend their title despite being in the lead throughout the competition , but winning the silver medal . After the Star class was removed from the Olympic sailing disciplines , Simpson turned his attention to the America 's Cup , moving to San Francisco to train in March 2013 . He was known for his athleticism , and for his attention to detail in preparing the boat to obtain the best possible performance .
= = = Death = = =
Simpson was killed on 9 May 2013 , during training for the 34th America 's Cup , when the Swedish Artemis Racing team yacht he was aboard capsized near Treasure Island in San Francisco Bay . The yacht , a 72 @-@ foot catamaran with a rigid , wing @-@ like sail , was turning downwind and bearing away when it flipped over and broke into pieces . Simpson was trapped underneath its hulls for approximately ten minutes , and attempts to revive him by doctors afloat and subsequently ashore were unsuccessful . The cause of the accident is unknown . An investigation was initiated by the United States Coast Guard which involved San Francisco police and the America 's Cup management .
In the aftermath of the accident , safety concerns were raised over the new AC72 class of yachts which had been chosen to compete in the 2013 America 's Cup . This was the second accident involving the class ; in October 2012 an Oracle Team USA AC72 also capsized in San Francisco Bay during training , causing substantial damage but no serious injuries . Christopher Clarey , writing in The New York Times , described the class as " high @-@ speed and high @-@ risk . " Stephen Park , who heads the British Olympic sailing team , commented : " they 're very high powered and the loads on them are huge ... these boats are untrodden waters for sailing . A lot of the loads and a lot of the equipment is new and there are a lot of unknowns and things being tested . " Sailing journalist Stuart Alexander , writing in The Independent , stated that the AC72s are seen by some as " death traps . " Simpson is the third sailor to be killed during training for the America 's Cup . A steward was knocked overboard and drowned in 1935 , while Spanish sailor Martin Wizner died in 1999 , after being struck on the head by a piece of equipment that became detached . In early @-@ June 2013 , it was announced that the programme of events for the 2013 America 's Cup would be significantly reduced in response to Simpson 's death . Later that month , a review committee presented 37 proposed modifications to the event to an international jury which the committee deemed necessary to be fulfilled in order for the event to go ahead altogether .
John Derbyshire , performance director of the Royal Yachting Association , described Simpson as " a huge inspiration to others , both within the British Sailing Team and across the nation " . Other tributes were paid by fellow sailors Ainslie and Percy , Olympian sport shooter , Peter Wilson , British Olympic Association 's director of elite performance , Clive Woodward , and British Foreign Secretary , William Hague , amongst others . His funeral was held at Sherborne Abbey in his home town of Sherborne in Dorset .
= = Honours = =
Simpson was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 2009 New Year Honours .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Windlesham , Surrey in 1976 , where he lived and moved to Sherbourne . He first learned to sail aged four or five , while visiting his grandparents at Christchurch , Dorset , and later sailed in a Seafly dinghy with his father , Keith . His talent brought him to the notice of Jim Saltonstall , who coached him in the Royal Yachting Association youth squad . Simpson attended Pangbourne College , a mixed boarding school in Berkshire , which originated as a nautical college , coaching students in sailing , seamanship and navigation . He studied at University College London , gaining a degree in economics . In addition to sailing , he was a keen footballer .
Affectionately known as " Bart " , after the character Bart Simpson , from the American animated series of the same surname . Simpson was described as having " steely determination and focus " but being " diplomatic , softly spoken " . He is survived by his wife Leah and their two sons , Freddie and Hamish .
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= The Revenge ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Revenge " is the seventh episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld , and the show 's 12th episode overall . The story revolves around George Costanza 's ( Jason Alexander ) plot to exact revenge on his boss , with his friend Elaine Benes ' ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) help , after he quits his job at Rick Barr Properties and is refused re @-@ employment . Meanwhile , Jerry ( Jerry Seinfeld ) and his neighbor Kramer ( Michael Richards ) get even with a laundromat owner — who they believe has stolen money from Jerry — by pouring cement into one of his washing machines .
Written by series co @-@ creator Larry David and directed by Tom Cherones , the episode premiered in the United States on NBC on April 18 , 1991 . Largely based on David 's own experiences , " The Revenge " was the first episode he wrote without Seinfeld 's collaboration . The episode also contained the first mention of Newman , as a suicidal man who lives in Jerry and Kramer 's apartment building , who would later become a popular recurring character . As the episode is the first in which Kramer does physical comedy , some cast and crew members consider it a turning point for the show . When first broadcast in the United States , the episode gained a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 4 / 24 and was met with positive response from critics .
= = Plot = =
The episode relates three parallel plots , in intertwining scenes . The first plot concerns George being banned from the executive toilet . Because of this he quits his job , but immediately regrets the decision . He discusses job opportunities with Jerry , but is unable to think of an occupation that would suit him . Jerry suggests that George could try to go back to work and pretend he never quit . George takes this advice , but his former boss , Rick Levitan ( Fred Applegate ) , refuses to let him stay and insults him . As revenge , George decides to slip a Mickey Finn into his drink during an office party , and enlists Elaine Benes to help him . At the party , Elaine distracts Levitan while George puts the mickey in his drink . When Levitan notices George , however , he decides he was unreasonable and tells George he can have his job back . George attempts to intercept the drink , but after Levitan welcomes him back with a toast sprinkled with insults at George 's expense , he changes his mind . In the following scene we see George once again brainstorming job opportunity ideas , the subtext being that his boss discovered the spiking of his drink , connected it to George , and has fired him once again .
The second plot of the episode revolves around Jerry ; when he prepares to go to the laundromat , Kramer asks him to take his laundry with him . Jerry agrees after some reluctance , insisting that their clothes remain segregated . After retrieving the laundry the following day and returning Kramer 's portion , Jerry remembers that he had hidden a large sum of money in his laundry bag , but is unable to find it . The owner of the laundromat ( John Capodice ) , tells him that he did not see the money , but also points out that he is not responsible for valuables . Kramer and Jerry both assume Vic stole the money and Kramer comes up with a plan to put cement mix in one of Vic 's washing machines as revenge . Once they have acted out the plan , Kramer discovers that he had the money all along ; and it turns out to be just enough to cover the damage to the washing machine .
In a subplot , Kramer tells Jerry about his suicidal friend Newman who repeatedly threatens to kill himself by jumping off the apartment building . When he does jump , he jumps from the second floor and survives , much to Kramer 's amusement . At the end of the episode , Newman threatens to jump again , Kramer asks Newman if he wants to go shoot some pool with him , but Newman declines , stating that he has plans to go to the movies .
= = Production = =
" The Revenge " was written by series co @-@ creator Larry David and directed by Tom Cherones . All prior Seinfeld episodes were co @-@ written by Seinfeld and David . The Revenge is the first episode written by David alone , though Seinfeld did proofread the script and would continue to do so for all scripts up to the eighth season . George 's storyline in the episode is based on David 's own experiences while a writer at Saturday Night Live . David had quit SNL halfway through the 1984 @-@ 1985 television season , but felt he had made a mistake once he reached his home . His neighbor Kenny Kramer , who later served as the main inspiration for Kramer , suggested David return to work the following day and act as if nothing had happened . Unlike George Costanza , the ploy succeeded for David , who remained with SNL 's writing staff until the end of that season . George 's reason for quitting was inspired by Seinfeld writer Larry Charles ' use of the private restroom in Seinfeld and David 's office instead of the public one . The Newman sub plot was inspired by one of David 's neighbors , who once jumped from the second floor of the apartment building in which they both lived . The unseen character Mr. Papanickolas , who is mentioned by Kramer , was named after Pete Papanickolas , a member of the production crew .
" The Revenge " was first read by the cast of the show on February 13 , 1991 and was filmed in front of a live audience on February 20 , 1991 . Filming of the episode had been delayed two days due to President 's Day . Both Alexander and Louis @-@ Dreyfus praised the scene in which Jerry and George discuss the types of employment George could apply for after he quit his job . Louis @-@ Dreyfus stated she was jealous that she was not in the scene . A number of scenes in the episode were removed prior to broadcast , such as one in which George and Kramer meet in the hallway and Kramer informs George that Jerry has gone to the laundromat . The writers decided that George could just say Kramer told him Jerry was at the laundromat and , upon that addition , the scene was cut . Initially , during Jerry and George 's conversation about jobs , George mentions Regis Philbin , when they discuss George being a talk show host . Additional dialogue between George and Jerry at the laundromat was also removed . Because the episode " The Stranded " did not air until mid season three , the few references " The Revenge " contained to the episode , were cut . The Newman subplot was significantly reduced ; the character initially appeared in one scene , but it was never filmed . In that scene , he would have explained to Jerry and Kramer that he jumped from the roof , but an awning broke his fall , though Jerry and Kramer would remain skeptical . The episode also involved the second appearance of Harold the building superintendent , who had previously appeared in " The Apartment " . Harold would inform the main characters that Newman made up the story about the awning breaking his fall , though , with the reduction of the Newman subplot , the scene was removed .
The cast considered the episode a turning point for the show . As a method actor , Richards insisted on dumping a real bag of cement into the washing machine used on set , so that the proper physical reactions to such a heavy object would be present . Richards stated that at that point , " rather than talking funny , I wanted to do funny " . During the first take of the scene , Richards fell through a door , and it had to be filmed again . " The Revenge " is also the first episode in which the George and Elaine characters collaborate . Louis @-@ Dreyfus later stated that she and Alexander immediately had " some sort of shorthand with one another comedically , and [ she ] really relished that . "
Although Newman 's appearance was ultimately cut from the episode , auditions were held for the role ; Tim Russ , who would go on to star in Star Trek : Voyager , auditioned , as did William Thomas , Jr . , known for his appearance on The Cosby Show , who was cast in the part . Newman does share a brief dialogue with Kramer at the end of the episode , David recorded the lines , though he was not credited . The show 's writing staff did not intend to have the character return in any later seasons , but because the idea of having actor Wayne Knight as a neighbor appealed to them , they re @-@ cast Knight in the role of Newman for the season 3 episode " The Suicide " . Afterwards , Knight re @-@ recorded Newman 's lines for the syndicated version of this episode to establish better continuity . Both Knight 's and David 's dialogue were included on the Seinfeld : Volume 1 DVD boxset . Additionally , Fred Applegate guest @-@ starred as George 's boss and John Capodice portrayed Vic , the laundromat owner . Deck McKenzie , who worked as Seinfeld 's stand @-@ in , portrayed George 's colleague Bill . Teri Austin portrayed Ava , a co @-@ worker of George 's ; she would appear again later in " The Stranded " , which was filmed as part of season two , but aired as part of season three . Patrika Darbo , who played George 's co @-@ worker Glenda , would reappear later in the season five episode " The Sniffing Accountant " as a woman Newman flirts with .
= = Reception = =
First broadcast in the United States on NBC on April 18 , 1991 , Nielsen Media Research estimated that the episode gained a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 4 and an audience share of 24 . This means that 14 @.@ 4 % of American households watched the episode , and that 24 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . Seinfeld was the 15th most @-@ watched program of the week it was broadcast in , and the sixth most @-@ watched program broadcast on NBC . Entertainment Weekly reviewers Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling gave the episode a mixed review and graded it with a C , stating " Although neat for its parallel plotting and George 's hilariously clueless career chats with Jerry , ' The Revenge ' is not so sweet " . IGN critic Andy Patrizio considered " The Revenge " one of his personal favorites of season two . The scene in which Kramer struggles to put cement in one of the washing machines has gained positive responses from critics . Margery Eagan of The Boston Globe cited the scene as a perfect example of Kramer 's personality . Neal Justin of the Minneapolis Star @-@ Tribune also considers the scene to be one of the show 's " classic moments " . Daily News of Los Angeles critic Jody Leader also praised Seinfeld for how he distracted Vic in the scene .
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= Iowa @-@ class battleship =
The Iowa @-@ class battleships were a class of fast battleships ordered by the United States Navy in 1939 and 1940 to escort the Fast Carrier Task Forces that would operate in the Pacific Theater of World War II . Four were completed ; two more were laid down but canceled at war 's end and scrapped . Like other third @-@ generation American battleships , the Iowa class followed the design pattern set forth in the preceding North Carolina @-@ class and South Dakota @-@ class battleships , which emphasized speed in addition to secondary and anti @-@ aircraft batteries .
Between the mid @-@ 1940s and the early 1990s , the Iowa @-@ class battleships fought in four major U.S. wars . In World War II , they defended aircraft carriers and shelled Japanese positions . During the Korean War , the battleships provided seaborne artillery support for United Nations forces fighting North Korea , and in 1968 , New Jersey shelled Viet Cong and Vietnam People 's Army forces in the Vietnam War . All four were reactivated and armed with missiles during the 1980s as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy initiative ; during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 , Missouri and Wisconsin fired missiles and 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns at Iraqi targets .
Costly to maintain , the battleships were decommissioned during the post @-@ Cold War draw down in the early 1990s . All four were initially removed from the Naval Vessel Register ; however , the United States Congress compelled the Navy to reinstate two of them on the grounds that existing naval gunfire support would be inadequate for amphibious operations . This resulted in a lengthy debate over whether battleships should have a role in the modern navy . Ultimately , all four ships were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and released for donation to non @-@ profit organizations . With the transfer of Iowa in 2012 , all four are part of various non @-@ profit maritime museums across the U.S.
= = Background = =
Work on what would eventually become the Iowa @-@ class battleships began on the first study in early 1938 at the direction of Admiral Thomas C. Hart , head of the General Board . It was an expanded South Dakota , carrying either twelve 16 @-@ inch / 45 caliber Mark 6 guns or nine 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) guns — the latter armament being dropped after the 31 March agreement — with more armor and a power plant large enough to drive the larger ship through the water at the same speed as the South Dakotas , 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . These studies had no further impact on the design of the Iowa class , but development of this design continued and eventually evolved into the design for the Montana class .
Another design , pursued by the Design Division section of the Bureau of Construction and Repair , was a " cruiser @-@ killer " . Beginning on 17 January 1938 under Captain A. J. Chantry , the group drew up plans for ships with twelve 16 @-@ inch and twenty 5 @-@ inch guns , Panamax capability but otherwise unlimited displacement , a top speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) and a range of 20 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) when traveling at the more economical speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their plan fulfilled these requirements with a ship of 50 @,@ 940 long tons ( 51 @,@ 760 t ) , but Chantry believed that more could be done if the ship were to be this large ; with a displacement greater than that of most battleships , its armor would only have protected it against the 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) weapons carried by heavy cruisers .
Three improved plans — " A " , " B " , and " C " — were designed at the end of January . An increase in draft , vast additions to the armor , and the substitution of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns in the secondary battery was common between the three designs . " A " was the largest , at 59 @,@ 060 long tons ( 60 @,@ 010 t ) , and was the only one to still carry the twelve 16 @-@ inch guns in four triple turrets ( 3 @-@ gun turrets according to U.S. Navy ) . It required 277 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) to make 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 mph ) . " B " was the smallest at 52 @,@ 707 long tons ( 53 @,@ 553 t ) ; like " A " it had a top speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots , but " B " only required 225 @,@ 000 shp to make this speed . It also carried only nine 16 @-@ inch guns , in three triple turrets . " C " was similar but it added 75 @,@ 000 shp ( for a total of 300 @,@ 000 shp ) , to make the original requirement of 35 knots . The weight required for this and a longer belt — 512 feet ( 156 m ) , compared with 496 feet ( 151 m ) for " B " — meant that the ship was 55 @,@ 771 long tons ( 56 @,@ 666 t ) .
In March 1938 , the General Board followed the recommendations of the Battleship Design Advisory Board , which was composed of the naval architect William Francis Gibbs , William Hovgaard ( then president of New York Shipbuilding ) , John Metten , Joseph W. Powell , and the long @-@ retired Admiral and former Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance Joseph Strauss . The board requested an entirely new design study , focusing on increasing the size of the 35 @,@ 000 ton South Dakota class . The first plans made for this indicated that 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) was possible on a displacement of about 37 @,@ 600 long tons ( 38 @,@ 200 t ) . 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) could be bought with 220 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower and a displacement of around 39 @,@ 230 long tons ( 39 @,@ 860 t ) , which was well below the Second London Naval Treaty 's maximum limit of 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) .
These designs were able to convince the General Board that a reasonably well @-@ designed and balanced 33 @-@ knot ( 61 km / h ) battleship was possible within the terms of the " escalator clause " . However , further studies revealed major problems with the estimates . The speed of the ships meant that more freeboard would be needed both fore and amidships , the latter requiring an additional foot of armored freeboard . Along with this came the associated weight in supporting these new strains : the structure of the ship had to be reinforced and the power plant enlarged to avoid a drop in speed . In all , about 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 400 t ) had to be added , and the large margin the navy designers had previously thought they had — roughly 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) — was suddenly vanishing .
With the additional displacement , the General Board was incredulous that a tonnage increase of 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) would only allow the addition of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) s over the South Dakotas . Rather than retaining the 16 " / 45 caliber Mark 6 gun used in the South Dakotas , they ordered that future studies would have to include the more powerful ( but heavier ) 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 2 guns left over from the canceled Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers and South Dakota @-@ class battleships of the early 1920s . It also allowed the draft of the ships to be increased , meaning that the ships could be shortened ( lowering weight ) and the power reduced ( since a narrower beam reduces drag ) .
The 50 @-@ caliber gun weighed some 400 long tons ( 410 t ) more than the 45 caliber did ; the barbette size also had to be increased so the total weight gain was about 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) , putting the ship at a total of 46 @,@ 551 long tons ( 47 @,@ 298 t ) — well over the 45 @,@ 000 long ton limit . An apparent savior appeared in a Bureau of Ordnance preliminary design for a turret that could carry the 50 caliber guns in a smaller barbette . This breakthrough was shown to the General Board as part of a series of designs on 2 June 1938 .
However , the Bureau of Ordnance continued working on a larger barbette design , while the Bureau of Construction and Repair utilized the smaller barbettes in the final planning of the new battleships . As the bureaus were independent of one another , they did not realize that the two plans could not go together until November 1938 , when the design was in the final stages of refinement . By this time , the ships could not use the larger barbette , as it would require massive alterations to the design and would result in substantial weight penalties . The General Board was astounded ; one member asked the head of the Bureau of Ordnance if it had occurred to him that Construction and Repair would have wanted to know what turret his subordinates were working on " as a matter of common sense " . A complete scrapping of plans was only avoided when designers within the Bureau of Ordnance were able to design a new 50 @-@ caliber gun , the Mark 7 , that was both lighter and smaller in outside diameter ; this allowed it to be placed in a turret that would fit in the smaller barbette . The redesigned 3 @-@ gun turret , equipped as it was with the Mark 7 naval gun , provided an overall weight saving of nearly 850 long tons ( 860 t ) to the overall design of the Iowa class .
In May 1938 the United States Congress passed the Second Vinson Act which " mandated a 20 % increase in strength of the United States Navy " . The act was sponsored by Carl Vinson , a Democratic Congressman from Georgia who was Chairman of the House Naval Affairs and Armed Services Committee . The Second Vinson Act updated the provisions of the Vinson @-@ Trammell Act of 1934 and the Naval Act ( 1936 ) , which had " authorized the construction of the first American battleships in 17 years " , based on the provisions of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 ; this act provided the funding to build the Iowa class . Each ship cost approximately US $ 100 million .
As 1938 drew to a close the design of the Iowas was nearly complete , but it would continuously evolve as the battleships were under construction . These revisions included changing the design of the foremast , replacing the original 1 @.@ 1 " / 75 @-@ caliber guns that were to be used for anti @-@ aircraft work with 20 mm and 40 mm guns , and moving the combat information center into the armored hull . Additionally , in November 1939 the New York Navy Yard greatly modified the internal subdivision of the machinery rooms , as tests had shown the underwater protection in these rooms to be inadequate . The result of this was clearly beneficial : " The prospective effect of flooding was roughly halved and the number of uptakes and hence of openings in the third deck greatly reduced . " Although the changes meant extra weight and added 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) to the beam , this was no longer a major issue ; the United Kingdom and France had renounced the Second London Naval Treaty soon after the beginning of the Second World War .
= = Design = =
= = = Armor = = =
Like all battleships , the Iowas carried heavy armor protection against shellfire and bombs with significant underwater protection against torpedoes . The Iowas ' armor scheme was modeled on that of the preceding South Dakota class , and designed to give a zone of immunity against fire from 16 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber guns between 18 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 and 27 @,@ 000 m ) away . The magazines and engine rooms were protected by an armored belt 12 @.@ 2 inches ( 310 mm ) thick , which sloped to give an effective vertical thickness of 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 340 mm ) . Their armor was not sufficient to protect against guns equivalent to their own 16 @-@ inch / 50 @-@ caliber guns ; increasing the armor would have increased weight and reduced speed . Missouri and Wisconsin incorporated the most significant change in armor from the South Dakota class : the increase from 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 290 mm ) to 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 370 mm ) of the vertical armor on the forward armored bulkhead , the conning tower , and the turret barbettes . The extra armor provided protection from fire directly ahead , which was considered more likely given the high speed of the Iowa class . The installation of armor on the Iowa @-@ class battleships also differed from those of earlier battleships in that the armor was installed while the ships were still " on the way " rather than after the ships had been launched .
The Iowa @-@ class torpedo defense was virtually the same as the South Dakota 's . Each side of the ship was protected below the waterline by two tanks mounted outside the belt armor , and separated by a bulkhead . These tanks were initially planned to be empty , but in practice were filled with water or fuel oil . The armored belt tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 100 mm ) below the waterline . Behind the armored belt there was a void , and then another bulkhead . The outer hull was intended to detonate a torpedo , with the outer two compartments absorbing the shock and with any splinters or debris being stopped by the armored belt and the empty compartment behind it . In 1939 the Navy discovered that this system was considerably less effective than earlier torpedo defense systems , but by then it was too late to change the design . Based on hard @-@ learned lessons in the Pacific theater concerns were also raised over the ability of the armor on these battleships to withstand the effects of aerial bombing , but at the time these concerns surfaced nothing could be done to adequately address the problem .
= = = Armament = = =
The primary guns used on these battleships are the nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 50 @-@ caliber Mark 7 naval guns , a compromise design developed to fit inside the barbettes . These guns fire explosive – and armor @-@ piercing shells , and can fire a 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shell approximately 23 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 40 km ) . The guns are housed in three 3 @-@ gun turrets : two forward and one aft , in a configuration known as " 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 " . The guns are 66 feet ( 20 m ) long ( 50 times their 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) bore , or 50 calibers from breechface to muzzle ) . About 43 feet ( 13 m ) protrudes from the gun house . Each gun weighs about 239 @,@ 000 pounds ( 108 @,@ 000 kg ) without the breech , or 267 @,@ 900 pounds ( 121 @,@ 500 kg ) with the breech . They fire projectiles weighing from 1 @,@ 900 to 2 @,@ 700 pounds ( 850 to 1 @,@ 200 kg ) at a maximum speed of 2 @,@ 960 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) up to 20 miles ( 32 km ) . At maximum range , the projectile spends almost 1 ½ minutes in flight . The maximum firing rate for each gun is two rounds per minute .
Each gun rests within an armored turret , but only the top of the turret protrudes above the main deck . The turret extends either four decks ( Turrets 1 and 3 ) or five decks ( Turret 2 ) down . The lower spaces contain rooms for handling the projectiles and storing the powder bags used to fire them . Each turret required a crew of between 85 and 110 men to operate . The original cost for each turret was US $ 1 @.@ 4 million , but this figure does not take into account the cost of the guns themselves . The turrets are " three @-@ gun " , not " triple " , because each barrel can be elevated independently ; they can also be fired independently . The ship could fire any combination of its guns , including a broadside of all nine .
The large @-@ caliber guns were designed to fire two different conventional 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shells : the armor @-@ piercing Mk . 8 round for anti @-@ ship and anti @-@ structure work , and the Mk . 13 high @-@ explosive round designed for use against unarmored targets and shore bombardment . Interestingly , when firing the same conventional shell , the 16 " / 45 caliber Mark 6 gun used by the fast battleships of the North Carolina and South Dakota classes had a slight advantage over the 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 7 gun when hitting deck armor — a shell from a 45 cal gun would be slower , meaning that it would have a steeper trajectory as it descended . At 35 @,@ 000 yards ( 20 mi ; 32 km ) , a shell from a 45 cal would strike a ship at an angle of 45 @.@ 2 degrees , as opposed to 36 degrees with the 50 cal . The Mark 7 had a greater maximum range over the Mark 6 : 23 @.@ 64 miles ( 38 @.@ 04 km ) vs 22 @.@ 829 miles ( 36 @.@ 740 km ) .
In the 1950s , the W23 , an adaptation of the W19 nuclear artillery shell was developed specifically for the 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns . The shell had an estimated yield of 15 to 20 kilotons of TNT ( 63 @,@ 000 to 84 @,@ 000 GJ ) , and its introduction made the Iowa @-@ class battleship 's 16 in guns the world 's largest nuclear artillery , and made these four battleships the only U.S. Navy ships ever to have nuclear shells for naval guns . Although developed for exclusive use by the battleship 's guns it is not known if any of the Iowa @-@ class battleships actually carried these shells while in active service due to the United States Navy 's policy of refusing to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weaponry aboard its ships . In 1991 the United States unilaterally withdrew all of its nuclear artillery shells from service , and dismantling of the U.S. nuclear artillery inventory is said to have been completed in 2004 .
The Iowas carried ten twin enclosed base ring mounts supporting 5 in / 38 caliber Mark 28 Mod 0 guns . Originally designed to be mounted upon destroyers built in the 1930s , these guns were so successful that they were added to many American ships during the Second World War , including every major ship type and many smaller warships constructed between 1934 and 1945 . They were considered to be " highly reliable , robust and accurate " by the Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance .
Each 5 in / 38 gun weighed almost 4 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 800 kg ) without the breech ; the entire mount weighed 156 @,@ 295 pounds ( 70 @,@ 894 kg ) . It was 223 @.@ 8 inches ( 5 @,@ 680 mm ) long overall , had a bore length of 190 inches ( 4 @,@ 800 mm ) and a rifling length of 157 @.@ 2 inches ( 3 @,@ 990 mm ) . The gun could fire shells at about 2 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 762 – 792 m / s ) ; about 4 @,@ 600 could be fired before the barrel needed to be replaced . Minimum and maximum elevations were − 15 and 85 degrees respectively . The guns ' elevation could be raised or lowered at about 15 degrees per second . The mounts closest to the bow and stern could aim from − 150 to 150 degrees ; the others were restricted to − 80 to 80 degrees . They could be turned at about 25 degrees per second .
The 5 in / 38 cannon functioned as a dual purpose gun ; that is , it was able to fire at both surface and air targets with a reasonable degree of success . However , this did not mean that it possessed inferior anti @-@ air abilities . As proven during 1941 gunnery tests conducted aboard North Carolina the gun could consistently shoot down aircraft flying at 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 5 mi ; 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 0 km ) , twice the effective range of the earlier single purpose 5 " / 25 caliber anti @-@ air gun . As Japanese airplanes became faster , the gun lost some of its effectiveness in the anti @-@ aircraft role ; however , toward the end of the war its usefulness as an anti @-@ aircraft weapon increased again because of an upgrade to the Mark 37 Fire Control System and proximity @-@ fused shells .
The 5 in / 38 gun would remain on the battleships for the ships ' entire service life ; however , the total number of guns and gun mounts was reduced from 20 guns in ten mounts to 12 guns in 6 mounts during the 1980s ' modernization of the four Iowas . The removal of four of the gun mounts was required for the battleships to be outfitted with the armored box launchers needed to carry and fire Tomahawk missiles . At the time of the 1991 Persian Gulf War , these guns had been largely relegated to littoral defense for the battleships . Since each battleship carried a small detachment of Marines aboard , the Marines would man one of the 5 in gun mounts .
At the time of their commissioning , all four of the Iowa @-@ class battleships were equipped with 20 quad 40 mm mounts and 49 single 20 mm mounts .
The Oerlikon 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun , one of the most heavily produced anti @-@ aircraft guns of the Second World War , entered service in 1941 and replaced the 0 @.@ 50 " / 90 ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning MG on a one @-@ for @-@ one basis . Between December 1941 and September 1944 , 32 % of all Japanese aircraft downed were credited to this weapon , with the high point being 48 @.@ 3 % for the second half of 1942 ; however , the 20 mm guns were found to be ineffective against the Japanese Kamikaze attacks used during the latter half of World War II and were subsequently phased out in favor of the heavier 40 mm Bofors AA guns .
When the Iowa @-@ class battleships were commissioned in 1943 and 1944 they carried twenty quad Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun mounts , which they used for defense against enemy aircraft . These heavy guns were also employed in the protection of allied aircraft carriers operating in the Pacific Theater of World War II , and accounted for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945 . Although successful in this role , the guns were stripped from the battleships — initially from New Jersey when reactivated in 1968 and later from Iowa , Missouri , and Wisconsin when they were reactivated for service in the 1980s .
= = = Propulsion and size = = =
When the Second Vinson Act was passed by the United States Congress in 1938 , the U.S. Navy moved quickly to develop a 45 @,@ 000 @-@ ton battleship that would pass through the 110 ft ( 34 m ) wide Panama Canal . Drawing on a 1935 empirical formula for predicting a ship 's maximum speed based on scale @-@ model studies in flumes of various hull forms and propellers and a newly developed empirical theorem that related waterline length to maximum beam , the Navy drafted plans for a battleship class with a maximum beam of 108 ft ( 33 m ) which , when multiplied by 7 @.@ 96 , produced a waterline length of 860 ft ( 262 m ) — permitting a maximum speed of 34 @.@ 9 knots ( 64 @.@ 6 km / h ) . The Navy also called for the class to have a lengthened forecastle and amidship , which would increase speed , and a bulbous bow . The Iowas were to be outfitted with four screws : the outer pair consisting of two four @-@ bladed propellers roughly 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter and the inboard screws that have five blades and are roughly 17 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) in diameter . The propeller designs were adopted after earlier testing had determined that propeller cavitation caused a drop in efficiency at speeds over 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) . The engineering plant on Iowa and Missouri consisted of four General Electric cross @-@ compound steam turbine engines , each driving a single shaft . The equivalent machinery on New Jersey and Wisconsin was provided by Westinghouse .
Four fire rooms contained eight Babcock & Wilcox M @-@ Type boilers operating at 600 pounds per square inch ( 4 @,@ 137 kPa ; 42 kgf / cm2 ) with a maximum superheater outlet temperature of 875 ° F ( 468 ° C ) . Steam was normally transmitted to four engine rooms numbered 1 to 4 . Each engine room was aft of its associated fire room . In normal steaming four boilers were operated ; this was sufficient to power the ships at speeds up to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . For higher speeds , all eight boilers were lit .
Electricity drove many systems aboard ship , including rotating the turrets and elevating the guns . Each of the four engine rooms had a pair of Ship 's Service Turbine Generators ( SSTGs ) manufactured by Westinghouse . Each SSTG generated 1 @.@ 25 MW for a total of 10 MW of electricity . The SSTGs were powered by steam from the same boilers that fed the engines . To allow battle @-@ damaged electrical circuits to be repaired or bypassed , the lower decks of the ship had a Casualty Power System whose large three @-@ wire cables and wall outlets ( called " biscuits " ) could be used to re @-@ route power .
= = Aircraft ( 1943 – 1969 ) = =
When they were commissioned during World War II , the Iowa @-@ class battleships came equipped with two aircraft catapults designed to launch floatplanes . Initially , the Iowas carried the Vought OS2U Kingfisher and Curtiss SC Seahawk , both of which were employed to spot for the battleship 's main gun batteries — and , in a secondary capacity , perform search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions .
By the time of the Korean War , helicopters had replaced floatplanes and the Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 helicopter was employed . In time , the newer UH @-@ 1 Iroquois , SH @-@ 2 Seasprites , CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight , CH @-@ 53 Sea Stallion and the SH @-@ 60B Seahawk LAMPS III would serve aboard the battleships . In addition , New Jersey made use of the Gyrodyne QH @-@ 50 DASH drone for her Vietnam war deployment in 1968 – 1969 .
= = Conversion proposals = =
The Iowa class were the only battleships with the speed required for post @-@ war operations based around fast aircraft carrier task forces . There were a number of proposals in the early Cold War to convert the class to take into account changes in technology and doctrine . These included plans to equip the class with nuclear missiles , add aircraft capability and — in the case of Illinois and Kentucky — a proposal to rebuild both as aircraft carriers instead of battleships .
Initially , the Iowa class was to consist of only four battleships : Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , and Wisconsin . However , changing priorities during World War II resulted in the battleships Montana and Ohio being reordered as Illinois and Kentucky respectively . At the time these two battleships were to be built a proposal was put forth to have them constructed as aircraft carriers rather than fast battleships . The plan called for the ships to be rebuilt to include a flight deck and an armament suite similar to that placed aboard the Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers that were at the time under construction in the United States . Ultimately , nothing came of the design proposal to rebuild these two ships as aircraft carriers and they were cleared for construction as fast battleships to conform to the Iowa @-@ class design , though they differed from the earlier four that were built . Eventually , the Cleveland @-@ class light cruisers were selected for the aircraft @-@ carrier conversion . Nine of these light cruisers would be rebuilt as Independence @-@ class light aircraft carriers .
After the surrender of the Empire of Japan , construction on Illinois and Kentucky stopped . Illinois was eventually scrapped , but Kentucky 's construction had advanced enough that several plans were proposed to complete Kentucky as a guided missile battleship ( BBG ) by removing the aft turret and installing a missile system . A similar conversion had already been performed on the battleship Mississippi ( BB @-@ 41 / AG @-@ 128 ) to test the RIM @-@ 2 Terrier missile after World War II . One such proposal came from Rear Admiral W. K. Mendenhall , Chairman of the Ship [ s ] Characteristics Board ( SCB ) ; Mendehall proposed a plan that called for $ 15 – $ 30 million to be spent to allow Kentucky to be completed as a guided @-@ missile battleship ( BBG ) carrying eight SSM @-@ N @-@ 8 Regulus II guided missiles with a range of 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) . He also suggested Terrier or RIM @-@ 8 Talos launchers to supplement the AA guns and proposed nuclear ( instead of conventional ) shells for the 16 @-@ inch guns . This never materialized , and Kentucky was ultimately sold for scrap in 1958 , although her bow was used to repair her sister Wisconsin after a collision .
In 1954 the Long Range Objectives Group of the United States Navy suggested converting the Iowa @-@ class ships to BBGs . In 1958 the Bureau of Ships offered a proposal based on this idea . This replaced the 5 @-@ inch and 16 @-@ inch gun batteries with " two Talos twin missile systems , two RIM @-@ 24 Tartar twin missile systems , an RUR @-@ 5 ASROC antisubmarine missile launcher , and a Regulus II installation with four missiles " , as well as flagship facilities , sonar , helicopters , and fire @-@ control systems for the Talos and Tartar missiles . In addition to these upgrades , 8 @,@ 600 additional [ long ] tons of fuel oil was also suggested to serve in part as ballast for the battleships and for use in refueling destroyers and cruisers . Due to the estimated cost of the overhaul ( $ 178 – $ 193 million ) this proposal was rejected as too expensive ; instead , the SCB suggested a design with one Talos , one Tartar , one ASROC and two Regulus launchers and changes to the superstructure , at a cost of up to $ 85 million . This design was later revised to accommodate the Polaris Fleet Ballistic Missile , which in turn resulted in a study of two schemes by the SCB . In the end , none of these proposed conversions for the battleships were ever authorized . Interest in converting the Iowa @-@ class battleships into guided @-@ missile battleships began to deteriorate in 1960 , because the hulls were considered too old and the conversion costs too high . Nonetheless , additional conversion proposals — including one to install the AN / SPY @-@ 1 Aegis Combat System radar on the battleships — were suggested in 1962 , 1974 and 1977 but as before , these proposals failed to gain the needed authorization . This was due , in part , to the fact that sensitive electronics within 200 ft of any 16 @-@ inch gun muzzle were likely to be damaged .
= = 1980s refit = =
In 1980 , Ronald Reagan was elected President , with a plan to rebuild the U.S. military as a counter to the increasing military power of the Soviet Union as one of his benchmark commitments . At the time , the Soviet Navy was in the process of commissioning a class of missile cruiser the like of which had not been seen for decades – the Kirov class was the largest type of surface warship ( other than aircraft carriers or amphibious assault vessels ) built since World War II , and the Americans had not envisioned building anything like it . As a consequence , as part of Reagan 's 600 @-@ ship Navy policy and to act as a counter to the Kirov class , the U.S. Navy began the process of reactivating the four Iowa @-@ class units and modernizing them for service in the 1980s .
During this reactivation , the Navy considered several concepts entailing removal of the aft 16 @-@ inch turret . Martin Marietta proposed to replace the turret with servicing facilities for 12 AV @-@ 8B Harrier STOVL jumpjets . Charles Myers proposed replacement of the turret with vertical launch systems for missiles and a flight deck for Marine helicopters . Naval Institute Proceedings proposed a canted flight deck ( complete with a steam catapult ) and arrestor wires to operate F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters . Plans for these conversions were dropped in 1984 , but each battleship was overhauled to burn navy distillate fuel and modernized to carry electronic warfare suites , close @-@ in weapon systems ( CIWS ) for self @-@ defense , and missiles . It was determined that the total cost of reactivating and modernising one battleship was roughly the same as the cost of building a new Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigate .
After recommissioning , the modernized battleships operated as centerpieces of their own battle group ( termed as a Battleship Battle Group or Surface Action Group ) , consisting of one Ticonderoga @-@ class cruiser , one Kidd @-@ class destroyer or Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer , one Spruance @-@ class destroyer , three Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigates and one support ship , such as a fleet oiler .
= = = Armament = = =
During their modernization in the 1980s each Iowa @-@ class battleship was equipped with four of the US Navy 's Phalanx CIWS mounts , two of which sat just behind the bridge and two which were next to the after ship 's funnel . Iowa , New Jersey , and Missouri were equipped with the Block 0 version of the Phalanx , while Wisconsin received the first operational Block 1 version in 1988 . The Phalanx system is intended to serve as a last line of defense against enemy missiles and aircraft , and when activated can engage a target with a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M61 Vulcan 6 @-@ barreled Gatling cannon at a distance of approximately 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) .
As part of their modernization in the 1980s , each of the Iowa @-@ class battleships received a complement of Armored Box Launchers and " shock hardened " Mk . 141 quad cell launchers . The former was used by the battleships to carry and fire the BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missiles ( TLAMs ) for use against enemy targets on land , while the latter system enabled the ships to carry a complement of RGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles for use against enemy ships . With an estimated range of 675 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 250 km ; 777 mi ) to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) for the Tomahawk missile and 64 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 119 @.@ 5 km ; 74 @.@ 2 mi ) to 85 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 158 @.@ 3 km ; 98 @.@ 4 mi ) for the Harpoon missile system , these two missile systems displaced the sixteen @-@ inch guns and their maximum range of 42 @,@ 345 yards ( 38 @,@ 720 m ) ( 24 @.@ 06 mi ) to become the longest @-@ ranged weapons on the battleships during the 1980s . It has been alleged by members of the environmental group Greenpeace that the battleships carried the TLAM @-@ A ( also cited , incorrectly , as the TLAM @-@ N ) — a Tomahawk missile with a variable yield W80 nuclear warhead — during their 1980s service with the United States Navy , but owing to the United States Navy 's policy of refusing to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weaponry aboard its ships , these claims can not be conclusively proved . Between 2010 and 2013 , the U.S. withdrew the BGM @-@ 109A , leaving only conventional munitions packages for its Tomahawk Missile inventory .
Owing to the original 1938 design of the battleships , the Tomahawk missiles could not be fitted to the Iowa class unless the battleships were rebuilt in such a way as to accommodate the missile mounts that would be needed to store and launch the Tomahawks . This realization prompted the removal of the anti @-@ aircraft guns previously installed on the Iowas and the removal of four of each of the battleships ' ten 5 " / 38 DP mounts . The mid and aft end of the battleships were then rebuilt to accommodate the missile magazines . At one point , the NATO Sea Sparrow was to be installed on the reactivated battleships ; however , it was determined that the system could not withstand the overpressure effects from firing the main battery . To supplement the anti @-@ aircraft capabilities of the Iowas , five FIM @-@ 92 Stinger surface @-@ to @-@ air missile firing positions were installed . These secured the shoulder @-@ launched weapons and their rounds for ready use by the crew .
= = = Electronics = = =
The earliest search radars installed were the SK air @-@ search radar and SG surface @-@ search radar during World War II . They were located on the mainmast and forward fire @-@ control tower of the battleships , respectively . As the war drew to a close , the United States introduced the SK @-@ 2 air @-@ search radar and SG surface @-@ search radar ; the Iowa class was updated to make use of these systems between 1945 and 1952 . At the same time , the ships ' radar systems were augmented with the installation of the SP height finder on the main mast . In 1952 , AN / SPS @-@ 10 surface @-@ search radar and AN / SPS @-@ 6 air @-@ search radar replaced the SK and SG radar systems , respectively . Two years later the SP height finder was replaced by the AN / SPS @-@ 8 height finder , which was installed on the main mast of the battleships . During their brief period of activity under the 600 @-@ ship Navy program , the battleships ' radar systems were again upgraded . The AN / SPS @-@ 6 air @-@ search radar system was replaced with the AN / SPS @-@ 49 radar set ( which also augmented the existing navigation capabilities on the battleships ) , and the AN / SPS @-@ 8 ground @-@ search radar set was replaced by the AN / SPS @-@ 67 search radar .
In addition to these search and navigational radars , the Iowa class were also outfitted with a variety of fire control systems for their gun systems , and later for their missile systems . Beginning with their commissioning , the battleships made use of a trio of Mk 38 gun fire control systems to direct the 16 @-@ inch guns and a quartet of Mk 37 gun fire control systems to direct the 5 in gun batteries . These systems were upgraded over time , but remained the cornerstones of the combat radar systems on the Iowa class during their careers . The range estimation of these gunfire control systems provided a significant accuracy advantage over earlier ships with optical rangefinders ; this was demonstrated off Truk Atoll on 16 February 1944 when Iowa engaged the Japanese destroyer Nowaki at a range of 35 @,@ 700 yards ( 32 @.@ 6 km ) and straddled her , setting the record for the longest @-@ ranged straddle in history .
Initially , the battleships made use of a mass collection of 20 mm and 40 mm guns for anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) operations ; these guns were respectively augmented with the Mk 14 range sight and Mk 51 fire control system to improve accuracy . By the Korean War , jet engines had replaced propellers on aircraft , which severely limited the ability of the AA batteries and their gun systems to track and shoot down enemy planes . Consequently , the AA guns and their associated fire @-@ control systems were removed when reactivated . New Jersey received this treatment in 1967 , and the others followed in their 1980s modernizations . In the 1980s , each ship also received a quartet of Phalanx Close in Weapon System ( CIWS ) mounts which made use of a radar system to locate incoming enemy projectiles and destroy them with a 20 mm Gatling gun before they could strike the ship .
With the added missile capacity of the battleships in the 1980s came additional fire @-@ support systems to launch and guide the ordnance . To fire the Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles , the battleships were equipped with the SWG @-@ 1 fire @-@ control system , and to fire the Tomahawk missiles the battleships used either the SWG @-@ 2 or SWG @-@ 3 fire @-@ control system . In addition to these offensive @-@ weapon systems , the battleships were outfitted with the AN / SLQ @-@ 25 Nixie to be used as a lure against enemy torpedoes , an SLQ @-@ 32 electronic warfare system that can detect , jam , and deceive an opponent 's radar and a Mark 36 SRBOC system to fire chaff rockets intended to confuse enemy missiles .
Aside from the electronics added for weaponry control , all four battleships were outfitted with a communications suite used by both cruisers and guided missile cruisers in service at the time . This communication suite included the OE @-@ 82 antenna for satellite communications , but did not include the Naval Tactical Data System .
= = = Aircraft ( 1982 – 1992 ) = = =
During the 1980s these battleships made use of the RQ @-@ 2 Pioneer , an unmanned aerial vehicle employed in spotting for the guns . Launched from the fantail using a rocket @-@ assist booster that was discarded shortly after takeoff , the Pioneer carried a video camera in a pod under the belly of the aircraft which transmitted live video to the ship so operators could observe enemy actions or fall of shot during naval gunnery . To land the UAV a large net was deployed at the back of the ship ; the aircraft was flown into it . Missouri and Wisconsin both used the Pioneer UAVs successfully during Operation Desert Storm , and in one particularly memorable incident , a Pioneer UAV operated by Wisconsin received the surrender of Iraqi troops during combat operations . This particular Pioneer was later donated to the Smithsonian Institution , and is now on public display . During Operation Desert Storm these Pioneers were operated by detachments of VC @-@ 6 . In addition to the Pioneer UAVs , the recommissioned Iowas could support six types of helicopters : the Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 , UH @-@ 1 Iroquois , SH @-@ 2 Seasprites , CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight , CH @-@ 53 Sea Stallion and the LAMPS III SH @-@ 60B Seahawk .
= = Gunfire support role = =
Following the 1991 Gulf War and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union , the United States Navy began to decommission and mothball many of the ships it had brought out of its reserve fleet in the drive to attain a 600 @-@ ship Navy . At the height of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman 's 600 @-@ ship Navy plan , nearly 600 ships of all types were active within the Navy . This included fifteen aircraft carriers , four battleships and over 100 submarines , along with various other types of ships the overall plan specified . When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 the Navy sought to return to its traditional , 313 @-@ ship composition . While reducing the fleet created under the 600 @-@ ship Navy program , the decision was made to deactivate the four recommissioned Iowa @-@ class battleships and return them to the reserve fleet .
In 1995 , the decommissioned battleships were removed from the Naval Vessel Register ( NVR ) after it was determined by ranking US Navy officials that there was no place for a battleship in the modern navy . In response to the striking of the battleships from the Naval Vessel Register a movement began to reinstate the battleships , on the grounds that these vessels had superior firepower over the then @-@ existing 5 in guns found on the Spruance @-@ class destroyers , Kidd @-@ class destroyers , Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyers , and Ticonderoga @-@ class cruisers . Citing concern over the lack of available gunfire to support amphibious operations , Congress demanded that the United States Navy reinstate two battleships to the naval vessel register and maintain them with the mothball fleet , until the Navy could certify it had gunfire support within the current fleet that would meet or exceed the battleship 's capability .
The debate over battleships in the modern navy continued until 2006 , when the two reinstated battleships were stricken after naval officials submitted a two @-@ part plan that called for the near @-@ term goal of increasing the range of the guns currently in use on the Flight I Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyers with specially designed ammunition intended to allow a five @-@ inch projectile fired from these guns to travel an estimated 40 nautical miles ( 70 km ) inland . The long @-@ term goal calls for the replacement of the two battleships with vessels of the Zumwalt class of guided @-@ missile destroyers . These ships are to be outfitted with an advanced gun system ( AGS ) that will fire specially developed 6 in Long Range Land Attack Projectiles for shore bombardment ; however , the long @-@ term goal for the Zumwalt class is to have the ships mount railguns or free @-@ electron lasers .
= = Cultural significance = =
The Iowa class has become culturally symbolic in the United States in many different ways , to the point where certain elements of the American public — such as the United States Naval Fire Support Association — are unwilling to part with the battleships despite their apparent obsolescence in the face of modern naval combat doctrine that places great emphasis on air supremacy and missile firepower . Although all have been officially stricken from the Naval Vessel Register they have been spared scrapping and were donated for use as museum ships .
Their service records have added to their fame , ranging from their work as carrier escorts in World War II to their shore bombardment duties in North Korea , North Vietnam , and the Middle East , as well as their service in the Cold War against the expanded Soviet Navy . Their reputation combined with the stories told concerning the firepower of these battleships ' 16 inch guns are such that when they were brought out of retirement in the 1980s in response to increased Soviet Naval activity — and in particular , in response to the commissioning of the Kirov @-@ class battlecruisers — the United States Navy was inundated with requests from former sailors pleading for a recall to active duty so they could serve aboard one of the battleships .
In part because of the service length and record of the class , members have made numerous appearances in television shows , video games , movies , and other media , including appearances in the anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion , the History Channel documentary series Battle 360 : USS Enterprise , the Discovery Channel documentary The Top 10 Fighting Ships ( where the Iowa class was rated Number 1 ) , the stealth action game Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots , the Real Time Tactics game World in Conflict , the book turned movie A Glimpse of Hell , the 1989 song by Cher If I Could Turn Back Time , the 1992 film Under Siege , and the 2012 film Battleship , among other appearances . Japanese rock band Vamps performed the finale of their 2009 US tour on board the USS Missouri on 19 September 2009 .
= = Ships = =
When brought into service during the final years of World War II , the Iowa @-@ class battleships were assigned to operate in the Pacific Theatre of World War II . By this point in the war , aircraft carriers had displaced battleships as the primary striking arm of both the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy . As a result of this shift in tactics , U.S. fast battleships of all classes were relegated to the secondary role of carrier escorts and assigned to the Fast Carrier Task Force to provide anti @-@ aircraft screening for U.S. aircraft carriers and perform shore bombardment . Three were recalled to service in the 1950s with the outbreak of the Korean War , and provided naval artillery support for U.N. forces for the entire duration of the war before being returned to mothballs in 1955 after hostilities ceased . In 1968 , to help alleviate U.S. air losses over North Vietnam , New Jersey was summoned to Vietnam , but was decommissioned a year after arriving . All four returned in the 1980s during the drive for a 600 @-@ ship Navy to counter the new Soviet Kirov @-@ class battlecruisers , only to be retired after the collapse of the Soviet Union on the grounds that they were too expensive to maintain .
1 . ^ Kentucky was not officially launched ; her hull was moved from drydock to allow Missouri to be admitted for repairs following her grounding .
= = = Iowa = = =
Iowa was ordered 1 July 1939 , laid down 27 June 1940 , launched 27 August 1942 , and commissioned 22 February 1943 . She conducted a shakedown cruise in Chesapeake Bay before sailing to Naval Station Argentia , Newfoundland , to be ready in case the German battleship Tirpitz entered the Atlantic . Transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944 , Iowa made her combat debut in February and participated in the campaign for the Marshall Islands . The ship later escorted U.S. aircraft carriers conducting air raids in the Marianas campaign , and then was present at the Battle of Leyte Gulf . During the Korean War , Iowa bombarded enemy targets at Songjin , Hŭngnam , and Kojo , North Korea . Iowa returned to the U.S. for operational and training exercises before being decommissioned on 24 February 1958 . Reactivated in the early 1980s , Iowa operated in the Atlantic Fleet , cruising in North American and European waters for most of the decade and participating in joint military exercises with European ships . On 19 April 1989 , 47 sailors were killed following an explosion in her No. 2 turret . In 1990 , Iowa was decommissioned for the last time and placed in the mothball fleet . She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006 . Iowa was anchored as part of the National Defense Reserve Fleet in Suisun Bay , California until October 2011 , when she was towed from her mooring to Richmond , California for renovation as a museum ship . She was towed from Richmond in the San Francisco Bay on 26 May 2012 , to San Pedro at the Los Angeles Waterfront to serve as a museum ship run by Pacific Battleship Center and opened to the public on 7 July 2012 .
= = = New Jersey = = =
New Jersey was ordered 4 July 1939 , laid down 16 September 1940 , launched 7 December 1942 , and commissioned 23 May 1943 . New Jersey completed fitting out and trained her initial crew in the Western Atlantic and Caribbean before transferring to the Pacific Theatre in advance of the planned assault on the Marshall Islands , where she screened the U.S. fleet of aircraft carriers from enemy air raids . At the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the ship protected carriers with her anti @-@ aircraft guns . New Jersey then bombarded Iwo Jima and Okinawa . During the Korean War , the ship pounded targets at Wonsan , Yangyang , and Kansong . Following the Armistice , New Jersey conducted training and operation cruises until she was decommissioned . Recalled to duty in 1968 , New Jersey reported to the gunline off the Vietnamese coast , and shelled North Vietnamese targets before departing the line in December 1968 . She was decommissioned the following year . Reactivated in 1982 under the 600 @-@ ship Navy program , New Jersey was sent to Lebanon to protect U.S. interests and U.S. Marines , firing her main guns at Druze and Syrian positions in the Beqaa Valley east of Beirut . Decommissioned for the last time 8 February 1991 , New Jersey was briefly retained on the Naval Vessel Register before being donated to the Home Port Alliance of Camden , New Jersey for use as a museum ship in October 2001 .
= = = Missouri = = =
The Missouri was the last of the four Iowa @-@ class battleships to be completed . She was ordered 12 June 1940 , laid down 6 January 1941 , launched 29 January 1944 , and commissioned 11 June 1944 . Missouri conducted her trials off New York with shakedown and battle practice in Chesapeake Bay before transferring to the Pacific Fleet , where she screened U.S. aircraft carriers involved in offensive operations against the Japanese before reporting to Okinawa to shell the island in advance of the planned landings . Following the bombardment of Okinawa , Missouri turned her attention to the Japanese homeland islands of Honshu and Hokkaido , performing shore bombardment and screening U.S. carriers involved in combat operations . She became a symbol of the U.S. Navy 's victory in the Pacific when representatives of the Empire of Japan boarded the battleship to sign the documents of unconditional surrender to the Allied powers in September 1945 . After World War II , Missouri conducted largely uneventful training and operational cruises until suffering a grounding accident . In 1950 she was dispatched to Korea in response to the outbreak of the Korean War . Missouri served two tours of duty in Korea providing shore bombardment . She was decommissioned in 1956 . She spent many years at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton , Washington . Reactivated in 1984 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan , Missouri was sent on operational cruises until being assigned to Operation Earnest Will in 1988 . In 1991 , Missouri participated in Operation Desert Storm , firing 28 Tomahawk Missiles and 759 sixteen @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shells at Iraqi targets along the coast . Decommissioned for the last time in 1992 , Missouri was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association of Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , for use as a museum ship in 1999 .
= = = Wisconsin = = =
Wisconsin was ordered 12 June 1940 , laid down 25 January 1942 , launched 7 December 1943 , and commissioned 16 April 1944 . After trials and initial training in Chesapeake Bay , she transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944 and was assigned to protect the U.S. fleet of aircraft carriers involved in operations in the Philippines until summoned to Iwo Jima to bombard the island in advance of the Marine landings . Afterward , she proceeded to Okinawa , bombarding the island in advance of the allied amphibious assault . In mid @-@ 1945 Wisconsin turned her attention to bombarding the Japanese home islands until the surrender of Japan in August . Reactivated in 1950 for the Korean War , Wisconsin served two tours of duty , assisting South Korean and UN forces by providing call fire support and shelling targets . In 1956 , the bow of the uncompleted USS Kentucky was removed and grafted on Wisconsin , which had collided with the destroyer USS Eaton . Decommissioned in 1958 , Wisconsin was placed in the reserve fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard until reactivated in 1986 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan . In 1991 , Wisconsin participated in Operation Desert Storm , firing 24 Tomahawk Missiles at Iraqi targets , and expending 319 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shells at Iraqi troop formations along the coast . Decommissioned for the last time 30 September 1991 , Wisconsin was placed in the reserve fleet until stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006 so she could be transferred for use as a museum ship . Wisconsin is currently berthed at the Nauticus maritime museum in Norfolk , Virginia .
= = = Illinois and Kentucky = = =
Hull numbers BB @-@ 65 and BB @-@ 66 were originally intended as the first and second ships of the Montana @-@ class of battleships ; however the passage of an emergency war building program on 19 July 1940 resulted in both hulls being reordered as Iowa @-@ class units to save time on construction . The war ended before either could be completed , and work was eventually stopped . Initially , proposals were made to convert the hulls into aircraft carriers similar to the Essex @-@ class , but the effort was dropped . Eventually both hulls were scrapped .
Illinois was ordered on 9 September 1940 and initially laid down on 6 December 1942 . However , work was suspended pending a decision on whether to convert the hull to an aircraft carrier . Upon determination the result would cost more and be less capable than building from scratch construction resumed , but was canceled for good approximately one @-@ quarter complete on 11 August 1945 . She was sold for scrap and broken up on the slipway in September 1958 .
Kentucky was ordered on 9 September 1940 and laid down on 7 March 1942 . Work on the ship was suspended in June 1942 , and the hull floated out to make room for the construction of LSTs . The interruption lasted for two and a half years while a parallel aircraft carrier debate played out as with the Illinois , reaching the same conclusion . Work resumed in December 1944 , with completion projected for mid @-@ 1946 . Further suggestions were made to convert Kentucky into a specialist anti @-@ aircraft ship , and work was again suspended . With the hull approximately three @-@ quarters completed she was floated on 20 January 1950 to clear a dry @-@ dock for repairs to Missouri , which had run aground . During this period , plans were proposed to convert Kentucky into a guided missile battleship , which saw her reclassified from BB @-@ 66 to BBG @-@ 1 . When these failed construction of any sort never resumed and the ship was used as a parts hulk ; in 1956 , her bow was removed and shipped in one piece across Hampton Roads and grafted onto Wisconsin , which had collided with the destroyer Eaton . In 1958 , the engines installed on Kentucky were salvaged and installed on the Sacramento @-@ class fast combat support ships Sacramento and Camden . Ultimately , what remained of the hulk was sold for scrap on 31 October 1958 .
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= Oliver 's Battery ( Tresco ) =
Oliver 's Battery is a ruined artillery battery on the island of Tresco in the Isles of Scilly . It was built by the Parliamentarian admiral , Sir Robert Blake , after he invaded Tresco in April 1651 during the years of the interregnum . It was used to bombard the neighbouring island of St Mary 's , which was still held by an opposing Royalist army , and forced its surrender several weeks later . The battery comprised a triangle of ramparts , constructed using earth and rubble , which , combined with the natural stone features on the site , produced a substantial , if crude , fortification . It is now ruined , and owned by the Duchy of Cornwall .
= = History = =
= = = 17th century = = =
Oliver 's Battery was built in the interregnum following the English Civil War . The Isles of Scilly had supported Charles I during the conflict between 1642 to 1646 , and , after a short period in Parliamentary control , the islands rebelled in favour of Charles in 1648 . The islands became a base for Royalist privateers , and Parliament became concerned that the Dutch , then hostile to England , might counter the piracy by occupying the islands , gaining a foothold that they could then use against England . In 1651 Parliament sent Sir Robert Blake in charge of a naval task force to retake the islands .
Blake arrived in April 1651 and set about invading the island of Tresco . Taking the harbour of Old Grimsby in an amphibious assault on 18 April , he then bypassed the northern fortress of King Charles 's Castle and marched south , intending to use Tresco as a base for taking the neighbouring island of St Mary 's , approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away .
When Blake reached Carn Near on the south end of Tresco , he constructed an artillery position for a battery of three guns overlooking the channel between the island and St Mary 's , as well as the harbour of St Mary 's Pool , hoping to pressure the Royalists into surrender . The work was carried out rapidly between 19 April and 4 May , possibly reusing the site of a Bronze Age burial cairn . When the battery began firing on 4 May , one of the guns exploded causing two deaths , but the bombardment soon recommenced and St Mary 's agreed to surrender several weeks later on 23 May .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
The antiquarian William Borlase visited the site in 1752 , which he thought was a breastwork defence named after the Parliamentary leader Oliver Cromwell . He remarked on how its construction was " irregular and uneven " , and suspected that it was very old , pre @-@ dating the civil war . He also noted how its position would have allowed it to protect the location he believed the Parliamentary forces had used as their camp , and commented as to how the winds and tides would have forced Royalist ships entering or leaving St Mary 's harbour to sail into close range of its guns .
The blockhouse is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall and it is protected as a scheduled monument under UK law . The site was surveyed in 1990 by the Cornwall Archaeology Unit , and in 2009 by English Heritage .
= = Design = =
Oliver 's Battery is on a hill overlooking the island of St Mary 's to the south @-@ east . It is triangular in shape , the sides of which are roughly 25 metres by 30 metres by 30 metres ( 82 ft by 98 ft by 98 ft ) in length . The battery was entered from its north @-@ western side , and in the north @-@ east corner there was a small building , approximately 6 metres by 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 20 ft by 11 ft ) , which may have been a store or a temporary gun magazine . The artillery pieces were located in the south @-@ eastern corner of the battery , where a gun platform , 7 metres ( 23 ft ) in diameter , occupied the highest part of the fortification .
The battery is surrounded by an earth and rubble bank , incorporating natural outcrops of stone , between 4 @.@ 5 metres and 8 metres ( 15 ft and 26 ft ) wide , and 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high externally . On the west and south sides the ramparts are protected by a ditch , typically 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) m wide and 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft 0 in ) deep . The historian Mark Bowden considers the fortification to be " substantial but relatively crude " , probably a result of the speed with which the building work was carried out .
At the bottom of the hill beside the battery are two rectangular earthworks , 16 metres by 8 metres ( 52 ft and 26 ft ) , and 26 metres and 12 metres ( 85 ft and 39 ft ) . Traditionally these have been thought to be Royalist gun batteries pre @-@ dating the construction of Oliver 's Battery , but recent scholarship casts doubt on this , suggesting that they are instead the remains of hollow ways and sand pits .
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= Hurricane Hernan ( 1996 ) =
Hurricane Hernan was fourth and final tropical cyclone to strike Mexico at hurricane intensity during the 1996 Pacific hurricane season . The thirteenth tropical cyclone , eighth named storm , and fifth hurricane of the season , Hernan developed as a tropical depression from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico on September 30 . The depression quickly strengthened , and became Tropical Storm Hernan later that day . Hernan curved north @-@ northwestward the following day , before eventually turning north @-@ northeastward . Still offshore of the Mexican coast on October 2 , Hernan intensified into a hurricane . Six hours later , Hernan attained its peak as an 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . After weakening somewhat , on 1000 UTC October 3 , Hurricane Hernan made landfall near Barra de Navidad , Jalisco , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Only two hours after landfall , Hernan weakened to a tropical storm . By October 4 , Tropical Storm Hernan had weakened into a tropical depression , and dissipated over Nayarit on the following day .
The storm dropped heavy rainfall along the west coast of Mexico , with some areas experiencing over 20 in ( 510 mm ) of precipitation . As a result of the large amounts of rain , Hurricane Hernan caused moderate flooding . Despite impacting a relatively sparsely populated area of Mexico , no deaths were reported in the country , though one was reported missing . In all , flooding from the storm washed @-@ out highways , disrupted telephone service , caused power outages , and damaged at least 1 @,@ 000 homes . However , at least 100 injuries were recorded . In addition , the remnants caused flooding in southern Texas , and one person was presumed to have drowned .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa during mid @-@ September and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean . Even though convection associated with the system increased on two separate occasions , the tropical wave did not develop further . After emerging into the Pacific Ocean , the system entered the Gulf of Tehuantepec on September 28 . Meanwhile , deep convection began to consolidate while the cloud pattern continued to improve . By late on September 29 , classifications began on the system via the Dvorak technique , a technique used to measure a tropical cyclones intensity . By 0600 UTC on September 30 , satellite imagery indicated that Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E had developed while centered over 285 mi ( 460 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco . Three hours later , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initiated advisories on the depression , stating that it was over warm sea surface temperatures and outflow was becoming well @-@ established . Subsequently , it was predicted that the depression would intensify into a hurricane before October 3 .
Later on September 30 , satellite intensity classifications estimated wind speeds of at least 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Based on this , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Hernan . By October 1 , the atmospheric circulation of Hernan became difficult to locate on infrared satellite imagery . As a result , the NHC reported that it no longer anticipated that Hernan would intensify into a hurricane . Later that day , Hernan strengthened slightly ; subsequently , visible satellite images indicated that the center of the storm redeveloped . Most of the computer models anticipated that Hernan would parallel the coast of Mexico , though the Global Dynamics Fluid Model ( GDFL ) noted that Tropical Storm Hernan would turn sharply northward and eventually make landfall in Mexico . Early on October 2 , deep convection began wrapping around the center , and meteorologists noted that an eye feature may have been forming . Subsequently , Hernan also developed very cold cloud tops while tracking slowly to the northwest .
At 0600 UTC on October 2 , it is estimated that Hernan had intensified into a hurricane . Operationally , however , Hernan was not upgraded to a hurricane until nine hours later . The storm strengthened a little more , and at 1200 UTC on October 2 , Hernan attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 980 mbar ( hPa ) ; 28 @.@ 94 inHg . By late on October 2 , radar imagery remarked that the northern eye wall was affecting portions of the west coast of Mexico . Shortly thereafter , the eye of Hernan became less distinct on satellite images . By 0900 UTC on October 3 , based on data from radars in Cuyutlán , Colima , the NHC reported that Hurricane Hernan had executed a cyclonic loop to the southwest of Manzanillo . About an hour later , Hernan made landfall near Barra de Navidad , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) .
Hernan rapidly weakened inland , and it was estimated that it had weakened to a tropical storm only two hours after landfall . By 0000 UTC on October 4 , Hernan weakened further , and was downgraded to a tropical depression . Shortly thereafter , Hernan re @-@ emerged into the Pacific Ocean , and the NHC noted that possibility for the depression to restrengthen into a tropical storm . Hernan weakened further as a large portion of its circulation remained on land , while the low @-@ level center became difficult to locate . By 2100 UTC October 4 , satellite images and surface reports indicated that Hernan had degenerated into a broad area of low pressure . Hernan finally dissipated at 0000 UTC the next day while centered over Nayarit .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Thirty @-@ six hours after formation , on October 1 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Acapulco , to Manzanillo . Early on the following day , a hurricane watch was put into effect from Zihuatanejo , Guerrero , to Manzanillo , . Three hours later , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . At 1500 UTC on that same day , a tropical storm warning was issued from Manzanillo , to San Blas , Nayarit . By 0300 UTC on October 3 , the hurricane warning was extended from Cabo Corrientes , Jalisco to San Blas ; the tropical storm warning was also extended , and included areas between Mazatlán and San Blas . As the storm rapidly weakened inland , all watches and warnings in effect were discontinued midday on October 3 . In addition to these warnings , several ports and harbors were closed in the states of Guerrero , Michoacan , Jalisco , and Colima , a span of some 680 mi ( 1 @,@ 095 km ) .
Much of Jalisco was drenched with rain for nearly 12 consecutive hours , resulting in flooding . Country @-@ wide ; however , the highest total was recorded in Petacalco and La Union , with 21 @.@ 8 in ( 550 mm ) being measured at both locations . The National Water Commission reported waves of up to 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . Along the coasts of Colima and Jalisco , waves caused by Hernan were not as large , reaching 13 ft ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) in height . High winds were also recorded .
Because the storm made landfall in a sparsely populated area , no deaths were reported by the NHC . However , one boy was swept away in the Uxpana River and was thus reported missing . Due to flooding caused by the storm , three rivers in Veracruz overflowed their banks . Flooding from the storm also washed @-@ out portions of two Mexico highways . Furthermore , telephone service was interrupted and power outages occurred . Around 1 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed and 100 people were injured . Overall , damage from the system was not widespread .
After dissipating , the remnants of Hernan , in combination with low pressure area that eventually became Tropical Storm Josephine , brought heavy downpours to southern Texas . Rainfall reached 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) in Brownsville , which caused street flooding and forced several families to evacuate their homes . In addition , coastal flooding was reported in the town of South Padre Island . As a result of heavy rainfall , a flash flood watch and warning were issued for Cameron , Hidalgo , Kenedy , and Willacy Counties . One boy in Brownsville was classified as missing and later presumed to have drowned during the storm .
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= From The Doctor to my son Thomas =
" From The Doctor to my son Thomas " is a viral video recorded by actor Peter Capaldi and sent to autistic nine @-@ year @-@ old Thomas Goodall to console the child over grief from the death of Goodall 's grandmother . Capaldi filmed the video in character as the 12th incarnation of the Doctor in the BBC science @-@ fiction series Doctor Who . Capaldi 's message had a positive effect on Thomas ; his father said the boy smiled for the first time since learning of his grandmother 's death and gained the courage to go to her funeral .
Thomas 's father Ross Goodall posted the video to YouTube on 6 November 2014 . He later explained to media that he wanted to make the video available to his family and had no idea it would become popular online . CNN reported that after its appearance on YouTube , the video was viewed over 200 @,@ 000 times in its first 48 @-@ hours online . This more than doubled the next day , and less than a week later it had over 900 @,@ 000 total views . BBC News observed that Capaldi 's message had become a viral video , and ITV News described response to the video as a global phenomenon .
The Guardian and The Daily Telegraph called the recording by Capaldi a touching video to a young child suffering from grief . CNN and MTV characterised the video similarly , as did Spanish and Dutch media . The Independent wrote that Capaldi displayed a kinder face of his personality by sending the message . BT commented it was Capaldi 's best contribution as the character of the Doctor to date .
The video had a positive impact on those with mental health problems . Autism Daily Newscast reported favourably on Capaldi 's actions . The Hollywood Reporter observed that as his character the Doctor , Capaldi was using his role to support mental health . Hollywood Life said their reporters were moved to tears after watching Capaldi 's video . Peter Harness , writer of the episode " Kill the Moon " , said Capaldi 's video was his favourite highlight from ten years of Doctor Who .
= = Background = =
The Scottish actor and film director Peter Capaldi was cast in 2013 as the 12th incarnation of the Doctor , in the BBC science @-@ fiction series Doctor Who . His casting was announced on 4 August 2013 in a special BBC programme hosted by Zoë Ball . Capaldi first appeared as the Doctor in a cameo in the 50th anniversary special , " The Day of the Doctor " , before appearing in the 2013 Christmas special , " The Time of the Doctor " . A lifelong fan of the series , Capaldi had played Lobus Caecilius in the 2008 episode " The Fires of Pompeii " and a civil servant , John Frobisher , in the 2009 spin @-@ off Torchwood : Children of Earth .
Before taking the role , Capaldi said that he had to seriously consider the increased visibility that would come with the part . He said in an interview with Entertainment Weekly that he had been invited to audition for the role of the Eighth Doctor in 1995 before the production of the 1996 TV film but did not go because he was unsure if he would get the part and did not wish to be part of a large group of actors turned down for the role .
= = Prior correspondence = =
Thomas Goodall had been a devoted fan of Doctor Who from North Baddesley in Hampshire since the age of two , and wrote a letter to Peter Capaldi saying he hoped the actor found success in his new role portraying the Doctor . The Goodall family were all fans of Doctor Who , describing themselves as Whovians . Thomas decorated his home with objects related to the television series . Capaldi wrote back to Thomas thanking him , and sent a note to the child 's father saying he intended to send a video message . Capaldi enclosed guidance to Ross Goodall on how to organise a tour of the production studios for Doctor Who .
Ross Goodall subsequently communicated with Capaldi through the actor 's agent , to inform him that Thomas 's grandmother had died . ( Helen , aged 72 , died in early October 2014 . ) He told Capaldi that his son was not dealing well with the grief from his grandmother 's death . The family received the subsequent video message to Thomas from Capaldi three weeks after the death of the child 's grandmother .
= = Video message = =
Capaldi appears in character as the Doctor and addresses Thomas directly , greeting him by name . He expresses his gratitude at receiving the child 's letter , saying it had pleased him .
He then speaks to Thomas about grief , mentioning the Doctor 's adventures with travelling companion Clara Oswald ( played by Jenna Coleman ) . He tells Thomas that negative events impact Clara and himself in their journeys through the universe and time travel , and that occasionally they feel depressed too . The Doctor tells Thomas he is glad the child is supporting him in his adventures .
Capaldi concludes the video message by wishing Thomas to experience joy , and encourages the youth to be well and remain positive . The video is 42 seconds long .
= = Goodall family response = =
The family received the video from Capaldi on 3 November 2014 . After viewing the video , Thomas felt encouraged to attend his grandmother 's funeral . In an interview with The Guardian , Ross Goodall explained that Capaldi 's mention of sadness resonated with the child due to his experience of grief over his grandmother 's death . He discussed the manner in which Thomas perceived emotions as a strict dichotomy between positive and negative without a middle ground . Thomas interpreted from the video that it was all right to feel happy while simultaneously acknowledging a sad event had occurred . Ross Goodall told The Guardian that before viewing the video from Capaldi his son did not want to attend his grandmother 's funeral .
The boy 's mother said that the video had helped him to deal with his depression . After watching Capaldi 's message , Ross Goodall stated that his son 's behaviour patterns changed markedly . This change included the ability to comfort his sister and step out of his day @-@ to @-@ day routine . Ross Goodall said after watching the video his son smiled for the first time since his grandmother died . The family framed the letter from Capaldi that came before the video message , and Ross Goodall said Thomas looked at it when he felt distressed .
= = Posted to YouTube = =
Ross Goodall uploaded the message from Capaldi to the video @-@ sharing website YouTube on 6 November 2014 . He commented at the video 's YouTube location that he was surprised at the online response , and that at the time of initial posting was unaware it would become viral . He later explained that he had uploaded it only to share it with family members on completion of the memorial services for Thomas 's grandmother . Thomas 's father wrote that the video greatly affected his son and enabled him to cope with grief and feel comforted . He praised Capaldi for his kind act and explained that the video improved his son 's mental well @-@ being throughout the ordeal .
By 10 November 2014 , total comments by viewers posted below the video on YouTube numbered in the hundreds . The majority of comments were supportive . Visitors to the site wrote favourably of Capaldi 's actions to record the video for the child . A few observed that Capaldi 's version of the Doctor character is sinister and serious , and contrasted this with the actor 's depiction of the character as warm and effusive in his recording .
= = Reception = =
CNN reported that after its appearance on YouTube , the video had over 200 @,@ 000 views in its first 48 hours of availability . BBC News noted that by the next day , it had received over 500 @,@ 000 views , and by 10 November 2014 it had over 750 @,@ 000 . The Washington Post noted that by the next day the view count was above 900 @,@ 000 . Multiple publications observed that Capaldi 's message had become a viral video . ITV News called online reaction to the video a global phenomenon .
The Guardian called the recording by Capaldi a touching video tribute . CNN characterised the video similarly , as did Digital Spy , ITV News , TV 3 , and publications in Spanish and Dutch . The Barcelona newspaper La Vanguardia wrote that Capaldi 's video was an example of bringing joy into someone 's life through a small act . The Washington Post called it a touching message . The Daily Dot described the video as inspirational . The Independent contrasted Capaldi 's portrayal of the 12th Doctor as one of the darker incarnations of the character with his kinder message as the same character in the video . MTV called Capaldi a most wonderful person for his act , and concluded the video was quite endearing .
The Daily Telegraph described the video as a moving inspiration to a child suffering from grief . The Huffington Post wrote that if they were able to engage in time travel themselves , they would be unable to encounter a kinder tale . Io9 appreciated that Capaldi was using his celebrity status to effect positive change through his portrayal of the character , and praised his use of the fictional role as a force for public good . The South Wales Evening Post noted Capaldi had appeared in a brief video as himself congratulating a bride on her wedding , and wrote that this video was more impressive than the previous appearance . Metro commented " Just when you thought Peter Capaldi couldn 't possibly get any cooler , he 's gone and outdone himself with this video . "
= = Impact = =
International Business Times reported that the video message had a significant impact on the child , in spite of its brevity , and noted in a follow @-@ up piece that Capaldi 's video was featured in headlines of multiple newspapers . Digital Spy followed up on its earlier favourable coverage of Capaldi 's video , and chose it as the number one entry out of " 7 awesome celebrity moments that will melt your heart " . Hollywood Life said their journalists were moved to tears after watching the video . Their review concluded that Capaldi 's message was both kind and strong , and that it was intelligent of the actor to compare the grief of Thomas to that encountered by his character on the television programme .
Capaldi 's actions received favourable coverage from the Autism Daily Newscast , an official Google News website reporting on current events and news of interest to those on the autism spectrum . Journalist on the site Jo Worgan noting the actor had devoted himself while on the set of Doctor Who to spending time with an autistic girl who was a fan of the show . The Hollywood Reporter noted that the Time Lord character took time to support the mental well @-@ being of a child in addition to his duties of protecting the universe from harm .
In a March 2015 interview with Radio Times , Peter Harness , writer of Doctor Who episode " Kill the Moon " , cited the video by Capaldi as his favourite highlight from the last ten years of the television programme . Harness explained his decision , saying that the video demonstrated Capaldi 's kind demeanour and illustrated that Doctor Who served to assist youngsters in learning about the travails of greater society . He said that , by extension , it reminded all viewers to act with more compassion towards one another .
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= HMS Hurricane ( H06 ) =
HMS Hurricane was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy in the late 1930s with the name Japura , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of World War II in September 1939 and later renamed . When completed in June 1940 , the ship was temporarily assigned to the Home Fleet before she began escorting convoys and conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols . She was badly damaged during a German air raid on Liverpool in May 1941 and her repairs were not completed until the beginning of 1942 . Hurricane was then assigned as the flotilla leader of Escort Group B1 assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force , escorting convoys in the North Atlantic for the next two years . The ship was torpedoed by a German submarine on Christmas Eve 1943 , and had to be scuttled the next day as she was unable to steam back to port .
= = Description = =
Hurricane displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hurricane carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and men .
The vessel was designed for four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hurricane had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Little data on Hurricane 's modifications during the war has survived , although it is known that she had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun by October 1940 . The ship 's short @-@ range AA armament may have been augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts may have also been replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . The ship 's director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge may have been removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was probably also fitted mid @-@ way through the war . The ship probably also received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast .
= = Service = =
Japura was ordered by Brazil on 6 December 1937 from Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness . The ship was laid down on 3 June 1938 and she was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of World War II . Renamed HMS Hurricane , the ship was launched on 29 September and commissioned on 21 June 1940 . She was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet upon commissioning until new construction replaced the losses suffered over the previous few months . Hurricane then began escorting convoys and conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols until May 1941 . On 17 September , the ship rescued survivors of City of Benares , a small passenger ship evacuating 90 children from the United Kingdom to Canada , and the freighter Marina . She rescued 451 survivors from the passenger @-@ cargo liner City of Nagpur and landed them at Greenock , Scotland on 1 May 1941 .
Hurricane was bombed and sunk in a German air raid on Liverpool during the night of 7 / 8 May 1941 . She was struck by a bomb that passed through the hull and detonated underneath her . The explosion blew a large hole in her bottom and flooded her engine room and oil tanks . The ship 's structure was badly damaged enough that her stern began to sag downwards and Hurricane was moved to Bidston Dock lest she sink and block traffic in the harbour . No one was killed in the attack , although a few crewmen received minor injuries .
The ship was repaired and returned to service in January 1942 as flotilla leader of Escort Group B1 assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force . Hurricane remained as the leader for the next two years . Whilst escorting Convoy OS 62 / KMS 36 , the ship was hit by an acoustic T5 torpedo fired by the German submarine U @-@ 415 on the evening of 24 December 1943 . The torpedo homed in on the ship 's propeller noises and blew off 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of her stern . The explosion killed three and wounded nine of her crew , and rendered her unable to move . The following morning , she was scuttled by the destroyer Watchman at 45 ° 10 ′ N 22 ° 05 ′ W.
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= Sara Sidle =
Sara Sidle is a fictional character on the CBS crime drama CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , portrayed by actress Jorja Fox . Sidle is a forensic scientist and one of the core characters of the show , which revolves around a Crime Scene Investigation team in Clark County , Nevada , that investigates cases in and around Las Vegas . Fox appeared in both the first eight seasons , and the final five seasons , of the show as a series regular . She also recurred throughout the ninth and tenth seasons of the series , and headlined Immortality alongside Ted Danson .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Original Tenure = = =
Fox appeared in every episode of the series ' first seven seasons , with the exceptions of :
Season 01 : " Pilot "
Season 03 : " Random Acts of Violence "
Season 04 : " Jackpot "
Season 05 : " Formalities " , " Hollywood Brass "
Season 06 : " Spellbound "
Fox then appeared in the first seven episodes of the eighth season , before departing the main cast .
= = = Guest star = = =
During her brief absence from the main cast , Fox guest starred in the following episodes :
Season 09 : " For Warrick " , " The Happy Place " , " Leave Out All The Rest " , " One to Go "
Season 10 : " Family Affair " , " Ghost Town " , " Coup de Grace " , " Bloodsport " , " Lover 's Lane " , " Better Off Dead " , " Long Ball " , " Internal Combustion " , " Unshockable " , " Neverland " , " Irradator " , " World 's End " , " Take My Life , Please ! " , " Doctor Who " , " Meat Jekyll "
= = = Return = = =
Upon rejoining the regular cast in the series ' eleventh season , Fox once again appeared in every episode , with the exceptions of :
Season 11 : " Sqweegel " , " Cold Blooded " , " Fracked " , " Man Up " , " A Kiss Before Frying " , " The List " , " Father of the Bride "
Season 12 : " Maid Man " , " Genetic Disorder " , " Trends with Benefits " , " Altered Stakes "
Season 13 : " Play Dead " , " CSI on Fire " , " Dead of the Class " , " Skin in the Game "
Season 14 : " Last Supper "
Fox remained a series regular until CSI 's final episode , " Immortality " .
= = Fictional character biography = =
Sidle was born on September 16 , 1971 , in Tomales Bay , an hour and a half north of San Francisco . Her father was abusive , alcoholic until Sidle 's schizophrenic mother , Laura , killed him , in 1984 . When searching for records of the crime in the Season 5 episode " No Humans Involved , " she searches for records from Modesto . Afterward , she spent time in the foster care system , which didn 't keep her from graduating high school as valedictorian at age 16 . She attended Harvard on a scholarship , moving on to graduate school at the University of California , Berkeley . While at Berkeley , she started a work @-@ study position at the San Francisco Coroner ’ s Office , where she would also audit lectures to keep up with new developments ; it was at one of these that she met Gil Grissom .
Some time later , while she was working in San Francisco , Grissom called her because he was in need of someone outside the Las Vegas team . Sidle went to Las Vegas and helped resolve some Internal Affairs problems within the CSIs while also providing a replacement for Holly Gribbs , who had been shot . Some episodes later , she became a permanent member of the Night Shift as a CSI Level 3 at the LVPD Criminalistics Bureau , specialising in Materials and Element Analysis . In Season 8 , Sidle briefly changed from Nights to Swing . In the Season 10 premiere , it is revealed Sara is now married to Grissom . In Season 13 , Episode 15 , Sara revealed that Grissom had split up with her . However in series finale Immortality , Sara and Grissom are ultimately re @-@ united .
= = Character development = =
Perhaps because of her traumatic childhood , Sidle has demonstrated compassion and empathy for victims of domestic violence , and fury against their abusers . She also has a soft spot for animals , and became a vegetarian after she saw Grissom conduct an experiment on a dead pig . She has also shown a tendency to become very aggressive when under pressure or annoyed , especially in cases involving abused women - such as her arguments with Catherine and Ecklie , and engaging in a heated argument with a man suspected of murdering his wife . In recent years , perhaps because of her mother 's schizophrenia , Sara has been seen to work several cases with a mental health aspect . An example of this is when she was able to calm Agent Moore 's schizphrenic son in " 418 / 427 " , as well as her open attitude to the A Pharaoh 's Motorists team in " Dune And Gloom " .
In the early years of the show , Sidle is depicted as antisocial . Her hobbies are all work @-@ related ( listening to her police scanner and reading forensic journals ) ; and she claims to prefer working with corpses over live people . In a mid @-@ second season episode , she realizes how much she is missing out on and decides to " get a life " outside of work . During season three she dates a paramedic named Hank Pettigrew , but this relationship ends later in the season when she discovered that he had a longtime girlfriend . Later in the third season , she is injured in an explosion in the lab in search of Grissom , at the end of the episode she decides to ask Grissom to dinner though he turns her down , stating he doesn 't know what to do about " this . " .
During the fourth and fifth seasons , Sidle seems to be on a downward spiral as her memories of childhood resurface , with cases becoming more difficult for her emotionally . Also , the fact that Grissom decided to promote Nick Stokes instead of Sidle , did not help . Season Four concludes with Sidle being stopped by a traffic cop . Although she is driving under the influence , she is not charged , but Grissom , as her supervisor , is informed of her arrest . He arrives at the station to bring her home , and finally seems to notice her emotional state . Later , in season five , she loses her temper with a domestic abuse suspect and then argues with supervisors Catherine Willows and Conrad Ecklie , which results in her suspension . Following this incident , she admits to Grissom that she has a problem with authority , has chosen emotionally unavailable men ( like Grissom ) , and has a self @-@ destructive streak . Sidle then opens up to him and reveals her family story ; it is during this season that she apparently starts bonding with Grissom . During the subsequent seasons ( sixth and seventh ) , after it is revealed that they are in a relationship , she appears to be happier and on a more even keel .
In CSI 's eighth season , when Fox decided to leave the show , both she and the writers decided not to kill the character , so as to leave the door open for a possible comeback . Consequently , Sara Sidle is submerged into depression after she is abducted in the season seven finale ( she is rescued in the first episode of the new season ) , and , even though she accepts Grissom 's marriage proposal on the season 's fourth episode , she shows signs of burnout during the subsequent episodes , breaking down on the season 's seventh episode , leaving Las Vegas with only a goodbye letter for Grissom in which she tells him she loves him - also kissing him out of the blue in front of another colleague - and a good luck note for Ronnie Lake ( played by Jessica Lucas ) . In the letter she states that ever since her father 's death she has been living with " ghosts " and that she now needs to go away and deal with them before self @-@ destructing .
In the season eight episode " You Kill Me " , Grissom indicates he has talked with Sidle and that she is in San Francisco visiting her mother .
Promos for the season nine premiere announced that actress Jorja Fox would return as Sara , and showed her in three clips . However , Sidle left again after the second episode . She appeared again in the final scene of the tenth episode of season nine when she appears to be working on a research team in Costa Rica , where Grissom joins her after leaving CSI . Then they are married
During the tenth season , Fox returned to CSI on a recurring basis . This recurring role continued until the eleventh season of the show . Sara is brought back by Under @-@ Sheriff Ecklie to aid the lab , which has undergone staffing cuts as a result of Warrick 's death and the resignation of his replacement , Riley Adams . Adams was revealed to have resigned as a result of Catherine 's poor management and lack of teamwork ; when Catherine reveals this to Sara , Sara reminds Catherine that Grissom had her ( Catherine ) as a number two , prompting the promotion of Nick Stokes to Assistant Supervisor .
= = Relationships = =
Sara Sidle 's romantic relationships have been largely unsuccessful . In the first season she named a college boyfriend , Ken Fuller , with whom she had an unsatisfactory relationship , also saying that they had joined the Mile high club ( Unfriendly Skies ) . In season seven she mentioned a college boyfriend who cheated on her . It is unclear whether Fuller was also the boyfriend who cheated on her . In the third season she had a casual relationship with Hank Pettigrew , who was an emergency medical technician . He was involved in several of her cases , but they later broke up after she found out Hank had a longtime girlfriend .
During the first seasons , coroner David Phillips , laboratory technician Greg Sanders , and fellow CSI Nick Stokes occasionally flirted with her , but nothing more than friendship resulted from those flirtations .
= = = Gil Grissom = = =
Since CSI 's first season there were hints that both Sara Sidle and Gil Grissom were interested in each other romantically ; in fact , the show 's producers initially introduced Sara Sidle as a future love interest for Grissom . However , during the show 's first three seasons Grissom flirted with other female characters , and when she asked him out to dinner he rejected her , saying that he didn 't know what to do about what was going on between them .
In season four , Grissom 's true feelings were revealed in " Butterflied " , an episode that centers entirely around Grissom exploring his attraction to Sidle when confronted with a dead woman who bore a striking resemblance to her . In this episode , Grissom admitted that he was unable to risk his career to be with her . In this season Sara Sidle apparently developed a drinking problem , which Grissom acknowledged in the season finale . In the next season , Sidle was suspended for insubordination and told Grissom about her tormented childhood . He refused to fire her and had her working with him in almost every episode from season six and season seven .
It was not until the sixth season finale that it is revealed that Grissom and Sidle have worked through whatever issues they had and are , in fact , a couple . In season eight it was revealed they have been intimately involved for two years . This revelation caused mixed emotions from fans , some of whom see this relationship as CSI " jumping the shark , " an attempt to include more drama and romance to the show to compete with the medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which airs in the U.S. at the same time . By resolving the sexual tension between the two characters , critics posited that the show might appeal to some of Grey 's younger audience . This has been denied by the writers . In one interview , producer Carol Mendelsohn said that she has never been able to see Grissom with any other character other than Sidle and that this episode was seen by the writers as the right time to reveal the relationship . Jorja Fox and William Petersen have also said that the relationship between their characters is not new .
Throughout season seven the audience saw Grissom and Sidle as a couple , but the relationship was kept secret from the others in the lab until Sidle 's abduction by The Miniature Killer in the season finale , during which Grissom reveals to the team that Sara is the only person he 's ever loved . In season eight , they become engaged to be married , but this storyline is left inconclusive when Sara leaves Grissom with a note three episodes later .
A Season 8 scene - cut from its intended episode due to time constraints - showed Catherine Willows visiting Grissom 's apartment to update him on a case . While he is in his bedroom , she snoops around and finds a woman 's dressing robe in his closet . She then notices a photograph of Gil and Sara together on the fridge . When Grissom emerges from his room , she asks him " How long have you and Sara been together ? " He tries to make a quick exit but not before she tells him she 'd always thought he was a lonely bachelor , to which his response is to laugh and leave .
In the tenth episode of season nine , " One to Go " , Grissom is seen walking through a rain forest holding a GPS System that places him in Costa Rica . He spots a bug on a leaf , but continues , eventually arriving at a camp where Sidle is seen taking a picture of a monkey in a tree . Sidle then sees Grissom , who removes his backpack and walks into Sidle 's arms and greets her with a passionate kiss .
In " Family Affair " , the first episode of Season 10 , Sidle returns to work in the laboratory on a temporary basis , revealing that she and Grissom are now married and have been living in Paris while Grissom conducts a seminar at the Sorbonne .
In " The Two Mrs. Grissoms " , Sara attends a party for a school for the deaf . She then gets a call from Grissom during a Taiko drum performance . It was revealed that Grissom was in Peru consulting for the government . She then meets Grissom 's mother , Betty , and two deaf professors , at which one of them ends up dead in a car explosion .
Grissom 's mother ends up criticising Sara for not spending much time with Grissom .
At the end of the episode , she is shown talking with Grissom on a webcam , eventually having his mother walk into the office . Grissom then said that he will return to Vegas to have dinner with Sara and his mother .
At the end of " Malice in Wonderland " Grissom sends Sara two plants with a note saying " From Grissom "
Hints of a troubled relationship appear in several episodes in Season 13 . In the episode " Forget Me Not " Sara finally reveals that she and Grissom had split up . In the end of the episode , she admitted to Nick and Greg that at the night of the murder she was expecting to see Grissom ; Nick even admits that he and everyone else that worked with Grissom liked having them both together to sort of hang on to but realized that if the relationship is over , it 's over .
After remaining separated for a number of years , Grissom and Sara are re @-@ united in the series finale Immortality , when a case involving a suicide bomber brings Grissom temporarily back to the Las Vegas crime lab . The series ends with the pair sailing away together into the sunset , their relationship apparently rekindled .
William Petersen has said that what Grissom loves about Sidle is her tenacity . " She 's a bulldog . And he always saw that in her . And he always knew that subconsciously the only person who 'd be able to give him a second look is someone who 's not willing to take the first look for granted . " On her side , Jorja Fox has said that " The story of Sara and Grissom is a little like a fable . And most great fables don 't really have 100 percent resolution . "
= = Public reaction = =
Sara Sidle has gained an extensive fan base throughout the years . A romantic relationship between Sidle and her supervisor , Gil Grissom , was hinted at during the first years of the show ; but it was only in Season 6 that the relationship was confirmed and then made definitive with Grissom 's marriage proposal in Season 8 .
Grissom and Sidle 's relationship has been the subject of intense debate in the press and on @-@ line forums , between fans of the romantic relationship and those who believe the romance detracts from what was once a show devoted mainly to mysteries and a forensics laboratory .
In early August 2007 , upon rumors of Jorja Fox leaving the show , a grassroots campaign started . Thousands of fans donated to the cause , and they had a plane flying over the Universal Studios of Los Angeles weekly on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a " Keep Jorja Fox on CBS " banner for a month . The online forum Your Tax Dollars at Work , which has about 15 @,@ 000 members and has organized the campaign , created another campaign that includes mailing the show 's producers a dollar , so as to keep Fox on the show . By October 5 , 2007 , more than $ 3 @,@ 500 had reportedly been mailed to the Universal Studios from forty @-@ nine countries . The campaign had started less than a week before , on September 29 , 2007 .
Though the effort garnered media coverage , it was announced in late October , 2007 that Jorja Fox 's final appearance as a full cast member would be in the episode Goodbye and Good Luck , which aired on November 15 , 2007 . Both writers and Fox have said that they believe that Sara Sidle " will be back " sometime in the future . Fox and CSI writer Carol Mendelsohn chose to donate the money sent to the studios to CASA , a national association that supports and promotes court @-@ appointed advocates for abused or neglected children .
CBS initially confirmed that Jorja Fox would be returning to CSI in the tenth season for the season premiere and four subsequent episodes . Executive producer Carol Mendelsohn has amended that Fox 's tenure on the show has been extended indefinitely . CBS states that the season premiere would deal with where life has taken Sara and what brings her back to Las Vegas .
= = Video games = =
Jorja Fox voiced Sara Sidle in the first two CSI video games , CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and CSI : Dark Motives . The other two video games , CSI : Hard Evidence and CSI : 3 Dimensions of Murder , were recorded by Kate Savage . Rachel Robinson voiced Sara in the ninth CSI game , CSI : Fatal Conspiracy .
= = Career = =
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= Hellcats =
Hellcats is an American cheerleading comedy @-@ drama television series that originally aired on The CW in the United States from September 8 , 2010 , to May 17 , 2011 . Based on the book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders by journalist Kate Torgovnick , the series focuses in the lives of college cheerleaders , mainly Marti Perkins ( Aly Michalka ) , a pre @-@ law college student who has to join the cheerleading team , the Hellcats , in order to get the athletic scholarship she needs . The main cast also includes Ashley Tisdale , Robbie Jones , Heather Hemmens , Matt Barr , Gail O 'Grady , and Sharon Leal .
In May 2010 , Hellcats had been picked by The CW for the fall 2010 – 11 season . Initially with a 13 @-@ episode order , The CW aired the series after America 's Next Top Model on Wednesday nights . The pilot episode aired on September 8 , 2010 , and became the first premiere to ever match or build on an America 's Next Top Model lead @-@ in since The CW began in 2006 . The CW later gave a full season order for the series , with executives saying they were " thrilled that [ it ] paid off for us " . On May 17 , 2011 , The CW announced that Hellcats would not be renewed for the 2011 fall schedule .
Hellcats has been described as " Election meets Bring It On " by critics . It received generally mixed reviews during its first season , obtaining a Metacritic weighted average of 51 percent , based on the impression of 22 critics . The series also earned a nomination in the 2011 People 's Choice Awards .
= = Series overview = =
Hellcats follows Marti Perkins , a pre @-@ law college student at Lancer University , who lost her scholarship and has no other choice but to join the college 's cheer squad , the Hellcats , in order to obtain a new one . There she meets her new roommate and team captain Savannah Monroe , the injured flyer Alice Verdura , her new partner Lewis Flynn and the Hellcats coach Vanessa Lodge who hopes to win nationals , otherwise the cheer leading program will be cut . All the while , Marti also has to deal with her financially unstable and sometimes irresponsible mother , Wanda Perkins , whom she often has to bail out of difficult situations , and her best friend Dan Patch .
= = Cast and characters = =
Marti Perkins ( Aly Michalka ) is the protagonist of the series and a townie from Memphis , Tennessee . Described as " wicked smart " , she is a pre @-@ law student at Lancer University . Her mother , Wanda Perkins ( Gail O 'Grady ) , works at the university pub and is a party girl who never grew up . Her mother 's behavior is , for the most part , an embarrassment to Marti . When Lancer 's administrative department cuts scholarships for Lancer employees and families , Marti learns she can get a new one by choosing one of Lancer 's programs . She then auditions for a position on Lancer 's cheerleading team , the Hellcats .
Savannah Monroe ( Ashley Tisdale ) , the captain of the Hellcats , is described as " peppy and petite " with a " fierce intensity " . She initially clashes with Marti , but realizes she is the godsend that the Hellcats need to win the championship . She votes for Marti when the team has auditions for a new flyer . Savannah is from a very religious , upper @-@ middle class southern family . After a fight with her family , she left the university she was attending , Memphis Christian , and transferred to secular Lancer . Her sister Charlotte , a recurring role played by Emma Lahana , is the captain of the Cyclones , the cheerleading team at Savannah 's old school and a Hellcats ' rival .
Alice ( Heather Hemmens ) is dangerously narcissistic and after she injures her wrist , she dislikes the idea of Marti replacing her on the squad , or the attention Marti receives from Alice 's ex @-@ boyfriend , Lewis Flynn . Lewis ( Robbie Jones ) is one of the Hellcats ' bases and is an easy @-@ going guy who has a love for action . He was once a star on the Lancer football team but quit when he discovered a scandal of players being paid by the college . He tried out for the Hellcats team when his then @-@ girlfriend Alice encouraged him to do so in order to gain scholarship money after the football scandal , and instantly became hooked . He has an instant attraction to Marti . They later start dating . Dan Patch ( Matt Barr ) is a townie who is Marti 's friend . He had an unspoken crush on her but now is dating Savannah , Marti 's new friend on the team . Sharon Leal plays Vanessa Lodge , a former Hellcat cheerleader who is now the team 's coach . Her job is threatened if the Hellcats do not place at the national competition .
Supporting cast includes Red Raymond ( Jeff Hephner ) , the Lancer 's football coach who shares a romantic past with Vanessa , and Derrick Altman ( D. B. Woodside ) , a doctor who works at Lancer University and is now Vanessa 's boyfriend . Bill Marsh ( Aaron Douglas ) is the college 's athletic director who is still involved in a " pay for play " scandal with players that could get the school 's programs ( including the Hellcats ) suspended . Morgan Pepper ( Craig Anderson ) is a pre @-@ law student and Marti 's classmate . He later befriends Marti and joins her to solve a legal case introduced by their teacher Julian ( Gale Harold ) . Other Hellcats members include Darwin ( Jeremy Wong ) a gay cheerleader , and Frankie ( Alana Randall ) . Kathy ( Magda Apanowicz ) is a member of the Cyclones , usually called " Nasty Kathy " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Hellcats is based on the book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders by journalist Kate Torgovnick and the series has been described as " Election meets Bring It On " . Actor Tom Welling teamed with Kevin Murphy to executive produce the series , which was initially given the name Cheer . The pilot episode was written by Murphy and directed by Allan Arkush . On May 18 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter , Variety and Entertainment Weekly reported that The CW had picked up the series for the 2010 – 2011 television season and confirmed that Paul Becker would be the head choreographer for the series . Tisdale 's character was originally named Sierra Sloan but was renamed Savannah Monroe in the press release .
While presenting its 2010 – 11 season schedule on May 21 , 2010 , The CW officially confirmed the pick up of the series and announced its intention to air Hellcats after America 's Next Top Model on Wednesday nights . TV Guide reported that Ashley Tisdale is the best paid of the cast , earning $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode during the first season of the series .
During the 2010 Television Critics Association press tour in Los Angeles on July 29 , 2010 , producer Murphy said the series " was inspired by aspirational sports movies of the 1980s like Breaking Away , Vision Quest , and Pittsburgh @-@ set Flashdance " , and also added that " Hellcats is a show either for optimists or for people who are interested in learning the trade " . Producer Welling said he was attracted to the series mainly because of the script , and he also felt the cheerleaders ' world had not yet been tapped into on television . When asked why it picked up Hellcats , The CW replied saying the series is " one of the underdogs " and it liked the big production numbers .
The filming of the pilot episode took place in Vancouver , Canada between April 13 – 21 , 2010 . The filming of the next episodes of the first season began on July 14 in Vancouver . The cast had two weeks of rehearsal for the pilot episode but after the series ' fall season pick up , they will only have a week to rehearse the dance numbers for each episode . Former Fame actress and choreographer Debbie Allen directed the episode " Pledging My Love " .
The CW Network attempted to break the Guinness World Records mark for the " Largest Cheerleading Dance " at a single venue by inviting cheerleading squads to participate in a five @-@ minute choreographed Hellcats dance in September 2010 . However , the mark was not broken as there were not enough cheerleaders present .
= = = Casting = = =
On March 8 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter announced that Aly Michalka and Gail O 'Grady were the first actresses to be cast in the series . Michalka would play the lead role of Marti Perkins , a college girl who decided to join the Hellcats , and O 'Grady was to portray Wanda Perkins , Marti 's mother . The site later announced that actress Ashley Tisdale was cast as Savannah Monroe ( then known as Sierra Sloane ) , the fiercely intense captain of the Hellcats .
Matt Barr was cast as Dan Patch , a womanizer who quietly pines for Marti . On April 5 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter and Variety reported that actors Robbie Jones and Heather Hemmens were cast . Jones would portray the male lead , a cheerleading " base " who falls for Marti , and Hemmens was reported to play a cheerleader sidelined with a wrist injury . On April 8 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that actress Sharon Leal was cast as Vanessa Lodge , a former Hellcat star who now serves as the squad 's coach . Elena Esovolva was cast as Patty " The Wedge " Wedgerman , a lesbian cheerleader and a base for the squad .
On April 14 , 2010 , it was announced that Ben Browder was cast as Red Raymond , Lancer University 's football coach . On May 21 , 2010 , however , it was announced that Browder was no longer portraying Raymond , although he had already shot scenes for the pilot episode . His role was being recast and possibly retooled as well . Raymond 's role was later given to Jeff Hephner . On July 13 , one day before the beginning of filming , D. B. Woodside was cast as Derrick Altman , a " handsome young physician who takes care of the Hellcats cheerleaders " .
Producer Kevin Murphy confirmed that Gale Harold would guest star in the series as one of Marti 's law professors . Michalka added that Harold would appear in the third episode of the first season and had a multiple @-@ episode arc . In late November 2010 , AJ Michalka was cast in a recurring role as a girl who works at a record store near Lancer University and befriends Marti . Camille Sullivan was added to the supporting cast in February 2011 to portray Red Reymond 's ex @-@ wife .
On January 18 , 2011 , it was announced that Esovolova would not be returning to the show . Michalka has said that it was difficult for the writers to incorporate her storylines with the others .
= = = Music = = =
During the 2010 Television Critics Association press tour held in Los Angeles on July 29 , 2010 , lead actresses Michalka and Tisdale were asked about the idea of singing on the show . They stated that they plan to keep their music careers separate from the series , although Michalka advised that she would sing in the fourth episode . In addition to that , Michalka 's band 78violet recorded " Belong Here " , which served as the theme song for Hellcats . It was later released into digital stores .
Executive producer Kevin Murphy confirmed in an interview that a soundtrack would be released for the series , which would include the theme song and other songs recorded for the series . He later added " So we are building a library of material . Once we have enough , we 're gonna put it on iTunes and definitely do a soundtrack album . " Songs covered for the series include " The Letter " originally by The Box Tops , Sting 's " Brand New Day " , Squeeze 's " Tempted " and The Go @-@ Go 's hit " We Got the Beat " . Canadian singer Fefe Dobson recorded " Rockstar " , an exclusive song for the series that was played during the " A World Full of Strangers " episode . However , " Rockstar " was ultimately released on the iTunes Deluxe Edition of Dobson 's album Joy . As previously promised by Murphy , a digital EP featuring five of the songs recorded for the series was released on November 30 , 2010 , via Warner Bros. Records .
The first season of Hellcats also included live performances by guest musicians , including Hey Monday , Faber Drive , Fefe Dobson , 3OH ! 3 featuring Ashley Tisdale , Elise Estrada and Ciara .
= = Episodes = =
The first and only season of Hellcats consisted of 22 episodes . The pilot episode was broadcast on September 8 , 2010 . The initial order for the series was thirteen episodes . On September 23 , 2010 , due to successful ratings , The CW ordered six more scripts for the first season , although its production order was still at thirteen . On October 22 , 2010 , Variety announced that The CW had given a full season order for the series . The network said they took risks this year but they were " thrilled that they 've paid off for us " .
Hellcats aired on Wednesdays at 9 – 10 pm until December 1 , 2010 , when the eleventh episode aired . Starting January 25 , 2011 , The CW moved Hellcats to Tuesday nights at 9 – 10 pm , following One Tree Hill .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The show has received mixed reviews , with a Metacritic score of 51 percent , based on 22 critic reviews . It was praised and criticized by critics in several round @-@ up reviews of 2010 in television . Los Angeles Times had a good first impression of the pilot episode , saying Hellcats has a predictable story but , on the other hand , Michalka and Tisdale seem perfect for their roles . The newspaper also wrote the cheerleading world portrayed in the series is a " fun and deep world to explore " . The journal later gave a complete review of the series , comparing it to 1983 's film Flashdance aimed squarely at audiences too young for Gossip Girl but too old for Hannah Montana .
Verne Gay of Newsday praised Michalka 's performance in the series , while The Hollywood Reporter praised the series itself and said it has " multilayered characters that defy expectations " .
Curt Wagner of ChicagoNow said the series is predictable and has unrealistic situations , and criticized the lack of fun in the jokes . The journal also praised Tisdale 's performance , claiming she was the one who made him laugh the most . Hellcats also received positive reviews from Entertainment Weekly and People .
Mara Reinstein of Us Weekly gave an early review of the first episode of the series , saying Hellcats has " plenty of winning elements " but added that the series lacks spirit . She also praised the performance and Marti 's relationship with her mother . ABC News listed Hellcats as one of the ten best new shows of 2010 's fall season and described the series as " almost laughably formulaic " and added it " works like a charm " . Brian Lowry of Variety praised the series ' promise , and said that the series has a Glee @-@ like element in the script , while also criticizing Michalka and acclaiming O 'Grady 's performance . Lowry also added Hellcats 's premiere " isn 't quite unabashedly trashy enough to completely qualify as a guilty pleasure " .
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times criticized Michalka 's performance and called the series a " soft @-@ porn music video for teenagers " . Washington Post 's Hank Stuever was critical about the pilot episode , describing it as " mean @-@ spirited , painfully dumb and badly acted " . He also wrote Hellcats is the opposite to Fox 's Glee .
= = = Ratings = = =
The pilot episode " A World Full of Strangers " averaged a total of 3 @.@ 0 million viewers and scored a 2 @.@ 0 rating in the network 's target audience of women 18 – 34 , which marks the first premiere to ever match or build on an America 's Next Top Model lead @-@ in since The CW began . Hellcats also delivered the largest non @-@ Top Model performance in The CW 's Wednesday 9 – 10 pm time period in 3 years since the Gossip Girl series premiere . On September 10 , the network aired an encore of the pilot episode which averaged a total of 2 @.@ 42 million viewers and won the hour with adults 18 – 49 .
Hellcats delivered The CW 's most watched Tuesday of the season with 2 @.@ 2 million viewers watching " Papa , Oh Papa " , its 12th episode and the first in its new Tuesday 9 – 10 pm timeslot . Ratings fell rapidly as the series progressed , with the nineteenth episode , " Before I Was Caught " , hitting a series low , with less than a million viewers watching it on April 27 , 2011 . The finale was watched by 1 @.@ 16 million viewers .
The series averaged 2 @.@ 11 million viewers with live + 7 day DVR viewing .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Broadcast = =
While presenting its 2010 – 11 season schedule on May 21 , 2010 , The CW announced its intention to air Hellcats in the United States after America 's Next Top Model on Wednesday nights starting September 8 , 2010 , at 9 pm . The series moved to Tuesday nights in the 9 – 10 pm timeslot , starting with the twelfth episode . Hellcats has been syndicated for broadcast in several countries worldwide , including Australia , Canada , Greece , Ireland , Israel , United Kingdom , Brazil , Spain , the Arab World , Latin @-@ America , New Zealand , and Denmark .
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= Alexander Pechersky =
Alexander ' Sasha ' Pechersky ( Russian : Алекса ́ ндр Аро ́ нович Пече ́ рский ; 22 February 1909 – 19 January 1990 ) was one of the organizers , and the leader , of the most successful uprising and mass @-@ escape of Jews from a Nazi extermination camp during World War II ; which occurred at the Sobibor extermination camp on 14 October 1943 .
In 1948 Pechersky was arrested by the Soviet authorities along with his brother during the countrywide Rootless cosmopolitan campaign against the Jews suspected of pro @-@ Western leanings . Only after Stalin 's death in 1953 was he released from jail due in part to mounting international pressure . However , the harassment did not stop there . Pechersky was prevented by the Soviet government from testifying in multiple international trials related to Sobibor , including the Eichmann Trial in Israel . The last time he was refused the permission to exit the country and testify was in 1987 , for a trial in Poland .
= = Pre @-@ war life and career = =
Pechersky , a son of a Jewish lawyer , was born on February 22 , 1909 in Kremenchuk , Poltava Governorate , Russian Empire ( now Ukraine ) . In 1915 , his family moved to Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don where he eventually worked as an electrician at a locomotive repair factory . After graduating from university with a diploma in music and literature , he became an accountant and manager of a small school for amateur musicians .
= = World War II = =
On 22 June 1941 , the day when Germany invaded the Soviet Union , Pechersky was conscripted into the Soviet Red Army with a rank of junior lieutenant . By September 1941 , he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant quartermaster ( class II ) . In the early autumn of 1941 , he rescued his wounded commander from being captured by the Germans . He didn 't receive any medals for this deed . One of his fellow soldiers reportedly said : " Sasha , if what you 've done doesn 't make you a hero , I don 't know who is ! " In October 1941 , during the Battle of Moscow , their unit was surrounded and captured by the Germans in the pocket at the city of Vyazma , Smolensk Oblast .
Captured , Pechersky soon contracted typhus , but survived the seven @-@ month @-@ long illness . In May 1942 , he escaped along with four other prisoners of war , but they were all recaptured the same day . He was then sent to a penal camp at Borisov , Belarus , and from there to a prisoners of war ( POW ) camp located in the forest next to the city of Minsk . During a mandatory medical examination it was discovered that he was circumcised . Pechersky recalled a German medical officer asking him : " Do you admit to being a Jew ? " He admitted it , since any denial would result in a whipping , and was thrown into a cellar called " the Jewish grave " along with other Jewish POWs ( prisoners of war ) , where for 10 days he sat in complete darkness , being fed 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) of wheat and a cup of water every second day .
On August 20 , 1942 , Pechersky was sent to a SS @-@ operated arbeitslager , a work camp , in Minsk . The camp housed 500 Jews from the Minsk Ghetto , as well as Jewish Soviet POWs ; there were also between 200 – 300 Soviet inmates whom the Germans labeled as incorrigible : people who were suspected of contacting the Soviet partisans and those who were repeatedly truant while working for the Germans . The prisoners were starved and worked from dawn till dusk . Pechersky wrote about the Minsk work camp :
The German Nazi camp commandant didn 't let a single day pass without killing someone . If you looked at his face you could tell he was a sadist . He was thin , his upper lip shaking and his left eye bloodshot . He always had a hangover or was drunk and committed unspeakable horrors . He shot people for no reason and his favorite hobby was commanding his dog to attack random people who were ordered not to defend themselves . — Pechersky
= = Sobibor extermination camp = =
On 18 September 1943 , Pechersky , along with 2 @,@ 000 Jews from Minsk including about 100 Soviet Jewish POWs , was placed in a train cattle car which arrived at the Sobibor extermination camp on September 23 , 1943 . Eighty prisoners from the train , including Pechersky , were selected for work in Lager II . The remaining 1 @,@ 920 Jews were immediately led to the gas chambers . Pechersky later recalled his thoughts as the train pulled up to Sobibor , " How many circles of hell were there in Dante 's Inferno ? It seems there were nine . How many have already passed ? Being surrounded , being captured , camps in Vyazma , Smolensk , Borisov , Minsk ... And finally I am here . What 's next ? " The appearance of Soviet POWs produced an enormous impression on Sobibor prisoners : " hungry hope @-@ filled eyes following their every move " .
Pechersky wrote about his first day in Sobibor :
I was sitting outside on a pile of logs in the evening with Solomon ( Shlomo ) Leitman , who subsequently became my top commander in the uprising . I asked him about the huge , strange fire burning 500 meters away from us behind some trees and about the unpleasant smell throughout the camp . He warned me that the guards forbade looking there , and told me that they are burning the corpses of my murdered comrades who arrived with me that day . I did not believe him , but he continued : He told me that the camp existed for more than a year and that almost every day a train came with two thousand new victims who are all murdered within a few hours . He said around 500 Jewish prisoners – Polish , French , German , Dutch and Czechoslovak work here and that my transport was the first one to bring Russian Jews . He said that on this tiny plot of land , no more than 10 hectares [ 24 @.@ 7 acres or .1 square kilometer ] , hundreds of thousands of Jewish women , children and men were murdered . I thought about the future . Should I try to escape alone or with a small group ? Should I leave the rest of the prisoners to be tortured and murdered ? I rejected this thought . — Pechersky
During his third day at Sobibor , Alexander Pechersky earned the respect of fellow prisoners by standing up to Karl Frenzel , an SS senior officer , as the incident was recalled by Leon Feldhendler .
Pechersky , still wearing his Soviet Army uniform , was assigned to dig up tree stumps in the North Camp . Frenzel was in charge because an underling was elsewhere and was in a bad mood . Frenzel was waiting for an excuse to pick on someone since he considered himself an officer and a gentleman and waited for some reason to begin his sadistic games . One Dutch Jew was too weak to chop a stump so Frenzel began beating him with his whip .
Pechersky stopped chopping and watched the whipping while resting on his axe . Kapo Porzyczki translated when Frenzel asked Pechersky if he didn ’ t like what he saw . Pechersky didn 't bow down , shake or cower in fear but answered , Yes Oberscharfuhrer . Franzel told Pechersky that he had 5 minutes to split a large tree stump in two . If Pechersky beat the time he would receive a pack of cigarettes , if he lost , he would be whipped 25 times . Franzel looked at his watch , and said : Begin .
Pechersky split the stump in four and a half minutes and Frenzel held out a pack of cigarettes and announced that he always does as he promises . Pechersky replied that he doesn ’ t smoke , turned around and got back to chopping down new tree stumps . Frenzel came back twenty minutes later with fresh bread and butter and offered it to Pechersky . Pechersky replied that the rations at the concentration camp were more than adequate and that he wasn ’ t hungry . Frenzel turned around and left , leaving Kapo Porzyczki in charge . That evening , this episode of defiance spread throughout Sobibor . This episode influenced the leadership of the Polish Jews to approach Pechersky about ideas for an escape plan . — Leon Feldhendler
= = = Escape plan = = =
Pechersky 's plan merged the idea of a mass escape with vengeance : to help as many prisoners as possible to escape while executing SS officers and guards . His final goal was to join up with the partisans and continue fighting the Nazis .
Five days after arriving at Sobibor , Pechersky was again approached by Solomon Leitman on behalf of Leon Feldhendler , the leader of the camp 's Polish Jews . Leitman was one of the few prisoners who understood Russian and Pechersky didn 't speak either Yiddish or Polish . Pechersky was invited to talk with a group of Jewish prisoner leaders from Poland , to whom he spoke about the Red Army victory in the Battle of Stalingrad and partisan victories . When one of the prisoners asked him why the partisans won 't rescue them from Sobibor , Pechersky reportedly replied : " What for ? To free us all ? The partisans have their hands full already . Nobody will do our job for us . "
The Jewish prisoners who had worked at the Bełżec extermination camp were sent to Sobibor to be exterminated when Bełżec closed . From a note found among the clothing of the murdered , the Sobibor prisoners learned that those who had been killed were from work groups in the Belzec camp . The note said : " We worked for a year in Belzec . I don 't know where they 're taking us now . They say to Germany . In the freight cars there are dining tables . We received bread for three days , and tins and liquor . If all this is a lie , then know that death awaits you too . Don 't trust the Germans . Avenge our blood ! "
The leadership of the Polish Jews was aware that Belzec and Treblinka had been closed , dismantled and all remaining prisoners had been sent to the gas @-@ chambers and they suspected that Sobibor would be next . There was a great urgency in coming up with a good escape plan , and Pechersky , with his army experience , was their best hope . The escape had to also coincide with the time when the Sobibor 's deputy commandant Gustav Wagner went on vacation , since the prisoners felt that he was sharp enough to uncover the escape plan .
= = = Luka = = =
Pechersky clandestinely met with Feldhendler under the guise of meeting Luka , a woman he was supposedly involved with . Luka is often described as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman from " Holland " , but records indicate she was 28 and from Germany , her real name was Gertrud Poppert – Schönborn . After the war , Pechersky insisted that the relationship was platonic . Her fate after the escape was never established and she was never seen alive again . During an interview with Thomas Blatt , Pechersky said the following regarding Luka : " Although I knew her only about two weeks , I will never forget her . I informed her minutes before the escape of the plan . She has given me a shirt . She said , ' it 's a good luck shirt , put it on right now ' , and I did . It 's now in the museum . I lost her in the turmoil of the revolt and never saw her again . "
Luka 's shirt still exists and is described on 000000002010 @-@ 05 @-@ 03 @-@ 0000May 3 , 2010 by Pechersky 's daughter as :
It is very well preserved . Light gray . Has dark @-@ gray stripes . A little worn from wear and being often washed . Long sleeves . The shirt collar has some blurred letters of the Latin alphabet which are no longer readable .
= = = The uprising = = =
According to Pechersky 's plan , the prisoners would assassinate the German SS staff , thereby rendering the auxiliary guards leaderless , obtain weapons , and eliminate the remaining guards . Individual Polish Jewish inmates were assigned specific German SS guards that they were supposed to lure inside the workshops under some pretext and silently kill . Ester Raab , a survivor of the escape , recalled : " The plan was , at 4 o ’ clock ( pm ) , should start ( the escape ) , everybody has to kill his SS man , and his guard at his place of work . " Only a small circle of trusted Polish Jewish inmates were aware of the escape plan as they didn 't trust the Jews from other European countries .
On 14 October 1943 , Pechersky 's escape plan began . During the day , several German SS men were lured to workshops on a variety of pretexts , such as being fitted for new boots or expensive clothes . The SS men were then stabbed to death with carpenters ' axes , awls , and chisels discreetly recovered from property left by gassed Jews ; with other tradesmen 's sharp tools ; or with crude knives and axes made in the camp 's machine shop . The blood was covered up with sawdust on the floor . The escapees were armed with a number of hand grenades , a rifle , a submachine gun and several pistols that the prisoners stole from the German living quarters , as well as the sidearms captured from the dead SS men . Earlier in the day , SS @-@ Oberscharführer Erich Bauer , at the top of the death list created by Pechersky , unexpectedly drove out to Chełm for supplies . The uprising was almost postponed since the prisoners believed that Bauer 's death was necessary for the success of the escape . Bauer came back early from Chełm , discovered that SS @-@ Scharführer Rudolf Beckmann had been assassinated , and began shooting at the Jewish prisoners . The sound of the gunfire prompted Alexander Pechersky to begin the revolt earlier than planned . Pechersky screamed the preplanned code @-@ words : " Hurrah , the revolt has begun ! "
Disorganized groups of prisoners ran in every direction . Ada Lichtman , a survivor of the escape recalls : " Suddenly we heard shots ... Mines started to explode . Riot and confusion prevailed , everything was thundering around . The doors of the workshop were opened , and everyone rushed through ... We ran out of the workshop . All around were the bodies of the dead and wounded . " Pechersky was able to successfully escape into the woods . At the end of the uprising , 11 German SS personnel and an unknown number of Ukrainian guards were killed . Out of approximately 550 Jewish prisoners at the Sobibor death camp , 130 chose not to participate in the uprising and remained in the camp ; about 80 were killed during the escape either by machine gun fire from watchtowers , or while getting through a mine field in the camp 's outer perimeter ; 170 more were recaptured by the Nazis during large @-@ scale searches . All who remained in the camp or caught after the escape were executed . 53 Sobibor escapees survived the war . Within days after the uprising , the SS chief Heinrich Himmler ordered the camp closed , dismantled and planted with trees .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Immediately after the escape , in the forest , a group of 50 prisoners followed Pechersky . After some time , Pechersky informed the Polish Jews that he along with a few Soviet Jewish soldiers would enter the nearby village and then shortly return with food . They allegedly collected all the money ( Pechersky implies the money collection is a fabricated detail ) and weapons except one rifle , but never came back . In 1980 , Thomas Blatt asked Pechersky why he abandoned the other survivors . Pechersky answered :
My job was done . You were Polish Jews in your own terrain . I belonged in the Soviet Union and still considered myself a soldier . In my opinion , the chances for survival were better in smaller units . To tell the people straight forward : " we must part " would not have worked . You have seen , they followed every step of mine , we all would perish . [ ... ] what can I say ? You were there . We were only people . The basic instincts came into play . It was still a fight for survival . This is the first time I hear about money collection . It was a turmoil , it was difficult to control everything . I admit , I have seen the imbalance in the distribution of the weaponry , but you must understand , they would rather die than to give up their arms . — Pechersky
Pechersky , along with two other escapees , wandered the forests until they ran into Yakov Biskowitz , and another Sobibor escapee . Biskowitz testified at the Eichmann Trial regarding the meeting :
The two of us wandered through the forests , until we met Sasha Pechersky . There were three of them whom I came across . One had weak legs . They wore white clothes made of hand @-@ woven material . They had sunk into mud after escaping . After that , we met together . There were now five of us – we walked to the Skrodnitze forests . There we met the first Jewish partisans called Yehiel 's Group ( under Yehiel Grynszpan ) – it was a group of Jews who had undertaken action . We engaged in sabotaging railway lines , cutting telephone wires , hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on German army units . — Yakov Biskowitz
The two Russian Jewish soldiers who Yahov Biskowitz met with Pechersky were Alexander Shubayev ( who was responsible for executing SS @-@ Untersturmführer Johann Niemann ; was later killed fighting the Germans ) and Arkady Moishejwicz Wajspapier ( who was responsible for executing SS @-@ Oberscharführer Siegfried Graetschus and Volksdeutscher Ivan Klatt ; survived the war ) . For over a year Pechersky fought with the Yehiel 's Group partisans as a demolition expert and later with the Soviet group of Voroshilov Partisans , until the Red Army drove out the Germans from Belarus .
As an escaped POW , Pechersky was conscripted into a special penal battalions , conforming to Stalin 's Order No. 270 and was sent to the front to fight German forces in some of the toughest engagements of the war . Pechersky 's battalion commander , Major Andreev , was so shocked by his description of Sobibor that he permitted Pechersky to go to Moscow and speak to the Commission of Inquiry of the Crimes of Fascist @-@ German Aggressors and their Accomplices . The Commission listened to Pechersky and published the report Uprising in Sobibor based on his testimony . This report was included in the Black Book , one of the first comprehensive compilations about the Holocaust , written by Vasily Grossman and Ilya Ehrenburg .
For fighting the Germans as part of the penal battalions , Pechersky was promoted to the rank of captain and received a medal for bravery . He was eventually discharged after a serious foot injury . In a hospital in Moscow , he was introduced to his future wife , Olga Kotova .
= = After the war = =
After the end of World War II , Pechersky returned to Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don , where he lived before the war , and started working as administrator in an Operetta theater . The mass murder of Jews at the Sobibor death camp became part of the charges against leading Nazis at the Nuremberg Trials . The International Tribunal at Nuremberg wanted to call Pechersky as a witness , but the Soviet government wouldn 't allow him to travel to Germany to testify .
In 1948 , during Stalin 's persecution of Jews , known as the ' Rootless cosmopolitan ' campaign targeting those who allegedly lacked true loyalty and commitment to Stalinism and the Soviet Union , Pechersky was arrested along with his brother . Only after Stalin 's death in 1953 and mounting international pressure for his release , was Pechersky freed from prison . His brother , however , succumbed to a diabetic coma while incarcerated . Alexander Pechersky was permitted to resume working at a small amateur musical theater but in a far more menial position .
The Soviet government prevented Pechersky from testifying at the Eichmann Trial in Israel , only allowing a short deposition in Moscow which was controlled by the KGB . In 1963 , he appeared as a witness during the Soviet trial of 11 former Ukrainian guards at Sobibor ; all of whom were convicted and 10 of whom were executed . According to his daughter in an interview , Pechersky was prevented by the Soviet Union government from testifying in multiple international trials related to Sobibor . The final time Pechersky was refused permission to leave the country and testify was in 1987 for a trial in Poland , and according to his daughter , this refusal " just crippled my father . He almost stopped getting out of bed and instantly aged . "
Alexander Pechersky died on January 19 , 1990 , and was buried at the northern cemetery in Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don , Russia . As of 2009 , Pechersky 's daughter , granddaughter and two great @-@ grandsons live in Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don ( his niece , her son and their descendants live in the United States ) .
= = Remembrance = =
Alexander Pechersky features prominently in a Dutch @-@ Soviet documentary Revolt in Sobibor ( 1989 ) by director Pavel Kogan .
An award @-@ winning documentary about the escape was made by Claude Lanzmann , entitled Sobibor , 14 Octobre 1943 , 16 heures . The revolt was also dramatized in the 1987 British TV movie Escape from Sobibor , in which Rutger Hauer received a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Television ) for his portrayal of " Sasha " . Pechersky however did not attend the premiere of the movie ; his widow later stated that the Soviet government denied him permission to travel to the United States .
Only in 2007 , 17 years after his death , was a small memorial plaque placed on the side of the building where he lived in Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don . There is also a memorial wall with his name engraved on it in Boston . A street was named in his honor in Safed , Israel , and a stone memorial erected in Tel Aviv more recently .
In January 2016 , he was posthumously awarded the Russian Order of Courage by decree of Vladimir Putin .
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= West Midlands ( Regional ) League =
The West Midlands ( Regional ) League is an English association football competition for semi @-@ professional and amateur teams based in the West Midlands county , Shropshire , Herefordshire , Worcestershire and southern Staffordshire . It has three divisions , the highest of which is the Premier Division , which sits at step 6 of the National League System , or the tenth level of the overall English football league system .
The league was formed in 1889 as the Birmingham & District League to cater for teams in Birmingham and the surrounding area , but soon became established as one of the strongest leagues outside the Football League itself , with teams from as far afield as Bristol and Wales taking part . After the Second World War it absorbed the rival Birmingham Combination to become firmly established as the leading league in the area , but a gradual decline in its status began in the late 1950s and it now operates at a much lower level than in its heyday .
The league currently acts as a feeder to the Midland Football League Premier Division , to which one team is promoted to each season . Approximately fifty teams compete in the league each season , with new members regularly joining from a number of lower , more local leagues .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
In the late 1880s , Birmingham and the surrounding region boasted many of the country 's strongest football teams . Six of the region 's leading clubs joined the first two national leagues set up in England , the Football League and the Football Alliance , but there were still many teams in the area keen to participate in league play . On 31 May 1889 a meeting took place at Birmingham 's Grand Hotel with the view to forming a Birmingham & District League . A total of 17 clubs were invited but only 13 attended , of which 12 were selected to form the new league , to commence play in the 1889 – 90 season . The one club which sent a representative to the meeting but was not invited to take part in the league , for unknown reasons , was Worcester Rovers .
The 12 clubs competing in the league 's inaugural season were Aston Victoria , Great Bridge Unity , Hednesford Town , Ironbridge , Kidderminster Harriers , Kidderminster Olympic , Langley Green Victoria , Oldbury Town , Smethwick Carriage Works , Unity Gas Department , Wellington St George 's , and Willenhall Pickwick . Although Kidderminster Olympic topped the final table , no championship was awarded as a number of fixtures had not been completed . This situation was to be repeated in each of the subsequent two seasons , in both of which Brierley Hill Alliance , who had joined the league for its second season , topped the table but did not win the title . The early years of the league also saw new teams joining and existing ones dropping out almost every season , but once the league 's structure settled down , it came to be regarded as one of the strongest leagues outside the Football League itself , rivalled only by the Southern League and the Midland League .
Despite the league 's name , in the years prior to the First World War it came to include teams from as far afield as Bristol , Wrexham and Crewe , as well as including the reserve teams of local Football League clubs . A number of clubs which had enjoyed success in the Birmingham Combination also joined the league , which was seen as a step up to a better standard of football . The league 's large coverage area began to create problems in the 1930s , however , as many clubs found the long and costly journeys to away matches difficult , and began to drop out in favour of playing in leagues which covered smaller areas . In 1938 , Bangor City , Worcester City , Wellington Town and the reserve teams of Cardiff City and Wrexham all resigned from the league , reducing the numbers so much that instead of the usual format the organising committee decided to run two separate competitions each lasting for half of the 1938 – 39 season , the first named the Keys Cup and the second the League Cup . By the time competitive football was abandoned in 1939 due to the outbreak of the Second World War , the rival Birmingham Combination , which had not chosen to accept teams from such a wide area , had consolidated and come to be regarded as the region 's top league .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
Although the league lost further clubs to the Combination , which was quicker to restart after the war , within a few years the League had regained its position of pre @-@ eminence in the region , increasing to almost twice its pre @-@ war size . During the 1952 – 53 season the League 's committee proposed a merger of the two competitions , but the Combination rejected the idea , whereupon the Combination 's six best teams all resigned and joined the League . The Combination 's committee then attempted to re @-@ open the merger talks but , having just bolstered its ranks with six new members , the League was not interested . A year later , all of the Combination 's 14 remaining clubs , with the exception of West Bromwich Albion 's ' A ' ( third ) team , left to join the League , which effectively absorbed its former rival . The 40 member clubs were split into Northern and Southern divisions , which a year later were re @-@ arranged into Divisions One and Two , with promotion and relegation taking place between the two .
At the end of the 1957 – 58 season , Burton Albion and Nuneaton Borough left to join an expanding Southern League , followed a year later by Hinckley Athletic . In an attempt to consolidate the league decided to expel all remaining reserve teams , reducing to a single division of 22 clubs . Four years later it changed its name to the West Midlands ( Regional ) League to more accurately reflect its catchment area , which now included very few teams from Birmingham or its immediate environs . For the 1965 – 66 season the league was able to revert to a two @-@ division structure when it rebranded its existing single division the Premier Division and added a new Division One . By 1976 , a steady flow of teams joining from smaller regional leagues led to Division One being split into Divisions One ( A ) and One ( B ) , revised a year later to Divisions One and Two .
= = = Modern era = = =
The Alliance Premier League was formed in 1979 , pushing the Regional League further down the English football league system . Successful Regional League clubs such as Bilston Town , Hednesford Town and Halesowen Town began applying to , and being accepted into , the Southern League , reducing the Regional League to the status of a feeder league , although their departures continued to be offset by a flow of new members from lower @-@ level leagues . Reflecting the demographics of the West Midlands area , a number of British Asian teams joined the league , including Sikh Hunters , England 's first ever all @-@ Sikh team . At the same time the catchment areas of the Regional League and the Midland Football Combination were increasingly converging , and by the early 1990s the standard of play and geographical coverage of the two competitions were considered to be almost identical . A new competition was formed in 1994 to cater for the best clubs previously split across the two leagues , and thus the Regional League lost ten of its member clubs to the new Midland Football Alliance , further reducing its own status .
The reduction in numbers forced the league to revert to a two @-@ division structure , but within two seasons numbers had grown again to the extent that Division One was split into Divisions One ( North ) and One ( South ) for the 1996 – 97 season , a format retained until 2004 when the two Division Ones were re @-@ organised into Division One and Division Two . Although the league now operates at a level much below that which it occupied in its heyday it continues to survive and holds the distinction , jointly with the Northern League , of being the second oldest football league in existence , behind only the Football League itself .
= = Structure = =
The league currently has no title sponsor . Previously it has been sponsored by Sport Italia , the Wolverhampton @-@ based Express & Star newspaper , and Black Country brewery Banks 's . In the 2014 – 15 season , 55 teams are competing in the league , comprising 22 in the Premier Division , 16 in Division One and 17 in Division Two . Some of the teams in the lower two divisions are reserve teams of clubs playing at a higher level . Each division is contested on a double round @-@ robin basis , with each team playing each of the other teams in the division once at home and once away . Three points are awarded for a win ( increased from two with effect from the 1988 – 89 season ) , one for a draw and zero for a defeat . Goal difference is used to separate teams on the same points , having replaced goal average at the start of the 1978 – 79 season .
Since the 1994 – 95 season the Regional League , along with the Midland Football Combination , has served as one of the two official feeders to the Midland Football Alliance . The highest @-@ placed team which meets the Alliance 's entry requirements is promoted to the Alliance , and one or more teams may be relegated into the Regional League from the Alliance depending on the number of clubs remaining in each league . Prior to the 2006 – 07 season , the league was defined as a step 7 league within the National League System , even though it fed into the Alliance , which is graded as step 5 . In 2006 the Regional League was re @-@ graded by the Football Association as a step 6 league . Teams in the top two divisions are eligible to take part in the FA Cup and FA Vase as long as their grounds meet the required standards .
Since the formation of the Midland Alliance , the Regional League has accepted applications for membership from successful teams in smaller local leagues within its catchment area . Leagues whose clubs have joined the Regional League include the Shropshire County League , the Herefordshire League , the Wolverhampton Combination , and the Kidderminster & District League . Several ambitious local Sunday league teams have also switched to Saturday play and entered the league . Bewdley Town , Bromyard Town and Ellesmere Rangers have all joined from county leagues since 1994 and subsequently gone on to gain promotion to the Premier Division . Regional League teams could also theoretically be relegated to the local leagues but in practice this almost never happens . The only teams in recent history to drop down to a county league have been Leominster Town , Kington Town and Hinton , who dropped down to the Herefordshire League in 2004 , 2006 and 2007 respectively , although all three clubs resigned voluntarily in favour of playing in a more local league as opposed to being relegated due to finishing at the bottom of the table .
= = Attendance = =
At one time the league attracted large crowds for matches , with 3 @,@ 000 spectators watching a match between Coventry City and Shrewsbury Town in 1899 . By the early 1960s , despite the league 's decline in status , Kidderminster Harriers were still able to attract crowds of around 1 @,@ 000 fans for home matches . In the modern era , however , crowds are much smaller . In the 1993 – 94 season Rocester averaged around 100 fans for home games , and several of the team 's away matches drew crowds of less than 40 . Attendance figures are not currently published for league fixtures , however in the FA Vase in the 2005 – 06 season home attendances for Regional League teams averaged around 50 , with only Wellington 's match against Alvechurch of the Midland Alliance drawing over 100 spectators .
= = Current member clubs 2015 – 16 = =
The member clubs of the league for the 2015 – 16 season are as follows :
= = = Premier Division = = =
= = League champions = =
= = = Birmingham & District League = = =
Initially the league consisted of a single division
Between 1915 and 1919 the competition was suspended due to the First World War .
Due to the number of teams having dropped dramatically , the 1938 – 39 season consisted of two separate " half @-@ season " leagues . The Keys Cup was contested until Christmas and the League Cup for the remainder of the season .
The 1939 – 40 season was abandoned due to the outbreak of the Second World War and the league did not resume operations until 1946 .
For the 1954 – 55 season the league was split into two regional sections .
For the 1955 – 56 season the league was re @-@ organised into Division One and Division Two .
The league reverted to a single @-@ division format for the 1960 – 61 season .
= = = West Midlands ( Regional ) League = = =
For the 1965 – 66 season the league reverted to a two @-@ division format , now comprising the Premier Division and Division One .
For the 1976 – 77 season Division One was split into ' A ' and ' B ' sections .
For the 1977 – 78 season Division One ( A ) and Division One ( B ) were re @-@ organised into Division One and Division Two .
For the 1993 – 94 season Division Two was discontinued .
For the 1996 – 97 season Division One was split into two regional sections .
For the 2004 – 05 season Division One ( North ) and Division One ( South ) were re @-@ organised back into Division One and Division Two .
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= FernGully : The Last Rainforest =
FernGully : The Last Rainforest is a 1992 Australian @-@ American animated musical fantasy film , directed by Bill Kroyer . It was produced by Peter Faiman and Wayne Young , with the screenplay written by Jim Cox , adapted from a book of the same name written 15 years prior by Diana Young . Alan Silvestri composed the film 's score .
The film features the voices of Jonathan Ward , Samantha Mathis , Tim Curry , Christian Slater and Robin Williams . FernGully is set in a fictitious Australian rainforest inhabited by fairies including Crysta , who accidentally shrinks a young logger named Zak to the size of a fairy . Together they rally the fairies and the animals of the rainforest to protect their home from the loggers and a malevolent pollution entity , Hexxus .
The film was released to mainly positive reviews , and was also generally considered a moderate financial success at both the box office and in home video sales . In 1998 it was followed by a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel FernGully 2 : The Magical Rescue , though none of the original voice cast reprised their roles .
= = Plot = =
Crysta is a fairy with a curious nature living in FernGully , a pristine rainforest free from human intervention . The fairies of FernGully once lived in harmony with humans , but , believe them to have gone extinct after being driven away by a malevolent spirit named Hexxus . Crysta is the apprentice of Magi , a motherly @-@ figure fairy who imprisoned Hexxus in a tree . One day Crysta explores a new part of the forest and meets Batty , a bat who claims to have been experimented on by humans , giving him an unstable personality . She refuses to believe him until she encounters lumberjacks cutting down trees . She sees Zak , a young human whom Crysta accidentally shrinks when she tries to save him from being crushed by a falling tree , though does not know how to restore him to normal size .
The tree that Hexxus is imprisoned in is cut down by Tony and Ralph , Zak 's superiors . Hexxus quickly begins to regain his powers by feeding on pollution . He manipulates the humans to drive to FernGully . In FernGully , Zak meets Pips , a fairy male who is envious of Zak 's relationship with Crysta . Zak begins to fall in love with Crysta , but hides the true reason that the humans had returned . When the signs of Hexxus 's resurrection begin to manifest themselves in poisoned trees and rivers , he finally admits that humans are destroying the forest . The fairies mount an attempt to defend their homes , but knowing their fight is hopeless , Zak convinces Batty to aid him in stopping the machine before it destroys them . When Zak makes his presence known to his bosses , Hexxus takes over the machine and begins to wildly destroy the forest .
Magi sacrifices herself to give the fairies a chance , and she tells Crysta to remember everything she 's learned . Zak manages to stop the machine , seemingly killing Hexxus by stopping his power at the source , but he manifests himself within the oil in the machine and begins to ignite the forest ablaze . Crysta seemingly sacrifices herself by allowing herself to be devoured by Hexxus and all seems lost , until he begins to sprout limbs and leaves like a tree . Pips and the rest of the fairies rally to the powers they have been given , which causes the seed that Crysta fed him to start growing wildly . Hexxus is made dormant and turned into a twisted tree at the very border of FernGully . Crysta appears after the fight , having survived her ordeal and successfully succeeded Magi as a magical fairy . She gives Zak a seed , begging him to remember everything that has transpired and she sadly restores him to his human size . Remembering the seed in his hand , Zak promises to remember his adventure , and buries the seed in the soil before telling his superiors that things " gotta change " before leaving the forest with them . The seed sprouts new growth for Ferngully , as Crysta follows Pips with Batty behind her .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
In the book Disney , Pixar , and the Hidden Messages of Children 's Films , M. Keith Booker states that FernGully " focuses on the theme of the destruction of the earth ’ s rainforests . In this case the rainforest is located near Mount Warning , on the eastern coast of Australia , but the theme is global and the specific location is not particularly emphasized " . Despite the environmental theme Booker stated the film was " somewhat vague in its explanation of the dire consequences of rainforest destruction and it addresses the economic impetus behind this destruction hardly at all " ; the fact that the rainforest was saved at the end of the film " diminishes the urgency of its environmentalist message " and that the character of Hexxus " displaces the real blame for environmental destruction from its real perpetrators onto nonexistent supernatural perpetrators , further diluting the political message . " The character of Batty was said to introduce " the secondary theme of animal experimentation , though with a light touch that presents this potentially horrifying motif as essentially humorous . "
In the book Eco @-@ Impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity , Tom Jagtenberg and David McKie comment that radical views of ecology flourished in the film , perhaps because it was " aimed at a younger generation ... and belong [ s ] to relatively discredited genres " . As Zak is shrunk to fairy size and integrated into the fairy world , more similarities rather than differences are implied with the nonhuman characters . Crysta is said to defeat the evil Hexxus " in the manner of classic western genre heroes " , though with the key difference that her weapon is a seed rather than a revolver , allowing the produce of nature to share the heroic role with her .
= = Production = =
Producer Wayne Young said his passion for the environment was his motivation for making the film , saying the film was " blatantly environmental , although we have gone to a lot of trouble to avoid preaching . We also want it to be viewed as entertainment . " The inspiration for FernGully came from stories written by his former wife , Diana Young . Diana first wrote the story of FernGully 15 years prior to the film 's release . Wayne said the couple planned a film adaptation for five years , then spent " seven years of dreaming and hustling , followed by another three years of production " . Wayne stated their dream was not possible until the success of the 1989 film The Little Mermaid , which brought popularity back to animation . Hand drawn scenes in the film were complimented by computer animation , which was used to create elements such as flocks of birds that would have taken much longer to animate traditionally . Kroyer states 40 @,@ 000 frames of computer animation were used in the film , and that the use of such animation halved the production time . Most of the film 's $ 24 million budget was spent on the animation and the soundtrack .
The film marked Robin Williams ' first animation role , with the character Batty Koda being created specifically for him . Williams provided 14 hours worth of improvised lines for the part which was originally only supposed to be an 8 @-@ minute role . Director Bill Kroyer was so impressed with the voice work he ended up tripling the screen time given to the character . Williams went on to provide the critically applauded voice of the Genie in Disney 's Aladdin later the same year . Williams accepted the role in FernGully because he agreed with the film 's message , as did the rest of the voice cast , who all worked for scale wages . The film marked the first time that both members of Cheech & Chong had worked together in six years , with the two voicing beetle brothers Stump and Root . Cheech Marin said " It was just like old times , but we only worked for two or three hours , had a pizza and split . "
= = = Soundtracks = = =
The soundtrack album was released by MCA Records . Peter Fawthrop from Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars , commenting that the songs were " lighter and more pop @-@ driven than Disney soundtracks from the ' 90s , but they are not childish . " The score of FernGully , which was composed by Alan Silvestri , was also released for sale . It consisted of 14 tracks and ran just under 44 minutes in length .
= = Release = =
FernGully was released in the United States on April 10 , 1992 and in Australia on September 17 . The film was shown at the United Nations General Assembly on Earth Day , April 22 , 1992 .
= = = Box office = = =
FernGully grossed US $ 32 @,@ 710 @,@ 894 worldwide , including $ 24 @,@ 650 @,@ 296 from the United States , and A $ 3 @.@ 4 million in Australia . The box office performance was described as a moderate success though it was considered to have done less well than expected , possibly due to its ecological message . Joseph Gelmis from Newsday , however , described FernGully 's box office performance as " dismal " , though noted it was the most successful recent non @-@ Disney animated film . Co @-@ executive producer Jaime Willett and Josh Baran who worked on the film 's marketing both spoke of the difficulties of getting attention to an animated film that was not produced by Disney , with Willett stating box office revenue would have at least doubled by simply having the headline " Walt Disney presents " on the film . An article in USA Today noted that the combined box office gross of FernGully and the five other non @-@ Disney animated films released in 1992 did not even equal a third of the gross for Disney 's 1991 film Beauty and the Beast .
= = = Critical response = = =
FernGully received generally positive reviews . The film holds an approval rating of 71 % at Rotten Tomatoes based on 14 reviews ( 10 positive , 4 negative ) . Film critic Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars , saying the film was visually " very pleasing , " told a " useful lesson " , " and although the movie is not a masterpiece it 's pleasant to watch for its humor and sweetness . " Hollis Chacona from The Austin Chronicle added that the film was " funny , pretty , touching , scary , magical stuff . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times had an unfavourable impression of the film , describing it as " [ a ] n uncertain blend of sanctimonious principles and Saturday @-@ morning cartoon aesthetics " . According to Wayne Young , Jeffrey Katzenberg , then CEO of Walt Disney , called the producers of FernGully just to tell them that he loved the film .
= = = Legacy = = =
Wayne Young stated that portions of the film 's gross would be donated to Greenpeace , the Rainforest Foundation Fund , and the Sierra Club , as well as a special fund benefiting environmental projects worldwide that was administered by the Smithsonian Institution , though he did not disclose exact figures .
In 1998 the film was followed by a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel , FernGully 2 : The Magical Rescue . None of the original voice cast reprised their roles , and the film was less critically successful than the original . Mike Boon from the Calgary Herald gave a negative review , lamenting the loss of Robin Williams and the originality of the first film . Some reviewers have commented that the 2009 James Cameron film Avatar plagiarised thematic and plot elements from FernGully , though others have been more sceptical of the comparison .
= = Home media = =
Four months after the theatrical release , 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released FernGully on VHS and Laserdisc on August 26 , 1992 . Sales were strong , with approximately five million units sold by 1998 , including 125 @,@ 000 in Australia .
Fox re @-@ released the film on DVD in 2001 . Christopher Simons from DVD Talk gave the 2001 DVD three and a half stars out of five for both audio and video , though only one star for special features , noting that the only extras included were trailers for other films . A " Family Fun Edition " DVD was released in 2005 . Special features included commentary with director Bill Kroyer , art director Ralph Eggleston , and co @-@ ordinating art director Susan Kroyer , several featurettes including the original featurette from 1992 , the music video for If I 'm Gonna Eat Somebody ( It Might As Well Be You ) by Tone Lōc , as well as trailers and TV spots . Scott Weinberg from DVD Talk gave this version four stars out of five for both audio and video , and also four stars for special features .
FernGully was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on March 6 , 2012 , containing the same special features as the " Family Fun Edition " . Aaron peck from High Def Digest gave it three out of five stars for video quality , four stars for audio and three and a half stars for extras . Brian Orndorf from Blu @-@ ray.com gave the release three out of five stars for video quality , three and a half stars for audio and four stars for special features .
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= Craigiehall =
Craigiehall is a late @-@ 17th @-@ century country house , which until 2015 served as the Headquarters of the British Army in Scotland . It is located close to Cramond , around 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) west of central Edinburgh , Scotland .
Craigiehall was designed by Sir William Bruce , with input from James Smith , and completed in 1699 for the Earl of Annandale , who had recently acquired the Craigie estate through marriage . It is a good surviving example of one of Bruce 's smaller houses , and set a pattern for such villas in the Edinburgh area for the 18th century .
It was later the home of Charles Hope @-@ Weir , who made several improvements to the estate policies . Craigiehall was extended several times , before being sold to the Earl of Rosebery , who leased out the property . It was briefly a hotel and country club , before being requisitioned by the Army at the outbreak of the Second World War . Craigiehall continues to be used as the Army 's Scottish Headquarters . The house has been protected as a category A listed building since 1971 , as a substantial 17th @-@ century classical house , worked on by several notable architects .
= = Early history = =
The estate of Craigie is recorded as belonging to one John de Craigie in the reign of David I ( 1124 – 1153 ) . In 1387 the estate passed by marriage to John Stewart , son of Sir Robert Stewart of Durisdeer . The Stewarts sold the estate , which by this time had a tower house , in 1643 to John Fairholm , treasurer to the City of Edinburgh . In 1682 John Fairholm 's granddaughter Sophia , aged only 14 , married William Johnstone , 2nd Earl of Annandale , and Craigiehall changed ownership again . Only two built features on the estate date from before this time ; the 17th century east sundial , and the ruined doocot , or pigeon house , dated 1672 . The east sundial is one of only 25 obelisk @-@ type sundials in Scotland , and was re @-@ erected to the east of the house in 1965 , after being found in a field to the south of the house .
= = The Bruce house = =
The couple set about planning a new house to replace the aging tower house , and in 1694 the Earl contacted Sir William Bruce , who promised to design " a convenient little house , gardings and courts " . The property was surveyed by John Adair , and the old tower house was taken down . The survey took the place of a site visit by Bruce , who was at this time under virtual house arrest , due to his political leanings , and suspected Jacobite sympathies . Design submissions were also obtained from James Smith and Robert Mylne . Smith 's scheme was judged too small and irregular by Bruce , who urged the Earl to agree to his own " modish and regullar designe " . However , the house as built by Bruce is partially based on Smith 's early design . Before work on the house commenced , a courtyard , 500 by 400 feet ( 150 by 120 m ) across , was laid out , establishing the formal arrangement in which the house would sit . On 16 February 1698 , a contract was signed between Lord Annandale and the mason Thomas Bauchop , for a house 64 by 46 feet ( 20 by 14 m ) , and 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) high , all " according to the modell of wood and draught signed by Sir William Bruce of Kinross " .
Bruce 's new house was complete by 1699 , and was worked on by many of the same craftsmen who were engaged by Bruce at nearby Hopetoun House , which was under construction at the same time . Craftsmen included the plasterers John McKay and Thomas Albur , cabinet maker William Scott , plumber Joseph Foster , smith Alexander Gardener , and the wright Andrew Barclay . The staircase , with its wrought @-@ iron balustrade decorated with roses , thistles , tulips and oak leaves , bears many similarities to the one at Caroline Park , Granton , and was the work of the smiths James Storrie and James Horne .
The building comprises a compact , three @-@ storey house , in the Dutch @-@ classical style which was introduced into England by Sir Roger Pratt , and is typical of Bruce 's work . The six @-@ bay entrance front has a two @-@ bay projecting central section , surmounted by a pediment topped by three pineapples , of which one remains . The tympanum is carved with the coat of arms of the Earl and his wife , with their initials ( WEA and SCA for William , Earl of Annandale , and Sophia Countess of Annandale ) and the date 1699 . The roof behind was bell @-@ cast , with a cupola and four tall chimneys symmetrically placed , although this was replaced in the 1950s . The centrally placed entrance is reached by steps , and surmounted by carved decorations . The garden front is similar , and is also topped by a decorated pediment . Once the house was complete , two wings connected by curved passages were added . These incorporated additional accommodation and a library , but the passages and south wing were later demolished .
Inside , Bruce planned two apartments : a state apartment , comprising dining room , drawing room , bedroom and dressing room , with a second smaller apartment to the south . Bruce 's panelling survives in part of the south apartment , which was later turned into a single room . The chimneypiece and wood carving in the " Blue Room " is also 17th century . The centrally placed stairwell , lighted from above , would be developed more fully by Bruce in his design for Hopetoun House .
The walled garden to the north @-@ east was built in 1708 by Alexander McGill , to designs by the Earl of Mar , who also designed the gate piers and garden buildings , and supplied statuary . The garden may have been balanced by a similar walled garden to the south @-@ east of the house . No trace is now visible , but a second garden is shown on 18th century maps of the area , and would have been consistent with Bruce 's symmetrical layout .
= = Charles Hope @-@ Weir 's improvements = =
In 1741 , the 2nd Marquis of Annandale left Craigiehall to his nephew , Charles Hope @-@ Weir ( 1710 – 1791 ) , second son of Charles Hope , 1st Earl of Hopetoun . Hope @-@ Weir travelled to Europe on the grand tour in 1754 @-@ 55 , taking with him the young architect Robert Adam , and was inspired to improve the Craigiehall policies on his return . A walled forecourt and the formal gardens in front of the house were removed . He also planted numerous trees across the estate , laid out avenues , and had several garden buildings constructed . A lake was excavated , and a new bridge over the River Almond was constructed to link the neighbouring estate of Lennie , which Hope @-@ Weir had bought in 1750 .
= = = Bridge , grotto and bath house = = =
The rustic arched Grotto Bridge is dated 1757 . It bears Hope @-@ Weir 's initials , with the inscription UTILI DULCI , taken from Horace , and translatable as " the useful with the sweet " . It was built to a design by " J. Adam " , either John or James , Robert 's brothers . The bridge spans a particularly picturesque section of the Almond , with rapids flowing under the single span .
Upstream from the bridge is a grotto and bath house , built in a similar rustic style and presumably by the same architect . The bath house is a square vaulted chamber , with a plunge pool fed by river water . The upper chamber comprises a circular saloon with windows , although this is now roofless and in poor condition . The original roof was a conical thatched structure , and a niche on the exterior wall may have housed a statue .
= = = Craigiehall Temple = = =
An avenue of oak trees runs up Lennie Hill from the Grotto Bridge . At the summit , Hope @-@ Weir had an ornamental temple built in 1759 , commanding wide views of the expanded estate and beyond . Craigiehall Temple was a circular two @-@ storey structure , with a stair tower at the rear and a pedimented portico on the front . The segmental pediment bears the arms of the 1st Marquess of Annandale , and so predates the temple . In The Buildings of Scotland : Edinburgh , it is suggested that this portico may have formed part of a gate to the forecourt of the house . If so , it may have been made by Alexander McGill , to a design by John Erskine , Earl of Mar. It was incorporated into the temple , which was again to the design of one of the Adam brothers . A Latin inscription on the temple , again from Horace , can be translated as " live happy while you can among joyful things " . The structure was burned by vandals in the early 1970s , and in 1977 the upper storey was removed as a hazard to aviation , following the development of a new longer runway at nearby Edinburgh Airport . The remaining storey was renovated , and now forms part of a private house .
= = Extensions and additions = =
In 1818 Hope @-@ Weir 's grandson James Hope @-@ Vere ( 1785 – 1843 ) asked Thomas Brown to provide designs for an attic extension , although this was never carried out . Ten years later , William Burn was commissioned to design a new north wing , incorporating a dining room , with new kitchens below and bedrooms above . The front of this extension was topped by a pediment matching Bruce 's original , complete with pineapples , although this too was removed in the 1950s . The rear is bowed , with a curved stair led down to the garden at the rear . Plans for a matching wing to the south were never carried out . Burn also remodelled the interior , creating a large drawing room from the rooms of the south apartment .
James ' son William ( 1824 – 1916 ) commissioned David Bryce to design a further northern extension in 1853 , forming a servant 's range , and to remodel some of the interiors . William also rebuilt the 18th century stable court and clock tower between 1843 and 1872 . It was William 's son Colonel James Hope @-@ Vere ( 1858 – 1933 ) who sold the estate , upon his father 's death in 1916 , to the Earl of Rosebery for £ 85 @,@ 0000 .
= = Early 20th century = =
Lord Rosebery had purchased Craigiehall as a home for his second son Neil Primrose MP , who was killed in Gaza during the First World War . In 1926 Rosebery therefore decided to lease the house and policies , although the agricultural lands continue to be farmed as part of Lord Rosebery 's neighbouring Dalmeny estate . The lease was taken by Mr James Morton , an Edinburgh textile manufacturer , who commissioned Robert Lorimer to make various alterations , the property having stood empty for ten years . Lorimer added the oriel window on the south front , and modernised many of Bruce 's remaining interiors . A water turbine was constructed in the bath house to provide electricity .
In 1933 Craigiehall was re @-@ let to Ernest Thompson , who turned Craigiehall into the Riverside Hotel and Country Club . Thompson operated the 25 @-@ room hotel and golf course successfully until 1939 , when Craigiehall , like many other country houses , was requisitioned for the use of the armed forces .
= = Army Headquarters Scotland = =
Various regiments were stationed at Craigiehall Camp during the Second World War , including Royal Artillery , Royal Signals , and anti @-@ aircraft units . On 12 May 1945 , the surrender of German forces in Norway was negotiated and signed at Craigiehall . A rumour , related in Major Innes ' book , states that Rudolf Hess was brought to Craigiehall after he flew to Scotland in 1941 to contact the Duke of Hamilton . This rumour is based on a photograph of Hess supposedly once on display at Craigiehall , although the story is not corroborated .
After the war , Ernest Thompson exercised an option of his lease allowing him to buy Craigiehall from Lord Rosebery . However , the army had still not moved out , and in 1948 offered to purchase the property from Thompson , finally completing the sale in 1951 . Through the early 1950s the Army made alterations to Craigiehall . The original roof was replaced in 1953 due to woodworm , and extra rooms added in the attic . This resulted in the loss of Bruce 's chimneys , and Burn 's dining room pediment . Internally the house was redecorated , it being considered that there was too little of the original scheme remaining to allow restoration . Another extension was added , this time to the north @-@ west , to house the staff of the General Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief ( GOC ) in Scotland .
Elsewhere on the Camp , the Army began replacing the wartime Nissen huts with more permanent structures . New barracks opened in 1955 , and the Headquarters of the Army in Scotland arrived the same year from Edinburgh Castle . Further land was purchased from Lord Rosebery and married quarters were built close to the river . In 1966 , a purpose @-@ built office block , by architects Bowhill Gibson and Laing , was constructed within the walled garden , and named Annandale Block in honour of the builder of Craigiehall . Craigiehall Camp was also the site of a Cold War Anti @-@ Aircraft Operations Room , built in the 1950s .
Following restructuring , the army in Scotland became part of the 2nd Division , whose headquarters moved to Craigiehall Camp from York . Craigiehall itself was formerly the HQ of the Black Watch regiment , and now serves as the Officers ' Mess for the camp . As of 2007 , around 250 people , including civilian and military personnel , are employed at Craigiehall . In March 2007 , the Ministry of Defence announced plans for a new headquarters building at Craigiehall . Under the plans , the existing Annandale Block would be demolished , and the walled garden in which it stands would be restored . The new building was to be constructed elsewhere on the grounds , and was granted planning permission in September 2007 . On 14 December 2007 , defence ministers from eight NATO countries met at Craigiehall to discuss the role of NATO troops involved in Afghanistan . Among the ministers attending were Des Browne from the UK , Robert Gates from the US , and Joel Fitzgibbon from Australia . A protest march was organised , attracting around 30 demonstrators .
In July 2011 , following a Defence Basing Review carried out by the Ministry of Defence , it was announced that Craigiehall , along with Dreghorn Barracks and Redford Barracks also in Edinburgh , would be closing in 2014 – 2015 . The review proposed a single UK Support Command , based at Aldershot , to replace three existing divisional headquarters including HQ 2nd Division , based at Craigiehall , which would be disbanded in 2012 . Other units at Craigiehall would form part of a new multi @-@ role brigade to be based at Kirknewton . Craigiehall Camp would be earmarked for disposal . Although plans to develop Kirknewton as an Army barracks were scrapped in March 2013 , in early 2016 , the UK Government announced that the site was one of 12 that will be sold as part of the strategy for the MOD estate . No date for the sale was given . In 2014 Army Headquarters Scotland was merged with 51st Infantry Brigade at Forthside , Stirling .
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= Postman 's Park =
Postman 's Park is a park in central London , a short distance north of St Paul 's Cathedral . Bordered by Little Britain , Aldersgate Street , St. Martin 's Le Grand , King Edward Street , and the site of the former headquarters of the General Post Office ( GPO ) , it is one of the largest parks in the City of London , the walled city which gives its name to modern London . Its name reflects its popularity amongst workers from the nearby GPO 's headquarters .
Postman 's Park opened in 1880 on the site of the former churchyard and burial ground of St Botolph 's Aldersgate church and expanded over the next 20 years to incorporate the adjacent burial grounds of Christ Church Greyfriars and St Leonard , Foster Lane , together with the site of housing demolished during the widening of Little Britain in 1880 ; the ownership of the last location became the subject of a lengthy dispute between the church authorities , the General Post Office , the Treasury , and the City Parochial Foundation . A shortage of space for burials in London meant that corpses were often laid on the ground and covered over with soil , thus elevating the park above the streets which surround it .
In 1900 , the park became the location for George Frederic Watts 's Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , a memorial to ordinary people who died while saving the lives of others and who might otherwise be forgotten , in the form of a loggia and long wall housing ceramic memorial tablets . Only four of the planned 120 memorial tablets were in place at the time of its opening , with a further nine tablets added during Watts 's lifetime . Watts 's wife , Mary Watts , took over the management of the project after Watts 's death in 1904 and oversaw the installation of a further 35 memorial tablets in the following four years along with a small monument to Watts . Later she became disillusioned with the new tile manufacturer and , with her time and money increasingly occupied by the running of the Watts Gallery , she lost interest in the project , and only five further tablets were added during her lifetime .
In 1972 , key elements of the park , including the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , were grade II listed to preserve their character . Following the 2004 film Closer , based on the 1997 play Closer by Patrick Marber , Postman 's Park experienced a resurgence of interest ; key scenes of both were set in the park itself . In June 2009 , a city worker , Jane Shaka ( née Michele ) , via the Diocese of London added a new tablet to the Memorial , the first new addition for 78 years . In November 2013 a free mobile app , The Everyday Heroes of Postman ’ s Park , was launched which documents the lives and deaths of those commemorated on the memorial .
= = Historical background = =
The 13th @-@ century church of St Leonard , Foster Lane , about 200 yards ( 180 m ) north of St Paul 's Cathedral on Foster Lane , was badly damaged in the 1666 Great Fire of London , and was not considered to be worth the cost of repair . Instead its parish was united with that of the nearby Christ Church Greyfriars , which was rebuilt after the fire to a design by Sir Christopher Wren ; the incumbent from that time onwards has held the joint titles of Vicar of Christ Church Greyfriars and Rector of St Leonard , Foster Lane . Although destroyed in 1666 , the ruins of St Leonard , Foster Lane , were not cleared until the early 19th century .
Despite the unification of the parishes , they continued to operate separate burial grounds . That of Christ Church Greyfriars was a short distance north @-@ east of the church , on the eastern side of King Edward Street , while St Leonard , Foster Lane 's , was about 50 feet ( 15 m ) further east .
Immediately outside the London Wall at Aldersgate , a short distance north of St Leonard , Foster Lane on Little Britain , is the church of St Botolph 's Aldersgate ( sometimes referred to as " St Botolph Without Aldersgate " , a reference to its position immediately outside the historic city gate ) . Although the original church , first mentioned in 1493 , had survived the Great Fire , it was demolished between 1754 and 1757 and replaced in 1790 by the current building .
St Botolph 's Aldersgate was a wealthy parish , having been granted the assets of the nearby Cluniac priory and hospital during the 16th @-@ century Dissolution of the Monasteries . The parish was historically a significant place of worship , possibly best known as the site of the evangelical conversions of John Wesley and Charles Wesley .
To the immediate south @-@ west of the church building , St Botolph 's Aldersgate owned an irregularly shaped churchyard enclosed by Aldersgate Street to the east , the Christ Church Greyfriars burial ground to the west , housing and the burial ground of St Leonard , Foster Lane , to the south and housing along Little Britain to the north . The churchyard was used as a burial ground and as a public open space . As with other City churchyards , as the amount of available burial space in London failed to keep pace with the growing population it came to be used exclusively as a burial ground .
Postman 's Park has always been situated in the ward of Aldersgate . Its association with ( and location within ) that ward was reaffirmed in the most recent boundary review that took place in 2010 ; the ward boundary will be drawn around the southern edge of the park upon boundary changes effected in 2013 .
= = Closure of London 's burial grounds = =
The severe lack of burial space in London meant that graves would be frequently reused in London 's burial grounds , and the difficulty of digging without disturbing existing graves led to bodies often simply being stacked on top of each other to fit the available space and covered with a layer of earth . Differing numbers of parishioners in each parish led to burial grounds being used at different rates , and by the mid @-@ 19th century , the ground level of the St Botolph 's Aldersgate churchyard was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above that of the Christ Church Greyfriars burial ground , and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above that of the St Leonard , Foster Lane , burial ground .
In 1831 and 1848 , serious outbreaks of cholera had overwhelmed the crowded cemeteries of London , causing bodies to be stacked in heaps awaiting burial , and even relatively recent graves to be exhumed to make way for new burials . Public health policy at this time was generally shaped by the miasma theory , and the bad smells and risks of disease caused by piled bodies and exhumed rotting corpses caused great public concern .
A Royal Commission established in 1842 to investigate the problem concluded that London 's burial grounds were so overcrowded that it was impossible to dig a new grave without cutting through an existing one . Sir Edwin Chadwick testified that each year , 20 @,@ 000 adults and 30 @,@ 000 children were being buried in less than 218 acres ( 88 ha ) of already overcrowded burial grounds ; the Commission heard that one cemetery , Spa Fields in Clerkenwell , designed to hold 1 @,@ 000 bodies , contained 80 @,@ 000 graves , and that gravediggers throughout London were obliged to shred bodies in order to cram the remains into available grave space .
= = = The Burials Act 1851 = = =
In the wake of public concerns following the cholera epidemics and the findings of the Royal Commission , the Act to Amend the Laws Concerning the Burial of the Dead in the Metropolis ( Burials Act ) was passed in 1851 . Under the Burials Act , new burials were prohibited in what were then the built @-@ up areas of London . Seven large cemeteries had recently opened a short distance from London and temporarily became London 's main burial grounds , and in 1849 the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 890 ha ) Brookwood Cemetery in Brookwood , Surrey , with space for 240 @,@ 000 graves , was opened by the London Necropolis Company . Connected to London by the London Necropolis Railway in 1854 , it was at the time the world 's largest cemetery . It was projected that , on the basis of one body per grave with each grave being reused after 10 years , Brookwood Cemetery would suffice to house the dead of London forever .
With London 's churchyards and burial grounds no longer used for new burials , in 1858 it was decided to convert the churchyard of St Botolph 's Aldersgate to a public park . On 30 November 1858 , the Churchwardens of St Botolph 's Aldersgate announced that :
The Churchwardens of the above parish hereby give notice that they intend to plant , pave , or cover over the churchyard and burial @-@ ground . Persons having relatives interred in the said churchyard or burial @-@ ground will be permitted ( under certain regulations ) to remove and inter the remains of such relatives in any burial @-@ ground or cemetery , without the city . Persons also , to the memory of whose relatives any tomb , monument , or inscription may have been erected therein , may ( under the like regulations ) cause such tomb or grave @-@ stones to be removed and taken away ; but such removal , in either case , must be at the expense of the persons causing the same to be done . Applications for either of the above purposes must be made , in writing , on or before Monday , the 20th day of December , 1858 .
= = Opening of the public park = =
Progress in clearing and covering the burial ground was slow , and it was not until 28 October 1880 that the churchyard was reopened as a public park . Laid out with flower beds and gravel paths , the park became a popular place for local workers to spend breaks .
In 1887 , the burial ground of Christ Church Greyfriars was given to the parish of St Botolph 's Aldersgate . The burial ground was cleared and the ground level raised by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to allow its incorporation into the new park . At this time , the burial ground of St Leonard , Foster Lane was also cleared and raised to integrate it with the new park , although it was not formally merged with the park until 1890 .
A short distance south of the three burial grounds , on St. Martin 's Le Grand , was the site of a collegiate church and sanctuary founded in 750 by Withu , King of Kent , expanded in 1056 by Ingebrian , Earl of Essex and issued with a Royal Charter in 1068 by William the Conqueror . The site of the church was cleared in 1818 in preparation for the construction of a new headquarters and central sorting office for the General Post Office ( GPO ) , which opened in 1829 . In 1873 and 1895 the GPO building was greatly expanded in size , with the 1895 extension bordering the southern edge of the park itself . The park became extremely popular with workers in the GPO building , and soon became known as " Postman 's Park " .
= = = The City Parochial Foundation and the north of the park = = =
Between the northern border of the former St Botolph 's Aldersgate churchyard and Little Britain was a small , roughly triangular 300 @-@ square @-@ yard ( 250 m2 ) piece of land . The site of housing owned by the parish of St Botolph 's Aldersgate and demolished during the widening of Little Britain in 1880 , it had been incorporated into the new park . However , being owned by the parish , in 1891 ownership was formally passed to the newly formed City Parochial Foundation ( CPF ) , which felt itself obliged under charity law to maximise its income from the land . In October 1896 , the CPF fenced off the land from the rest of the park , and announced that it intended to lease the land for building purposes , unless the authorities were willing to purchase the land for £ 12 @,@ 000 ( about £ 1 @.@ 3 million as of 2016 ) .
The City of London had few open spaces , and the proposal to build on the north of the park was extremely unpopular with local residents , workers and social reformers . Henry Fitzalan @-@ Howard , the Postmaster @-@ General , persuaded the Government to contribute £ 5 @,@ 000 towards the cost , and the clergy of St Botolph 's Aldersgate launched an appeal in The Times for the remaining funds .
Reginald Brabazon , 12th Earl of Meath , founder and Chairman of the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association ( MPGA ) , decided to put the weight of his organisation behind the campaign , and through a combination of public donations and donations from the London County Council , Corporation of London and Kyrle Society , raised the remaining £ 7 @,@ 000 in less than six months . At this point a dispute broke out over who would be responsible for the maintenance of the park . The £ 5 @,@ 000 offer from the Treasury was conditional upon the CPF reassigning to the Post Office the £ 200 annual maintenance grant that it currently gave to St Botolph 's Aldersgate ; the CPF maintained that it was happy to do so on condition that the Post Office maintain the park in place of St Botolph 's Aldersgate , but that the Post Office was unwilling to do so . With all parties unable to agree on responsibility for maintenance , on 19 February 1898 the Treasury withdrew its offer altogether , leaving the appeal £ 5 @,@ 000 short .
In the wake of the Treasury 's withdrawal of funding , in May 1898 the churchwardens of St Botolph 's Aldersgate brokered a compromise with the CPF . The disputed site was split into two parts , each priced at £ 6 @,@ 000 . The western section would be purchased immediately using £ 6 @,@ 000 of the £ 7 @,@ 000 already raised , with an option to purchase the eastern section if the remaining £ 5 @,@ 000 could be raised within two years , after which the CPF would go ahead with building plans if the money could not be raised .
As before , the MPGA supported and assisted the new fundraising campaign . However , although the campaign was initially boosted by a £ 1 @,@ 000 donation from Octavia Hill , fundraising was slow , and by October 1898 only £ 2 @,@ 000 had been raised . The churchwardens and the MPGA began to consider ideas for initiatives which would publicise the campaign and provide a reason to justify preserving the whole of the park .
= = George Frederic Watts 's memorial proposals = =
The painter and sculptor George Frederic Watts and his second wife Mary Fraser Tytler had long been advocates of the idea of art as a force for social change . Watts had painted a series of portraits of those figures he considered to be a positive social influence , the " Hall of Fame " , which was donated to the National Portrait Gallery . As the son of a piano maker , who reportedly despised the wealthy and powerful and twice refused a baronetcy , Watts had long considered a national monument to the bravery of ordinary people . In August 1866 , he suggested to his patron Charles Rickards that he " erect a great statue to Unknown Worth " , and proposed erecting a colossal bronze figure . Unable to secure funds , the memorial remained unrealised .
On 5 September 1887 , a letter was published in The Times from Watts , proposing a scheme to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria . Entitled " Another Jubilee Suggestion " , Watts proposed to " collect a complete record of the stories of heroism in every @-@ day life " . Watts cited the case of Alice Ayres , a servant who , trapped in a burning house , gave up the chance to jump to safety , instead first throwing a mattress out of the window to cushion the fall , before running back into the house three times to fetch her employer 's children and throwing them out of a window onto the mattress to safety before herself being overcome by fumes and falling out of the window to her death .
Watts by this stage had abandoned the idea of a colossal bronze figure , and proposed " a kind of Campo Santo " , consisting of a covered way and marble wall inscribed with the names of everyday heroes , to be built in Hyde Park . Despite an offer of funding from John Passmore Edwards , Watts 's suggestion was not taken up , leading Watts to comment that " if I had proposed a race course round Hyde Park , there would have been plenty of sympathisers " . Watts continued to lobby for such a memorial , with both himself and Mary Watts redrafting their wills to leave the bulk of their estate to the purpose , and considered selling his home , New Little Holland House , to finance the project .
= = The Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice = =
In 1898 a friend of Watts suggested to Henry Gamble , Vicar of St Botolph 's Aldersgate , that should the church manage to purchase the land owned by the CPF it would make a suitable site for Watts 's memorial . Watts was approached , and agreed to the suggestion . On 13 October 1898 the appeal was relaunched , with the proposal that if the remaining £ 3 @,@ 000 were raised , Watts would design and build a covered way , which in due course would be lined with memorial tablets to commemorate the bravery of ordinary people . Watts planned to build a covered way around three sides of a quadrangle , with the roof supported on stone or timber columns .
The MPGA were not consulted about the proposal , and the following week Lord Meath wrote to The Times and the City Press to complain about the scheme . He argued that the MPGA had devoted large amounts of time and money to prevent the park from being built on , and that while Watts 's proposal was " worthy of all encouragement and support " , Postman 's Park , at less than one acre ( 0 @.@ 4 ha ) and surrounded by tall buildings , was an inappropriate site . The three @-@ sided design was abandoned , in favour of a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) long and 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) tall wooden loggia with a tiled roof , designed by Ernest George . The supporting wall contained space for 120 memorial tablets . St Botolph 's Aldersgate secured the necessary funds to complete the purchase of the CPF land , and Watts agreed to pay the £ 700 ( about £ 71 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) construction costs himself .
Work began in 1899 , and on 30 July 1900 the newly reunified park and Watts 's Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice ( also known as the Wall of Heroes ) were unveiled by Alfred Newton , Lord Mayor of London , and Mandell Creighton , Bishop of London . A short service was held in St Botolph 's Aldersgate , after which a short speech was given by Creighton in which he observed that :
It was a good thing that the multitude who took their recreation in this open space should have some great thoughts on which to fix their hearts , some inscriptions before their eyes recalling to them the things which had been done by those who did their duty bravely , simply and straightforwardly in the place where God had placed them . Such were , indeed , the salt of the earth , and it was by producing characters such as theirs that a nation waxed strong .
Watts himself , by now 83 years old , was too ill to attend the ceremony , and was represented by Mary Watts .
= = = William De Morgan memorial tablets = = =
Although Watts 's plans for the memorial had envisaged names inscribed on the wall , in the event the memorial was designed to hold panels of hand @-@ painted and glazed ceramic tiles . Watts was an acquaintance of William De Morgan , at that time one of the world 's leading tile designers , and consequently found them easier and cheaper to obtain than engraved stone . The four initial memorial tablets , installed for the unveiling , each consisted of two large custom @-@ made tiles , with each tablet costing £ 3 5s ( about £ 330 as of 2016 ) to produce . Only four tablets were installed by the time of the unveiling ceremony , and Watts already had concerns about the potential costs of installing the 120 tablets envisaged in the memorial 's design .
Costs were allayed by using standard 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) tiles for the next set of tablets , reducing the costs to a more manageable £ 2 per tablet . In 1902 , nine further tablets were installed , intermittently spaced along the central of the five rows , including the memorial to Alice Ayres for which Watts had lobbied .
The subjects of the 13 initial tiles had been personally selected by Watts , who had for many years maintained a list of newspaper reports of heroic actions potentially worthy of recognition . However , by this time he was in his eighties and in increasingly poor health , and in January 1904 the vicar and churchwardens of St Botolph 's Aldersgate formed the Humble Heroes Memorial Committee to oversee the completion of the project , agreeing to defer to Watts regarding additions to the memorial . Watts strenuously objected to the name , as " not being applicable to anything as splendid as heroic self @-@ sacrifice " , and the committee was renamed the " Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee " .
On 1 July 1904 George Frederic Watts died at New Little Holland House , aged 87 . He was hailed " The last great Victorian " , and a memorial service was held in St Paul 's Cathedral , 300 yards ( 270 m ) south of Postman 's Park , on 7 July 1904 .
On 11 July 1904 Mary Watts wrote to the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee , stating that she intended to complete the memorial and offering to select 35 names from Watts 's list of names and to raise the £ 62 ( about £ 6 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) necessary to finance the completion of the first two rows of tablets . Mary Watts selected eleven names to complete the first row , and De Morgan provided the tiles in October 1905 . Unfortunately , five of the tiles were damaged during shipping and needed to be replaced .
Henry Gamble and Mary Watts also commissioned a memorial plaque from T. H. Wren , a student of the school of arts and crafts established by Watts in Compton . The relief plaque depicts Watts holding a scroll marked " Heroes " , and is captioned " The utmost for the highest " and " In memorial of George Frederic Watts , who desiring to honour heroic self @-@ sacrifice placed these records here " . Eventually , on 13 December 1905 , the eleven tiles and Wren 's memorial to Watts , placed in the centre of the monument , were unveiled by Arthur Winnington @-@ Ingram , Bishop of London , completing the first row of tiles .
With the first row of tablets complete , Mary Watts and the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee decided to complete the next row as soon as possible . The Committee selected 24 names , 22 proposed by Watts before his death and two from press reports of 1905 , and De Morgan was duly commissioned to produce the new set of tablets .
= = = Royal Doulton = = =
William De Morgan was unwilling to compromise on quality or embrace the trend towards mass production , and by this time his work was significantly more expensive than similar works by other designers . Consequently , his ceramics business was becoming increasingly unviable financially . In 1906 his first novel , Joseph Vance , was published and became a great success , prompting De Morgan to close the ceramics business in 1907 to concentrate on writing . Mary Watts attempted to replicate De Morgan 's tile designs at Watts 's pottery in Compton but was unable to do so , and investigated other tile manufacturers .
It transpired that the only manufacturer able to supply suitable tiles was Royal Doulton , although they were unable or unwilling to replicate De Morgan 's designs , and they were duly commissioned to manufacture the 24 tiles , delivered in May 1908 . Mary Watts was unhappy with the design of the tiles , which were significantly different in colour and appearance from De Morgan 's original tiles , and they were installed without ceremony on 21 August 1908 , immediately below De Morgan 's original row of tiles .
In 1905 the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee had suggested to Mary Watts that public funds be raised to complete the memorial , but she objected and promised to complete the 120 tablets at her own cost or provide funds in her will to do so . However , in 1910 she told the Committee that she was unable to fund the project , as she was devoting her time and money to the Watts Mortuary Chapel and the Watts Gallery in Compton . Work to fill the three empty rows of the memorial was abandoned .
= = = = Post @-@ First World War memorials to police officers = = = =
On 13 June 1917 , P.C. Alfred Smith , an officer of the Metropolitan Police , was patrolling Central Street in Finsbury , approximately 900 yards ( 820 m ) directly north of Postman 's Park . At about noon , fifteen German aircraft began a bombing raid , devastating the area . Around 150 women and girls working in the nearby Debenhams factory panicked in the explosions , and ran out into the street while the air raid was still in progress . PC Smith and the manager of the factory shepherded them back to safety in the building , but Smith was caught by the blast of one of the bombs and died .
Following Smith 's death J. Allen Baker , Member of Parliament for Finsbury East , launched a public fund to support Smith 's widow and young son and to provide a suitable memorial to him , raising a total of £ 471 14s 2d ( about £ 24 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . On 13 June 1919 , two years to the day after Smith 's death , a memorial tablet to Smith made by Royal Doulton was unveiled at the start of the empty row directly above De Morgan 's original tiles .
After the addition of Smith 's memorial tablet , no further changes were made to the memorial in the years following the First World War . Although Mary Watts had always been opposed to the idea of a public subscription , in 1927 T. H. Ellis , Parish Clerk of St Botolph 's Aldersgate , approached her to propose public fundraising to complete the memorial . Mary Watts agreed and an appeal was launched in May 1929 , aiming to raise funds to repair and restore the by now run @-@ down loggia , and to install additional tablets . By this time Watts 's work was out of fashion , and the appeal was not as successful as was hoped , raising only £ 250 ( about £ 14 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . Of this total £ 30 was spent on the restoration of the loggia , leaving £ 220 for placing future tablets .
Disliking Royal Doulton 's tiling designs , and with her time and money increasingly devoted to the maintenance of the Watts Gallery , Mary Watts by now was losing interest in the memorial and by 1930 had handed complete control to the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee . Neither Mary Watts nor the Committee had added new names to the list originally proposed by Watts , and thus there were no proposed names more recent than 1904 , with the vast majority dating back to the 19th century . The Committee decided that rather than use these by now dated records , they would request suggestions from relevant public bodies . The British Medical Association was asked to suggest brave medical professionals , the Metropolitan Police Service to suggest brave police officers , and , in light of the park 's name , the General Post Office was asked to suggest heroic postal workers . The Metropolitan Police suggested the names of three officers who had died while rescuing others , and on 15 October 1930 tablets to the three officers , manufactured by Royal Doulton to a similar design to their previous tablets , were added to the second row and unveiled by Hastings Lees @-@ Smith , the Postmaster @-@ General , in a ceremony also commemorating the 50th anniversary of the opening of the park , attended by Mary Watts and many police officers and relatives of those being commemorated .
At this time , one of De Morgan 's 1902 tablets was removed . Commemorating four workers who had died in an accident at the East Ham Sewage Works in 1895 , Watts had mistakenly listed the incident as having taken place at the West Ham Sewage Works in 1885 . The De Morgan tablet was removed and replaced with a Royal Doulton tablet giving the correct location and date . As the Doulton tablets were in such a different style to De Morgan 's , the replacement tablet was installed in the second row next to the three new tablets to police officers , rather than in the space left by the original .
= = = Herbert Maconoghu = = =
Removing the original tablet to the victims of the East Ham Sewage Works accident had left an unsightly gap in the original row of tiles . In 1931 , Mary Watts tracked down Fred Passenger , a former employee of De Morgan who had , after the closure of the business , set up his own ceramics business using De Morgan designs . Passenger was by this time working for a pottery business in Bushey Heath established by artist Ida Perrin , but Mary Watts persuaded him to produce a single panel in the style of De Morgan to fit into the empty space . Herbert Maconoghu , a schoolboy who had died in 1882 attempting to rescue two friends from drowning , had been one of the names originally suggested by Watts , and Passenger produced a tablet to Maconoghu in the style of the original central row , which was installed in April 1931 . Maconoghu was actually Herbert Moore McConaghey , the son of Matthew and Martha McConaghey , and he was born in Mynpoorie in Indian where Matthew was working as a settlement officer for the Imperial Civil Service .
= = Postman 's Park after the death of Mary Watts = =
Mary Watts died in 1938 , and was buried alongside George Frederic Watts near the Watts Mortuary Chapel , which she had herself designed and built in Compton in 1901 . Following her death , and with both George and Mary Watts increasingly out of fashion , the memorial was abandoned half @-@ finished , with only 52 of the intended 120 spaces filled . In the years following Mary Watts 's death there were occasional proposals to add new names to complete the memorial , but the Watts Gallery was hostile to the plans , considering the monument in its unfinished state to be a symbol of the Watts 's values and beliefs , and that its status as a historic record of its time is what makes it of value in the present day .
The nave of Christ Church Greyfriars was destroyed by bombing on 29 December 1940 . By then the decline in the population of the City of London had reduced the congregation to less than 80 , and the parishes of St Leonard , Foster Lane and Christ Church Greyfriars were merged with nearby St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate . Although parts of the ruins were cleared during a widening of King Edward Street after the Second World War , the remains of the nave of Christ Church Greyfriars became a public memorial in 1989 ; the tower is now office space .
St Botolph 's Aldersgate remains open as a functioning church . Unusually for an English church , because of its location in a now mainly commercial area with few local residents , services are held on Tuesdays instead of the more traditional Sundays . On 4 January 1950 , St Botolph 's Aldersgate and the surviving ruins of Christ Church Greyfriars were both designated Grade I listed buildings .
In 1934 , a statue of Sir Robert Peel erected in Cheapside in 1855 was declared an obstruction to traffic and removed . A proposal that it be installed in front of the Bank of England fell through , and in 1952 it was erected in Postman 's Park . In 1971 the Metropolitan Police requested that the statue be moved to the new Peel Centre police training complex , and the Corporation of London agreed . In place of Peel 's statue , a large bronze sculpture of the Minotaur by Michael Ayrton was unveiled in 1973 . Dominating the small park , in 1997 the Minotaur sculpture was moved to a new position on the raised walkway above London Wall .
On 5 June 1972 , the western entrance of Postman 's Park and the elaborate Gothic drinking fountain attached to the railings were Grade II listed , protecting them from further development . At this time , the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice itself was also Grade II listed ; although considered of little architectural merit , the register notes that it is " listed as a curiosity " .
Postman 's Park came to increased public notice in 2004 with the release of the BAFTA- and Golden Globe @-@ winning film Closer , which stars Natalie Portman , Julia Roberts , Jude Law and Clive Owen , and is based on the 1997 play Closer by Patrick Marber . A key plot element in the film revolves around Postman 's Park , in which it is revealed that the character Alice Ayres ( played by Portman in the film ) has in fact fabricated her identity based on Ayres 's tablet on the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , which she had read at the time of her first meeting with Dan Woolf ( Jude Law ) at the start of the film .
= = = Leigh Pitt = = =
Leigh Pitt , a print technician from Surrey , had died on 7 June 2007 rescuing nine @-@ year @-@ old Harley Bagnall @-@ Taylor who was drowning in a canal in Thamesmead . His colleague , Jane Michele ( now Jane Shaka ) approached the Diocese of London to suggest that Pitt would make a suitable addition to the memorial , and despite previous opposition from the Watts Gallery to proposals to complete the memorial , on 11 June 2009 a memorial to Pitt was added to the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , the first new tablet added to the memorial since that of Herbert Maconoghu 78 years earlier . A spokesman for the Diocese of London said that the Diocese would now consider suitable names to be added to the memorial in future .
= = The Everyday Heroes of Postman ’ s Park mobile app = =
In November 2013 , a free mobile app entitled The Everyday Heroes of Postman ’ s Park was launched . The app provides detailed accounts of each of the fifty @-@ four incidents recorded on the Memorial and reveals the lives of the sixty @-@ two people commemorated . The app employs image recognition technology and the built @-@ in camera on the device to scan each tablet and then deliver the relevant information about the person . The app is the result of collaboration between Prossimo Ventures Ltd and Dr John Price of the University of Roehampton , supported by Creativeworks London , a Knowledge Exchange Hub for the Creative Economy funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council ( AHRC ) . The app can be used on a range of devices including iPhone , iPad and Android devices .
= = The Friends of the Watts Memorial = =
The Friends of the Watts Memorial was established in 2015 with the primary aims of protecting , preserving and promoting the Watts Memorial to Heroic Self @-@ Sacrifice in Postman ’ s Park London and , ultimately , to work towards completing it in full as its creator , the artist George Frederic Watts originally intended .
The Friends is a not @-@ for @-@ profit organisation , run entirely by volunteers and governed by a constitution.The Friends work with various partners , including the Bishop of London ’ s Office , the City of London Corporation and the Watts Gallery , to ensure that the Watts Memorial is maintained and conserved . It promotes and publicises the memorial , through planning and staging events , so as to raise its profile and increase public engagement and knowledge about it . The Friends also support the work of those who wish to research the history of the memorial or to undertake events related to it and it undertakes fundraising to support the conservation of the memorial and to facilitate its completion .
= = Styles of tiling used on the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice = =
The tablets are arranged on the second , third and fourth of the five rows , with 24 tablets to William De Morgan 's original design in the third , central , row , the 24 tablets added in 1908 directly below in the fourth row , and more recent additions above the original tiles in the second row . The first and fifth of the five rows remain empty . The first four tablets , designed and manufactured by De Morgan and installed in 1900 , were each made from two large custom @-@ made tiles . Nine further De Morgan tablets , installed in 1902 , were made using standard tiles to reduce costs , and were the last tiles whose installation was overseen by Watts . Eleven further De Morgan tablets , along with T. H. Wren 's memorial to Watts , were added in 1905 , completing the central row of tablets . All 24 tablets of the 4th row , designed and manufactured by Royal Doulton , were added as a single batch in August 1908 . A single Royal Doulton tablet to PC Alfred Smith was added in June 1919 , followed in October 1930 by similar Royal Doulton tablets to three further police officers , and a replacement tablet with the correct details of the East Ham Sewage Works incident of 1895 . A single tablet made by Fred Passenger in the original De Morgan style , honouring schoolboy Herbert Maconoghu , was added in April 1931 to fill the gap in the centre row left by the removal of the original , incorrect tablet to the victims of the East Ham Sewage Works incident . In 2009 a 54th tablet was added , in the style of the Royal Doulton tiles , to commemorate print technician Leigh Pitt , the first addition to the wall for 78 years .
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= SM UB @-@ 11 =
SM UB @-@ 11 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 11 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 11 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 11 in March 1915 .
UB @-@ 11 's commanding officer at commissioning only remained in charge of the ship for a week . Sources do not report any more commanding officers assigned through the end of the war , so it 's not clear if the submarine remained in commission . UB @-@ 11 was reported in use as a training vessel at Kiel in September 1915 . The U @-@ boat made no war patrols and sank no ships during the war , which may indicate that the vessel remained in a training role . At the end of the war , UB @-@ 11 was deemed unseaworthy and unable to surrender at Harwich with the rest of Germany 's U @-@ boat fleet . She remained in Germany where she was broken up by Stinnes in February 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 11 was part of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered UB @-@ 9 to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 11 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 7 November . As built , UB @-@ 11 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 11 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 11 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 11 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men . After work on UB @-@ 11 was complete at the Weser yard , she was launched on 2 March .
= = Career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 11 on 4 March 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kapt . ) Ralph Wenninger , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . Wenninger was only in command of UB @-@ 11 for a week . Sources do not indicate who , if anyone , succeeded him as commander of UB @-@ 11 , or if UB @-@ 11 remained in commission .
According to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , UB @-@ 11 had been assigned to the Kiel Periscope School by September 1915 . Uboat.net reports that UB @-@ 11 ' undertook no war patrols and had no successes against enemy ships , which may indicate that the vessel remained in use only as a training vessel .
At the end of the war , the Allies required all German U @-@ boats to be sailed to Harwich for surrender . UB @-@ 11 was one of eight U @-@ boats deemed unseaworthy and allowed to remain in Germany . UB @-@ 11 was broken up by Stinnes on 3 February 1920 .
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= John de Vere , 7th Earl of Oxford =
John de Vere , 7th Earl of Oxford ( c . 12 March 1312 – 24 January 1360 ) was the nephew and heir of Robert de Vere , 6th Earl of Oxford who succeeded as Earl of Oxford in 1331 , after his uncle died without issue .
John de Vere was a trusted captain of Edward III in the king 's wars in Scotland and France , and took part in both the Battle of Crécy and the Battle of Poitiers . He died campaigning in France in 1360 . Throughout his career he was closely associated with William de Bohun , 1st Earl of Northampton , who was his brother @-@ in @-@ law .
= = Family background and marriage = =
John de Vere was the only son of Alphonse de Vere , and Jane , daughter of Sir Richard Foliot . Alphonse was a younger son of Robert de Vere , 5th Earl of Oxford and apparently died shortly before 20 December 1328 , when a writ was issued for inquisitions post mortem into the land that he held direct from the King . These hearings established that Alphonse 's next heir was his son John , then aged 15 years and more . The manors concerned were Aston Sandford , Buckinghamshire , Westwick by St Albans and Great Hormead , Hertfordshire , as well as property at Beaumont and Althorne in Essex .
Alphonse was a brother of Robert de Vere , 6th Earl of Oxford . When the 6th Earl 's son died without issue in 1329 , he obtained licence from the king to entail his estates on his nephew , John . It was in this way that John de Vere , when his uncle died 17 April 1331 , became Earl of Oxford . He had made homage and received livery by 17 May .
In 1336 John married Maud de Badlesmere , who was the second of the four daughters of Bartholomew de Badlesmere , 1st Baron Badlesmere , of Badlesmere in Kent and Margaret de Clare . Maud was a co @-@ heiress of her brother Giles de Badlesmere , 2nd Baron Badlesmere . When Giles died in 1338 , this brought a significant part of the Badlesmere inheritance into de Vere 's hands . The marriage also forged a strong bond with William Bohun , Earl of Northampton , who had married Badlesmere 's third daughter , Elizabeth de Badlesmere , and thus became Oxford 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . The two campaigned together , sat on the same commissions and died the same year .
= = Career = =
De Vere 's military career began with service on Edward III 's Scottish campaigns , in the 1330s Second War of Scottish Independence . He took part in the Roxburgh campaign of 1334 – 5 , and in the summer campaign of 1335 . Later in the decade , England 's military efforts turned towards France , with the beginning of the Hundred Years ' War . In March 1340 , de Vere served in Flanders , and was therefore out of the country during Edward 's disputes with Archbishop John de Stratford . Oxford was not forced to take sides in the conflict , and has been described as a " political neutral " .
After a period in England , de Vere returned to the Continent in 1342 , where he served with Northampton , who had been made lieutenant of Brittany . They both took part in the Battle of Morlaix that year . The next year the two earls were sent to Scotland to relieve Lochmaben Castle , and in 1345 they were again campaigning in Brittany . Tradition has it that , returning to England , their ships were forced ashore by bad weather , and the party was robbed of their possessions by the locals . In the summer of 1346 de Vere was campaigning with the king in Normandy , and took part in the Battle of Crécy . According to the chronicler Froissart , de Vere was fighting with the Black Prince , and was among the captains who sent a request to Edward III for reinforcements when the king famously answered ' Let the boy win his spurs ' . Oxford was also at the Siege of Calais , but reportedly fell ill in 1348 , and did not take part in any major campaigning until 1355 .
In 1355 he was again in the company of the Black Prince , and took part in the prince 's great raid in Languedoc . 19 September 1356 , at the Battle of Poitiers , Oxford was in command of the vanguard together with the earl of Warwick. de Vere 's attack on the flank of the French cavalry , with a group of archers , did much to secure the English victory . His last campaign was Edward III 's Rheims campaign in 1359 – 60 . Here he died , probably during the raid into Burgundy , on 23 or 24 January 1360 . He was buried in the de Vere family 's burial place Colne Priory in Essex .
= = Descendants and assessment = =
Maud de Vere died in 1366 . The couple had four sons and three daughters . The eldest son , John , married Elizabeth Courtenay , daughter of Hugh Courtenay , 10th Earl of Devon , but died before his father , in 1350 . ( After the death of her husband , Elizabeth married Sir Andrew Luttrell of Chilton ( in Thorverton ) , Devon . ) Another son , Robert , also died in his father 's lifetime . The eldest remaining son was then Thomas , born about 1336 or 1337 , who succeeded his father in 1360 . Thomas 's son Robert de Vere , 9th Earl of Oxford succeeded at his father 's death , but with Robert 's forfeiture in 1392 , the earldom was given to Robert 's uncle Aubrey – the seventh earl 's fourth son . The eldest daughter , Margaret , married three times , while of the second , Matilda , little is known . The third daughter , Elizabeth , married Sir Hugh Courtenay , eldest son and heir of Hugh de Courtenay , 10th Earl of Devon .
John de Vere , in the family tradition of the " fighting de Veres " , was active in almost all major military engagements in the years from 1340 to 1360 . On the Roxburgh campaign he brought a retinue of twenty @-@ eight men @-@ at @-@ arms and twelve mounted archers . In Brittany in 1342 , the retinue had grown to forty men @-@ at @-@ arms , one banneret , nine knights , twenty @-@ nine esquires , and thirty mounted archers . His retinue was of a diverse composition , and also included foreign mercenaries . At one point , in the Battle of Poitiers , John Hawkwood , who was later to make his fortune as a condottiero in Italy , also served with de Vere . Yet in spite of this , de Vere never distinguished himself particularly as a military commander . Neither did he receive a great amount of royal patronage , and was never made a member of the Order of the Garter . This was largely a consequence of the de Vere family 's relatively modest resources among the English peerage . As an example can be mentioned that in the late 1340 , £ 349 were owed to Oxford in arrears for his services , yet at the same time the king owed Northampton two debts of £ 782 and £ 1237 . This obstacle of resources and status John de Vere was unable to overcome either by marriage or warfare .
= = De Vere family tree = =
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= The PTA Disbands =
" The PTA Disbands " is the 21st episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 16 , 1995 . In the episode , Edna Krabappel calls an emergency strike on behalf of the Teachers ' Union of Springfield Elementary , to protest against Principal Skinner 's miserly school spending . Students react in their own manner to the strike : Lisa becomes obsessed with a desire to be graded , while Bart enjoys the extra time he has during the day . Bart arranges to keep the teachers union and Principal Skinner at an impasse , but becomes frustrated with substitute teacher arrangements and resolves to force negotiations forward . The situation is resolved when Krabappel and Skinner agree to rent space in classroom closets to the Springfield Prison .
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Swinton O. Scott III , with David Mirkin as show @-@ runner . The episode includes cultural references to a number of books highlighted by Edna Krabappel as having been banned by other schools – including William Shatner 's TekWar , Steal This Book by Abbie Hoffman , and The Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin . The episode received favorable mention in books on The Simpsons and media reviews , and was cited by academicians , who analyzed portions of the episode from physics and psychology perspectives . During a 2004 strike by voice actors for The Simpsons during salary negotiations , media sources cited an iconic quote from Homer to Lisa in the episode about the teachers ' strike .
= = Plot = =
After a failed attempt at a school field trip , which appears to have caused the apparent abandonment and brutal beating of the student Üter , Edna Krabappel calls an emergency strike on behalf of the Teachers ' Union of Springfield Elementary , to protest against Principal Skinner 's miserly spending on school supplies and activities .
As the teachers ' strike results in the closing of the school , the various student characters respond to the sudden turn of events in their own ways : Lisa becomes increasingly obsessive in her desire to be graded , Milhouse is forced by his parents to take private tutoring lessons ( which improve his education ) , Jimbo Jones finds himself immersed in the intricacies of daytime soap operas with his mother , Dolph and Kearney become easily bored with video games , and Bart revels in his newfound afternoon freedom and annoys many Springfield citizens by imitating other people to make them angry or hurt each other . In particular , Bart does what he can to keep the union and Principal Skinner at odds with each other . The two sides are at an impasse ; the union wanting a restoration of funding and Skinner maintaining that even with the spending reductions he has made , government budget cuts have squeezed the school dry .
After some prompting from an exasperated Marge Simpson , the parents of Springfield eventually decide to take matters into their own hands , and recruit volunteers from the community to take over as temporary teachers . This turns out to be even worse for the students than before the strike , especially as Marge becomes Bart 's new teacher after Skinner learns he has chased away previous substitutes including Moe and decided he needed use her to keep Bart in line . Jasper becomes Lisa 's new teacher and gets his beard stuck in a pencil sharpener , which makes her worried about not being able to get into her dream school Vassar College . Due to Marge 's excessive mothering of Bart , he grudgingly resolves to force the strike negotiations forward . Together with Milhouse , he tricks both Krabappel and Principal Skinner into entering Skinner 's office , which he then locks behind them . After spending several hours trapped together " like prisoners " in their own school , the two are mutually inspired with an idea to create extra revenue for more school spending . Things return to normal with the old teachers in charge , but with the school cloakrooms having been rented to the Springfield Prison . Each classroom now features several full prison cells at the back , which have the added benefit of keeping the more troublesome students in line . Snake Jailbird makes a deal with Bart to get him out of prison , promising him to " make it worth your while " , to which Bart responses shortly afterwards " I 'm listening " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden . She came in to the writers ' room and pitched the idea that there should be a teachers ' strike in an episode . Then @-@ show runner David Mirkin thought the episode had a lot of potential , and much of it is based on his experience as a child with schools running out of money . Despite the title of the episode , at no point does the PTA ( Parent @-@ Teacher Association ) actually disband . The title was suggested by Mirkin and was intended to poke fun at Crittenden , who thought the most exciting part of the teachers going on strike would be that the PTA might disband . In addition to this , Mirkin added a character to the episode who , on thinking the PTA has disbanded , jumps panicking out of a window . He jumps back in the same window when Flanders tells him the PTA has not disbanded .
The episode was directed by Swinton O. Scott III . In the opening shot of the episode , the bus that the children travel in to the field trip had to vibrate up and down to give the impression that it did not have bumpers and that it was falling apart . Scott said it was difficult to animate the scene because of the vibrating and the backgrounds panning . Milhouse 's tutor in the episode is based on the American actor Tony Randall .
= = Cultural references = =
During their field trip , the bus from Springfield Elementary arrives at the Fort Springfield civil war site and skids into a cannon , knocking one of its wheels off . The cannon then points at the tower leg of a lookout , giving the impression that it will fire at the lookout and destroy it , which is a reference to the opening sequence of the television sitcom F Troop . The lookout was also modeled after the lookout in the show . The scene in which Üter is left behind at the end of the field trip is based on a scene from the 1965 film Von Ryan 's Express .
Edna points at some school books and says : " The only books we have are ones that were banned by other schools . " Skinner says : " Well , the kids have to learn about TekWar sooner or later , " referencing William Shatner 's series of science fiction novels . Other books in the bookshelf include Sexus by Henry Miller , Hop on Pop by Dr. Seuss , The Satanic Verses ( " Junior Illustrated Edition " ) by Salman Rushdie , 40 Years of Playboy by Hugh Hefner , Steal This Book by Abbie Hoffman , and The Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin .
Bart tells Skinner in the principal 's office that Edna told him that Skinner " folds faster than Superman on laundry day " , a reference to the comic book character Superman . That line is one of The Simpsons animator David Silverman 's favorite lines on the show . Gabe Kaplan is one of Bart 's victims on his substitute list , a reference to Kaplan and his character in the 1975 TV series Welcome Back , Kotter . The character at the bank who tells the angry crowd that their money 's in " Bill 's house , and Fred 's house " is based on James Stewart 's George Bailey character in the bank run scene from It 's a Wonderful Life .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The PTA Disbands " finished 69th in ratings for the week of April 13 – 19 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 1 . It was the 8th highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
In their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood describe " The PTA Disbands " as " Possibly the best of the school episodes . " In a review of the sixth season of The Simpsons , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide writes : " I especially like the contrasts between how Bart and Lisa accept the strike . The show doesn ’ t quite manage to soar consistently , but it has more than enough to make it positive . " In his review of the episode for TV Squad , Adam Finley comments : " I love how Bart and Lisa both handle the news differently . Bart is thrilled ... Lisa , on the other hand , can 't handle not being graded and evaluated every day , and slowly begins to lose her mind . "
In 2004 , when the voice actors for The Simpsons went on strike requesting additional income , The Scotsman cited a quote by Homer from the episode : " If you don 't like your job , you don 't strike . You just go in every day and do it really half @-@ assed . That 's the American Way . " The Scotsman asserted " Homer would not approve " of the strike by the voice actors . The voice actors were asking for an increase from US $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode . The same quote by Homer to Lisa was cited by Michael Schneider in Daily Variety , who wrote : " ... insiders note that the actors work just six to seven hours to voice an episode --- which would mean $ 360 @,@ 000 for a day 's work , a figure that even Everybody Loves Raymond star Ray Romano doesn 't match . "
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia physics and mathematics professor Paul Halpern discusses the episode in his book What 's Science Ever Done for Us ? : What the Simpsons Can Teach Us About Physics , Robots , Life , and the Universe , and quotes Homer 's admonition to Lisa : " Lisa , in this house , we obey the laws of thermodynamics ! " at the beginning of Halpern 's section on " Mechanical Plots " . Halpern describes Lisa 's efforts to build a perpetual @-@ motion machine while bored during the teachers strike , and comments that though it is absurd in reality to order someone to obey the laws of thermodynamics , he acknowledges that " physicists sometimes don 't know the proper arena within which certain laws apply " . In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed " The PTA Disbands " among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " , writing : " Lisa gets so bored by a lack of schooling she builds a perpetual motion machine . Homer is not pleased : ' Lisa , in this house we OBEY the laws of thermodynamics . ' "
The episode is cited by Robert M. Arkin and Philip J. Mazzocco in their work " Self @-@ Esteem in Springfield " , in the compilation book The Psychology of The Simpsons . Arkin and Mazzocco note an exchange between Edna Krabappel and Seymour Skinner , where Skinner exclaims to Krabappel : " Oh come on Edna : We both know these kids have no future ! [ All the children stop and look at him ; he chuckles nervously ] Prove me wrong , kids . Prove me wrong . " Arkin and Mazzocco note that this example is seen as an exception , writing : " Generally , however , the Simpsons are right on target in their understanding of the importance of self @-@ esteem and the dynamics involved in the interplay between the social world and positive self @-@ regard . "
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= Norton Internet Security =
Norton Internet Security , developed by Symantec Corporation , is a computer program that provides malware prevention and removal during a subscription period and uses signatures and heuristics to identify viruses . Other features included in the product are a personal firewall , email spam filtering , and phishing protection . With the release of the 2015 line in summer 2014 , Symantec officially retired Norton Internet Security after fourteen years as the chief Norton product . It is superseded by Norton Security , a rechristened adaptation of the Norton 360 security suite .
Symantec distributed the product as a download , a boxed Compact Disc ( CD ) copy , and as OEM software . Some retailers also distributed it on a USB flash drive . Norton Internet Security held a 61 % market share in the United States retail security suite category in the first half of 2007 . In this study , competitors , in terms of market share , included security suites from CA , Inc . , Trend Micro , and Kaspersky Lab .
= = Windows edition = =
In August 1990 Symantec acquired Peter Norton Computing from Peter Norton Norton and his company developed various applications for DOS , including an antivirus . Symantec continued the development of the acquired technologies , now marketed under the name of " Norton " , with the tagline " from Symantec " . Norton 's crossed @-@ arm pose , a registered U.S. trademark , was featured on Norton product packaging . However , his pose was later moved to the spine of the packaging , and later dropped altogether .
Existing users of the 2006 and newer versions can upgrade to the latest version of the Norton software without buying a new subscription . The upgraded product retains the same number of days left on a user 's subscription .
Releases are named by year but have internal version numbers as well . The internal version number was advanced to 15.x in the 2008 edition to match the Norton AntiVirus release of the same year . As of the 2013 ( 20.x ) release the product has dropped the year from its name , although it still is referenced in some places .
= = = Version 2000 ( 1 @.@ 0 , 2 @.@ 0 ) = = =
Norton Internet Security 2000 , released January 10 , 2000 , was Symantec 's first foray beyond virus protection and content control filters . Its release followed an alliance between Internet provider Excite @ Home and antivirus vendor McAfee.com to provide Internet subscribers with McAfee 's new firewall software , McAfee Personal Firewall . Version 2000s firewall , based on AtGuard from WRQ , filters traffic at the packet level . It can block ActiveX controls and Java applets . Other functionalities include cookie removal , and banner ad blocking . ZDNet found the ad blocker removed graphics that were not ads , breaking pages . Adjusting the settings fixed the problem , however the process was complicated . ZDNet noted the lack of information presented concerning attacks the firewall blocked . Norton LiveUpdate downloads and installs program updates .
The Family Edition adds parental controls . Parental controls are backed by a quality control team of 10 searching the web for inappropriate content . Found content is categorized in subject matter and placed on a blacklist of about 36 @,@ 000 sites . A designed administrator can add blocked sites , however the pre @-@ supplied blacklist cannot be viewed or edited since it is hard coded . Administrators can block certain subject matters . Another option is to block all sites , then create a whitelist of allowed sites . Family Edition can also block transmission of specified personal information . Such information is replaced with the letter " X " . However , CNN noted X @-@ rated sites are retrieved when personal information is queried by a search engine .
Version 2 @.@ 0 was released June 12 , 2000
= = = Version 2001 ( 2 @.@ 5 , 3 @.@ 0 ) = = =
Version 2001 ( 2 @.@ 5 ) was released September 18 , 2000 , adding support for Windows ME in addition to the Windows 9x series , Windows NT , and Windows 2000 . Following attacks by the ILOVEYOU and Anna Kournikova script viruses , this version can block malicious scripts without virus signatures , but by analyzing behavior .
The firewall scans for Internet @-@ enabled applications and creates access rules based on a knowledge base maintained by Symantec during installation . In PC Magazine testing , the installation took 24 minutes to complete on a 750 MHz Pentium III with 92 Internet @-@ enabled applications . Using the firewall , users can determine whether to accept cookies , Java applets , and ActiveX controls on a global or per @-@ site basis . A new feature , Intrusion Detection with AutoBlock , can detect port scans and block further intrusion attempts . The program provides notifications for intrusion attempts , stating the severity level and providing access to threat details . Alternatively , the firewall can put the computer in stealth , essentially hiding the system . Users can configure the security level , affecting the number of notifications . Testing conducted by PC Magazine using Shields Up and Symantec 's Security Check found that the firewall successfully stealthed all ports , hiding the computer from view . A leak test was conducted to see the firewall 's ability to detect outbound connections . Each attempt was detected and the suite offered to block the attempts .
The Family Edition , like the prior version , includes parental controls and the information filtering feature . Parental controls come with a list of objectionable sites , separated into 32 categories . The list is updated every two weeks by Norton LiveUpdate . Using the list alone , Norton only blocks sites present on the list . Consequently , Norton may not block sites until the next update . Parents can customize the list , adding or removing sites . A list of allowed sites can be created to restrict children to those specific sites . This version uses application blocking rather than protocol or port filtering to control Internet access . Children can be restricted in what applications they used to access the Internet . A parental controls profile can be set up for each child , and settings can be automatically configured based on their age group , whether they be a child , teenager , adult , or administrator . Internet usage and violations are noted in a report presented to parents . PC Magazine found that enabling parental controls added a minute to a computer 's boot time .
Version 3 @.@ 0 was released March 19 , 2001
= = = Version 2002 ( 4 @.@ 0 , 5 @.@ 0 ) = = =
Version 2002 was announced August 28 , 2001 . The Family Edition was dropped , so parental controls and information filtering are bundled with this release . The installation was noted as quick and simple by both PC Magazine and CNET . An installation requires a reboot , and afterwards the Security Assistant guides users through a questionnaire to best configure the settings . A problem CNET encountered when upgrading from the prior release was the loss of customized settings . PC Magazine found the default settings , aimed at avoiding frequent notifications , were somewhat permissive . Windows 95 support was also dropped .
Running a full scan complies a list of Internet @-@ enabled applications . Users set permissions or accept Norton 's default settings . The firewall detects and blocks port scans and logs intrusion attempts . This version does not run a trace on attackers , however Symantec is planning an online tool to do so . To ensure rogue programs can not masquerade as trustworthy applications , Norton verifies programs against a list of digital signatures for known programs , update Tracker warns users if hackers attempt to gain access to users ' computers . The firewall blocked all access attempts from Shields Up and Port Checker . This version includes a wizard to simplify firewall setup to accommodate for multiple computers sharing an Internet connection . With this release , Norton can prevent specified personal information from being transmitted via a compatible instant messenger client , e @-@ mail , and websites . Ad @-@ blocking includes the Ad Trashcan , where users can place ads that slipped past ad @-@ filtering .
A Professional Edition was announced December 11 , 2001 , with marketing aimed towards business owners . This version features Norton Intrusion Detection , which intercepts suspicious connections and attacks , such as the Code Red worm . Intrusion Detection focuses on Windows @-@ based attacks only . Central management is also present in this version . Administrators configure firewall and productivity settings for client computers . Productivity settings allow administrators to block newsgroups , websites , and advertisements . The suite integrates with XP user accounts ; settings can be personalized for each user .
= = = Version 2003 ( 6.x ) = = =
Version 2003 was announced September 16 , 2002 , scheduled to be available for purchase later that month . This version adds Norton Spam Alert to reduce e @-@ mail spam . Spam filtering scans the whole message and its context , rather than looking for keywords to ensure accuracy . A POP3 client must be used . When a message is identified as spam , Norton inserts an identifier , by default it is " Spam Alert : " , in the subject line . Using the mail client , users can create a rule to delete or move flagged messages . Users can also create strings of text for Spam Alert to look for when classifying e @-@ mail . In PC Magazine testing , Spam Alert mistakenly classified 2 @.@ 8 percent of legitimate e @-@ mail as spam . 47 percent of spam slipped past the filter . Although false positive rate was low , the feature did not fare well at finding actual spam .
The updated main interface has green and red indicators to show which features are active and which need attention . The firewall has several updated features in this version . A Block Traffic button present in the main interface blocks all incoming and outgoing Internet traffic . Another new feature , the Visual Tracker , graphically maps attacks back to their origin . The firewall blocked all port scans conducted by CNET , stealthing each port .
Following the Nimda and Code Red worms , this version scans all incoming and outgoing traffic for suspicious data exchanges against a routinely updated database , a feature ported from Norton Internet Security 2002 Professional Edition . Connection to the offending computer is automatically severed if the traffic matches a database item .
Symantec announced a Professional Edition on November 19 , 2002 . Data recovery tools in this version allow users to recover deleted or malware @-@ damaged files . The inclusion of a data erasure tool allows users to delete files while minimizing the chance of recovery . Web Cleanup removes browser cache files , history , and cookies . To maintain dial @-@ up connections , Connection Keep Alive simulates online activity during periods of user inactivity . Norton Productivity Control enables users to filter Internet content and block newsgroups . When used with the User Access Manager , multiple filtering profiles can be created , assigned to different users .
= = = Version 2004 ( 7.x ) = = =
Announced September 8 , 2003 , version 2004 adds adware , spyware , and keylogger protection . PC Magazine found the added protection to be weak . Out of the spyware samples Norton detected , a significant number were not removed completely , requiring manual removal . Norton also did little to prevent spyware infections .
Norton AntiSpam , the renamed spam filtering feature , has a set of spam rules , which cannot be viewed or edited . Whitelists and blacklists of senders can be created . Users may also create their own spam definitions . AntiSpam integrates with Outlook , Outlook Express , and Eudora , allowing users to tag e @-@ mail as spam on @-@ the @-@ fly . E @-@ mail identified as spam are either quarantined by default , however the feature can be configured to delete such messages automatically . In CNET testing , AntiSpam correctly identified 94 percent of spam messages .
Product activation was introduced in this release . After installation , users are allowed a 15 @-@ day grace period to activate their copy of Norton Internet Security 2004 . The program will not work after the deadline without the 24 @-@ character product key . The product key used to activate a copy of Norton Internet Security ties in with an alphanumeric code based on a computer 's hardware configuration . Users may activate their product five times with the same product key , however licensing terms dictate users are allowed only to install Norton Internet Security 2004 on one computer .
= = = Version 2005 ( 8.x ) = = =
Symantec introduced Version 2005 on August 17 , 2004 . This version is sometimes referred to with the tagline of " AntiSpyware Edition " , since spyware detection is integrated with Norton and is by default enabled . Found threats are listed , separating the ones already dealt with and the ones requiring user interaction . More detailed information is provided through a link to Symantec 's website . However , PC Pro and PC Magazine noted lengthy scan times . A full scan took 24 minutes to over half an hour , respectively . IN PC Pro testing , Norton detected 61 percent of the spyware samples , compared to an average of 68 percent for all the tested products . Removal rates were above average , 72 percent versus the average of 68 percent . Norton blocked reinstallation with a score of 48 percent , compared to the group average of 43 percent . Overall , Norton ranked fifth among the tested products . In PC Magazine testing , Norton installed slowly on infected systems and failed to install on one altogether . Contacting Symantec did not resolve the issue .
Other new features include Internet Worm Protection to block worms , which scan IP addresses for open ports . It also blocks inbound ports based on known and suspected exploits using signatures and heuristics . The addition of the feature follows MSBlast in 2003 and Sasser in 2004 , worms that exploited vulnerability in Microsoft Windows ' operating systems . In response to emerging privacy threats — 75 percent of the threats in the last 12 months attempted to steal confidential information — this version adds phishing protection . Using the firewall component , users can create a whitelist of sites where confidential information can be transmitted . Users are alerted when information is transmitted to a site not on the list . The Outbreak Alert feature warns users of major threats as classified by Symantec , and users can press the Fix Now button to applies a set of changes to close vulnerabilities , such as blocking necessary ports used by a propagating worm . The Browser Privacy can suppress information website generally receive about its visitors , such as the browser and operating system used . The feature can also block advertisements .
Privacy Control can warn users when sending confidential information . It can also be configured to block the transmission . It allows users to specify how the information can sent , such as via IM or e @-@ mail . Item @-@ specific exceptions allow users to control where there data can be sent . However , PC Pro found a flaw in the information filtering feature . The way information is formatted on the list of confidential information can affect its effectiveness . For example , entering the last six digits of a credit card number will not stop the numbers from leaking if they are grouped in four digits . PC Magazine also noted the fact anyone who can login to the computer can view the database of private information . For that reason , Symantec recommends entering only the last portion of sensitive information .
Norton AntiSpam now scans e @-@ mails for spoofed URLs and deals with any offending e @-@ mail as spam . E @-@ mails can also be blocked based on language , however by default the filter allows all languages . AntiSpam can sync its own list of allowed senders with POP3 address books . Users can train the spam filter by pointing out valid e @-@ mail marked as spam and vice versa . Support for Yahoo ! Mail and Hotmail was added in this release .
= = = Version 2006 ( 9.x ) = = =
Norton Internet Security 2006 debuted on September 26 , 2005 . The new main interface , the Norton Protection Center , aggregates all information in a central location . Security status is shown by how secure the computer is for tasks such as e @-@ mail and Internet browsing , not in the context of which features are enabled . The Protection Center can also recognize third @-@ party software protecting the computer . The new interface advertises additional products from Symantec ; some categories of protection , such as " Data Protection " , will read " No Coverage " until the user purchases and installs Norton SystemWorks . An additional system tray icon is created by the Protection Center .
The installation was noted as lengthy by PC Magazine , especially on malware @-@ infected systems . Spyware detection has been tweaked since the last release . It has been updated to better identify keyloggers . In PC Magazine testing , Norton successfully detected all 11 spyware threats and removed all but two . PC Magazine did give Norton credit even when manual removal was required . The suite also removed three of four commercial keyloggers . When attempting to install the spyware on a clean system , Norton blocked all 11 and two of the four commercial keyloggers . In most cases , it did not block the installation , however Norton did call for a scan after the spyware was installed . In PC Pro testing , Norton detected 78 percent of spyware , removed 82 percent , and blocked 65 percent from installing .
Norton AntiSpam was discontinued as a separate product from Symantec , now only available in Norton Internet Security . The feature can block all e @-@ mail from unknown senders , and automatically blocks messages with suspicious elements such as invisible text , HTML forms , and phishing URLs . To improve accuracy , Norton analyzes outgoing e @-@ mails and messages whose categorization is corrected by users by hitting the This is spam and This is not spam buttons . In PC Magazine testing , the feature marked one in ten valid e @-@ mail as spam and let one in every six spam messages in the inbox . 400 messages were used , and the program was allowed to process the messages for over a week . In PC Pro testing , the feature performed better , blocking 96 percent of spam , with a false positive rate of 0 @.@ 2 percent .
Norton recommends disabling the Windows Firewall to avoid redundant alerts . The firewall stealthed all significant ports in PC Magazine testing . Attacking the firewall itself was unsuccessful , PC Magazine was unable to stop its service , terminate its process , or disable the firewall using simulated mouse clicks . The firewall also passed PC Pro 's tests , successfully stealthing all ports .
Other features include Bloodhound technology , which looks for virus @-@ like behavior to better find zero day viruses . The Security Inspector looks for common vulnerabilities , including insecure user account passwords and browser insecurities . Advertisement blocking rewrites a website 's HTML to prevent advertisements from being displayed . Parental controls , an optional component , can block certain programs from accessing the Internet , such as IM clients , and restrict newsgroup access . Restrictions can be assigned to different Windows users accounts . Sites are classified in 31 categories , and the four profiles which can be assigned each block different categories of sites . Supervisors define exceptions , add global blocked sites , or block all access to sites not on a user @-@ created whitelist . Both PC Magazine and PC Pro noted the exclusion of time @-@ based restrictions . Information filtering can be controlled on a per @-@ user basis .
Windows 98 compatibility was dropped from this release .
= = = Version 2007 ( 10.x ) = = =
The 2007 version was announced September 12 , 2006 . A tabbed interface allows users to access the Norton Protection Center and the program settings without separate tray icons and windows open . Symantec revised Norton Internet Security and made this version more modularized , which has reduced the suite 's memory usage to 10 – 15 megabytes and scan times by 30 – 35 percent . Another result is that spam filtering and parental controls are separate components to install . When installed , the features consume 100 MB of disk space .
Anti @-@ phishing integrates with Internet Explorer . It analyzes sites , examining the website 's URL , title , form , page layout , visible text and links , and uses a blacklist to detect phishing sites . Users are blocked access from suspected phishing sites , however are presented an option to continue . In PC Magazine testing , the feature blocked 22 of 24 phishing sites , while Internet Explorer 7 recognized 17 of the 24 sites . In PC Pro testing , the feature successfully blocked access to every phishing site it was tested against . Spam filtering no longer includes a language feature , Symantec claims it is less useful with current spam and created false positives . Tested against 1 @,@ 500 messages by PC Magazine , Norton let over half of the spam to the inbox . Five percent of valid mail were marked as spam . This version utilizes Symantec 's Veritas VxMS technology to better identify rootkits . VxMS allows Norton to find inconsistencies among files within directories and files at the volume level . A startup application manager allows users to prevent applications from launching at login . This release drops support for Windows 2000 and was compatible with Windows Vista upon its release with an update .
The firewall makes all decisions by itself to lessen the chance of being weakened by a misinformed decision . Applications known to be safe are allowed Internet access , and vice versa for malicious applications . Unknown ones are analyzed and blocked if they exhibit malicious behavior . In both PC Magazine and PC Pro testing , the firewall did not incorrectly block any safe applications from Internet access . All malware was blocked by the firewall . PC Magazine testing reflected the same results . The firewall also stealthed all ports . Exploits were blocked by the intrusion prevention system , which prevents threats from leveraging vulnerabilities . The system is updated whenever a vulnerability is identified for Windows @-@ based computers . Attempts to disable the firewall were unsuccessful ; registry changes , process termination , and simulated mouse clicks all failed . Disabling Windows services had no effect on the firewall since it works at the kernel driver level . This version automatically adjusts configuration for different networks based on the physical address of the gateway rather than IP addresses .
In PC Magazine testing , Norton detected 15 of 16 spyware samples . 13 of the 16 were removed . Against eight commercial keyloggers , the suite removed all the samples . On a clean system , Norton blocked 14 of the 16 spyware samples from installing , and stopped seven of the eight keyloggers from installing .
= = = Version 2008 ( 15.x ) = = =
The 2008 version was announced on August 28 , 2007 , adding support for Windows Vista 64 @-@ bit . New features include SONAR , the Norton Identity Safe , and Browser Defender . SONAR monitors applications for malicious behavior . The Identity Safe supersedes the information filtering function ; instead of blocking personal information from leaving the computer , it stores personal information to fill webforms . It is password protected and checks a website 's authenticity before filling any forms . Browser Defender inspects and blocks suspicious API calls , intended to stop drive @-@ by downloads . The Network Map identifies networked computers with Norton Internet Security 2008 installed . Remote monitoring allows checking the status of other installations on different computers ; problems are identified with a red " X " icon . Using the feature , users also can control network traffic between computers . It also warns users if they are using an unencrypted wireless network . The startup application manager and advertisement blocking features were dropped from this release . Information filtering , although superseded by the Identity Safe in the suite , is available separately . It can be used in conjunction with the Identity Safe .
Phishing protection now integrates with Mozilla Firefox . Testing by PC Magazine found that Norton blocked 94 percent of phishing sites , compared to 83 percent for Internet Explorer 7 and 77 percent for Firefox 2 . CNET identified an issue with the feature ; when anti @-@ phishing is disabled , the Identity Safe still offers users to automatically submit personal information to websites , including phishing sites . Symantec declined to call it a " flaw " , stating it is recommended to use the Identity Safe with anti @-@ phishing enabled . Alternatively , the Identity Safe could be used with Firefox and Internet Explorer 's built @-@ in anti @-@ phishing capability .
PC Magazine found that the firewall put all ports in stealth mode . The firewall blocked ten of 12 leak tests , used to see if malware can evade the firewall 's control of network traffic . Previous versions did not identify the tests because none carried a malicious payload . Another test was conducted using Core Impact , which successfully exploited one vulnerability on the test computer . However , other components of Norton stopped the exploit from causing harm . The other attempts were unsuccessful either because the system was invulnerable or Norton 's Intrusion Prevention System stopped it . Attempts to disable the firewall were unsuccessful by PC Magazine . On the contrary , PC Pro identified 15 open ports on a computer with Norton installed .
In PC Magazine testing , Norton completely detected most of the malware samples . For two @-@ thirds of the samples , all traces were removed . Norton found and removed all the commercial keyloggers . A full scan took nearly an hour to complete though , twice as long as the 2007 version . The suite blocked most of the malware from installing and all the commercial keyloggers , regardless of any modifications made to the samples . PC World noted that Norton removed 80 percent of malware @-@ associated files and Registry entries .
Spam filtering imports users ' address books to compile a whitelist of allowed senders . Addresses to which users send mail and e @-@ mail tagged as valid mail can be automatically added to the whitelist . Using several thousand messages , PC Magazine found that Norton marked over 40 percent of valid e @-@ mail as spam . Over 80 percent of valid newsletters were marked as spam . Norton did correctly identify 90 percent of spam e @-@ mail .
= = = Version 2009 ( 16.x ) = = =
The 2009 version was released for sale September 9 , 2008 . Symantec set several goals for version 2009 while in development : complete installations under minute and a footprint of 100 MB . Average installation times range from eight to ten minutes , and the previous 2008 version had a 400 MB footprint . Other goals included reducing load time after the computer starts , from 20 – 30 seconds to 10 seconds , and file scanning times with a technology allowing Norton to skip certain trusted files . The technology works on the basis that if a piece of software runs on a significant proportion of computers , then it is safe .
A public beta was released July 14 . A reduction in memory consumption was made , prompted by the fact 40 percent of people contacting Symantec support had 512 MB of RAM . The beta uses about 6 MB of memory , compared to 11 MB by the prior version . To reduce scan times , Norton Insight uses data from Norton Community participants to avoid scanning files that are found on a statistically significant amount of computers . Citing a NPD Group study finding that 39 percent of consumers switching antiviruses blamed performance , a CPU usage meter will be available within the final product to allow users to find the cause of high CPU usage , whether it be Norton or another program . This version features more frequent updates , a change called Norton Pulse Updates . Rather than deliver an update every eight hours , as the 2008 version does , Pulse Updates are delivered five to fifteen minutes . The Silent Mode automatically suspends alerts and updates when a program enters fullscreen mode and can be manually enabled . The suite 's activities take place while the computer is idle , and terminate once user activity is registered . The final release ( 16 @.@ 5 ) bundles spam filtering , which used to be a free download from Symantec . This release also bundles Norton Safe Web , which identifies malicious websites , compatible with Internet Explorer and Firefox . Norton Safe Web color codes search results from famous search engine such from Google and Yahoo for safety . The Norton Safe Web toolbar also includes an Ask.com search box . The search box does not share code with the Ask toolbar ; instead the box redirects queries to the Ask search engine . Norton Safe Web is compatible with Internet Explorer and Firefox . Norton Safe Web .
Benchmarking conducted by PassMark Software highlights the 2009 version 's 52 second install time , 32 second scan time , and 7 MB memory utilization . Symantec funded the benchmark test and provided scripts used to benchmark each participating antivirus software . Tests were conducted in Windows Vista running on a dual core processor . PC Magazine found the suite added 15 seconds to the boot time , with a baseline of 60 seconds . Norton added less than 5 percent to the time it takes to complete file operations . 25 percent more time was taken to unzip and zip a set of files .
In PC Magazine testing , Norton removed most traces of 40 percent of the malware . On a similar test , specifically using commercial keyloggers , Norton was able to remove most of the keyloggers , beating other tested products . Norton blocked all attempts to install malware on a clean system . Modifications made to the samples did not fool Norton . Norton was not able to block the installation of all the commercial keyloggers .
Phishing protection blocked 90 percent of verified phishing websites in PC Magazine testing . Internet Explorer 7 caught 75 percent , and Firefox caught 60 percent .
Norton stealthed all ports , according to PC Magazine . Port scans were unsuccessful . The firewall blocked all exploit attempts by Core Impact .
Malware blocking and removal garnered good results PC Magazine testing . All but one malware samples contained within a folder were removed once the folder was opened . The last one was removed when executed . Modifications made to the samples did not affect detection . On a similar test , specifically using commercial keyloggers , Norton did not successfully detect all . In removing threats , Norton almost completely removed 40 percent of the malware samples and related executables . Norton was also able to remove more commercial keyloggers than any other product .
= = = Version 2010 ( 17.x ) = = =
Version 2010 was released officially on September 8 , 2009 . This version features a technology code named , Project Quorum , which introduces reputation @-@ based threat detection to keep up with the 200 million attacks each month , many of which Symantec claims evade signature based detection . The new approach relies on Norton Community Watch , in which participants send information about the applications running on their computers . Safe applications exhibit common attributes , such as being of a known origin with known publishers . Conversely , new malware may have an unknown publisher , among other attributes . Using the data a " reputation score " is calculated and can be used to infer the likelihood of an unknown application being safe , or malicious .
Other facets of Quorum are parental controls and spam filtering . Norton Internet Security 2010 bundles a free subscription of OnlineFamily.Norton , which PC Magazine found to be an improvement over the parental controls bundled with prior releases . Spam filtering uses technologies Symantec acquired from Brightmail . Two filters are used to find spam : a locally installed one and a check against Symantec 's servers to see if the message is known spam . In PC Magazine testing , no valid e @-@ mail were marked as spam . However , 11 percent of spam still made it to the inbox . This was a significant improvement over prior releases . Another improvement to the product is the improved heuristic feature called SONAR 2 . It leverages reputation data to judge if a program is malicious or clean . Norton Insight has also been expanded , showing users the number of Norton Community participants who have a certain program installed , its impact of system resources , and how long it has been released . Information about the program 's origin and a graph of its resource usage is also provided . A new feature codenamed Autospy helps users understand what Norton did when malware was found . The malware 's actions and Norton 's resolution are presented to the user . Previous releases removed threats on sight and quietly warned users , potentially confusing when users are deceived in downloading rogue security software .
Another addition to the product is the new " Flip Screen " . With a compatible graphics card , the main display " flips over " to show the opposite side of the main interface , consisting of a chart of CPU or memory usage and a timeline of security events . Without one , the " Flip Screen " link is replaced by a " back " link , which opens the back of the windows as a separate window .
The product also adds a search engine labeled " Safe Search " . The custom search allows the user to filter out unsafe sites , get insight on them , and keep track of HTTP cookies . Malware removal and blocking performed well , setting or meeting records in PC Magazine testing . It achieved a detection rate of 98 % . The highest out of 12 tested antivirus products . The exception was blocking commercial keyloggers , where Norton made an above average score . File operations took 2 percent longer , and the file compression and extraction test took 4 percent longer . The only area where Norton introduced a significant delay was when the system was booting , the beta version of the suite added 31 percent to the boot time , significantly longer than prior versions . According to the Norton performance comparison website , Norton Internet Security scans 31 percent faster , is 70 percent lighter , and installs 76 percent faster than the leading Anti @-@ virus product . According to AV @-@ comparatives , Norton Internet Security was " Best Product of 2009 " , Bronze award for 98 @.@ 6 % detection rate in 2010 and Norton Internet Security 2010 blocked 99 / 100 internet threats from infecting the user 's computer .
= = = Version 2011 ( 18.x ) = = =
Norton Internet Security 2011 was released for Beta testing on April 21 , 2010 . Changes include a new user interface and improved scanning of internet sites for malware . With the 2011 version , Symantec also released an application that " scans " the user 's Facebook feed for any malware links . This application does not require a valid subscription . In a test sponsored by Symantec , Norton Internet Security 2011 was the only security suite to ever achieve a 100 percent protection score in a new third @-@ party test from Dennis Labs . Improved reputation scan provides the user with an easy to understand interface on files stored on the user 's computer . Marking them as trusted , good , poor , or bad . The final version of Norton Internet Security 2011 was released on August 31 , 2010 . New features in version 2011 also include Norton Rescue Tools . These tools include Norton Bootable Recovery tool and Norton Power Eraser .
On December 9 , 2010 , Symantec released the 18 @.@ 5 version through Norton LiveUpdate . However , this update was later pulled due to numerous reports on the Norton forums that the update is causing system instability and freeze ups during system scans ( both full and quick scans ) . This issue only affects some customers . Users affected by this update are advised to uninstall the product , run the Norton Removal Tool , and reinstall the 18 @.@ 1 version from http : / / www.norton.com / nis11 . Symantec later fixed the bugs and re @-@ released the update .
Following the acquisition of VeriSign Security by Norton 's parent company Symantec , several of VeriSign 's features were incorporated into the 2011 edition . The new product features a new Norton logo which uses the VeriSign checkmark formerly seen in VeriSign 's own logo , as well as several new icon changes to the Norton Safe Web and Norton Identity Safe features .
= = = Version 2012 ( 19.x ) = = =
Released ( 19 @.@ 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 28 ) on September 6 , 2011 , Norton Internet Security 2012 brought new features . One of the new features included in the new release is Download Insight 2 @.@ 0 , which not only monitors files for safety but also the stability of a given file . That means that if a file is stable on Windows 7 , but unstable on Windows XP , XP users will be notified of the file 's instability .
Enhanced removal tools are tightly integrated for better cleanup of already infected systems . Once triggered , the new , more powerful version of Norton Power Eraser restarts the system to locate and remove fake antivirus software fake antivirus software and other deeply embedded threats that are otherwise hard to remove . A new tool called Norton Management helps manage different computers and devices equipped with Norton software from a single location .
Other changes in this release include SONAR 4 , Google Chrome compatibility for Identity Safe and Safe Web and the ability to store passwords and notes in the cloud . However , the License Agreement does not guarantee passwords are stored securely and provides no remedy if the cloud vault is compromised .
The user interface is also simplified with only three buttons . The third button opens a more advanced and complicated menu , where the user is able to manage settings and access different product features . The CPU meter that was removed from Norton 2011 , also makes a return ( only on the " advanced screen " ) .
Combining the netbook and desktop line , Norton Internet Security integrates Bandwidth metering , which controls the product 's traffic usage and takes it down to minimum if necessary . This is ideal for networks with limited traffic . Also , the user interface window adjusts accordingly to the size of the computer screen .
This version of Norton Internet Security includes several Easter eggs . Pressing Shift + 1 , 2 , 3 or 4 would change the theme to default background ( plain black ) , ray , animals , and floral respectively . Also holding Control + Win Key + Alt while pressing " performance button " to activate " Crazy Flip " , which will make the window flip head over heels . The effect would continue until the main window is closed and reopened .
Furthermore , scans are no longer scheduled through the Windows Task Scheduler , but through the Symantec 's proprietary one , which performs tasks while the computer is idle ( i.e. , when the user is away from the computer ) .
= = = Version 20.x ( 2013 ) = = =
Version 20 ( 2013 ) began a " Version @-@ less " approach by dropping the 20xx naming convention , and will automatically update itself as new releases become available . Notable changes include a new user interface better suited for touchscreen devices , " Social Networking Protection , " which intends to protect against threats targeted at social networks , and was also the first release to officially support Windows 8 .
= = = Version 21.x ( 2014 ) = = =
This version , released on October 7 , 2013 , became the last version to be marketed by Symantec . Norton Internet Security , along with Norton Antivirus and Norton 360 , have been replaced with Norton Security .
= = = Version 22.x ( 2015 ) = = =
A version 22 @.@ 5 update was released in June 2015 . It includes a restyled user interface and Windows 10 Support .
= = = Norton Security = = =
In September 2014 Norton Internet Security was streamlined into Norton Security , as part of Symantec 's streamlined Norton line .
= = Netbook edition = =
Symantec has released a special edition of Norton Internet Security optimized for netbooks . This is available as download from the Symantec website or in a USB thumb drive . Symantec states that the Netbook edition is optimized for netbooks . The main display is optimized to provide support for the 800 x 480 screen resolution . In addition , non @-@ critical tasks are delayed while the netbook is on battery . Furthermore , the Netbook edition contains complimentary access to Norton 's secure online backup and parental control to protect children as they surf the web .
= = Macintosh edition = =
= = = Version 1 @.@ 0 = = =
Norton Internet Security version 1 @.@ 0 for Mac was released November 1 , 2000 . It can identify and remove both Windows and Mac viruses . Other features include a firewall , advertisement blocking in the browser , parental controls , and the ability to prevent confidential information from being transmitted outside the computer . Users are prompted before such information is able to be transmitted . The incorporation of Aladdin Systems ' iClean allows users to purge the browser cache , cookies , and browsing history within Norton 's interface . Operating system requirements call for Mac OS 8 @.@ 1 . Hardware requirements call for 24 MB of RAM , 12 MB of disk space , and a PowerPC processor .
= = = Version 2 @.@ 0 = = =
Norton Internet Security version 2 @.@ 0 for Mac was released on ( date unknown if you know please provide it ) . Version 2 @.@ 0 also ties in with the WHOIS database , allowing users to trace attacking computers . Users can inform network administrators of the attacking computers for corrective actions . When running under Mac OS 8 @.@ 1 or 9 , a PowerPC processor , 24 MB of RAM , and 25 MB of free space is required . Under Mac OS X 10 @.@ 1 , a PowerPC G3 processor , 128 MB of RAM , and 25 MB of free space is required .
= = = Version 3 @.@ 0 = = =
Norton Internet Security version 3 @.@ 0 for Mac was released on ( date unknown if you know please provide it ) . The subsequent release , version 3 @.@ 0 , maintained the feature set found in version 2 @.@ 0 . The firewall now allocates internet access as needed rather than relying on user input using predefined rules . Compatibility with OS 8 was dropped . When running under OS 9 @.@ 2 , a PowerPC processor , 24 MB of RAM , and 25 MB of free space is required . Under OS X 10 @.@ 1 @.@ 5 through 10 @.@ 3 , a PowerPC G3 , 128 MB of RAM , and 150 MB of free space is required . However , version 3 @.@ 0 is not compatible with OS X 10 @.@ 4 , or " Tiger " .
= = = Version 4 @.@ 0 = = =
Version 4 @.@ 0 was released on December 18 , 2008 . Symantec also markets a bundle of Version 4 @.@ 0 and the 2009 version for Windows , intended for users with both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X installed. iClean was dropped from this release . The firewall now blocks access to malicious sites using a blacklist updated by Symantec . To prevent attackers from leveraging insecurities in the Mac or installed software , exploit protection was introduced in this release . Phishing protection was introduced in this release as well . Operating system requirements call for Mac OS X 10 @.@ 4 @.@ 11 or higher . A PowerPC or Intel Core processor , 256 MB of RAM and 150 MB of free space are required .
= = = Version 5 @.@ 0 = = =
Features
Norton Safe Web : Proactively protects you while you surf the Web by warning you of and blocking unsafe and fake websites right in your search results . ( Mac OS ® X 10 @.@ 7 only )
Antiphishing Technology : Blocks fraudulent phishing websites created to steal your identity and your money .
Smart Two @-@ Way Firewall : Prevents cybercriminals from hacking into your Mac ® , stealing your personal information and messing with your stuff .
Location Awareness : Lets you adjust your level of protection depending upon where you ’ re using your Mac ® ( at home , the office , the local coffee shop , on the road ) .
Vulnerability Protection : Updates daily to stop cybercriminals from using vulnerabilities in applications and other software to sneak threats onto your computer .
AntiVirus Protection : Protects your Mac ® , iPhoto ® pictures , iTunes ® media , iMovie ® projects and all your important stuff from viruses , spyware and other threats without slowing down your computer .
Confidential File Guard : Password protects your stuff to keep it safe from prying eyes .
Daily Protection Updates : Runs in the background to protect your Mac ® — and your stuff — from new , late @-@ breaking threats .
Email and Instant Message Monitoring : Scans MobileMe ® , iChat ® and other IMs for suspicious attachments and other tricks used to steal your identity and your hard @-@ earned money .
FREE 24x7 Support : Symantec provides free 24 / 7 email , chat and phone support for a period of one year from initial product installation . *
Protection options for Mac OS X 10 @.@ 4 to 10 @.@ 7 : Includes both Norton ™ Internet Security 5 for Mac ® ( for Mac OS ® X v10.7 )
= = Norton vs. others = =
Norton Internet Security underwent considerable changes in performance after Symantec rewrote the its code for the 2009 release . Norton products now have only two running processes , using about 15 MB of RAM . According to PassMark Security Benchmark 2012 Norton AntiVirus and Norton Internet Security are the lightest suites available . AV @-@ Comparatives.org also tested these products and gave similar results . PC Magazine recognized the 2011 and 2012 lines as the fastest and strongest in protection . PCWorld 's tests of security software put Norton Internet Security 2009 in first place . In a 2011 test conducted by PC World , Norton Internet Security was the winner . Dennis Technology Labs ( in tests sponsored by Symantec ) confirmed the performance and effectiveness of Norton 2011 and 2012 lines .
= = Criticism of older versions before 2009 = =
= = = FBI cooperation = = =
Symantec , in compliance with the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , whitelisted Magic Lantern , a keylogger actively developed by the FBI . The purpose of Magic Lantern is to obtain passwords to encrypted e @-@ mail as part of a criminal investigation . Magic Lantern was first reported in the media by Bob Sullivan of MSNBC on November 20 , 2001 and by Ted Bridis of the Associated Press . Magic Lantern is deployed as an e @-@ mail attachment . When the attachment is opened , a trojan horse is installed on the suspect 's computer . The Trojan horse is activated when the suspect uses PGP encryption , often used to increase the security of sent e @-@ mail messages . When activated , the trojan horse will log the PGP password , which allows the FBI to decrypt user communications . Symantec and other major antivirus vendors have whitelisted Magic Lantern , rendering their antivirus products , including Norton Internet Security , incapable of detecting it . Concerns include uncertainties about Magic Lantern 's full potential and whether hackers could subvert it for purposes outside the jurisdiction of the law .
Graham Cluley , a technology consultant from Sophos , said , " We have no way of knowing if it was written by the FBI , and even if we did , we wouldn ’ t know whether it was being used by the FBI or if it had been commandeered by a third party " . Another reaction came from Marc Maiffret , chief technical officer and cofounder of eEye Digital Security , " Our customers are paying us for a service , to protect them from all forms of malicious code . It is not up to us to do law enforcement 's job for them so we do not , and will not , make any exceptions for law enforcement malware or other tools . "
FBI spokesman Paul Bresson , in response to the question of whether Magic Lantern needed a court order to be deployed , said , " Like all technology projects or tools deployed by the FBI it would be used pursuant to the appropriate legal process . "
Proponents of Magic Lantern argue the technology would allow law enforcement to efficiently and quickly decrypt messages protected by encryption schemes . Unlike a predecessor , Carnivore , implementing Magic Lantern does not require physical access to a suspect 's computer , which would necessitate a court order .
= = = Uninstallation = = =
Older versions of Norton were hard and slow to uninstall , leaving many traces and sometimes completing with errors . However , in the 2009 versions , Symantec featured their own uninstaller , that removes their products better and more quickly , usually in less than a minute . Norton Removal Tool is a well known instrument that removes Norton products completely , without any trace . The tool can be downloaded from Symantec 's website
Symantec reports that Norton 2010 range of products feature a cleaner uninstall and over @-@ installs is the recommended update route to 2011 .
= = = Windows Service Packs = = =
When Norton Internet Security 2008 is installed , users may encounter incompatibilities upgrading to Windows XP Service Pack 3 or Windows Vista Service Pack 1 . Users report numerous invalid registry keys being added by a tool named fixcss.exe , resulting in an empty Device Manager and missing devices such as wireless network adapters . Symantec initially blamed Microsoft for the incompatibilities but has since accepted partial responsibility .
Dave Cole , Symantec 's Vice President & General Manager , acknowledged that users running Norton products were experiencing problems , but said the numbers are small . Cole also said that Symantec had done " extensive testing " of its products with Windows XP SP3 , but this issue was not encountered . Cole blamed Microsoft " This is related to XP SP3 . " Microsoft recommended that users contact Windows customer support . To resolve the problem , Symantec has issued a fix intended for users before upgrading . Symantec also recommends disabling the tamper protection component in the 2008 release , dubbed SymProtect . A tool to remove the added registry entries is also available from Symantec .
= = = Windows Vista = = =
Sarah Hicks , Symantec 's vice president of consumer product management , voiced concern over Windows Vista 64 @-@ bit 's PatchGuard feature . PatchGuard was designed by Microsoft to ensure the integrity of the kernel , a part of an operating system which interacts with the hardware . Rootkits often hide in an operating system 's kernel , complicating removal . Mike Dalton , European president of McAfee said , " The decision to build a wall around the kernel with the assumption it can 't be breached is ridiculous " , claiming Microsoft was preventing security vendors from effectively protecting the kernel while promoting its own security product , Windows Live OneCare . Hicks said Symantec did not mind the competition from OneCare . Symantec later published a white paper detailing PatchGuard with instructions to obtain a PatchGuard exploit . After negotiations and investigations from antitrust regulators , Microsoft decided to allow security vendors access to the kernel by creating special API instructions .
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= Japanese battleship Kawachi =
Kawachi ( 河内 ) was the lead ship of the two @-@ ship Kawachi @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century . Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions , Kawachi was named after Kawachi Province , now a part of Osaka prefecture . During World War I she bombarded German fortifications at Tsingtao during the Battle of Tsingtao in 1914 , but saw no other combat . She sank in 1918 after an explosion in her ammunition magazine with the loss of over 600 officers and crewmen .
= = Background = =
The Kawachi class was ordered on 22 June 1907 under the 1907 Warship Supplement Program after the Russo @-@ Japanese War as Japan 's first dreadnoughts , although their construction was delayed by a severe depression . Their design was based on the Aki with a uniform 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main @-@ gun armament , although cost considerations prevented all the guns from having the same barrel length .
= = Design and description = =
The ship had an overall length of 526 feet ( 160 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 84 feet 3 inches ( 25 @.@ 7 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 20 @,@ 823 long tons ( 21 @,@ 157 t ) at normal load . Her crew ranged from 999 to 1100 officers and enlisted men . Kawachi was fitted with a pair of license @-@ built Curtis steam turbine sets , each set driving one propeller , using steam from 16 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were rated at a total of 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) for a design speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She carried enough coal and fuel oil to give her a range of 2 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Kawachi 's main armament consisted of four 50 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure , and eight 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns mounted in four twin @-@ gun turrets , two on each side of the superstructure . Kawachi 's secondary armament was ten 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull , and eight 40 @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns . The ship was also equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type guns and four others were used as saluting guns . In addition , the battleship was fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .
The waterline main belt of the ship had a maximum thickness of 12 inches amidships . It tapered to a thickness of 5 inches ( 127 mm ) at the ends of the ship . A 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake of armor protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 9 – 11 inches ( 229 – 279 mm ) thick . The armor of Kawachi 's main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 11 inches . The deck armor was 1 @.@ 1 inches ( 29 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by 6 to 10 inches of armor .
= = Construction and career = =
Kawachi was laid down at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 1 April 1909 . She was launched on 15 October 1910 in a ceremony attended by Emperor Meiji and completed on 31 March 1912 at a cost of ¥ 11 @,@ 130 @,@ 000 . On 3 October 1912 , the ship was present when the battleship Mikasa had a fire that was started by a sailor in the forward magazine . It was flooded before the fire could get out of control and Kawachi sent over fire @-@ fighting teams to assist Mikasa 's crew in case they were needed . When World War I began in August 1914 , Kawachi was at Yokosuka .
Together with her sister ship , Settsu , she bombarded German fortifications in October – November 1914 during the final stage of the Battle of Tsingtao . The ship was present in Yokosuka on 8 January 1915 when the victorious Second Squadron returned to Japan after the Battle of Tsingtao . She was assigned to the First Squadron from 1915 – 1917 and refitted that latter year .
Kawachi rejoined the First Squadron after her refit commanded by Captain Yoshimoto Masaki and entered Tokuyama Bay on the evening of 11 July 1918 . The following morning torpedo target practice was cancelled due to rough seas and the battleship remained at anchor for the rest of the day . That afternoon a loud explosion was heard at 15 : 51 in the vicinity of the starboard forward main @-@ gun turret and large quantities of smoke erupted from the turret and between the first and second funnels . Two minutes later , she began to list to starboard and capsized at 15 : 55 , only four minutes after the explosion . Over a thousand men were aboard Kawachi at the time of the explosion and over 600 were killed , with 433 survivors .
The Imperial Japanese Navy convened a commission to investigate the explosion the day after the incident with Vice Admiral Murakami Kakuichi as chairman . The commission first suspected arson , but no plausible suspect could be found and it reported that the cordite in her magazine might have spontaneously ignited due to decomposition . Kawachi 's magazines had been inspected in January – February 1918 , however , and no problems were discovered , which made that possibility less likely . The commission made recommendations on tighter control of production and handling of cordite that were successfully adopted by the navy . The Japanese Navy considered salvaging Kawachi , but ultimately decided that it would be too expensive and would delay the construction of one battlecruiser by over a year . Stricken from the navy list on 21 September 1918 , the wreck was later partially dismantled although most of the hull was abandoned in place to serve as an artificial reef .
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= Volcano ( South Park ) =
" Volcano " is the second episode of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 20 , 1997 . In the episode , Stan , Kyle , Cartman and Kenny go on a hunting trip with Stan 's uncle Jimbo and his war buddy Ned . While on the trip , Stan is frustrated by his inability to shoot a living creature and Cartman tries to scare the hunting party with tales of a creature named Scuzzlebutt . Meanwhile , the group is unaware that a nearby volcano is about to erupt .
The episode was written by series co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . It was inspired by the 1997 disaster films Volcano and Dante 's Peak , both of which Parker and Stone strongly disliked . The plot was also based on the large amount of hunting Parker and Stone witnessed while growing up in Colorado ; Stan 's hesitation about the sport mirrors Parker 's real @-@ life feelings about hunting . " Volcano " was the third episode produced , but it was broadcast as the second . Parker and Stone felt the computer animation in " Volcano " had greatly improved compared to the early episodes ; they were particularly pleased with the lava , which was made to resemble orange construction paper .
" Volcano " received generally positive reviews and was nominated for a 1997 Environmental Media Award . Slightly more than 1 million viewers watched the original broadcast , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode featured the first appearances of recurring characters Ned Gerblansky and Randy Marsh . The latter , who is also the town geologist , is established as Stan 's father in later episodes . It also marked the first of two appearances for Scuzzlebutt , who became a popular minor character and appeared in the video games South Park 10 : The Game and South Park Rally . The episode parodied the Duck and Cover educational videos from the 1950s and 1960s that advised people to hide under tables in the event of a nuclear attack .
= = Plot = =
Stan 's Uncle Jimbo and his Vietnam War buddy Ned take Stan , Kenny , Kyle , and Cartman on a hunting trip in the mountains . As they arrive , Jimbo explains to the boys how to hunt . Whenever they see a creature , they shoot it after yelling , " It 's coming right for us ! " , so they can claim the shooting was in self @-@ defense . Stan does not have the proper temperament to enjoy hunting , and finds himself unable to shoot a living target . Unlike Stan , Kenny is able to shoot animals , impressing Jimbo . Meanwhile , South Park geologist Randy discovers that the mountain on which the boys are hunting is a volcano that is about to erupt . He reports his findings to the Mayor , who directs one of her aides to make appropriate decisions about the crisis .
During the hunting trip , Jimbo proclaims Kenny his honorary nephew , upsetting Stan . When night falls , Cartman tells the story of Scuzzlebutt , a creature that has a piece of celery in place of one of its hands and Patrick Duffy for a leg . The boys are skeptical , so Cartman decides to dress up as the creature the next morning in order to convince and scare them . When he disappears the next morning , the others set out to find him . They then see Cartman disguised as Scuzzlebutt and start shooting at him . When they catch up with Cartman at the base of the mountain , Stan tries to shoot him in order to redeem himself in his uncle 's eyes . However , he is unable to do so and the delay gives Cartman time to remove the costume . At a lower elevation , Randy orders the South Park residents to dig a trench to divert the lava away from the town .
Suddenly the volcano erupts . The hunters try to flee , but find themselves trapped on the other side of the trench . The real Scuzzlebutt then appears , and Jimbo apologizes to the boys for their seemingly imminent deaths , just before realizing that Scuzzlebutt is weaving a wicker basket to carry the hunting party to safety . The lava then flows through the trench just as Randy planned , but due to a miscalculation he made , the trench leads the lava to Denver , destroying it . However , in a misguided attempt to prove he can kill something and impress his uncle , Stan kills Scuzzlebutt . Unfortunately for Stan , Jimbo is less than impressed , telling Stan that he will always be his nephew but that " some things you do kill and some you don 't . " Stan does not understand , since Jimbo tried to kill Scuzzlebutt earlier . Ned states that he now understands the folly of guns and drops his rifle , which accidentally fires , killing Kenny . Finally , the boys decide that hunting is stupid and go home to watch cartoons .
= = Production = =
" Volcano " was written and directed by series co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . The episode was inspired by volcano @-@ related Hollywood disaster films , such as Dante 's Peak ( 1997 ) and Volcano ( 1997 ) , which came out around the time they were writing the script ; Parker and Stone considered the films two of the worst ever made . Stone said , " If you watch this episode and then go watch Volcano , this makes more sense than Volcano does . " Debbie Liebling , who served as a South Park producer at the time of the episode 's broadcast , said the volcano erupting in South Park helped establish the setting as a place where " anything can happen " . Although Stone and Parker acknowledged that a volcano could not actually erupt in this Colorado town , they felt they were entitled to create the episode anyway because the Volcano film was set in Los Angeles ; Stone said , " If they could do it , we could . " Similarly , the duo acknowledge the tunnel built in the episode would not really divert the lava , but they included it because Parker said , " Any movie today , that 's basically how dumb they are . "
Another influence on the plot was the large amount of hunting Parker and Stone saw around them while growing up in Colorado . Neither of them were hunters , and Parker said Stan 's hesitation about hunting was based largely on himself and his father , who hated the idea of killing an animal even though Parker 's grandfather , like Jimbo , was enthusiastic about the sport . Parker said he feels many of the first season episodes considered taboo in 1997 would have been considered less controversial five years later , but that " Volcano " is an exception . Since the episode involved children drinking beer and threatening each other at gunpoint during hunting trips , Parker said he did not believe Comedy Central would have aired it following the Columbine High School massacre in 1999 . Parker said , " Back then , it was just sort of funny , kids pointing guns at each other , and it 's just not so funny now . "
South Park animators spent the first four episodes of the show trying to perfect the animation of the characters . By " Volcano " – which was produced after " Weight Gain 4000 " – , Parker and Stone felt the textures were improved , as well as smaller details like the lines around the eyes of the characters . While the series pilot " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " was animated with construction paper , subsequent episodes were made using computers . Nevertheless , Parker and Stone wanted the show to maintain its crude paper look ; for example , they specifically asked for the night sky in this episode to look like a black piece of paper with holes cut into it for stars , just as it was in the pilot episode . Stone and Parker were especially proud of the animation of the lava , which they said took hours to perfect , although they acknowledged it ended up simply resembling orange construction paper . The lava ball shooting out of the volcano and almost killing Kenny was directly inspired by the Volcano film . Parker and Stone came up with the character of Scuzzlebutt during a random conversation with Comedy Central executive Debbie Liebling . While meeting with her , they simply started drawing the character , and decided to add a celery hand and Patrick Duffy leg for no particular reason . Scuzzlebutt also appeared in a second episode , " City on the Edge of Forever " from the second season . Scuzzlebutt turning out to be a real character rather than a ridiculous story was the first instance of a common characteristic of the Cartman character , in which Cartman says outrageous and completely unrealistic things that turn out to be true . Stone commented , " He 's right more often than he 's wrong . "
The " Volcano " episode was in production when South Park debuted on August 13 , 1997 . Comedy Central executives did not object to most of the content of the episode , but said the scene in which Kyle farted while talking to Stan should have been removed because nothing happened after the fart , and they said it was not funny . Parker and Stone , however , insisted it stay in the episode , and they said the lack of any reaction whatsoever to the fart was what made it funny . During close @-@ ups of Cartman 's face while telling the story of Scuzzlebutt around the campfire , the flames from the fire stop moving . Parker and Stone noticed the consistency error after the episode was filmed , but they did not have enough time to go back and fix it before the broadcast date , so it was left in . A cat featured in the background of one of the outdoor scenes was designed to look exactly like Parker 's cat , Jake . The scene in which Ned catches fire was based on an experience Parker had during a Colorado camping trip where he tried to do an " Indian Fire Trick " , in which one pours gasoline onto a fire to create large flames . Although nobody caught fire , Parker said the trick misfired and he nearly burned down the forest . After finishing the episode , Parker and Stone realized " Volcano " was about two minutes shorter than the time length required for the episode . In order to add time to the episode , Parker and Stone added the scene with Ned singing the song " Kumbaya " around the fire , as well as the long freeze @-@ frame on a shocked Chef and Mayor McDaniels reacting to the news of the volcano 's imminent eruption .
In addition to Scuzzlebutt , " Volcano " included the first appearances of recurring characters Randy Marsh and Ned Gerblanski . In this first appearance , Randy is identified only as the South Park geologist , and it is only in the episode " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " that he is first introduced as Stan 's father . Parker , who provides the voice of Randy Marsh , said the design , voice , and personality of the character are based on his real @-@ life father , who works as a geologist for the United States Geological Survey . Parker said his father is very calm in real life and Randy 's relaxed reaction to learning of the volcano — calmly sipping his coffee — is " about how my dad would react to anything " . The look of the Ned character was based on a drawing Parker made in high school , although the character did not originally have a voice box . The voice was inspired by a waitress who worked at a Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant in Boulder , Colorado , where Parker and Stone would visit while attending the University of Colorado . The duo said they would go to the restaurant just to hear her voice , but that it was so low they would lose their appetite when she took their orders . Stone and Parker had trouble creating the right voice for the character ; they tried putting the microphone directly on their throat , and also bought an actual voice box , but ultimately decided that the best way to provide the character 's voice was with natural voice simulation .
" Volcano " was released alongside five other episodes in a three @-@ VHS set on May 5 , 1998 , marking the first time South Park was made available on video . The episode was released on the " Volume I " video along with " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " ; other featured episodes included " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " , " Death " , " Weight Gain 4000 " , and " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " . " South Park : The Complete First Season " , a DVD box set featuring all thirteen episodes , including " Volcano " , was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but the tracks were not included on the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released on a separate CD .
= = Cultural references and impact = =
The episode features a fictional education film called Lava and You , which says lava will pass harmlessly over potential victims who duck and cover their heads . The film was inspired by actual " Duck and Cover " films from the 1950s and 1960s , in which children were instructed to hide under tables or lean against walls in the case of a nuclear weapon attack ; Parker and Stone , like many critics of the films , found the methods painfully simplistic and did not believe they would actually help in the case of such an attack . Jimbo and Ned are described as veterans of the Vietnam War , the military conflict between North Vietnam and South Vietnam that lasted from 1959 to 1975 ; Cartman , who is far too young to have participated in the war , claims to have flashbacks to his experiences in it . Patrick Duffy , the American television actor best known for his roles in the shows Dallas and Step by Step , appears in the episode as the living leg of Scuzzlebutt . Matt Stone claimed there was no particular reason Duffy was chosen as the leg except that he is such a nondescript actor : " He 's just super bland . Like , how could you possibly be a fan of Patrick Duffy ? "
The scene where Scuzzlebutt puts a star on top of a tree is a reference to a similar scene in the 1964 television special Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer , in which the Abominable Snow Monster places a Christmas star atop a large tree . Mount Evanston , the fictional mountain in " Volcano " , was named after the real Mount Evans in the Front Range region of the Rocky Mountains in Clear Creek County , Colorado ; Nichols Canyon in the episode was named after Kirt Nichols , a friend of Trey Parker . Jimbo blames the Democratic Party for passing overly restrictive laws on hunters and gun owners . Upon learning children are in danger due to the volcano , Mayor McDaniels seeks publicity for herself by contacting the television news programs Entertainment Tonight and Inside Edition .
Several lines of dialogue from " Volcano " became especially popular among South Park fans , including " It 's coming right for us ! " by Jimbo , and the two Cartman lines , " Democrats piss me off ! " and " Cartoons Kick Ass ! " , the last of which was featured on T @-@ shirts . Despite the relatively small role Scuzzlebutt played in the series , he nevertheless became a popular minor South Park character . He was included in the South Park video games South Park 10 : The Game and South Park Rally . The song " Hot Lava " , sung by the Chef in the episode , was featured on the 1998 soundtrack Chef Aid : The South Park Album .
= = Reception = =
" Volcano " originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 20 , 1997 . " Volcano " , like the early South Park episodes preceding it , was viewed by slightly more than 1 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . This was considered high for a cable program in the United States at the time . The Environmental Media Association nominated the episode for an Environmental Media Award in the " TV Episodic Comedy " category . However , the eventual recipient of the award was The Simpsons , for the episode " The Old Man and the Lisa " .
" Volcano " received generally positive reviews . USA Today critic Matt Roush praised the episode , especially the " Duck and Cover " films . The Advertiser called the episode " outrageously lewd " and " hysterically funny " . The Washington Post critic Tom Shales considered the episode funnier than its precedent " Weight Gain 4000 " . Peter Hawes of The Sunday Star @-@ Times in Auckland , New Zealand , said the episode was funny and intelligent . He said of the episode , " Once again , the US national psyche is imperishably captured by a crude cartoon . " He liked the way adults were portrayed as less sensible than the children , and he particularly enjoyed the " Duck and Cover " videos : " It is terrifyingly funny , for it is a word @-@ for @-@ word recreation of the insane Atom @-@ bomb Safety film , created and distributed in 1952 by the US government , who never for a second thought it would work . " The Daily Record of Glasgow , Scotland , praised the episode and described it as " hardcore humour " : " Love it or loathe it , you can 't ignore the adult animation series whose bite is worse than its bark . "
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= Streeterville =
Streeterville is a neighborhood in the Near North Side community area of Chicago , Illinois , United States , north of the Chicago River in Cook County . It is bounded by the river on the south , the Magnificent Mile portion of Michigan Avenue on the west , and Lake Michigan on the north and east , according to most sources , although the City of Chicago only recognizes a small portion of this region as Streeterville . Thus , it can be described as the Magnificent Mile plus all land east of it . The majority of the land in this neighborhood is reclaimed sandbar .
The neighborhood contains a combination of hotels , restaurants , professional office centers , residential high rises , universities , medical facilities , and cultural venues . The area has undergone increased development in the early 21st century as numerous empty lots in Streeterville have been converted into commercial and residential properties , especially in the southern part of the neighborhood . The neighborhood had earlier experienced booms following World War I and World War II .
= = History = =
Before the American settlement of the Chicago area , the lake shoreline fluctuated from year to year as storm waves eroded parts of the shore and built up the shore elsewhere . By 1803 , when American troops started the construction of Fort Dearborn , a baymouth bar blocked the mouth of the river causing it to jog southwards and enter Lake Michigan at about the level of present @-@ day Madison Street . When surveyed in 1821 the Lake Michigan shoreline north of the river ran approximately along what is now North St Clair Street , just to the east of what is now Michigan Avenue . In 1834 , after a number of failed attempts to cut through the sandbar at the mouth of the river , a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ foot ( 457 @.@ 2 m ) pier was built to protect a channel cut through the bar . Silt and sand accumulated north of this pier , creating usable land that was later nicknamed " The Sands " . Squatters and a vice district encroached on the district , causing angst among the property owners . In 1857 , Chicago Mayor John Wentworth evicted these trespassers from the land .
In the late 1880s , George Streeter claimed that his newly acquired boat struck a sandbar just off the Chicago shoreline during a storm . Landfill dumped in an effort to create land on which to build Lake Shore Drive by the Lincoln Park Board created 186 acres ( 0 @.@ 75 km2 ) of new land along the lake front , which Streeter attempted to claim . Streeter claimed that this newly created land was his and that it was an independent territory which he called the District of Lake Michigan .
For the next few decades , Streeter persisted in his claims , sometimes supporting them through criminal means . A witness in Streeter 's 1902 land fraud trial testified that Streeter had purposely set out to contest the claims of the wealthy shoreline owners . Contractor Hank Brusser told the court that Streeter asked him to fill in portions of the shoreline in order to create confusion over land titles . According to Brusser , Streeter said that : " They [ the owners of the shoreline ] will have to buy us off " and that " We 'll get a million out of it " . Streeter was also motivated by the profit he gained by selling and taxing the land he claimed .
The local press became enamored with the story of Streeter 's brash personality and his self @-@ proclaimed district . Mayor William Hale Thompson tried to evict the Streeters for selling liquor , and after several eviction attempts and gun battles , Streeter landed in jail . In 1918 , the courts ruled against his claim of sovereignty . Today , the district is home to some of the most expensive real estate in Chicago .
The 1920 opening of the Michigan Avenue Bridge , which was part of the efforts to enact the Burnham Plan of 1909 , as well as the economic boom of the 1920s , brought wealth to the eastern sector of the Near North Side and paved the way for a luxury shopping district on North Michigan Avenue . Investors built high @-@ rise apartment buildings such as those in the East Lake Shore Drive Historic District , and elaborate hotels . The Bridge connected to a North Michigan avenue that served as a replacement for the former Pine Street which hosted warehouses and factory buildings near the river , and large mansions and rowhouses in northward sections in the neighborhoods of McCormickville and Streeterville . Magnificent Mile architecture during the economic boom of the 1920s emphasized historicist architectural styles such as Beaux @-@ Arts classicism , Gothic revival , and vertical @-@ style modernism . The buildings redefined the Chicago skyline with stylistic variation that gave new meaning to urban context and design compatibility .
A post @-@ World War II construction surge occurred in the area , and in the 1950s the city pursued a plan of urban renewal . A local real estate developer named Arthur Rubloff led the revitalization of North Michigan Avenue under the banner of “ The Magnificent Mile ” . The success of this effort spurred the erection of more high @-@ rise apartments and new investment in the Near North Side . This development led to the " canyonization " of Michigan Avenue , where the buildings on both sides of the street tower above , creating an " urban canyon " .
= = Today = =
Although there is general agreement that Streeterville is bounded on the west by the Magnificent Mile , the City of Chicago and the Streeterville Organization of Active Residents , claim the boundary extends one block further to the west to Rush Street . Streeterville includes some of Chicago 's tallest skyscrapers , such as the John Hancock Center , and upscale stores , hotels , and restaurants .
Although its main campus is in Evanston , Illinois , Northwestern University has its Chicago campus here . The Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine is on the Chicago campus and is adjacent to several closely affiliated hospitals , including Northwestern Memorial Hospital , the Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children 's Hospital of Chicago , the Prentice Women 's Hospital , and the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago . The Prentice Women 's Hospital opened in October 2007 , and the Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children 's Hospital of Chicago opened in May 2012 . The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago is located in Streeterville and construction of a replacement facility , also in Streeterville , was begun in 2013 . The Northwestern University School of Professional Studies and part of its Kellogg School of Management are nearby . The Northwestern University School of Law is at Chicago Avenue and Lake Shore Drive , adjacent to Lake Shore Park and Lake Michigan . Next to the Park is the Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago . The downtown campus of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business has a Chicago River setting to the south . The east side of the Magnificent Mile portion of Michigan Avenue is part of Streeterville , as are Navy Pier , the most visited attraction in Chicago , and the John Hancock Observatory , the eighth @-@ most visited attraction in Chicago .
The area east of Michigan Avenue and north of the Chicago River had a split personality for much of the 20th century - the northern portion upscale residential , retail , and university uses and the area near the Chicago River and Navy Pier dedicated to shipping and factories . At the end of the 1960s , however , residential complexes such as Lake Point Tower ( 1965 ) and McClurg Court Center ( 1971 ) began to appear among the warehouses and by the end of the century , residential and retail dominated the entire area . The neighborhood now has a reputation as part of an upscale residential strip that balances the more industrial western portion of the Near North Side . In 2007 , construction started on what would have been Chicago 's tallest skyscraper , the Chicago Spire . It was to be located in the southeastern corner of the neighborhood , next to Lake Shore Drive . The Chicago Spire was originally supposed to be completed in 2010 , but was later cancelled .
In the early 21st century , much of the southern part of the neighborhood that had previously contained warehouses and empty lots has undergone development , including the River East Center east of Columbus Drive . The River East Art Center serves as the primary retail hub apart from the Magnificent Mile . South Streeterville currently has numerous skyscrapers that are either proposed or already under construction such as a new tower at InterContinental Chicago and 500 North Lake Shore .
Streeterville hosts several landmarks and places that have been designated as historic districts . The East Lake Shore Drive Historic District , which consists of a row of early 20th century luxury apartments , sits on the northern edge of the district opposite Lake Michigan . The Old Chicago Water Tower District is located along Michigan Avenue where Streeterville meets the border of the River North and Gold Coast ( Chicago ) neighborhoods at Chicago Avenue . The Water Tower District contains the only public buildings that survived the 1871 Great Chicago Fire . Also , part of the Michigan – Wacker Historic District lies within Streeterville at the southern end of the Magnificent Mile and contains numerous high rises and skyscrapers built in the 1920s .
The neighborhood hosts several individual landmarks . The neighborhood hosts a National Historic Landmark , the Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite , the home of the first settler in Chicago . Properties in the neighborhood listed in the National Register of Historic Places include 257 East Delaware , the 860 @-@ 880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments , the Drake Hotel , the Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago , the Navy Pier and the Palmolive Building . Other Chicago Landmarks in the neighborhood include Allerton Hotel , Farwell Building , McGraw @-@ Hill Building , Perkins , Fellows & Hamilton Office and Studio , Tribune Tower , and the Woman 's Athletic Club . Notable buildings in the district include the skyscrapers on the Magnificent Mile :
John Hancock Center ( 1 @,@ 127 feet ( 344 m ) )
900 North Michigan ( 871 feet ( 265 m ) )
Water Tower Place ( 859 feet ( 262 m ) )
Park Tower ( 844 feet ( 257 m ) )
Olympia Centre ( 725 feet ( 221 m ) )
One Magnificent Mile ( 673 feet ( 205 m ) )
Chicago Place ( 608 feet ( 185 m ) )
Palmolive Building ( 565 feet ( 172 m ) ) .
Non @-@ Michigan Avenue skyscrapers in the neighborhood include the following :
Lake Point Tower ( 645 feet ( 197 m ) )
River East Center ( 644 feet ( 196 m ) )
North Pier Apartments ( 581 feet ( 177 m ) )
Onterie Center ( 570 feet ( 170 m ) )
Elysées Condominiums ( 529 feet ( 161 m ) )
401 East Ontario ( 515 feet ( 157 m ) )
The Streeter ( 514 feet ( 157 m ) )
Streeter Place ( 554 feet ( 169 m ) )
400 East Ohio Street ( 505 feet ( 154 m ) ) .
Some of the notable buildings in the district that have not been designated are Wrigley Building and Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago .
The neighborhood hosts more than 25 hotels , including the Ritz Carlton , one of three five star hotels in the Midwestern United States , and the historic Drake Hotel . The Peninsula Hotel , another of the three five star hotels in the Midwestern United States , and the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago , the other of the Midwestern five star hotels are located in the neighborhood near Rush Street . These two hotels host the highest rated spas in Illinois .
= = Economy = =
Qatar Airways operates an office in Suite 1310 at the John Hancock Center .
Playboy Enterprises ' offices were on the 15th and 16th floors of 680 N. Lake Shore Drive until 2012 .
Several consulates are in Streeterville . Countries with consulates include Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bulgaria , Chile , Denmark , Greece , Japan , Lithuania , and Switzerland .
= = Transportation = =
Streeterville is accessible via Lake Shore Drive with multiple direct exits in both directions . In addition , the Chicago ' L ' has a stops at Chicago and Grand stations on the Red Line , which runs along State Street immediately to the west of the neighborhood . From the Kennedy Expressway the Ohio Street exit feeds into Streeterville . Numerous Chicago Transit Authority bus routes run within the neighborhood , notably along Michigan Avenue , Grand Avenue , and Chicago Avenue . During warm @-@ weather months , water taxis and sightseeing boats ply the Chicago River along the south edge of the neighborhood and Navy Pier handles similar Lake Michigan water traffic .
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= Operation Donnerkeil =
Unternehmen Donnerkeil ( Operation Thunderbolt ) was the codename for a German military operation of the Second World War . Donnerkeil was designed as an air superiority operation to support the Kriegsmarine 's ( German Navy ) Operation Cerberus , also known as the " Channel Dash " .
In 1941 Kriegsmarine surface vessels had carried out commerce raiding sorties in support of the German U @-@ Boats in the Battle of the Atlantic . In January 1941 Operation Berlin was launched followed by Operation Rheinübung in May 1941 . The dominance of the Royal Navy 's surface fleet prevented the German units returning to ports in the Baltic sea or Germany . The surviving ships , the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the cruiser Prinz Eugen , docked in the port of Brest , France . Throughout 1941 RAF Bomber Command attacked the ships in dock . The close proximity of the ports to Royal Air Force ( RAF ) airfields allowed a large number of sorties to be flown against the targets in quick succession . The Oberkommando der Marine ( Naval High Command ) , and Adolf Hitler himself desired to move the ships out of range from potential air raids .
In December 1941 the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( High Command of the Air Force ) was ordered to formulate an air superiority plan for the protection of three German capital ships to escape from France to Germany through the English Channel . General der Jagdflieger ( General of the Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland prepared the aerial assets for the operation . Both Cerberus and its supporting operation , Donnerkeil , were launched on 11 February 1942 . During the first phase of the operation the Germans achieved surprise . The German ships reached Germany on 13 February 1942 , just two days after the start of Cerberus and Donnerkeil .
During the Channel Dash the Luftwaffe succeeded in defeating air attacks on the German ships during the operation , thus allowing them to reach German waters . In the air battles that took place over the Channel the British suffered heavy losses for a non @-@ existent return . German losses were modest , and the operation achieved its objective .
= = Background = =
The first German Capital ships to dock at Brest were the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , on 22 March 1941 . In the previous eight weeks , January — March , they had participated in the German Operation Berlin against Allied shipping in the Atlantic Ocean . Just nine weeks later , the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen also sought refuge in the harbour on 1 June 1941 , after the failed Operation Rheinübung ( Operation Exercise Rhine ) . However , whilst in port , the ships were in easy range of British air power and suffered frequent attacks and some damage . A ten @-@ month offensive by the RAF from 29 March 1941 succeeded in flying 2 @,@ 928 sorties against the Brest harbour , 171 in daylight . Some of these suffered heavy losses . A raid on 24 July lost 12 percent of its strength . Night bombing was safer as the Germans lacked night @-@ fighters and the 18 losses to enemy action were claimed by Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery ( AAA ) . During the course of their campaign the RAF used more sophisticated navigation aids . On the night of the 7 / 8 December 1941 the Oboe navigation aid was employed for the first time .
Concerned after the loss of Bismarck , Adolf Hitler ordered the Kriegsmarine to move the ships to Germany for overhauls in preparation for their deployment to Norway . There they were to serve as a fleet in being , and as the premier naval defence for German @-@ occupied Norway . After lengthy discussions the Oberkommando der Marine opted for the shorter , but arguably more dangerous route , through the English Channel .
On 12 January 1942 Hitler met with the commanders of the operation at his Headquarters in East Prussia ( Wolf 's Lair ) . Present were Wilhelm Keitel , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Wehrmacht ( German Armed Forces ) , Hans Jeschonnek ( Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff ) , Alfred Jodl ( Chief of Staff for Military Operations ) and Adolf Galland , General der Jagdflieger ( General of the Fighter Forces ) , Erich Raeder ( Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Navy ) and Vice @-@ Admiral Otto Ciliax , who was to lead the battle group ( Kampfgruppe ) . During the course of the meeting Hitler likened the German fleet to " a patient with cancer which is doomed unless they submit to an operation . An operation , on the other hand , even though it may have to be drastic , will at least offer some hope that the patient 's life may yet be saved . The passage of our ships is such an operation . It must be attempted " . Not much operational detail was discussed . The Luftwaffe was ordered to provide air cover and diversion raids against British targets . Jeschonnek promised around 250 aircraft .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Luftwaffe plan = = =
The OKL was not happy about supporting Cerberus . Jeschonnek remarked to Galland that if Cerberus failed then the Luftwaffe would be made a scapegoat . Jeschnonnek was to be proved right . During the 12 January 1942 meeting , the Navy demanded maximum fighter cover be given and won Hitler 's support . Should anything go wrong , the Navy would most likely blame the Luftwaffe for damage sustained by enemy air forces . During the meeting Jeschonnek stood his ground and refused to give any guarantees or to reinforce the Western Fighter Forces from other theatres . Galland was given executive power for the air operation which was given the code name Unternehmen Donnerkeil ( Operation Thunderbolt ) . The existence of the operation was so secret that both Jeschonnek and Galland had to sign secrecy pledges as they left Hitler 's Headquarters in East Prussia .
The details of the plan were worked out with Oberst ( Colonel ) Karl Koller , Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle 's chief of staff , Luftflotte 3 ( Air Fleet 3 ) . To assemble sufficient strength some training units had to be mobilised ( the bulk of the Jagdwaffe was in the Soviet Union owing to Operation Barbarossa ) .
The route was subdivided into three sectors based upon the existing Jafü ( Fighter Sector ) boundaries , but to ensure local control Max Ibel , former Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of Jagdgeschwader 27 ( Fighter Wing 27 ) was appointed Jagdfliegerführer Schiff , shortened to Jafü Schiff ( meaning Fighter Controller Ship ) and embarked onto Scharnhorst as a signals officer in order to communicate with Luftwaffe units during the operation . Eight dummy operations , involving around 450 sorties , were made from 22 January to 10 February to train for the mission . It is unclear whether the British were aware of these training missions .
To disrupt British radio transmissions , Wolfgang Martini 's unit , the Funkhorchdienst ( Radio Enlightening Service , or Signals intelligence ) attempted to jam radio @-@ telephone frequencies . They created a subtle jamming technique which increased atmospheric interference which degraded the performance of British coastal radars . In addition Dornier Do 217s of Kampfgeschwader 2 ( Bomber Wing 2 ) was ordered to fly electronic deception missions over the western channel to divert enemy aircraft . Joachim Coeler 's Fliegerkorps IX prepared to strike at RAF bases in south @-@ west England and to engage and slow down British naval forces that might attempt an interception . Fernaufklärungsgruppe 123 ( strategic or long @-@ range reconnaissance ) was responsible for maintaining reconnaissance in the channel 's east and west entrance and was to support Fliegerkorps IX .
To ensure constant air support , Jagdgeschwader ( Fighter Wings ) and Nachtjagdgeschwader ( Night Fighter Wings ) in the shape of Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 , were ordered to achieve a frantic pace in servicing and preparing aircraft for their next mission . To keep a constant aerial vigil over the task force , the ' black men ' ( mechanics ) had to complete rearming and refuelling in 30 minutes or less . Galland insisted that the air units aircraft should be split between high and low altitude to provide sound cover . The low altitude groups would be able to evade detection by British coastal radar . Galland demanded an umbrella of at least 16 fighters over the ships at any one time along the whole length of the channel . The fighter group would be split into two groups of eight aircraft for their respective patrol altitudes . Each formation was split into two Schwärme of four aircraft . The Schwärme tactics involved one formation flying to sea and one to land in a zigzag pattern . All Schwärme were ordered to fly back and forth along the line of ships in wide figures of eight while maintaining radio silence . Every sortie was meticulously timed to allow the fighters exactly 30 minutes over the ships , enough to maintain cover and allow the relieved units to refuel and rearm and return to start the cycle again . However , during Donnerkeil , the relieving sortie would arrive after only 20 minutes which meant the actual fighter cover for half the dash would be 32 fighters .
= = = British preparations = = =
RAF forces codenamed their response to the German action as Operation Fuller . The British Air Forces were aware that the Germans might opt to choose the English Channel as their route . Captain Norman Dening , head of the Admiralty ’ s Operational Intelligence Centre was not certain that the Germans would attempt it , though he regarded as a possibility . At the end of January he had warned that the German warships were preparing to put to sea and a major operation should be expected . Dening sent a message to First Sea Lord Dudley Pound :
The short cut of the German ships is via the English Channel . It is 240 miles from Brest to Cherbourg and another 120 miles from Cherbourg to the Dover straits . While ships could make the passage from Brest to Cherbourg or from Cherbourg to the Dover straits in the same dark period , they could not make the complete passage from Brest to Dover in one dark period .
At first sight this passage from up the Channel seems hazardous for the Germans . It is probable , however , that as their heavy ships are not fully efficient , they would prefer such a passage , relying for their security on the destroyers and aircraft which are efficient , and knowing full well that we have no heavy ships to oppose them in the Channel …
Taking all factors into consideration , it appears that the Germans can pass east up the Channel with much less risk than they will incur if they attempt an ocean passage .
Air Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of RAF Coastal Command agreed this was the probable route . He expected the Germans to make an attempt anytime after the 10 February . Unfortunately , the Air Ministry and the three RAF commands , RAF Coastal Command , RAF Bomber Command and RAF Fighter Command , believed the Germans would use the darkness for the longest and most dangerous part of the journey through the straits and would leave in daylight . The far from adequate forces at their disposal , they believed , would be best used at night . Most of RAF Bomber Command was ordered to stand down accordingly . Such an order made it totally unprepared to strike in daylight hours on 12 February .
Coastal Command had agreed to provide three squadrons of Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers . The Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) contributed one squadron of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers . RAF Bomber Command had some 300 bombers on standby for any operation . There were problems , however . The Swordfish were very slow , and fighter escort of the aircraft was difficult . The Beaufort squadrons were all spread out and it was difficult to bring them together . One squadron was based at Leuchers , Scotland , one at Thorney Island , Portsmouth , England , and one near St Eval , Cornwall , England .
= = Forces involved = =
= = = Luftwaffe = = =
The Luftwaffe contributed five wings to the operation . Jagdgeschwader 1 ( Fighter Wing 1 or JG 1 ) , Jagdgeschwader 2 ( JG 2 ) , Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) were equipped with day fighter aircraft , mostly the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . JG 2 and JG 26 operated the Fw 190 , while JG 1 operated the Bf 109 . Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 was also pressed into the air superiority role . Its Messerschmitt Bf 110s operated in much smaller numbers . Kampfgeschwader 2 operated in a support role , mainly maritime interdiction and air raids on enemy airfields in southern England to distract the RAF from the Channel ’ s airspace . The Germans , in total , had a combined strength of 252 fighters , 30 heavy fighters and 32 bombers . JG 1 and JG 2 operated the Bf 109 , while JG 26 maintained a " monopoly " on the Fw 190 .
= = = RAF and FAA = = =
Confidence in the British bomber force was low . Having had no anti @-@ shipping attack training , their ability to inflict damage to the ships was poor . The main hope was placed in the torpedo bomber force made up mainly of the Beaufort and Swordfish aircraft of Coastal Command and the Fleet Air Arm . Beauforts of No. 42 Squadron RAF , No. 86 Squadron RAF and No. 217 Squadron RAF were made available from Coastal Command for the mission , but were short of torpedoes . The three torpedo squadrons were the only ones available on 12 February 1942 . Some 57 Bristol Beauforts had been diverted to other theatres , leaving a chronic shortage of torpedo bombers in Britain at a time when a major enemy naval operation was expected . Moreover , a further two squadrons ( No. 415 and No. 489 Squadron RAF ) had been withdrawn to convert to Handley Page Hampdens . No. 22 Squadron RAF was in the midst of a transfer to the Middle East at the time of the German operation .
No. 825 Squadron FAA and their Fairey Swordfish were also made available . Lockheed Hudson 's of No. 224 Squadron RAF and No. 233 Squadron RAF were also committed for reconnaissance operations . No. 22 Squadron RAF was recalled from leave to take part in any potential operation in the Channel . Hudsons from No. 407 Squadron RCAF were also available , and were placed on high alert . They took part in the fighting . RAF Bomber Command contributed its No. 5 Group RAF , containing some 242 of the 300 aircraft available to the service .
RAF Fighter Command committed several squadrons to the operation ; No. 1 , 19 , 91 , 41 , 118 , 129 , 137 , 234 , 401 , 403 , 607 , 316 , 411 , 452 , 485 , 137 , 128 , 64 , 65 , 72 , and 11 .
= = Channel Dash = =
= = = Contact = = =
During the evening of the 10 February 1942 the German flotilla prepared to undertake their operation . As they slipped anchor RAF bombers appeared over head . The German ships conducted a u @-@ turn and sped back to the dock . The RAF bombers released their bombs but did little damage . Fortunately they did not notice anything untoward .
Ultra intercepts had put the British on alert . However , a series of mistakes and bad luck enabled the Germans to evade detection . Three Lockheed Hudsons of Coastal Command conducted a patrol at three positions . The first , named " Stopper " , maintained surveillance between sunset and first light off the port of Brest . The Second , " Line SE " watched due north of the port , and the third , " Habo " , covered the area between Le Havre and Boulogne . The patrols lasted between 01 : 00 hours to dawn on 11 February . At 19 : 25 on the 11 February , " Stopper " took off as usual but was intercepted by a Bf 110 night fighter of NJG 1 . The Hudson evaded the Bf 110 , but its ASV equipment was unserviceable . The aircraft headed back to St. Eval , landing at 20 : 40 . Its replacement headed over the same area , reaching the location at 22 : 38 . It was too late , during the interlude , Ciliax and his ships had slipped their moorings . The “ Line SE ” Hudson should have picked up the German fleet , but in a repeat incident the ASV failed at 20 : 55 . At 21 : 50 all attempts to repair it failed , and the Hudson returned to base . No replacement took its place . Everything now depended on " Habo " , but Ciliax ’ s luck held . At dawn , mist began to form over the airfield at Thorney Island . The mist was threatening to deny a clear landing run for the Hudson , so it was recalled one hour early , just as the German ships were approaching " Habo ’ s " zone . II . / NJG 1 flew 19 sorties , protecting the ships during the night , until replaced by JG 2 at 08 : 00 .
For 11 hours the German fleet sailed from Brest into the English Channel to the Dover Straits . By chance , a mechanic on the radar station at Fairlight , East Sussex had just finished repairing the equipment when he picked up 27 echos at 10 : 15 on 12 February , south of Cap Gris Nez . The information was relayed to Vice @-@ Admiral Bertram Ramsay , who ordered his Air Officer liaison to contact No. 11 Group RAF to ask for armed reconnaissance . Ramsay also warned No. 16 Group RAF and the FAA squadron operating out of RAF Manston that there were possible targets were in the Channel , despite not knowing the exact number or size of the enemy vessels . The performance of the radar was down to the jamming of the sets ( Ballstöranlage ) by two Heinkel He 111s which had been flying off the south coast from their airfield near Paris . The flights ceased at 09 : 00 when installations along the French coast had taken over . The detection by Fairlight was a piece of good fortune , the Germans had assumed it to be out of action . Ten Dornier Do 217s from III . / KG 2 flew missions against Plymouth harbour and airfield , while 15 flew diversion missions to keep RAF fighters clear of the He 111s .
Ramsay 's request arrived at RAF Kenley . Two experienced pilots , Group Captain Francis Victor Beamish ( 10 victories ) and Wing Commander Finlay Boyd ( 14 victories ) , were sent on patrol to investigate . Flying over the channel in Spitfires , they ran into large numbers of Bf 109s protecting a large fleet of warships and dived away . Holding radio silence they kept their discovery until they landed . They sighted the ships at 10 : 42 and landed at 11 : 09 . It was another 16 minutes before Bomber Command was alerted and Ramsay did not know of the situation until 11 : 30 . Soon afterwards , at around 12 : 16 GMT , the first naval actions began between escorting Schnellboots and British Motor Torpedo Boats ( MTBs ) and the British were alerted . Galland ordered all low flying to cease and allowed Max Ibel and his team aboard Scharnhorst to break radio silence . Ibel then began directing Fw 190 and Bf 109s toward RAF units heading to the area . As luck would have it , as the first outnumbered British units entered the airspace over the ships , the German vessels were now at their closest point to German airfields . It allowed the Luftwaffe to offer maximum protection .
= = = Main assaults = = =
Lieutenant Commander Eugene Esmonde , acting as Squadron Leader , No. 825 Squadron FAA took off with his Fairey Swordfish formation at 12 : 25 to attack the ships . No. 411 and 64 Squadron were to escort the FAA but arrived over Manston 15 minutes late and missed the rendezvous . The only unit to keep to mission orders was Squadron Leader Brian Kingcome 's No. 72 Squadron . Unaware of the Swordfish squadron 's location , they ran into each other by fortunate accident . Owing to low cloud cover , they dropped to between 50 and 100 feet . The heavy German fighter cover put an end to the protection the Spitfire 's could provide as the RAF fighters now had to look after themselves . The Spitfires and Swordfish were engaged by Fw 190s of 8 staffel and 9 staffel . / JG 26 led by Gruppenkommandeur ( Group Commander ) Gerhard Schöpfel of III . / JG 26 . The Fw 190s were just relieving fighters of JG 2 . Frail and slow , the Swordfish forced German pilots to lower their undercarriages to prevent overshooting the biplanes . In the event all six Swordfish were shot down . The Spitfires destroyed three Fw 190s in return . Several Swordfish managed to fire off their torpedoes but none found their mark . Lieutenant Commander Esmonde was shot down and killed by an Fw 190 . He was awarded the Victoria Cross . Only five of the original eighteen Swordfish crew survived . No. 41 Squadron RAF claimed three Bf 109s ( most likely from JG 1 ) destroyed and one damaged off the Belgian coast . No. 72 Squadron claimed three Fw 190s destroyed and four damaged in the battles around 13 : 00 . No. 410 Squadron claimed two Bf 109s destroyed and two damaged in the same dogfights . The German ships consumed very little ammunition , as the action had been carried out largely by the Luftwaffe .
The stand down order had meant RAF Bomber Command 's contribution to the proceedings came relatively late in the day . It dispatched a total of 73 bombers at between 13 : 55 and 14 : 50 ( GMT ) . None of the attackers succeeded in hitting their targets . At 14 : 35 nine Bristol Beauforts from No. 42 Squadron led by W.H Cliff took off . Arriving over Manston at 14 : 50 they found other aircraft from No. 407 RCAF orbiting . It took nearly 30 minutes to form a proper formation . With several other squadrons they attacked the Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen at heights of between 60 and 100 feet but their torpedoes missed . No losses were suffered by No. 42 Squadron . The Hudsons struck at between 400 and 900 feet . Two RCAF bombers were lost without success . No. 217 Squadron nearly achieved a hit on Gneisenau , but the ship turned away , just missing the salvo . Later , another wave of 134 — 137 bombers intercepted the ships between 16 : 00 and 17 : 05 . Only 20 crews managed to make attacks owing to poor training ( Bomber Command crews were not trained to hit naval targets ) , a low cloud base ( 700 metres ) and poor visibility ( sea level visibility was between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 yards ) . Nine bombers were lost . Another formation of 35 Vickers Wellington aircraft attempted a strike between 17 : 50 and 18 : 15 , losing two of their number . The most notable raid in this action was by six Beauforts from No. 86 , three from No. 217 and three from No. 22 Squadron . Wing Commander C. Flood , No. 86 Squadron led the attack in the only ASV @-@ loaded aircraft . Locating the German ships in the darkness they attacked , but heavy AAA fire scattered the bombers and no successes were achieved . Of the 242 bombers that took part in the missions , it is likely only 39 conducted attacks , though it is possible that a further 16 carried out attacks , suggesting a total of 54 aircraft actually released their bombs against the ships . Of this total 15 of those were shot down . RAF Fighter Command also threw in fighter @-@ bombers to try and inflict damage , operating Hawker Hurricanes over the Dover area .
The only success the British managed to achieve was to damage both the Gneisenau and Scharnhorst ( the latter seriously ) . Scharnhorst hit two mines , one at 14 : 31 GMT , and a further one at 21 : 34 GMT . Gneisenau also struck a mine at 18 : 55 GMT . Both ships recovered and steamed on . Scharnhost had been stopped dead in the water with engine damage after the first hit . The failure to alert Bomber Command earlier meant a chance was missed to deliver an attack on Scharnhorst when it was most vulnerable . The second and third mine hits came after nightfall , which enabled both vessels to avoid further attacks . The last RAF sighting of the ships had occurred at 18 : 00 GMT .
It is unclear exactly who was responsible for the damage on the German ships . It is possible that the mines were air @-@ dropped by RAF Handley Page Hampden bombers . Should this be the case , the bombers achieved far more damage than the Royal Navy and the rest of the RAF combined .
= = = Losses and overclaiming = = =
In protecting the RAF bombers , Fighter Command lost 20 fighters , 14 pilots killed and three captured . Only eight of the RAF fighters were shot down by the Luftwaffe . A further eight were shot down by AAA fire , two collided and two were lost to unknown causes . Ten of the fighters were Spitfires , six were Hawker Hurricanes and four were Westland Whirlwinds . During the air battles , mutual overclaiming took place , though the Luftwaffe was significantly worse . RAF Fighters claimed 16 Bf 109s destroyed and 13 damaged . Four Fw 190s were also claimed destroyed and six damaged . Actual German losses amounted to 17 fighters , along with five Do 217s . Human casualties amounted to 23 killed . German fighter units claimed 60 RAF aircraft shot down , with JG 26 awarded seven kills and six probable victories . Actual British losses were 41 , a number of which were lost to AAA fire . III . / KG 2 had participated in raids against RAF airfields . The Luftwaffe had flown 300 fighter and 40 bomber missions during the 11 — 12 February .
= = Attacks in port = =
The German flotilla had reached home ports on the evening of the 12 February . However , while the threat from RAF bombers in daylight had now gone , Bomber Command was soon making night bombing attacks on Kiel ’ s port . Gneisenau was moved into an inner basin alongside her depot ship , Monte Olivia . The hatches were left open and her tanks , still containing a large amount of fuel , were left unattended . RAF Bomber Command made its first attack on the night of the 25 / 26 February , when 61 bombers flew over Kiel . Monte Olivia was destroyed but Gneisenau escaped . On 26 / 27 February another 61 RAF bombers returned . A bomb penetrated Gneisenau 's foredeck and exploded . The oil fumes from the tanks ignited and the ship was engulfed in fire from her bow to the Anton turret . The entire forward part of the bow needed to be replaced . She steamed to Gdynia , in Poland on 4 April where she was decommissioned out of range of RAF bombers . Gneisenau did not put to sea again . The raid cost three aircraft , one Hampton and two Wellingtons . German casualties amounted to 16 civilians and 116 sailors dead .
On 27 / 28 February 1942 33 bombers flew over Wilhelmshaven looking for Scharnhorst . Cloud obscured the target area and German reports noted only three explosions . Three Armstrong Whitworth Whitley bombers were lost to unstated causes . In 1942 Scharnhorst had evaded the worst attacks from RAF Bomber Command . It was ready for redeployment by the summer , but a series of accidents , such as striking a mine and running aground meant this was delayed until the turn of the year . The ship made three unsuccessful attempts to sail to Norway . On 10 January 1943 she was spotted by RAF aircraft and turned back after reaching only the Skagerrak . Another attempt was tried in January but failed . On 3 March 1943 Scharnhorst finally made it to Norway . She would survive another eight months before being sent on her last wartime mission , Operation Ostfront . During her sortie Scharnhorst was sunk at the Battle of the North Cape .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = British failures = = =
The failure to coordinate the FAA , RAF and Navy dispersed any counterstrike . Confusion owing to the weather and the lack of any centralised control of British sea and air forces caused each element to work independently of one another . This caused several friendly fire incidents , such as the attack by No. 217 Squadron on HMS Mackay . The most serious failure was Fighter Command ’ s failure to provide adequate protection to bomber and naval forces . Although the weather also prevented greater German fighter activity by the time the target area was reached , valuable time had been lost by bomber formations searching for their fighter escorts over the rendezvous positions which either never arrived or were given incorrect orders or direction too late to be acted upon . Little communication was enabled between fighter and bomber units , but also between the strike units themselves . Compounding the problems , RAF Bomber Command ’ s crews , which made up the majority of the strike forces , were not trained for attacks against naval targets . The only anti @-@ shipping torpedo @-@ bomber squadrons were No. 42 and 217 Squadrons of Coastal Command , which owing to logistical issues , were five torpedoes short of their total complement .
Air Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , RAF Coastal Command , blamed the failure of Operation Fuller on the neglect of anti @-@ shipping aviation , not to those directing the forces during the operation or intelligence services . Joubert called for all anti @-@ shipping units to be handed over to the service . Better training , more aircraft and a higher quality of equipment would allow the RAF to avoid a repeat of the Channel Dash . The Air Ministry refused his request and instead put No. 2 Group RAF Bomber Command in support of Coastal units against enemy shipping between Cherbourg and Wilhelmshaven . Production and procurement remained in favour of Bomber Command , producing types for the strategic bombing campaign over Germany , even after the failure of Fuller . Adding to the RAF 's difficulty , most of Coastal Command 's anti @-@ shipping units were withdrawn to the more essential Mediterranean Theatre of Operations ( MTO ) , leaving Coastal Command short of naval strike aircraft in 1942 . Air Marshal Charles Portal agreed this needed to change arguing , " We agree on the importance of torpedo bomber aircraft , and this was proved completely during the passage of the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau [ and Prinz Eugen ] up the channel " . In May 1942 Joubert succeeded in procuring the new Bristol Beaufighter , which entered service in November 1942 . However , only one squadron was made operational . Despite the need for anti @-@ shipping strike aircraft , the service continued to struggle until 1943 , when Portal fulfilled his promise and more of these aircraft , including the de Havilland Mosquito , became available .
Donnerkeil also proved to be a watershed in electronic warfare , for by using jamming techniques , Wolfgang Martini removed British inhibitions concerning the use of ECM against the German defensive system ( Kammhuber line ) and paved the way for the debut of Window Chaff in June 1943 , which had a devastating effect on the ability of German night @-@ fighter radar defences to locate and intercept RAF bombers during the Defence of the Reich . The first step in this campaign was a British Army operation , Operation Biting , to steal a Würzburg radar set on 27 / 28 February 1942 . The British removed components and developed counter @-@ measures . The Germans responded by fortifying all radar sets , which only made them more visible for RAF aerial reconnaissance . The British also began the occasional jamming of Freya radar sets . The Germans did not realise this was happening until September 1942 . German forces also used offensive jamming of British radar , to enable fighter @-@ bomber operations over England . The British described them as a " real menace " . Radar @-@ jamming , counter @-@ measures and other innovations escalated from that point onward .
= = = German perspective = = =
Operation Donnerkeil had been an outstanding success for the Luftwaffe . The measure of success lay not in the ratio of losses , which amounted to 2 : 1 in the German favour , but the failure of the RAF , FAA and Royal Navy to intercept or at least inflict severe damage to the German warships . The meagre forces committed by the Navy had been repulsed easily by the German warships and their escorts . Heavy AAA fire had offered a helpful defence against air attack , but the German air defence had succeeded , along with poor weather , in breaking up RAF assaults on the ships . Galland , responsible for the plan , called it the high point of his career .
However , for the Kriegsmarine , Operation Cerberus had been operational success , but a strategic reverse . The present situation had forced them into an operation which was in effect , a strategic withdrawal from the Atlantic . From that point onwards , the German campaign in the Atlantic was to be carried by the U @-@ Boats , unsupported by a surface fleet . With the German ships removed from the French Atlantic ports , the British fleets could contain them much more effectively in Norway and the North Sea . Moreover , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau had been damaged by mines and required extensive repairs . Prinz Eugen was torpedoed and her stern collapsed just weeks after Cerberus . All three ships were out of action for extended periods . More bad luck followed , with Gneisenau being knocked out for good in February 1942 and the sinking of the Scharnhorst in December 1943 . None of the ships sailed in the Atlantic again in the intervening period , leaving the Battle of the Atlantic to be carried on by U @-@ Boat forces .
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= Stalingrad @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Stalingrad @-@ class battlecruiser , also known as Project 82 ( Russian : Тяжёлые крейсера проекта 82 ) , was a Soviet Union battlecruiser design from 1941 . It was a smaller and less expensive counterpart to the Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers of 1939 . The original role was for a light , fast ship intended to break up attacks by Royal Navy fast cruiser forces who might attempt bombardment of Russia 's northern ports . The design would have been able to outgun any ship with similar speed , or outrun anything more heavily armed . Design work had just started when the German invasion of the Soviet Union opened and the design was put on hold .
The design was reimagined in 1944 , intended to operate along with the Sverdlov @-@ class cruisers and proposed aircraft carriers to make up powerful task forces able to challenge the USA 's fleet . In this role it would need to be a more powerful ship than the original design , taking over for the now @-@ cancelled Kronstadts . They were intended to fend off enemy attacks and protect the carriers when bad weather prevented flying . A series of at least four were planned , and Stalingrad finally began construction in 1951 . Supported primarily by Joseph Stalin and opposed by a considerable part of the naval staff , the project came to an abrupt end with Stalin 's death in 1953 . By this time a second example was under construction and abandoned on the slips , while a third never started .
The partially completed Stalingrad ended as a target ship for testing anti @-@ ship missiles , before being broken up around 1962 .
= = Background and genesis = =
The roots of the Project 82 @-@ class began back in May 1941 when the Main Naval Staff approved tactical requirements ( Russian : Operativno Takticheskoye Zadanie , OTZ ) for a medium @-@ sized cruiser between the light cruisers of the Kirov and Chapayev classes , and the Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers . It was intended to fulfill the following roles :
Engage enemy cruisers armed with 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns
Destroy enemy light cruisers
Support its own light cruisers
Lay minefields
Suppress the enemy 's medium @-@ caliber coast defense batteries and support landing operations
Conduct operations against the enemy 's maritime lines of communication
To accomplish these missions , the Navy desired a ship of 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 20 @,@ 000 long tons ) or smaller , armed with eight 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and twelve 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns , twelve 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and one triple 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mount . It was to be armored to withstand 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) shells with a speed not less than 36 knots ( 41 mph ; 67 km / h ) , a range of 10 @,@ 000 nmi ( 18 @,@ 520 km ) at 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) and able to carry four seaplanes launched by two catapults . Three preliminary designs were proposed in response , but only one , which displaced 25 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ) , was able to meet all of the requirements . However , the designers recommended an increase in the main armament caliber to 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) , a strengthened anti @-@ aircraft battery and reductions in the armor protection , speed , and range .
The opening of Operation Barbarossa a month later rendered these plans moot . Both the Project 82 and the Kronshtadt ( Project 69 ) classes were put on hold .
The project was revived in 1943 with a new requirement issued on 15 September . This was basically identical to the original , but added one new requirement : " Protect the operations of aircraft carriers and conduct joint operations with them . " Estimated characteristics were a displacement between 20 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 20 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 long tons ) , nine main guns between 210 – 230 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) , a secondary battery of a dozen 130 @-@ mm dual @-@ purpose guns and thirty @-@ two 37 @-@ mm AA guns . The speed , range and aircraft requirements remained the same , although the torpedo tubes were dropped . Over a dozen preliminary designs had been proposed by May 1944 , but none were acceptable .
A new tactical requirement was issued in November 1944 that envisioned a more realistic displacement of 25 @,@ 000 – 26 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 000 – 26 @,@ 000 long tons ) while the speed was dropped to 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) and the range to 8 @,@ 000 nmi ( 14 @,@ 820 km ) . Armament was also revised to nine 220 @-@ mm guns , sixteen 130 @-@ mm guns , thirty @-@ two 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) and twenty 23 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) AA guns . These last guns were changed to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) in 1945 .
Admiral Nikolai Kuznetsov believed that these ships could protect the planned Soviet aircraft carriers in bad weather from American cruisers and pushed to have them built , but the Shipbuilding Commissariat balked . It refused to begin detailed design work pleading the uncertainty of the post @-@ war building situation and the already heavy workload of its design bureau . Undeterred , the Navy continued studying cruiser designs and planned a ten @-@ year construction programme for the period 1946 – 1955 . This was based on defensive operations along the periphery of the Soviet Union against Anglo @-@ American carrier groups while submarines would attack their lines of communication . Ten of these large cruisers were envisioned as part of this construction program . When the program was discussed by the Politburo on 29 September 1945 there was no great disagreement on the large cruisers , although Stalin favored increasing the size of their main guns to 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) , but did not push the issue when Admiral Kuznetsov resisted .
A bigger problem was the resistance of the Shipbuilding Commissariat which said it would be impossible to lay down any ships of new design until about 1950 and that only incremental changes could be made to the designs currently in production . The Navy saw no reason why new ships , reflecting wartime experience , could not be laid down beginning in 1948 . To resolve the dispute a special commission was appointed , led by Lavrentiy Beria , which mostly sided with the Shipbuilding Commissariat in that most ships of the program would be improved versions of current designs . Four of the large cruisers were to begin construction , two each at Shipyard 402 in Molotovsk and Shipyard 444 at Nikolayev with another three planned to be laid down in 1953 and 1955 . This compromise was approved on 27 November 1945 and detailed design work began in 1946 for designs equipped with both the 220 @-@ mm and 305 @-@ mm guns .
This was reaffirmed by a decree of the Council of Ministers on 28 January 1947 . By August 1947 , the Navy and the Shipbuilding Ministry had winnowed down design proposals to only three , one from each armed with 305 mm guns and a joint design armed with 220 mm guns . The latter 's design was slightly smaller ( 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) ) than the Navy 's 40 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 39 @,@ 000 long tons ) design , and had an armor belt 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thinner , but was otherwise almost identical . The joint design was 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) smaller with a reduced secondary armament , but was about 1 @.@ 5 knots ( 1 @.@ 7 mph ; 2 @.@ 8 km / h ) faster . All proposals had a range of 6 @,@ 000 nmi ( 11 @,@ 110 km ) at 18 knots ( 21 mph ; 33 km / h ) . These designs weren 't reviewed until March 1948 , probably because of the need to coordinate reaction to the American Marshall Plan , and Stalin approved the Navy 's more heavily protected design . But even this was subject to more delays as the detailed specifications had to be approved and this didn 't occur until 31 August 1948 , likely delayed by the Tito – Stalin split and the start of the Berlin Blockade , both in June .
With the approval of the specifications , TsKB @-@ 17 , the heavy @-@ ship design bureau , began work on the sketch design to be submitted for approval to the Council of Ministers before the start of the technical design could begin . By March 1949 , four alternatives had been completed , differing mainly in the arrangement of the 130 mm guns and the boiler layout . The bureau preferred one layout and the Navy and the Shipbuilding Ministry concurred so the bureau began the technical design , without formal approval , in order to be ready to lay down the first two ships in the third quarter of 1950 as already scheduled . However , when Stalin reviewed the sketch design in September 1949 , he rejected it , ordering a smaller , faster ship capable of 35 knots ( 40 mph ; 65 km / h ) . TsKB @-@ 17 was able to produce a preliminary technical design that met Stalin 's demands by the end of the year , an amazingly fast amount of time for what should have been a very involved process . The most likely explanation is that the designers retained as much of their original work as possible and found room for the more powerful turbines and more numerous boilers necessary to attain Stalin 's specified speed by deleting the two rear twin 130 mm turrets , and their magazines , as revealed by a comparison of the 1949 and 1951 sketches .
The Navy didn 't like the compromises made to reduce the displacement down to Stalin 's 36 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 35 @,@ 000 long tons ) and to achieve the high speed demanded as revealed in a March 1950 meeting in the Kremlin where Stalin revealed critical points about his thoughts for these ships . When the admirals responded to his question about the purpose of these ships by saying that they were to fight the enemy 's heavy cruisers , he contradicted them and said that their purpose was to fight light cruisers : " It is necessary to increase its speed to 35 knots and create a cruiser that will cause panic among the enemy 's light cruisers , disperse and destroy them . " Furthermore he believed that they would fight close to home , defending the coastal waters of Soviet Union . " You cannot blindly copy the Americans and English , they face different conditions , their ships travel far over the ocean , out of touch with their bases . We are not considering conducting oceanic battles , but instead will fight close to our own shores , so we do not need a large ammunition supply on the ship . " The admirals also did not like the reduction in the secondary armament made to accommodate the larger machinery and extra boilers needed to reach the speed desired by Stalin , but he reminded them that most aircraft would attack the battlecruiser at heights below 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) and the ceiling of the 130 mm was far in excess of that . He also ordered a reduction in the light anti @-@ aircraft guns believing that its escorts would defend it . This design was approved by the Council of Ministers on 25 March 1950 .
This allowed the technical design process to begin and it was completed in December 1950 . Reviews by the Navy and Shipbuilding Ministries in February 1951 led to some significant changes to the design in April . The original form of the bow was similar to that of the Chapayev @-@ class light cruisers , but sea trials of the lead ship of that class in December 1950 — January 1951 proved that she was very wet forward , which hindered her seakeeping ability . The Stalingrad 's bow form was radically altered with a much more raked stem , its sheer and flare were greatly increased and the ship gained almost 10 m ( 32 ft 10 in ) in length , possibly in response to the Chapayev 's problems . In addition the thickness of her belt armor was increased from 150 to 180 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 1 in ) , possibly in response to weight savings elsewhere . This final design was submitted for approval on 4 June 1951 , but preparations for the working design drawings began before it was approved .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Stalingrad class were 260 meters ( 853 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline , and 273 @.@ 6 meters ( 897 ft 8 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 32 meters ( 105 ft 0 in ) , a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 2 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) forward , 8 @.@ 8 meters ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft , and displaced 36 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 35 @,@ 900 long tons ) at standard load and 42 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 41 @,@ 600 long tons ) at full load . They were the first large Soviet @-@ built ships with a flush deck . The hull was completely welded to save weight and they used longitudinal framing throughout . Metacentric height was estimated at 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) , presumably in the design load condition . The ships had a triple bottom underneath the armored citadel that had a height of 2 @.@ 25 meters ( 7 ft 5 in ) and 23 main watertight compartments . They had a crew of 1712 men plus space for 30 when acting as a flagship .
The cost for each ship was estimated at 1 @.@ 168 billion rubles , almost four times the 322 million rubles for a Sverdlov @-@ class cruiser . The ship was intended to be commanded by a rear admiral , with its executive officer , political officer and the heads of the gunnery and engineering divisions as captains 1st rank .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The high speed demanded of the Stalingrads required four TV @-@ 4 geared steam turbines , each producing 70 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 52 @,@ 199 kW ) and driving one propeller . They were powered by twelve water @-@ tube boilers at a pressure of 66 kg / cm2 ( 6 @,@ 472 kPa ; 939 psi ) at a temperature of 460 ° C ( 860 ° F ) . The machinery was arranged on the unit system so that one hit couldn 't knock out all the boilers or all the turbines and immobilize the ship . Two boiler compartments , each with three boilers , were situated underneath the forward funnel , with a turbine compartment for the wing shafts immediately aft and this arrangement was repeated for the two center shafts . 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) of fuel oil were carried which gave a range of 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 260 km ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ) . Maximum speed was 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 40 @.@ 9 mph ; 65 @.@ 7 km / h ) .
Eight 750 kW turbo @-@ generators drove the 380V , 50 Hz electrical system in addition to four 1000 kW Diesel generators located outside each end of the armored citadel for a total capacity of 10 @,@ 000 kW .
= = = Armor = = =
The armor scheme of the battlecruisers was quite complex with armor plates of no less than 25 different thicknesses used . Although only designed to withstand cruiser shellfire no less than 10 @,@ 400 tonnes ( 10 @,@ 200 long tons ; 11 @,@ 500 short tons ) , or 29 % of the total displacement was devoted to armor . The citadel armor was intended to provide an immunity zone against 8 in ( 200 mm ) armor @-@ piercing shells at ranges between 13 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 – 14 @,@ 000 m ) and 34 @,@ 000 yards ( 31 @,@ 000 m ) . The remainder of the armor was intended to resist 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) high explosive shells and 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) HE bombs .
The belt armor was 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick and inclined outwards at an angle of 15 ° to maximize its effectiveness against both plunging and horizontal fire . It had a vertical height of 5 @.@ 25 m ( 17 @.@ 2 ft ) , 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 ft 7 in ) of which was below the design waterline . It covered approximately 60 % of the ship 's waterline or about 156 m ( 512 ft ) . 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor covered the hull side above the belt as protection from splinters . The forward end of the armored citadel was closed off by a 140 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick transverse bulkhead on the forward end and 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The deck armor in the citadel ranged in thickness , from 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) for the upper deck , a 70 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) middle deck — increased to 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) over the handling rooms for the 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) gun turrets — and a lower splinter deck of 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , which increased outboard to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) . The waterline forward of the citadel was protected by a 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) splinter belt all the way to the bow , with a similar extension aft to the steering gear compartment . The middle deck behind this splinter belt was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The steering gear was protected by 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) of armor on the sides , a 70 – 100 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) deck and a 200 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) armored bulkhead aft .
Additional armored plates were fixed to the third bulkhead of the underwater protection system to protect against diving shells hitting below the level of the waterline belt . Their thicknesses varied depending on location and ranged oddly from 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) amidships to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) over the 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) magazines . The main battery turrets were protected by 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of armor on the faces and 225 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) on the sides and 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) of armor on the roofs . Their barbettes had a maximum of 235 mm ( 9 @.@ 3 in ) on their forward faces and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) on the after face . Below the main deck they were protected by only 195 – 155 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 1 in ) of armor . The 130 mm turrets were only protected by 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) of armor as splinter protection .
The forward conning tower had a forward face of 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) that thinned down to 225 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) on the aft section with a 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) roof . Its controls and cable runs were protected by a 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) tube and the lower part of the conning tower 's supporting structure was protected with 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) plates . Aft there was a lightly protected auxiliary control station with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) sides . Between the middle and lower decks the funnel uptakes were protected by 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armor and 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) between the upper and middle decks . A 125 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) upper and 175 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) lower grating protected the boilers from shells and fragments entering through the uptake openings .
The torpedo protection system was developed on the basis of model tests and full @-@ scale trials using the incomplete hull of the prewar battlecruiser Kronshtadt and was expected to resist a torpedo warhead equivalent to 400 – 500 kg ( 880 – 1 @,@ 100 lb ) of TNT . It was made up of an external bulge with four longintudinal bulkheads . The first was 8 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick , the second was 8 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) , the third was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and the fourth 15 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) . Presumably the thinner thicknesses were at the ends of the ships where the bulkheads were squeezed together . The outer space was left empty , but the two middle spaces were filled with oil that was intended to be exchanged with sea water as it was consumed , and the inner space was also to be left empty . One curious feature was that the first and second bulkheads were concave in profile . Apparently this was believed to improve their protective qualities , although there is no indication of how it did this . " The total depth of the system was about 4 – 4 @.@ 5 m ( 13 – 15 ft ) amidships , which seems rather shallow . " The triple bottom underneath the armored citadel was believed to protect the ship against a charge equivalent to 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) of TNT five meters below the ship 's hull .
= = = Armament = = =
Rather than use the Tsarist @-@ era 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) MK @-@ 3 @-@ 12 gun as originally planned , or use the 305 @-@ mm / 54 guns ordered for the Kronstadts , it was decided in 1947 to adopt a new and more powerful 61 @-@ caliber gun of the same size that was to use three newly designed triple SM @-@ 6 turrets . Each individual gun weighed 101 @.@ 58 t ( 99 @.@ 98 long tons ; 111 @.@ 97 short tons ) and the complete turret weighed 1 @,@ 370 t ( 1 @,@ 350 long tons ; 1 @,@ 510 short tons ) . The guns could be depressed to − 4 ° and elevated to 50 ° at a rate of 10 ° per second . Traverse speed was 4 @.@ 5 ° per second and each turret was ordinarily remotely controlled from the More @-@ 82 main fire control director , but could be locally controlled if necessary . They fired 467 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 030 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) to a maximum range of around 53 @,@ 070 m ( 58 @,@ 040 yd ) using 209 kg ( 461 lb ) of propellant . Their rate of fire was 3 @.@ 26 rounds per minute and 80 rounds were stowed aboard for each gun . One barrel was completed in December 1953 for evaluation purposes after the ships were canceled earlier that year .
The 130 @-@ mm 58 @-@ caliber guns were also a new design . They were to be fitted in a new twin @-@ gun BL @-@ 109A dual @-@ purpose mount . Each individual gun weighed 4 @.@ 88 t ( 4 @.@ 80 long tons ; 5 @.@ 38 short tons ) and the complete turret weighed 65 @.@ 2 t ( 64 @.@ 2 long tons ; 71 @.@ 9 short tons ) . The guns in this mount could depress to -8 ° and elevate to 83 ° at a rate of 20 ° a second . Traverse speed was 20 ° per second . The guns fired 33 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 74 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 950 – 1 @,@ 000 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 – 3 @,@ 300 ft / s ) to a maximum horizontal range of 32 @,@ 390 m ( 35 @,@ 420 yd ) using 12 @.@ 92 kg ( 28 @.@ 5 lb ) of propellant . Their rate of fire was 15 rounds per minute and 200 rounds were stowed for each gun .
Twenty @-@ four 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 78 @-@ caliber light anti @-@ aircraft guns were to be carried by the Stalingrads in six quadruple SM @-@ 20 @-@ ZIF power @-@ driven , fully enclosed mounts . Two mounts were fitted on each side of the forward funnel and the last two were superimposed above the rear main gun turret . Each individual gun weighed 402 @.@ 8 kg ( 888 lb ) and the complete mount weighed 9 @.@ 75 t ( 9 @.@ 60 long tons ; 10 @.@ 75 short tons ) . The guns in this mount could depress to -13 ° and elevate to 85 ° at a rate of 25 ° a second . Traverse speed was 30 ° per second . The gun fired 1 @.@ 41 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @.@ 1 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 080 m / s ( 3 @,@ 500 ft / s ) to a maximum horizontal range of 12 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) . Its rate of fire was 75 rounds per minute and 800 rounds were carried for each gun .
Forty 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) 79 @-@ caliber AA guns were carried in ten quadruple powered BL @-@ 120 mounts . These were designed especially for the Stalingrads and were fully , if lightly , armored against splinters . Each individual gun weighed 101 kg ( 223 lb ) and the complete mount weighed 4 t ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) . The guns in this mount could depress to -5 ° and elevate to 90 ° at a rate of 25 ° a second . Traverse speed was 70 ° per second . The gun fired .281 @-@ kilogram ( 0 @.@ 62 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a maximum effective range of 2 @,@ 400 – 2 @,@ 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 100 yd ) . Its effective rate of fire was 240 rounds per minute and 1200 rounds were carried for each gun .
= = = Electronics = = =
Target data for the More @-@ 82 director was derived from the Zalp ( NATO designation Half Bow ) fire @-@ control radar and Grot rangefinding radars mounted on turrets Nos. 2 and 3 . These were backed up by a single KDP @-@ 8 @-@ 10 optical director mount fitted with 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft ) and 10 @-@ meter ( 33 ft ) rangefinders . Some of the BL @-@ 109A mounts were to fitted for range @-@ finding radars , probably Shtag @-@ B ( NATO designation Egg Cup ) , but they were ordinarily controlled by three SPN @-@ 500 directors , one for each pair of gun mounts . The SPN @-@ 500s carried a 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft ) rangefinder as well as Yakor ( NATO designation Sun Visor ) fire @-@ control radar . Air search capability was provided by the Fut @-@ N ( NATO designation Slim Net ) radar with anti @-@ aircraft fire control provided by Fut @-@ B ( NATO designation Hawk Screech ) radars .
The main air @-@ search radar was the Giuis @-@ 2 ( NATO designation Cross Bird ) , a Soviet development of the wartime British Type 291 radar . It had a range of 80 km ( 50 mi ) against aerial targets and 20 km ( 12 mi ) against surface targets . The main surface @-@ search radar was Rif @-@ A ( NATO designation Ball End ) that had a range of 40 km ( 25 mi ) against surface targets . The Stalingrads also had Neptun and Nord navigational radars . Soviet electronics were still fairly primitive during this period and the trials of the light cruiser Sverdlov , which carried many of these systems , revealed that the effective range of the Rif @-@ A surface @-@ search radar was less than that of the Yakor and Zalp fire @-@ control radars . There were also problems transferring data from the Giuis @-@ 2 air @-@ search radar to the Yakor and Fut @-@ B anti @-@ aircraft fire @-@ control radars , which was a serious problem when dealing with high @-@ speed aircraft . The Giuis @-@ 2 also interfered with ultra @-@ shortwave radio reception .
Korall radar @-@ jammers were mounted on either side of the mainmast as well as a Machta system on the foremast . Solentse @-@ 1P infrared detectors were carried on either side of the superstructure . Fakel @-@ MO and Fakel @-@ MZ antenna comprised the IFF system . A Gerkules sonar was also fitted in addition to various radio direction finders .
= = = Missile variant = = =
The TsKB @-@ 17 design bureau proposed variants of the design with both cruise and ballistic missiles . The ballistic missiles would have been launched from vertical tubes replacing the forward turrets , and in one version , the entire main armament . The proposal was dropped because both types would have needed a fully stabilized launching platform to give them any chance of hitting their targets and that the ballistic missiles would need three hours of preparation time .
= = Construction = =
Three ships were started :
The first sections of Stalingrad had been laid down in November 1951 in Slipway " O " of the Marti South Shipyard in Nikolayev where a Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleship , Sovetskaya Ukraina , had begun construction in 1938 , but the slipway itself was in need of reconstruction and its lower end was occupied by the hull of the Sverdlov @-@ class light cruiser Mikhail Kutuzov which was scheduled for launch at the end of 1952 . Moskva 's keel was laid down in September 1952 by the Baltic Works in Leningrad . The unnamed third ship was laid down at Yard 402 , at Molotovsk around October 1952 , Soviet sources refer to her proposed names as Kronshtadt or Arkhangelsk . A fourth ship was apparently ordered from Yard 402 , but was never laid down .
Stalingrad 's formal keel @-@ laying was on 31 December 1951 and it was hoped that she could be launched on 6 November 1953 , the eve of the 36th anniversary of the October Revolution . But deliveries of steel , armor , machinery and other equipment were delayed or arrived out of sequence , despite extraordinary efforts by the Ministry of Shipbuilding , and slowed construction enough so that she fell about six months behind schedule and the same was more or less true for the other ships . By 1 January 1953 Stalingrad was intended to be 42 @.@ 9 % complete , but was actually only 18 @.@ 8 % done . Moskva was planned to be 11 @.@ 5 % finished , but was only 7 @.@ 5 % done . And the unnamed ship was intended to be 5 @.@ 2 % along , but was only 2 @.@ 5 % complete .
These ships were canceled on 18 April 1953 , after Stalin 's death on 5 March , by the Ministry of Transport and Heavy Machinery , and the hulls of Moskva and the third ship were scrapped on the slipways later that year . The Ministry ordered in June that Stalingrad 's hull , which was about 70 % ready for launching , be used for weapons tests . Her hull was launched on 16 April 1954 and her stern , which was more or less complete , was dismantled — her bow hadn 't been built when work was suspended a year earlier — and the central , 150 @-@ meter ( 490 ft ) long , section was modified for her new role .
= = Career as a target hulk = =
Stalingrad 's hull was towed from Nikolayev on 19 May 1955 by three tugs , but was driven ashore by high winds on 23 May at the southern entrance to Sevastopol Bay . She grounded on a very rocky bottom in very shallow water only about 50 m ( 160 ft ) from shore . A number of the ordinary methods to refloat a ship couldn 't be used because she was very nearly empty and so nothing could be off @-@ loaded and the rocky bottom meant that it couldn 't be excavated out from underneath her . The first attempt used brute force provided by the cruisers Molotov and Kerch to unsuccessfully tow her off . Several other attempts were made using explosive charges to create shock waves that would pivot her stern into deeper water in combination with tugs attempting to pull her around , but these were counterproductive in that several holes were blown in her sides which flooded several compartments and grounded her that much more firmly . At this time a more detailed assessment was made of the situation and 259 steel projections were discovered on the underside of her hull , left over from her launching cradles . These ranged in length from 40 – 169 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) and totally invalidated all calculations about the amount of force required to free her .
The capsizing of the battleship Novorossiysk in Sevastopol harbor on 29 October 1955 delayed salvage operations on Stalingrad until the end of the year . The hull had to be patched , the water pumped out and all the projections removed to raise the stern slightly with pontoons , pivot into deeper water , then trim it down to elevate the bow off the bottom and pull it free . These preparations were very time @-@ consuming and it wasn 't until mid @-@ July 1956 that it could be pulled off the rocks into Sevastopol harbor where she was given more permanent repairs . She was then moved to the Naval Firing Range between Yevpatoria and Sevastopol where it was used as a target for seven P @-@ 1 or KSS anti @-@ ship missiles fired from the converted Sverdlov @-@ class cruiser Admiral Nakhimov in December 1956 . The missiles penetrated the upper and main decks and devastated the upper hull , but there was no appreciable change in the ship 's draught . Details are not known about other tests , although she reportedly served as a target for P @-@ 15 Termit ( SS @-@ N @-@ 2 Styx ) missiles and a wide variety of armor @-@ piercing munitions . By the early 1960s her usefulness had come to an end and she was scrapped , possibly in 1962 .
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= July 2009 Ürümqi riots =
The July 2009 Ürümqi riots were a series of violent riots over several days that broke out on 5 July 2009 in Ürümqi , the capital city of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region ( XUAR ) , in northwestern People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) . The first day 's rioting , which involved at least 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs , began as a protest but escalated into violent attacks that mainly targeted Han people . People 's Armed Police were deployed , and two days later hundreds of Han people clashed with both police and Uyghurs . PRC officials said that a total of 197 people died , among those killed most of them are Hans , with 1 @,@ 721 others injured and many vehicles and buildings destroyed ; however , Uyghur exile groups say the death toll is higher . Many men disappeared during wide @-@ scale police sweeps in the days following the riots ; Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) documented 43 cases and said figures for real disappearances were likely to be much higher .
Rioting began when the police confronted the march calling for a full investigation into the Shaoguan incident , a brawl in southern China several days earlier in which two Uyghurs had been killed . However , observers disagree on what caused the protests to become violent . The PRC central government alleged that the riots themselves were planned from abroad by the World Uyghur Congress ( WUC ) and its leader Rebiya Kadeer , while Kadeer denies fomenting the violence in her fight for Uyghur " self @-@ determination . " Uyghur exile groups claim that the escalation was caused by the police 's use of excessive force .
Chinese media coverage of the Ürümqi riots was extensive , and was compared favourably to that of the unrest in Tibet in 2008 . When the riots began , communications were immediately cut off . In the weeks that followed , official sources reported that over 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs were arrested and detained ; Uyghur @-@ run mosques were temporarily closed . The communication limitations and armed police presence remained in place as of January 2010 . By November 2009 , over 400 individuals faced criminal charges for their actions during the riots . Nine were executed in November 2009 , and by February 2010 , at least 26 had received death sentences .
= = Background = =
Xinjiang is a large central @-@ Asian region within the People 's Republic of China comprising numerous minority groups : 45 % of its population are Uyghurs , and 40 % are Han . Its heavily industrialised capital , Ürümqi , has a population of more than 2 @.@ 3 million , about 75 % of whom are Han , 12 @.@ 8 % are Uyghur , and 10 % are from other ethnic groups .
In general , Uyghurs and the mostly Han government disagree on which group has greater historical claim to the Xinjiang region : Uyghurs believe their ancestors were indigenous to the area , whereas government policy considers present @-@ day Xinjiang to have belonged to China since around 200 BC . According to PRC policy , Uyghurs are classified as a National Minority rather than an indigenous group — in other words , they are considered to be no more indigenous to Xinjiang than the Han , and have no special rights to the land under the law . The People 's Republic has presided over the migration into Xinjiang of millions of Han , who dominate the region economically and politically .
Uyghur nationalists often incorrectly claim that 5 % of Xinjiang 's population in 1949 was Han , and that the other 95 % was Uyghur , erasing the presence of Kazakhs , Huis , Mongols , Xibes and others , and ignoring the fact that Hans were around one third of Xinjiang 's population in 1800 , during the time of the Qing Dynasty . Professor of Chinese and Central Asian History at Georgetown University , James A. Millward wrote that foreigners often mistakenly think that Urumqi was originally a Uyghur city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture , however , Urumqi was founded as a Chinese city by Han and Hui ( Tungans ) , and it is the Uyghurs who are new to the city . While a few people try to give a misportrayal of the historical Qing situation in light of the contemporary situation in Xinjiang with Han migration , and claim that the Qing settlements and state farms were an anti @-@ Uyghur plot to replace them in their land , Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the Qing agricultural colonies in reality had nothing to do with Uyghur and their land , since the Qing banned settlement of Han in the Uyghur Tarim Basin and in fact directed the Han settlers instead to settle in the non @-@ Uyghur Dzungaria and the new city of Urumqi , so that the state farms which were settled with 155 @,@ 000 Han Chinese from 1760 @-@ 1830 were all in Dzungaria and Urumqi , where there was only an insignificant amount of Uyghurs , instead of the Tarim Basin oases .
At the start of the 19th century , 40 years after the Qing reconquest , there were around 155 @,@ 000 Han and Hui Chinese in northern Xinjiang and somewhat more than twice that number of Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang . A census of Xinjiang under Qing rule in the early 19th century tabulated ethnic shares of the population as 30 % Han and 60 % Turkic , while it dramatically shifted to 6 % Han and 75 % Uyghur in the 1953 census , however a situation similar to the Qing era @-@ demographics with a large number of Han has been restored as of 2000 with 40 @.@ 57 % Han and 45 @.@ 21 % Uyghur . Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today 's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang . In northern Xinjiang , the Qing brought in Han , Hui , Uyghur , Xibe , and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Zunghar Oirat Mongols in the region , with one third of Xinjiang 's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are , while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang 's Tarim Basin .
Although current PRC minority policy , which is based on affirmative actions , has reinforced a Uyghur ethnic identity that is distinct from the Han population , some scholars argue that Beijing unofficially favours a monolingual , monocultural model that is based on the majority . The authorities also crack down on any activity that appears to constitute separatism . These policies , in addition to long @-@ standing cultural differences , have sometimes resulted in " resentments " between Uyghur and Han citizens . On one hand , as a result of Han immigration and government policies , Uyghurs ' freedoms of religion and of movement are curtailed , while most Uyghurs argue that the government deliberately downplays their history and traditional culture . On the other hand , some Han citizens view Uyghurs as benefiting from special treatment , such as preferential admission to universities and exemption from the one @-@ child policy , and as " harbouring separatist aspirations " .
Tensions between Uyghurs and Han have resulted in waves of protest in recent years . Xinjiang has been the location of several instances of violence and ethnic clashes , such as the Ghulja Incident of 1997 , the 2008 Kashgar attack , widespread unrest preceding the Olympic Games in Beijing , as well as numerous minor attacks .
= = = Immediate causes = = =
The riots took place several days after a violent incident in Shaoguan , Guangdong , where many migrant workers are employed as part of a programme to alleviate labour shortages . According to state media , a disgruntled former worker disseminated rumours in late June that two Han women had been raped by six Uyghur men . Official sources later said they found no evidence to support the rape allegation . Overnight on 25 – 26 June , tensions at the Guangdong factory led to a full @-@ blown ethnic brawl between Uyghurs and Hans , during which two Uyghur co @-@ workers were killed . Exiled Uyghur leaders alleged the death toll was much higher . While the official Xinhua News Agency reported that the person responsible for spreading the rumours had been arrested , Uyghurs alleged that the authorities had failed to protect the Uyghur workers , or to arrest any of the Han people involved in the killings . They organised a street protest in Ürümqi on 5 July to voice their discontent and to demand a full government investigation .
At some point the demonstration became violent . A government statement called the riots a " pre @-@ empted , organised violent crime [ ... ] instigated and directed from abroad , and carried out by outlaws . " Nur Bekri , chairman of the Xinjiang regional government , said on 6 July that overseas separatist forces had taken advantage of the Shaoguan incident " to instigate Sunday 's unrest and undermine the ethnic unity and social stability " . The government blamed the exiled independence group World Uyghur Congress ( WUC ) for coordinating and instigating the riots over the internet . Government sources blamed the WUC leader Rebiya Kadeer in particular , citing her public speeches after the Tibetan unrest and phone recordings in which she had allegedly said that something would happen in Ürümqi . Chinese authorities accused a man who they alleged to be a key WUC member of inciting ethnic tensions by circulating a violent video , and urging Uyghurs , in an online forum , to " fight back [ against Hans ] with violence " . Jirla Isamuddin , the mayor of Ürümqi , claimed that the protesters had organised online via such services as QQ Groups . China Daily asserted that the riots were organised to fuel separatism and to benefit Middle East terrorist organisations . Kadeer denied fomenting the violence , and argued that the Ürümqi protests and their descent into violence were triggered by heavy policing , discontent over Shaoguan and " years of Chinese repression " , rather than by the intervention of separatists or terrorists ; Uyghur exile groups claimed that violence erupted when police used excessive force to disperse the crowd .
All parties , then , agree that the protests were organised beforehand ; the main points of contention are whether the violence was planned or spontaneous , and whether the underlying tensions reflect separatist inclinations or a desire for social justice .
= = Events = =
= = = Initial demonstrations = = =
Demonstrations began on the evening of 5 July with a protest in the Grand Bazaar , a prominent tourist site , and crowd reportedly gathering at the People 's Square area . The demonstration began peacefully , and official and eyewitness accounts reported that it involved about 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs ; the WUC said approximately 10 @,@ 000 protesters took part .
On 6 July , XUAR chairman Nur Bekri presented an official timeline of the previous day 's events , according to which more than 200 demonstrators gathered in People 's Square in Ürümqi at about 5 p.m. local time , and about 70 of their leaders were detained . Later , a crowd gathered in the mostly Uyghur areas of South Jiefang Road , Erdaoqiao , and Shanxi Alley ; by 7 : 30 p.m. , more than one thousand were gathered in front of a hospital in Shanxi Alley . At about 7 : 40 p.m. , more than 300 people blocked the roads in the Renmin Road and Nanmen area . According to Bekri , rioters began to smash buses at 8 : 18 p.m. , after police " controlled and dispersed " the crowd .
How the demonstrations became violent is unclear . Some say the police used excessive force against the protesters ; the World Uyghur Congress quickly issued press releases saying that the police had used deadly force and killed " scores " of protesters . Kadeer has alleged that there were agents provocateurs among the crowds . Others claim that the protesters initiated the violence ; for example , an Uyghur eyewitness cited by The New York Times said protesters began throwing rocks at the police . The government 's official line was that the violence was not only initiated by the protesters , but also had been premeditated and coordinated by Uyghur separatists abroad . The local public security bureau said it found evidence that many Uyghurs had travelled from other cities to gather for the riot , and that they had begun preparing weapons two or three days before the riot .
= = = Escalation and spread = = =
After the confrontation with police turned violent , rioters began hurling rocks , smashing vehicles , breaking into shops , and attacking Han civilians . At least 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs were involved in the rioting when it began , and the number of rioters may have risen to as many as 3 @,@ 000 . Jane Macartney of The Times characterised the first day 's rioting as consisting mainly of " Han stabbed by marauding gangs of Uighurs " ; a report in The Australian several months later suggested that religiously moderate Uyghurs may also have been attacked by rioters . Although the majority of rioters were Uyghur , not all Uyghurs were violent during the riots ; there are accounts of Han and Uyghur civilians helping each other escape the violence and hide . About 1 @,@ 000 police officers were dispatched ; they used batons , live ammunition , tasers , tear gas and water hoses to disperse the rioters , and set up roadblocks and posted armoured vehicles throughout the city .
During a press conference , Mayor Jirla Isamuddin said that at about 8 : 15 p.m. , some protesters started to fight and loot , overturned guardrails and smashed three buses before being dispersed . At 8 : 30 p.m. , violence escalated around South Jiefang Road and Longquan Street area , with rioters torching police patrol cars and attacking passers @-@ by . Soon , between 700 and 800 people went from the People 's Square to Daximen and Xiaoximen area , " fighting , smashing , looting , torching and killing " along the way . At 9 : 30 p.m. , the government received reports that three people had been killed and 26 injured , 6 of whom were police officers . Police reinforcements were dispatched to hotspots of People 's Square , Nanmen , Tuanjie Road , Saimachang and South Xinhua Road . Police took control of the main roadways and commercial districts in the city at around 10 pm , but riots continued in side streets and alleyways , with Hans attacked and cars overturned or torched , according to the mayor . Police then formed small teams and " swept " the entire city for the next two days . A strict curfew was put in place ; authorities imposed " comprehensive traffic control " from 9 : 00 pm Tuesday to 8 : 00 am Wednesday " to avoid further chaos " .
The official news agency , Xinhua , reported that police believed agitators were trying to organise more unrest in other areas in Xinjiang , such as Aksu and the Yili Prefecture . Violent protests also sprang up in Kashgar , in southwestern Xinjiang , where the South China Morning Post reported many shops were closed , and the area around the mosque was sealed off by a People 's Liberation Army platoon after confrontations . Local Uyghurs blamed the security forces for using excessive force — they " attacked the protesters and arrested 50 people " . Another clash was reported near the mosque on Tuesday , 7 July , and an estimated 50 people were arrested . Up to 12 @,@ 000 students at the Kashgar Teaching Institute were confined to campus since Sunday 's riots , according to the Post . Many of the institute 's students had apparently travelled to Ürümqi for the demonstrations there .
= = = Casualties and damage = = =
During the first hours of the rioting , state media only reported that three people had been killed . The number rose sharply , though , after the first night 's rioting ; at midday on Monday , 6 July , Xinhua announced that 129 people had died . In the following days the death toll reported by various government sources ( including Xinhua and party officials ) gradually grew , with the last official update on 18 July placing the tally at 197 dead , 1 @,@ 721 injured . The World Uyghur Congress has claimed that the death toll was around 600 .
Xinhua did not immediately disclose the ethnic breakdown of the dead , but journalists from The Times and The Daily Telegraph reported that most of the victims appeared to have been Han . For instance , on 10 July Xinhua stated that 137 of the dead ( out of the total of 184 that was being reported at that time ) were Han , 46 Uyghur , and 1 Hui . There were casualties among the rioters as well ; for example , according to official accounts , a group of 12 rioters attacking civilians were shot by police . In the months following the riots , the government maintained that the majority of casualties were Han and hospitals said that two @-@ thirds of the injured were Han , although the World Uyghur Congress claims that many Uyghurs were killed as well . According to the official count released by the Chinese government in August 2009 , 134 of the 156 civilian victims were Han , 11 Hui , 10 Uyghur , and 1 Manchu . Uyghur advocates continue to question these figures , saying that the number of ethnic Uyghurs remains understated . Xinhua reported that 627 vehicles and 633 constructions were damaged .
The Ürümqi municipal government initially announced that it would pay ¥ 200 @,@ 000 as compensation , plus another ¥ 10 @,@ 000 as " funeral expense " for every " innocent death " caused by the riot . The compensation was later doubled to ¥ 420 @,@ 000 per death . Mayor Jirla Isamuddin estimated that the compensations will cost at least ¥ 100 million .
= = = After 5 July = = =
The city remained tense while journalists invited into the city witnessed confrontational scenes between Chinese troops and Uyghurs demanding the release of family members who they said had been " arbitrarily " arrested . Uyghur women told The Daily Telegraph reporter that police entered Uyghur districts in the night of 6 July , burst through doors , pulled men and boys from their beds , and rounded up 100 suspects . By 7 July , officials reported that 1 @,@ 434 suspected rioters had been arrested . A group of 200 to 300 Uyghur women assembled on 7 July to protest what they said was " indiscriminate " detention of Uyghur men ; the protest led to a tense but non @-@ violent confrontation with police forces . Rebiya Kadeer claimed that " nearly 10 @,@ 000 people " had gone missing overnight . Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) later documented 43 cases of Uyghur men who disappeared after being taken away by Chinese security forces in large @-@ scale sweeps of Uyghur neighbourhoods overnight on 6 – 7 July , and said that this was likely to be " just the tip of the iceberg " ; HRW allege that young men , mostly in their 20s , had been unlawfully arrested and have not been seen or heard from as of 20 October 2009
On 7 July , there were large @-@ scale armed demonstrations by ethnic Han in Ürümqi . Conflicting estimates of the Han demonstrators ' numbers were reported by the western media and varied from " hundreds " to as high as 10 @,@ 000 . The Times reported that smaller fights were frequently breaking out between Uyghurs and Hans , and that groups of Han citizens had organised to take revenge on " Uyghur mobs " . Police used tear gas and roadblocks in an attempt to disperse the demonstration , and urged Han citizens over loudspeakers to " calm down " and " let the police do their job " . Li Zhi , party chief of Ürümqi , stood on the roof of a police car with a megaphone appealing to the crowd to go home .
Mass protests had been quelled by 8 July , although sporadic violence was reported . In the days after the riots , " thousands " of people tried to leave the city , and the price for bus tickets rose as much as fivefold .
On 10 July , city authorities closed Ürümqi mosques " for public safety " , saying it was too dangerous to have large gatherings and that holding Jumu 'ah , traditional Friday prayers , could reignite tensions . Large crowds of Uyghurs gathered for prayer anyway , however , and police decided to let two mosques open to avoid having an " incident " . After prayers at the White Mosque , several hundred people demonstrated over people detained after the riot , but were dispersed by riot police , with five or six people arrested .
Over 300 more people were reported arrested in early August . According to the BBC , the total number of arrests in connection with the riots was over 1 @,@ 500 . The Financial Times estimated that the number was higher , citing an insider saying that some 4 @,@ 000 arrests had already taken place by mid July , and that Ürümqi 's prisons were so full that newly arrested people were being held in a People 's Liberation Army warehouse . According to the Uyghur American Association , several other Uyghur journalists and bloggers were also detained after the riots ; one of them , journalist Gheyret Niyaz , was later sentenced to 15 years in prison for having spoken to foreign media . In the most high @-@ profile case , Ilham Tohti , an ethnic Uyghur economist at Minzu University of China , was arrested two days after the riots over his criticisms of the Xinjiang government .
= = Reactions and response = =
= = = Domestic reaction = = =
= = = = Communications black @-@ out = = = =
Mobile phone service and internet access were limited both during and after the riots . China Mobile phone service was cut " to prevent the incident from spreading further " . Outbound international calls throughout Xinjiang were blocked , and Internet connections in the region had been locked down or non @-@ local websites blocked . Reporting from Ürümqi 's Hoi Tak Hotel on 9 July , Aljazeera reported that the foreign journalists ' hotel was the only place in the city with Internet access , although the journalist could not send text messages or place international phone calls . Many unauthorised postings on local sites and Google were removed by censors ; images and video footage of the demonstrations and rioting , however , were soon found posted on Twitter , YouTube , and Flickr . Many Xinjiang @-@ based websites became inaccessible worldwide , and internet access within Ürümqi remained restricted nearly a year following the riots ; it was not restored until 14 May 2010 .
= = = = Government = = = =
Chinese state @-@ controlled television broadcast graphic footage of cars being smashed and people being beaten . Officials reiterated the party line : XUAR chairman Nur Bekri delivered a lengthy address on the situation and on the Shaoguan incident , and claimed that the government of both Guangdong and Xinjiang had dealt with the deaths of the workers properly and with respect . Bekri further condemned the riots as " premeditated and planned " ; Eligen Imibakhi , chairman of the Standing Committee of the Xinjiang Regional People 's Congress , blamed 5 July riots on " extremism , separatism and terrorism " .
The Chinese media covered the rioting extensively . Hours after troops stopped the rioting , the state invited foreign journalists on an official fact @-@ finding trip to Ürümqi ; journalists from more than 100 media organisations were all corralled into the downtown Hoi Tak Hotel , sharing 30 internet connections . Journalists were given unprecedented access to troublespots and hospitals . The Financial Times referred to this handling as an improvement , compared to the " public @-@ relations disaster " of the Tibetan unrest in 2008 .
In an effort to soothe tensions immediately after the riots , state media began a mass publicity campaign throughout Xinjiang extolling ethnic harmony . Local television programmes united Uyghur and Han singers in a chorus of " We are all part of the same family " ; Uygurs who " acted heroically " during the riots were profiled ; loud @-@ hailer trucks blasted slogans in the streets . A common slogan warned against the " three forces " of terrorism , separatism and extremism .
President Hu Jintao curtailed his attendance of the G8 summit in Italy , convened an emergency meeting of the Politburo , and dispatched Standing Committee member Zhou Yongkang to Xinjiang to " guid [ e ] stability @-@ preservation work in Xinjiang " . South China Morning Post reported a government source saying Beijing would re @-@ evaluate the impact on arrangements for the country 's forthcoming 60th anniversary celebrations in October . Guangdong 's CPC Provincial Committee Secretary , Wang Yang , noted that the government policies towards ethnic minorities " definitely need adjustments " , otherwise " there will be some problems . " A security planner said the authorities planned to fly in more troops from other stations to raise the number of armed police presence to 130 @,@ 000 before the 60th anniversary celebrations in October .
After the riots , the Chinese government exercised diplomatic pressure on nations that Rebiya Kadeer was scheduled to visit . In late July , India declined Kadeer a visa " on the advice of Beijing " , and Beijing summoned the Japanese ambassador in protest of a trip Kadeer made to Japan . When Kadeer visited Australia in August to promote a film about her life , China officially complained to the Australian government and asked for the film to be withdrawn .
= = = = Internet response = = = =
The response to the riots on the Chinese blogosphere was markedly more varied than the official response . Despite blocks and censorship , Internet watchers monitored continued attempts by netizens to publish their own thoughts on the causes of the incident or vent their anger about the violence . While some bloggers were supportive of the government , others were more reflective of the event 's cause . On numerous forums and news sites , government workers quickly removed comments about the riots . Common themes were calls for punishment for those responsible ; some posts evoked the name of Wang Zhen , the general who is reviled and feared by many Uyghurs for repression after the communist takeover of Xinjiang in 1949 .
= = = International reactions = = =
= = = = International organisations = = = =
United Nations : Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon urged all sides to exercise restraint , and called on China to take measures to protect the civilian population as well as respect the freedoms of citizens , including freedom of speech , assembly and information . Human rights chief Navi Pillay said she was " alarmed " over the high death toll , noting this was an " extraordinarily high number of people to be killed and injured in less than a day of rioting . " She also said China must treat detainees humanely in a way that adheres to international norms .
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation : said it sympathised with the family members of those innocent people killed in the riot ; it said that its member states regard Xinjiang as an inalienable part of the People 's Republic of China and believe the situation in Xinjiang is purely China 's internal affairs . Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov condemned rioters for " Using separatist slogans and provoking ethnic intolerance . Officials from both neighbouring Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan said they were braced for " an influx of refugees " and tightened border controls . Despite the Kazakh government support , over 5 @,@ 000 Uyghurs protested on 19 July in former capital Almaty against Chinese police use of deadly force against the rioters .
Organisation of the Islamic Conference : decried the " disproportionate use of force " , calling on Beijing to " bring those responsible to justice swiftly " and urging China to find a solution to the unrest by examining why it had erupted .
European Union : leaders expressed concern , and urged the Chinese government to show restraint in dealing with the protests : German Chancellor Angela Merkel urged respect for the rights of minorities ; Italian President Giorgio Napolitano brought up human rights at a press conference with Hu Jintao , and said that " economic and social progress that is being achieved in China places new demands in terms of human rights . "
= = = = Countries = = = =
Turkey , which has a vocal Uyghur minority and is a majority @-@ Turkic nation , officially expressed " deep sadness " , and urged the Chinese authorities to bring the perpetrators to justice . Its Prime Minister , Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , said the incident was " like genocide " , while Trade and Industry Minister Nihat Ergün called for a boycott on Chinese goods . The violence against Uyghurs also caused lots of Turkish people to gather for protests against PRC , mostly targeting Chinese embassies and consulates in Turkey 's various cities . The Turkish stance sparked a significant outcry from Chinese media . Rebiya Kadeer claimed that Turkey is hampered from interfering with Uyghurs because it recognizes that its own Kurdish issue may get interfered with by China in retaliation . An appeal for Chinese products to be boycotted by Nihat Ergun failed .
Arab countries politically supported China in the OIC with especially Saudi Arabia and Egypt helping China squash any potential anti @-@ Chinese motion by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation on the Uyghurs , Egypt viewed its own internal sectarian problems like China 's and Sudan was also concerned about external interference in its internal problems as well , while Indonesia had to deal with its own internal Islamists and emphasized that there was no religious conflict but instead ethnic based disturbances in Xinjiang to calm the situation down . Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , and Egypt helped China kill off a statement on the Xinjiang situation in the OIC . There has been no public reaction by the Arab League , Saudi Arabia and Iran on the situation and China has built stronger relations with Iran and Saudi Arabia due to their influence in the Islamic world .
Afghanistan , Cambodia , and Vietnam said they believed the Chinese government was " taking appropriate measures " , their statements backed " the territorial integrity and sovereignty of China " . Micronesian Vice President Alik Alik condemned the riot as a " terrorist act " .
Iran said it shared the concerns of Turkey and the OIC , and appealed to the Chinese government to respect the rights of the Muslim population in Xinjiang .
The Japanese government was monitoring the situation , with concern ; Singapore urged restraint and dialogue ; while the ROC government in Taiwan strongly condemned all those who instigated the violence . Premier Liu Chiao @-@ shiuan also urged restraint and expressed hope that the Chinese authorities will demonstrate the " greatest possible leniency and tolerance in dealing with the aftermath " and respect the rights of ethnic minorities . Taiwan denied a visa to Kadeer in September 2009 , alleging she had links to the East Turkestan Islamic Movement , classed as a terrorist organisation by the United Nations and United States .
Switzerland called for restraint , and sent condolences to the families of victims and urged China to respect freedom of expression and the press . Prime Minister Kevin Rudd of Australia urged restraint to bring about a " peaceful settlement to this difficulty . " Serbia stated that it opposed separatism and supports the " resolution of all disputes by peaceful means . " Belarus noted with regret the loss of life and damage in the region , and hoped that the situation would soon normalise .
There was violence in the Netherlands and in Norway : the Chinese embassy in the Netherlands was attacked by Uyghur activists who smashed windows with bricks , the Chinese flag was also burnt . There were 142 arrests , and China closed the embassy for the day . About 100 Uyghurs protested outside the Chinese embassy in the Norwegian capital . Eleven were detained , and later released without charge . Protesters from a coalition of Indonesian Islamist groups attacked guards at the Chinese embassy in Jakarta and called for a jihad against China . Pakistan said there were some " elements " out to harm Sino @-@ Pakistan ties would not damage or destabilise the interests of the two countries . Sri Lanka stressed the incident was an internal affair of China and was confident that efforts by the Chinese authorities would restore normalcy .
Canadian Foreign Affairs Minister Lawrence Cannon urged " dialogue and goodwill " to help resolve grievances and prevent further deterioration of the situation . The spokesman for the Obama administration said the United States regretted the loss of life in Xinjiang , was deeply concerned and called on all sides to exercise restraint . U.S. State Department spokesman Ian Kelly , said " it 's important that the Chinese authorities act to restore order and prevent further violence . " The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom expressed " grave concern " over repression in China , and called for an independent investigation on the riots and targeted sanctions against China .
= = = = Other organisations = = = =
Amnesty International : called for an " impartial and independent " inquiry into the incident , adding that those detained for " peacefully expressing their views and exercising their freedom of expression , association and assembly " must be released and others ensured to receive a fair trial .
Human Rights Watch : urged China to exercise restraint and to allow an independent inquiry into the events , which would include addressing Uyghur concerns about policies in the region . It also added that China should respect international norms when responding to the protests and only use force proportionately .
Al @-@ Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb ( AQIM ) : According to London @-@ based risk analysis firm Stirling Assynt , Algeria @-@ based AQIM issued a call to attack Chinese workers in North Africa .
= = = Media coverage = = =
Chen Shirong , China editor on the BBC World Service , remarked at the improvement in media management by Xinhua : " To be more credible , it released video footage a few hours after the event , not two weeks . " Peter Foster of the Daily Telegraph observed that " long @-@ standing China commentators have been astonished at the speed at which Beijing has moved to seize the news agenda on this event , " and attributed it to his belief that " China doesn 't have a great deal to hide " . A University of California , Berkeley academic agreed that the Chinese authorities had become more sophisticated . The New York Times and AFP recognised the Chinese learnt lessons from political protests around the world , such as the so @-@ called colour revolutions in Georgia and Ukraine , and the 2009 Iranian election protests , and concluded that Chinese experts had studied how modern electronic communications " helped protesters organize and reach the outside world , and for ways that governments sought to counter them . "
But Willy Lam , fellow of the Jamestown Foundation , sceptically said that the authorities were " just testing the reaction " . He believed that if the outcome of this openness was poor they would " put the brakes on " as they did after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake . There were instances of foreign journalists being taken into custody by the police , to be released shortly thereafter . On 10 July , officials ordered foreign media out of Kashgar , " for their own safety . " Xia Lin , a top official at Xinhua , later revealed that violence caused by both sides during and after the riots had been downplayed or wholly unreported in official news channels , for the fear that the ethnic violence would spread beyond Ürümqi .
A People 's Daily op @-@ ed rebuked certain western media outlets for their " double standards , biased coverage and comments " . It said that China failed to receive fair " repayment " from certain foreign political figures or media outlets for its openness and transparent attitude . The author said " a considerable number of media outlets still intentionally or inadvertently minimised the violent actions of the rioters , and attempted to focus on so @-@ called racial conflict . " However , D 'Arcy Doran from Agence France @-@ Presse welcomed the increased openness for foreign media , but contrasted their reporting to Chinese media , which closely followed the government line to focus mainly on injured Hans whilst ignoring the " Uyghur story " or reasons behind the incident .
Many early reports of the riots , starting with one from Reuters , used a picture purporting to show the previous day 's riots . The photo , showing large number of People 's Armed Police squares , was one taken of the 2009 Shishou riot and originally published on 26 June by Southern Metropolis Weekly . The same picture was mistakenly used by other agencies ; it was on the website of The Daily Telegraph , but was removed a day later . In an interview with Al Jazeera on 7 July , WUC leader Rebiya Kadeer used the same Shishou photograph to defend the Uyghurs in Ürümqi . A World Uyghur Congress representative later apologised , explaining that the photo was chosen out of hundreds for its image quality .
On 3 August , Xinhua reported that two of Rebiya Kadeer 's children had written letters blaming her for orchestrating the riots . A Germany @-@ based spokesman for the WUC rejected the letters as fakes . A Human Rights Watch researcher remarked their style was " suspiciously close " to the way the Chinese authorities had described rioting in Xinjiang and the aftermath . He added that " it 's highly irregular for [ her children ] to be placed on the platform of a government mouthpiece [ ... ] for wide dispersion . "
= = Aftermath and long @-@ term impact = =
= = = Arrests and trials = = =
In early August , the Ürümqi government announced that 83 individuals had been " officially " arrested in connection with the riots . China Daily reported in late August that over 200 people were being charged and that trials would begin by the end of August . Although this was denied both by a provincial and a local Party official , Xinjiang authorities later announced that arrest warrants had been issued to 196 suspects , of which 51 had already been prosecuted . Police also requested that the procuratorate approve the arrest of a further 239 people , and detention of 825 more , China Daily said . In early December , 94 " fugitives " were arrested .
The state first announced criminal charges against detainees in late September , when it charged 21 people with " murder , arson , robbery , and damaging property " . 14 @,@ 000 security personnel were deployed in Ürümqi from 11 October , and the next day a Xinjiang court sentenced six men to death , and one to life imprisonment , for their roles in the riots . All six men were Uyghurs , and were found guilty of murder , arson and robbery during the riots . Foreign media said the sentences appeared to be aimed at mollifying the anger of the Han majority ; the WUC denounced the verdict as " political " , and said there was no desire to see justice served . Human Rights Watch said that there were " serious violations of due process " at the trials of 21 defendants relating to July protests . It said the trials " did not meet minimum international standards of due process and fair trials " – specifically , it said that the trials were carried out in a single day without prior public notice , that the defendants ' choice of lawyers was restricted , and that the Party had given judges instructions on how to handle the cases . Xinhua , on the other hand , noted that the proceedings were conducted in both the Chinese and Uyghur languages , and that evidence had been carefully collected and verified before any decisions were made .
By February 2010 , the number of death sentences issued had increased to at least 26 , including at least one Han and one female Uyghur . Nine of the individuals sentenced were executed in November 2009 ; based on previous government statements , eight were Uyghur and one was Han .
= = = Later unrest and security measures = = =
Starting in mid @-@ August , there was a string of attacks in which as many as 476 individuals may have been stabbed with hypodermic needles . Officials believed that the attacks were targeting Han civilians and had been perpetrated by Uyghur separatists . In response to both concern over the attacks and dissatisfaction over the government 's slowness in prosecuting people involved with the July riots , thousands of Hans protested in the streets . On 3 September , five people died during the protests and 14 were injured , according to an official . The next day , the Communist Party Chief of Ürümqi , Li Zhi , was removed from his post , along with the police chief , Liu Yaohua ; the provincial Party secretary Wang Lequan was replaced in April 2010 .
While the city became calmer after these events , and the government made great efforts to show that life was returning to normal , an armed police presence did remain . As late as January 2010 , it was reported that police were making patrols five or six times a day , and that patrols were stepped up at night . Shortly before the first anniversary of the rioting , the authorities installed more than 40 @,@ 000 surveillance cameras around Ürümqi to " ensure security in key public places " .
= = = Legislation and investigation = = =
In late August , the central government passed a law outlining standards for the deployment of armed police during " rebellion , riots , large @-@ scale serious criminal violence , terror attacks and other social safety incidents . " After the protests in early September , the government issued an announcement banning all " unlicensed marches , demonstrations and mass protests " . The provincial government also passed legislation banning the use of the internet to incite ethnic separatism .
In November , the Chinese government dispatched some 400 officials to Xinjiang , including senior leaders such as State Council secretary general Ma Kai , Propaganda department head Liu Yunshan , and United Front chief Du Qinglin , to form an ad hoc " Team of Investigation and Research " on Xinjiang , ostensibly intended on studying the policy changes to be implemented in response to the violence . In April 2010 , hardliner party chief Wang Lequan was replaced by Zhang Chunxian , a more conciliatory figure . The government authorized transfer payments totalling some $ 15 billion from eastern provinces to Xinjiang to aid in the province 's economic development , and announced plans to establish a special economic zone in Kashgar .
China has installed a grassroots network of officials throughout Xinjiang , its predominantly Muslim north @-@ west frontier region , to address social risks and spot early signs of unrest : Hundreds of cadres have been transferred from southern Xinjiang , the region ’ s poorest area , into socially unstable neighbourhoods of Ürümqi ; a policy has been implemented where if all family members are unemployed , the government arranges for one person in the household to get a job , ; official announcements are calling upon university students to register for those payouts . The areas around slums are being redeveloped to reduce social risks , opening way to new apartment blocks . However , independent observers believe that fundamental inequalities need to be addressed , and the mindset must change for there to be any success ; Ilham Tohti warned that the new policy could attract more Han immigration , and further alienate the Uyghur population .
= = = Public services and Internet access = = =
It took until at least early August for public transport to be fully restored in the city . According to Xinhua , 267 buses had been damaged during the rioting ; most were back in operation by 12 August . The government paid bus companies a total of ¥ 5 @.@ 25 million in compensation . Despite the resumption of transportation services , and the government 's efforts to encourage visitors to the region , tourism fell sharply after the riots ; on the National Day holiday in October , Xinjiang had 25 % fewer tourists than it did in 2008 .
Ürümqi public schools opened on schedule in September for the fall semester , but with armed police guarding them . Many schools began first @-@ day classes by focusing on patriotism .
On the other hand , Internet and international telephone service in Ürümqi remained limited for nearly a year after the riots . As late as November , most of the Internet was still inaccessible to residents and international phone calls were impossible ; as late as December , most web content hosted outside the autonomous region remained off @-@ limits to all but a few journalists , and residents had to travel to Dunhuang 14 hours away to access the Internet normally . Within the city , only about 100 local sites , such as banks and regional government websites , could be accessed . Both incoming and outgoing international phone calls were disallowed , so Ürümqi residents could only communicate by calling intermediaries in other cities in China who would then place the international calls . The communications blackout generated controversy even within China : Yu Xiaofeng of Zhejiang University criticised the move , and many Ürümqi locals said it hurt businesses and delayed recovery , whereas David Gosset of the Euro @-@ China forum argued that the government had the right to shut down communications for the sake of social stability ; some locals believed that getting away from the Internet even improved their quality of life .
In late December , the government began restoring services gradually . The websites for Xinhua and the People 's Daily , two state @-@ controlled media outlets , were made accessible on 28 December , the web portals Sina.com and Sohu.com on 10 January 2010 , and 27 more websites on 6 February . But access to websites was only partial : for instance , users could browse forums and blogs but not post on them . China Daily reported that limited e @-@ mail services were also restored in Ürümqi on 8 February , although a BBC reporter writing at approximately the same time said e @-@ mail was not accessible yet . Text messaging on cell phones was restored on 17 January , although there was a limit to how many messages a user could send daily . Internet access was fully restored in May 2010 .
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= Fish in a Drawer =
" Fish in a Drawer " is the seventeenth episode of the fifth season of Two and a Half Men and the 113th episode overall . The episode was written by Evan Dunsky , Sarah Goldfinger , Carol Mendelsohn and Naren Shankar , the writers of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , who swapped shows with the writing staff of Two and a Half Men .
The episode revolves around Teddy Leopold ( Robert Wagner ) , who is found dead on Charlie ( Charlie Sheen ) ' s bed during his mother 's wedding reception . A crime scene investigation crew searches Charlie 's house , trying to find out who murdered Teddy . " Fish in a Drawer " aired May 5 , 2008 on CBS , and was watched by approximately 13 million viewers , making it the night 's third most watched show , behind CSI : Miami and Dancing with the Stars .
= = Plot = =
At the reception of Evelyn and Teddy 's wedding , Charlie still wants to marry Courtney , his new stepsister , and decides to go up to his room with her . When they lie down on the bed , in the dark , Courtney discovers that she is lying on something , when Charlie turns on the light he finds Teddy lying dead on his bed with his pants around his knees , and lipstick on his " Hoo Hoo " When Charlie tells Alan , they find out they have an even bigger problem : telling their mother . After pulling Evelyn away from the piano , they tell her and she then cashes in their honeymoon tickets for a trip for one to Fiji before calling the police .
After the police arrive and examine the crime scene , Charlie , Alan , Evelyn , Berta , Courtney , and Jake are brought to the station for separate questioning . Charlie ends up being more obsessed with his attractive interrogator ( Jamie Rose ) , Alan is afraid of going to jail and can not talk straight , Evelyn spends more time complaining about their coffee , Berta turns out to be a waste of time , and Jake talks about food . It gets clear pretty soon that Evelyn is an easy target , since almost all of her prior husbands had died . Evelyn mentions her first husband died from food poisoning , explaining she was a young bride and didn 't know you couldn 't " keep fish in a drawer " .
After the files of Teddy and his daughter Courtney come back , the crime team discovers that their real names are Nathan Krunk and Sylvia Fishman , and they are not even related . It turns out that Sylvia and Nathan actually were con artists . The crime team thought that Nathan was murdered , because of the bruise on the back of his head , but it was revealed that he died of a heart attack , while attempting to have sex with Sylvia . The bruise had occurred two days earlier , when he bumped his head while having sex with Sylvia . As the police lead Sylvia away , Charlie attempts to tell her off for conning him , but he can only manage to say " I 'll wait for you . "
= = Production = =
In 2007 , Chuck Lorre , the creator of Two and a Half Men , contacted Carol Mendelsohn , the show runner of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , about a crossover . The first reactions to this were that it was a stupid idea . CSI writer and executive producer Naren Shankar commented that when Mendelsohn first told him about the idea he replied : " What a nut " . However , that same year , the idea resurfaced , when Lorre and Mendelsohn met at the World Television Festival in Banff . Upon hearing this , the cast of both shows were surprised and not interested , but they eventually jumped aboard . In an interview with The New York Post , before the idea was fully worked out , Mendelsohn described the possible crossover as " a great challenge " .
When Mendelsohn was giving a talk , she accidentally mentioned the crossover , as a result Variety was already inquiring about the crossover episodes that same day . Mendelsohn eventually revealed the crossover at the Banff event in Canada . After the episode was taped , Lorre stated : " The biggest challenge for us was doing a comedy with a murder in it . Generally our stories are a little lighter . Would our audience go with a dead body in it ? There was a moment where it could have gone either way . I think the results were spectacular . It turned out to be a really funny episode . " " Fish in a Drawer " was written by Carol Mendelsohn and Naren Shankar and directed by Jeff Melman . As an inside joke , George Eads , who plays crime scene investigator Nick Stokes on CSI made a cameo as a guest at the wedding reception . Three days after the initial airing of " Fish in a Drawer " , " Two And a Half Deaths " , the corresponding CSI episode , aired on CBS . However , in an early Zap2it interview , both Mendelsohn and Lorre stated that this might be the last time a crossover like this might occur .
= = Reception = =
" Fish in a Drawer " was broadcast on May 5 , 2008 on CBS , and was watched by 13 @.@ 61 million viewers , making it the night 's third most watched show , behind CSI : Miami and Dancing with the Stars . The episode was the fifth most watched program on CBS in the week of May 5 to May 11 , 2008 . Allison Waldman of AOL 's TV Squad , stated that she found the corresponding CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode Emmy Award worthy , while she found " Fish in a Drawer " , " not rip @-@ roaring , but still good " . Andy Grieser of Zap2it , said that he was attracted to the episode due to the news about the crossover , he stated he found the Faux @-@ Catherine " brilliant " and that " the grainy flashbacks were the best parts " .
Conchata Ferrell submitted this episode for consideration for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards , but did not end up being nominated , being nominated the previous year . The director of this episode , Jeff Melman , also submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , but was neither nominated as well .
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= Cambodian Civil War =
The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea ( known as the Khmer Rouge ) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( North Vietnam ) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of the Kingdom of Cambodia and , after October 1970 , the Khmer Republic , which were supported by the United States ( U.S. ) and the Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) .
The struggle was complicated by the influence and actions of the allies of the two warring sides . People 's Army of Vietnam ( North Vietnamese Army ) involvement was designed to protect its Base Areas and sanctuaries in eastern Cambodia , without which the prosecution of its military effort in South Vietnam would have been more difficult . The Cambodian coup of 18 March 1970 put a pro @-@ American , anti @-@ Vietnamese government in power and ended Cambodia 's neutrality in the Vietnam War . The North Vietnamese Army ( PAVN ) was now threatened by a newly unfriendly Cambodian government .
Between March and June 1970 , the North Vietnamese moved many of its military installations further inside Cambodia to protect them from U.S. incursions and bombing , capturing most of the northeastern third of the country in engagements with the Cambodian army . The North Vietnamese turned over some of their conquests and provided other assistance to the Khmer Rouge , thus empowering what was at the time a small guerilla movement . The Cambodian government hastened to expand its army to combat the North Vietnamese and the growing threat of the Khmer Rouge .
The U.S. was motivated by the desire to buy time for its withdrawal from Southeast Asia , to protect its ally in South Vietnam , and to prevent the spread of communism to Cambodia . American and both South and North Vietnamese forces directly participated ( at one time or another ) in the fighting . The U.S. assisted the central government with massive U.S. aerial bombing campaigns and direct material and financial aid .
After five years of savage fighting , the Republican government was defeated on 17 April 1975 when the victorious Khmer Rouge proclaimed the establishment of Democratic Kampuchea .
The conflict was part of the Second Indochina War ( 1959 – 1975 ) which also consumed the neighboring Kingdom of Laos , South Vietnam , and North Vietnam individually referred to as the Laotian Civil War and the Vietnam War respectively . The Cambodian civil war led to the Cambodian Genocide , one of the bloodiest in history .
= = Setting the stage ( 1965 – 1970 ) = =
= = = Background = = =
During the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1960s , Prince Norodom Sihanouk 's policies had protected his nation from the turmoil that engulfed Laos and South Vietnam . Neither the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) nor North Vietnam disputed Sihanouk 's claim to represent " progressive " political policies and the leadership of the prince 's domestic leftist opposition , the Pracheachon Party , had been integrated into the government . On 3 May 1965 , Sihanouk broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. , ended the flow of American aid , and turned to the PRC and the Soviet Union for economic and military assistance .
By the late 1960s , Sihanouk 's delicate domestic and foreign policy balancing act was beginning to go awry . In 1966 , an agreement was struck between the prince and the Chinese , allowing the presence of large @-@ scale People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) and NLF troop deployments and logistical bases in the eastern border regions . He had also agreed to allow the use of the port of Sihanoukville by communist @-@ flagged vessels delivering supplies and material to support the PAVN / NLF military effort in Vietnam . These concessions made questionable Cambodia 's neutrality , which had been guaranteed by the Geneva Conference of 1954 .
Sihanouk was convinced that the PRC , not the U.S. , would eventually control the Indochinese Peninsula and that " our interests are best served by dealing with the camp that one day will dominate the whole of Asia – and coming to terms before its victory – in order to obtain the best terms possible . "
During the same year , however , he allowed his pro @-@ American minister of defense , General Lon Nol , to crack down on leftist activities , crushing the Pracheachon by accusing its members of subversion and subservience to Hanoi . Simultaneously , Sihanouk lost the support of Cambodia 's conservatives as a result of his failure to come to grips with the deteriorating economic situation ( exacerbated by the loss of rice exports , most of which went to the PAVN / NLF ) and with the growing communist military presence .
On 11 September , Cambodia held its first open election . Through manipulation and harassment ( and to Sihanouk 's surprise ) the conservatives won 75 percent of the seats in the National Assembly . Lon Nol was chosen by the right as prime minister and , as his deputy , they named Prince Sirik Matak ; an ultraconservative member of the Sisowath branch of the royal clan and long @-@ time enemy of Sihanouk . In addition to these developments and the clash of interests among Phnom Penh 's politicized elite , social tensions created a favorable environment for the growth of a domestic communist insurgency in the rural areas .
= = = Revolt in Battambang = = =
The prince then found himself in a political dilemma . To maintain the balance against the rising tide of the conservatives , he named the leaders of the very group he had been oppressing as members of a " counter @-@ government " that was meant to monitor and criticize Lon Nol 's administration . One of Lon Nol 's first priorities was to fix the ailing economy by halting the illegal sale of rice to the communists . Soldiers were dispatched to the rice @-@ growing areas to forcibly collect the harvests at gunpoint , and they paid only the low government price . There was widespread unrest , especially in rice @-@ rich Battambang Province , an area long @-@ noted for the presence of large landowners , great disparity in wealth , and where the communists still had some influence . On 11 March 1967 , while Sihanouk was out of the country in France , a rebellion broke out in the area around Samlaut in Battambang , when enraged villagers attacked a tax collection brigade . With the probable encouragement of local communist cadres , the insurrection quickly spread throughout the whole region . Lon Nol , acting in the prince 's absence ( but with his approval ) , responded by declaring martial law . Hundreds of peasants were killed and whole villages were laid waste during the repression . After returning home in March , Sihanouk abandoned his centrist position and personally ordered the arrest of Khieu Samphan , Hou Yuon , and Hu Nim , the leaders of the " counter government " , all of whom escaped into the northeast .
Simultaneously , Sihanouk ordered the arrest of Chinese middlemen involved in the illegal rice trade , thereby raising government revenues and placating the conservatives . Lon Nol was forced to resign , and , in a typical move , the prince named new leftists to the government to balance the conservatives . The immediate crisis had passed , but it engendered two tragic consequences . First , it drove thousands of new recruits into the arms of the hard @-@ line maquis of the Cambodian Communist Party ( which Sihanouk labelled the Khmers rouges ( " Red Khmers " ) ) . Second , for the peasantry , the name of Lon Nol became associated with ruthless repression throughout Cambodia .
= = = Communist regroupment = = =
While the 1967 insurgency had been unplanned , the Khmer Rouge tried , without much success , to organize a more serious revolt during the following year . The prince 's decimation of the Prachea Chon and the urban communists had , however , cleared the field of competition for Saloth Sar ( also known as Pol Pot ) , Ieng Sary , and Son Sen — the Maoist leadership of the maquisards . They led their followers into the highlands of the northeast and into the lands of the Khmer Loeu , a primitive people who were hostile to both the lowland Khmers and the central government . For the Khmer Rouge , who still lacked assistance from the North Vietnamese , it was a period of regroupment , organization , and training . Hanoi basically ignored its Chinese @-@ sponsored allies , and the indifference of their " fraternal comrades " to their insurgency between 1967 and 1969 would make an indelible impression on the Khmer Rouge leadership .
On 17 January 1968 , the Khmer Rouge launched their first offensive . It was aimed more at gathering weapons and spreading propaganda than in seizing territory since , at that time , the adherents of the insurgency numbered no more than 4 – 5 @,@ 000 . During the same month , the communists established the Revolutionary Army of Kampuchea as the military wing of the party . As early as the end of the Battambang revolt , Sihanouk had begun to reevaluate his relationship with the communists . His earlier agreement with the Chinese had availed him nothing . They had not only failed to restrain the North Vietnamese , but they had actually involved themselves ( through the Khmer Rouge ) in active subversion within his country . At the suggestion of Lon Nol ( who had returned to the cabinet as defense minister in November 1968 ) and other conservative politicians , on 11 May 1969 , the prince welcomed the restoration of normal diplomatic relations with the U.S. and created a new Government of National Salvation with Lon Nol as his prime minister . He did so " in order to play a new card , since the Asian communists are already attacking us before the end of the Vietnam War . " Besides , PAVN and the NLF would make very convenient scapegoats for Cambodia 's ills , much more so than the minuscule Khmer Rouge , and ridding Cambodia of their presence would solve many problems simultaneously . The Americans took advantage of this same opportunity to solve some of their own problems in Southeast Asia .
= = = Operation Menu and Operation Freedom Deal = = =
Although the U.S. had been aware of the PAVN / NLF sanctuaries in Cambodia since 1966 , President Lyndon B. Johnson had chosen not to attack them due to possible international repercussions and his belief that Sihanouk could be convinced to alter his policies . Johnson did , however , authorize the reconnaissance teams of the highly classified Military Assistance Command , Vietnam Studies and Observations Group ( SOG ) to enter Cambodia and gather intelligence on the Base Areas in 1967 . The election of Richard M. Nixon in 1968 and the introduction of his policies of gradual U.S. withdrawal from South Vietnam and the Vietnamization of the conflict there , changed everything . On 18 March 1969 , on secret orders from Nixon , the U.S. Air Force carried out the bombing of Base Area 353 ( in the Fishhook region opposite South Vietnam 's Tay Ninh Province ) by 59 B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers . This strike was the first in a series of attacks on the sanctuaries that lasted until May 1970 . During Operation Menu , the Air Force conducted 3 @,@ 875 sorties and dropped more than 108 @,@ 000 tons of ordnance on the eastern border areas . Only five high @-@ ranking Congressional officials were informed of the bombing .
Later it was claimed by Nixon and Kissinger that Sihanouk had given his tacit approval for the raids , but this is debatable . According to Kenton Clymer , Sihanouk 's public denunciations of Hanoi 's military presence in Cambodia and support for the Khmer Rouge are not evidence of tacit complicity : " Sihanouk was never asked to approve the B @-@ 52 bombings , and he never gave his approval . " Sihanouk privately sanctioned hot pursuit of North Vietnamese forces in under @-@ populated areas , but this was " not closely related " to the B @-@ 52 strikes . Sihanouk publicly condemned the bombing . Hanoi remained quiet about the bombing , not wishing to advertise the presence of its forces in " neutral " Cambodia .
Operation Freedom Deal followed Operation Menu . Under Freedom Deal , from 19 May 1970 to 15 August 1973 , U.S. bombing of Cambodia extended over the entire eastern one @-@ half of the country and was especially intense in the heavily populated southeastern one @-@ quarter of the country , including a wide ring surrounding the largest city of Phnom Penh . In large areas , according to maps of U.S. bombing sites , it appears that nearly every square mile of land was hit by bombs .
The effectiveness of the U.S. bombing on the Khmer Rouge and the death toll of Cambodian civilians is disputed . With limited data , the range of Cambodian deaths caused by U.S. bombing may be between 40 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 . Another impact of the U.S. bombing and the Cambodian civil war was to destroy the homes and livelihood of many people . This was a heavy contributor to the refugee crisis in Cambodia with two million people — more than 25 percent of the population — displaced from rural areas into the cities , especially Phnom Penh which grew from about 600 @,@ 000 in 1970 to an estimated population of nearly 2 million by 1975 . The Cambodian government estimated that more than 20 percent of the property in the country had been destroyed during the war .
It has been argued that the U.S. intervention in Cambodia contributed to the eventual seizure of power by the Khmer Rouge , that grew from 4 @,@ 000 in number in 1970 to 70 @,@ 000 in 1975 . This view has been disputed , with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the North Vietnamese offensive in Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . It has also been argued that U.S. bombing was decisive in delaying a Khmer Rouge victory .
= = Overthrow of Sihanouk ( 1970 ) = =
= = = Lon Nol coup = = =
While Sihanouk was out of the country on a trip to France , anti @-@ Vietnamese rioting ( which was semi @-@ sponsored by the government ) took place in Phnom Penh , during which the North Vietnamese and NLF embassies were sacked . In the prince 's absence , Lon Nol did nothing to halt these activities . On 12th , the prime minister closed the port of Sihanoukville to the North Vietnamese and issued an impossible ultimatum to them . All PAVN / NLF forces were to withdraw from Cambodian soil within 72 hours ( on 15 March ) or face military action .
Sihanouk , hearing of the turmoil , headed for Moscow and Beijing in order to demand that the patrons of PAVN and the NLF exert more control over their clients . On 18 March 1970 , Lon Nol requested that the National Assembly vote on the future of the prince 's leadership of the nation . Sihanouk was ousted from power by a vote of 92 – 0 . Heng Cheng became president of the National Assembly , while Prime Minister Lon Nol was granted emergency powers . Sirik Matak retained his post as deputy prime minister . The new government emphasized that the transfer of power had been totally legal and constitutional , and it received the recognition of most foreign governments . There have been , and continue to be , accusations that the U.S. government played some role in the overthrow of Sihanouk , but conclusive evidence has never been found to support them .
The majority of middle @-@ class and educated Khmers had grown weary of the prince and welcomed the change of government . They were joined by the military , for whom the prospect of the return of American military and financial aid was a cause for celebration . Within days of his deposition , Sihanouk , now in Beijing , broadcast an appeal to the people to resist the usurpers . Demonstrations and riots occurred ( mainly in areas contiguous to PAVN / NLF controlled areas ) , but no nationwide groundswell threatened the government . In one incident at Kompong Cham on 29 March , however , an enraged crowd killed Lon Nol 's brother , Lon Nil , tore out his liver , and cooked and ate it . An estimated 40 @,@ 000 peasants then began to march on the capital to demand Sihanouk 's reinstatement . They were dispersed , with many casualties , by contingents of the armed forces .
= = = Massacre of the Vietnamese = = =
Most of the population , urban and rural , took out their anger and frustrations on the nation 's Vietnamese population . Lon Nol 's call for 10 @,@ 000 volunteers to boost the manpower of Cambodia 's poorly equipped , 30 @,@ 000 @-@ man army , managed to swamp the military with over 70 @,@ 000 recruits . Rumours abounded concerning a possible PAVN offensive aimed at Phnom Penh itself . Paranoia flourished and this set off a violent reaction against the nation 's 400 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese .
Lon Nol hoped to use the Vietnamese as hostages against PAVN / NLF activities , and the military set about rounding them up into detention camps . That was when the killing began . In towns and villages all over Cambodia , soldiers and civilians sought out their Vietnamese neighbors in order to murder them . On 15 April , the bodies of 800 Vietnamese floated down the Mekong River and into South Vietnam .
The South Vietnamese , North Vietnamese , and the NLF harshly denounced these actions . Significantly , no Cambodians — including the Buddhist community — condemned the killings . In his apology to the Saigon government , Lon Nol stated that " it was difficult to distinguish between Vietnamese citizens who were Viet Cong and those who were not . So it is quite normal that the reaction of Cambodian troops , who feel themselves betrayed , is difficult to control . "
= = = FUNK and GRUNK = = =
From Beijing , Sihanouk proclaimed that the government in Phnom Penh was dissolved and his intention to create the Front uni national du Kampuchéa or FUNK ( National United Front of Kampuchea ) . Sihanouk later said " I had chosen not to be with either the Americans or the communists , because I considered that there were two dangers , American imperialism and Asian communism . It was Lon Nol who obliged me to choose between them . "
The North Vietnamese reacted to the political changes in Cambodia by sending Premier Phạm Văn Đồng to meet Sihanouk in China and recruit him into an alliance with the Khmer Rouge . Saloth was also contacted by the Vietnamese who now offered him whatever resources he wanted for his insurgency against the Cambodian government . Saloth and Sihanouk were actually in Beijing at the same time but the Vietnamese and Chinese leaders never informed Sihanouk of the presence of Saloth or allowed the two men to meet . Shortly after , Sihanouk issued an appeal by radio to the people of Cambodia to rise up against the government and support the Khmer Rouge . In doing so , Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control . In May 1970 , Saloth finally returned to Cambodia and the pace of the insurgency greatly increased . After Sihanouk showed his support for the Khmer Rouge by visiting them in the field , their ranks swelled from 6 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 fighters .
The prince then allied himself with the Khmer Rouge , the North Vietnamese , the Laotian Pathet Lao , and the NLF , throwing his personal prestige behind the communists . On 5 May , the actual establishment of FUNK and of the Gouvernement royal d 'union nationale du Kampuchéa or GRUNK ( Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea ) , was proclaimed . Sihanouk assumed the post of head of state , appointing Penn Nouth , one of his most loyal supporters , as prime minister .
Khieu Samphan was designated deputy prime minister , minister of defense , and commander in chief of the GRUNK armed forces ( though actual military operations were directed by Pol Pot ) . Hu Nim became minister of information , and Hou Yuon assumed multiple responsibilities as minister of the interior , communal reforms , and cooperatives . GRUNK claimed that it was not a government @-@ in @-@ exile since Khieu Samphan and the insurgents remained inside Cambodia . Sihanouk and his loyalists remained in China , although the prince did make a visit to the " liberated areas " of Cambodia , including Angkor Wat , in March 1973 . These visits were used mainly for propaganda purposes and had no real influence on political affairs .
For Sihanouk , this proved to be a marriage of convenience that was spurred on by his thirst for revenge against those who had betrayed him . For the Khmer Rouge , it was a means to greatly expand the appeal of their movement . Peasants , motivated by loyalty to the monarchy , gradually rallied to the GRUNK cause . The personal appeal of Sihanouk , and widespread US aerial bombardment helped recruitment . This task was made even easier for the communists after 9 October 1970 , when Lon Nol abolished the loosely federalist monarchy and proclaimed the establishment of a centralized Khmer Republic .
The GRUNK was soon caught between the competing Communist powers : North Vietnam , China , and the Soviet Union . During the visits which Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai and Sihanouk paid to North Korea in April and June 1970 , respectively , they called for the establishment of a " united front of the five revolutionary Asian countries " ( China , North Korea , North Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia , the last being represented by the GRUNK ) . While the North Korean leaders enthusiastically welcomed the plan , it soon foundered on Hanoi ’ s opposition . Having realized that such a front would exclude the Soviet Union and implicitly challenge the hegemonic role that the DRV had arrogated to itself in Indochina , the North Vietnamese leaders declared that all communist states should join forces against " American imperialism . " Indeed , the issue of Vietnamese versus Chinese hegemony over Indochina greatly influenced the attitude Hanoi adopted towards Moscow in the early and mid @-@ 1970s . During the Cambodian civil war , the Soviet leaders , ready to acquiesce in Hanoi ’ s dominance over Laos and Cambodia , actually insisted on sending their aid shipments to the Khmer Rouge through the DRV , whereas China firmly rebuffed Hanoi 's proposal that Chinese aid to Cambodia be sent via North Vietnam . Facing Chinese competition and Soviet acquiescence , the North Vietnamese leaders found the Soviet option more advantageous to their interests , a calculation that played a major role in the gradual pro @-@ Soviet shift in Hanoi 's foreign policies .
= = Widening war ( 1970 – 1971 ) = =
= = = North Vietnamese offensive in Cambodia = = =
In the wake of the coup , Lon Nol did not immediately launch Cambodia into war . He appealed to the international community and to the United Nations in an attempt to gain support for the new government and condemned violations of Cambodia 's neutrality " by foreign forces , whatever camp they come from . " His hope for continued neutralism availed him no more than it had Sihanouk . On 29 March 1970 , the North Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . The North Vietnamese overran most of northeastern Cambodia by June 1970 .
On 29 April 1970 , South Vietnamese and U.S. units unleashed a limited , multi @-@ pronged Cambodian Campaign that Washington hoped would solve three problems : First , it would provide a shield for the American withdrawal from Vietnam ( by destroying the PAVN logistical system and killing enemy troops ) in Cambodia ; second , it would provide a test for the policy of Vietnamization ; third , it would serve as a signal to Hanoi that Nixon meant business . Despite Nixon 's appreciation of Lon Nol 's position , the Cambodian leader was not even informed in advance of the decision to send troops into his country . He learned about it only after it had begun from the head of the U.S. mission , who had himself learned about it from a radio broadcast .
Extensive logistical installations and large amounts of supplies were found and destroyed , but as reporting from the American command in Saigon disclosed , still larger amounts of military material had already been moved further from the border to shelter it from the incursion into Cambodia by the U.S. and South Vietnam .
On the day the incursion was launched , the North Vietnamese launched an offensive ( Campaign X ) of its own against FANK forces at the request of the Khmer Rouge and in order to protect and expand their Base Areas and logistical system . By June , three months after the removal of Sihanouk , they had swept government forces from the entire northeastern third of the country . After defeating those forces , the North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents . The Khmer Rouge also established " liberated " areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country , where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese .
= = = Opposing sides = = =
As combat operations quickly revealed , the two sides were badly mismatched . Government troops , were now renamed the Forces Armees Nationales Khemeres or FANK ( Khmer National Armed Forces ) and thousands of young urban Cambodians flocked to join it in the months following the removal of Sihanouk . With the surge of recruits , however , FANK expanded well beyond its capacity to absorb the new men . Later , given the press of tactical operations and the need to replace combat casualties , there was insufficient time to impart needed skills to individuals or to units , and lack of training remained the bane of FANK 's existence until its collapse .
During the period 1974 – 1975 , FANK forces officially grew from 100 @,@ 000 to approximately 250 @,@ 000 men , but probably only numbered around 180 @,@ 000 due to payroll padding by their officers and due to desertions . U.S. military aid ( ammunition , supplies , and equipment ) was funneled to FANK through the Military Equipment Delivery Team , Cambodia ( MEDTC ) . Authorized a total of 113 officers and men , the team arrived in Phnom Penh in 1971 , under the overall command of CINCPAC Admiral John S. McCain , Jr . The attitude of the Nixon administration could be summed up by the advice given by Henry Kissinger to the first head of the liaison team , Colonel Jonathan Ladd : " Don 't think of victory ; just keep it alive . " Nevertheless , McCain constantly petitioned the Pentagon for more arms , equipment , and staff for what he proprietarily viewed as " my war " .
There were other problems . The officer corps of FANK was generally corrupt and greedy . The inclusion of " ghost " soldiers allowed massive payroll padding ; ration allowances were kept by the officers while their men starved ; and the sale of arms and ammunition on the black market ( or to the enemy ) was commonplace . Worse , the tactical ineptitude among FANK officers was as common as their greed . Lon Nol frequently bypassed the general staff and directed operations down to battalion @-@ level while also forbidding any real coordination between the army , navy , and air force .
The common soldiers fought bravely at first , but they were saddled with low pay ( with which they had to purchase their own food and medical care ) , ammunition shortages , and mixed equipment . Due to the pay system , there were no allotments for their families , who were , therefore , forced to follow their husbands / sons into the battle zones . These problems ( exacerbated by continuously declining morale ) only increased over time .
At the beginning of 1974 , the Cambodian army inventory included 241 @,@ 630 rifles , 7 @,@ 079 machine guns , 2 @,@ 726 mortars , 20 @,@ 481 grenade launchers , 304 recoilless rifles , 289 howitzers , 202 APCs , and 4 @,@ 316 trucks . The Khmer navy had 171 vessels ; the Khmer air force had 211 aircraft , including 64 North American T @-@ 28s , 14 Douglas AC @-@ 47 gunships and 44 helicopters . American embassy military personnel – who were only supposed to coordinate the arms aid program – sometimes found themselves involved in prohibited advisory and combat tasks .
When PAVN forces were supplanted , it was by the tough , rigidly indoctrinated peasant army of the Khmer Rouge with its core of seasoned leaders , who now received the full support of Hanoi . Khmer Rouge forces , which had been reorganized at an Indochinese summit held in Guangzhou , China in April 1970 , would grow from 12 – 15 @,@ 000 in 1970 to 35 – 40 @,@ 000 by 1972 , when the so @-@ called " Khmerization " of the conflict took place and combat operations against the Republic were handed over completely to the insurgents .
The development of these forces took place in three stages . 1970 to 1972 was a period of organization and recruitment , during which Khmer Rouge units served as auxiliaries to PAVN . From 1972 to mid @-@ 1974 , the insurgents formed units of battalion and regimental size . It was during this period that the Khmer Rouge began to break away from Sihanouk and his supporters and the collectivization of agriculture was begun in the liberated areas . Division @-@ sized units were being fielded by 1974 – 1975 , when the party was on its own and began the radical transformation of the country .
With the fall of Sihanouk , Hanoi became alarmed at the prospect of a pro @-@ Western regime that might allow the Americans to establish a military presence on their western flank . To prevent that from happening , they began transferring their military installations away from the border regions to locations deeper within Cambodian territory . A new command center was established at the city of Kratié and the timing of the move was propitious . President Nixon was of the opinion that :
" We need a bold move in Cambodia to show that we stand with Lon Nol ... something symbolic ... for the only Cambodian regime that had the guts to take a pro @-@ Western and pro @-@ American stand . "
= = = Chenla II = = =
During the night of 21 January 1971 , a force of 100 PAVN / NLF commandos attacked Pochentong airfield , the main base of the Republican Air Force . In this one action , the raiders destroyed almost the entire inventory of government aircraft , including all of its fighter planes . This may have been a blessing in disguise , however , since the air force was composed of old ( even obsolete ) Soviet aircraft . The Americans soon replaced the airplanes with more advanced models . The attack did , however , stall a proposed FANK offensive . Two weeks later , Lon Nol suffered a stroke and was evacuated to Hawaii for treatment . It had been a mild stroke , however , and the general recovered quickly , returning to Cambodia after only two months .
It was not until 20 August that FANK launched Operation Chenla II , its first offensive of the year . The objective of the campaign was to clear Route 6 of enemy forces and thereby reopen communications with Kompong Thom , the Republic 's second largest city , which had been isolated from the capital for more than a year . The operation was initially successful , and the city was relieved . The PAVN and Khmer Rouge counterattacked in November and December , annihilating government forces in the process . There was never an accurate count of the losses , but the estimate was " on the order of ten battalions of personnel and equipment lost plus the equipment of an additional ten battalions . " The strategic result of the failure of Chenla II was that the offensive initiative passed completely into the hands of PAVN and the Khmer Rouge .
= = Agony of the Khmer Republic ( 1972 – 1975 ) = =
= = = Struggling to survive = = =
From 1972 through 1974 , the war was conducted along FANK 's lines of communications north and south of the capital . Limited offensives were launched to maintain contact with the rice @-@ growing regions of the northwest and along the Mekong River and Route 5 , the Republic 's overland connections to South Vietnam . The strategy of the Khmer Rouge was to gradually cut those lines of communication and squeeze Phnom Penh . As a result , FANK forces became fragmented , isolated , and unable to lend one another mutual support .
The main U.S. contribution to the FANK effort came in the form of the bombers and tactical aircraft of the U.S. Air Force . When President Nixon launched the incursion in 1970 , American and South Vietnamese troops operated under an umbrella of air cover that was designated Operation Freedom Deal . When those troops were withdrawn , the air operation continued , ostensibly to interdict PAVN / NLF troop movements and logistics . In reality ( and unknown to the American Congress and public ) , they were utilized to provide tactical air support to FANK . As a former U.S. military officer in Phnom Penh reported , " the areas around the Mekong River were so full of bomb craters from B @-@ 52 strikes that , by 1973 , they looked like the valleys of the moon . "
On 10 March 1972 , just before the newly renamed Constituent Assembly was to approve a revised constitution , Lon Nol announced that he was suspending the deliberations . He then forced Cheng Heng , the chief of state since Sihanouk 's deposition , to surrender his authority to him . On the second anniversary of the coup , Lon Nol relinquished his authority as chief of state , but retained his position as prime minister and defense minister .
On 4 June , Lon Nol was elected as the first president of the Khmer Republic in a blatantly rigged election . As per the new constitution ( ratified on 30 April ) , political parties formed in the new nation , quickly becoming a source of political factionalism . General Sutsakhan stated : " the seeds of democratization , which had been thrown into the wind with such goodwill by the Khmer leaders , returned for the Khmer Republic nothing but a poor harvest . "
In January 1973 , hope was renewed when the Paris Peace Accord was signed , ending the conflict ( for the time being ) in South Vietnam and Laos . On 29 January , Lon Nol proclaimed a unilateral cease @-@ fire throughout the nation . All U.S. bombing operations were halted in hopes of securing a chance for peace . It was not to be . The Khmer Rouge simply ignored the proclamation and carried on fighting . By March , heavy casualties , desertions , and low recruitment had forced Lon Nol to introduce conscription and , in April , insurgent forces launched an offensive that pushed into the suburbs of the capital . The U.S. Air Force responded by launching an intense bombing operation that forced the communists back into the countryside after being decimated by the air strikes . The US Seventh Air Force argued that the bombing prevented the fall of Phnom Penh in 1973 by killing 16 @,@ 000 of 25 @,@ 500 Khmer Rouge fighters besieging the city .
By the last day of Operation Freedom Deal ( 15 August 1973 ) , 250 @,@ 000 tons of bombs had been dropped on the Khmer Republic , 82 @,@ 000 tons of which had been released in the last 45 days of the operation . Since the inception of Operation Menu in 1969 , the U.S. Air Force had dropped 539 @,@ 129 tons of ordnance on Cambodia / Khmer Republic .
= = = Shape of things to come = = =
As late as 1972 – 1973 , it was a commonly held belief , both within and outside Cambodia , that the war was essentially a foreign conflict that had not fundamentally altered the nature of the Khmer people . By late 1973 , there was a growing awareness among the government and population of the fanaticism , total lack of concern over casualties , and complete rejection of any offer of peace talks which " began to suggest that Khmer Rouge fanaticism and capacity for violence were deeper than anyone had suspected . " During the Civil War , although data is sparse , demographic evidence suggests that the Khmer Rouge caused several times more civilian casualties than the entire U.S. bombing of Cambodia .
Reports of the brutal policies of the organization soon made their way to Phnom Penh and into the population foretelling the violence that was about to consume the nation . There were tales of the forced relocations of entire villages , of the summary execution of any who disobeyed or even asked questions , the forbidding of religious practices , of monks who were defrocked or murdered , and where traditional sexual and marital habits were foresworn . War was one thing , the offhand manner in which the Khmer Rouge dealt out death , so contrary to the Khmer character , was quite another . Reports of these atrocities began to surface during the same period in which North Vietnamese troops were withdrawing from the Cambodian battlefields . This was no coincidence . The concentration of the PAVN effort on South Vietnam allowed the Khmer Rouge to apply their doctrine and policies without restraint for the first time .
The Khmer Rouge leadership was almost completely unknown by the public . They were referred to by their fellow countrymen as peap prey – the forest army . Previously , the very existence of the communist party as a component of GRUNK had been hidden . Within the " liberated zones " it was simply referred to as " Angka " – the organization . During 1973 , the communist party fell under the control of its most fanatical members , Pol Pot and Son Sen , who believed that " Cambodia was to go through a total social revolution and that everything that had preceded it was anathema and must be destroyed . "
Also hidden from scrutiny was the growing antagonism between the Khmer Rouge and their North Vietnamese allies . The radical leadership of the party could never escape the suspicion that Hanoi had designs on building an Indochinese federation with the North Vietnamese as its master . The Khmer Rouge were ideologically tied to the Chinese , while North Vietnam 's chief supporters , the Soviet Union , still recognized the Lon Nol government as legitimate . After the signing of the Paris Peace Accords , PAVN cut off the supply of arms to the Khmer Rouge , hoping to force them into a cease @-@ fire . When the Americans were freed by the signing of the accords to turn their air power completely on the Khmer Rouge , this too was blamed on Hanoi . During the year , these suspicions and attitudes led the party leadership to carry out purges within their ranks . Most of the Hanoi @-@ trained members were then executed on the orders of Pol Pot .
As time passed , the need of the Khmer Rouge for the support of Prince Sihanouk lessened . The organization demonstrated to the people of the ' liberated ' areas in no uncertain terms that open expressions of support for Sihanouk would result in their liquidation . Although the prince still enjoyed the protection of the Chinese , when he made public appearances overseas to publicize the GRUNK cause , he was treated with almost open contempt by Ministers Ieng Sary and Khieu Samphan . In June , the prince told Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci that when " they [ the Khmer Rouge ] have sucked me dry , they will spit me out like a cherry stone . "
By the end of 1973 , Sihanouk loyalists had been purged from all of GRUNK 's ministries and all of the prince 's supporters within the insurgent ranks were also eliminated . Shortly after Christmas , as the insurgents were gearing up for their final offensive , Sihanouk spoke with the French diplomat Etienne Manac 'h . He said that his hopes for a moderate socialism akin to Yugoslavia 's must now be totally dismissed . Stalinist Albania , he said , would be the model .
= = = Fall of Phnom Penh = = =
By the time the Khmer Rouge initiated their dry @-@ season offensive to capture the beleaguered Cambodian capital on 1 January 1975 , the Republic was in chaos . The economy had been gutted , the transportation network had been reduced to air and water systems , the rice harvest had been reduced by one @-@ quarter , and the supply of freshwater fish ( the chief source of protein ) had declined drastically . The cost of food was 20 times greater than pre @-@ war levels and unemployment was not even measured anymore . Phnom Penh , which had a pre @-@ war population of around 600 @,@ 000 , was overwhelmed by refugees ( who continued to flood in from the steadily collapsing defense perimeter ) , growing to a size of around two million . These helpless and desperate civilians had no jobs and little in the way of food , shelter , or medical care . Their condition ( and the government 's ) only worsened when Khmer Rouge forces gradually gained control of the banks of the Mekong . From the riverbanks , their mines and gunfire steadily reduced the river convoys bringing relief supplies of food , fuel , and ammunition to the slowly starving city ( 90 percent of the Republic 's supplies moved by means of the convoys ) from South Vietnam . After the river was effectively blocked in early February , the U.S. began an airlift of supplies . This became increasingly risky , however , due to communist rocket and artillery fire , which constantly rained down on the airfields and city . The Khmer Rouge cut off supplies to the city for more than a year before it fell on 17 April 1975 . Reports from journalists stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling " tortured the capital almost continuously , " inflicting " random death and mutilation " on millions of trapped civilians .
Desperate , yet determined , units of Republican soldiers , many of whom had run out of ammunition , dug in around the capital and fought until they were overrun as the Khmer Rouge advanced . By the last week of March 1975 , approximately 40 @,@ 000 communist troops had surrounded the capital and began preparing to deliver the coup de grace to about half as many Republican forces .
Lon Nol resigned and left the country on 1 April , hoping that a negotiated settlement might still be possible if he was absent from the political scene . Saukam Khoy became acting president of a government that had less than three weeks to live . Last @-@ minute efforts on the part of the U.S. to arrange a peace agreement involving Sihanouk ended in failure . When a vote in the U.S. Congress for a resumption of American air support failed , panic and a sense of doom pervaded the capital . The situation was best described by General Sak Sutsakhan ( now FANK chief of staff ) :
" The picture of the Khmer Republic which came to mind at that time was one of a sick man who survived only by outside means and that , in its condition , the administration of medication , however efficient it might be , was probably of no further value . "
On 12 April , concluding that all was lost , the U.S. evacuated its embassy personnel by helicopter during Operation Eagle Pull . The 276 evacuees included U.S. Ambassador John Gunther Dean , other American diplomatic personnel , Acting President Saukam Khoy , senior Khmer Republic government officials and their families , and members of the news media . In all , 82 U.S. , 159 Cambodian , and 35 third @-@ country nationals were evacuated . Although invited by Ambassador Dean to join the evacuation ( and much to the Americans ' surprise ) , Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak , Long Boret , Lon Non ( Lon Nol 's brother ) , and most members of Lon Nol 's cabinet declined the offer . All of them chose to share the fate of their people . Their names were not published on the death lists and many trusted the Khmer Rouge 's assertions that former government officials would not be murdered , but would be welcome in helping rebuild a new Cambodia . Later , they were all executed by the Khmer Rouge .
After the Americans ( and Saukam Khoy ) had departed , a seven @-@ member Supreme Committee , headed by General Sak Sutsakhan , assumed authority over the collapsing Republic . By 15 April , the last solid defenses of the city were overcome by the communists . In the early morning hours of 17 April , the committee decided to move the seat of government to Oddar Meanchay Province in the northwest . Around 10 : 00 , the voice of General Mey Si Chan of the FANK general staff broadcast on the radio , ordering all FANK forces to cease firing , since " negotiations were in progress " for the surrender of Phnom Penh . The war was over but the terrible dreams of the Khmer Rouge were about to come to fruition in the newly proclaimed Democratic Kampuchea . Khmer Rouge troops immediately began to forcibly empty the capital city , driving the population into the countryside and killing tens of thousands in the process . The Year Zero had begun .
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= William Owsley =
William Owsley ( March 24 , 1782 – December 9 , 1862 ) was an associate justice on the Kentucky Court of Appeals and the 16th Governor of Kentucky . He also served in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly and was Kentucky Secretary of State under Governor James Turner Morehead .
Owsley studied law under John Boyle . After briefly serving in the state legislature , he was appointed by Governor Charles Scott to serve alongside Boyle on the Kentucky Court of Appeals . During his service on the court , Owsley was involved in the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . In 1824 , the state legislature , unhappy with the court 's rulings against debt relief legislation , attempted to abolish the court and replace it with a new court . For a time , both courts operated simultaneously , and both claimed to be the court of last resort in the state . Supporters of the old court won control of the legislature and abolished the new court in 1826 . Owsley resigned from the Court of Appeals two years later .
In 1831 , Owsley returned to the state legislature , where he served until Governor Morehead appointed him secretary of state in 1834 . He resumed his legal practice in 1836 and in 1843 , retired from that profession . The next year , he was nominated for governor on the Whig ticket and defeated William O. Butler in the general election . Through fiscally conservative policies , he was able to reduce the state 's debt . In spite of his opposition to the Mexican @-@ American War , large numbers of Kentucky 's citizens volunteered for military service . Owsley 's popularity declined sharply when he attempted to remove Benjamin Hardin as Secretary of State . Hardin successfully challenged his removal in court , then resigned in protest of Owsley 's actions and charged him with practicing nepotism in his appointments . After his term as governor , Owsley never again sought public office . He died December 9 , 1862 and was buried in Belleview Cemetery in Danville , Kentucky .
= = Early life = =
William Owsley was born March 24 , 1782 in Virginia . He was the third of thirteen children born to William and Catherine ( Bolin ) Owsley . Owsley was a first cousin to U.S. Representative Bryan Owsley , whose father Anthony was the elder William Owsley 's brother . In 1783 , his family relocated to Lincoln County , Kentucky , settling between the settlements of Crab Orchard and Stanford . He was of English ancestry . Owsley was dedicated to his studies in the public schools of the area , and obtained a better education than most of his peers . On March 30 , 1802 , he was appointed adjutant of the 26th Regiment of the Kentucky Militia .
For a time , Owsley taught at a country school , and in 1803 , he married Elizabeth Gill , one of his students . Gill was almost seventeen ; Owsley was twenty @-@ one . The couple had six children . During his time as a teacher , Owsley also studied surveying and eventually became a deputy surveyor . Later , he served as a deputy sheriff under his father , who was High Sheriff of Lincoln County . While in this capacity , he attracted the attention of John Boyle , who offered Owsley the use of his library . Owsley availed himself of this opportunity , and read law with Boyle . In 1809 , Owsley opened a legal practice in Garrard County .
= = Kentucky Court of Appeals = =
Owsley 's political career began in 1809 when he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives , serving one term . Governor Charles Scott appointed him to the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1810 , where he served alongside his teacher , John Boyle . Soon after Owsley 's appointment , the legislature reduced the number of justices on the court , and Owsley resigned his seat . He was elected to the state House again in 1811 . When a vacancy on the Court of Appeals occurred in 1813 , Governor Isaac Shelby re @-@ appointed Owsley to the court .
One of the court 's most crucial decisions during Owsley 's tenure was in the case of Commonwealth of Kentucky v. James Morrison , which held that the Bank of the United States did not have the right to establish branches in Kentucky . The Supreme Court of the United States later overturned this ruling .
A second important decision in which Owsley was a participant was the case of Blair , etc. v. Williams , which invalidated the Kentucky Replevin Act of 1820 . This law granted debtors a two @-@ year grace period in repaying their debts unless their creditors would accept notes from the Bank of Kentucky . Owsley and his colleagues opined that this law was in violation of the Contract Clause of the U.S. Constitution . The decision was extremely unpopular with the Commonwealth 's citizens , but it was re @-@ affirmed by the court 's opinion in the related case of Lapsley v. Brashcars and Barr .
Following these decisions , the General Assembly attempted to remove all three justices from their positions , but lacked the two @-@ thirds majority required for impeachment . The Assembly then attempted to abolish the Court of Appeals and create a new one , beginning the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . The members of the existing court – Owsley , John Boyle , and Benjamin Mills – continued functioning in that role , while a new court of four pro @-@ relief justices was organized by the legislature . For a time , both courts claimed to be the court of last resort in Kentucky , but by 1826 , supporters of the Old Court won control of the legislature and abolished the New Court .
Having seen the court through the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy , Chief Justice Boyle resigned in 1826 . In December 1828 , Mills and Owsley also resigned . Their resignations were an attempt to silence criticism from the defeated New Court faction that they held their seats in defiance of the will of the people . Old Court supporters hoped both men would be re @-@ nominated and re @-@ confirmed by the legislature , making the New Court 's charge less credible . Accordingly , newly elected governor Thomas Metcalfe submitted both men to the legislature for confirmation , but the nominations were defeated in the state senate . Thus ended Owsley 's tenure on the court . It was , at the time , the longest tenure of any Court of Appeals justice except John Boyle . Owsley returned to his legal practice , and his case load soon compelled him to move to Frankfort .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
Owsley returned to the state House in 1831 , and served in the state senate from 1832 to 1834 . He also served as a presidential elector for Henry Clay in 1833 . When James Turner Morehead ascended to the governorship upon the death of John Breathitt , he appointed Owsley Secretary of State for his shortened term from 1834 to 1836 . In 1843 , Owsley retired from the practice of law and purchased a farm in Boyle County .
In 1844 , Owsley was elected governor on the Whig ticket , defeating Democrat William O. Butler by a vote of 59 @,@ 792 to 55 @,@ 089 . A fiscal conservative , Owsley reduced the state 's deficit slightly , and was reluctant to rebuild the state penitentiary , which was damaged by fire . Despite his reluctance to spend , he urged the General Assembly to increase funding for public education . " Nothing but money will do it , " proclaimed Owsley , " and it is left to the appropriate department – the legislature – to determine on the expediency or inexpediency of raising it . " In response , the Assembly passed only a small tax to benefit public education . Education made progress during Owsley 's tenure , largely due to his appointment of Robert J. Breckinridge as public school superintendent in 1847 . Breckinridge is credited as the architect of Kentucky 's antebellum educational system .
In 1845 , Secretary of War William L. Marcy requested that Kentucky provide militiamen to bolster Zachary Taylor 's forces in the new state of Texas . Owsley all but refused the request , but when word of Marcy 's request reached the citizens of the state , they volunteered in great numbers and rushed to reinforce Taylor . Owsley was similarly lethargic in responding to Marcy 's call for troops for service in the Mexican – American War . He joined fellow Kentucky Whigs John J. Crittenden and Henry Clay in deriding the conflict as " Mr. Polk 's War " . However , postal workers in the state opened Marcy 's letter before delivering it to Owsley and had spread the word that the federal government had once again requested troops . By the time Owsley made the formal call for volunteers on May 22 , 1846 , an entire regiment of Kentucky troops had already been organized . Despite his personal opposition to the war , Owsley boasted in his report to Marcy that the Commonwealth had raised 13 @,@ 700 volunteers , more than five times the number requested of him .
Later , Owsley 's tenure would be marred by a conflict with Benjamin Hardin , his Secretary of State . Hardin believed that by supporting Owsley in the gubernatorial election , he would obtain some influence in Owsley 's choices for other appointments . Tensions between Hardin and Owsley worsened as Hardin became increasingly frustrated with his lack of influence . On September 1 , 1846 , Owsley removed Hardin from his cabinet , charging that Hardin had abandoned his duties because he did not reside in Frankfort . Hardin challenged this premise for his removal , and when Owsley nominated George B. Kinkead to replace Hardin , the state senate voted 30 — 8 that no vacancy existed . The Kentucky Court of Appeals upheld this decision . Vindicated , Hardin then resigned , charging Owsley with practicing nepotism . In the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 , the governor was stripped of his power to remove the Secretary of State from office .
Following his term as governor , Owsley retired to his farm in Danville , Kentucky , where he lived until the death of his wife in 1858 . After this , he lived with his children until he died December 9 , 1862 . He is buried at Bellview Cemetery in Danville . Owsley County , Kentucky is named in his honor . Pleasant Retreat , his home in Garrard County during his early political career , is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
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= Bianca Ryan =
Bianca Taylor Ryan ( born September 1 , 1994 ) is an American singer , songwriter , musician and actress from Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Ryan was the first winner of NBC 's America 's Got Talent at the age of eleven . She auditioned for Talent in 2006 and amazed the judges with her big voice . Singing two Broadway show tunes along the way , Ryan was announced as the winner of season one on August 17 . Her eponymous first album was released later in 2006 , followed by two Christmas albums . Two singles followed in 2007 and 2010 ; also in 2010 , she made an acting appearance in a music video by The Wrecking . The video for her first new release in four years , a cover of the John Legend song " All of Me " , was posted to her YouTube channel in March 2014 . Her original song " Alice " was self @-@ released in May 2015 .
In 2012 , Ryan joined the cast of the independent film We Are Kings , portraying one of two down @-@ on @-@ their @-@ luck teen musicians who are guided by an angel to save an elder bluesman from freezing to death . The film premiered in September 2014 , and the video for her single " Broken Down House " was released in October .
= = Early life = =
Bianca Ryan is the second of five children of Shawn and Janette Ryan , who moved from New Jersey to Philadelphia when Bianca was three years old . Her father , a fan of The Rolling Stones , named her after Mick Jagger 's ex @-@ wife . She has an older brother , Shawn , and three younger siblings , Isabella , Jagger and Evangelina . Ryan is " mostly " Irish and calls herself a mix of Japanese , Irish , Italian , German and Cherokee . " I 'm basically just America ... the melting pot . "
Ryan 's singing talent came as something of a surprise to her family , given that she was an award @-@ winning tap dancer as a child . Ryan said she did not even attempt to sing until she was eight years old and started enjoying LeAnn Rimes and country music . Shawn Ryan started sharing his record collection with his daughter , and Bianca " fell in love " with rhythm and blues and soul music . She convinced him to take her to an audition for Star Search , where her performance of " Think " impressed the judges and shocked her father . " I 'd never heard her sing like that . " During the Junior Singers competition , Bianca Ryan lost to Spensha Baker . Ryan later won Amateur Kids Night on Showtime at the Apollo .
Ryan has sung the Star @-@ Spangled Banner for several professional sports teams , including the Philadelphia Eagles , the New York Knicks and its Westchester affiliate , and the New York Mets .
= = America 's Got Talent = =
In 2006 , Ryan learned that American Idol judge Simon Cowell was serving as executive producer for an upcoming competition titled America 's Got Talent , and the tryouts in New York were happening on the same day as a family outing in the city . Ryan almost left without performing when she looked at the other contestants and saw a lady with a beard " probably about , like , two feet long , " juggling torches . She decided to stay when her father told her the grand prize was US $ 1 million . For her televised audition , she chose the Dreamgirls show tune " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " , surprising the audience and the judges with her powerful voice . The video of her audition performance quickly became popular on YouTube .
For the semi @-@ finals of the show Ryan performed " Piece of My Heart " . The judges praised her performance , but they did not think the song was right for Ryan . She rebounded for her finals performance , singing " I Am Changing " ( also from Dreamgirls ) ; judge David Hasselhoff called her " the best " in the competition , while Piers Morgan predicted she would win . During the finale results aired on August 17 , 2006 , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Bianca Ryan was announced by emcee Regis Philbin as the winner of season one of America 's Got Talent .
Ryan made a brief appearance during the show 's season two finale in 2007 . In a video recorded during Live Nation 's Nextfest tour , she wished good luck to the top two finalists .
= = Career = =
= = = Music = = =
= = = = 2006 – 09 : Bianca Ryan and holiday albums = = = =
One week after her victory , Ryan announced on her website that she had flown to New York to meet with representatives from a record label and some of the recording industry 's top songwriters . The Northeast Times reported the same day that Ryan met with Grammy Award @-@ winning producer David Foster and was being managed by Peter Rudge .
Ryan signed a five @-@ album record deal with SYCOmusic as part of Columbia Records on September 18 , 2006 . She was the first U.S. artist to sign with SYCOmusic ; during the press conference , Simon Cowell called Ryan " potentially one of the best singers I have ever heard in my life . " The following month , Ryan was in Los Angeles to record her first CD . The self @-@ titled debut was released on November 14 , 2006 , featuring cover versions of " The Rose " and " I Believe I Can Fly " , and original songs like " I Wish That " and " Pray for a Better Day " . Eight days later , the album debuted at No. 57 on the Billboard album charts , showcasing " her gargantuan chops and sweet charm " . Matt Collar of AllMusic added that the arrangements were " grandiose " for someone of Ryan 's age , but they were " more than matched by her truly impressive vocal talent . " Los Angeles Daily News reviewer Sandra Barrera wrote that Ryan handled the songs " like the old pro that her big , powerful voice makes you think she is " .
One month later , the EP Christmas Everyday ! was released as a promotional giveaway . She then joined several artists in a televised 2006 Christmas performance for President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush at the National Building Museum to benefit the Children 's National Medical Center .
Ryan 's first concert tour took her across the United States as the special guest artist for Nextfest in 2007 . That August , she released the single " That 's Not Me " .
In 2008 , Ryan left SYCOmusic / Columbia Records ; she released her second holiday @-@ themed EP , True Meaning of Christmas , on November 3 , 2009 , on the indie Music Forever label . This second collection , co @-@ written with Anthony Marinelli and Siedah Garrett , included updated versions of " The Christmas Song " and " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ; the title track featured a duet with gospel pop singer Brent Jones .
= = = = 2010 – present : Singles , videos and upcoming EP = = = =
In 2010 , Bianca Ryan wrote and recorded a song inspired by Twilight : New Moon called " In My Head " . The single was released digitally on August 21 through the indie label Tuned In Music and Media , followed by performances at Trump Plaza in Atlantic City , New Jersey .
Ryan was asked in October 2012 about the differences between her debut album and her future projects . She said she didn 't get to choose what songs went on her first CD , and while the experience she gained by working with people like David Foster and Kara DioGuardi was amazing , " I didn 't feel like it was really me . ... You can relate to songs that you write . " Ryan spent much of her teen years out of the spotlight . She explained in 2014 that she had put her career on hold to go back to school even though , as it turned out , she hated high school — besides " a couple of stalkers " , she was mostly ignored by other students and didn 't make any friends until after school was over . Nevertheless , she " wanted to live a life , and have purpose and things to write about " due to her passion for writing music . Ryan told fanlala.com in February that she was working with industry veterans like Quincy Jones on a new EP featuring her own work , which she called more " mainstream " than anything she had written before . Ryan described her musical style as a blend of neo soul , R & B and pop .
She also went back to work on her YouTube channel in 2014 . Her cover of " All of Me " was uploaded in March .
In 2015 , Ryan created a music video for " Alice " , an original song she had written years earlier . The video was funded in part by a Kickstarter project and was self @-@ released in May 2015 . It features dancer Chloe Lukasiak , who called the video her favorite project since leaving Dance Moms . The single was released via Ryan 's own label through iTunes , Google Play and ReverbNation . Her cover of " God Bless the Child " was released on iTunes in July .
Ryan plans to go on tour in support of her upcoming EP . She was a featured performer at the Hollystock Music and Arts Festival in Mount Holly , New Jersey , in August 2015 . Performances in November included the Macy 's Christmas Window unveiling and the 6ABC / Dunkin ' Donuts Thanksgiving Parade , both in Philadelphia .
= = = Acting = = =
Ryan made several early attempts to be an actress , trying out unsuccessfully for such projects as Camp Rock and Hannah Montana . She made her acting debut in a walk @-@ off appearance in the 2005 film 12 and Holding ; her character is shown at a school function singing the final line of " Oh ! Susanna " , thanking the audience , and leaving the stage . She returned to acting five years later , playing the lead role in the music video for " About to Fall " by The Wrecking .
In 2012 , Ryan joined the cast of We Are Kings , an independent , crowdsourced feature film . She portrayed one of two homeless musicians who join up with a runaway rapper to help an elder bluesman raise the money he needs to save his comatose wife and their repossessed blues club . Ryan and her co @-@ stars wrote their own original songs for We Are Kings . Her first single from the film , " Broken Down House " , was released in November 2014 .
Upon the film 's release , LA Weekly called Ryan , Long and Pryce " so bursting with talent that it 's impossible to pick a favorite " while the Los Angeles Times looked past the " discordant " acting to praise the " palpable , soulful authenticity " of the music . " I could use an acting coach , " Ryan admitted , " but , see , I 'm honest . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums and EPs = = =
Bianca Ryan ( 2006 )
Christmas Everyday ! [ sic ] ( 2006 , 2007 )
True Meaning of Christmas ( 2009 )
= = Filmography = =
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= Mary Wittenberg =
Mary Wittenberg ( née Robertson ) was the President and Chief Executive Officer of New York Road Runners ( NYRR ) through May 18 , 2015 . Wittenberg oversaw the TCS New York City Marathon and several other races , events , and programs that draw over 300 @,@ 000 yearly participants .
Under Wittenberg 's leadership , NYRR helped develop new initiatives such as the World Marathon Majors Series and several community programs that have introduced running to underprivileged children . For her efforts related to the TCS New York City Marathon , an article in the New York Times stated that Wittenberg " has transformed the New York City Marathon from traditional to competitive to innovative . "
A former competitive runner , Wittenberg won the 1987 Marine Corps Marathon . She participates in many NYRR races .
= = Early life and career = =
Wittenberg was born in Buffalo , New York , and raised in a large and athletic Irish Catholic family . She was the oldest of seven children , and played softball , baseball and basketball — sports that her father coached . In high school , she focused on cheerleading , and also starred on a champion West Side Rowing Club team . Wittenberg went on to attend Canisius College , and was a coxswain for the men 's crew team that won a championship for small colleges .
During her senior year in College , Wittenberg took up running . She won a few local races and trained with Canisius ' men 's cross country team . Wittenberg also trained with the men 's cross country team while attending law school at University of Notre Dame . While training with this group , she finished 16th at the Chicago Marathon with a time of 2 : 46 .
After law school , Wittenberg moved to Richmond , Virginia to work for the Hunton & Williams law firm . She would spend busy days working in the office , marathon training with the University of Richmond cross country team , and studying to pass the bar . In 1987 , she won the Marine Corps Marathon in a time of 2 : 44 : 34 . Wittenberg used a late surge to overtake the leaders in the second half of the race .
Wittenberg 's strong performance at the Marine Corps Marathon qualified her for the 1988 Olympic marathon trials . However , she soon required surgery for a knee injury , and a back ailment forced her to drop out of the qualifying race . Wittenberg ran in only two more marathons due to injuries and a focus on her law career .
= = New York Road Runners = =
= = = CEO = = =
In the early 1990s , Wittenberg worked as an attorney who specialized in international trade deals for U.S. banks . In 1994 , her firm transferred her to New York City . It was there that she was made a partner for her law firm . However , in 1998 Wittenberg opted for a career change , as she wanted to devote time to start a family .
Despite taking a significant pay cut , Wittenberg began work for New York Road Runners as Vice President and Chief Operating Officer . Her initial responsibilities ranged from overseeing NYRR publications to administering membership and race scoring . She helped secure the deal that made ING a title sponsor for the race . In 2005 , Wittenberg was named President and Chief Executive of NYRR , and became the first female director of a major international marathon . NYRR administers the TCS New York City Marathon .
Under Wittenberg 's leadership , a significant change was made for women marathoners to receive more prize money than their male counterparts . NYRR 's budget has increased significantly , as has the viewership for the TCS New York City Marathon . NYRR and Wittenberg also administered the 2008 U.S. Men 's Marathon Olympic Trials . During this event , former collegiate star Ryan Shay suffered a heart attack and died while competing in the race . Wittenberg 's sensitive handling of the tragic news at the post @-@ race press conference was cited as an example of her " class and compassion " .
= = = Running = = =
While CEO of NYRR , Wittenberg spearheaded innovative programs to increase running 's popularity as a spectator sport . The NYRR has partnered with five other major marathons ( London , Boston , Berlin , Chicago and Tokyo ) to create the World Marathon Majors Series . Runners compete in these races to earn a cumulative standing , similar to NASCAR 's Sprint Cup .
NYRR also provides financial support for the USA Distance Project , which is composed of training groups throughout the country for post @-@ collegiate distance runners . As of November 2009 , the NYRR have donated $ 750 @,@ 000 to the Distance Project in a three @-@ year span . After Meb Keflezighi 's victory and five other American men finishing in the top ten of the 2009 New York Marathon , Wittenberg was very optimistic about the future of U.S. men 's distance running . She said " I think this is just the start of delivering on the day " and " this has been a long time coming . " Wittenberg and NYRR 's financial support efforts for U.S. distance running was also noted after Keflezighi 's victory . NYRR is also a prominent supporter of National Running Day , which is dedicated to celebrate and promote the sport .
= = = Community = = =
Wittenberg expanded NYRR 's presence in the community by providing running classes for various levels of runners , establishing running programs for children through the NYRR Foundation , and setting up an online coaching network . Wittenberg is also involved with programs to prevent childhood obesity , and was a guest of Michelle Obama 's at the White House for the President 's Task Force on Childhood Obesity . The New York Daily News wrote in an article , " Wittenberg is emphatic in her conviction that her job isn 't just to put on top pro races , but to cultivate healthy living and be a force for good in the community . " The many programs , events and races that the NYRR administers draws more than 300 @,@ 000 yearly participants .
= = = In the media = = =
NYRR has received some attention for the high entry and application fees for the New York City Marathon . In 2009 , the entry fee was raised , for both NYRR members and non @-@ members , making it most expensive premium marathon in the United States . Also , there have been complaints about a non @-@ refundable fee for those who merely apply to gain entry to the race . Wittenberg said that the application fee is necessary due to the weak economy and to ensure commitment from those applying .
After both the Men 's and Women 's 2012 Olympic Trials were awarded to Houston , Wittenberg expressed surprise and frustration with the USATF 's process of picking a host city .
= = = Reception = = =
Wittenberg has received notable praise for her work at NYRR . Deena Kastor , an American record holder and Olympic Bronze medalist in the Marathon , said of Wittenberg : " In a very short amount of time , she has made so many positive changes in this sport " . Shalane Flanagan , also an American record holder and an Olympic Bronze Medalist in the 10 @,@ 000 m , commented " What Phil Knight is to Nike , Mary is to distance running . " Olympic Sportswriter Philip Hersh was so impressed with Wittenberg 's work with NYRR , he suggested that she be named CEO of USA Track and Field .
= = Personal life = =
NYRR holds over fifty races yearly , and though no longer a marathoner , Wittenberg participates in several of these races . In 2006 she competed in 18 races , and in 2007 , she ran 20 . Despite her busy schedule , she often runs and cross @-@ trains in Central Park , and starts the day of the New York Marathon with a pre @-@ dawn run .
Wittenberg lives in the Upper East Side of New York City , and is married with two sons . Her family attends St. Ignatius Loyola .
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= Saints Row IV =
Saints Row IV is an open world action @-@ adventure video game in the Saints Row series developed by Volition and published by Deep Silver . The player @-@ character is the leader of the 3rd Street Saints , a street gang that has become the world 's most powerful and popular organization , and must fend off an alien invasion after becoming President of the United States and receiving superpowers . The player is free to explore their environment while completing main and side missions at their leisure . The game incorporates elements from science fiction video games and films , and continues the series ' reputation for over @-@ the @-@ top parody . It was released on August 20 , 2013 , for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 , and was later ported to PlayStation 4 , Xbox One , and Linux in 2015 .
The game was Volition 's first after its sale to Koch Media in early 2013 . The supernatural and superpower concept for the game started in Enter the Dominatrix , a cancelled expansion planned for Saints Row : The Third , which the team expanded into Saints Row IV . Volition later released a " director 's cut " of Enter the Dominatrix as downloadable content for Saints Row IV alongside How the Saints Saved Christmas , other weapons , costumes , and vehicle packs , and a standalone expansion , Saints Row : Gat out of Hell ( which serves as the epilogue to the story ) . Saints Row IV received several limited and summative edition releases , and was briefly banned in Australia .
Reviewers praised Saints Row IV 's humor and character customization options , but criticized its lack of challenge . It sold over one million copies in its first week , though cumulative sales figures have not been released .
= = Gameplay = =
Similar to previous Saints Row series games , Saints Row IV is an open world action game with third @-@ person shooter elements wherein the player is free to explore the environment and , at their leisure , play story or side missions . As the leader of the Saints , a street gang that has become the world 's most " powerful and popular " organization , the player is elected President of the United States , receives superpowers , and fends off an alien invasion . Most often the player will engage in shooting and racing activities , though other activities vary from fighting crowds of zombies , shoot @-@ outs in tanks , side @-@ scrolling brawlers , fights against supersized , daikaiju energy drink cans , and using a dubstep gun to interrupt 1950s Americana . The player @-@ character receives elemental powers and superpowers that greatly increase their jump height and running speed , such that the player can hop over buildings and outrun vehicles . The elemental powers include abilities to shoot fire and ice projectiles , telekinetically toss things , and create shockwaves upon landing jumps . As the player progresses through the game , they can optionally upgrade their abilities and weapons skill tree by using collectible " data clusters " scattered around town . If the player becomes too rowdy , the alien race 's police analogue will intervene . As in previous games , the player @-@ character 's look and feel is entirely customizable via a robust character editor feature .
The game is set in a nearly identical simulation of Steelport , the fictional city setting from Saints Row : The Third , though individual story missions have new , custom @-@ designed levels . Saints Row IV 's story parodies science fiction video games , especially Mass Effect 2 , as well as films like The Matrix and Zero Dark Thirty , and other " nerd culture " . Some story missions are propelled by individual characters ' existential crises , as each Saint character is stuck in a personal simulation of their own hell , and must be rescued by the player . Other elements borrowed from video game culture include BioWare @-@ style character romances games and a Metal Gear @-@ style mission with an unhelpful partner .
City districts are " liberated " from alien occupation as the player completes side missions in occupied districts . Liberated districts increase the player 's hourly income , which can be spent on weapons , skills , and perks . Side missions include Insurance Fraud ( where the player jumps into traffic to collect insurance money ) , demolition derby @-@ style Mayhem , and superpowered foot races . Saints Row IV has a two @-@ player cooperative mode .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Plot = = =
Shortly after the events of Saints Row : The Third , The Boss , Shaundi and Pierce Washington are called upon to assist MI @-@ 6 agent Asha Odekar and her contact , reformed former Deckers leader Matt Miller , in infiltrating a Middle Eastern compound to assassinate former STAG leader Cyrus Temple and prevent a nuclear missile strike against Washington D.C. The Boss kills Cyrus , but is unable to stop him from launching the missile . Climbing aboard it , the Boss disarms the nuke before it reaches Washington , earning the adoration of America .
Five years later , The Boss has been elected President of the United States , with the other members of the Saints , Keith David and former Vice Kings leader Benjamin King acting as cabinet . While preparing for a press conference , the Boss is told that Asha and Matt have arrived at the White House to warn them of what they suspect is an impending alien invasion . Just as the Boss is informed , the invasion begins , spearheaded by the alien warlord Zinyak , who captures the Boss and all of the cabinet members .
The Boss wakes up in a 1950s sitcom set in the city of Steelport , devoid of violence and foul language . The Saints ' computer hacking specialist , Kinzie Kensington , contacts the Boss and informs them that they are trapped inside a simulation , with each of the Zin 's prisoners trapped inside personal simulations of their own fears in order to break their will . With Kinzie 's help , the Boss breaks free of the simulation and joins Kinzie and Keith in a stolen Zin ship .
While the trio attempt to contact reinforcements from Earth , Zinyak atomizes the planet , killing everyone not already captured by the Zin . Determined to get revenge for Earth , the Boss returns to the Steelport simulation to find their friends and reach Zinyak . After rescuing another prisoner of Zinyak , an artificial intelligence later named CID , and providing him with a physical body , the Boss , with his help , goes into the other Saint 's simulations and rescues them from their nightmares .
As the simulation begins to weaken under the Saints ' influence , Zinyak floods virtual Steelport with copies of gang members the Boss has faced in the past . Kinzie determines that the copies are being made from someone 's memory , leading the Boss to conclude Johnny Gat is still alive and trapped within the simulation . Despite protests from Kinzie and Matt that rescuing Johnny will reveal their location to Zinyak , the Boss rescues Johnny from his nightmare of Aisha 's death and gets him back to the ship . Johnny explains that during the fight in which he was presumed killed , he was actually abducted by Zinyak years in advance of their invasion , as Zinyak had concluded that Johnny could have single @-@ handedly stopped him if left on Earth .
The Saints rally inside the simulation in order to confront Zinyak , but are ambushed by an enormous Zin force . They escape , but Kinzie is captured by Zinyak and the Boss emerges from the simulation to find that Keith betrayed the Saints and fled . Returning to Steelport , the Boss finds Keith has been declared president of the simulation . When confronted , Keith claims that Zinyak has the means to restore Earth , and has agreed to do so in exchange for the Boss ' life . However , Keith is ultimately unable to bring himself to kill the Boss , and rejoins the Saints . The Boss , determined to find Kinzie , pursues Keith into his nightmare , and with help from Roddy Piper , beats Keith up until he barely manages to tell them where Kinzie has been taken to .
After the Boss rescues Kinzie from her nightmare , she devises a plan to crash the simulation , which will force the Zin to draw power from their ship to keep it running , thus weakening the ship itself and creating an opening for the Saints to enter . Working together , the remaining Saints manage to overload the simulation , shutting it down just as the Boss escapes . Assaulting Zinyak 's ship , the Boss finds power armor emulating the powers they had in the simulation , and confronts Zinyak in his throne room . While the entire Zin Empire watches , Zinyak and the Boss battle each other . With help from the Saints , the Boss kills Zinyak by tearing his head off and emerges victorious . Impressed , the Zin forces surrender to the Boss , who becomes the new head of the Zin Empire .
The Boss asks Zinjai , Zinyak 's main servant , for technology to bring Earth back . Zinjai says they cannot restore Earth , but can use time @-@ travel technology to return to Earth , explaining that Zinyak had used this technology to collect his favorite historical figures , keeping them in suspended animation . The Boss looks at the Saints and says , " Let 's go on a field trip . " In a post @-@ credits scene , the nineteenth century writer Jane Austen , whom the Boss is a fan of , is woken out of her stasis , revealing that she had been the narrator throughout the game .
If all of the loyalty missions have not been completed , an alternate ending out plays out , which sees the Saints make plans to take over more planets , unaware of their ability to use the technology .
= = = Characters = = =
A number of characters from earlier games in the franchise - both members of the Third Street Saints and former adversaries - make a return in Saints Row IV , many of whom take up the protagonist 's Presidential administration . Kinzie Kensington , the socially awkward FBI hacker from Saints Row : The Third becomes the White House 's press secretary , often tasked with clearing up the mess left behind by the President 's verbal missteps . Benjamin King , former leader of the Vice Kings gang from the original Saints Row , becomes the President 's Chief of Staff , while Pierce Washington has been appointed the Communications Director and Shaundi as the Director of the Secret Service .
Matt Miller , having abandoned the Deckers and , according to news broadcasts in Saints Row : The Third , announced an abstinence from the use of technology , presumably returned to the United Kingdom and became employed by MI @-@ 6 alongside new character Asha Odekar . Johnny Gat also returns after being thought dead in Saints Row : The Third . Stilwater , the location of the first two games , makes an appearance for one mission with most of the street gangs from the first three games making appearances as well .
= = Development = =
Saints Row : The Third Enter the Dominatrix was first announced as a 2012 April Fool 's joke , but went into development . The expansion pack 's basic concept included a superpowered player @-@ character trapped by alien commander Zinyak in a simulation of Steelport . THQ president Jason Rubin encouraged company subsidiary and Saints Row series developer Volition to grow elements from the expansion into a full game . The company announced this change in direction in June 2012 , and postponed Enter the Dominatrix into downloadable content for the full sequel , Saints Row IV . The company 's strategy was partly to avoid sales issues by releasing the game in August 2013 , prior to the circulation of rumors about next generation video game consoles . Volition was sold to Koch Media in early 2013 when its parent company , THQ , filed for bankruptcy . It became Koch 's first internal video game studio . The studio officially announced Saints Row IV two months later , which was published by Koch Media brand Deep Silver . Acquired without rights to their Red Faction series , Volition 's new goals were to make connected , open world games where " the player is an agent of mayhem " . The entire company worked on the one game .
Each of the Saints Row series games had a core intent , and while the first three games built on the first 's " outlandishness and irreverence " , the fourth focused on " the supernatural and superpowers " . Senior producer Jim Boone recalled reviewers that asked whether the company could be " more over @-@ the @-@ top " than Saints Row : The Third , which they took as a challenge . The team focused more on making the game " fun " than " for the sake of being over the top " , and felt that superpowers helped the game 's basic navigation and combat . They also chose to remove the previous game 's in @-@ game mobile phone @-@ based navigation , which hindered its narration , and replaced it with a " quest log structure " . The team chose not to devote as much time improving the game 's graphics , considering the impending release of next generation platforms . The game spent less time in development than prior series games .
In August 2014 , Volition announced that they would be releasing a development kit for the Windows version of the game , which lets players modify game assets and create new weapons .
The in @-@ game radio has seven pre @-@ programmed radio stations and 109 licensed tracks . The game 's original soundtrack is composed by Malcolm Kirby Jr . , who also composed the previous game 's soundtrack .
= = = Release and downloadable content = = =
Saints Row IV was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 in North America on August 20 , 2013 , and worldwide on three days later . Preorders included a patriot @-@ themed downloadable content pack that included flamethrower , dubstep , and rocket launcher weapons , a bald eagle jet , and an Uncle Sam outfit . A limited edition release of the game included a replica of the game 's dubstep gun , a doomsday button , and Johnny Gat statuette . Another limited edition release , the Game of the Generation Edition , included the previous items as well as a display case for the game . The game was originally refused ratings classification and effectively banned in Australia , but was later accepted when modified to remove an optional mission that involved an anal probe weapon and incentivized drug use . The country 's PlayStation 4 release was later recalled due to a classification error .
The game received multiple downloadable content packs . A Season Pass , which features two new mission packs and the aforementioned anal probe weapon , was announced prior to the game 's release . The first mission pack , Enter the Dominatrix , was released October 22 , 2013 . The pack was originally intended as a mission pack for Saints Row : The Third but evolved into the full sequel , Saints Row IV . The leftover content became the sequel 's first mission pack . It tells an alternative story about the Zin invasion wherein the Steelport simulation is hijacked by a rogue artificial intelligence called the Dominatrix . The pack 's storytelling frequently breaks the fourth wall and self @-@ referentially acknowledges its own plot holes and incongruence with the larger Saints Row story . Some scenes end in concept art or videos of Volition employees acting out the drama so as to give the game an unfinished feel . The pack also casts characters from Saints Row : The Third who did not return in the sequel . There are five missions in total , new weapons , vehicles , and computer @-@ controlled support characters ( " homies " ) . The second and final mission pack , How the Saints Save Christmas , features new weapons and vehicles and a plot to save Santa Claus from the Steelport simulation . It was released in December 2013 . Non @-@ mission downloadable content packs include new costumes , vehicles , and weapons , e.g. , face masks of United States Presidents George Washington , Abraham Lincoln , George W. Bush , and Barack Obama .
Saints Row IV was released in several summative editions . The Game of the Century edition included 20 downloadable content sets and was released May 9 , 2014 . The National Treasure Edition included 29 downloadable content sets and was released on July 8 , 2014 . High Voltage Software ported the game to PlayStation 4 and Xbox One with all of its downloadable content as Saints Row IV : Re @-@ Elected . It was announced in late August 2014 alongside Saints Row : Gat Out of Hell , a standalone Saints Row IV expansion developed by Volition in conjunction with High Voltage . Both were released in North America on January 20 , 2015 , and worldwide three days later , both separately and bundled together . The release included new features such as voice commands . A Linux port was presented in December 2015 .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally positive " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised its over @-@ the @-@ top humor and character customization options , and criticized its lack of challenge . Several also commented on its " even @-@ handed treatment " of gender , particularly female characters , and spotlighted hacker and former FBI agent Kinzie Kensington 's character performance . Saints Row IV sold over one million copies in its first week , and as of 2013 , Volition has not released total sales figures .
Polygon 's Danielle Riendeau described Saints Row IV as " big , goofy , and self @-@ referential fun " and thought that the game accomplished what it set out to be : " an outrageous exercise in player power fantasy " . She also praised the game 's degree of freedom around character identity , its " dumb and lovable " narrative , and its transitions between varied sequences . Riendeau wrote that Volition " trimmed the fat " from previous games , and that their addition of superpowers " blew the constraints off a genre already known for player freedom " . She considered the story funny and " as obvious as can be " , but found its characters " well @-@ realized " . Riendeau particularly praised the game 's " treatment of gender " — bold female characters who could pursue same @-@ sex relationships or even switch their gender mid @-@ game , and were not treated differently for being female — but found the game 's continued association between women and sex workers " problematic " and a " vestige from the series ' roots as a juvenile crime drama " .
Reflecting on the series ' progression , Eurogamer 's Chris Schilling said that Saints Row IV successfully reinvented the series yet again , with superpowers replacing the usefulness of in @-@ game vehicles . He compared the game 's exploration mechanics to that of Crackdown , and its superpowers to the Infamous and Prototype series , and added that the game 's silliness fulfilled a specific niche in gaming . Schilling wrote that the need to restock at ammo shops was a " jarring holdover " from the previous games , but appreciated the recurrence of elements such as the GPS navigation system , side mission gameplay , and city district liberation . He regarded the game overall as artful but " gloriously dumb " , like " the Sistine Chapel ceiling of stupidity " . Schilling also commented on how he felt an urge to simply forgo the story to search for collectibles , though despite these options , the game became " wearying " over long play sessions .
Similarly , Dan Stapleton of IGN became bored when his superhero protagonist had little " to overcome " , and ultimately likened the game to " enabling god @-@ like cheat codes " in its predecessor . He wrote that it was very difficult to die , given the large amount of power @-@ ups dropped by enemies , and that the otherwise praiseworthy features from Saints Row : The Third felt " vestigial " when outmoded by superpowers . Stapleton said the player received the powers too early , which let the player play without caring about the city , and thus removed the " sense of place and character it had in the previous game " . He considered the game 's large number of collectibles an acknowledgement of this hole , which while originally rewarding , quickly becomes a " chore " . Stapleton praised the Red Faction @-@ style Disintegrator and Abductor guns , though considered the dubstep gun an " ineffective disappointment " . As a symbol , though , Polygon described the dubstep gun as " iconic " of Saints Row IV .
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= Italian ironclad Palestro =
Palestro was an ironclad warship , the second and final member of the Principe Amedeo class , built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1860s and 1870s . She was armed with a battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns and one 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun . The last sail @-@ rigged ironclad of the Italian fleet , she had a single steam engine that was capable of propelling the ship at a speed of slightly over 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
Obsolescent before she entered service , Palestro had an uneventful career . She served primarily in Italy 's colonial empire and did not see action . In 1880 , she took part in an international naval demonstration off Ragusa to enforce the Treaty of Berlin . Palestro was employed in the defense of La Maddalena from 1889 to 1894 , and thereafter as a training ship . She was stricken from the naval register in 1900 and broken up for scrap in 1902 – 1904 .
= = Design = =
Palestro was 78 @.@ 82 meters ( 258 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 17 @.@ 3 m ( 57 ft ) and an average draft of 8 m ( 26 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 761 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 670 long tons ; 6 @,@ 350 short tons ) normally and up to 6 @,@ 318 t ( 6 @,@ 218 long tons ; 6 @,@ 964 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 85 knots ( 23 @.@ 80 km / h ; 14 @.@ 79 mph ) at 6 @,@ 117 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 561 kW ) . She could steam for 1 @,@ 780 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 050 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was barque @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine ; Palestro and her sister were the last rigged ironclads to be built by Italy . She had a crew of 548 officers and men .
Palestro was armed with a main battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , mounted in three armored casemates . The first was located forward , toward the bow , the second and third were placed close to the stern on each side of the ship . A 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun was mounted forward as a bow chaser . Palestro was protected by iron belt armor that was 8 @.@ 7 in ( 221 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull . The casemates were protected with 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) of iron plating , and the small conning tower had 2 @.@ 4 in ( 61 mm ) thick iron plates .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Palestro was laid down at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard in August 1865 . The ship was named for the gunboat Palestro , which had been sunk at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 . The date of her launch is unknown , though surviving records indicate either 30 September or 2 October 1871 . The ship was completed on 11 July 1875 , after almost a decade of work . Obsolescent by the time she was completed , Palestro primarily served in the Italian colonial empire , which Italy had begun acquiring in the 1880s . She occasionally took part in training maneuvers with the main Italian fleet throughout her career .
In November 1880 , Palestro and the ironclad Roma took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . Palestro was used as a headquarters ship for the ships defending La Maddalena from 1889 to 1894 . She was then used as a training ship for coxswains . The ship was stricken from the naval register on 14 April 1900 and broken up for scrap between 1902 and 1904 .
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= Ohio State Route 605 =
State Route 605 ( SR 605 ) is a 9 @.@ 38 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 15 @.@ 10 km ) north – south state highway in central Ohio . The southern terminus of SR 605 is at a signalized intersection with U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the northeastern Columbus suburb of New Albany . Its northern terminus is also at SR 37 , a signalized intersection approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Sunbury . The route was designated in 1937 , and the northern terminus was moved in 1994 .
= = Route description = =
SR 605 runs through the northeastern corner of Franklin County and the southeastern portion of Delaware County . 5 @,@ 470 vehicles travel the road on average daily near the southern terminus , and 3 @,@ 840 near the northern terminus . It starts at a signalized intersection with US 62 in downtown New Albany . The route quickly leaves downtown New Albany and heads northward . SR 605 soon crosses over SR 161 using a bridge , and intersects Walton Parkway . Here , houses slowly transition to farmland . The road then intersects Bevelheimer Road and crosses into Delaware County , in the middle of large fields . A few miles into Delaware County , SR 605 crosses Center Village Road in the unincorporated village of Center Village . Soon after , SR 605 ends at the signalized intersection of SR 37 and continues as County Road 605 .
= = History = =
A road from New Albany to north of Center Village first appeared on maps in 1924 . In 1929 , the road was extended to connect to Condit . SR 605 was designated in 1937 , following the alignment from US 62 , to a junction with the US 36 / SR 3 concurrency in Condit . By 1994 , jurisdiction of the portion of SR 605 between SR 37 and the US 36 / SR 3 concurrency was transferred from the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) to Delaware County , who renamed the road to County Road 605 . As a result of this move , SR 605 took on the routing that it does today .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Beatty , Nevada =
Beatty ( pronounced BAY @-@ dee ) is an unincorporated community and a census @-@ designated place ( CDP ) along the Amargosa River in Nye County in the U.S. state of Nevada . U.S. Route 95 runs through the CDP , which lies between Tonopah , about 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the north , and Las Vegas , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) to the southeast . State Route 374 connects Beatty to Death Valley National Park , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the west .
Before the arrival of non @-@ indigenous people in the 19th century , the region was home to groups of Western Shoshone . Established in 1905 , the community was named after Montillus ( Montillion ) Murray " Old Man " Beatty , who settled on a ranch in the Oasis Valley in 1896 and became Beatty 's first postmaster . With the arrival of the Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad in 1905 , the CDP became a railway center for the Bullfrog Mining District , including mining towns such as nearby Rhyolite . Starting in the 1940s , Nellis Air Force Base and other federal installations contributed to the town 's economy as did tourism related to Death Valley National Park and the rise of Las Vegas as an entertainment center .
Beatty is home to the Beatty Museum and Historical Society and to businesses catering to tourist travel . The ghost town of Rhyolite and the Goldwell Open Air Museum ( a sculpture park ) , are both about 4 miles ( 6 km ) to the west , and Yucca Mountain and the Nevada Test Site are about 18 miles ( 29 km ) to the east .
= = History = =
Before the arrival of non @-@ indigenous explorers , prospectors , and settlers , Western Shoshone in the Beatty area hunted game and gathered wild plants in the region . It is estimated that the 19th @-@ century population density of the Indians near Beatty was one person per 44 square miles ( 110 km2 ) . By the middle of the century , European diseases had greatly reduced the Indian population , and incursions by newcomers had disrupted the native traditions . In about 1875 , the Shoshone had six camps , with a total population of 29 , along the Amargosa River near Beatty . Some of the survivors and their descendants continued to live in or near Beatty , while others moved to reservations at Walker Lake , Reese River , Duckwater , or elsewhere .
Beatty is named after " Old Man " Montillus ( Montillion ) Murray Beatty , a Civil War veteran and miner who bought a ranch along the Amargosa River just north of the future community and became its first postmaster in 1905 . The community was laid out in 1904 or 1905 after Ernest Alexander " Bob " Montgomery , owner of the Montgomery Shoshone Mine near Rhyolite , decided to build the Montgomery Hotel in Beatty . Montgomery was drawn to the area , known as the Bullfrog Mining District , because of a gold rush that began in 1904 in the Bullfrog Hills west of Beatty .
During Beatty 's first year , wagons pulled by teams of horses or mules hauled freight between the Bullfrog district ( that included the towns of Rhyolite , Bullfrog , Gold Center , Transvaal , and Springdale ) and the nearest railroad , in Las Vegas , and by the middle of 1905 , about 1 @,@ 500 horses were engaged in this business . In October 1906 , the Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad ( LV & T ) began regular service to Beatty ; in April 1907 , the Bullfrog Goldfield Railroad ( BG ) reached the community , and the Tonopah and Tidewater ( T & T ) line added a third railroad in October 1907 . The LV & T ceased operations in 1918 , the BG in 1928 , and the T & T in 1940 . Until the railroads abandoned their lines , Beatty served as the railhead for many mines in the area , including a fluorspar mine on Bare Mountain , to the east .
Beatty 's first newspaper was the Beatty Bullfrog Miner , which began publishing in 1905 and went out of business in 1909 . The Rhyolite Herald was the region 's most important paper , starting in 1905 and reaching a circulation of 10 @,@ 000 by 1909 . It ceased publication in 1912 , and the Beatty area had no newspaper from then until 1947 . The Beatty Bulletin , a supplement to the Goldfield News , was published from then through 1956 .
Beatty 's population grew slowly in the first half of the 20th century , rising from 169 in 1929 to 485 in 1950 . The first reliable electric company in the community , Amargosa Power Company , began supplying electricity in about 1940 . Phone service arrived during World War II , and the CDP installed a community @-@ wide sewer system in the 1970s . When a new mine opened west of Beatty in 1988 , the population briefly surged from about 1 @,@ 000 to between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 by the end of 1990 . Since the mine 's closing in 1998 , the population has fallen again to near its former level .
= = Geography and climate = =
Beatty lies along U.S. Route 95 between Tonopah , about 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the north , and Las Vegas , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) to the southeast . State Route 374 connects Beatty to Death Valley National Park , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the west . Yucca Mountain and the Nevada Test Site are about 18 miles ( 29 km ) to the east . The most densely populated part of the CDP is at 36 ° 54 ′ 34 ″ N 116 ° 45 ′ 16 ″ W ( 36 @.@ 909337 , − 116 @.@ 754531 ) , although the CDP extends well beyond this urban center . According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 175 @.@ 6 square miles ( 455 km2 ) , all land . The most populated area lies at 3 @,@ 307 feet ( 1 @,@ 008 m ) above sea level between Beatty Mountain and Bare Mountain to the east and the Bullfrog Hills to the west . The Amargosa River , an intermittent river that ends in Death Valley , flows on the surface through part of the CDP but has not been counted as water in the Census Bureau statistics .
Nevada 's main climatic features are bright sunshine , low annual precipitation , heavy snowfall in the higher mountains , clean , dry air , and large daily temperature ranges . Strong surface heating occurs by day and rapid cooling by night , and usually even the hottest days have cool nights . The average percentage of possible sunshine in southern Nevada is more than 80 percent . Sunshine and low humidity in this region account for an average evaporation , as measured in evaporation pans , of more than 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 500 mm ) of water a year .
Beatty receives only 5 @.@ 71 inches ( 145 mm ) of precipitation a year . Precipitation of at least .01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) falls on an average of 21 days annually . The wettest year was 1941 with 11 @.@ 89 in ( 302 mm ) and driest year was 1953 with 0 @.@ 69 in ( 18 mm ) . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 41 @.@ 1 ° F ( 5 @.@ 1 ° C ) in December to 80 @.@ 2 ° F ( 26 @.@ 8 ° C ) in July . On average , there are 26 days of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) + highs , 97 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + , and 38 days where the high remains at or below 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) ; the average window for freezing temperatures is November 2 to April 6 . Snow is uncommon and measurable ( ≥ 0 @.@ 1 in or 0 @.@ 25 cm ) amounts occur in less than 60 % of seasons . The highest recorded temperature was 115 ° F ( 46 ° C ) on June 11 , 1961 , and the lowest was 1 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) on February 2 , 1933 .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 1 @,@ 154 people , 535 households , and 270 families residing in the CDP . The population density was 6 @.@ 6 people per square mile ( 2 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . There were 740 housing units at an average density of 4 @.@ 2 per square mile ( 1 @.@ 6 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the CDP was 90 @.@ 9 % White , 0 @.@ 1 % African American , 1 @.@ 5 % Native American , 1 @.@ 2 % Asian , 3 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8 @.@ 9 % of the population . There were 535 households out of which 26 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 39 @.@ 8 % were married couples living together , 6 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 49 @.@ 5 % were non @-@ families . 43 @.@ 4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 15 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 16 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 04 . In the CDP the population was spread out with 26 @.@ 1 % under the age of 18 , 5 @.@ 6 % from 18 to 24 , 24 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 , 29 @.@ 5 % from 45 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 0 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 40 years . For every 100 females there were 119 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 121 @.@ 6 males . The median income for a household in the CDP was $ 41 @,@ 250 , and the median income for a family was $ 52 @,@ 639 . Males had a median income of $ 44 @,@ 438 versus $ 25 @,@ 962 for females . The per capita income for the CDP was $ 16 @,@ 971 . About 10 @.@ 4 % of families and 13 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 7 @.@ 1 % of those under age 18 and 19 @.@ 6 % of those age 65 or over . As of the 2010 census , 1 @,@ 010 people lived in Beatty .
= = Government = =
Under the terms of the Unincorporated Town Government Law of Nevada , Beatty is governed by the Nye County Commission assisted by a local board acting as a liaison between the citizens of Beatty and the commissioners . The Beatty Town Advisory Board consists of five elected members who meet twice a month at the Beatty Community Center . The Beatty General Improvement District manages the community 's parks , swimming pool , putting course , and other recreational grounds .
Andrew Borasky , Lorinda Wichman , Frank Carbone , Donna Cox , and Dan Schinhofen are the county commissioners in 2015 . Among the many county departments are administration , works and roads , building and code compliance , sheriff , animal control , planning , property assessment , the Fifth Judicial District Court , health and human services , senior centers including the Beatty Senior Center , and lower courts including the Beatty Justice Court . The Nye County Sheriff 's Office has a substation in Beatty . Among other things , the office handles dispatch for the Beatty Volunteer Fire Department , which provides firefighting and ambulance services .
James Oscarson , a Republican , represents Beatty and the rest of District 36 in the Nevada Assembly . In the Nevada Senate , Beatty , as part of District 19 , is represented by Pete Goicoechea , a Republican .
Mark Amodei , a Republican , represents Beatty and the rest of Nevada 's Second Congressional District in the United States House of Representatives . His term runs through January 2015 . Harry Reid , a Democrat , and Dean Heller , a Republican , represent Nevada in the United States Senate . Reid 's term runs through January 2017 and Heller 's through January 2019 .
= = Economy = =
Early businesses in Beatty included the Montgomery Hotel , built by a mine owner in 1905 , and freight businesses first centered on horse @-@ drawn wagons and later on railroads serving the mining towns in the Bullfrog district . Beatty became the economic center for a large sparsely populated region . Aside from mining , other activities sustaining the community during the 1920s and 1930s included retail sales , gas and oil distribution , construction of Scotty 's Castle , and the production and sale of illegal alcohol during Prohibition .
Nevada 's legalization of gambling in 1931 , the establishment of Death Valley National Monument in 1933 , and the rise of Las Vegas as an entertainment center , brought visitors to Beatty , which became increasingly tourist @-@ oriented .
As underground mining declined in the region , federal defense spending , starting with the Nellis Air Force Range in 1940 and the Nevada Test Site in 1950 , also contributed to the local economy . However , in 1988 , an open @-@ pit mine and mill began operations about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of Beatty along State Route 374 . Barrick Gold acquired the mine in 1994 and continued to extract and process ore at what became known as the Barrick Bullfrog Mine . At its peak , the mine employed 540 workers , many of whom lived in Beatty . The mine closed in 1998 .
In 2004 , the federal Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) named the closed Barrick Bullfrog mine site as one of six slated for pilot reclamation projects under the national Brownfields Mine @-@ Scarred Land Initiative . A local group , the Beatty Economic Development Corporation ( BEDC ) , in discussions with the EPA , suggested solar @-@ power generation as a potential use for the site . Barrick Gold later transferred 81 acres ( 33 ha ) of its land to Beatty . In February 2009 , the New York Times published a Greenwire article suggesting that part of the economic stimulus money from the $ 787 billion American Recovery and Reinvestment Act might finance the Beatty project . " Studies show that the Beatty area has some of the best solar energy potential in the United States , as well as a high potential for wind @-@ power generation , " the Greenwire story said .
The Beatty Chamber of Commerce web site describes the community as the Gateway to Death Valley , a small rural locality that has " everything the desert visitor needs " including motels and recreational vehicle ( RV ) sites . Aside from tourism , businesses contributing to the local economy include mining , retail trade , public administration and gambling .
= = World Championship Wild Burro Race = =
From 1961 until 1972 the local Lions Club held annual burro races that were quite successful . Competitors came from all over the United States , Canada , and as far away as Iran . National attention was brought to the race when Reg Potterton wrote a feature article about the 1971 race for Playboy magazine . The story appeared in the May 1972 issue , and featured stories about the town , the contestants , and the tourists who attended . Eventually the races were discontinued after organizers decided that the visitors they attracted were not good for Beatty 's image .
= = Infrastructure and culture = =
The community is home to the Beatty Museum and Historical Society . The ghost town of Rhyolite and the Goldwell Open Air Museum , a sculpture park , are about 4 miles ( 6 km ) to the west . Bailey 's Hot Springs and bathhouses are about 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of Beatty in the Oasis Valley . In addition to highways , Beatty has a general aviation airfield , Beatty Airport , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) south of downtown . Beatty Medical Center , which opened in 1977 , provides family medicine and other services . The Beatty Library , a member of the Cooperative Libraries Automated Network , has a searchable online catalog . Beatty 's combined elementary and middle schools , serving kindergarten through eighth grade , and Beatty High School , grades 9 – 12 , are part of the Nye County School District . The Beatty Water and Sanitation District supplies drinking water from three wells to the CDP residents and treats the community 's wastewater .
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= You 're Not Sorry =
" You 're Not Sorry " is a country rock song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song was solely written by Swift and produced by Nathan Chapman with Swift 's aid . It was released on October 28 , 2008 by Big Machine Records as a promotional single from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless on iTunes , though it is no longer available . A remix version for the television episode of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation in which Swift made an appearance was later released . Swift wrote " You 're Not Sorry " , inspired by an ex @-@ boyfriend who was revealed to be opposite of what he appeared to be . The song is a power ballad with country and rock music influences .
Contemporary critics gave " You 're Not Sorry " average to favorable reviews . In North America , the song achieved commercial success . It peaked at number 11 on Canadian Hot 100 . In the United States , " You 're Not Sorry " also peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA . Swift performed the song in several venues , including on her first headlining tour , the 2009 and 2010 Fearless Tour . During the tour , Swift performed a mashup of a cover version of Justin Timberlake 's " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " and " You 're Not Sorry " .
= = Background = =
" You 're Not Sorry " was written by Swift and produced by Nathan Chapman alongside Swift . It was inspired by an ex @-@ boyfriend who was later revealed to be opposite of what Swift had originally thought . Swift recalled that , at first , " He came across as prince charming . " As the relationship continued , Swift was informed of numerous secrets about her boyfriend she was not aware of . " And one by one , I would figure them out . I would find out who he really was , " she said . She wrote " You 're Not Sorry " in an emotional state , which she described as " the breaking point " , where she thought to herself , " ' You know what ? Don ’ t even think that you can keep on hurting me . ' " The circumstances reached a point where she felt she had to walk away . " You 're Not Sorry " was first released as a promotional single from Fearless on October 28 , 2008 as part of Countdown to Fearless , an exclusive campaign by the iTunes Store . The song was reissued on March 5 , 2009 , as remix , the same day she made her guest appearance on the television series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation in the episode " Turn , Turn , Turn " . The remix was featured in the episode .
= = Composition = =
" You 're Not Sorry " is a country rock song with a length lasting four minutes and 21 seconds . Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times felt the track was an old @-@ fashioned power ballad , rather than country . Jordan Levin of The Miami Herald agreed and described its genre as a " rebellious rock tune . " The song is set in common time and has a slow tempo of 67 @.@ 5 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E ♭ minor and Swift 's vocals span two octaves , from G ♭ 3 to C ♭ 4 . The musical arrangement contains a prominent hook during its chorus , according to Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine . " You 're Not Sorry " commences with piano and , mid @-@ song , progresses toward backing electric guitars , which eventually reach a solo . Martens believed Swift 's vocals were not the strongest because the existence of the electric guitar solo was meant to prevent too many high notes . It follows the chord progression E ♭ m – C ♭ – G ♭ – D ♭ . Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine noted the lyrics to " You 're Not Sorry " had many " tingling pheromones " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You 're Not Sorry " received moderately positive reviews from critics . Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine received " You 're Not Sorry " negatively and used the word " drippy " to describe it . Sheffield added that , in the song , by comparison , " she reminds you what a smart job she normally does of keeping the tempo jumping . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine believed " You 're Not Sorry " was one of the songs on Fearless that expanded on the success of Swift 's eponymous debut album , Taylor Swift ( 2006 ) , because of how prominently its hook stands out . Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter said " You 're Not Sorry " was ostentatious in regards to Swift 's crossover potential . Nick Catucci of New York magazine read an article posted in The New York Times , which stated Swift " quickly established herself as the most remarkable country music breakthrough artist of the decade " , and opted his own opinion , based on the song . Catucci said , " And indeed , we think we got a little fairy dust in our eyes listening to ' You 're Not Sorry ' [ ... It ] isn 't the stuff of redneck women but earnest suburban princesses , " despite that he had listened to better songs in the past decade . Scott Mervis of The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette compared " You 're Not Sorry " to a " chanteuse a la Tori Amos " .
= = Chart performance = =
As it was not released as a double @-@ single , " You 're Not Sorry " did not receive airplay , thus its chart appearances consisted mainly of digital downloads . The song entered Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart at number two , which led to an appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 15 , 2008 . " You 're Not Sorry " debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the week 's top debut and narrowly missing Swift 's top ten debut of 2008 . In the succeeding week , the song descended to number 35 and then fell off the chart . Upon the release of the CSI remix , it re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 67 . " You 're Not Sorry " is one of 13 songs from Fearless charted within the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top 40 entries from a single album . " You 're Not Sorry " spent a total of five weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 . Also in the United States , " You 're Not Sorry " peaked at number 21 on the now @-@ defunct Pop 100 Chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for the shipment of 500 @,@ 000 units . The song debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Canadian Hot 100 . As of December 2011 , " You 're Not Sorry " has sold 653 @,@ 000 copies in the USA .
= = Live performances = =
Swift performed " You 're Not Sorry " on all venues of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour , which extended from April 2009 to June 2010 . During each performance , Swift donned a black cocktail dress with sparkly ornaments along the stomach . She begun the performance by sitting on a bench , playing black grand piano . Midway through " You 're Not Sorry " , Swift ceases playing the piano and commences to sing a cover version of Justin Timberlake 's " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " while whipping her hair , maintaining on the bench . Throughout the remainder of the performance , she intermingled between the two songs as smoke swirled and lightning was projected on the stage . Jon Pareles of The New York Times referred to the performance as one of the night 's highlights at the August 27 , 2009 , concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Reed Fischer of Miami New Times attended the March 7 , 2010 , concert at BankAtlantic Center in Sunrise , Florida and , of the cover of " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " , said , " That , and some extended beating on an oil drum sculpture , made for the only unsavory moments of the night . " Alice Fisher of the United Kingdom magazine The Observer believed the performance at the May 7 , 2009 , concert at Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London , England " was undermined by the way Swift writhed on her stool and awkwardly thumped the piano lid in one of the most unconvincing displays of passion I 've seen since Footballers ' Wives finished . " Swift also performed the song at an exclusive performance , hosted by 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM , the 2009 Academy of Country Music Awards , and the 2009 CMA Music Festival . During her Speak Now World Tour , she used elements of " You 're Not Sorry " and " Apologize " while performing " Back To December " . She also performed the song twice on the Red Tour .
= = Track listings = =
Remix Digital Download
" You 're Not Sorry " ( CSI Remix ) – 4 : 22
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= In the Dark ( Dev song ) =
" In the Dark " is a song performed by American recording artist Dev . It was written by Dev alongside The Cataracs , who produced it for Dev 's debut studio album , The Night the Sun Came Up ( 2011 ) . The song was released as the album 's second single on April 25 , 2011 , through Universal Republic . " In the Dark " came about when Dev wanted to make a sexy song to show that she is a grown woman . She collaborated with American rapper Flo Rida on an official remix as she believed she would enjoy the remix when hearing it on the radio . " In the Dark " is a dance @-@ pop song with a saxophone hook and influences of Eurodance , Latin and jazz music . The lyrics emphasize sex drives and letting the sensation of touch fully take over from sight .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who highlighted its production and the saxophone line . However , critics were divided regarding the song 's lyrical content ; some referred it to as sexy , while others dismissed its metaphors . " In the Dark " enjoyed commercial success in the United States , peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the summit of Hot Dance Club Songs . The song achieved its highest national peak in Slovakia , where it reached number one . Elsewhere , the song peaked in the top forty in Canada , Australia , Denmark , Ireland , Scotland and the United Kingdom . The song 's music video features shots of black @-@ painted hands that touch Dev while she is standing naked . According to Dev , the inspiration behind the video was to reflect the sexy and dark aspects of the song , and the initial idea was to create a Tim Burton @-@ inspired feel .
= = Background = =
" In the Dark " was written by Dev alongside The Cataracs , a group that consists of Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar and David Singer @-@ Vine , who also produced the track . Dev described the song as " very flavorful " and " hot " . In an interview with music blog Idolator , she talked in @-@ depth about the conception of the song , stating , " The idea behind ' In The Dark ' was for me to make a sexy song . I 'm a grown woman now . I 've been working with The Cataracs for the past three years and I met them when I was kind of young and from a small town . I was like , dammit , I 'm gonna make a sexy song ! So that 's what I did . " She explained that she wanted the song to be " tasteful , yet sexual " and described it as " very sexy , but very musical at the same time " . She said , " The songs I had before , even though they were explicit to an extent , they were just fun . It was time when we just wanted to make that sort of record , and we did . It 's probably one of the sexier songs on the record , but I think it needed that ! " " In the Dark " was recorded during a session in January 2011 ; it was one of the first songs to be recorded for Dev 's debut album and it was eventually also recorded by Demi Lovato . It was later mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios in Los Angeles , California and mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound in New York City .
The song was released on April 25 , 2011 via digital download as the second single from Dev 's debut studio album , The Night the Sun Came Up . It was later sent for rhythmic airplay in the United States on May 24 , 2011 , followed by an add on mainstream radio stations on June 21 , 2011 . In the United Kingdom , " In the Dark " was released in a digital extended play ( EP ) alongside three remixes of the track as well as its music video . Rapper Flo Rida is featured on an official remix of the song , and Dev stated that she wanted to make a remix as it would be refreshing and " great for radio " . She explained that a rapper would suit the song well and that she would enjoy the remix when hearing it on the radio . She elaborated on choosing Flo Rida , saying : " We went in thinking about who would be cool on the radio and who would fit the fact that it 's kind of a flavorful song and not really a hood rap song . Flo Rida fit , and he completely killed it . " 50 Cent is featured on another remix of the track , which he recorded at Sonic Vista Studios Ibiza ( Spain ) in August 2011 , while Kanye West appears on an unofficial remix , of which Dev said : " That was just kind of something that floated onto the Internet and the airwaves , which I don 't mind at all because it sounds absolutely amazing and it 's one of my favorite remixes too . "
= = Composition = =
" In the Dark " is a dance @-@ pop song that features a house rhythm and a prominent saxophone riff that serves as the song 's instrumentation . Critics compared the riff to " Mr. Saxobeat " ( 2011 ) by Romanian singer Alexandra Stan . " In the Dark " opens with Dev 's sing @-@ talk vocal style as she sings " On my waist , through my hair / Think about it when you touch me there / Close my eyes , here you are dance @-@ dance @-@ dancing in the dark . " According to Nadine Cheung of AOL Radio , the line borrows the melody from Reel 2 Real 's " I Like to Move It " ( 1994 ) . " In the Dark " sees Dev using her singing voice more than her distinctive sing @-@ talk style . Lyrically , the song speaks of sex drives and letting sensation of touch fully taking over from sight , as Dev repeats the line , " I got a sex drive that 's push to start " . According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , " In the Dark " is written in the time signature of common time and set in a moderately fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of C minor and Dev 's vocals span from the note of A ♭ 4 to the note of B5 . It has a basic sequence of Cm – E ♭ 6 – A ♭ 5 – G5 as its chord progression .
= = Critical reception = =
" In the Dark " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Lewis Corner of British music website Digital Spy rated it four stars out of five , particularly praising the saxophone hook . Corner commented , " [ Dev ] purrs in her sensual and sultry tones , accompanied by that saxophone hook spicier than an extra @-@ hot peri peri chicken from Nandos – and , we should add , just as lip @-@ lickingly addictive . " Garyn Ganz of Rolling Stone graded the song three stars out of five and briefly commented : " Dev speak @-@ sings about her sex drive over a Nineties Latin house beat like a top @-@ shelf version of Kesha – seductive , not sleazy . "
While reviewing The Night the Sun Came Up , Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani named the song the album 's best track . He pointed out that , unlike the rest of the album , " In the Dark " avoids " too @-@ aggressive beats and chintzy synths " and instead relies on Dev 's " ooh la la " hook and the " sleek " saxophone line . Cinquemani concluded by writing that the song is " almost enough to forgive [ The Cataracs ] for ' Like a G6 ' . " Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger named " In the Dark " the " Song of the Week " and compared its saxophone line to Alexandra Stan 's " Mr. Saxobeat " , and said that while the latter is " total Euroschlock " , " In the Dark " preserves " some of the mechanized detachment " of Dev 's song " Booty Bounce " ( 2010 ) . McCall was mixed regarding " In the Dark " ' s lyrical content and called the line " do your work on me / Open up my body and do some surgery " the " grossest pillow talk " since The Black Eyed Peas ' " My Humps " . Writing for the Dallas Observer , Shahryar Rizvi was negative in his review of the song and criticized the " cheesy " saxophone sound , saying that it " serves well to show just how mediocre this song is " . LA Weekly writer Shea Serrano regarded the song as " predictable " and dismissed the metaphors , labeling them " confusing " .
= = = Recognition = = =
Music magazine Spin included " In the Dark " at number 15 on its " Favorite Pop Tracks of 2011 " list , naming it " radio gold " . The Hollywood Reporter 's music editor Shirley Halperin put it at number four on her " Top 10 Singles of 2011 " list and called it " irresistible " . Halperin went on to comment : " Spotlighting the sexiest sax solo this side of Duran Duran 's ' Rio ' and a sultry , almost Latin @-@ flavored vibe , it may or may not be an ode to masturbation , but it definitely satisfies in all the right places . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " In the Dark " made its debut at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated August 20 , 2011 , almost three months after the song 's release in April . The song steadily ascended on the chart for eight weeks before reaching its peak position of number 11 in the issue dated October 22 , 2011 . The song proved to be a bigger commercial success than Dev 's debut single , " Bass Down Low " ( 2010 ) , which reached number 61 . Additionally , " In the Dark " reached number one on two of Billboard 's component charts , Heatseekers Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs . The song also peaked at number eight on both Pop Songs and Radio Songs . On March 8 , 2012 , the single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of over one million units .
In Canada , " In the Dark " debuted at number 83 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart in the issue dated September 17 , 2011 and peaked at number 15 six weeks later on October 22 , 2011 . In Australia , the song debuted at number 64 on the singles chart , and eventually peaked at number 41 . Across Europe , " In the Dark " made its first appearance on the Tracklisten chart in Denmark on July 29 , 2011 , entering at number 36 . The following week , the song reached its peak of number 22 and was listed on the chart for five weeks before falling off . In Slovakia , " In the Dark " debuted at number 30 and peaked at the top position seven weeks later . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted and peaked at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated August 27 , 2011 . Although failing to match " Bass Down Low " ' s peak of number ten , it did give Dev her second top 40 single in the UK . In Ireland , " In the Dark " fared similarly to the UK on the Irish Singles Chart , entering and peaking at number 33 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " In the Dark " was directed by Ethan Lader . Dev enlisted Lader to make the video as he regularly makes videos for her and The Cataracs . Lader originally contacted her with ideas for the clip , and she soon replied with what she would want in the video . She said , " So we did that back and forth , which he always does with me until I get my point across . ... and then we met up and we got both of our ideas and feelings across . I wanted to be sexy and dark like the song is , in a really interesting way , and we pulled it off , I think . " The video was filmed in Los Angeles , California in late @-@ April 2011 , just before Dev joined Usher as the opening act for his OMG Tour . Dev took more control over the " In the Dark " video than previous video shoots as she used to let the director " take a little bit of control " when she was inexperienced in the process . In an interview with Idolator , Dev elaborated on the video 's concept , stating that she wanted a dark feel similar to Tim Burton 's Alice in Wonderland : " I wanted the video to be sexy as well . I wanted it to reflect all the dark aspects of the song , and initially we went in thinking that we 'd have an Alice in Wonderland / Tim Burton type of feel . "
In the video , Dev is seen in a club scene with intense dancing . The main focus is black @-@ painted hands and arms , which are prominent in several shots of Dev as she is standing naked while the hands are touching her body . Some of the hands were digitally added , but the majority of them were real , including the ones touching Dev . She explained , " The extras were amazing , they let me paint their hands and bodies , and they stacked on top of each other and did that for hours . For takes and takes and takes . " The video also includes shots of an albino ball python and a tarantula . Cory Lamz of Westword wrote a positive review of the video : " Watching ' In the Dark ' is like dancing under a strobe light on ecstasy . In a sea of hands , literally , Dev manages to tease you , seduce you and entice you . She makes you want to touch her , just like every other hand in the video . " Contessa Gayles of AOL Music referred the video to as " freaky " and " funky " , writing " Forget ' dancing in the dark , ' Dev works it in a sea of dismembered , black @-@ painted hands and arms in this freaky , funky new vid . " In contrast , Becky Bain of Idolator called it " somewhat unsettling " .
In September 2015 the video reached 60 million views on YouTube .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at The Indie @-@ Pop Sweat Shop
Personnel
Songwriting – Devin Tailes , Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar , David Singer @-@ Vine
Production – Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar
Recording – The Cataracs
Mixing – Manny Marroquin
Mastering – Tom Coyne
Credits adapted from The Night the Sun Came Up liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio add dates and release history = =
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= Arizona State Route 97 =
State Route 97 ( SR 97 ) is a 10 @.@ 91 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 17 @.@ 56 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona . It runs from U.S. Route 93 ( US 93 ) northwest of Congress northeast to SR 96 southeast of Bagdad . The road was built by the late 1930s and improved during the late 1940s . Established as a state route in 1962 , SR 97 was paved in the early 1970s . In 2000 , the highway was officially added to the State Highway system .
= = Route description = =
The route begins at an intersection with US 93 northwest of Congress and southeast of Nothing . Beginning at US 93 southbound , SR 97 crosses US 93 northbound after several feet . It crosses through a desert region in a northeasterly direction , meeting a dirt road that connects back to US 93 . SR 97 curves northward before heading eastward at an intersection with Burro Creek Road . Again turning northeastward , the roadway meets various local roads , most of them dirt . The highway meets its northern terminus at SR 96 , which continues northwestward toward Bagdad .
The highway is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , ADOT surveys volumes of traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is the number of vehicles that travel a road during an average day during the year . In 2009 , ADOT calculated that an average of only 550 vehicles used the road daily . No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System , a system of roads in the United States important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The section of the SR 97 northeast of Burro Creek Road had been built by 1939 . Between 1946 and 1951 , the section north of Burro Creek Road was improved and the section south built as a graded road . The road was logged as a state route in 1962 along its current routing , connecting SR 96 to the rest of the state highway system . The highway was then paved throughout its entirety in 1973 . In 2000 , the route was slightly realigned because of a widening project on US 93 from a two @-@ lane highway to a four @-@ lane divided highway . That same year , SR 97 officially became a State Highway .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Yavapai County .
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= Russula emetica =
Russula emetica , commonly known as the sickener , emetic russula , or vomiting russula , is a basidiomycete mushroom , and the type species of the genus Russula . It has a red , convex to flat cap up to 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter , with a cuticle that can be peeled off almost to the centre . The gills are white to pale cream , and closely spaced . A smooth white stem measures up to 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) thick . First described in 1774 , the mushroom has a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere , where it grows on the ground in damp woodlands in a mycorrhizal association with conifers , especially pine .
The mushroom 's common names refer to the gastrointestinal distress they cause when consumed raw . The flesh is extremely peppery , but this offensive taste , along with its toxicity , can be removed by parboiling or pickling . Although it used to be widely eaten in Russia and eastern European countries , it is generally not recommended for consumption . There are many similar Russula species that have a red cap with white stem and gills , some of which can be reliably distinguished from R. emetica only by microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy = =
Russula emetica was first officially described as Agaricus emeticus by Jacob Christian Schaeffer in 1774 , in his series on fungi of Bavaria and the Palatinate , Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur icones . Christian Hendrik Persoon placed it in its current genus Russula in 1796 , where it remains . According to the nomenclatural database MycoBank , Agaricus russula is a synonym of R. emetica that was published by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772 , two years earlier than Schaeffer 's description . However , this name is unavailable as Persoon 's name is sanctioned . Additional synonyms include Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck 's Amanita rubra ( 1783 ) , and Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 's subsequent new combination Agaricus ruber ( 1805 ) . The specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek emetikos / εμετικος ' emetic ' or ' vomit @-@ inducing ' . Similarly , its common names of sickener , emetic russula , and vomiting russula also refer to this attribute .
Russula emetica is the type species of the genus Russula . According to Rolf Singer 's infrageneric classification of Russula , it is also the type of the section Russula . In an alternative classification proposed by Henri Romagnesi , it is the type species of subsection Emeticinae . A molecular analysis of European Russula species determined that R. emetica groups in a clade with R. raoultii , R. betularum , and R. nana ; a later analysis confirmed the close phylogenetic relationship between R. emetica and the latter two Russulas .
= = Description = =
The sticky cap of R. emetica is 2 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) wide , with a shape ranging from convex ( in young specimens ) to flattened , sometimes with a central depression , and sometimes with a shallow umbo . It is a bright scarlet or cherry red , and in maturity , the margins have fine radial grooves extending 2 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) towards the center of the cap . The cuticle can be readily peeled from the cap almost to the centre . The brittle flesh is white ( or tinged with red directly under the cap cuticle ) , measures 4 – 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick , and has a very sharp and peppery taste . Gills are closely spaced , white to creamy @-@ white , and have an attachment to the stem ranging from adnate to adnexed or completely free . They are intervenose ( containing cross @-@ veins in the spaces between the gills ) and occasionally forked near the cap margin . Fruit bodies have a slightly fruity or spicy smell .
The white stem measures 4 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 1 in ) long by 0 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) thick , and is roughly the same width throughout its length , although it can be a bit thicker near the base . Its surface is dry and smooth , sometimes marked by faint longitudinal grooves . It is either stuffed ( filled with a cottony pith ) or partially hollow , and lacks a ring or partial veil .
Russula emetica produces a white to yellowish @-@ white spore print . Spores are roughly elliptical to egg @-@ shaped , with a strongly warted and partially reticulate ( web @-@ like ) surface . They have dimensions of 8 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 6 – 8 μm , and are amyloid , meaning that they will stain blue , bluish @-@ grey , to blackish in Melzer 's reagent . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 32 @.@ 9 – 50 by 9 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 6 μm . Cystidia located on the gill face ( pleurocystidia ) are somewhat cylindrical to club @-@ shaped or somewhat spindle @-@ shaped , and measure 35 – 88 by 7 @.@ 3 – 12 @.@ 4 μm . They are yellowish , and contain granular contents . Cheilocystidia ( found on the edges of the gills ) , which are similar in shape to the pleurocystidia , are thin @-@ walled , hyaline , and measure 14 – 24 by 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 3 μm . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
The red pigments of this and other russulas are water @-@ soluble to some degree , and fruit bodies will often bleach or fade with rain or sunlight ; the cap colour of older specimens may fade to pink or orange , or develop white blotches . The main pigment responsible for the red colour of the fruit bodies is called russularhodin , but little is known of its chemical composition .
= = Toxicity = =
As its name implies , the sickener is inedible , though not as dangerous as sometimes described in older mushroom guides . The symptoms are mainly gastrointestinal in nature : nausea , diarrhoea , vomiting , and colicky abdominal cramps . These symptoms typically begin half an hour to three hours after ingestion of the mushroom , and usually subside spontaneously , or shortly after the ingested material has been expelled from the intestinal tract . The active agents have not been identified but are thought to be sesquiterpenes , which have been isolated from the related genus Lactarius and from Russula sardonia . Sesquiterpenoids that have been identified from R. emetica include the previously known compounds lactarorufin A , furandiol , methoxyfuranalcohol , and an unnamed compound unique to this species .
The bitter taste does disappear on cooking and it is said to then be edible , though consumption is not recommended . The mushroom used to be widely eaten in eastern European countries and Russia after parboiling ( which removes the toxins ) , and then salting or pickling . In some regions of Hungary and Slovakia , the cap cuticle is removed and used as a spice for goulash . Both the red squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris ) and the American red squirrel ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ) are known to forage for , store and eat R. emetica . Other creatures that have been documented consuming the mushroom include the snail Mesodon thyroidus , several species of slugs ( including Arion ater , A. subfuscus , A. intermedius , Limax maximus , L. cinereoniger , and Deroceras reticulatum ) , the fruit flies Drosophila falleni and D. quinaria , and the fungus gnat Allodia bipexa .
= = Similar species = =
Russula emetica is one of over 100 red @-@ capped Russula species known worldwide . The related beechwood sickener ( R. nobilis ) is found under beech in Europe . Many , such as the bloody brittlegill ( R. sanguinaria ) , are inedible ; this species can be distinguished from R. emetica by the reddish flush in its stem . R. aurea , however , is edible . It has a yellow stem , gills and flesh under its red cap . The edible R. rugulosa — common in mixed woods in the eastern and northern United States — has a wrinkled and pimpled cap cuticle , cream spores , and mild taste . Another inedible species , R. fragilis , has notched gills , and its stem stains blue with naphthol . The uncommon European subspecies R. emetica longipes is distinguished by its longer stem and ochre gills . The paler European mushroom R. betularum , found in coniferous forests and moorland , is sometimes considered a subspecies of R. emetica . R. nana is restricted in distribution to arctic and subarctic highland meadows where dwarf willow ( Salix herbacea ) or alpine bearberry ( Arctostaphylos alpina ) are abundant .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Like all species of Russula , R. emetica is mycorrhizal , and forms mutually beneficial partnerships with roots of trees and certain herbaceous plants . Preferred host plants are conifers , especially pines . Fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups in sphagnum moss near bogs , and in coniferous and mixed forests . The fungus occasionally fruits on humus or on very rotten wood . The mushroom is known from North Africa , Asia , Europe , and North America , and can be locally very common . There is some doubt over the extent of its range in North America , as some sightings refer to the related R. silvicola ; initially the name " Russula emetica " was often applied to any red @-@ capped white Russula . Sightings in Australia are now referred to the similarly coloured R. persanguinea .
A multi @-@ year field study of the growth of R. emetica production in a scots pine plantation in Scotland found that total productivity was 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 49 million mushrooms per hectare per year ( roughly 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 million mushrooms / acre / year ) , corresponding to a fresh weight of 265 – 460 kg per hectare per year ( 49 – 85 lb / acre / year ) . Productivity was highest from August to October . The longevity of the mushrooms was estimated to be 4 – 7 days . In a study of the fungal diversity of ectomycorrhizal species in a Sitka spruce forest , R. emetica was one of the top five dominant fungi . Comparing the frequency of fruit body production between 10- , 20- , 30- , or 40 @-@ year @-@ old forest stands , R. emetica was most prolific in the latter .
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= Hey Jude =
" Hey Jude " is a song by the English rock band the Beatles , written by Paul McCartney and credited to Lennon – McCartney . The ballad evolved from " Hey Jules " , a song McCartney wrote to comfort John Lennon 's son , Julian , during his parents ' divorce . " Hey Jude " begins with a verse @-@ bridge structure incorporating McCartney 's vocal performance and piano accompaniment ; further instrumentation is added as the song progresses . After the fourth verse , the song shifts to a fade @-@ out coda that lasts for more than four minutes .
" Hey Jude " was released in August 1968 as the first single from the Beatles ' record label Apple Records . More than seven minutes in length , it was at the time the longest single ever to top the British charts . It also spent nine weeks at number one in the United States , the longest for any Beatles single . " Hey Jude " tied the " all @-@ time " record , at the time , for the longest run at the top of the US charts . The single has sold approximately eight million copies and is frequently included on professional critics ' lists of the greatest songs of all time . In 2013 , Billboard named it the 10th biggest song of all time .
= = Inspiration and writing = =
In May 1968 , John Lennon and his wife Cynthia Lennon separated because of John 's affair with Yoko Ono . The following month , Paul McCartney drove out to visit Cynthia and John 's son , Julian , at Kenwood , the family 's home in Weybridge . Cynthia had been part of the Beatles ' social circle since before the band 's rise to fame in 1963 ; McCartney later said he found it " a bit much for them suddenly to be personae non gratae and out of my life " . Cynthia Lennon recalled of McCartney 's surprise visit : " I was touched by his obvious concern for our welfare ... On the journey down he composed ' Hey Jude ' in the car . I will never forget Paul 's gesture of care and concern in coming to see us . "
The song 's original title was " Hey Jules " , and it was intended to comfort Julian Lennon from the stress of his parents ' separation . McCartney later said , " I knew it was not going to be easy for him " , and that he changed the name to " Jude " " because I thought that sounded a bit better " .
According to music journalist Chris Hunt , in the weeks after writing the song , McCartney " test [ ed ] his latest composition on anyone too polite to refuse . And that meant everyone . " On 30 June , after recording the Black Dyke Mills Band 's rendition of his instrumental " Thingumybob " , in Yorkshire , McCartney stopped at a village in Bedfordshire and performed " Hey Jude " at a local pub . He also regaled members of the Bonzo Dog Band with the song while producing their single " I 'm the Urban Spaceman " , in London , and interrupted a recording session by the Barron Knights to do the same . Ron Griffith of the group the Iveys – soon to be known as Badfinger and , like the Black Dyke Mills Band , an early signing to the Beatles ' new record label Apple Records – later recalled that on their first day in the studio , McCartney " gave us a full concert rendition of ' Hey Jude ' " .
When introducing the composition to Lennon , McCartney assured him that he would " fix " the line " the movement you need is on your shoulder " , reasoning that " it 's a stupid expression ; it sounds like a parrot . " Lennon replied : " You won 't , you know . That 's the best line in the song . " McCartney retained the phrase ; he later said of his subsequent live performances of the song : " that 's the line when I think of John , and sometimes I get a little emotional during that moment . "
Although McCartney originally wrote " Hey Jude " for Julian , John Lennon thought it had actually been written for him . In a 1980 interview , Lennon stated that he " always heard it as a song to me " and contended that , on one level , McCartney was giving his blessing to Lennon and Ono 's relationship , while , on another , he was disappointed to be usurped as Lennon 's friend and songwriting partner .
Other people believed McCartney wrote the song about them , including Judith Simons , a journalist with the Daily Express . Still others , including Lennon , have speculated that in the lyrics to " Hey Jude " , McCartney 's failing long @-@ term relationship with Jane Asher provided an unconscious " message to himself " . McCartney and Asher had announced their engagement on 25 December 1967 , yet he began an affair with Linda Eastman in June 1968 ; that same month , Francie Schwartz , an American who was in London to discuss a film proposal with Apple , began living with McCartney at his St John 's Wood home . When Lennon mentioned that he thought the song was about him and Ono , McCartney denied it and told Lennon he had written the song about himself .
Author Mark Hertsgaard has commented that " many of the song 's lyrics do seem directed more at a grown man on the verge of a powerful new love , especially the lines ' you have found her now go and get her ' and ' you 're waiting for someone to perform with . ' " Music critic and author Tim Riley writes : " If the song is about self @-@ worth and self @-@ consolation in the face of hardship , the vocal performance itself conveys much of the journey . He begins by singing to comfort someone else , finds himself weighing his own feelings in the process , and finally , in the repeated refrains that nurture his own approbation , he comes to believe in himself . "
= = Production = =
= = = Abbey Road rehearsals = = =
Having earmarked the song for release as a single , the Beatles recorded " Hey Jude " during the sessions for their self @-@ titled double album , commonly known as " the White Album " . The sessions were marked by an element of discord within the group for the first time , partly as a result of Ono 's constant presence at Lennon 's side , and also reflective of the four band members ' divergence following their communal trip to Rishikesh in the spring of 1968 to study Transcendental Meditation . Author Peter Doggett describes the completed version of " Hey Jude " as a song that " glowed with optimism after a summer that had burned with anxiety and rage within the group " .
The Beatles first taped 25 takes of the song at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London over two nights , 29 and 30 July 1968 , with George Martin as their producer . These dates served as rehearsals , however , since they planned to record the master track at Trident Studios to utilise their eight @-@ track recording machine ( Abbey Road was still limited to four @-@ tracks ) . A take from 29 July , which author and critic Kenneth Womack describes as a " jovial " session , was issued on the Anthology 3 compilation in 1996 .
The 30 July rehearsals were filmed for a short documentary titled Music ! The film shows only three of the Beatles performing " Hey Jude " , however , since George Harrison remained in the studio control room , with Martin and EMI recording engineer Ken Scott . Author Simon Leng views this as indicative of how Harrison was increasingly allowed little room to develop ideas on McCartney compositions , whereas he was free to create empathetic guitar parts for Lennon 's songs of the period .
During the rehearsals that day , Harrison and McCartney had a heated disagreement over the lead guitar part for the song . Harrison 's idea was to play a guitar phrase as a response to each line of the vocal , which did not fit with McCartney 's conception of the song 's arrangement , and he vetoed it . In a 1994 interview , McCartney said , " looking back on it , I think , Okay . Well , it was bossy , but it was ballsy of me , because I could have bowed to the pressure . " Ron Richards , a record producer who worked for Martin at both Parlophone and AIR Studios , said McCartney was " oblivious to anyone else 's feelings in the studio " , and that he was driven to making the best possible record , at almost any cost .
= = = Trident Studios recording = = =
The master track for " Hey Jude " was recorded at Trident Studios on 31 July . Trident 's founder , Norman Sheffield , recalled that Mal Evans , the Beatles ' aide and former roadie , insisted that some pot plants he had brought be placed in the studio to make the place " soft " , consistent with the band 's wishes . Sheffield served as recording engineer for the session . The line @-@ up on the basic track was McCartney on piano and lead vocal , Lennon on acoustic guitar , Harrison on electric guitar , and Ringo Starr on drums .
The Beatles recorded four takes of " Hey Jude " , the first of which was selected as the master . With drums absent for the first 50 seconds of the song , McCartney began this take unaware that Starr had just left for a toilet break . Starr soon returned – " tiptoeing past my back rather quickly " , in McCartney 's recollection – and performed his cue perfectly . McCartney added : " his timing was absolutely impeccable . "
On 1 August , the group carried out overdubs on the basic track , again at Trident . These additions included McCartney 's lead vocal and bass guitar ; backing vocals from Lennon , McCartney and Harrison ; and tambourine , played by Starr . They then added a 36 @-@ piece orchestra over the long coda , scored by Martin . The orchestra consisted of ten violins , three violas , three cellos , two flutes , one contra bassoon , one bassoon , two clarinets , one contra bass clarinet , four trumpets , four trombones , two horns , percussion and two string basses . With the introduction of what musicologist Walter Everett terms the " bottom @-@ heavy " orchestral instruments , particularly the string basses , McCartney 's bass part was cut from the start of the coda onwards .
According to Sheffield , there was dissension initially among the orchestral musicians , some of whom " were looking down their noses at the Beatles , I think " . Sheffield recalls that McCartney ensured their cooperation by demanding : " Do you guys want to get fucking paid or not ? " During the first few takes , McCartney was unhappy about the lack of energy and passion in the orchestra 's performance , so he stood up on the grand piano and started conducting the musicians from there .
The Beatles then asked the orchestra members if they would clap their hands and sing along to the refrain in the coda . All but one of the musicians complied ( for a double fee ) , with the abstainer reportedly saying , " I 'm not going to clap my hands and sing Paul McCartney 's bloody song ! " Apple Records assistant Chris O 'Dell says she joined the cast of backing singers on the song ; one of the label 's first signings , Jackie Lomax , also recalled participating .
Trident was paid £ 25 per hour by EMI for the " Hey Jude " sessions . Sheffield said that the studio earned about £ 1000 in total at the time , but by having the Beatles record there , and in turn raving about the facility , the value was incalculable . The band carried out further work at Trident during 1968 , and Apple artists such as Lomax , Mary Hopkin , Billy Preston and the Iveys all recorded there over the next year .
= = = Mixing = = =
Scott , Martin and the Beatles mixed the finished recording at Abbey Road . The transfer of the Trident master tape to acetate proved problematic due to the recording sounding murky when played back on EMI 's equipment . The issue was resolved with the help of Geoff Emerick , whom Scott had recently replaced as the Beatles ' principal recording engineer . Emerick happened to be visiting Abbey Road , having recently refused to work with the Beatles any longer , due to the tension and abuse that had become commonplace at their recording sessions . A stereo mix of " Hey Jude " was then completed on 2 August and the mono version on 8 August .
Everett writes that the song 's " most commented @-@ on feature " is its considerable length , at 7 : 11 . The precedent for issuing such a long track on a single had recently been set by Richard Harris ' hit recording of " MacArthur Park " , the composer of which , Jimmy Webb , was a visitor to the studio around this time . According to Webb , Martin admitted to him that " Hey Jude " was only allowed to run over seven minutes because of the success of " MacArthur Park " .
In the song 's final bridge section , at 2 : 58 , the spoken phrase " Fucking hell ! " appears . Scott admits that although he was told about it , he could not hear the words originally . Lennon attributed the expletive to McCartney , according to Emerick , who reports Lennon 's comment in his autobiography : " ' Paul hit a clunker on the piano and said a naughty word , ' Lennon gleefully crowed , ' but I insisted we leave it in [ at Trident ] , buried just low enough so that it can barely be heard . Most people won 't ever spot it ... but we 'll know it 's there . ' " Womack considers that the expletive was actually uttered by Lennon . Malcolm Toft , the mix engineer on the Trident recording , also attributes it to Lennon . In Toft 's recollection , Lennon was overdubbing his harmony vocal when , in reaction to the volume being too loud in his headphones , he first called out " Whoa ! " then , two seconds later , swore as he pulled the headphones off .
= = Composition and structure = =
" Hey Jude " begins with McCartney singing lead vocals and playing the piano . The patterns he plays are based on three chords : F , C , and B ♭ ( I , V and IV ) . The main chord progression is " flipped on its head " , in Hertsgaard 's words , for the coda , since the C chord is replaced by E ♭ . Everett comments that McCartney 's melody over the verses borrows in part from John Ireland 's 1907 liturgical piece Te Deum , as well as ( with the first change to a B ♭ chord ) suggesting the influence of the Drifters ' 1960 hit " Save the Last Dance for Me " .
The second verse of the song adds accompaniment from acoustic guitar and tambourine . Tim Riley writes that , with the " restrained tom @-@ tom and cymbal fill " that introduces the drum part , " the piano shifts downward to add a flat seventh to the tonic chord , making the downbeat of the bridge the point of arrival ( ' And any time you feel the pain ' ) . " At the end of each bridge , McCartney sings a brief phrase ( " Na @-@ na @-@ na na … " ) , supported by an electric guitar fill , before playing a piano fill that leads to the next verse . According to Riley , this vocal phrase serves to " reorient the harmony for the verse as the piano figure turns upside down into a vocal aside " . Additional musical details , such as tambourine on the third verse and subtle harmonies accompanying the lead vocal , are added to sustain interest throughout the four @-@ verse , two @-@ bridge song .
The verse @-@ bridge structure persists for approximately three minutes , after which the band leads into a four @-@ minute @-@ long coda , consisting of nineteen rounds of the song 's double plagal cadence . During this coda , the rest of the band , backed by an orchestra that also provides backing vocals , repeats the phrase " Na @-@ na @-@ na na " followed by the words " hey Jude " until the song gradually fades out . In his analysis of the composition , musicologist Alan Pollack comments on the unusual structure of " Hey Jude " , in that it uses a " binary form that combines a fully developed , hymn @-@ like song together with an extended , mantra @-@ like jam on a simple chord progression " .
Riley considers that the coda 's repeated chord sequence ( I- ♭ VII @-@ IV @-@ I ) " answers all the musical questions raised at the beginnings and ends of bridges " , since " The flat seventh that posed dominant turns into bridges now has an entire chord built on it . " This three @-@ chord refrain allows McCartney " a bedding ... to leap about on vocally " , so he ad @-@ libs his vocal performance for the rest of the song . In Riley 's estimation , the song " becomes a tour of Paul 's vocal range : from the graceful inviting tones of the opening verse , through the mounting excitement of the song itself , to the surging raves of the coda " .
= = Release = =
" Hey Jude " was released on 26 August 1968 in the United States and 30 August in the United Kingdom , backed with " Revolution " on the B @-@ side of a 7 " single . It was one of four singles issued simultaneously to launch Apple Records – the others being Mary Hopkin 's " Those Were the Days " , Jackie Lomax 's " Sour Milk Sea " , and the Black Dyke Mills Band 's " Thingumybob " . In advance of the release date , Apple declared 11 – 18 August to be " National Apple Week " in the UK , and sent gift @-@ wrapped boxes of the records , marked " Our First Four " , to Queen Elizabeth II and other members of the royal family , and to the British prime minister . The release was promoted by Derek Taylor , who , in Doggett 's description , " hyped the first Apple records with typical elan " . " Hey Jude " was the first of the four singles , since it was still designated as an EMI / Parlophone release in the UK and a Capitol release in the US , but with the Apple Records logo now added . In the US , " Hey Jude " was the first Beatles single to be issued in a company sleeve rather than a picture sleeve .
Lennon wanted " Revolution " to be the A @-@ side of the single , but the other Beatles did not agree . In his 1970 interview with Rolling Stone , he said " Hey Jude " was worthy of an A @-@ side , " but we could have had both . " In 1980 , he told Playboy he still disagreed with the decision .
The single was a highly successful debut for Apple Records , and contrasted with the public embarrassment the band faced after the recent closure of their short @-@ lived retail venture , Apple Boutique . " Hey Jude " began its sixteen @-@ week run on Britain 's official singles chart on 7 September 1968 , claiming the top spot a week later . It lasted two weeks on top before being replaced by Hopkin 's " Those Were the Days " , which was produced by McCartney . " Hey Jude " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 13 September ; that same week , NME reported that two million copies of the single had been sold . The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 in the US on 14 September , beginning a nineteen @-@ week chart run there . It reached number one on 28 September and held that position for nine weeks , for three of which , " Those Were the Days " held the number @-@ two spot . This was the longest time spent by a Beatles single at number one , as well as being the longest @-@ playing single to reach number one . The song was the 16th number @-@ one hit for the band in America , tying Elvis Presley 's record at the time for most number @-@ one songs there . Billboard ranked it as the number @-@ one song for 1968 .
In the UK , where " MacArthur Park " had failed to top the chart , " Hey Jude " remained the longest number @-@ one hit for nearly a quarter of a century . It was surpassed in 1993 by Meat Loaf 's " I 'd Do Anything for Love ( But I Won 't Do That ) " , which ran to 7 : 52 as a single .
On 30 November 1968 , NME reported that sales had reached nearly six million copies worldwide . " Hey Jude " became the biggest @-@ selling debut release for a record label ever , selling an estimated eight million copies worldwide and topping the charts in eleven countries . In 1999 , it was certified 4x platinum by the RIAA , representing four million units shipped in the US .
= = Promotion = =
A failed early promotional attempt for the single took place after the Beatles ' all @-@ night recording session on 7 – 8 August 1968 . With Apple Boutique having closed a week before , McCartney and his girlfriend , Francie Schwartz , painted Hey Jude / Revolution across its large , whitewashed shop windows . The words were mistaken for anti @-@ Semitic graffiti ( since Jude means " Jew " in German ) , leading to complaints from the local Jewish community , and the windows being smashed by passers @-@ by . Discussing the episode in The Beatles Anthology , McCartney explained that he had been motivated by the location – " Great opportunity . Baker Street , millions of buses going around … " – and added : " I had no idea it meant ' Jew ' , but if you look at footage of Nazi Germany , ' Juden Raus ' was written in whitewashed windows with a Star of David . I swear it never occurred to me . " According to Barry Miles , McCartney caused further controversy in his comments to Alan Smith of the NME that month when he said : " Starvation in India doesn 't worry me one bit , not one iota … And it doesn 't worry you , if you 're honest . You just pose . "
The Beatles hired Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg to shoot a promotional film for " Hey Jude " , after he had previously directed a clip for " Paperback Writer " in 1966 . They settled on the idea of filming with a live , albeit controlled audience . In the film , the Beatles are first seen by themselves , performing the initial chorus and verses , and then are joined by the audience who appear as the last chorus concludes and coda begins ; the audience sings and claps along with the Beatles through the song 's conclusion . Hogg shot the film at Twickenham Film Studios on 4 September 1968 , with McCartney himself designing the set . Tony Bramwell , a friend of the Beatles , later described the set as " the piano , there ; drums , there ; and orchestra in two tiers at the back . " The event marked Starr 's return to the group , after McCartney 's criticism of his drumming had led to him walking out during a session for the White Album track " Back in the U.S.S.R. " During his two @-@ week absence , Starr announced that he had left the band .
The final film was a combination of several different takes and included filmed " introductions " to the song by David Frost ( who introduced the Beatles as " the greatest tea @-@ room orchestra in the world " ) , and Cliff Richard , for their respective , eponymous TV programmes . As filming wore on , Lennon repeatedly asked Lindsay @-@ Hogg if he had the footage he needed . After twelve takes , McCartney said , " I think that 's enough " , and filming concluded . It was first aired in the UK on Frost on Sunday on 8 September 1968 , and the film was later broadcast for the United States on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour on 6 October . According to Riley , the showing on Frost on Sunday " kicked ' Hey Jude ' into the stratosphere " in terms of popularity . Hertsgaard pairs it with the release of the animated film Yellow Submarine as two events that created " a state of nirvana " for Beatles fans , in contrast with the problems besetting the band regarding Ono 's influence and Apple .
The 4 September 1968 promo film is included in the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1 , while the three @-@ disc versions of that compilation , titled 1 + , also include an alternate video , with a different introduction and vocal , from the same date .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon the single 's release , Derek Johnson of the NME wrote : " The intriguing features of ' Hey Jude ' are its extreme length and the 40 @-@ piece orchestral accompaniment – and personally I would have preferred it without either ! " While he viewed the track overall as " a beautiful , compelling song " , and the first three minutes as " absolutely sensational " , Johnson rued the long coda 's " vocal improvisations on the basically repetitive four @-@ bar chorus " . Time magazine described the coda as " a fadeout that engagingly spoofs the fadeout as a gimmick for ending pop records " . The same reviewer contrasted " Hey Jude " with its B @-@ side , " Revolution " , saying that " The other side of the new disk urges activism of a different sort " , due to McCartney " liltingly exhort [ ing ] a friend to overcome his fears and commit himself in love " . Rolling Stone also attributed the song 's meaning as a message from McCartney to Lennon to end his negative relationships with women : " to break the old pattern ; to really go through with love " . Other commentators interpreted " Hey Jude " as being directed at Bob Dylan , then semi @-@ retired in Woodstock .
Writing in 1971 , Robert Christgau of The Village Voice called it " one of [ McCartney 's ] truest and most forthright love songs " and was critical of its omission from the album The Beatles . In their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler wrote that " Hey Jude " " promised great things " for the ill @-@ conceived Apple enterprise and described the song as " the last great Beatles single recorded specifically for the 45s market " . They noted also that " the epic proportions of the piece " encouraged many imitators , yet these other artists " [ failed ] to capture the gentleness and sympathy of the Beatles ' communal feel " .
Among more recent commentators , Alan Pollack admires " Hey Jude " as " such a good illustration of two compositional lessons – how to fill a large canvas with simple means , and how to use diverse elements such as harmony , bassline , and orchestration to articulate form and contrast . " Pollack considers that the song 's long coda provides " an astonishingly transcendental effect " , while AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger similarly opines : " What could have very easily been boring is instead hypnotic because McCartney varies the vocal with some of the greatest nonsense scatting ever heard in rock … " In his book Revolution in the Head , Ian MacDonald wrote that the " pseudo @-@ soul shrieking in the fade @-@ out may be a blemish " but he praised the song as " a pop / rock hybrid drawing on the best of both idioms " . MacDonald concluded : " ' Hey Jude ' strikes a universal note , touching on an archetypal moment in male sexual psychology with a gentle wisdom one might properly call inspired . " Lennon said the song was " one of [ McCartney 's ] masterpieces " .
= = Awards and accolades = =
" Hey Jude " was nominated for the Grammy Awards of 1969 in the categories of Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , but failed to win any of them . In the 1968 NME Readers ' Poll , " Hey Jude " was named the best single of the year , and the song also won the 1968 Ivor Novello Award for " A @-@ Side With the Highest Sales " . In 2001 , " Hey Jude " was inducted into the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences Grammy Hall of Fame .
In 2004 , Rolling Stone ranked " Hey Jude " at number eight on the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , making it the highest @-@ placed Beatles song on the list . Among its many appearances in other best @-@ song @-@ of @-@ all @-@ time lists , VH1 placed it seventh in 2000 and Mojo ranked it at number 29 in the same year , having placed the song seventh in a 1997 list of " The 100 Greatest Singles of All Time " . In 1976 , the NME ranked it 38th on the magazine 's " Top 100 Singles of All Time " , and the track appeared at number 77 on the same publication 's " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2014 . In January 2001 , " Hey Jude " came in third on Channel 4 's list of the " 100 Greatest Singles " . The Amusement & Music Operators Association ranks " Hey Jude " as the 11th @-@ best jukebox single of all time . In 2008 , the song appeared in eighth place on Billboard 's " All Time Hot 100 Songs " .
In July 2006 , Mojo placed " Hey Jude " at number 12 on its list of " The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs " ( between " Eleanor Rigby " and " Come Together " ) . On a similar list compiled four years later , Rolling Stone ranked the song at number seven .
In 2015 , the ITV program " The Nation 's Favourite Beatles Number One " ranked Hey Jude number one in the show 's countdown .
= = Auctioned lyrics = =
Julian Lennon discovered that " Hey Jude " had been written for him almost twenty years after McCartney composed the song . He recalled of his and McCartney 's relationship : " Paul and I used to hang about quite a bit – more than Dad and I did . We had a great friendship going and there seems to be far more pictures of me and Paul playing together at that age than there are pictures of me and my dad . " In 1996 , Julian paid £ 25 @,@ 000 for the recording notes to " Hey Jude " at an auction . He spent a further £ 35 @,@ 000 at the auction , buying John Lennon memorabilia . John Cousins , Julian Lennon 's manager , stated at the time : " He has a few photographs of his father , but not very much else . He is collecting for personal reasons ; these are family heirlooms if you like . "
In 2002 , the original handwritten lyrics for the song were nearly auctioned off at Christie 's in London . The sheet of notepaper with the scrawled lyrics had been expected to fetch up to £ 80 @,@ 000 at the auction , which was scheduled for 30 April 2002 . McCartney went to court to stop the auction , claiming the paper had disappeared from his West London home . Richard Morgan , representing Christie 's , said McCartney had provided no evidence that he had ever owned the piece of paper on which the lyrics were written . The courts decided in McCartney 's favour and prohibited the sale of the lyrics . They had been sent to Christie 's for auction by Frenchman Florrent Tessier , who said he purchased the piece of paper at a street market stall in London for £ 10 in the early 1970s . In the original catalogue for the auction , Julian Lennon had written , " It 's very strange to think that someone has written a song about you . It still touches me . "
= = Cover versions and performances = =
" Hey Jude " was one of the few Beatles songs that Elvis Presley covered , when he rehearsed the track at his 1969 Memphis sessions with producer Chips Moman , a recording that appeared on the 1972 album Elvis Now . A medley of the Beatles ' " Yesterday " and " Hey Jude " was included on the 1999 reissue of Presley 's 1970 live album On Stage .
A 1968 cover by Wilson Pickett attracted success and attention for the guitar work , by a young Duane Allman . Eric Clapton commented , " I remember hearing [ it ] and calling either Ahmet Ertegun or Tom Dowd and saying , ' Who 's that guitar player ? ' ... To this day , I 've never heard better rock guitar playing on an R & B record . It 's the best . "
" Weird Al " Yankovic included " Hey Jude " in his first polka medley , " Polkas on 45 " , from his 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D. Katy Perry performed a cover of the song as part of the 2012 MusiCares Person of the Year concert honouring McCartney .
Paul McCartney sang the song in the closing moments of the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics hosted in London . On 4 August 2012 , McCartney led the crowd in a rendition of " Hey Jude " while watching cycling at the velodrome .
= = Personnel = =
Paul McCartney – lead vocal , piano , bass , handclaps
John Lennon – backing vocal , acoustic guitar , handclaps
George Harrison – backing vocal , lead guitar , handclaps
Ringo Starr – backing vocal , drums , tambourine , handclaps
Uncredited 36 @-@ piece orchestra – 10 violins , three violas , three cellos , two double basses , two flutes , two clarinets , one bass clarinet , one bassoon , one contrabassoon , four trumpets , two horns , four trombones , and one percussion instrument ; 35 of these musicians on additional backing vocals and handclaps
Personnel per Ian MacDonald and Mark Lewisohn .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = All @-@ time charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Green Versace dress of Jennifer Lopez =
American recording artist and actress Jennifer Lopez wore an exotic green Versace silk chiffon dress to the 42nd Grammy Awards ceremony on February 23 , 2000 . The sheer fabric was printed with a tropical leaf and bamboo pattern , and cut with a very low neckline extending well past Lopez 's navel , while the waist of the dress was studded with citrines .
This garment instantly received significant global media coverage , and has been cited along with Elizabeth Hurley 's black Versace dress as one of the most high @-@ profile dresses that made the designer Versace a household name . In addition , this dress was described as a turning point in designer Donatella Versace 's career after the death of her brother Gianni Versace . It was chosen by the fashion journalist Lisa Armstrong to represent 2000 in the Fashion Museum of Bath 's Dress of the Year collection , at which point it was described as a key example of the close relationship between fashions , celebrities and publicity . Another duplicate is displayed at The Grammy Museum while as of 2015 , Lopez still owns the original gown . In 2015 , fifteen years since Lopez first wore it , the dress is still inextricably associated with her and Versace .
= = Background = =
Before becoming famous on the red carpet of the Grammy Awards , the dress was presented on the catwalk by model Amber Valletta and was also featured in Versace 's main advertising campaign that year ; Steven Meisel also photographed it on Valletta . Andrea Lieberman , Lopez 's stylist at the time , remarked , " Versace and Jennifer [ Lopez ] belonged together . It was really natural . "
In 2000 , the dress had a market value of about $ 15 @,@ 000 . Spice Girl Geri Halliwell wore the same dress to the NRJ Music Awards in France in January 2000 , around a month before Jennifer Lopez wore it ; however , in doing so she failed to receive the same amount of global attention as Lopez did . The designer herself also wore it to a Met Gala on 6 December 1999 .
Lopez arrived on the red carpet of the 42nd Grammy Awards in the company of then @-@ boyfriend Sean Combs ; he was dressed in a gray suit . Although the fashion house Versace had only loaned the dress , it subsequently decided to give it away as a token of gratitude for the enormous publicity generated . The singer immediately monopolized the attention and curiosity of the public and photographers at the event . Actor David Duchovny appeared on stage with Lopez to present the award for Best R & B Album and declared to the audience , " This is the first time in five or six years that I 'm sure that nobody is looking at me " , eliciting laughter from the audience and Lopez .
= = Design = =
Designed by Donatella Versace , it has been described as " jungle green " , " sea green " or " tropical " green , a green dress with touches of blue to give an exotic appearance . It is a see @-@ through silk chiffon dress with a tropical leaf and bamboo pattern , with a citrine @-@ studded crotch . The dress " had a low @-@ cut neck that extended several inches below her navel , where it was loosely fastened with a sparkly brooch and then opened out again , " exposing her midriff and then cut along the front of the legs like a bath robe . The dress then drooped behind her on the floor , open at the back . Under the suit , Lopez wore a pair of nude @-@ tone shorts and only afterwards it was revealed that Lopez was able to keep the dress on using double @-@ sided fashion tape .
= = Reception = =
The dress was discussed by those in the fashion and entertainment for weeks after the event , with dedicated television specials and magazine covers featuring her . Images of Lopez in the green dress were downloaded from the Grammy website 642 @,@ 917 times in just 24 hours after the event . The dress has been cited along with the Black Versace dress of Elizabeth Hurley as being those most iconic dresses which made Versace a household name . Vibe magazine said , " Jen Lo made Donatella Versace 's diaphanous green fabric a national call to arms . " Others have argued that the dress led to Lopez becoming " one of the most glamorous and publicity @-@ friendly icons of the red carpet . "
Lopez was surprised by the enormous media coverage , declaring in an interview : " It was a nice dress . I had no idea it was going to become such a big deal . " Versace later revealed that the dress was the turning point of her career , saying that the media now had confidence in her own work , after the death of Gianni Versace . She declared to the Canadian press , " It was an unexpected success . The next day she [ Jennifer Lopez ] was everywhere and people were talking about her in that dress . It was one of those moments like the one that Gianni [ Versace ] had with Elizabeth Hurley and clothes @-@ pins . " The dress has been referred to many times as " notorious " and " infamous " because of its boldness .
At the 72nd Academy Awards in March 2000 , South Park co @-@ creator Trey Parker wore an imitation of the dress .
The Fashion Museum , Bath asked Lisa Armstrong of the Times to choose an outfit to represent 2000 for their " Dress of the Year " collection . While Armstrong initially considered choosing Hussein Chalayan 's table dress , she eventually decided on the Versace dress , arguing that due to the media attention it had received through being worn by Lopez , Geri Halliwell , and others , the gown represented " some kind of high water mark in the current symbiosis between fashion and celebrity . " Versace subsequently donated a duplicate of the dress to the Museum . Another duplicate is displayed at the Grammy Museum in Los Angeles . As of 2015 , the original dress remains in Lopez 's possession .
On October 15 , 2002 at the Radio City Music Hall in New York , Jennifer Lopez was awarded the VH1 Vogue Fashion Award as the most influential star of the year . The award was presented by Versace herself .
In a poll by Debenhams , published in the Daily Telegraph in 2008 , the dress was voted the fifth most iconic dress of all time .
In January 2015 , Google 's president Eric Schmidt cited the massive attention to this dress as a motivation for the creation of Google Images search . In 2000 , Google Search results were limited to simple pages of text with links , but the developers worked on developing this further , realising that an image search was required to answer " the most popular search query " they had seen to date : Jennifer Lopez 's green dress . As a result of this , Google Images search was born .
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= Doune Castle =
Doune Castle is a medieval stronghold near the village of Doune , in the Stirling district of central Scotland . The castle is sited on a wooded bend where the Ardoch Burn flows into the River Teith . It lies 8 miles ( 13 km ) north @-@ west of Stirling , where the Teith flows into the River Forth . Upstream , 8 miles ( 13 km ) further north @-@ west , the town of Callander lies at the edge of the Trossachs , on the fringe of the Scottish Highlands .
Recent research has shown that Doune Castle was originally built in the thirteenth century , then probably damaged in the Scottish Wars of Independence , before being rebuilt in its present form in the late 14th century by Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany ( c.1340 – 1420 ) , the son of King Robert II of Scotland , and Regent of Scotland from 1388 until his death . Duke Robert 's stronghold has survived relatively unchanged and complete , and the whole castle was traditionally thought of as the result of a single period of construction at this time . The castle passed to the crown in 1425 , when Albany 's son was executed , and was used as a royal hunting lodge and dower house . In the later 16th century , Doune became the property of the Earls of Moray . The castle saw military action during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and Glencairn 's rising in the mid @-@ 17th century , and during the Jacobite Risings of the late 17th century and 18th century . By 1800 the castle was ruined , but restoration works were carried out in the 1880s , prior to its passing into state care in the 20th century . It is now maintained by Historic Scotland .
Due to the status of its builder , Doune reflected current ideas of what a royal castle building should be . It was planned as a courtyard with ranges of buildings on each side , although only the northern and north @-@ western buildings were completed . These comprise a large tower house over the entrance , containing the rooms of the Lord and his family , and a separate tower containing the kitchen and guest rooms . The two are linked by the great hall . The stonework is almost all from the late 14th century , with only minor repairs carried out in the 1580s . The restoration of the 1880s replaced the timber roofs and internal floors , as well as interior fittings .
= = History = =
The site at the confluence of the Ardoch Burn and the River Teith had been fortified by the Romans in the 1st century AD , although no remains are visible above ground . Ramparts and ditches to the south of the present castle may be the site of an earlier fortification , as the name Doune , derived from Gaelic dùn , meaning " fort " , suggests . The earliest identifiable work in the castle dates from the thirteenth century , but it assumed its present form during one of the most creative and productive periods of Scottish medieval architecture , between 1375 and 1425 , when numerous castles were being built and remodelled , including Dirleton and Tantallon in Lothian , and Bothwell in Lanarkshire .
= = = Regent Albany = = =
In 1361 , Robert Stewart ( c.1340 – 1420 ) , son of King Robert II ( reigned 1371 – 1390 ) , and brother of King Robert III ( reigned 1390 – 1406 ) , was created Earl of Menteith , and was granted the lands on which Doune Castle now stands . Building may have started any time after this , and the castle was at least partially complete in 1381 , when a charter was sealed here . Robert was appointed Regent in 1388 for his elderly father , and continued to hold effective power during the reign of his infirm brother . He was created Duke of Albany in 1398 . In 1406 , Robert III 's successor , James I , was captured by the English , and Albany became Regent once more . After this time , the number of charters issued at Doune suggest that the castle became a favoured residence .
= = = Royal retreat = = =
Albany died in 1420 , and Doune , the dukedom of Albany , and the Regency all passed to his son Murdoch ( 1362 – 1425 ) . The ransom for James I was finally paid to the English , and the King returned in 1424 , taking immediate steps to gain control of his kingdom . Albany and two of his sons were imprisoned for treason , and then executed in May 1425 . Doune Castle became a royal possession , under an appointed Captain , or Keeper , and served as a retreat and hunting lodge for the Scottish monarchs . It was also used as a dower house by Mary of Guelders ( c.1434 – 1463 ) , Margaret of Denmark ( 1456 – 1486 ) , and Margaret Tudor ( 1489 – 1541 ) , the widowed consorts of James II , James III and James IV respectively .
In 1528 , Margaret Tudor , now Regent of Scotland for her infant son James V , married Henry Stewart , 1st Lord Methven , a descendant of Albany . His brother , Sir James Stewart ( c.1513 – 1554 ) , was made Captain of Doune Castle , and Sir James ' son , also James ( c.1529 – 1590 ) , was created Lord Doune in 1570 . Lord Doune 's son , another James ( c.1565 – 1592 ) , married Elizabeth Stuart , 2nd Countess of Moray around 1580 , becoming Earl of Moray himself . The castle thus came to be the seat of its keepers , the Earls of Moray , who owned it until the 20th century .
Mary , Queen of Scots , ( reigned 1542 – 1567 ) stayed at Doune on several occasions , occupying the suite of rooms above the kitchen . Doune was held by forces loyal to Mary during the brief civil war which followed her forced abdication in 1567 , but the garrison surrendered to the Regent , Matthew Stewart , 4th Earl of Lennox , in 1570 , after a three @-@ day blockade . George Buchanan and Duncan Nairn , Deputy Sherriff of Stirling presided over the torture and interrogation of a messenger , John Moon , at Doune on 4 October 1570 . Moon was carrying letters to Mary , Queen of Scots and Mary Seton .
King James VI visited Doune on occasion , and in 1581 authorised £ 300 to be spent on repairs and improvements , the works being carried out by the master mason Michael Ewing under the supervision of Robert Drummond of Carnock , Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland . In 1593 , a plot against James was discovered , and the King surprised the conspirators , who included the Earls of Montrose and Gowrie , at Doune Castle .
= = = Prison and garrison = = =
In 1607 , the minister , John Munro of Tain , a dissenter against the religious plans of James VI , was imprisoned with a fellow minister at Doune , though he escaped with the contrivance of the then Constable of the Castle , who was subsequently imprisoned for aiding the dissenters . The Royalist James Graham , 1st Marquess of Montrose occupied Doune Castle in 1645 , during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . In 1654 , during Glencairn 's rising against the occupation of Scotland by Oliver Cromwell , a skirmish took place at Doune between Royalists under Sir Mungo Murray , and Cromwellian troops under Major Tobias Bridge . The castle was garrisoned by government troops during the Jacobite Rising of Bonnie Dundee in 1689 , when repairs were ordered , and again during the rising of 1715 . During the Jacobite Rising of 1745 , Doune Castle was occupied by Charles Edward Stuart , " Bonnie Prince Charlie " , and his Jacobite Highlanders . It was used as a prison for government troops captured at the Battle of Falkirk . Several prisoners , held in the rooms above the kitchen , escaped by knotting together bedsheets and climbing from the window . Escapees included the author John Home , and a minister , John Witherspoon , who later moved to the American colonies and became a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence .
= = = Ruin and restoration = = =
The castle deteriorated through the 18th century , and by 1800 Doune was a roofless ruin . It remained so until the 1880s , when George Stuart , 14th Earl of Moray ( 1816 – 1895 ) began repair works . The timber roofs were replaced , and the interiors , including the panelling in the Lord 's Hall , were installed . The castle is now maintained by Historic Scotland , having been donated to a predecessor organisation by Douglas Stuart , 20th Earl of Moray , in 1984 , and is open to the public . The castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument , and is a Category A listed building , the highest levels of protection for nationally important built heritage in Scotland .
= = Description = =
Doune occupies a strategic site , close to the geographical centre of Scotland , and only 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Stirling Castle , the " crossroads of Scotland " . The site is naturally defended on three sides by steeply @-@ sloping ground , and by the two rivers to east and west . The castle forms an irregular pentagon in plan , with buildings along the north and north @-@ west sides enclosing a courtyard . It is entered from the north via a passage beneath a tower containing the principal rooms of the castle . From the courtyard , three sets of stone external stairs , which may be later additions , lead up to the Lord 's Hall in the tower , to the adjacent Great Hall , and to the kitchens in a second tower to the west .
The main approach , from the north , is defended by earthworks , comprising three ditches , with a rampart , or earthen wall , between . Also outside the castle walls is a vaulted passage , traditionally said to lead into the castle , but in fact accessing an 18th @-@ century ice house . There are no openings within the lower part of the castle 's walls , excepting the entrance and the postern , or side gate , to the west , although there are relatively large windows on the upper storeys . Windows in the south wall suggest that further buildings were intended within the courtyard , but were never built . The stonework is of coursed sandstone rubble , with dressings in lighter Ballengeich stone .
= = = The Lord 's tower = = =
The principal tower , or gatehouse , is rectangular in plan 18 metres ( 59 ft ) by 13 metres ( 43 ft ) , and almost 29 metres ( 95 ft ) high , with a projecting round tower on the north @-@ east corner , beside the entrance . It comprises the Lord 's Hall , and three storeys of chambers above , located over the entrance passage . The vaulted , cobbled passage , 14 metres ( 46 ft ) long , was formerly defended by two sets of timber doors , and a yett , or hinged iron grille , remains . Guardrooms on either side overlook the passage via gunloops , and also on the ground floor is a well , in the basement of the round tower .
There is no direct communication between the ground floor and the Lord 's Hall above , which occupies the whole first floor . This is accessed via an enclosed and gated stair from the courtyard . The hall is vaulted , and has an unusual double fireplace . The floor tiles , timber panelling , and minstrels ' gallery are additions of the 1880s . It was originally thought that the connecting door to the Great Hall was also of this date , but is now accepted as being original . Side rooms on the hall level include a chamber in the round tower , with a hatch above the well , and a small chamber within the south wall which overlooks both hall and courtyard . A machicolation , or " murder hole " , below the hall 's north window , allows objects to be dropped onto attackers in the passage .
Above the hall is a second hall , forming part of the Duchess ' suite of rooms . An oratory in the south wall , overlooking the courtyard , contains a piscina and credence niche . The oratory gives access to mural passages leading to the walkway along the curtain wall . The timber ceiling of the Duchess ' hall , and the timber floors and roof above , are of the 1880s . The upper parts of the stonework are among the repairs dating from 1580 .
= = = Great Hall and kitchen tower = = =
West of the Lord 's tower is the Great Hall , 20 metres ( 66 ft ) by 8 metres ( 26 ft ) , and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) high to its timber roof , again a 19th @-@ century replacement . The hall has no fireplace , and was presumably heated by a central fire , and ventilated by means of a louvre like the one in the modern roof . No details of the original roof construction are known , however , and the restoration is conjectural . Large windows light the hall , and stairs lead down to the three cellars on ground level .
The hall is accessed from the courtyard via a stair up to a triangular lobby , which in turn links the hall and kitchens by means of two large serving hatches with elliptical arches , unusual for this period . The kitchen tower , virtually a tower house in its own right , is 17 metres ( 56 ft ) by 8 metres ( 26 ft ) . The vaulted kitchen is on the hall level , above a cellar . One of the best @-@ appointed castle kitchens in Scotland of its date , it has an oven and a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 18 ft ) wide fireplace . A stair turret , added in 1581 and possibly replacing a timber stair , leads up from the lobby to two storeys of guest rooms . These include the " Royal Apartments " , a suite of two bedrooms plus an audience chamber , suitable for royal visitors .
= = = Courtyard and curtain wall = = =
Projecting stones on the south wall of the kitchen block , known as tuskings , and four pointed @-@ arched windows in the south curtain wall , suggest that further ranges of buildings were planned . The large , eastern @-@ most window , may have been intended for a chapel , and it is recorded that a chapel dedicated to the 8th @-@ century monk Saint Fillan was located at Doune Castle , but the lack of foundations suggest that there was no large building in this part of the castle . The foundations which do exist were excavated in September 2002 , revealing a structure which was interpreted as a kiln or oven against the south wall . The central well is around 18 metres ( 59 ft ) deep .
The curtain wall is 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) thick , and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) high . A walkway along the top of the wall is protected by parapets on both sides , and is carried over the pitched roofs of the hall and gatehouse by steep steps . Open , round turrets are located at each corner , with semicircular projections at the midpoint of each wall . A square turret with machicolations is located above the postern gate in the west wall .
= = = Interpretation of the layout = = =
The Lord 's tower is a secure , private set of rooms , probably intended for the sole use of the Lord and his family , and with its own lines of defence . The architectural historian W. Douglas Simpson interpreted this arrangement as being the product of the " bastard feudalism " of the 14th century . During this period , Lords were required to defend their castles by means of mercenaries , rather than the vassals of the earlier feudal system , and Simpson suggested that the Lord of Doune designed his tower to be defensible against his own , potentially rebellious , garrison . This interpretation is no longer widely accepted by historians , and the castle is instead seen as a development towards more integrated courtyard buildings , such as the royal palace of Linlithgow , which was constructed through the 15th and early 16th century . The layout of Doune has similarities with those of the contemporary castles at Tantallon and Bothwell , and appears , at various scales , in other buildings of the period .
= = In fiction and drama = =
Doune Castle has featured in several literary works , including the 17th @-@ century ballad , " The Bonny Earl of Murray " , which relates the murder of James Stewart , 2nd Earl of Moray , by the Earl of Huntly , in 1592 . In Sir Walter Scott 's first novel , Waverley ( 1814 ) , the protagonist Edward Waverley is brought to Doune Castle by the Jacobites . Scott 's romantic novel describes the " gloomy yet picturesque structure " , with its " half @-@ ruined turrets " .
The castle was used as a location in MGM 's 1952 historical film Ivanhoe which featured Robert Taylor and Elizabeth Taylor . The BBC adaptation of " Ivanhoe " in 1996 also featured Doune as a location . The castle was used as the set for Winterfell in the TV series Game of Thrones ( 2011 – present ) , an adaptation of the A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels by George R. R. Martin . The castle was used as a stand @-@ in for the fictional " Castle Leoch " in the TV adaptation of the Outlander series of novels .
= = = Monty Python and the Holy Grail = = =
The British comedy film Monty Python and the Holy Grail — a parody of the legends of King Arthur by the Monty Python team — was filmed on location in Scotland in 1974 . The film 's producers had gained permission from the National Trust for Scotland to film scenes at several of their Scottish castles , as well as the permission of Lord Moray to film at Doune Castle . However , the National Trust later withdrew their permission , leaving the producers with little time to find new locations . Instead , they decided to use different parts of Doune Castle to depict the various fictional castles in the film , relying on tight framing of shots to maintain the illusion .
Scenes featuring Doune Castle include :
At the start of the film , King Arthur ( Graham Chapman ) and Patsy ( Terry Gilliam ) approach the east wall of Doune Castle and argue with soldiers of the garrison .
The song and dance routine " Knights of the Round Table " at " Camelot " was filmed in the Great Hall .
The servery and kitchen appear as " Castle Anthrax " , where Sir Galahad the Chaste ( Michael Palin ) is chased by seductive girls .
The wedding disrupted by Sir Lancelot ( John Cleese ) was filmed in the courtyard and Great Hall .
The Trojan Rabbit scene was filmed in the entryway and into the courtyard .
The only other castles used for filming were Castle Stalker in Argyll , also privately owned , which appears as " Castle Aaaaarrrrrrggghhh " at the end of the film , and ( briefly ) Kidwelly Castle in Wales . The DVD version of Monty Python and the Holy Grail includes a documentary , In Search of the Holy Grail Filming Locations , in which Michael Palin and Terry Jones revisit Doune and other sites used for filming . Doune Castle has become a place of pilgrimage for fans of Monty Python and the film , and , since 2004 , an annual " Monty Python Day " has been held at the castle .
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= Siege of Paris ( 845 ) =
The Siege of Paris and the Sack of Paris of 845 was the culmination of a Viking invasion of the kingdom of the West Franks . The Viking forces were led by a Norse chieftain named " Reginherus " , or Ragnar , who traditionally has been identified with the legendary saga character Ragnar Lodbrok . Ragnar 's fleet of 120 Viking ships , carrying thousands of men , entered the Seine in March and proceeded to sail up the river . The West Frankish king Charles the Bald assembled a smaller army in response , but as the Vikings defeated one division , comprising half of the army , the remaining forces retreated . The Vikings reached Paris at the end of the month , during Easter . After plundering and occupying the city , the Vikings finally withdrew after receiving a ransom payment of 7 @,@ 000 French livres ( 2 @,@ 570 kilograms or 5 @,@ 670 pounds ) of silver and gold from Charles the Bald .
= = Background = =
The Frankish Empire was first attacked by Viking raiders in 799 ( ten years after the earliest known Viking attack at Portland , Dorset in England ) , which eventually led Charlemagne to create a coastal defence system along the northern coast in 810 . The defence system successfully repulsed a Viking attack at the mouth of the Seine in 820 ( after Charlemagne 's death ) , but failed to hold against renewed attacks of Danish Vikings in Frisia and Dorestad in 834 . The attacks in 820 and 834 were unrelated and relatively minor , and more systematic raiding did not begin until the mid @-@ 830s , with the activity alternating between both sides of the English Channel . Viking raids were often part of struggles among Scandinavian nobility for power and status , and like other nations adjacent to the Franks , the Danes were well @-@ informed about the political situation in Francia ; in the 830s and early 840s they took advantage of the Frankish civil wars . Major raids took place in Antwerp and Noirmoutier in 836 , in Rouen ( on the Seine ) in 841 , and in Quentovic and Nantes in 842 .
= = Invasion and siege = =
In March 845 , a fleet of 120 Danish Viking ships containing more than 5 @,@ 000 men entered the Seine under the command of a Danish chieftain named " Reginherus " , or Ragnar . This Ragnar has often been tentatively identified with the legendary saga figure Ragnar Lodbrok , but the historicity of the latter remains a disputed issue among historians . In or around 841 , Ragnar had been awarded land in Turholt , Frisia by Charles the Bald , but he eventually lost the land as well as the favour of the king . Ragnar 's Vikings raided Rouen on their way up the Seine in 845 , and in response to the invasion , determined not to let the royal Abbey of Saint @-@ Denis ( near Paris ) be destroyed , Charles assembled an army which he divided into two parts , one for each side of the river . Ragnar attacked and defeated one of the divisions of the smaller Frankish army , and took 111 of their men as prisoners and hanged them on an island on the Seine . This was done to honor the Norse god Odin , as well as to incite terror in the remaining Frankish forces .
The Vikings finally arrived in Paris on Easter Sunday , 29 March , entered the city and plundered it . During the siege , a plague broke out in their camp . The Norse had been exposed to the Christian religion , and after first praying to the Norse gods , they undertook a fast , acting on the advice of one of their Christian prisoners , and the plague subsided . The Franks could not assemble any effective defence against the invaders , and the Vikings withdrew only after being paid a ransom of 7 @,@ 000 livres ( French pounds ) of silver and gold by Charles the Bald , amounting to approximately 2 @,@ 570 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 670 lb ) . Considering Ragnar 's earlier loss of land by Charles , the substantial payment may also have been regarded as some form of compensation for Ragnar 's loss , and the invasion itself as an attack of revenge . In any case , this would be the first of a total of thirteen payments of so @-@ called Danegeld to Viking raiders by the Franks ( although the term itself is not expressly known to have been used at this particular point ) . While agreeing to withdraw from Paris , Ragnar pillaged several sites along the coast on the return voyage , including the Abbey of Saint Bertin .
Although Charles has been criticised severely for granting the large ransom payment to the Vikings , he had other more critical issues to deal with at the same time , including disputes with his brothers , regional revolts and disgruntled nobles , as well as pressure from abroad . Since he would have trouble trusting his own counts to assemble and lead troops to defeat Ragnar 's large force militarily , paying them off instead would buy Charles time , and possibly peace from further Viking raids — at least in the near future .
= = Aftermath = =
The same year , a Viking fleet also sacked Hamburg , which had been elevated to an archbishopric by Pope Gregory IV in 831 on the initiative of Louis the Pious in order to oversee the Saxon territory and to support the introduction of Christianity to Scandinavia . In response , the East Frankish king Louis the German sent a diplomatic mission , headed by Count Cobbo ( one of two court counts ) , to the court of Horik , demanding that the Danish king submit to Frankish overlordship and pay reparations for the invasion . Horik eventually agreed to the terms and requested a peace treaty with Louis , while also promising to return the treasure and captives from the raid . Horik most likely wanted to secure the border with Saxony as he faced a conflict with King Olof of Sweden and domestic struggles . By the treaty , Louis demanded Horik 's obedience , which was further secured by Horik regularly sending embassies and gifts to Louis , and his suspension of support to Viking raiders .
Although many Vikings had died in the plague during the siege of Paris , Ragnar lived to return home to King Horik . According to a story originating from a member of Cobbo 's embassy , Ragnar , having attacked the Abbey of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ des @-@ Prés , then in the outskirts of medieval Paris , and which Cobbo later visited , attributed the plague to the power of Saint Germain of Paris . While Ragnar showed the gold and silver he had acquired to Horik and boasted about how easy he thought the conquest of Paris had been , he reportedly collapsed crying while relating that the only resistance he had met was by the long deceased saint . As several of Ragnar 's men died not long after , the king was so frightened that he ordered the execution of all the survivors , and the release of all his Christian captives . This event , in part , led Horik to receive Archbishop Ansgar , " Apostle of the North " , on friendly terms in his own kingdom .
Vikings would return again and again in the 860s and secure loot or ransom , but , in a turning point for the history of France , the city 's walls would hold against the Vikings ' greatest attacking force in the Siege of Paris ( 885 – 86 ) .
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= Proactiv =
Proactiv , also known as Proactiv Solution , is a brand of skin @-@ care products developed by two American dermatologists , Katie Rodan and Kathy Fields , and launched in 1995 by Guthy @-@ Renker , a California @-@ based direct marketing company . The range includes moisturizers , body washes and hair products , but the brand is known for its three @-@ step anti @-@ acne kit consisting of a cleanser , toner and lotion . Proactiv + , a reformulation of the three @-@ step kit , was introduced in 2013 .
As a result of its celebrity endorsements and infomercials , Proactiv is one of the most popular skincare brands of all time , according to the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology . Sales amounted to $ 800 million a year as of 2010 , with a media budget of nearly $ 200 million and $ 12 – 15 million for celebrity fees . The product is mostly sold online as part of a continuity program . A month after ordering , customers are sent a three @-@ month supply , which continues until the subscription is cancelled . Customers have complained that the subscriptions are hard to cancel .
According to a 2011 review , there have been few studies on the efficacy of Proactiv . A 2011 Consumer Reports study compared Proactiv with two less expensive types of benzoyl peroxide , AcneFree and OXY Maximum , and found all three to be equally effective . The US Food and Drug Administration warned in 2014 that over @-@ the @-@ counter acne treatments can cause severe irritation , as well as rare but life @-@ threatening allergic reactions .
= = History = =
= = = Product development = = =
Proactiv was created in the late 1980s by Katie Rodan and Kathy Fields , who met while at Stanford University School of Medicine .
Proactiv was offered to Neutrogena , which declined it , but its CEO , Allan Kurtzman , suggested selling it via infomercials . Guthy @-@ Renker were already in the infomercial business and agreed to market and distribute it . The first infomercial appeared in October 1995 , offering a money @-@ back guarantee and fast delivery , and featuring Judith Light , who suffered from acne problems herself . Rodan and Fields later founded their own skincare brand , Rodan + Fields .
= = = Guthy @-@ Renker = = =
Guthy @-@ Renker LLC is a direct @-@ response marketing company registered in Palm Desert , California . Founded in 1988 by Bill Guthy and Greg Renker , the company is known as " the Rolls Royce " of the infomercial industry . As of 2012 its portfolio of products was making $ 1 @.@ 8 billion a year . The range includes Victoria Principal 's Principal Secret skincare ( its earliest skincare brand ) , Wen Hair Care , Cindy Crawford 's Meaningful Beauty skincare , the Dean Martin Celebrity Roast DVDs , and the Malibu Pilates Chair .
= = = Nestlé = = =
In March 2016 , Nestlé joined Guthy @-@ Renker as a majority owner of Proactiv .
= = Products = =
Proactiv is a registered trademark of Guthy @-@ Renker . The brand 's primary product is a three @-@ step kit comprising a cleanser , toner and lotion , which sells for $ 20 a month in the United States if purchased as part of the continuity program .
The toner contains glycolic acid , an exfoliant , and witch hazel , an astringent . The active ingredient in the cleanser and lotion , outside Europe , is a 2 @.@ 5 percent concentration of benzoyl peroxide , lower than in most prescription @-@ strength acne treatments . Benzoyl peroxide has been used since 1934 to kill Propionibacterium acnes , the bacterium that causes acne . Several over @-@ the @-@ counter acne treatments contain it , including Clean & Clear , Clearasil , Doctor 's Dermatologic Formula , Neutrogena Advanced Systems , PanOxyl and Stridex .
There is also a three @-@ step program in Extra Strength , with a 7 percent concentration of benzoyl peroxide , and a Gentle Formula that instead contains a 2 percent concentration of salicylic acid , an exfoliant . The three @-@ step kit in Europe is based on salicylic acid ; in the UK it costs £ 39 @.@ 99 ( $ 60 ) for a two @-@ month supply . Other Proactiv products include an oil @-@ free moisturizer that uses octinoxate ( 7 @.@ 5 percent ) and zinc oxide ( 3 percent ) , and an anti @-@ dandruff shampoo with a one percent concentration of zinc pyrithione .
Guthy @-@ Renker introduced Proactiv + in 2013 , charging $ 30 in the United States for a month 's supply if the customer creates a subscription . It is a paraben @-@ free three @-@ step kit comprising a cleanser and toning gel , each with 2 @.@ 5 percent benzoyl peroxide , and a moisturizer with salicylic acid . It is reportedly more hydrating than the original program .
= = Safety and efficacy = =
Proactiv is aimed at customers with mild to moderate acne . According to a 2011 review , there have been few studies examining its efficacy . A 2007 study saw inflammatory lesions reduced by 39 percent in subjects using a combination of butenafine and benzoyl peroxide , compared with 34 percent in those using Proactiv containing only benzoyl peroxide . A physician suggested in Salon that its three @-@ step system might make it easier for teenagers to comply , but that the key to its success lay with its celebrity endorsements .
In 2011 Consumer Reports compared Proactiv ( 2 @.@ 5 percent benzoyl peroxide ) with two less expensive products , AcneFree ( 2 @.@ 5 percent benzoyl peroxide ) and OXY Maximum ( 10 percent benzoyl peroxide ) . At the time a two @-@ month supply of Proactiv cost around $ 40 in the US , AcneFree $ 20 and OXY Maximum $ 5 . Eighty @-@ three subjects , aged 14 to 40 , used one of the products twice a day for eight weeks . The magazine reported that , no matter which product was used , after two weeks around 75 percent of subjects saw a 35 percent reduction in blemishes on average . After eight weeks around 50 – 66 percent saw a 40 percent reduction on average .
Benzoyl peroxide can have a drying effect on the skin , can cause erythema ( redness ) and fine scaling , though these effects are usually mild , and can increase sensitivity to sunlight . One in 500 may experience allergic contact dermatitis . It is categorized as a pregnancy category C agent , " suggesting that its use in pregnancy may not be prudent , " according to a literature review in the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology . If benzoyl peroxide comes into contact with clothing it is likely to bleach it .
The US Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) warned in 2014 that over @-@ the @-@ counter acne products containing benzoyl peroxide and / or salicylic acid , including Proactiv , can cause severe irritation , as well as rare but life @-@ threatening allergic reactions . Consumers were advised to stop using the products if they experience hives or itching , and to seek emergency medical attention if they feel faint , or experience throat tightness , breathing problems , or swelling of the eyes , face , lips or tongue . The FDA noted that it remains unclear whether the reactions are caused by the active ingredients , inactive ingredients or a combination .
= = Sales and marketing = =
= = = Sales = = =
Proactiv is marketed and distributed by Guthy @-@ Renker , and is responsible for about half the company 's revenue . Sales of Proactiv amounted to $ 800 million as of 2010 . Seventy percent of sales were in the United States as of 2007 .
The product is available in some stores , including Boots in the UK , and in kiosks and vending machines ( known as ZoomShops ) in malls and airports through a partnership between American Kiosk Management and Guthy @-@ Renker . But the product is mostly sold online or through a toll @-@ free number directly by Guthy @-@ Renker ; sixty percent of Proactiv orders were placed online as of 2010 .
= = = Continuity program = = =
Guthy @-@ Renker sells Proactiv as part of a continuity program , also known as a negative @-@ option offer , whereby customers are sent repeat orders until they cancel . When purchasing directly from the company , customers automatically become members of a Proactiv club . A month after ordering , and every three months thereafter , they are sent a three @-@ month supply costing $ 60 ( in the US as of 2011 ) , plus shipping and handling . They are billed monthly until they cancel the subscription . The approach is based on the customer lifetime value model .
Customers have complained that they have created subscriptions inadvertently and found them difficult to cancel . The most common complaints about Guthy @-@ Renker , according to Truth in Advertising , are unauthorized billing , difficulty cancelling orders , billing for products that never arrive , unhelpful customer service , and refusing refunds despite money @-@ back guarantees .
= = = Commercials = = =
Guthy @-@ Renker had a media budget of $ 200 million for Proactive as of 2010 , much of it spent on air @-@ time , and was spending another $ 12 – 15 million a year on celebrity endorsements . Justin Bieber for example , was paid $ 3 million over two years . Its infomercials have featured celebrities who have themselves suffered from acne problems ; the list includes Kelly Clarkson , P. Diddy , Avril Lavigne , Lindsay Lohan , Alyssa Milano , Katy Perry , Jessica Simpson , Britney Spears and Vanessa Williams .
According to the New York Times , until 2010 Proactiv infomercials were " fast @-@ talking " and " hard @-@ selling " ; an announcer repeatedly advised viewers to " call now , " and offered faster shipping if the order was placed within three minutes . As infomercials became less popular , Proactiv sales stalled . Since 2010 Guthy @-@ Renker has tried to move the brand into the mainstream cosmetics market , focusing on quality rather than price . It began advertising on network television during shows like American Idol , and in Elle , InStyle and People magazines . It also expanded into social media and mobile marketing . As of 2010 Proactiv had 1 @.@ 5 million views on its YouTube channel , 41 @,@ 000 Facebook fans , and 8 @,@ 700 Twitter followers .
In 2012 the Advertising Standards Authority ( ASA ) in the UK banned some of Proactiv 's advertising as misleading . A viewer complained that the celebrities were likely to have used the US version of Proactiv , which differs from the UK version . According to the ASA , the celebrities had signed statements saying they had used the UK version for a few weeks one to three years earlier , but the advertisements gave the appearance that they had continued to benefit from it , so the viewer 's complaint was upheld .
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= Homer the Heretic =
" Homer the Heretic " is the third episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 8 , 1992 . In the episode , Homer decides to forgo going to church and has an excellent time staying home . His behavior quickly attracts the wrath of God , who visits him in a dream . The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by Jim Reardon . The chalkboard gag from this episode was a reference to the previous episode " A Streetcar Named Marge " , which had made controversial references to New Orleans .
= = Plot = =
On a freezing Sunday morning , Marge gathers the family to go to church . Homer refuses to go , much to her annoyance and dismay , after he sees the weather outside and accidentally tears his church trousers . Staying behind , he sleeps in late , dances in his underwear ( à la Tom Cruise in the film Risky Business ) , makes his special waffle recipe , wins a radio trivia contest , watches an action @-@ packed football game , and finds a penny . Homer attributes his good fortune to skipping church and declares it the best day of his life . Meanwhile , Marge and the kids shiver their way through a rambling sermon , only to find themselves trapped at the end since the door has frozen shut . The congregation is forced to stay longer while Groundskeeper Willie defrosts the doors , and then Marge is unable to start her car because of the cold .
When she and the children finally get home , Marge is horrified to hear that Homer intends to never go to church again . She tries to persuade him otherwise , but to no avail . That night , Marge prays for her husband at their bedside . Homer tries to seduce her while she is doing so , but then falls asleep suddenly and has a dream in which God personally appears to him . God is furious with Homer for forsaking his church . Homer answers that " I 'm not a bad guy , I work hard , and I love my kids ... so why should I spend half my Sunday hearing about how I 'm going to hell ? " God agrees to let Homer worship in his own way . Homer starts following his own religion tailored to his personal tastes , including holidays he invents to get out of work .
Marge , Reverend Lovejoy and Ned Flanders attempt without success to bring Homer back to the congregation . One Sunday morning , while everybody else is at church , Homer falls asleep on the couch smoking a cigar , which ignites some magazines and ultimately sets the whole house ablaze . Homer wakes up but quickly succumbs to the thick smoke and faints . Apu , chief of Springfield 's volunteer fire department , rushes to the Simpson house with other firefighters including Krusty the Clown , Chief Wiggum , and Barney Gumble . Meanwhile , Flanders runs into the burning house to rescue Homer and pulls him out just as the firefighters arrive . After the fire is out , Homer declares that God was delivering vengeance . Reverend Lovejoy counters that God was working through the hearts of Homer 's friends , despite their different faiths . Homer agrees to give church another try and the next Sunday is there , albeit snoring loudly through the service . Appearing in his dreams again , God consoles Homer on the failure of his religion . He starts to tell Homer the meaning of life , but is cut off by the ending credits .
= = Production = =
This episode originated when Al Jean commented to Mike Reiss , " We had a lot of luck with Homer stealing cable , which was based on the eighth commandment , so maybe we could look to other commandments . So we thought , ' Honor the Sabbath ' would be a good one . So the ' Homer doesn 't go to church ' storyline was given to George Meyer . " Reiss and Jean thought that as a lapsed Catholic , Meyer would " bring the proper degree of rage " to the episode . Meyer had a lot of fun making the episode , thinking that most people could relate to the bliss of staying home from church . One of the main problems Meyer had writing this episode is that whenever Homer saw God , he had to have fallen asleep so that it appeared to be a dream . Meyer did not want to show that God was literally appearing to Homer . This resulted in him falling asleep so many times during the first draft of the episode that it was almost as if Homer had narcolepsy . This was also the first episode from season four that was read to the production team . Although first reads on previous seasons had not been well received by the production team , " Homer the Heretic " read very well , particularly some of the visuals in the third act , such as the house on fire and Homer being rescued by Flanders .
This was the first episode of The Simpsons where the animation was produced by Film Roman . Up until this point , Film Roman had mostly worked on Garfield and Friends and Bobby 's World episodes , and were not used to the speed with which The Simpsons episodes were produced . However , they quickly adjusted . Film Roman went on to do the animation for the rest of the series and eventually The Simpsons Movie . Previously , the animation was produced by Klasky Csupo .
The chalkboard gag for this episode , " I will not defame New Orleans " , was made as an apology to the citizens of New Orleans after it was musically insulted in the previous episode .
Along with " Mr. Plow " , a later episode of this season , this is one of the few television episodes that prominently featured snow outside of Christmas or Thanksgiving centric episodes .
In the scene in which Jimi Hendrix and Benjamin Franklin play a game of air hockey in Heaven , Hendrix was supposed to have a speaking line of his own to respond to Jefferson 's line . It was cut late during production because the voice actor for Hendrix did not sound enough like Hendrix . Jefferson 's line was kept because " nobody knows what he sounds like " , whereas Hendrix had a distinct voice .
The abrupt cutting off of God 's voice before he reveals the meaning of life was intended to be cut off by a voiceover promotion for whatever FOX program aired after The Simpsons . However , FOX did not pick up on this and so God 's voice was instead cut off by the show 's credits .
= = Cultural references = =
The brand label on Homer 's shower radio reads " No @-@ Soap , Radio ! " , so @-@ named for the punch line of a well @-@ known practical joke . The scene where Homer dances in his underwear to the Royal Teens song " Short Shorts " is almost identical to a scene in the 1983 Tom Cruise film , Risky Business . The burning floor collapsing beneath Flanders ' feet is a reference to the film Backdraft .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer the Heretic " finished 36th in ratings for the week of October 5 – 11 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , loved the episode . They described it as " A brilliant episode , underlining everything that The Simpsons is about . Homer hates church , Marge wants the kids to see Homer as an example , and everyone pulls together in the end . Good stuff , and if God really is like that , he 's a groovy kind of guy . " In 2012 , HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall cited the episode as his favorite of the show , writing that it " captures everything that was and is great about the series : social satire , extraordinary quotability ( ' This Things I Believe ' ) , a good family story , and an innate sweetness in spite of Homer 's outsized antics . " In 2004 , ESPN.com released a list of the Top 100 Simpsons sport moments , ranking Benjamin Franklin and Jimi Hendrix 's air hockey game , a scene from the episode , at # 83 . The episode 's reference to Risky Business was named the 45th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
The writers of the FOX program King of the Hill put " Homer the Heretic " among the five best episodes of The Simpsons , including " Brother from the Same Planet " , " Lisa 's Wedding " , " Lisa 's Substitute " , and " Behind the Laughter " . When asked to pick his favorite season out of The Simpsons seasons one through twenty , Paul Lane of the Niagara Gazette picked season four and highlighted " Brother from the Same Planet " and " Mr. Plow " which he called " excellent " , along with " the sweetly funny " " Lisa 's First Word " , and " Homer the Heretic " .
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= Willow Grove Park Mall =
Willow Grove Park Mall is a three @-@ story shopping mall located in the unincorporated community of Willow Grove in Abington Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania at the intersection of Easton Road and Moreland Road ( Pennsylvania Route 63 ) . The mall contains over 130 stores along with several restaurants including The Cheesecake Factory . The Willow Grove Park Mall has Bloomingdale 's , Sears , Macy 's , Nordstrom Rack , and JCPenney as anchor stores . It is owned by Pennsylvania Real Estate Investment Trust ( PREIT ) . The Willow Grove Park Mall is the third most profitable mall in the Philadelphia area .
The Willow Grove Park Mall opened in 1982 on the site of the former Willow Grove Park . The mall , developed by Federated Department Stores and The Rubin Organization , was originally anchored by Bloomingdale 's , B. Altman and Company , and Abraham & Straus .
In 2000 , PREIT and the Pennsylvania State Employees ' Retirement System acquired the mall , with a renovation completed in 2001 that added Macy 's as an anchor . PREIT became the sole owner of the mall in 2003 .
= = Location = =
The Willow Grove Park Mall is located on the site of the previous Willow Grove Amusement Park in the unincorporated community of Willow Grove in Abington Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania , 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of Center City Philadelphia in the northern suburbs of the city . The mall is bordered by Pennsylvania Route 63 ( Moreland Road ) to the northeast , Easton Road to the southeast , and Old Welsh Road to the southwest . The mall is located near Pennsylvania Route 611 and is a little more than a mile from the Willow Grove exit of the Pennsylvania Turnpike . The Willow Grove Park Mall serves as a transit hub for four Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority ( SEPTA ) bus routes . The Route 22 bus runs between Olney Transportation Center in North Philadelphia and Warminster via the Willow Grove Park Mall and the Route 55 bus runs between Olney Transportation Center and Doylestown by way of the mall . Both the Route 22 and 55 buses have several trips from Olney Transportation Center that terminate at the Willow Grove Park Mall . The Route 95 bus runs between the Willow Grove Park Mall and Gulph Mills . The Route 310 bus connects the mall to business parks in Horsham . The mall is also near the Willow Grove station on the Warminster Line of SEPTA Regional Rail . The Willow Grove Park Mall has a market area that covers eastern Montgomery County along with Northwest Philadelphia , North Philadelphia , Northeast Philadelphia , and portions of central Bucks County .
= = Stores = =
The Willow Grove Park Mall currently contains five anchor stores . The largest is Bloomingdale 's , which is 237 @,@ 537 square feet ( 22 @,@ 068 m2 ) and opened in 1982 . The Bloomingdale 's store is one of two located in the Philadelphia area . The second largest is Macy 's , which is 225 @,@ 000 square feet ( 20 @,@ 903 m2 ) and opened in 2001 as part of a mall expansion . The third largest anchor store is Sears , which is 175 @,@ 584 square feet ( 16 @,@ 312 m2 ) and opened in 1982 as B. Altman and Company before becoming Sears in 1987 . In 2015 , Sears is reducing its space to 96 @,@ 000 square feet ( 8 @,@ 919 m2 ) on the first floor while leasing 77 @,@ 500 square feet ( 7 @,@ 200 m2 ) of space to Primark , mainly on the second floor . Another anchor space opened in 1982 as Abraham & Straus before becoming Strawbridge & Clothier ( later Strawbridge 's ) in 1988 . Strawbridge 's closed in 2006 , with a part of the former space on the third floor reopening as The Cheesecake Factory in 2007 , which is 10 @,@ 310 square feet ( 958 m2 ) in area , and a 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 697 m2 ) Bravo Cucina Italiana that opened in 2011 . In addition , a relocated two @-@ story 17 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 579 m2 ) Forever 21 opened in a small portion of the former Strawbridge 's in December 2011 . The lower two floors of the Strawbridge 's space became a 114 @,@ 000 square feet ( 10 @,@ 591 m2 ) JCPenney store in 2012 , the mall 's fourth largest anchor . The remaining area of the former Strawbridge 's on the third floor opened as a 41 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 809 m2 ) Nordstrom Rack in 2012 , the mall 's smallest anchor store .
In addition to the anchor stores , the Willow Grove Park Mall contains over 130 smaller stores , including Abercrombie & Fitch , Coach , a two @-@ story H & M , J.Crew , Lucky Brand Jeans , Sephora , Victoria 's Secret , and Williams @-@ Sonoma . The mall also contains a food court with eleven spaces as well as three sit @-@ down restaurants : Bravo Cucina Italiana , The Cheesecake Factory , and T.G.I. Friday 's . As of 2011 , the Willow Grove Park Mall has a nonanchor occupancy rate of 94 @.@ 4 % .
= = History = =
The current site of the Willow Grove Park Mall was originally Willow Grove Park , a popular amusement park that existed from 1896 to 1975 . In 1978 , Federated Department Stores and The Rubin Organization announced plans to build a US $ 25 million mall on the site of the former amusement park . The plans for the mall were approved by Abington in 1979 , which included a downsizing to three anchor stores from four among concerns from residents about the size of the future mall . The Willow Grove Park Mall opened on August 11 , 1982 . The mall was designed with a Victorian theme honoring the former amusement park . The developers of the Willow Grove Park Mall were Federated Department Stores and The Rubin Organization and the architect was RTKL . When the mall opened , the original anchor stores were Bloomingdale 's , Abraham & Straus , and B. Altman and Company . Bloomingdale 's had relocated to the mall from a freestanding store in Jenkintown . When it opened , the Willow Grove Park Mall was intended to be an upscale mall . In 1984 , Federated Department Stores sold its share of the mall to the Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States for US $ 43 million . In 1986 , B. Altman and Company closed its store , which reopened as Sears in 1987 . Sears relocated to the mall from a store in Abington . Around this time , the store selection at the mall broadened to also target the middle class . In 1988 Abraham & Straus closed and became Strawbridge & Clothier , which had relocated to the mall from a store in Jenkintown .
The mall was acquired by PREIT and the Pennsylvania State Employees ' Retirement System in 2000 for US $ 140 million from a group of pension fund clients managed by Lend Lease Real Estate Investments In 2001 , the mall underwent a major renovation which included the addition of Macy 's as an anchor , the construction of a 212 @,@ 000 square feet ( 19 @,@ 695 m2 ) parking garage with 800 parking spaces adjacent to Sears and the food court , and the addition of a carousel at the third floor entrance opposite the food court . The renovation of the mall cost US $ 25 million . PREIT assumed full ownership of the Willow Grove Park Mall in 2003 by acquiring the Pennsylvania State Employees ’ Retirement System 's 70 % share of ownership for US $ 122 @.@ 3 million . In 2005 , a mosaic wall with images from the former Willow Grove Park was installed in the mall . The mosaics were created by the Abington Art Center 's Youth Empowerment Program and the Abington Township Balanced and Restorative Justice Program from designs made by Carol Strinton @-@ Broad . In 2006 , Strawbridge ’ s closed due to the acquisition of its parent company May Department Stores by Federated Department Stores ; a portion of the former store on the upper floor became home to The Cheesecake Factory in September 2007 . The lower two floors were planned to open as Boscov 's ; however , it never opened due to the chain filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2008 .
On July 28 , 2011 , it was announced that JCPenney would open a store on the lower two floors of the vacant Strawbridge 's . In addition , it was announced that Bravo Cucina Italiana and Nordstrom Rack would open stores on the third floor of the former Strawbridge 's . Bravo Cucina Italiana opened in November 2011 while Nordstrom Rack opened in May 2012 . Forever 21 also relocated to a larger store at the former Strawbridge 's site in December 2011 . The JCPenney store opened in October 2012 . On January 30 , 2015 , it was announced that Sears would lease some of its space to Irish retailer Primark . Sears would remain in its space on the first level while Primark will operate in the remainder of the space , mainly on the second level .
On November 25 , 2006 , during one of the busiest shopping weekends of the year after Thanksgiving , a small fire broke out in the Forever 21 store that forced the evacuation of 6 @,@ 000 shoppers ; no injuries were reported . On the evening of June 15 , 2011 , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy from Upper Moreland Township who was smoking synthetic cannabis jumped from the third level of the parking garage , suffering injuries .
= = Economic impact = =
The Willow Grove Park Mall serves as a major regional attraction for Abington Township and is the third most profitable mall in the Philadelphia area . In the Pennsylvania part of the Philadelphia area , the Willow Grove Park Mall is the second most profitable mall after the King of Prussia Mall . The mall is regarded as one of three most successful locations for retailers entering the Philadelphia market due to its location and store selection . In 2011 , the Willow Grove Park Mall saw sales per square foot of $ 400 . The mall employed 1 @,@ 871 people in 2010 , making it the third largest employer in Abington Township with 8 @.@ 06 % of the jobs in the township .
The opening of the Willow Grove Park Mall led to the decline of retail along Old York Road in Abington and Jenkintown , with department stores such as Bloomingdale 's , Sears , and Strawbridge & Clothier relocating from this area to the mall during the 1980s . A Lord & Taylor store in the same area closed in 1989 , but was eventually replaced by the King of Prussia location in 1995 .
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= IK Pegasi =
IK Pegasi ( or HR 8210 ) is a binary star system in the constellation Pegasus . It is just luminous enough to be seen with the unaided eye , at a distance of about 150 light years from the Solar System .
The primary ( IK Pegasi A ) is an A @-@ type main @-@ sequence star that displays minor pulsations in luminosity . It is categorized as a Delta Scuti variable star and it has a periodic cycle of luminosity variation that repeats itself about 22 @.@ 9 times per day . Its companion ( IK Pegasi B ) is a massive white dwarf — a star that has evolved past the main sequence and is no longer generating energy through nuclear fusion . They orbit each other every 21 @.@ 7 days with an average separation of about 31 million kilometres , or 19 million miles , or 0 @.@ 21 astronomical units ( AU ) . This is smaller than the orbit of Mercury around the Sun .
IK Pegasi B is the nearest known supernova progenitor candidate . When the primary begins to evolve into a red giant , it is expected to grow to a radius where the white dwarf can accrete matter from the expanded gaseous envelope . When the white dwarf approaches the Chandrasekhar limit of 1 @.@ 4 solar masses ( M ☉ ) , it may explode as a Type Ia supernova .
= = Observation = =
This star system was catalogued in the 1862 Bonner Durchmusterung ( " Bonn astrometric Survey " ) as BD + 18 ° 4794B . It later appeared in Pickering 's 1908 Harvard Revised Photometry Catalogue as HR 8210 . The designation " IK Pegasi " follows the expanded form of the variable star nomenclature introduced by Friedrich W. Argelander .
Examination of the spectrographic features of this star showed the characteristic absorption line shift of a binary star system . This shift is created when their orbit carries the member stars toward and then away from the observer , producing a doppler shift in the wavelength of the line features . The measurement of this shift allows astronomers to determine the relative orbital velocity of at least one of the stars even though they are unable to resolve the individual components .
In 1927 , the Canadian astronomer William E. Harper used this technique to measure the period of this single @-@ line spectroscopic binary and determined it to be 21 @.@ 724 days . He also initially estimated the orbital eccentricity as 0 @.@ 027 . ( Later estimates gave an eccentricity of essentially zero , which is the value for a circular orbit . ) The velocity amplitude was measured as 41 @.@ 5 km / s , which is the maximum velocity of the primary component along the line of sight to the Solar System .
The distance to the IK Pegasi system can be measured directly by observing the tiny parallax shifts of this system ( against the more distant stellar background ) as the Earth orbits around the Sun . This shift was measured to high precision by the Hipparcos spacecraft , yielding a distance estimate of 150 light years ( with an accuracy of ± 5 light years ) . The same spacecraft also measured the proper motion of this system . This is the small angular motion of IK Pegasi across the sky because of its motion through space .
The combination of the distance and proper motion of this system can be used to compute the transverse velocity of IK Pegasi as 16 @.@ 9 km / s . The third component , the heliocentric radial velocity , can be measured by the average red @-@ shift ( or blue @-@ shift ) of the stellar spectrum . The General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities lists a radial velocity of -11.4 km / s for this system . The combination of these two motions gives a space velocity of 20 @.@ 4 km / s relative to the Sun .
An attempt was made to photograph the individual components of this binary using the Hubble Space Telescope , but the stars proved too close to resolve . Recent measurements with the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer space telescope gave a more accurate orbital period of 21 @.@ 72168 ± 0 @.@ 00009 days . The inclination of this system 's orbital plane is believed to be nearly edge @-@ on ( 90 ° ) as seen from the Earth . If so it may be possible to observe an eclipse .
= = IK Pegasi A = =
The Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram ( HR diagram ) is a plot of luminosity versus a color index for a set of stars . IK Pegasi A is currently a main sequence star — a term that is used to describe a nearly linear grouping of core hydrogen @-@ fusing stars based on their position on the HR diagram . However , IK Pegasi A lies in a narrow , nearly vertical band of the HR diagram that is known as the instability strip . Stars in this band oscillate in a coherent manner , resulting in periodic pulsations in the star 's luminosity .
The pulsations result from a process called the κ @-@ mechanism . A part of the star 's outer atmosphere becomes optically thick due to partial ionization of certain elements . When these atoms lose an electron , the likelihood that they will absorb energy increases . This results in an increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand . The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized and loses energy , causing it to cool and shrink back down again . The result of this cycle is a periodic pulsation of the atmosphere and a matching variation of the luminosity .
Stars within the portion of the instability strip that crosses the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables . These are named after the prototypical star for such variables : Delta Scuti . Delta Scuti variables typically range from spectral class A2 to F8 , and a stellar luminosity class of III ( subgiants ) to V ( main sequence stars ) . They are short @-@ period variables that have a regular pulsation rate between 0 @.@ 025 and 0 @.@ 25 days . Delta Scuti stars have an abundance of elements similar to the Sun 's ( see Population I stars ) and between 1 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ . The pulsation rate of IK Pegasi A has been measured at 22 @.@ 9 cycles per day , or once every 0 @.@ 044 days .
Astronomers define the metallicity of a star as the abundance of chemical elements that have a higher atomic number than helium . This is measured by a spectroscopic analysis of the atmosphere , followed by a comparison with the results expected from computed stellar models . In the case of IK Pegasus A , the estimated metal abundance is [ M / H ] = + 0 @.@ 07 ± 0 @.@ 20 . This notation gives the logarithm of the ratio of metal elements ( M ) to hydrogen ( H ) , minus the logarithm of the Sun 's metal ratio . ( Thus if the star matches the metal abundance of the Sun , this value will be zero . ) A logarithmic value of 0 @.@ 07 is equivalent to an actual metallicity ratio of 1 @.@ 17 , so the star is about 17 % richer in metallic elements than the Sun . However the margin of error for this result is relatively large .
The spectrum of A @-@ class stars such as IK Pegasi A show strong Balmer lines of hydrogen along with absorption lines of ionized metals , including the K line of ionized calcium ( Ca II ) at a wavelength of 393 @.@ 3 nm . The spectrum of IK Pegasi A is classified as marginal Am ( or " Am : " ) , which means it displays the characteristics of a spectral class A but is marginally metallic @-@ lined . That is , this star 's atmosphere displays slightly ( but anomalously ) higher than normal absorption line strengths for metallic isotopes . Stars of spectral type Am are often members of close binaries with a companion of about the same mass , as is the case for IK Pegasi .
Spectral class @-@ A stars are hotter and more massive than the Sun . But , in consequence , their life span on the main sequence is correspondingly shorter . For a star with a mass similar to IK Pegasi A ( 1 @.@ 65 M ☉ ) , the expected lifetime on the main sequence is 2 – 3 × 109 years , which is about half the current age of the Sun .
In terms of mass , the relatively young Altair is the nearest star to the Sun that is a stellar analogue of component A — it has an estimated 1 @.@ 7 M ☉ . The binary system as a whole has some similarities to the nearby system of Sirius , which has a class @-@ A primary and a white dwarf companion . However , Sirius A is more massive than IK Pegasi A and the orbit of its companion is much larger , with a semimajor axis of 20 AU .
= = IK Pegasi B = =
The companion star is a dense white dwarf star . This category of stellar object has reached the end of its evolutionary life span and is no longer generating energy through nuclear fusion . Instead , under normal circumstances , a white dwarf will steadily radiate away its excess energy , mainly stored heat , growing cooler and dimmer over the course of many billions of years .
= = = Evolution = = =
Nearly all small and intermediate @-@ mass stars ( below about 9 M ☉ ) will end up as white dwarfs once they have exhausted their supply of thermonuclear fuel . Such stars spend most of their energy @-@ producing life span as a main @-@ sequence star . The time that a star spends on the main sequence depends primarily on its mass , with the lifespan decreasing with increasing mass . Thus , for IK Pegasi B to have become a white dwarf before component A , it must once have been more massive than component A. In fact , the progenitor of IK Pegasi B is thought to have had a mass between 5 and 8 M ☉ .
As the hydrogen fuel at the core of the progenitor of IK Pegasi B was consumed , it evolved into a red giant . The inner core contracted until hydrogen burning commenced in a shell surrounding the helium core . To compensate for the temperature increase , the outer envelope expanded to many times the radius it possessed as a main sequence star . When the core reached a temperature and density where helium could start to undergo fusion this star contracted and became what is termed a horizontal branch star . That is , it belonged to a group of stars that fall upon a roughly horizontal line on the H @-@ R diagram . The fusion of helium formed an inert core of carbon and oxygen . When helium was exhausted in the core a helium @-@ burning shell formed in addition to the hydrogen @-@ burning one and the star moved to what astronomers term the asymptotic giant branch , or AGB . ( This is a track leading to the upper @-@ right corner of the H @-@ R diagram . ) If the star had sufficient mass , in time carbon fusion could begin in the core , producing oxygen , neon and magnesium .
The outer envelope of a red giant or AGB star can expand to several hundred times the radius of the Sun , occupying a radius of about 5 × 108 km ( 3 AU ) in the case of the pulsating AGB star Mira . This is well beyond the current average separation between the two stars in IK Pegasi , so during this time period the two stars shared a common envelope . As a result , the outer atmosphere of IK Pegasi A may have received an isotope enhancement .
Some time after an inert oxygen @-@ carbon ( or oxygen @-@ magnesium @-@ neon ) core formed , thermonuclear fusion began to occur along two shells concentric with the core region ; hydrogen was burned along the outermost shell , while helium fusion took place around the inert core . However , this double @-@ shell phase is unstable , so it produced thermal pulses that caused large @-@ scale mass ejections from the star 's outer envelope . This ejected material formed an immense cloud of material called a planetary nebula . All but a small fraction of the hydrogen envelope was driven away from the star , leaving behind a white dwarf remnant composed primarily of the inert core .
= = = Composition and structure = = =
The interior of IK Pegasi B may be composed wholly of carbon and oxygen ; alternatively , if its progenitor underwent carbon burning , it may have a core of oxygen and neon , surrounded by a mantle enriched with carbon and oxygen . In either case , the exterior of IK Pegasi B is covered by an atmosphere of almost pure hydrogen , which gives this star its stellar classification of DA . Due to higher atomic mass , any helium in the envelope will have sunk beneath the hydrogen layer . The entire mass of the star is supported by electron degeneracy pressure — a quantum mechanical effect that limits the amount of matter that can be squeezed into a given volume .
At an estimated 1 @.@ 15 M ☉ , IK Pegasi B is considered to be a high @-@ mass white dwarf . Although its radius has not been observed directly , it can be estimated from known theoretical relationships between the mass and radius of white dwarfs , giving a value of about 0 @.@ 60 % of the Sun 's radius . ( A different source gives a value of 0 @.@ 72 % , so there remains some uncertainty in this result . ) Thus this star packs a mass greater than the Sun into a volume roughly the size of the Earth , giving an indication of this object 's extreme density .
The massive , compact nature of a white dwarf produces a strong surface gravity . Astronomers denote this value by the decimal logarithm of the gravitational force in cgs units , or log g . For IK Pegasi B , log g is 8 @.@ 95 . By comparison , log g for the Earth is 2 @.@ 99 . Thus the surface gravity on IK Pegasi is over 900 @,@ 000 times the gravitational force on the Earth .
The effective surface temperature of IK Pegasi B is estimated to be about 35 @,@ 500 ± 1 @,@ 500 K , making it a strong source of ultraviolet radiation . Under normal conditions this white dwarf would continue to cool for more than a billion years , while its radius would remain essentially unchanged .
= = Future evolution = =
In a 1993 paper , David Wonnacott , Barry J. Kellett and David J. Stickland identified this system as a candidate to evolve into a Type Ia supernova or a cataclysmic variable . At a distance of 150 light years , this makes it the nearest known candidate supernova progenitor to the Earth . However , in the time it will take for the system to evolve to a state where a supernova could occur , it will have moved a considerable distance from Earth but may yet pose a threat .
At some point in the future , IK Pegasi A will consume the hydrogen fuel at its core and start to evolve away from the main sequence to form a red giant . The envelope of a red giant can grow to significant dimensions , extending up to a hundred times its previous radius ( or larger ) . Once IK Pegasi A expands to the point where its outer envelope overflows the Roche lobe of its companion , a gaseous accretion disk will form around the white dwarf . This gas , composed primarily of hydrogen and helium , will then accrete onto the surface of the companion . This mass transfer between the stars will also cause their mutual orbit to shrink .
On the surface of the white dwarf , the accreted gas will become compressed and heated . At some point the accumulated gas can reach the conditions necessary for hydrogen fusion to occur , producing a runaway reaction that will drive a portion of the gas from the surface . This would result in a ( recurrent ) nova explosion — a cataclysmic variable star — and the luminosity of the white dwarf rapidly would increase by several magnitudes for a period of several days or months . An example of such a star system is RS Ophiuchi , a binary system consisting of a red giant and a white dwarf companion . RS Ophiuchi has flared into a ( recurrent ) nova on at least six occasions , each time accreting the critical mass of hydrogen needed to produce a runaway explosion .
It is possible that IK Pegasi B will follow a similar pattern . In order to accumulate mass , however , only a portion of the accreted gas can be ejected , so that with each cycle the white dwarf would steadily increase in mass . Thus , even should it behave as a recurring nova , IK Pegasus B could continue to accumulate a growing envelope .
An alternate model that allows the white dwarf to steadily accumulate mass without erupting as a nova is called the close @-@ binary supersoft x @-@ ray source ( CBSS ) . In this scenario , the mass transfer rate to the close white dwarf binary is such that a steady fusion burn can be maintained on the surface as the arriving hydrogen is consumed in thermonuclear fusion to produce helium . This category of super @-@ soft sources consist of high @-@ mass white dwarfs with very high surface temperatures ( 0 @.@ 5 × 106 to 1 × 106 K ) .
Should the white dwarf 's mass approach the Chandrasekhar limit of 1.4M ☉ it will no longer be supported by electron degeneracy pressure and it will undergo a collapse . For a core primarily composed of oxygen , neon and magnesium , the collapsing white dwarf is likely to form a neutron star . In this case , only a fraction of star 's mass will be ejected as a result . If the core is instead made of carbon @-@ oxygen , however , increasing pressure and temperature will initiate carbon fusion in the center prior to attainment of the Chandrasekhar limit . The dramatic result is a runaway nuclear fusion reaction that consumes a substantial fraction of the star within a short time . This will be sufficient to unbind the star in a cataclysmic , Type Ia supernova explosion .
Such a supernova event may pose some threat to life on the Earth . It is thought that the primary star , IK Pegasi A , is unlikely to evolve into a red giant in the immediate future . As shown previously , the space velocity of this star relative to the Sun is 20 @.@ 4 km / s . This is equivalent to moving a distance of one light year every 14 @,@ 700 years . After 5 million years , for example , this star will be separated from the Sun by more than 500 light years . A Type Ia supernova within a thousand parsecs ( 3300 light @-@ years ) is thought to be able to affect the Earth , but it must be closer than about 10 parsecs ( around thirty light @-@ years ) to cause a major harm to the terrestrial biosphere .
Following a supernova explosion , the remnant of the donor star ( IK Pegasus A ) would continue with the final velocity it possessed when it was a member of a close orbiting binary system . The resulting relative velocity could be as high as 100 – 200 km / s , which would place it among the high @-@ velocity members of the galaxy . The companion will also have lost some mass during the explosion , and its presence may create a gap in the expanding debris . From that point forward it will evolve into a single white dwarf star . The supernova explosion will create a remnant of expanding material that will eventually merge with the surrounding interstellar medium .
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= Ideology of the SS =
The ideology espoused by the Schutzstaffel ( " Protection Squadron " ; SS ) , a paramilitary force and instrument of terror of the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany , emphasized a racist vision of " racial purity " , antisemitism , and loyalty to Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany .
SS men were indoctrinated with the belief they were members of a " master race " . The ideology of the SS was , even more so than in Nazism in general , built on the belief in a superior " Aryan race . " This led to the SS playing the main role in political violence and crimes against humanity , including the Holocaust and " mercy killing " of those with congenital illnesses . After the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II , the SS and Nazi Party were found to be criminal organizations at the Nuremberg Trials .
= = Ideological foundations = =
The ideology of the SS was built upon and mainly congruent with Nazi ideology . At its center laid the belief in a superior " Nordic race " and the " inferiority " of other races . The SS also served as the central institution for the extension of Nazi ideology and its realisation . Representing the ideological opponents of the regime in one form or fashion , historian George C. Browder identified the Nazi state 's list of enemies as follows : enemy states , miscegenation , the Jews , Catholicism , freemasonry , Communism , the Republic ( hostility directed at the liberal republican constitution and form of government ) , homosexuality , moral decay , capitalists , and the " Old Guard " ( hate and fear of traditionally powerful influences and institutions of the old society as unjust , retarding influences in German society ) . All of these " enemies " became the focus of the main power instrument of Nazi totalitarianism , the SS , as they sought to direct and influence ideology and ethics within the Reich .
Himmler intended for the SS to be a hierarchical system of " ideological fighters " from the organization 's inception . The SS proved to be that and more , becoming the instrument most responsible for the actualization of Nazi beliefs . SS ideology comprised perhaps the single most significant philosophical dimension of Nazism , employing in the process , ontological , anthropological , and ethical elements to their methods under the guise of science , shaping the Nazi state 's doctrine and crystallizing ideals ( no matter how callous ) into dogmatic truths . SS principles and thinking provided pseudo @-@ scientific rationales for the devaluation of humanity , and ideological justification for Nazi violence and genocide .
The SS placed an intense emphasis in their indoctrination upon elitism and portrayed themselves as part of an " elite " order which " explicitly modelled [ themselves ] on an historical version of religious orders , such as the Teutonic Knights or the Jesuits , whose dedication to a higher idea was admired in these otherwise anti @-@ clerical circles " . Even though Himmler and the other SS leaders repeatedly demanded sobriety within their ranks , alcoholism was a frequent problem with SS @-@ men . 700 members were excluded from the SS for " listlessness and laziness " in 1937 / 38 alone . A further 12 @,@ 000 left the SS in the same period for unknown reasons , calling into question the institution 's claims of " loyalty for life " .
= = Indoctrination = =
The strict training program was focused on the fundamental ideological principles of the Nazi Party , namely the belief in a " superior Nordic race " , loyalty and absolute obedience to Adolf Hitler , and hatred for those who were considered " inferior people " , with great emphasis on antisemitism . Students studied the most anti @-@ Semitic passages of Mein Kampf ( " My Struggle " ) , Hitler 's autobiographical manifesto , and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion , a fraudulent anti @-@ Semitic document first published in Russia in 1903 , which purported to describe a Jewish plan for global domination . The SS educational leaders were also responsible for general anti @-@ religious training , which was part of the Nazi attempt at " reversing the bourgeois @-@ Christian system of values . " Educational training was clearly linked with " racial selection , at the end of which stood the ' weeding out ' and selective breeding of human beings " ; this facet coincided the impending Nazi effort to Germanize Europe and formed part of the policy for the racial @-@ imperialist conquest in the East .
Following the Nazi seizure of power in 1933 , membership in the SS grew considerably , prompting an increase in ideological instruction . The SS @-@ Schulungsamt took over the task of heading the educational matters of the SS , led by Karl Motz . The SS published two additional magazines for ideological propaganda : the monthly FM @-@ Zeitschrift , funded by 350 @,@ 000 non @-@ member financial patrons of the SS , and the weekly Das Schwarze Korps , the second biggest weekly paper in Nazi Germany .
Beginning in 1938 , the SS intensified the ideological indoctrination of the Hitler @-@ Jugend Landdienst ( " Hitler Youth Land Service " ) . It set out the ideal of the German " Wehrbauer " ( " Soldier Peasant " ) . Special high schools were created under SS control to form a Nazi agrarian " elite " that was trained according to the principle of " blood and soil " . While SS leader Heinrich Himmler remained concerned about the racial elitism of his SS , it was Reinhard Heydrich , Himmler 's deputy and protégé , who focused his attention on their political indoctrination through the creation of " racial detectives " who would become Hitler 's " ideological Shock Troops " . This being done through the Sicherheitsdienst ( Security Service ; SD ) which was tasked with the detection of actual or potential enemies of the Nazi leadership and the neutralization of any opposition . The SD used its organization of agents and informants , all part of the development of an extensive SS state and a totalitarian regime without parallel .
The SS practiced a wide variety of disciplinary measures , with punishments composed of reprimands , prohibition to wear the uniform , detention , demotion , suspension , and expulsion . Contrary to claims made by many SS @-@ members after 1945 , no one had to fear being incarcerated in a concentration camp for delinquencies . Starting in June 1933 , the SS had its own courts to deal with crimes and misdemeanors within its ranks . On 17 October 1939 , Himmler succeeded in having the SS put under its own special jurisdiction . Once this change occurred , SS @-@ members could no longer be tried in civil courts .
= = Racial policies = =
Consistent with the eugenic and racial policies of the Third Reich , Himmler advocated racial elitism for his SS members . Throughout the existence of the SS , its members were regularly encouraged to procreate to maintain and increase the " Aryan @-@ Nordic bloodline ; " the SS members , along with their wives and children , were to become an exclusive racial community ( Sippengemeinschaft ) within the Nazi state . Along these lines , Himmler stated on 8 November 1937 at a Gruppenführer meeting in Munich in the officers ' quarters :
The SS is a National Socialist order of soldiers of Nordic race and a community of their clans bound together by oath ... what we want for Germany is a ruling class destined to last for centuries and the product of repeated selection , a new aristocracy continuously renewed from the best of the sons and daughters of our nation , a nobility that never ages , stretching back into distant epochs in its traditions , where these are valuable , and representing eternal youth for our nation .
Hitler subscribed to these views and once remarked that the " elite " of the future Nazi state would stem from the SS since " only the SS practices racial selection . " Wives of SS members were scrutinized accordingly for their " racial fitness " , and marriages had to be approved through official channels as part of the SS ideological mandate . According to their ideology , SS men were believed to be the bearers of the very best of the so @-@ called Nordic blood , and it was their ideological tenets and scholarly justifications that shaped numerous Nazi actions and policies , merging racial determinism , Nordicism , and antisemitism .
An SS Doctors ' Leader School was established in the small village of Alt @-@ Rehse which encouraged the practice of " racial hygiene " and focused on the future of " German genetic streams " ( deutsche Erbströme ) . Medical journal articles written by SS intellectuals stressed the importance of genetic heritage , arguing that " biology and genetics are the roots from which the National Socialist worldview has derived its knowledge , and from which it continues to derive new strength . " In order to promote its role as a preserver of the Germanic heritage , the SS founded the Ahnenerbe institute in 1935 . It conducted anthropological , historic , and archeologic studies to provide scientific backing to Himmler 's ideological ideas . In the years until 1939 , the institute worked in a hybrid state between important findings such as the Viking village Hedeby and erratic studies into the Welteislehre and medieval witch @-@ hunts , which Himmler thought to have been murders committed by the Roman Catholic church against Germanic women of " good blood " . After World War II started , the Ahnenerbe was heavily involved in experiments conducted in concentration camps , costing the lives of thousands of inmates .
Not only was contact with racial " others " a concern , but attrition through war was an additional factor . Fear of losing a large percentage of Germanic racial stock once the Second World War began drove SS ideology , as victory in the field could not prevail without a corresponding biological legacy of children to carry on the mission . Himmler stressed that SS men were obliged to procreate to preserve Germany 's genetic legacy so the " master race " could secure and sustain the " Thousand Year Reich " of the future .
However , SS men did not fulfill the expectations : at the end of 1938 , 57 % of the members were still unmarried , only 26 % had fathered a child and just 8 % had reached Himmler 's desired goal of at least four children . Also in 1935 , the SS initiated Lebensborn , an association created to provide unmarried , pregnant women of " good blood " with opportunities to deliver their children , who were then given up for adoption into families deemed racially suited . The Lebensborn facilities were situated in remote locations , guaranteeing the anonymity of the women . Lebensborn was only moderately successful , producing only an estimated 8 @,@ 000 - 11 @,@ 000 births in the ten years of its existence .
After the beginning of World War II , the SS recruited large numbers of non @-@ Germans from the " inferior races " espoused by the Nazi and SS ideology . To justify this contradiction , Himmler began to stress a shared European identity more strongly in the early 1940s , promising that " all those who are of good blood will be given the possibility to grow into the German Volk " . According to historian Mark P. Gingerich , of the one million Waffen @-@ SS men who served during the war , over half were not even German citizens .
= = Attitude toward religion = =
According to Himmler biographer Peter Longerich , Himmler saw a main task of the SS to be that of " acting as the vanguard in overcoming Christianity and restoring a Germanic way of living " as part of preparations for the coming conflict between " humans and subhumans " . Longerich wrote that , while the Nazi movement as a whole launched itself against Jews and Communists , " by linking de @-@ Christianisation with re @-@ Germanization , Himmler had provided the SS with a goal and purpose all of its own . " Himmler was vehemently opposed to Christian sexual morality and the " principle of Christian mercy " , both of which he saw as a dangerous obstacle to his planned battle with " subhumans " . In 1937 , he said that the movement was an era of the " ultimate conflict with Christianity " and that " It is part of the mission of the SS to give the German people in the next half century the non @-@ Christian ideological foundations on which to lead and shape their lives . "
The SS developed an anti @-@ clerical agenda : no chaplains were allowed in its units ( although they were allowed in the regular army ) . The Sicherheitsdienst ( Security Service ; SD ) department of the SS and Gestapo under Reinhard Heydrich were used to identify and assist other Nazi organizations in suppressing Catholic influence in the press , youth clubs , schools , publications , " pilgrimages and processions " .
Himmler used the Jesuits as the model for the SS , since he found they had the core elements of absolute obedience and the cult of the organisation . Hitler is said to have called Himmler " my Ignatius of Loyola " . As an order , the SS needed a coherent doctrine that would set it apart . Himmler attempted to construct such an ideology , and deduced a " pseudo @-@ Germanic tradition " from history . Himmler dismissed the image of Christ as a Jew and rejected Christianity 's basic doctrine and its institutions . In a 1936 memorandum , he set forth a list of approved holidays based on pagan and political precedents meant to wean SS members from their reliance on Christian festivities . Starting in 1934 , the SS hosted " solstice ceremonies " ( Sonnenwendfeiern ) to increase team spirit within their ranks . In an attempt to replace Christianity within the SS with the new doctrine , SS @-@ men were able to choose special Lebenslauffeste , substituting common Christian ceremonies such as baptisms , weddings and burials . Since the ceremonies were held in small private circles , it is unknown how many SS @-@ members opted for these kind of celebrations .
= = = Rejection of Christian precepts = = =
Many of the concepts promoted with the SS violated accepted Christian doctrine , but neither Himmler nor his deputy Heydrich expected the Christian church to support their stance on abortion , contraception or sterilization of the unfit – let alone their shared belief in polygamy for the sake of racial propagation . This did not however represent disbelief in a higher power from either man nor did it deter them on their ideological quest . In fact , atheism was banned within the SS as Himmler believed it to be a form of egotism that placed the individual at the center of the universe , and thus constituted a rejection of the SS principle of valuing the collective over the individual . All SS men were required to list themselves as Protestant , Catholic or Gottgläubig ( " Believer in God " ) . Himmler preferred the neo @-@ pagan " expression of spirituality " . Still , by 1938 " only 21 @.@ 9 percent of SS members described themselves as gottgläubig , whereas 54 percent remained Protestant and just under 24 percent Catholic . " Belief in God among the SS did not constitute adherence to traditional Christian doctrine nor were its members consummate theologians , as the SS outright banned certain Christian organizations like the International Bible Research Association , a group whose pacifism the SS rejected . Dissenting religious organizations like the Jehovah 's Witnesses were severely persecuted by the SS for their pacifism , failure to participate in elections , non @-@ observance of the Hitler salute , not displaying the Nazi flag , and for their non @-@ participation in Nazi organizations ; many were sent to concentration camps where they perished . Heydrich once quipped that any and all opposition to Nazism originated from either " Jews or politicized clergy . "
= = = Neo @-@ pagan doctrine = = =
In order to promote his religious ideas and link them to an alleged Germanic tradition , Himmler began to establish cult sites . The most important of these was the Wewelsburg , close to Paderborn . The SS leased the castle in 1934 , after Himmler had first seen it in November 1933 while campaigning with Hitler . Originally planned as a school for high ranking SS @-@ men , the castle soon became the object of far reaching construction plans , with an aim at establishing the Wewelsburg as the " ideological center " of the SS and its pseudo @-@ Germanic doctrine . In accordance with the other efforts of Himmler to replace Christian rituals and establish the SS as the Nazi " elite " , the Wewelsburg received special rooms , such as crypts , a General 's hall with a sun wheel embedded in the floor and a crest hall . As a second location , Himmler ordered for a memorial of 4 @,@ 500 giant foundlings to be placed near Verden an der Aller , the scene of the infamous Massacre of Verden in 782 , calling the place Sachsenhain . At the sight of the Externsteine , which at the time was believed to be close to the scene of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest , Himmler ordered excavations to take place there in order to prove that Christian monks had destroyed a Germanic cult site known as Irminsul during the Middle Ages . As a last site of Himmler 's cult , the SS took over and remodelled Quedlinburg Abbey , burial place of Henry the Fowler , who was celebrated by Himmler for his refusal to be anointed by a Roman bishop .
Himmler also instituted these rites and rituals to try and foster a greater sense of belonging to a fraternal order . For example , each year on the anniversary of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch , the SS men duty @-@ bound for the military units were sworn in at 10 : 00 pm in front of Hitler . There by torchlight they swore " obedience unto death " .
However , these attempts to establish a new , neo @-@ pagan religion were not successful . Historian Heinz Höhne observes that the " neo @-@ pagan customs " Himmler introduced into the SS " remained primarily a paper exercise " . Most of Himmler 's attempts to link " old Teutonic " traditions into the spiritual life of the SS and society at large were criticised by the Church as a form of " new heathenism . " Although the SS never endorsed Christian beliefs , the traditional rituals and practices of the Christian faith were generally tolerated and respected . According to Bastian Hein , two reasons contributed to Himmler 's Ersatz religion never catching on : On the one hand , Himmler himself was in a constant search for religious certainty , leaving his doctrine vague and unclear . On the other hand , Hitler personally intervened after the churches lamented the " neo @-@ heathenish " tendencies within the SS , telling Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg to " cut out the cultic nonsense " .
= = Culture of violence = =
The SS was built on a culture of violence , which was exhibited in extreme form by the mass murder of civilians and prisoners on the Eastern Front . Historian Hans Buchheim wrote that the mentality and ideal values of the SS men were to be " hard , " with no emotions such as love or kindness ; hatred for the " inferior " and contempt for anyone who was not in the SS ; unthinking obedience ; " camaraderie " with fellow members of the SS ; and an intense militarism that saw the SS as part of an " elite order " fighting for a better Germany . The principal " enemy " of the SS , represented as a force of uncompromising , utter evil and depravity , was " world Jewry " . Members of the SS were encouraged to fight against the " Jewish Bolshevik sub @-@ humans " .
The SS value of " fighting for fighting 's sake " could be traced back to the values of the front @-@ line German soldiers in World War I and the post @-@ war Freikorps , and in turn led SS members to see violence as the highest possible value , and conventional morality as a hindrance to achieving victory . The SS mentality fostered violence and " hardness " . The ideal SS man was supposed to be in a state of permanent readiness . As historian Hans Buchheim quips , " the SS man had to be forever on duty . " For members of the SS their mentality was such that for them , nothing was impossible no matter how arduous or cruel , to include the " murder of millions " . SS men who attempted to live by that principle of violence had an unusually high suicide rate . The " soldierly " values of the SS were specific to the German post @-@ World War I concept of the " political soldier " who was indoctrinated to be a " fighter " who would devote his life to struggling for the nation .
Although not an SS document , the 1930 book Krieg und Krieger ( " War and Warriors " ) , edited by Ernst Jünger , with contributions by Friedrich Georg Jünger , Friedrich Hielscher , Werner Best and Ernst von Salomon , served as an excellent introduction to the intellectual traditions from which the SS ideal arose . The essays in Krieg und Krieger called for a revolutionary reorganization of German society , which was to be led by " heroic " leaders who would create a " new moral code " based upon the idea that life was a never @-@ ending , Social Darwinian " struggle " that could only be settled with violence . The book claimed that Germany had only been defeated in the First World War because the country had been insufficiently " spiritually mobilized " , and what was required to win the next war was the proper sort of " heroic " leaders , unhindered by conventional morality , who would do what was necessary to win . The values of the " heroic realism " literature gloried the principle and practice of fighting to the death regardless of the military situation .
Out of the intellectual heritage of the " heroic realism " literature came a rejection of the traditional values of Christianity and the enlightenment ( principles which were considered too sentimental ) ; what emerged in its place was a cold indifference to the value of human life . Marriage of the image of the " fighter " from " heroic realism " literature and the practical need of the SS to serve as political cadres for the National Socialist state , led to the elevation of the concept of " duty " as the highest obligation of the SS man . The SS ethos called for " achievement for achievement 's sake " , where achievement ranked as the highest measurement of success . As such , winning at all costs regardless the sacrifice became a supreme SS virtue . The SS principle of loyalty above all , as reflected in the official slogan " My honour is loyalty " , was severed from traditional moral considerations and instead focused entirely upon Hitler . The idealized and distorted version of German history which was espoused was intended to instill pride in SS men . Himmler admonished the SS against pity , neighborly love , and humility , instead celebrating hardness and self @-@ discipline . Indoctrinating the SS to perceive racial " others " and state enemies as undeserving of their pity , helped create an environment and a mental framework where the men saw acts of wanton violence against those same enemies , not as a crime , but part of their patriotic obligation to the Nazi state .
= = Ideology of genocide = =
As historian Claudia Koonz points out , " the cerebral racism of the SS provided the mental armor for mass murderers . " When Himmler visited Minsk and witnessed a mass killing of 100 people , he made a speech to the executioners emphasizing the need to put orders over conscience , saying that " soldiers ... had to carry out every order unconditionally " . According to historian George Stein , unquestioning obedience and " submission to authority " on the part of the SS represented one of the ideological " foundation stones " to combat the party 's enemies . As the Waffen @-@ SS took part in the invasions of eastern European countries and the Soviet Union , the men wrote of their " great service in saving western civilization from being overrun by Asiatic Communism . "
One Waffen @-@ SS recruiting pamphlet told potential members that answering the call meant being " especially bound to the National Socialist ideology , " a doctrine which implied both an ideological battle and a racial struggle against subhumans ( Untermenschen ) accompanied by an unprecedented brutalization of warfare . Participation in the " repellant task " of becoming psychologically involved in the killings was a rite of initiation of sorts and showed just how " internalized " the Nazi beliefs were for members of the SS . It was also part of the rhetoric of legitimation that gave meaning to their acts of extermination and habituated the SS to an ideology of genocide .
Special SS death squads known as Einsatzgruppen were used for large @-@ scale extermination and genocide of Jews , gypsies , Asians , and communists . On 17 June 1941 , Heydrich briefed the leaders of the Einsatzgruppen and their subordinate units on the general policy of killing Jews in the Soviet lands . SD member Walter Blume later testified that Heydrich called Eastern Jews the " reservoir of intellectuals for Bolshevism , " and said that the " state leadership held the view that [ they ] must be destroyed . "
The SS Einsatzgruppen were supplemented by the specially created Order Police ( drawn from Germany and / or the local populations ) who were indoctrinated by the SS to also take part in mass killings . One Order Police participant named Kurt Möbius testified during a postwar trial , that he believed the SS propaganda about the Jews being " criminals and sub @-@ humans " who had caused " Germany 's decline after the First World War . " He went on to state that evading " the order to participate in the extermination of the Jews " never entered his mind . One SS officer , Karl Kretschmer , " saw himself as a representative of a cultured people fighting a primitive , barbaric enemy , " and wrote to his family of the need to desensitize himself from the mass killings . Burleigh and Wippermann write : " Members of the SS administered , tortured , and murdered people with a cold , steely precision , and without moral scruples . "
The SS and its accompanying principles represented the realization of Nazi ideology and played a crucial role in the extermination of European Jews that followed the Nazis ' rise to power . As historian Gerald Reitlinger states , while the idealism and machinery of the SS as a state within a state will all be forgotten , their acts of " ... racial transplantations , the concentration camps , the interrogation cells of the Gestapo , the medical experiments of the living , the mass reprisals , the manhunts for slave labor and the racial exterminations will be remembered forever . "
Historian Hans Buchheim argues there was no coercion to murder Jews and others , and all who committed such actions did so out of free will . He wrote that chances to avoid executing criminal orders " were both more numerous and more real than those concerned are generally prepared to admit " . Buchheim commented that until the middle of 1942 , the SS had been a strictly volunteer organization , and that anyone who joined the SS after the Nazis had taken over the German government either knew or came to know that he was joining an organization that would be involved in atrocities of one sort or another . There is no known record of an SS officer refusing to commit an atrocity ; they willingly did so , and then cherished the awards they received for doing it .
Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or firing squad by SS Einsatzgruppen units , but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of the scale carried out by the Nazi state . In August 1941 , SS leader Himmler attended the shooting of 100 Jews at Minsk . Nauseated and shaken by the experience , he was concerned about the impact such actions would have on the mental health of his SS men . He decided that alternate methods of killing should be found . On his orders , by spring 1942 the camp at Auschwitz had been greatly expanded , including the addition of gas chambers , where victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B. By the end of the war , at least eleven million people , including 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews and between 200 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Romani people had been killed by the Nazi state with assistance by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries . Acting on Hitler 's orders , Himmler was a main architect of the Holocaust and the SS was the main branch of the Nazi Party that implemented it .
= = Post @-@ war = =
On 23 May 1945 , Himmler , who had been responsible for so much of the SS doctrine and that of the Nazi state , committed suicide after he was captured by the Allies . Other senior members of the SS fled . Chief of the Reich Main Security Office , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner , who was the ranking member of the SS upon Himmler 's suicide , was captured in the Bavarian Alps and tried at the Nuremberg Tribunal along with other leading Nazis like Hermann Göring , Joachim von Ribbentrop , Alfred Rosenberg , Hans Frank , among others . Kaltenbrunner was convicted of crimes against humanity and executed on 16 October 1946 .
Other SS intellectuals and physicians were also brought to trial and convicted , including the SS Ahnenerbe doctors who killed the enfeebled and / or disabled persons deemed " unworthy to live " or who performed medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners . During questioning after the war , many of the SS doctors from the concentration camps avowed that the allegiance they had sworn to Hitler superseded any of the rituals performed at medical school to say nothing of the Hippocratic Oath they had otherwise ignored . SS members absolved themselves through the pseudo @-@ scientific justification that they were merely acting as instruments ( men of action ) on behalf of the German people in pursuit of " racial hygiene . " Similar strategies of negation and dismissal of responsibility were displayed by SS men during their post @-@ war trials , either by way of legitimizing their actions as a result of unconditional obedience to their superiors ( intimating responsibility onto them ) or through the use of innocuous sounding bureaucratic language .
Given the impact that the Nazi ideology had on the European continent in causing a catastrophic war and unparalleled crimes , the Allied powers determined Germany shall be demilitarized and the country divided into four occupation zones . They also began the process of denazification ( Entnazifizierung ) . This was essentially an effort to " purge " the German people of the Nazi ideology that had pushed them to war and resulted in the Holocaust . Astonishingly , many members of the SS , including some from the upper echelons , faced little more than a stint in a POW camp , a short denazification hearing and were treated with " remarkable leniency " .
= = = Online = = =
" Introduction to the Holocaust " . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Retrieved 7 October 2015 .
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= Indestructible ( Disturbed album ) =
Indestructible is the fourth studio album by the American heavy metal band Disturbed . A self @-@ produced effort , Indestructible is the first Disturbed album that did not feature Johnny K , the producer of Disturbed 's previous three albums , The Sickness , Believe , and Ten Thousand Fists . Indestructible was recorded at Groovemaster Studios in Chicago , Illinois . The album features two songs , " Perfect Insanity " and " Divide " , that were written by Disturbed prior to their first album , The Sickness , but were never previously released .
The album features significantly darker themes than any of Disturbed 's previous work , according to the band . Some of the lyrical themes involve actual experiences that vocalist David Draiman had endured over the course of the past few years prior to making the album , including " bad relationships " , a motorcycle accident that he was involved with , and an incident of suicide . To match the aggressive attitude and nature of said themes , Draiman told the other band members to create darker , more textural music than they have before . Despite these themes , the title track , " Indestructible " , is meant to encourage those in the military that are fighting in wars and boost their morale .
Indestructible was released on June 3 , 2008 in Compact Disc format , and also as two different limited edition and special edition digipaks , debuting at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 , making it the third consecutive number @-@ one debut by Disturbed on that chart , which had only been achieved by five other rock bands prior to the album 's release . The album also shipped over 253 @,@ 000 units in its opening week . Indestructible was met with mixed reviews by critics , earning a score of 57 % on review @-@ aggregating website Metacritic , based on six reviews . The album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in April 2009 for shipping over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The single " Inside the Fire " was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award in the " Best Hard Rock Performance " category .
= = Recording and production = =
After touring in support of the band 's previous album , Ten Thousand Fists , the band took a break . During this time , drummer Mike Wengren got married , and guitarist Dan Donegan had a child . In February 2007 , after the break was over , the band went to Groovemaster Studios in Chicago , Illinois and began writing music . Indestructible is Disturbed 's first self @-@ produced effort , without Johnny K acting as producer , as he did on the band 's previous albums , The Sickness , Believe , and Ten Thousand Fists . The band was comfortable with self @-@ producing , despite having Johnny K produce two consecutive number @-@ one albums , and this being their first time without him . As vocalist David Draiman reasoned , " we learned it , and we 'd like to try [ self @-@ producing ] . "
Early in the writing process , Donegan created guitar riffs . The rest of the band then listened to the riffs , and wrote the rest of the music , with the riffs being the base . As Donegan commented , " The writing process is ... pretty much the same since the beginning ... of this band . It 's always been riffs ; something musically that I 'll come up with [ that begins the writing process ] . " Wengren commented , " We 're always tossing around riffs and beats , but it isn 't really until we get home and we are able to clear our minds , decompress for a little bit , and then hit it , especially Danny and I , and just start throwing the riffs and the beats out , that the music starts to finally come to life . " Bassist John Moyer left the studio during the recording process , due to his wife being pregnant . Donegan and Wengren sent him demos through e @-@ mail , and he continued to write bass lines for the songs from his home studio . Regarding electronics on the album , Donegan said , " When the basic guitar , bass , [ and ] drums were being laid down , at first I didn 't really see a whole lot of room for some of the electronics , but as the songs were starting to develop , I was just in that frame of mind to try and toy around with some of the electronics . "
When the instrumentation was completed , Draiman began to write melody lines for each song . Draiman commented , " I 'm a big believer in the vibe of the music and the feel of it , how the song makes you feel musically should dictate what it is to be about and so if you start with something that has meaning , but the music doesn 't support the meaning , then what good is it ? " The first song completed musically was " The Night " , and Draiman completed the melody line in three days . This caused Draiman to tentatively call the record The Night . As Draiman recalled , " The instrumentation was so cool and so dark and textural that I right away kind of jumped into it . " When the first batch of songs were completed , the band sent them out to their record label , Reprise Records , and waited for their approval to continue writing more songs . After they received approval , they wrote the rest of the songs featured on the album .
Wengren commented , " We thought it would be pretty cool , especially for the fans , if we brought back maybe a song or two , that were actually written during the same period that The Sickness songs were written . Danny brought in some old demo tapes , I 'm talking twelve years old , back when ' Down With the Sickness ' and ' Stupify ' [ sic ] , and all that stuff was written , this was actually written before that . " The songs that Wengren was referring to were " Perfect Insanity " , and " Divide " . The band also recorded a version of the song " Midlife Crisis " , which was originally performed by Faith No More . Draiman comments , " We took the song , revamped it and modernized it to our current level , and the version 's killer . " However , the song did not make it into the final track listing of the album , and is instead featured on Covered , A Revolution in Sound . This version of " Midlife Crisis " later appeared on The Lost Children , the band 's first compilation album .
= = = Titling the record = = =
Indestructible took the longest amount of time to title when compared to Disturbed 's previous records , according to Wengren . The band had originally wanted to title the record The Night , because it was the first track to be completed , and it defined the musical direction the band wanted to use with Indestructible . The record had a song whose working title was " Defend " , but it eventually was re @-@ titled " Indestructible " . When the title was changed , the band felt the title had , as Donegan reasoned , " made a bigger statement " . Draiman said they titled the record Indestructible because the title " ... kind of symbolizes the fact that we 're still fucking here , that we haven 't been destroyed , that we withstood the test of time . "
Regarding the choice of the title , Moyer commented , " Usually there 's some name or phrase that sort of sums up , you know , what the vibe of the record 's about , so this one 's Indestructible , and it is an aggressive record , this record 's about kicking ass . " Donegan , commenting on the meaning of the title , stated , " We feel that we 've become indestructible to be able to survive this long in the business , and continuing a success with it . " Draiman concluded , " We have been through a lot . No matter what gets thrown at us , as a band , no matter what happens in the musical environment , we 're still here , we 're still viable , and still standing . "
= = Musical style and lyrical themes = =
Vocalist David Draiman states that , lyrically , the album was inspired by various occurrences of bad luck that happened to him . " I had a motorcycle accident , and I had my garage burn down with most of my vehicles , " Draiman commented . " ... I 've had really bad relationships that I 've been in and out of . They 've left their mark " , he concluded . The song " Indestructible " is " an anthem for soldiers " , Draiman comments . " It 's meant to be something that would make them feel invincible , take away their fear , make them strong and that 's what this whole body of work on this record does . It 's music to help you feel strong , " he concludes . Cuts such as " Deceiver " and " Inside the Fire " are about " really bad relationships " . " Inside the Fire " is about " standing over the body of my girlfriend , who just killed herself , and the Devil is standing over me , whispering in my ear to kill myself , " says Draiman . The song " The Night " is , " just kind of meant to portray the night almost as like a living entity that sets you free . You 're enveloped by it , enmasked by it , " Draiman comments . The band 's vocalist also says the song " Perfect Insanity " is about " toying with the idea of insanity . Coming at you from the perspective from the individual who is [ insane ] and warning people around him , particularly his love interests , about his psychotic tendencies . " Draiman says the track " Divide " " is meant to detract from the idea ' oh , let 's all be one , let 's all be united ! ' Fuck that , be yourself , be an individual , stand out , make your mark , make an impact . " Commenting on the meaning of the song " Façade " , Draiman says it is , " ... a song from the perspective of a girl in a relationship where she 's abused ... she 's thinking about killing him , like you see on the news . "
To match the themes Draiman had in mind , he told his bandmates , " give me your darkest , nastiest , [ most ] aggressive tribal rhythmic shit you can throw at me " . Prior to the release of the album , guitarist Dan Donegan supported this , stating , " musically , it 's a lot ballsier than we 've written [ before ] . " He continued , saying , " [ We 're ] trying to get a good blend of the elements of the past three CDs to try to evolve into something fresh and new for us as well . " Dan Marsicano of 411mania commented on the song " Perfect Insanity " , claiming it has " ... a short but sweet shredding solo , double bass drum work , and fast picked riffing ... " . He goes on to propose the same for the song " Divide " , saying it " follows the same pattern [ as " Perfect Insanity " ] , with aggressive guitar work followed through by Draiman 's vocals ... " Marsicano also proposes that " Inside the Fire " has " ... a memorable solo and a dark theme surrounding it , " and says that " The Night " is an " epic @-@ sounding track that has one of the best solos that Donegan has ever done and a catchy chorus . " Chris Akin of Metaleater proposes that the album is full of hooks , and that guitarist Donegan takes a " much more 80s approach " , due to his guitar solos . Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone proposes that the album contains " meticulously constructed guitar skronk , serrated verses and cathartic refrains " .
= = Promotion = =
The marketing campaign for Indestructible began in late 2007 , with a strategy of releasing content for fans early and often . Promotion began with distributing stickers at live events . Reprise Records also partnered with Hot Topic retailers , who thereafter put an Indestructible album teaser on all Disturbed merchandise , and eventually began selling a limited edition 7 " vinyl record with two songs from the album on it . In March 2008 , Disturbed performed a concert in Kuwait for United States military stationed there . The concert was streamed live on MySpace , and more than three million people viewed it . In February 2008 , an audio sample was posted on Disturbed 's MySpace profile to promote Indestructible . The sample , titled " Perfect Insanity " , is actually a song written early in the band 's career that never previously appeared on an album , but was expected to appear on the album . The track was later made available for download , in its entirety , on Disturbed 's website for promotional purposes . Another sample , titled " Inside the Fire " , appeared on Rock on the Range 's MySpace profile in March 2008 . The track was anticipated to be the first single released from the album , with a music video directed by Nathan Cox . On March 24 , 2008 " Inside the Fire " debuted on more than sixty radio stations . It was released for digital download the next day . On May 2 , 2008 the music video for " Inside the Fire " debuted on Disturbed 's website .
In April 2008 , a limited edition pre @-@ order digipak of Indestructible was made available for order exclusively through Disturbed 's website . The limited edition package featured the entire album , a B @-@ side track entitled " Run " , a DVD featuring a documentary about the making of the album and some instructional videos , a " wrap @-@ around " poster , a special VIP laminate which grants access to special Disturbed events through 2009 , and a special code which grants access to the " Inside the Fire " special website add @-@ on . Another special edition pre @-@ order of the album was on iTunes Music Store , and featured three live bonus tracks , as well as the entire album . Yet another pre @-@ order of the album allowed customers who pre @-@ ordered the album through Best Buy retailers to download the two songs , " Inside the Fire " , and " Indestructible " as playable content on the video game Rock Band . Three songs from Disturbed 's first online concert performance at DeepRockDrive were mastered and featured on the EP Live & Indestructible . On August 20 , 2008 a music video directed by Noble Jones for the album 's third single and title track , " Indestructible " , was posted on Disturbed 's website . The single was released digitally on September 29 , 2008 , and the music video was officially available for purchase the next day , packaged with the EP Live & Indestructible . Jones also directed the music video for the fourth single from Indestructible , " The Night " , in January 2009 , and it was released in late March 2009 .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
On the review @-@ aggregating website Metacritic , Indestructible received a score of 57 % , based on six reviews . Being the first self @-@ produced effort by the band , they had more leeway to create music without any outside interference , suggests 411mania writer Dan Marsicano . He concludes that the self @-@ production also led to a lack of guidance , though , which ultimately works against the album , rather than helping it . Guitarist Dan Donegan 's guitar work was praised , and About.com writer Chad Bowar notes many songs on the album are guitar @-@ driven . Metaleater writer Chris Akin also praises Donegan , saying , " If there is growth in the band , it 's in the guitars . Dan Donegan takes a much more 80s approach than he has on past recordings . " Allmusic writer James Monger praised Indestructible , suggesting that rather than taking melodic elements from acts like Pantera , like Disturbed 's previous records are suggested to , the album takes musical elements from acts such as Metallica or AC / DC .
Indestructible did , however , receive criticism . IGN writer Jim Kaz proposes that vocalist David Draiman has an " overly @-@ forced " vocal delivery . Kaz also finds , " The tunes are largely similar in style and structure ... In essence , there 's very little that stands out . " He goes on to say that the album already seems obsolete , " There 's just too much of the very recent past on Indestructible to move away from it . So in effect , it sounds a bit dated ... already . " It is also suggested that , although possessing a reliably solid foundation , the album lacks a meaning behind its drive : " They wind up sounding a little lost on Indestructible , stabbing their weapons without any reasons behind each parry , " says PopMatters writer Andrew Blackie .
= = = Sales and impact = = =
Indestructible shipped over 253 @,@ 000 units in its opening week . It is also Disturbed 's third consecutive studio album to debut at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 , and remain in the top ten for five weeks , making Disturbed one of six bands to ever achieve three consecutive number @-@ one debuts . It also peaked at number @-@ one in Canada , Australia , and New Zealand . Indestructible was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in July 2008 , for shipping over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , and was certified platinum in April 2009 , shipping over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in United States . The album has also sold over one million copies worldwide . The album 's lead single , " Inside the Fire " , received significant radio airplay . The single remained at number one on Mediabase 's Active Rock chart for fourteen weeks , setting a record as the longest running number @-@ one single on that specific chart . " Inside the Fire " was also nominated for a 2009 Grammy award in the " Best Hard Rock Performance " category . The title track , " Indestructible " , also reached number @-@ one on Mediabase 's Active Rock chart , making it Disturbed 's second number @-@ one song on that chart in 2008 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Disturbed .
The two bonus tracks , " Run " and " Parasite " , are both included on the band 's b @-@ side compilation , titled The Lost Children .
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Line @-@ up ( Band members ) = = =
David Draiman : Lead Vocals
Dan Donegan : Lead / Rhythm Guitars
John Moyer : Bass Guitars , Backing Vocals
Mike Wengren : Drums , Percussion
= = = Production staff ( Additional lineup ) = = =
Produced by Dan Donegan ; co @-@ produced by David Draiman and Mike Wengren
Engineered and additional production by Tadpole , assisted by Justin Wilks
Pro Tools by Tadpole and Cameron Webb
Mixed by Neal Avron , assisted by Nick Fournier
Mastered by Ted Jensen
Photography – Joey Lawrence
Cover illustration – David Finch
Art direction and design – Matt Taylor
A & R – Jeff Aldrich
Management – JBM
Legal – Jeffrey Light for Myman , Abell , Fineman , Greenspan & Light , LLP
Business – David Weiss & Associates
North American booking – Daryl Eaton & Rick Roskin for CAA
International booking – Emma Banks for CAA
Merchandise – Bravado
= = = " The Making ( Indestructible ) " = = =
Directed by Rafa Alcantara
Produced by Adam Cook and TWENTYFOURCORE Productions
Production assistant – Dan Fusselman
Edited by JT Smith and Rafa Alcantara
DVD post producer – David May
DVD associate producer – Raena Winscott
DVD Authoring – Jim Atkins for Media Services
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= M @-@ 75 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 75 is a 11 @.@ 768 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 18 @.@ 939 km ) segment of state trunkline highway located in Charlevoix County in the U.S. state of Michigan . This highway serves as a loop off US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) , providing access to Boyne City . The highway happens to be geographically close to Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) , but they are not related .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 75 begins in downtown Boyne Falls at an intersection with US 131 . It follows Mill Street northwesterly out of town , passing to the north of a lake and the Boyne Mountain Airport . The airport property ends at the intersection with C @-@ 48 west of Boyne Falls . M @-@ 75 runs parallel to the Boyne River until it turns west near the Boyne City Municipal Airport to enter the community of Boyne City on East Division Street . Two blocks further west , it meets C @-@ 73 / East Jordan Road next to the Maple Lawn Cemetery . Next to the cemetery , the highway follows Boyne Avenue northwesterly into downtown . The trunkline turns north on East Street to cross the Boyne River and then turns east on State Street passing Rotary Park on the way out of town . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) measures the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) in traffic surveys . AADT is a measure of the average traffic levels for a section of roadway on any given day of the year . The southern segment of M @-@ 75 carried 6 @,@ 500 vehicles daily in the 2007 survey . Of these vehicles , commercial traffic was measured at 280 trucks .
East of Boyne City , M @-@ 75 turns northward and runs in that direction until turning again to follow the south shore of Walloon Lake . There it follows North Shore Drive into the town of Walloon Lake . M @-@ 75 ends at an intersection with US 131 . The roadway continues eastward as C @-@ 81 / Springvale Road . This northern segment carried 4 @,@ 100 vehicles and 170 trucks in 2007 . Neither segment is listed on the National Highway System , a system of strategically important highways .
= = History = =
In 1919 , the trunkline running through Boyne City was originally labeled M @-@ 57 . In 1927 , the entire highway was renumbered , and since this change , the trunkline has carried the M @-@ 75 moniker . The M @-@ 75 designation was left unaltered when US 27 between Gaylord and Indian River was converted to a freeway ; this freeway was redesignated as I @-@ 75 in 1962 . Some states , such as California , do not allow two highways in their state to carry the same highway number , which is not the case in Michigan . A reconstruction project in 1966 bypassed some sharp curves in the roadway and straightened sections between Boyne City and Walloon Lake . As of 2008 , the highway remains unaltered since the reconstruction .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Charlevoix County .
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= Battle of Kupres ( 1992 ) =
The Battle of Kupres ( Bosnian , Croatian , Serbian : Bitka za Kupres ) was a battle of the Bosnian War , fought between the Bosnian Croat Territorial Defence Force ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) supported by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) troops on one side and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) , augmented by the Bosnian Serb TO on the other at the Kupres Plateau , on 3 – 11 April 1992 . During the fighting on 8 April the Bosnian Croat TO was reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) . The objective of the battle was control of the strategic Kupres Plateau , controlling a major supply route .
The opposing sides began bringing in reinforcements to the Kupres Plateau on 5 March to strengthen positions held around individual settlements populated by different ethnic groups , communications between those positions , and roads leading away from the plateau to the north and south . Different parts of the town of Kupres were controlled by the opposing forces , while the adjacent territory surrounding the town was controlled by the Bosnian Croat TO . In turn , that territory was surrounded by Bosnian Serb TO @-@ held territory . By the end of the month , the bulk of the civilians living in the area were evacuated . On 2 April , negotiations to defuse the situation failed while the reinforcements continued to arrive . The battle commenced the next day . In Kupres itself , the Bosnian Croat TO achieved minor territorial gains on 4 – 5 April , before the JNA managed to advance to the outskirts of the town the next day . The JNA entered Kupres in the afternoon of 7 April and in the next few days , it successfully drove the Croatian forces from the plateau . The breakthrough came about after the infantry originally deployed to the battle was reinforced by an armoured battalion deployed from Knin .
Croatian forces were hampered by an inadequate command structure , poor coordination and lack heavy weapons . The battle resulted in more than 200 killed on both sides , and established lines of control which would remain unchanged until 1994 , when the plateau was recaptured by the HVO . In 2012 , Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Croats with war crimes committed at the plateau against civilians and prisoners of war . The next year , Croatian authorities charged 21 former JNA members with war crimes against HVO prisoners captured at the Kupres Plateau .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the implementation of the Vance plan , it was reorganised into a new Bosnian Serb army . This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . This declaration was later cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . On 27 March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , drawing a border crossing by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) 108th Brigade in response .
Control of the Kupres area was contested by Bosnian Serbs and Croats . Before the war , the former represented the majority of the population on the Kupres Plateau , comprising a total of 51 percent of its inhabitants , while Croats accounted for 39 percent . The JNA deployed an armoured unit based in Mostar to the plateau in May 1991 . The bulk of the force moved to Knin three months later , while a tactical group of the 30th Partisan Division redeployed to the general area as it withdrew from Slovenia after the Ten @-@ Day War . In September , the Bosnian Croats established the Territorial Defence Force ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) headquarters which set up armed volunteer units . By November , these units had been organised as the Kupres Battalion . The battalion consisted of five companies and an independent platoon . A Central Intelligence Agency report described the unit as a " barely organized collection of mostly local villagers and townspeople " . The arming of the various forces was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991 . In early 1992 , the 30th Partisan Division was subordinated to the JNA 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps and assigned Kupres as its area of responsibility ( AOR ) . The division , likely comprising only 2 @,@ 000 troops , was under the command of Colonel Stanislav Galić . As of 19 March , the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps was under command of Lieutenant General Momir Talić .
In April , the Bosnian Serbs were able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The Bosnian Croats could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the Bosniaks were largely unprepared for combat with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , but small arms for less than half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons .
= = Prelude = =
On 5 March , the Bosnian Serb TO requested equipment for two companies mobilised in villages around Kupres — Malovan , Rilić and Ravno . The mobilisation was motivated by poor military intelligence provided by the 30th Partisan Division . It indicated the presence of thousands of HV and Bosnian Croat troops in the vicinity of Kupres , supported by Leopard 1 tanks drawn from a contingent of approximately 100 Leopards that the JNA believed had been delivered to Croatia . In response , the division was tasked to deploy its elements to Kupres , Ključ , Mrkonjić Grad , Šipovo , Jajce and the Mount Vlašić , take command of the Bosnian Serb TO and repel the expected Croatian attack . In order to achieve this , the division mobilised the 1st , 13th and 19th Partisan Brigades — assigning Kupres to the 19th Brigade as its AOR . By 23 March , the brigade received mobilised troops sufficient to set up three companies . Their immediate task was to block the Malovan and Kupreška Vrata mountain passes . The next day , the divisional commander toured the plateau and was informed that the Bosnian Croat forces were in control of the villages of Olovo , Osmanlije and Zlosela , in addition to Kupreška Vrata . On 26 March , the Bosnian Serb TO battalion based in Malovan was subordinated to the 19th Partisan Brigade . At this time , both sides had a relatively small portion of their force inside Kupres , while the Bosnian Croat TO held the area adjacently surrounding the town . The Bosnian Serb TO and the JNA completely controlled the areas surrounding the Bosnian Croat TO force .
The Malovan @-@ based battalion set up its first roadblock on 26 March , and the Kupres Battalion established its own checkpoints in response the following day . On 27 March , an attempt to reach a negotiated settlement failed and the commanding officer of the 19th Partisan Brigade announced that armed combat might start at a moment 's notice . The news prompted the evacuation of civilians of all ethnicities on 27 – 28 March . According to the daily report of the 30th Partisan Division of 29 March , the Kupres Plateau was deserted except for able bodied and armed men . The same report noted that the JNA could not deploy to Kupres itself without a fight . The JNA was convinced that the HV had intervened at Kupres to threaten the Bosnian Serbs . Kupres had a high strategic value , because it sat astride a road linking the towns of Bugojno and Tomislavgrad from the central Bosnia region to western Herzegovina and further on to Croatia .
= = = Reinforcements = = =
On 29 March , the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps of the JNA decided took the initiative around Kupres , redeploying elements of the 1st Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade to the Kupres Plateau , along with units drawn from the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , and the 293rd Engineer Regiment . A company of the 3rd Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade was also moved to the plateau on the following day , while the rest of the brigade was ordered to be ready to move to Kupres . The Kupres Battalion of the Bosnian Croat TO mobilised an additional 200 troops in Kupres the same day . On 31 March , the strengthened 1st Motorised Battalion of the 11th Motorised Infantry Brigade , drawn from the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , arrived at the Kupres Plateau . The battalion was strengthened by the addition of a battery of five 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortars , six 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) howitzers , three 76 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) ZiS @-@ 3 guns and a platoon of 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) recoilless rifles .
In the afternoon of 2 April , a five @-@ hour meeting of local political leaders took place in Kupres , at the request of JNA . The purpose of the meeting , attended by members of Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Biljana Plavšić and Franjo Boras , was to defuse the situation . While there was an agreement to establish an ethnically balanced police force in Kupres and remove the roadblocks , the opposing sides could not agree on the role of the JNA . The Bosnian Serbs wanted the JNA to deploy to Kupres itself to ensure their protection , while the Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks wanted it to leave . During that same day , the 30th Partisan Division ordered the forces under its command , as well as the recent reinforcements , to capture Kupres and Kupreška Vrata and then hold their ground against anticipated Croatian counterattacks . Bosnian Croat authorities ordered the mobilisation of TO units in the nearby towns of Tomislavgrad and Posušje , with an armoured force at their disposal consisting of two T @-@ 55 tanks , two M36 tank destroyers , and one BVP M @-@ 80 infantry fighting vehicle .
There were 100 – 200 HV troops in Kupres during the battle . Those included a group drawn from the 204th Brigade , led by Robert Zadro ( son of late Blago Zadro , former commander of the 3rd Battalion of the brigade ) . During the fighting , elements of the Zrinski Battalion reached Kupres , while relatively small groups of soldiers drawn from the Frankopan Battalion and the 4th Guards Brigade arrived when the battle was nearly over . A company drawn from the 126th Infantry Brigade was deployed in Šuica , but it is unclear if it actively took part in the battle . There were also Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) units raised in Tomislavgrad and Posušje , which were involved in the fighting around Kupres . At the time , overall command of the Bosnian Croat forces was held by Brigadier Milivoj Petković .
= = Timeline = =
= = = 3 April = = =
According to the JNA , the Bosnian Croat TO attacked in the morning of 3 April , reached the village of Donji Malovan and blockaded the Kupreška Vrata Tunnel by 7 : 30 a.m. The village was captured by Croats after three hours of combat , and the fighting shifted towards the village of Gornji Malovan and Kupres . By the end of the day , the Bosnian Serb TO force in Gornji Malovan was besieged . The JNA instructed the Yugoslav Air Force to attack after it received reports that 15 HV tanks had appeared on the battlefield . The 30th Partisan Division staff amended the plans formulated the previous day and advanced with elements of the 11th Motorised Brigade towards Kupres via Zlosela , against positions held by the Kupres Battalion at 1 : 15 p.m. The change of plans enabled elements of the 13th Partisan Brigade to catch up to them by 6 : 00 p.m. and caused the attack to fail .
Following news of the fighting , the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps called on its troops deployed in western Slavonia to reinforce the 30th Partisan Division . The corps felt it could weaken its positions in western Slavonia because the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) peacekeepers were expected to deploy there by the end of the month based on the Vance plan . Those troops consisted of the Volunteer Battalion of the 5th Corps , and they were augmented by the 2nd Howitzer Battalion of the 5th Mixed Artillery Regiment . The 1st Battery of the 5th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Defence Regiment was also added to the battalion .
= = = 4 – 5 April = = =
On 4 April , the Bosnian Croat TO captured Gornji Malovan . At the same time , the Bosnian Croat TO received reinforcements from Posušje , as well as a company from Bugojno and Uskoplje each . Fighting intensified as the JNA reinforcements arrived . A part of the Croatian reinforcements , which had just arrived from Bugojno and Uskoplje , fled after coming under attack near Zlosela . However , the JNA failed to achieve a breakthrough — even with five attack helicopters deployed in support of its advance towards Zlosela and Kupreška Vrata at 1 : 30 p.m.
The forces attacking towards Kupreška Vrata were redeployed the next day to assist in the advance towards Zlosela . In Kupres itself , the Bosnian Croat TO secured the western part of the town , as well as Gornji Malovan . Regardless , no significant territory changed hands . Although the 9th ( Knin ) Corps dispatched ten tanks to Kupres from its 9th Tank Company , commanded by Colonel Slavko Lisica , only four of them reached Kupres , as six broke down along the way . In the town of Kupres itself , the Bosnian Croat TO was reinforced by the arrival of a group drawn from the HV special forces Zrinski Battalion . The 30th Partisan Division lost contact with the JNA troops ( 1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade ) in Kupres at 1 : 00 p.m.
= = = 6 April = = =
At dawn on 6 April , the JNA launched a fresh attack towards Kupres and Kupreška Vrata , leaving the bulk of the 13th Partisan Brigade in reserve and employing the rest of the force at the plateau . The artillery was used so intensely that the 30th Partisan Division had to request resupply of its depleted stocks . The most effective part of the advance was the 9th Tank Company , which quickly pushed through the defensive positions , bypassed Zlosela and reached Olovo . In contrast , the Bosnian Croat TO command in Kupres was overwhelmed by the complexity of the situation and could not track which units it had at its disposal — even losing track of units physically near the command post .
The JNA further reinforced its position at the Kupres Plateau by ordering the redeployment of the 9th Armoured Battalion of the 9th ( Knin ) Corps to the area . It also established the Operational Group 11 ( OG @-@ 11 ) which was to take over the operation on 7 April , when the AOR of the 9th Corps was extended to the region . At the same time , the armoured and mechanised assets of the force were organised into the Tactical Group 1 ( TG @-@ 1 ) , commanded by Lisica . By the end of the day , the divisional reserve was committed to the battle , and the JNA claimed that they had captured Zlosela , Olovo and Osmanlije , as well as reaching the outskirts of Kupres . The Bosnian Croat TO captured the centre of Kupres and brought the 1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade into a difficult position , only to begin withdrawing towards Tomislavgrad after the main JNA force reached the town in the night of 6 / 7 April . Likewise , the Bosnian Croat TO started to pull back from Kupreška Vrata .
= = = 7 April = = =
On 7 April , the bulk of the 9th Armoured Battalion arrived on the battlefield , adding 17 T @-@ 55s , eight M @-@ 60 APCs and five BVP M @-@ 80s . The unit entered Kupres in the late afternoon , followed by two battalions of the 13th Partisan Brigade . A battalion of the 11th Motorised Brigade performed mopping up operations in the Zlosela area . A part of the Bosnian Croat TO force was retreating in disarray , while a portion of the force was trapped in Kupres and Zlosela , trying to break out . In the evening , as the mop @-@ up of the Olovo and Osmanlije area was completed , the OG @-@ 11 ordered attacks against Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan . The next day , the TG @-@ 1 received a commendation by the commander of the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , Major General Ratko Mladić .
= = = Final operations = = =
After it captured Kupres , the OG @-@ 11 turned south , in the direction of Gornji Malovan , Donji Malovan and Šuica . The attack , spearheaded by the 9th Armoured Battalion , reached Gornji Malovan on 10 April , the day Robert Zadro was killed . Fighting continued around Kupres until 11 April . Most of the Bosnian Croat TO troops , formally reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) on 8 April , withdrew from the Kupres Plateau towards Šuica , while a small portion of the troops was forced to retreat via the Mount Cincar towards Livno .
= = Aftermath = =
Sources disagree on the number of Bosnian Croat and HV casualties . Their number is variously reported as 160 or 177 killed . The Bosnian Serbs and the JNA sustained losses of 85 killed and 154 taken prisoner of war . The JNA also captured 23 Bosnian Croat TO troops . The figures are reported to include 19 civilian deaths on each side . Even though the Serbian media initially reported that the villages of Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan had been torched and razed to the ground , the information proved to be incorrect — the settlements sustained relatively minor damage . Conversely , Croat- or Bosniak @-@ inhabited villages were looted and torched . Zlosela suffered extensive damage — the village school was the only structure with a roof left in place .
Command and coordination of the Bosnian Croat forces had been particularly poor throughout the battle . HV General Janko Bobetko arrived in Tomislavgrad on 11 April to find that a company of the HV 126th Infantry Brigade , deployed to Šuica , had left its positions on its own accord . The move was followed by preparations for the evacuation of Šuica in expectation of a JNA advance south from Kupres . Bobetko managed to turn the 126th Brigade back to Šuica , persuading them to defend the town overnight in order to defend the entire region . It is not clear if the OG @-@ 11 intended to continue its advance towards Šuica though . Soon after the Battle of Kupres , a portion of the 9th Armoured Battalion was transferred to Glamoč to support the Bosnian Serb TO attack towards Livno there . The lines of control stabilised and would not shift in the area for more than two years , until the 1994 Battle of Kupres . By mid @-@ May 1992 , Bosnian Serb forces controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = = War crime charges = = =
In 2012 , Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Bosnian Croat officials and HVO officers with the killings of 19 Serb civilians , and 20 members of the Bosnian Serb TO in the area of Kupres in 1992 . The charges also pertained to the abuse of 18 prisoners of war captured in the Battle of Kupres . In 2013 , Croatian authorities in Šibenik charged 21 former members of the JNA with the abuse of 23 HVO prisoners of war . The charges specify that the prisoners were detained and abused in Knin prison between 24 April and 14 May . The abuse is alleged to have caused the deaths of two of the prisoners and grave injuries to three others .
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= Alex Rhodes ( footballer ) =
Alexander Graham " Alex " Rhodes ( born 23 January 1982 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Isthmian League Premier Division side Margate . He predominantly plays as a left winger but also as a striker .
Rhodes started his career with Eastern Counties League Premier Division side Newmarket Town , where he came to prominence after scoring hat @-@ tricks in three successive games in 2003 . Rhodes scored 20 goals in the early part of the 2003 / 04 season , including 14 goals in 11 games in the league . After trials with several Football League clubs , he joined Brentford in November 2003 and scored the goal that ensured they were not relegated six months later . Rhodes scored five goals during his four seasons at Brentford , which were hampered by injury and included loan spells at Swindon Town and Grays Athletic . He signed for Bradford City in August 2007 but was released after one season , before joining Rotherham United . A loan spell at Woking was followed by his release from Rotherham in May 2009 , when he dropped back out of the Football League to join Oxford United . He played just four games before leaving Oxford by mutual consent , and moved to Braintree Town , initially on a short @-@ term deal . Rhodes rejoined Grays Athletic in January 2010 , but was released at the end of the 2009 – 10 season .
= = Personal life = =
Alex Rhodes was born on 23 January 1982 in Cambridge , Cambridgeshire . He first attended a football game at his hometown side Cambridge United but grew up as a Liverpool fan . As well as football , he played cricket as a youngster . Rhodes is nicknamed " Tiger " , because of his likeness to golfer Tiger Woods .
Rhodes had a tattoo of a 142 @-@ word quotation inked onto his leg in November 2008 ; the passage was originally written by peace activist Marian Williamson . It took five hours to inscribe onto Rhodes ' leg . Rhodes said he had the tattoo done because " I had a few knock @-@ backs when I was younger , when people were telling me I was too small , but I ’ ve always been determined to prove them wrong and I just feel this quotation is appropriate for me and my life . "
= = Career = =
= = = Newmarket Town = = =
Rhodes started his football career at non @-@ League side Newmarket Town , breaking into the club 's youth team at the age of 17 . He combined his early years at the club with work as a coach at Cambridge Regional College . During the 2002 – 03 season , Rhodes scored more than 30 goals . He continued his goal @-@ scoring form the following season and three successive hat @-@ tricks in September 2003 attracted the attention of league scouts , including Norwich City , Cambridge United and Yeovil Town . He scored 21 goals for Newmarket in the Eastern Counties League during the first four months of the 2003 – 04 season . After trials with Yeovil , Norwich and Ipswich Town , Rhodes signed with Brentford in November 2003 for £ 10 @,@ 000 . It was the first time Brentford had paid a transfer fee for a player since Jean @-@ Philippe Javary three years earlier , with the money donated by the club 's fans . In his final game with Newmarket , he scored a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 3 victory against Great Yarmouth Town .
= = = Brentford = = =
Rhodes made his Brentford debut on Boxing Day 2003 in a 2 – 1 defeat to Bristol City but had to wait more than four months for his second game . He scored his first senior goal in his third game to ensure Brentford avoided relegation from the Second Division when they defeated Bournemouth 1 – 0 .
Rhodes returned to Newmarket Town for a pre @-@ season friendly game with Brentford in August 2004 , during which he scored a hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 0 win . It helped him to win a place in the first team , and he scored on the first day of the 2004 – 05 season when Brentford lost 3 – 1 to Chesterfield . It was not until November 2004 that he scored his second goal in another defeat — 2 – 1 to Bradford City . Five days later , he scored the winning penalty against Bristol City to take Brentford through to the second round of the FA Cup . In December , Rhodes scored in successive games , first in the league against Sheffield Wednesday , then another penalty in the FA Cup as Brentford 's 2 – 1 victory against Hinckley United set up a third round tie with Luton Town . He was unable to play in the third round tie after he suffered a serious knee injury against Walsall which kept him out of action for the rest of the season . Although Rhodes had been a regular in the Brentford squad , his 22 league games included just four starts .
Injury again hit Rhodes ' 2005 – 06 season , during which he scored just one goal in a 2 – 1 victory over Yeovil Town . He started just five league games during the season , as Brentford reached the League One play @-@ offs . Rhodes started the second leg of the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals but a 2 – 0 defeat to Swansea City denied them a place in the final .
He made 11 appearances for Brentford at the start of the 2006 – 07 season , but on 10 October 2006 , Rhodes signed for League Two side Swindon Town on a month 's loan deal . He made his debut for Swindon against Grimsby Town , when he had a goal disallowed . Rhodes played just four games for Swindon all as substitute without scoring before returning to Brentford , before being immediately placed on the transfer list by Brentford manager Scott Fitzgerald . Rhodes played another three games for Brentford and had a trial with Yeovil Town in January 2007 but stayed with Brentford . In March 2007 , he was loaned out again , to Conference side Grays Athletic for seven weeks . He played 12 league games and twice in the FA Trophy during his spell at Grays , scoring once in each competition , before he returned to Brentford in time to play in their final game of the season . Rhodes was offered a new contract by new Brentford manager Terry Butcher but turned it down and left the club on 25 June 2007 . He played 65 games in all competitions for Brentford , but two @-@ thirds of those were as substitute , scoring just six goals .
= = = Bradford City = = =
After trials with League Two sides Darlington and Bradford City , Rhodes signed for the latter on a short @-@ term deal . He made his debut in City 's first game of the season when they drew 1 – 1 with Macclesfield Town in a team featuring six new players . He scored his first goal in a 2 – 1 win over Chester City on 6 November 2007 . He extended his stay at Bradford City until the end of the season in January 2008 . Despite signing a new contract , injury kept Rhodes out of the side at the start of 2008 until 23 February when he scored his second Bradford goal in a 3 – 1 victory at Notts County after coming on as substitute . His performance in the Notts County victory earned him a place in the starting side three days later when he again scored in a 3 – 2 win against Rotherham United . On 29 April , he was one of 13 players released by manager Stuart McCall . Rhodes played a total of 30 games for Bradford , but started only 11 of those , scoring three goals .
= = = Rotherham United = = =
In June 2008 , Rhodes returned to League Two , when he signed a one @-@ year deal with Rotherham United , after their manager Mark Robins was impressed by Rhodes ' performance against them the previous season . Rotherham were deducted 17 points at the start of the 2008 – 09 season because of improperly exiting administration . They started the season with a 1 – 0 against Lincoln City , in which Rhodes made his debut before he was substituted in the second half . He scored his first goal for Rotherham in a League Cup first round tie against local rivals Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough on 12 August 2008 . Rhodes ' goal game only seconds after Wednesday had opened the scoring , before the game finished 2 – 2 . Rotherham eventually won through to the second round on penalties . His first league goal for the club came less than two weeks later as Rotherham beat Chester City 3 – 1 to maintain their winning start to the season . Rhodes was a regular in the Rotherham side at the start of the season as the team overhauled their point deduction to go above Grimsby Town in the league , but he was dropped for a game against his former side Bradford City in November 2008 . He briefly returned to the side the following month for a Football League Trophy area semi @-@ final with Darlington , which Rotherham won on penalties , but did not play again until the two sides met once more in a league game at the end of January 2009 .
It was only a brief return to the side and two months later Rhodes joined Conference National side Woking on loan for the rest of the season . His debut for Woking came two days later in the club 's 1 – 1 draw with Wrexham , with Rhodes being substituted towards the end of the second half by Joel Ledgister . He played three games for Woking , scoring one goal . Rhodes returned to Rotherham but was released by the club having played 18 games and scoring four goals during his one season stay .
= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =
Having been released , Rhodes returned to the Conference by joining Oxford United on a free transfer in May 2009 . Rhodes made his Oxford debut in their opening game of the season against York City as a second @-@ half substitute for Jack Midson to help his team come from 1 – 0 down to win 2 – 1 . However , after he had played just four games , Rhodes left by mutual consent .
Rhodes immediately joined Conference South side Braintree Town , initially on a contract until the start of January . His new assistant manager Jason Broom described Rhodes as an " exciting " talent . He made his debut against St Albans City helping to create his new side 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw . Rhodes failed to impress and was released after Christmas 2009 .
Rhodes rejoined former club Grays Athletic , where he had played on loan in 2007 , on 19 January 2010 . He scored a goal on his debut in a hastily arranged friendly , after their league game with Kidderminster Harriers was postponed , later in the week during a 4 – 1 victory against Aveley . Rhodes ' senior debut came at the end of the same week , when he was one of six new members of manager Julian Dicks ' side , only for them to lose 4 – 0 to Rhodes ' former team Oxford United . Rhodes was substituted by Harry Agombar during the second half . He was released at the end of the 2009 – 10 season , having made 15 appearances .
Rhodes instead started to train with A.F.C. Sudbury and played in a pre @-@ season friendly against Bury Town , during which he scored to help Sudbury win 4 – 3 . However , although Rhodes said he would like to join the semi @-@ professional Isthmian League Division One North side , he wanted to keep his options open in case he could remain in the professional game . A week later , he was given a trial with League Two Hereford United . Instead , the following week , Rhodes signed for Isthmian League Premier Division side Canvey Island and immediately went into the first @-@ team to make his debut on 28 August in a home league match against Carshalton Athletic , which finished 1 – 1 , with Rhodes close to scoring what would have been a late winning goal for his new club . Rhodes ' first goals for Canvey Island came in a FA Cup first round qualifying match against Newport Pagnell Town , scoring twice in a 4 – 1 victory . He scored again in the next round to put Canvey into the third qualifying round . Rhodes signed a contract to keep him with the club until the end of the season and scored two more in Canvey 's ultimate exit from the FA Cup .
= = Playing statistics = =
Updated to 10 December 2011 .
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= Jerry West =
Jerry Alan West ( born May 28 , 1938 ) is an American retired basketball player who played his entire professional career for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . His nicknames include " Mr. Clutch " , for his ability to make a big play in a clutch situation , such as his famous buzzer @-@ beating 60 @-@ foot shot that tied Game 3 of the 1970 NBA Finals against the New York Knicks ; " The Logo " , in reference to his silhouette being incorporated into the NBA logo ; " Mr. Outside " , in reference to his perimeter play with the Los Angeles Lakers ; and " Zeke from Cabin Creek " , for the creek near his birthplace of Chelyan , West Virginia . Playing the small forward position early in his career , West was a standout at East Bank High School and at West Virginia University , leading the Mountaineers to the 1959 NCAA championship game , earning the NCAA Final Four Most Outstanding Player honor despite the loss . He then embarked on a 14 @-@ year career with the Los Angeles Lakers , and was the co @-@ captain of the 1960 U.S. Olympic gold medal team in Rome , a squad that would be inducted as a unit into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2010 .
West ’ s NBA career was highly successful . Playing the guard position as a professional , he was voted 12 times into the All @-@ NBA First and Second Teams , was elected into the NBA All @-@ Star Team 14 times , and was chosen as the All @-@ Star MVP in 1972 , the same year that he won the only title of his career . West holds the NBA record for the highest points per game average in a playoff series with 46 @.@ 3 . He was also a member of the first five NBA All @-@ Defensive Teams ( one second , followed by four firsts ) , which were introduced when he was 32 years old . Having played in nine NBA Finals , he is also the only player in NBA history to be named Finals MVP despite being on the losing team ( 1969 ) . West was inducted into the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame in 1980 and voted as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA history in 1996 .
After his playing career , West was head coach of the Lakers for three years , leading Los Angeles into the playoffs each year and earning a Western Conference Finals berth once . Working as a player @-@ scout for three years , West was named general manager of the Lakers prior to the 1982 – 83 NBA season . Under his reign , Los Angeles won six championship rings . In 2002 , West became general manager of the Memphis Grizzlies and helped the franchise win their first @-@ ever playoff berths . For his contributions , West won the NBA Executive of the Year Award twice , once as a Lakers manager ( 1995 ) and then as a Grizzlies manager ( 2004 ) . West 's son , Jonnie , played college basketball for the West Virginia Mountaineers team .
= = Early life = =
Jerry Alan West was born into a poor household in Chelyan , West Virginia . He was the fifth of six children of his mother Cecil Sue West , a housewife , and her husband Howard Stewart West , a coal mine electrician . West was a shy , introverted boy , who became even more withdrawn when his closest brother David died in the Korean War at age 22 when Jerry was 12 . He was so small and frail that he needed vitamin injections from his doctor and was kept apart from children 's sports , to prevent him from getting seriously hurt . Growing up , West spent his days hunting and fishing , but his main distraction was shooting at a basketball hoop that a neighbor had nailed to his storage shed . West spent days shooting baskets from every possible angle , ignoring mud and snow in the backyard , as well as his mother 's whippings when he came home hours late for dinner ; he played so often that the NBA acknowledged it as " obsessive " .
= = = High school = = =
West attended high school in East Bank , West Virginia from 1952 to 1956 . During his first year , he was mostly benched by his coach Duke Shaver due to his lack of height . Shaver emphasized the importance of conditioning and defense , lessons which the teenager appreciated . Soon , West became the captain of the freshman team and , during the summer of 1953 , he grew to 6 ft 0 in ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) . Eventually becoming the team 's starting small forward , West quickly established himself as one of the finest West Virginian high school players of his generation . He was named All @-@ State from 1953 – 56 , then All @-@ American in 1956 when he was West Virginia Player of the Year , becoming the state 's first high @-@ school player to score more than 900 points in a season , with an average of 32 @.@ 2 points per game . West 's mid @-@ range jump shot became his trademark and he often used it to score while under pressure from opposing defense . West led East Bank to a state championship on March 24 that year , prompting East Bank High School to change its name to " West Bank High School " every year on March 24 in honor of their basketball prodigy , until its closure in 1999 .
= = West Virginia Mountaineers = =
After graduating from high school in 1956 , more than 60 universities showed interest in West , and he eventually chose to attend West Virginia University ( WVU ) , located in Morgantown . In his freshman year ( 1956 – 57 ) , West was a member of the WVU freshman squad that achieved a perfect record of 17 wins without a loss over the course of the season ; other team members included Jay Jacobs and Willie Akers . In his first varsity year under head coach Fred Schaus , West scored 17 @.@ 8 points per game and averaged 11 @.@ 1 rebounds ; he also started in all 28 games while shooting 49 @.@ 6 % from the field and 73 @.@ 2 % from the free throw line . These performances earned him a multitude of honors , among them an All @-@ American Third Team call @-@ up ; First Team All @-@ Southern Conference ; Southern Conference Tournament Most Valuable Player Award and First Team honors ; Chuck Taylor @-@ Converse Second @-@ team All @-@ American honors ; and Associated Press and United Press International Third @-@ team All @-@ American honors . The Mountaineers went 26 – 2 that year , ending the season with a loss to Manhattan College in post @-@ season tournament play .
During his junior year ( 1958 – 59 ) , West scored 26 @.@ 6 points per game and grabbed 12 @.@ 3 rebounds per game . He tied the NCAA five @-@ game tournament record of 160 points ( 32 @.@ 0 points per game ) and led all scorers and rebounders in every West Virginia game , including getting 28 points and 11 rebounds in a 71 – 70 loss to California in the final . West was named Most Outstanding Player of that year 's Final Four . Further awards were All @-@ American , Southern Conference Tournament MVP and Southern Conference Player of the Year and Athlete of the Year . He was also named to be a member of the U.S. Pan American Games basketball team which won the gold medal . West demonstrated his tenacity to the game in a match against the Kentucky Wildcats ; an incident in the game broke his nose , but he continued playing despite intense pain and having to breathe through his mouth . He scored 19 points in the second @-@ half , leading WVU to an upset victory .
In his final collegiate season ( 1959 – 60 ) West averaged several career highs , such as scoring 29 @.@ 3 points per game , a 134 season @-@ assists , 16 @.@ 5 rebounds per game , and a shooting average of 50 @.@ 4 % from the field , 76 @.@ 6 % from the free throw line . He was honored again with several awards : a call @-@ up to the All @-@ American selection , and being voted Southern Conference MVP . West 's best performance was a game against Virginia , in which he grabbed 16 rebounds and scored 40 points . Moreover , during that final year , he had 30 double @-@ doubles and fifteen 30 @-@ point games . In his collegiate career , West totaled 2 @,@ 309 points and 1 @,@ 240 rebounds . He averaged 24 @.@ 8 points per game and 13 @.@ 3 rebounds . As of 2011 , West holds 12 WVU all @-@ time records . Along with Oscar Robertson , West co @-@ captained the U.S. men 's basketball team at the 1960 Summer Olympics and won the gold medal .
= = Los Angeles Lakers = =
= = = " Mr. Inside " and " Mr. Outside " = = =
West then made himself available for the 1960 NBA draft , and was drafted with the 2nd overall pick by the Minneapolis Lakers , shortly before the team relocated to Los Angeles . West became the first draft pick ever of the relocated franchise . His college coach was also hired to coach the Lakers . He played West as a guard , in contrast to West 's college days as a forward . The Lakers were captained by Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame forward Elgin Baylor , who was complemented by centers Jim Krebs and Ray Felix ; forwards Rudy LaRusso and Tom Hawkins ; and guards Rod Hundley ( from West Virginia , like West ) , Frank Selvy , and Bob Leonard . This team perennially had strong forwards and guards , but was constantly weak at center , giving them a disadvantage against the Boston Celtics with their Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame center , Bill Russell .
Initially , West felt odd in his new environment . He was a loner . His high @-@ pitched voice earned him the nickname " Tweety Bird " , and he spoke with such a thick Appalachian accent that his teammates also referred to him as " Zeke from Cabin Creek " ( his nickname acknowledged his country roots , and his accent was so thick that he squeaked his nickname sheepishly - " Zeek fr 'm Cab 'n Creek " ) . However , West soon impressed his colleagues with his defensive hustle , with his vertical jump — he could reach up 16 inches above the rim when he went up — and with his work ethic , spending countless extra hours working on his game . On the floor , West scored 17 @.@ 6 points , grabbed 7 @.@ 7 rebounds and gave 4 @.@ 2 assists per game . West won Schaus 's trust and , alternating with Hundley , Selvy , and Leonard , played 35 minutes per game and established himself as the Lakers ' second scoring option . The NBA commented that the Lakers now had a potent one @-@ two @-@ punch — with " Mr. Inside " ( the low @-@ post scorer , Baylor ) and " Mr. Outside " ( the long @-@ distance shooter , West ) . These performances soon earned West his first of fourteen NBA All @-@ Star Game call @-@ ups .
West helped the Lakers improve from their previous 25 @-@ win season to 36 wins as they reached the 1961 NBA Playoffs . They needed all five games to put away the Detroit Pistons ; but then lost to the St. Louis Hawks in seven games , losing the final game 105 – 103 .
In West 's second NBA season , the Lakers could only make limited use of Baylor , who was called up by the U.S. Army Reserves and could play only 48 games . However , West seamlessly took over the role of team leader and established himself as the main Lakers scorer , averaging 30 @.@ 8 points , 7 @.@ 9 rebounds and 5 @.@ 4 assists per game , winning All @-@ NBA First Team honors . West became known especially for hitting important late @-@ game shots , and Lakers ' announcer Chick Hearn named him " Mr. Clutch " a handle which stuck with West for his entire career .
The Lakers won 54 regular season games and secured a first @-@ round bye in the 1962 NBA Playoffs . They beat the Pistons four games to two to advance to the 1962 NBA Finals against the Boston Celtics . The teams split the first two games , and at the end of Game 3 in Los Angeles , West tied the game at 115 . The Celtics ' Sam Jones inbounded the ball at half @-@ court with three seconds left . West stole the ball , raced upcourt , and converted a running layup as the buzzer sounded . The Celtics tied the series in Game 6 at three games apiece , and the teams headed to Boston for Game 7 . For most of the game , the Lakers trailed , but West and Frank Selvy hit several clutch baskets and tied the game at 100 . Selvy then missed an open 8 @-@ foot shot which would have won the Lakers their first title . Baylor 's tip @-@ in attempt was thwarted by Sam Jones . In overtime , Jones scored several clutch baskets to ensure a 110 – 107 win for the Celtics . The 1962 NBA finals would serve as the beginning of the greatest rivalry in NBA history
In the 1962 – 63 NBA season , Baylor was back full @-@ time . West averaged 27 @.@ 8 points , 7 @.@ 0 rebounds and 5 @.@ 6 assists and was again NBA All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA First @-@ Team ; however , he played in only 55 regular season games , missing the last seven weeks due to a hamstring injury . Again , the Lakers reached the finals , and again , they battled the Celtics . With West not yet in shape , Baylor and the Lakers fell back 3 – 2 ; then they succumbed in Game 6 in front of their home crowd with a 112 – 109 loss . As the game ended , veteran Celtics playmaker Bob Cousy threw the ball high into the rafters of the L.A. Sports Arena .
In the following 1963 – 64 NBA season , West for the first time became the Lakers ' scoring leader , his 28 @.@ 7 points per game eclipsing the 25 @.@ 4 by Baylor , who stated that he suffered from knee problems . The Lakers struggled during the entire season , winning only 42 games , and were beaten in the first round of the 1964 NBA Playoffs by the Hawks in five games .
= = = Leader of the Lakers = = =
In the following 1964 – 65 NBA season , West averaged 31 @.@ 0 points ( at the time , a career @-@ high ) , only surpassed by perennial scoring champion Wilt Chamberlain . After ending the regular season with 49 wins , L.A. played the Baltimore Bullets in the first round of the 1965 NBA Playoffs , but then team captain Baylor suffered a career @-@ threatening knee injury . West spectacularly took over Baylor 's leader role , as he scored 49 points and willed the shocked Lakers to the win . In Game 2 , Baltimore was unable to stop the Lakers guard , who scored 52 points , nearly half of L.A. ' s total , in the 118 – 115 win . The Bullets took their two home games , despite West scoring 44 and 48 points respectively , but in the decisive Game 5 in L.A. , the guard helped beat the Bullets with 42 points in a close 117 – 115 win . West averaged 46 @.@ 3 points per game , a figure that is still an NBA record . However , in the 1965 NBA Finals , the Celtics easily beat the short @-@ handed Lakers , 4 – 1 . In Game 1 , which Boston easily won , defensive Celtics guard K. C. Jones kept West to only 26 points , and in Game 2 , West scored 45 points , but Boston still won 129 – 123 . In Game 3 , West scored 49 points , and L.A. finally won a game , but in Games 4 and 5 , the Lakers were beaten by double digits ; in the last quarter of Game 5 , West missed 14 of 15 shots and could not prevent yet another Celtics win . Still , the Lakers guard finished the playoffs with 40 @.@ 6 points per game .
In the 1965 – 66 NBA season , West averaged a career @-@ best 31 @.@ 3 points , along with 7 @.@ 1 rebounds and 6 @.@ 1 assists per game . He made an NBA record 840 free throws , and earned yet another pair of All @-@ Star Team and All @-@ NBA First Team nominations . Winning 45 games , the Lakers beat the St. Louis Hawks in a close seven @-@ game series , and yet again met the Boston Celtics in the 1966 NBA Finals . West was assisted by Baylor , who was a self @-@ estimated " 75 percent " of his pre @-@ injury self , The two long @-@ standing rivals split the first six games , with West 's usual scoring dominance countered by Celtics forward John Havlicek , whose size and speed created serious mismatch problems for the Lakers . In Game 7 , West and Baylor shot a combined three of 18 in the first half , and the Lakers fell far behind ; L.A. willed themselves back to a close 95 – 93 with four seconds left , but the Celtics ran the clock out and the Lakers were denied yet again .
The following 1966 – 67 NBA season saw West playing only 66 regular @-@ season games due to injury ; his averages fell slightly to 28 @.@ 0 points , 5 @.@ 9 rebounds and 6 @.@ 8 assists per game . The Lakers had a disappointing season , winning only 36 games and getting swept by the San Francisco Warriors in the first round of the 1967 NBA Playoffs . Veteran coach Fred Schaus retired , and Butch Van Breda Kolff took over ; under his reign , the Lakers won 52 games in the 1967 – 68 NBA season in their first year in The Forum . The 52 wins were accumulated despite West playing only 51 regular season games due to injury and scoring 26 @.@ 3 points , the lowest average since his rookie year : after being a First @-@ Teamer for six times en bloc , he only made the All @-@ NBA Second Team .
In the 1968 NBA Playoffs , the Lakers beat the Chicago Bulls and the Warriors to set up yet another Lakers @-@ Celtics NBA Finals ; it was considered a match of size versus speed , as the Lakers had nobody to counter Celtics coach / center Bill Russell or forward John Havlicek close to the basket , but the Celtics in return had difficulties guarding prolific L.A. outside shooters Baylor , West and fellow guard Gail Goodrich . In Game 1 , West only hit seven of 24 shots , and the Lakers lost 107 – 101 , but L.A. evened out the series at two games each . But West , who had scored 38 points in a Game 4 win , had sprained his ankle and did not play at full strength the rest of the series . In Game 5 , an injured West scored 35 points , but Boston won by three points . In Game 6 , Havlicek shredded the Lakers with 40 points , and after yet another Celtics loss , West commented that the Lakers lost two games they should have won : " We gave them the first game , and we gave them the fifth . But I take nothing from them … They 're all that way on the Celtics , and you can 't teach it . "
= = = Arrival of Wilt Chamberlain = = =
On July 9 , 1968 , the Lakers made a trade which brought reigning NBA Most Valuable Player Wilt Chamberlain of the Philadelphia 76ers to Los Angeles at the beginning of the 1968 – 69 NBA season . To get the center , the Lakers traded West 's backcourt partner Archie Clark , starting center Darrall Imhoff and backup forward Jerry Chambers to Philadelphia . Coach Van Breda Kolff was concerned about the drain at the guard positions after losing Clark , and especially after losing Goodrich due to the expansion draft of the Phoenix Suns . He only had diminutive , defensively weak Johnny Egan left next to West . While West himself got on well with the new recruit , Chamberlain often argued with team captain Elgin Baylor and had a poor relationship with Van Breda Kolff . Van Breda Kolff pejoratively called Chamberlain " The Load " , and later complained that Chamberlain was egotistical , never respected him , too often slacked off in practice and focused too much on his own statistics . In return , the center blasted Van Breda Kolff as " the dumbest and worst coach ever " . There was an altercation in which Chamberlain was about to punch Van Breda Kolff before Baylor had intervened . West was clearly disturbed by locker room tension ; used to playing in teams with good chemistry , his quality of play became erratic , and he posted a career @-@ low 25 @.@ 9 points . However , he made the Second Team of the inaugural All @-@ Defensive Team .
In the 1969 NBA Playoffs , the 55 @-@ win Lakers defeated the Atlanta Hawks and the San Francisco Warriors , setting up the sixth finals series versus Boston in eight years . Prior to Game 1 , West privately complained to Bill Russell of exhaustion , but then the Lakers guard scored 53 points on Boston in a close two @-@ point win . L.A. also took Game 2 , with West scoring 41 points . In Game 3 , Russell opted to double @-@ team West , and the guard 's exhaustion began to show : West twice asked to be subbed for longer periods , and both times the Lakers fell back by double digits and finally lost by six points . Game 4 saw Celtics guard Sam Jones hit an off @-@ balance buzzer beater to tie the series , but in Game 5 , the Lakers struck back and won by 13 points ; however , they suffered a major blow when West – who scored 39 points and by far led all players in scoring during the entire series – lunged for a meaningless late @-@ game ball and seriously pulled his hamstring : it was immediately visible that the injury would not heal until the end of the series . A limping West scored 26 points in Game 6 , but the Celtics won 99 – 90 with a strong Bill Russell , who held Chamberlain to only eight points in the entire game . In Game 7 , Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke had put up thousands of balloons in the rafters of the Forum in Los Angeles . This display of arrogance motivated the Celtics and angered West . The Lakers trailed the entire game and were behind 91 @-@ 76 after 3 quarters , but powered by a limping West , the Lakers closed the gap to 103 @-@ 102 with two minutes to go and had the ball . But West committed costly turnovers and L.A. lost the game 108 – 106 despite a triple @-@ double 42 points , 13 rebounds and 12 assists from West , who became the only winner of the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award from the losing team . After the loss , West was seen as the ultimate tragic hero : after the game , Bill Russell held his hand , and John Havlicek said : " I love you , Jerry " .
In the 1969 – 70 NBA season under new coach Joe Mullaney , the Lakers ' season began with a shock when Wilt Chamberlain seriously injured his knee and missed practically the whole regular season . As after Baylor 's injury years before , West stepped into the void , leading the NBA in scoring average with 31 @.@ 2 points per game , and averaging 4 @.@ 6 rebounds and 7 @.@ 5 assists per game , earning him his first of four All @-@ Defensive First Team vote and another All @-@ NBA First Team berth after two Second Team years . The Lakers won 46 games , and in the 1970 NBA Playoffs , they narrowly beat the Phoenix Suns in seven games and swept the Hawks in four , setting up the first NBA Finals between the Lakers and the rugged New York Knicks , led by Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers , such as Willis Reed , Dave DeBusschere , Bill Bradley , and Walt Frazier . L.A. and N.Y. split the first two games , with both games respectively decided by centers Reed and the still @-@ hobbling Chamberlain . In Game 3 , DeBusschere hit a mid @-@ range jump shot with three seconds left to put the Knicks ahead 102 – 100 , and the Lakers had no time @-@ outs left . Chamberlain inbounded the ball to West , who raced past Walt Frazier and threw up a 60 @-@ foot shot . Frazier later commented : " The man 's crazy . He looks determined . He thinks it 's really going in ! " West incredibly connected , and this basket was later called one of the greatest moments ever by the NBA . As the three @-@ point line had not been introduced yet , the shot just tied the game . In overtime , West however sprained his left hand and missed all five of his shots , and the Knicks won 111 @-@ 108 . In Game 4 , the guard scored 37 points and 18 assists , and the Lakers won . However , more frustration awaited West in Game 5 , when Reed pulled his thigh muscle and seemed out for the series ; instead of capitalising on a double @-@ digit lead and reeling off an easy win , the Lakers committed 19 second half turnovers , and the two main scorers Chamberlain and West shot the ball only three and two times , respectively , in the entire second half and lost 107 @-@ 100 in what was called one of the greatest comebacks in NBA Finals history . After Chamberlain scored 45 points and West 31 points plus 13 assists in a series @-@ equalising 135 @-@ 113 Lakers win , the Lakers seemed favorites prior to Game 7 . However , West had also injured his right hand and received several manual injections , and Reed famously hobbled up court prior to Game 7 : the Knicks center scored the first four points , and inspired his team to one of the most famous playoff upsets of all time . With his injured hands , West still hit nine of his 19 shots , but was outplayed by Walt Frazier , who scored 36 points and 19 assists and was credited with several crucial steals on Lakers guard Dick Garrett .
In the 1970 – 71 NBA season , the Lakers resigned Gail Goodrich , who came back from the Phoenix Suns after playing for L.A. until 1968 . At age 32 , West averaged 27 @.@ 9 points , 4 @.@ 6 rebounds and 9 @.@ 5 assists , and helped the Lakers win 46 games and make the 1971 NBA Playoffs . After losing Elgin Baylor to an Achilles tendon rupture that effectively ended his career , West himself injured his knee and was out for the season ; the short @-@ handed Lakers lost the Western Conference Finals in five games to the championship @-@ bound Milwaukee Bucks . The Milwaukee Bucks featured freshly crowned Most Valuable Player Lew Alcindor ( later known as Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar ) and veteran Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guard Oscar Robertson .
= = = Late success and twilight years = = =
Prior to the 1971 – 72 NBA season , West was smarting from his frequent injuries and losses and considered retirement . The Lakers hired former Celtics star guard and future Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame coach Bill Sharman as head coach . Although injured captain Elgin Baylor ended his career , the Lakers had a season for the ages : powered by Sharman 's emphasis on tough defense and fast break offense , L.A. embarked on an unprecedented 33 game win streak , en route to a then @-@ record 69 wins in the regular season . West himself contributed with 25 @.@ 8 points and leading the league with a career @-@ high 9 @.@ 7 assists per game , was named All @-@ Star , All @-@ NBA and All @-@ Defense First Teamer and voted 1972 All @-@ Star Game MVP .
In the post @-@ season , the Lakers defeated the Chicago Bulls in a four @-@ game sweep , then went on to face the Milwaukee Bucks , and defeated them in six games . In the 1972 NBA Finals , the Lakers again met the New York Knicks . Although West suffered a terrible shooting slump during Games 1 and 2 , the Lakers tied the series at one win each , and in Game 3 , he scored 21 points and helped L.A. win Game 3 . In this game , he now had scored 4 @,@ 002 playoff points , which set an all @-@ time NBA record . After winning Game 4 due to a superb outing from Wilt Chamberlain , West scored 23 points in Game 5 , and he won the game and their first @-@ ever NBA title . West conceded that he had played a terrible series , and credited the team for the success . Years later he said " I played terrible basketball in the Finals , and we won … It was particularly frustrating because I was playing so poorly that the team overcame me . Maybe that 's what a team is all about . "
Now having vanquished this long @-@ time bane , West entered his 13th NBA year . In the 1972 – 73 NBA season , the main scoring role was taken by Goodrich , and West was now a playmaker instead of a scorer . However , West averaged 22 @.@ 8 points , but also averaged 8 @.@ 8 assists per game , and again was a First Teamer in the All @-@ Star , All @-@ NBA , and All @-@ Defense Teams . The Lakers won 60 games and reached the 1973 NBA Finals against the New York Knicks . In Game 1 West scored 24 points before fouling out with three minutes left and L.A. won Game 1 with 115 – 112 . However , the Knicks took Games 2 and 3 , and West strained both of his hamstrings : in Game 4 , the shorthanded Lakers were no match for New York , and in Game 5 , the valiant , but injured West and Hairston had miserable games , and despite Chamberlain scoring 23 points and grabbing 21 rebounds , the Lakers lost 102 – 93 and the series .
The following 1973 – 74 NBA season was to be West 's last . Now 36 years old , the veteran guard averaged 20 @.@ 3 points , 3 @.@ 7 rebounds and 6 @.@ 6 assists per game . In two newly introduced statistics , steals and blocks , he was credited with 2 @.@ 6 steals and 0 @.@ 7 blocks per game . Despite playing only 31 games due to a strained groin , West was still regarded as an elite guard , earning another callup into his final All @-@ Star Game . Without Chamberlain , who had ended his NBA career , the Lakers won 47 games and lost in five games to the Milwaukee Bucks . After this loss , West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke , and filed a suit for unpaid back wages . West wanted to re @-@ negotiate his contract and keep playing , however he said Cooke " basically told my agent to go to hell . I felt I was deceived . When you feel that you ’ re deceived you don ’ t want any part of the organization that deceived you . I could ’ ve played another very good year . Every athlete says that . But I could ’ ve , and I knew I could ’ ve . But I could never have played for the Lakers again , and I wasn ’ t going to play for anybody else . " At the time of his departure , West had scored more points than any Laker in NBA history .
= = = Coaching and managing career = = =
Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke was known for having a keen eye identifying leadership and teaching qualities ( he also gave Hall of Famers Sparky Anderson and Joe Gibbs their first managerial / head coaching positions ) , and asked West to coach and participate in player personnel decisions . In the 1976 – 77 season , West became coach of the Los Angeles Lakers . In three years , he led the Lakers and star center Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar to a 145 – 101 record , making the playoffs in all 3 seasons and reaching the Western Conference Finals once in 1977 . After his coaching stint , he worked as a scout for three years before becoming general manager of the Lakers prior to the 1982 – 83 season . NBA.com credits West in creating the great 1980s Lakers dynasty , which brought five championship rings ( 1980 , 1982 , 1985 , 1987 and 1988 ) to Los Angeles . After a slump in the early 1990s , West rebuilt the team of coach Del Harris around center Vlade Divac , forward Cedric Ceballos , and guard Nick Van Exel , which won 48 games , and went to the Western Conference Semifinals ; for turning the team around , West received his first Executive of the Year Award . By trading Vlade Divac for Kobe Bryant , signing free agent center Shaquille O 'Neal , and signing six @-@ time NBA champion Phil Jackson as a coach , West laid down the fundaments of the Lakers three @-@ peat which saw L.A. win three NBA titles from 2000 to 2002 .
In 2002 , West became general manager of the Memphis Grizzlies . He explained his decision with the desire for exploring something new : " After being a part of the Lakers success for so many years , I have always wondered how it would be to build a winning franchise that has not experienced much success . I want to help make a difference . " West 's Memphis stint was not as spectacular as his Los Angeles stint , but he turned a franchise which was about to be sold into a reliable playoffs team , practically making no trades but getting the maximum from the players he had available ( e.g. Pau Gasol , James Posey and Jason Williams ) and signing coach Hubie Brown , who became Coach of the Year in 2004 . West himself won his second NBA Executive of the Year Award in the same year . At age 69 , West retired as a Grizzlies general manager in 2007 and turned over managing duties to Chris Wallace , from Buckhannon , West Virginia .
On May 19 , 2011 , West joined the Golden State Warriors as an executive board member , reporting directly to new owners Joe Lacob and Peter Guber . This role also came with an undisclosed minority ownership stake in the team .
= = Legacy = =
West ended his playing career with 14 All @-@ Star , 12 All @-@ NBA Team and five All @-@ Defensive Team selections , and scored 25 @,@ 192 points , 6 @,@ 238 assists and 5 @,@ 366 rebounds in 932 games , translating to an average of 27 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 7 assists and 5 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . Among retired players , only Michael Jordan , Elgin Baylor and Wilt Chamberlain surpass his 27 @.@ 0 points per game average . He led the Lakers in scoring in seven seasons , only Jordan had a higher career scoring average in the playoffs ( 33 @.@ 5 versus 29 @.@ 1 ) . In 1979 , West was elected into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame , and the Lakers retired his No. 44 jersey in 1983 . In March 2008 , ESPN voted West the third greatest shooting guard of all time . As a coach , West led the Lakers into three consecutive playoff campaigns , and then went on to win seven NBA championships as a general manager , building the 1980s Lakers dynasty under coach Pat Riley and players Magic Johnson , Kareem @-@ Abdul @-@ Jabbar and James Worthy and the 2000s under coach Phil Jackson and players Shaquille O 'Neal and Kobe Bryant .
In the summer of 2000 , the city of Morgantown , West Virginia , and West Virginia Governor Cecil Underwood , dedicated the road outside of the West Virginia University Coliseum , " Jerry West Boulevard " . The same road is shared on the south end of Morgantown with Don Knotts Boulevard , in honor of another WVU alumnus . Also , on November 26 , 2005 , his number 44 became the first basketball number to be retired by West Virginia University and on February 17 , 2007 , a bronze statue of him was honored outside of the WVU Coliseum . On February 17 , 2011 , a Jerry West statue was unveiled outside Staples Center at the Star Plaza in Los Angeles , California . Finally , the NBA logo itself is modelled after West 's silhouette .
= = Player profile = =
West was an all @-@ around combo guard who could take the playmaking roles of a point guard and score like a shooting guard , while being equally strong on offense and on defense . He had a jump shot with a release the NBA lauded as " lightning quick " , and was known for making baskets late in the game , earning him the nickname " Mr. Clutch " . Having played forward early in his career , West was also a capable rebounder , and gifted with long arms , quick hands and strong defensive instincts , West was also once described as one of the best ball hawks , man @-@ to @-@ man defenders and shot blockers among NBA guards : when the All @-@ Defensive Teams were introduced in 1969 , West made every one of them until his career ended in 1974 . " He stole more than anybody , although they didn 't keep records on it then , " said Sharman . However , contemporaries were most impressed by West 's work ethic , obsessively practicing and shooting and rarely being satisfied with himself .
West 's all @-@ round game and attitude is maybe best expressed in his statistically most spectacular game : he once was credited with 44 points ( 16 of 17 shots from the field , 12 of 12 free throw attempts ) with 12 rebounds , 12 assists and ( unofficially counted ) 10 blocked shots , thus scoring a non @-@ official ultra @-@ rare quadruple double . Instead of being proud , West merely commented : " Defensively , from a team standpoint , I didn 't feel I played very well . Very rarely was I satisfied with how I played . "
= = Personal life = =
West married his college sweetheart Martha Jane Kane in April 1960 in Morgantown ; they divorced in 1976 . They have three sons , David , Mark and Michael . Jerry married his current wife Karen in 1978 . They have two sons , Ryan and Jonnie . Jonnie played guard for West 's old team , the West Virginia Mountaineers .
As a person , West was often described as an introverted and nervous character , but who also drew highest praise for his uncompromising work ethic . Regarding his shyness , WVU room mate Jody Gardner testified that West never dated in his entire freshman year , and Lakers coach Fred Schaus once recalled a two @-@ week period when his guard never said a word . Apart from being shy , West was always restless : Schaus described him as a " bundle of nerves " , Celtics contemporary Bob Cousy as " always on the move " , and fellow Laker and Mountaineer Rod Hundley testified that during bar visits , West would quickly squirm and demand to go elsewhere before everybody else had settled . His first wife Martha Kane recalled that her husband often had difficulties opening up to her . After a big loss , the Wests would drive home and she would try to console him , but West would say " get out " at the home porch and drive away — an experience that " killed " her as a wife .
Early in his career , West 's West Virginian roots made him target for some mild jeering . He spoke with a high pitched voice that became even shriller when he became excited , so that Lakers captain Elgin Baylor dubbed West " Tweety Bird " . His Appalachian accent was so thick that one coach interrupted him and asked him to speak English . Baylor once commented : " Rumors are safe with you , Tweety Bird . You pass them on , but nobody can understand you . "
West was also regarded for his extreme mental toughness and his exemplary work ethic . The NBA described West as " obsessive perfectionism , unabashed confidence , and an uncompromising will to win … a level of intensity so high it could melt lead " . Lakers broadcaster Chick Hearn once said : " He took a loss harder than any player I 've ever known . He would sit by himself and stare into space . A loss just ripped his guts out . " Even before his sole championship in 1972 , the Lakers held a " Jerry West Night " , and eleven @-@ time NBA champion and perennial rival Bill Russell appeared and said : " Jerry , you are , in every sense of the word , truly a champion … If I could have one wish granted , it would be that you would always be happy . "
In 2011 , West wrote , along with bestselling author Jonathan Coleman , a memoir entitled West by West : My Charmed , Tormented Life , and revealed during an interview on HBO 's Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel , that he was the victim of physical abuse from his father as a child , and has suffered from depression ever since . The book has had tremendous critical acclaim and became an instant New York Times bestseller .
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= Anasazi ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Anasazi " is the twenty @-@ fifth episode and season finale of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 19 , 1995 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter based on a story he developed with lead actor David Duchovny . The episode was directed by R. W. Goodwin , and featured guest appearances by Peter Donat , Nicholas Lea , Mitch Pileggi and Floyd Red Crow Westerman . The episode helped explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Anasazi " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , being watched by 9 @.@ 6 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully come into possession of a tape containing classified government files , and attempt to decipher its contents . Meanwhile , Mulder 's mental health begins to deteriorate , and a mysterious corpse is discovered on a New Mexico reservation . " Anasazi " is part of a three @-@ episode storyline , with the plot carrying on in the third season episodes " The Blessing Way " and " Paper Clip " .
Series creator Chris Carter worked closely with series star David Duchovny , who shares a story credit with Carter for the episode . Because the series was filmed in Vancouver , the producers painted a disused quarry in Vancouver with 1 @,@ 600 gallons of red paint and also composited in images shot in New Mexico and a blue sky in order to make the New Mexico rock quarry featured in the episode .
= = Plot = =
In the desert near a Navajo Indian reservation in Two Grey Hills , New Mexico , a teenage boy comes across a boxcar buried in the ground . He retrieves the corpse of an alien @-@ like figure from the boxcar , which he takes back to the reservation and presents it to the residents , including Navajo elder Albert Hosteen .
Shortly afterward , Kenneth Soona , a computer hacker known as " The Thinker " , breaks into the Defense Department database and downloads secret files related to extraterrestrial life , putting them onto a digital tape . When the Syndicate learns of the breach , the Smoking Man tells them that he has already resolved the matter . The Lone Gunmen meet with Mulder , and tell him that Soona requests to meet with him . While Mulder is leaving his apartment building , he finds that one of his neighbors has shot her husband .
Soona gives the digital cassette to Mulder at a discreet meeting in a park . An excited Mulder returns to FBI headquarters , only to find that the cassette is encrypted . Scully believes the encryption is based on the Navajo language and takes the tape in order to investigate . When Skinner calls Mulder to his office to question him about the tape , Mulder physically attacks him . Scully is brought before an FBI panel led by Skinner and is questioned about Mulder 's actions . Scully is told that Mulder faces dismissal from the FBI , and that she will suffer a similar punishment if she has lied to them .
On Martha 's Vineyard , the Smoking Man visits Mulder 's father , Bill , and informs him of his son 's likely possession of the tape . Scully meets with a Navajo translator , who refers her to a code talker . Mulder is called away to see Bill ; when Scully arrives at his apartment , she is grazed by a bullet shot through his window . When Mulder arrives at Bill 's residence , his father prepares to reveal the truth about everything . However , Bill is shot and mortally wounded by Alex Krycek . When Mulder contacts Scully , she tells him to flee the scene . After Mulder arrives at her apartment , Scully takes his gun from him while he sleeps .
Scully brings the gun to the FBI for comparison against the bullet that killed Bill . When Mulder awakens , he becomes angry and suspicious towards Scully . Later returning to his building , Scully finds his water being contaminated . When Mulder arrives home , he finds Krycek there and prepares to kill him . However , Scully shoots him to prevent him from doing so , allowing Krycek to escape . Scully brings an unconscious Mulder to New Mexico and , when he awakens , reveals that his behavior was caused by a drug placed into his water supply . She introduces him to Hosteen , who has been translating the files on the digital tape .
Scully reveals that the tape contains information on both her and Duane Barry . Hosteen introduces Mulder to his grandson , who drives him to the buried boxcar . Just before he heads in , he is called by the Smoking Man , who is able to trace Mulder 's location through the call . Mulder heads inside the boxcar , finding a pile of the dead creatures , each with smallpox vaccination scars on their arms . The Smoking Man arrives by helicopter with eight armed commandos and , not finding Mulder inside , orders the boxcar to be burned .
= = Production = =
Series creator Chris Carter noted that the episode 's creation " was the culmination of a lot of ideas . Generally , when we pitch stories to the staff everyone comments on them , and Darin Morgan called this the kitchen sink episode , because it had so much in it , he didn 't know how we would pull it off . But I 'm very proud of the script . David Duchovny and I worked quite closely on the story and he had a lot of input , and then I sat down and wrote the script " . He felt that the episode ended the season in the best manner possible , asking more questions than it answered . The episode tried to make similar cliffhangers as the previous season finale , with revelations such as Mulder 's father being part of the conspiracy and later killed to " prove anything could happen in The X @-@ Files " .
To create the New Mexico rock quarry in this episode , the producers painted a disused quarry in Vancouver with 1 @,@ 600 gallons of red paint , and also composited images shot in New Mexico and a blue sky to make it look more authentic . The painting of the quarry was achieved with a series of cranes , and required the permission of local environmental groups . To create the impression of a buried train carriage , a depression had to be blown into the ground and thirty @-@ two dump trucks worth of debris removed . Series creator Chris Carter makes a cameo appearance in this episode as one of the senior FBI agents questioning Scully . The tagline for this episode is Éí ' Aaníígóó ' Áhoot 'é , which means " The Truth is Out There " in Navajo .
= = Reception = =
" Anasazi " premiered on the Fox network on May 19 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 27 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 6 million households .
In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , " Anasazi " was rated an A , being described as " mind @-@ blowing if frustrating " , with it being noted that the episode " made fans want to fast @-@ forward through summer . " Writing the A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode an A- , noting that the episode " has a lot of really strong moments " and praising Duchovny 's acting . However , he felt that the episode marked the point at which the series ' overarching mythology would begin to lose focus , explaining that " it 's troubling that instead of answering any big issues here ... the show only gives us new directions " . Chris Carter said of the episode , " I 'm proud of the way it came together , what it did for the series , and the overwhelmingly positive response it has gotten . I 'm very pleased beginning season three with where this episode put us — which is that it posed more questions than it answered . " He later said in 2005 that the episode brought a lot of interest to the show due to the apparent death of agent Mulder . The episode , along with both other parts of the story arc , were listed concurrently as the second @-@ best episode of the series by Den of Geek 's Nina Sordi . Sordi noted that the plotline " laid the groundwork for the mythology arc for the rest of the series " , adding that it " brought much more significance to what is to come " .
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= Manhattan =
Manhattan ( / mænˈhætən / , / mənˈhætən / ) is the most densely populated borough of New York City , its economic and administrative center , and the city 's historical birthplace . The borough is coterminous with New York County , founded on November 1 , 1683 as one of the original counties of the U.S. state of New York . The borough consists mostly of Manhattan Island , bounded by the East , Hudson , and Harlem Rivers , and also includes several small adjacent islands and Marble Hill , a small neighborhood on the U.S. mainland .
Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters . Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan , New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world , and Manhattan is home to the world 's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization : the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ . Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough . Historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 , for 60 guilders or about $ 24 in 1626 and US $ 1050 today . Manhattan real estate has since become among the most expensive in the world , with the value of Manhattan Island , including real estate , estimated to exceed US $ 3 trillion in 2013 ; residential property sale prices in Manhattan typically exceeded US $ 1 @,@ 400 per square foot ( $ 15 @,@ 000 / m2 ) as of 2016 .
Although New York County is the United States ' second @-@ smallest county by land area ( larger only than Kalawao County , Hawaii ) , it is also the most densely populated U.S. county . It is also one of the most densely populated areas in the world , with a census @-@ estimated 2015 population of 1 @,@ 644 @,@ 518 living in a land area of 22 @.@ 83 square miles ( 59 @.@ 13 km2 ) , or 72 @,@ 033 residents per square mile ( 27 @,@ 812 / km2 ) , higher than the density of any individual American city . On business days , the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3 @.@ 9 million , or more than 170 @,@ 000 people per square mile ( 65 @,@ 600 / km2 ) . Manhattan has the third @-@ largest population of New York City 's five boroughs , after Brooklyn and Queens , and is the smallest borough in terms of land area .
Many districts and landmarks in Manhattan have become well known , as New York City received a record of nearly 60 million tourists in 2015 , and Manhattan hosts three of the world 's 10 most @-@ visited tourist attractions in 2013 : Times Square , Central Park , and Grand Central Terminal . The borough hosts many world @-@ renowned bridges , such as the Brooklyn Bridge ; skyscrapers such as the Empire State Building , one of the tallest skyscrapers in the world ; and parks , such as Central Park . There are many historically significant places in Manhattan : Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere , and the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village is considered the birthplace of the modern gay rights movement . The City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan , and the borough houses New York City Hall , the seat of the City 's Government . Numerous colleges and universities are located in Manhattan , including Columbia University , New York University , and Rockefeller University , which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world .
= = Etymology = =
The name " Manhattan " derives from the word Manna @-@ hata , as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet , an officer on Henry Hudson 's yacht Halve Maen ( Half Moon ) . A 1610 map depicts the name as Manna @-@ hata , twice , on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River ( later named the Hudson River ) . The word " Manhattan " has been translated as " island of many hills " from the Lenape language . The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use " New York , NY " rather than " Manhattan , NY " .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial era = = =
The area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans . In 1524 , Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City . He entered the tidal strait now known as The Narrows aboard his ship La Dauphine and named the land around Upper New York Harbor " New Angoulême " , in reference to the family name of King Francis I that was derived from Angoulême in France ; he sailed far enough into the harbor to sight the Hudson River , which he referred to in his report to the French king as a " very big river " ; and he named the Bay of Santa Margarita – what is now Upper New York Bay – after Marguerite de Navarre , the elder sister of the king .
It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson , an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company , that the area was mapped . Hudson came across Manhattan Island and the native people living there in 1609 , and continued up the river that would later bear his name , the Hudson River , until he arrived at the site of present day Albany .
A permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island . In 1625 , construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island , later called New Amsterdam ( Nieuw Amsterdam ) , in what is now Lower Manhattan . The 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City . According to a letter by Pieter Janszoon Schagen , Peter Minuit and Dutch colonists acquired Manhattan on May 24 , 1626 from unnamed Native American people , which are believed to have been Canarsee Indians of the Lenape , in exchange for trade goods worth 60 guilders , often said to be worth US $ 24 , although accounting for inflation , it actually amounts to around US $ 1 @,@ 050 in 2014 . According to the writer Nathaniel Benchley , Minuit conducted the transaction with Seyseys , chief of the Canarsees , who were only too happy to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for the island that was actually mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks .
In 1647 , Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony . New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2 , 1653 . In 1664 , the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it " New York " after the English Duke of York and Albany , the future King James II . The Dutch , under Director General Stuyvesant , successfully negotiated with the English to produce 24 articles of provisional transfer , which sought to retain for the extant citizens of New Netherland their previously attained liberties ( including freedom of religion ) under new colonial English rulers .
The Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships , renaming the city " New Orange " . New Netherland was ceded permanently to the English in November 1674 through the Treaty of Westminster , in exchange for Run Island which was the long @-@ coveted last link in the Dutch nutmeg trading monopoly in Indonesia .
= = = American Revolution and the early United States = = =
Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign , a series of major battles in the early American Revolutionary War . The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16 , 1776 . The city became the British political and military center of operations in North America for the remainder of the war . Manhattan was greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the British military rule that followed . British occupation lasted until November 25 , 1783 , when George Washington returned to Manhattan , as the last British forces left the city .
From January 11 , 1785 , to the fall of 1788 , New York City was the fifth of five capitals of the United States under the Articles of Confederation , with the Continental Congress meeting at New York City Hall ( then at Fraunces Tavern ) . New York was the first capital under the newly enacted Constitution of the United States , from March 4 , 1789 , to August 12 , 1790 , at Federal Hall . Federal Hall was also the site of where the United States Supreme Court met for the first time , the United States Bill of Rights were drafted and ratified , and where the Northwest Ordinance was adopted , establishing measures for adding new states to the Union .
= = = 19th century = = =
New York grew as an economic center , first as a result of Alexander Hamilton 's policies and practices as the first Secretary of the Treasury and , later , with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 , which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the Midwestern United States and Canada . By 1810 New York City , then confined to Manhattan , had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States .
Tammany Hall , a Democratic Party political machine , began to grow in influence with the support of many of the immigrant Irish , culminating in the election of the first Tammany mayor , Fernando Wood , in 1854 . Tammany Hall dominated local politics for decades . Central Park , which opened to the public in 1858 , became the first landscaped public park in an American city .
New York City played a complex role in the American Civil War . The city 's strong commercial ties to the American South , its growing immigrant population ( prior to then largely from Germany and Ireland ; beginning in the late 1850s waves of Italian ; and Central , and Eastern European Jews began flowing in en @-@ masse ) , anger about conscription sizzled and resentment at those who could afford to pay $ 300 to avoid service , led to resentment against Lincoln 's war policies , plus the racial element , fomented paranoia about free Blacks taking the poor immigrants ' jobs , culminated in the three @-@ day @-@ long New York Draft Riots of July 1863 . These intense war @-@ time riots are counted among the worst incidents of civil disorder in American history , with an estimated 119 participants and passersby massacred .
The rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply after the Civil War , and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new life in the United States , a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty on October 28 , 1886 , a gift from the people of France . The new European immigration brought further social upheaval . In a city of tenements packed with poorly paid laborers from dozens of nations , the city was a hotbed of revolution ( including anarchists and communists among others ) , syndicalism , racketeering , and unionization .
In 1883 , the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge established a road connection to Brooklyn , across the East River . In 1874 , the western portion of the present Bronx County was transferred to New York County from Westchester County , and in 1895 the remainder of the present Bronx County was annexed . In 1898 , when New York City consolidated with three neighboring counties to form " the City of Greater New York " , Manhattan and the Bronx , though still one county , were established as two separate boroughs . On January 1 , 1914 , the New York state legislature created Bronx County , and New York County was reduced to its present boundaries .
= = = 20th century = = =
The construction of the New York City Subway , which opened in 1904 , helped bind the new city together , as did additional bridges to Brooklyn . In the 1920s , Manhattan experienced large arrivals of African @-@ Americans as part of the Great Migration from the southern United States , and the Harlem Renaissance , part of a larger boom time in the Prohibition era that included new skyscrapers competing for the skyline . New York City became the most populous city in the world in 1925 , overtaking London , which had reigned for a century . Manhattan 's majority white ethnic group declined from 98 @.@ 7 % in 1900 to 58 @.@ 3 % by 1990 .
On March 25 , 1911 , the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Greenwich Village killed 146 garment workers . The disaster eventually led to overhauls of the city 's fire department , building codes , and workplace regulations .
The period between the World Wars saw the election of reformist mayor Fiorello La Guardia and the fall of Tammany Hall after 80 years of political dominance . As the city 's demographics stabilized , labor unionization brought new protections and affluence to the working class , the city 's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under La Guardia . Despite the Great Depression , some of the world 's tallest skyscrapers were completed in Manhattan during the 1930s , including numerous Art Deco masterpieces that are still part of the city 's skyline today , most notably the Empire State Building , the Chrysler Building , and the GE Building .
Returning World War II veterans created a postwar economic boom , which led to the development of huge housing developments targeted at returning veterans , the largest being Peter Cooper Village @-@ Stuyvesant Town , which opened in 1947 . In 1952 , the UN relocated from its first headquarters near Queens , to the East Side of Manhattan .
The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28 , 1969 , at the Stonewall Inn in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan . They are widely considered to constitute the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States .
In the 1970s , job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City , including Manhattan , to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates . While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city 's economic health in the 1980s , New York 's crime rate continued to increase through the decade and into the beginning of the 1990s .
The 1980s saw a rebirth of Wall Street , and Manhattan reclaimed its role at the center of the worldwide financial industry . The 1980s also saw Manhattan at the heart of the AIDS crisis , with Greenwich Village at its epicenter . The organizations Gay Men 's Health Crisis ( GMHC ) and AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) were founded to advocate on behalf of those stricken with the disease .
By the 1990s , crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies , improving economic opportunities , gentrification , and new residents , both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America . Murder rates that had reached 2 @,@ 245 in 1990 plummeted to 537 by 2008 , and the crack epidemic and its associated drug @-@ related violence came under greater control . The outflow of population turned around , as the city once again became the destination of immigrants from around the world , joining with low interest rates and Wall Street bonuses to fuel the growth of the real estate market . Important new sectors , such as Silicon Alley , emerged in Manhattan 's economy .
= = = 21st century = = =
On September 11 , 2001 , two of four hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center , and the towers subsequently collapsed . 7 World Trade Center collapsed due to fires and structural damage caused by heavy debris falling from the collapse of the Twin Towers . The other buildings within the World Trade Center complex were damaged beyond repair and soon after demolished . The collapse of the Twin Towers caused extensive damage to other surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan , and resulted in the deaths of 2 @,@ 606 people , in addition to those on the planes . Since 2001 , most of Lower Manhattan has been restored , but there has been controversy surrounding the rebuilding . However , many rescue workers and residents of the area developed several life @-@ threatening illnesses that have led to some of their subsequent deaths . A memorial at the site was opened to the public on September 11 , 2011 , and the museum opened in 2014 . In 2014 , the new One World Trade Center , at 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) and formerly known as the Freedom Tower , became the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere , while other skyscrapers were under construction at the site .
The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide .
On October 29 and 30 , 2012 , Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction in the borough , ravaging portions of Lower Manhattan with record @-@ high storm surge from New York Harbor , severe flooding , and high winds , causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of city residents and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems . The storm and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of the borough and the metropolitan area to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future .
= = Geography = =
= = = Components = = =
The borough consists of Manhattan Island , Marble Hill , and several small islands , including Randalls Island and Wards Island , and Roosevelt Island in the East River , and Governors Island and Liberty Island to the south in New York Harbor .
According to the U.S. Census Bureau , New York County has a total area of 33 @.@ 6 square miles ( 87 km2 ) , of which 22 @.@ 8 square miles ( 59 km2 ) is land and 10 @.@ 8 square miles ( 28 km2 ) ( 32 % ) is water . The northern segment of Upper Manhattan represents a geographic panhandle . Manhattan Island is 22 @.@ 7 square miles ( 59 km2 ) in area , 13 @.@ 4 miles ( 21 @.@ 6 km ) long and 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) wide , at its widest ( near 14th Street ) .
= = = = Manhattan Island = = = =
Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Downtown ( Lower Manhattan ) , Midtown ( Midtown Manhattan ) , and Uptown ( Upper Manhattan ) , with Fifth Avenue dividing Manhattan 's east and west sides . Manhattan Island is bounded by the Hudson River to the west and the East River to the east . To the north , the Harlem River divides Manhattan Island from the Bronx and the mainland United States .
Early in the 19th century , landfill was used to expand Lower Manhattan from the natural Hudson shoreline at Greenwich Street to West Street . When building the World Trade Center in 1968 , 1 @.@ 2 million cubic yards ( 917 @,@ 000 m ³ ) of material was excavated from the site . Rather than dumping the spoil at sea or in landfills , the fill material was used to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street , creating Battery Park City . The result was a 700 @-@ foot ( 210 @-@ m ) extension into the river , running six blocks or 1 @,@ 484 feet ( 452 m ) , covering 92 acres ( 37 ha ) , providing a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) riverfront esplanade and over 30 acres ( 12 ha ) of parks .
= = = = Marble Hill = = = =
One neighborhood of New York County is contiguous with the mainland . Marble Hill at one time was part of Manhattan Island , but the Harlem River Ship Canal , dug in 1895 to improve navigation on the Harlem River , separated it from the remainder of Manhattan as an island between the Bronx and the remainder of Manhattan . Before World War I , the section of the original Harlem River channel separating Marble Hill from The Bronx was filled in , and Marble Hill became part of the mainland .
Marble Hill is one example of how Manhattan 's land has been considerably altered by human intervention . The borough has seen substantial land reclamation along its waterfronts since Dutch colonial times , and much of the natural variation in its topography has been evened out .
= = = = Smaller islands = = = =
In New York Harbor there are three smaller islands :
Ellis Island , shared with New Jersey
Governors Island
Liberty Island
Other smaller islands , in the East River , include ( from north to south ) :
Randalls and Wards Islands , joined by landfill
Mill Rock
Roosevelt Island
U Thant Island ( legally Belmont Island )
= = = Geology = = =
= = = = Bedrock = = = =
The bedrock underlying much of Manhattan is a mica schist known as Manhattan schist . It is a strong , competent metamorphic rock created when Pangaea formed . It is well suited for the foundations of tall buildings . In Central Park , outcrops of Manhattan Schist occur and Rat Rock is one rather large example .
Geologically , a predominant feature of the substrata of Manhattan is that the underlying bedrock base of the island rises considerably closer to the surface near Midtown Manhattan , dips down lower between 29th Street and Canal Street , then rises toward the surface again in Lower Manhattan . It has been widely believed that the depth to bedrock was the primary underlying reason for the clustering of skyscrapers in the Midtown and Financial District areas , and their absence over the intervening territory between these two areas . However , research has shown that economic factors played a bigger part in the locations of these skyscrapers .
= = = = Updated seismic analysis = = = =
According to the United States Geological Survey , an updated analysis of seismic hazard in July 2014 revealed a " slightly lower hazard for tall buildings " in Manhattan than previously assessed . Scientists estimated this lessened risk based upon a lower likelihood than previously thought of slow shaking near New York City , which would be more likely to cause damage to taller structures from an earthquake in the vicinity of the city .
= = = Locations = = =
= = = = Adjacent counties = = = =
Bergen County , New Jersey — west and northwest
Hudson County , New Jersey — west and southwest
The Bronx — north and northeast
Queens — east
Kings County ( Brooklyn ) — south and southeast
Richmond County ( Staten Island ) — southwest
= = = = National protected areas = = = =
African Burial Ground National Monument
Castle Clinton National Monument
Federal Hall National Memorial
General Grant National Memorial
Governors Island National Monument
Hamilton Grange National Memorial
Lower East Side Tenement National Historic Site
Statue of Liberty National Monument ( part )
Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site
= = = = Neighborhoods = = = =
Manhattan 's many neighborhoods are not named according to any particular convention . Some are geographical ( the Upper East Side ) , or ethnically descriptive ( Little Italy ) . Others are acronyms , such as TriBeCa ( for " TRIangle BElow CAnal Street " ) or SoHo ( " SOuth of HOuston " ) , or the far more recent vintages NoLIta ( " NOrth of Little ITAly " ) . and NoMad ( " NOrth of MADison Square Park " ) . Harlem is a name from the Dutch colonial era after Haarlem , a city in the Netherlands . Alphabet City comprises Avenues A , B , C , and D , to which its name refers . Some have simple folkloric names , such as Hell 's Kitchen , alongside their more official but lesser used title ( in this case , Clinton ) .
Some neighborhoods , such as SoHo , are commercial and known for upscale shopping . Others , such as Greenwich Village , the Lower East Side , Alphabet City and the East Village , have long been associated with the Bohemian subculture . Chelsea is a neighborhood with a large gay population , and recently a center of New York 's art industry and nightlife . Washington Heights is a vibrant neighborhood of immigrants from the Dominican Republic . Chinatown has a dense population of people of Chinese descent . Koreatown is roughly bounded by 5th and 6th Avenues , between 31st and 36th Streets . Rose Hill features a growing number of Indian restaurants and spice shops along a stretch of Lexington Avenue between 25th and 30th Streets which has become known as Curry Hill .
In Manhattan , uptown means north ( more precisely north @-@ northeast , which is the direction the island and its street grid system is oriented ) and downtown means south ( south @-@ southwest ) . This usage differs from that of most American cities , where downtown refers to the central business district . Manhattan has two central business districts , the Financial District at the southern tip of the island , and Midtown Manhattan . The term uptown also refers to the northern part of Manhattan above 72nd Street and downtown to the southern portion below 14th Street , with Midtown covering the area in between , though definitions can be rather fluid depending on the situation .
Fifth Avenue roughly bisects Manhattan Island and acts as the demarcation line for east / west designations ( e.g. , East 27th Street , West 42nd Street ) ; street addresses start at Fifth Avenue and increase heading away from Fifth Avenue , at a rate of 100 per block on most streets . South of Waverly Place , Fifth Avenue terminates and Broadway becomes the east / west demarcation line . Though the grid does start with 1st Street , just north of Houston Street ( the southernmost street divided in west and east portions ; pronounced HOW @-@ stin ) , the grid does not fully take hold until north of 14th Street , where nearly all east @-@ west streets are numerically identified , which increase from south to north to 220th Street , the highest numbered street on the island . Streets in Midtown are usually one way with a few exceptions ( 14th , 23rd , 34th , and 42nd for example ) . The rule of thumb is that odd @-@ numbered streets run west , while even @-@ numbered streets run east .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen climate classification , using the 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) coldest month ( January ) isotherm , New York City including Manhattan itself experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) , and located at around 40 ° N latitude , is the northernmost major city on the North American continent with this categorization . Winters are cold and damp , and prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the moderating effects of the Atlantic Ocean ; yet the Atlantic and the partial shielding from colder air by the Appalachians keep the city warmer in the winter than inland North American cities at similar or lesser latitudes , such as Pittsburgh , Cincinnati , and Indianapolis , helping to moderate the amount of snow , which averages 25 inches ( 64 cm ) each year . Spring and fall in New York City are mild , while summer is very warm and humid , with temperatures of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) or higher recorded from 18 to 25 days on average during the season . The city 's long @-@ term climate patterns are affected by the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , a 70 @-@ year @-@ long warming and cooling cycle in the Atlantic that influences the frequency and severity of hurricanes and coastal storms in the region . Central Park is the location of record for the borough 's climatic data .
Temperature records have been set as high as 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on July 9 , 1936 , and as low as − 15 ° F ( − 26 ° C ) on February 9 , 1934 .
Summer evening temperatures are elevated by the urban heat island effect , which causes heat absorbed during the day to be radiated back at night , raising temperatures by as much as 7 ° F ( 4 ° C ) when winds are slow .
= = = Boroughscapes = = =
= = Demographics = =
At the 2010 Census , there were 1 @,@ 585 @,@ 873 people living in Manhattan , an increase of 3 @.@ 2 % since 2000 . Since 2010 , Manhattan 's population was estimated by the Census Bureau to have increased 3 @.@ 7 % to 1 @,@ 644 @,@ 518 as of 2015 , representing 19 @.@ 3 % of New York City 's population and 8 @.@ 3 % of New York State 's population . As of the 2000 Census , the population density of New York County was 66 @,@ 940 per square mile ( 25 @,@ 846 / km ² ) , the highest population density of any county in the United States . If 2012 census estimates were accurate , the population density then approximated 70 @,@ 518 people per square mile ( 27 @,@ 227 / km ² ) . In 1910 , at the height of European immigration to New York , Manhattan 's population density reached a peak of 101 @,@ 548 people per square mile ( 39 @,@ 208 / km ² ) .
According to 2012 Census estimates , 65 @.@ 2 % of the population was White , 18 @.@ 4 % Black or African American , 1 @.@ 2 % American Indian and Alaska Native , 12 @.@ 0 % Asian , and 3 @.@ 1 % of two or more races . 25 @.@ 8 % of Manhattan 's population was of Hispanic or Latino origin , of any race . Manhattan has the second highest percentage of non @-@ Hispanic Whites ( 48 % ) of New York City 's boroughs , after Staten Island ( where non @-@ Hispanic Whites make up 64 % of residents ) .
The New York City Department of City Planning projects that Manhattan 's population will increase by 289 @,@ 000 people between 2000 and 2030 , an increase of 18 @.@ 8 % over the period , second only to Staten Island , while the rest of the city is projected to grow by 12 @.@ 7 % over the same period . The school @-@ age population is expected to grow 4 @.@ 4 % by 2030 , in contrast to a small decline in the city as a whole . The elderly population is forecast to grow by 57 @.@ 9 % , with the borough adding 108 @,@ 000 persons ages 65 and over , compared to 44 @.@ 2 % growth citywide .
According to the 2009 American Community Survey , the average household size was 2 @.@ 11 , and the average family size was 3 @.@ 21 . Approximately 59 @.@ 4 % of the population over the age of 25 have a bachelor 's degree or higher . Approximately 27 @.@ 0 % of the population is foreign @-@ born , and 61 @.@ 7 % of the population over the age of 5 speak only English at home . People of Irish ancestry make up 7 @.@ 8 % of the population , while Italian Americans make up 6 @.@ 8 % of the population . German Americans and Russian Americans make up 7 @.@ 2 % and 6 @.@ 2 % of the population respectively .
In 2000 , 56 @.@ 4 % of people living in Manhattan were White , 17 @.@ 39 % were Black , 14 @.@ 14 % were from other races , 9 @.@ 40 % were Asian , 0 @.@ 5 % were Native American , and 0 @.@ 07 % were Pacific Islander . 4 @.@ 14 % were from two or more races . 27 @.@ 18 % were Hispanic of any race .
There were 738 @,@ 644 households . 25 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 12 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 59 @.@ 1 % were non @-@ families . 17 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them . 48 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was two and the average family size was 2 @.@ 99 .
Manhattan 's population was spread out with 16 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 10 @.@ 2 % from 18 to 24 , 38 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 22 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 2 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 36 years . For every 100 females , there were 90 @.@ 3 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 87 @.@ 9 males .
Manhattan is one of the highest @-@ income places in the United States with a population greater than one million . As of 2012 , Manhattan 's cost of living was the highest in the United States , but the borough also contained the country 's most profound level of income inequality . Manhattan is also the United States county with the highest per capita income , being the sole county whose per capita income exceeded $ 100 @,@ 000 in 2010 . In 2012 , The New York Times reported that " the income gap in Manhattan , already wider than almost anywhere else in the country , rivaled disparities in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . ... The wealthiest fifth of Manhattanites made more than 40 times what the lowest fifth reported , a widening gap ( it was 38 times , the year before ) surpassed by only a few developing countries " .
Lower Manhattan has been experiencing a baby boom , well above the overall birth rate in Manhattan , with the area south of Canal Street witnessing 1 @,@ 086 births in 2010 , 12 % greater than 2009 and over twice the number born in 2001 . The Financial District alone has witnessed growth in its population to approximately 43 @,@ 000 as of 2014 , nearly double the 23 @,@ 000 recorded at the 2000 Census .
= = = Religion = = =
Manhattan is religiously diverse . The largest religious affiliation is the Catholic Church , whose adherents constitute 564 @,@ 505 persons ( more than 36 % of the population ) and maintain 110 congregations . Jews comprise the second largest religious group , with 314 @,@ 500 persons ( 20 @.@ 5 % ) in 102 congregations . They are followed by Protestants , with 139 @,@ 732 adherents ( 9 @.@ 1 % ) and Muslims , with 37 @,@ 078 ( 2 @.@ 4 % ) .
= = = Languages = = =
As of 2010 , 59 @.@ 98 % ( 902 @,@ 267 ) of Manhattan residents , ages five and older , spoke only English at home , while 23 @.@ 07 % ( 347 @,@ 033 ) spoke Spanish , 5 @.@ 33 % ( 80 @,@ 240 ) Chinese , 2 @.@ 03 % ( 30 @,@ 567 ) French , 0 @.@ 78 % ( 11 @,@ 776 ) Japanese , 0 @.@ 77 % ( 11 @,@ 517 ) Russian , 0 @.@ 72 % ( 10 @,@ 788 ) Korean , 0 @.@ 70 % ( 10 @,@ 496 ) German , 0 @.@ 66 % ( 9 @,@ 868 ) Italian , 0 @.@ 64 % ( 9 @,@ 555 ) Hebrew , and 0 @.@ 48 % ( 7 @,@ 158 ) African languages as a main language . In total , 40 @.@ 02 % ( 602 @,@ 058 ) of Manhattan 's population , ages 5 and older , spoke a language other than English at home .
= = Landmarks and architecture = =
The Theater District around Broadway at Times Square , New York University , Columbia University , Flatiron Building , the Financial District around Wall Street , Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts , Little Italy , Harlem , the American Museum of Natural History , Chinatown , and Central Park are all located on this densely populated island . Manhattan has many energy @-@ efficient green office buildings , such as the Hearst Tower , the rebuilt 7 World Trade Center , and the Bank of America Tower — the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification .
= = = Architectural history = = =
The skyscraper , which has shaped Manhattan 's distinctive skyline , has been closely associated with New York City 's identity since the end of the 19th century . From 1890 to 1973 , the world 's tallest building was in Manhattan ( with a gap between 1901 and 1908 , when the title was held by Philadelphia City Hall ) , with nine different buildings holding the title . The New York World Building on Park Row , was the first to take the title in 1890 , standing 309 feet ( 94 m ) until 1955 , when it was demolished to construct a new ramp to the Brooklyn Bridge . The nearby Park Row Building , with its 29 stories standing 391 feet ( 119 m ) high took the title in 1899 . The 41 @-@ story Singer Building , constructed in 1908 as the headquarters of the eponymous sewing machine manufacturer , stood 612 feet ( 187 m ) high until 1967 , when it became the tallest building ever demolished . The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower , standing 700 feet ( 210 m ) at the foot of Madison Avenue , wrested the title in 1909 , with a tower reminiscent of St Mark 's Campanile in Venice . The Woolworth Building , and its distinctive Gothic architecture , took the title in 1913 , topping off at 792 feet ( 241 m ) .
The Roaring Twenties saw a race to the sky , with three separate buildings pursuing the world 's tallest title in the span of a year . As the stock market soared in the days before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , two developers publicly competed for the crown . At 927 feet ( 283 m ) , 40 Wall Street , completed in May 1930 in an astonishing eleven months as the headquarters of the Bank of Manhattan , seemed to have secured the title . At Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street , auto executive Walter Chrysler and his architect William Van Alen developed plans to build the structure 's trademark 185 @-@ foot ( 56 m ) high spire in secret , pushing the Chrysler Building to 1 @,@ 046 feet ( 319 m ) and making it the tallest in the world when it was completed in 1929 . Both buildings were soon surpassed , with the May 1931 completion of the 102 @-@ story Empire State Building with its Art Deco tower soaring 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 380 m ) to the top of the building . The 203 @-@ foot ( 62 m ) high pinnacle was later added bringing the total height of the building to 1 @,@ 453 ft ( 443 m ) .
The former Twin Towers of the World Trade Center were located in Lower Manhattan . At 1 @,@ 368 and 1 @,@ 362 feet ( 417 and 415 m ) , the 110 @-@ story buildings were the world 's tallest from 1972 , until they were surpassed by the construction of the Willis Tower in 1974 ( formerly known as the Sears Tower , located in Chicago ) . One World Trade Center , a replacement for the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center , is currently the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere .
In 1961 , the Pennsylvania Railroad unveiled plans to tear down the old Penn Station and replace it with a new Madison Square Garden and office building complex . Organized protests were aimed at preserving the McKim , Mead & White @-@ designed structure completed in 1910 , widely considered a masterpiece of the Beaux @-@ Arts style and one of the architectural jewels of New York City . Despite these efforts , demolition of the structure began in October 1963 . The loss of Penn Station — called " an act of irresponsible public vandalism " by historian Lewis Mumford — led directly to the enactment in 1965 of a local law establishing the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission , which is responsible for preserving the " city 's historic , aesthetic , and cultural heritage " . The historic preservation movement triggered by Penn Station 's demise has been credited with the retention of some one million structures nationwide , including nearly 1 @,@ 000 in New York City .
= = = Parkland = = =
17 @.@ 8 % of the borough , a total of 2 @,@ 686 acres ( 10 @.@ 87 km2 ) , is devoted to parkland . Almost 70 % of Manhattan 's space devoted to parks is located outside of Central Park , including 204 playgrounds , 251 Greenstreets , 371 basketball courts and many other amenities .
Central Park is bordered on the north by West 110th Street , on the west by Eighth Avenue , on the south by West 59th Street , and on the east by Fifth Avenue . Along the park 's borders , these streets are usually referred to as Central Park North , Central Park West , and Central Park South , respectively ( Fifth Avenue retains its name along the eastern border ) . The park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux . The 843 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 41 km2 ) park offers extensive walking tracks , two ice @-@ skating rinks , a wildlife sanctuary , and grassy areas used for various sporting pursuits , as well as playgrounds for children . The park is a popular oasis for migrating birds , and thus is popular with bird watchers . The 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) road circling the park is popular with joggers , bicyclists and inline skaters , especially on weekends and in the evenings after 7 : 00 pm , when automobile traffic is banned . While much of the park looks natural , it is almost entirely landscaped and contains several artificial lakes . The construction of Central Park in the 1850s was one of the era 's most massive public works projects . Some 20 @,@ 000 workers crafted the topography to create the English @-@ style pastoral landscape Olmsted and Vaux sought to create . Workers moved nearly 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 m3 ) of soil and planted more than 270 @,@ 000 trees and shrubs .
The African Burial Ground National Monument at Duane Street preserves a site containing the remains of over 400 Africans buried during the 17th and 18th centuries . The remains were found in 1991 during the construction of the Foley Square Federal Office Building .
= = Economy = =
Manhattan is the economic engine of New York City , with its 2 @.@ 3 million workers in 2007 drawn from the entire New York metropolitan area accounting for almost two @-@ thirds of all jobs in New York City . In the first quarter of 2014 , the average weekly wage in Manhattan ( New York County ) was $ 2 @,@ 749 , representing the highest total among large counties in the United States . Manhattan 's workforce is overwhelmingly focused on white collar professions , with manufacturing nearly extinct . Manhattan also has the highest per capita income of any county in the United States .
In 2010 , Manhattan 's daytime population was swelling to 3 @.@ 94 million , with commuters adding a net 1 @.@ 48 million people to the population , along with visitors , tourists , and commuting students . The commuter influx of 1 @.@ 61 million workers coming into Manhattan was the largest of any county or city in the country , and was more than triple the 480 @,@ 000 commuters who headed into second @-@ ranked Washington , D.C.
= = = Financial sector = = =
Manhattan 's most important economic sector lies in its role as the headquarters for the U.S. financial industry , metonymously known as Wall Street . The borough 's securities industry , enumerating 163 @,@ 400 jobs in August 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine for Manhattan , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of private sector jobs in New York City , 8 @.@ 5 percent ( US $ 3 @.@ 8 billion ) of the city 's tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of US $ 360 @,@ 700 . Wall Street investment banking fees in 2012 totaled approximately US $ 40 billion , while in 2013 , senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as US $ 324 @,@ 000 annually .
Lower Manhattan is home to the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) , on Wall Street , and the NASDAQ , at 165 Broadway , representing the world 's largest and second largest stock exchanges , respectively , when measured both by overall share trading value and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013 . The NYSE MKT ( formerly the American Stock Exchange , AMEX ) , New York Board of Trade , and the New York Mercantile Exchange ( NYMEX ) are also located downtown . In July 2013 , NYSE Euronext , the operator of the New York Stock Exchange , took over the administration of the London interbank offered rate from the British Bankers Association .
= = = Corporate sector = = =
New York City is home to the most corporate headquarters of any city in the nation , the overwhelming majority based in Manhattan . Manhattan contained over 500 million square feet ( 46 @.@ 5 million m2 ) of office space in 2015 , making it the largest office market in the United States , while Midtown Manhattan , with nearly 400 million square feet ( 37 @.@ 2 million m2 ) in 2015 , is the largest central business district in the world .
As of 2013 , the global advertising agencies of Omnicom Group and Interpublic Group , both based in Manhattan , had combined annual revenues of approximately US $ 21 billion , reflecting New York City 's role as the top global center for the advertising industry , which is metonymously referred to as " Madison Avenue " .
= = = Technology sectors = = =
Silicon Alley , centered in Manhattan , has evolved into a metonym for the sphere encompassing the New York City metropolitan region 's high tech industries including , the Internet , new media , telecommunications , digital media , software development , biotechnology , game design , financial technology ( fintech ) , and other fields within information technology that are supported by the area 's entrepreneurship ecosystem and venture capital investments . As of 2014 , New York City hosted 300 @,@ 000 employees in the tech sector . In 2015 , Silicon Alley generated over US $ 7 @.@ 3 billion in venture capital investment , most based in Manhattan , as well as in Brooklyn , Queens , and elsewhere in the region . High technology startup companies and employment are growing in Manhattan and across New York City , bolstered by the city 's emergence as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship , social tolerance , and environmental sustainability , as well as New York 's position as the leading Internet hub and telecommunications center in North America , including its vicinity to several transatlantic fiber optic trunk lines , the city 's intellectual capital , and its extensive outdoor wireless connectivity . Verizon Communications , headquartered at 140 West Street in Lower Manhattan , was at the final stages in 2014 of completing a US $ 3 billion fiberoptic telecommunications upgrade throughout New York City . As of October 2014 , New York City hosted 300 @,@ 000 employees in the tech sector , with a significant proportion in Manhattan .
The biotechnology sector is also growing in Manhattan based upon the city 's strength in academic scientific research and public and commercial financial support . By mid @-@ 2014 , Accelerator , a biotech investment firm , had raised more than US $ 30 million from investors , including Eli Lilly and Company , Pfizer , and Johnson & Johnson , for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the Alexandria Center for Life Science , which encompasses more than 700 @,@ 000 square feet ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) on East 29th Street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic , medical , and research institutions . The New York City Economic Development Corporation 's Early Stage Life Sciences Funding Initiative and venture capital partners , including Celgene , General Electric Ventures , and Eli Lilly , committed a minimum of US $ 100 million to help launch 15 to 20 ventures in life sciences and biotechnology . In 2011 , Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg had announced his choice of Cornell University and Technion @-@ Israel Institute of Technology to build a US $ 2 billion graduate school of applied sciences on Roosevelt Island , Manhattan , with the goal of transforming New York City into the world 's premier technology capital .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism is vital to Manhattan 's economy , and the landmarks of Manhattan are the focus of New York City 's tourists , enumerating nearly 60 million visitors in 2015 . According to The Broadway League , shows on Broadway sold approximately US $ 1 @.@ 27 billion worth of tickets in the 2013 – 2014 season , an increase of 11 @.@ 4 % from US $ 1 @.@ 139 billion in the 2012 – 2013 season ; attendance in 2013 – 2014 stood at 12 @.@ 21 million , representing a 5 @.@ 5 % increase from the 2012 – 2013 season 's 11 @.@ 57 million . Manhattan was on track to have an estimated 90 @,@ 000 hotel rooms at the end of 2014 , a 10 % increase from 2013 .
= = = Real estate = = =
Real estate is a major force in Manhattan 's economy , and indeed the city 's , as the total value of all New York City property was assessed at US $ 914 @.@ 8 billion for the 2015 fiscal year . Manhattan has perennially been home to some of the nation 's , as well as the world 's , most valuable real estate , including the Time Warner Center , which had the highest @-@ listed market value in the city in 2006 at US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion , to be subsequently surpassed in October 2014 by the Waldorf Astoria New York , which became the most expensive hotel ever sold after being purchased by the Anbang Insurance Group , based in China , for US $ 1 @.@ 95 billion . When 450 Park Avenue was sold on July 2 , 2007 for US $ 510 million , about US $ 1 @,@ 589 per square foot ( US $ 17 @,@ 104 / m ² ) , it broke the barely month @-@ old record for an American office building of US $ 1 @,@ 476 per square foot ( US $ 15 @,@ 887 / m ² ) based on the sale of 660 Madison Avenue . In 2014 , Manhattan was home to six of the top ten zip codes in the United States by median housing price .
Manhattan had approximately 520 million square feet ( 48 @.@ 1 million m ² ) of office space in 2013 , making it the largest office market in the United States . Midtown Manhattan is the largest central business district in the nation based on office space , while Lower Manhattan is the third @-@ largest ( after Chicago 's Loop ) .
= = = Media = = =
= = = = News = = = =
Manhattan is served by the major New York City dailies , including The New York Times , New York Daily News , and New York Post , which are all headquartered in the borough . The nation 's largest newspaper by circulation , The Wall Street Journal , is also based there . Other daily newspapers include AM New York and The Villager . The New York Amsterdam News , based in Harlem , is one of the leading African American weekly newspapers in the United States . The Village Voice is a leading alternative weekly based in the borough .
= = = = Television , radio , film = = = =
The television industry developed in New York and is a significant employer in the city 's economy . The four major American broadcast networks , ABC , NBC , CBS , and Fox , as well as Univision , are all headquartered in Manhattan , as are many cable channels , including MSNBC , MTV , Fox News , HBO and Comedy Central . In 1971 , WLIB became New York 's first black @-@ owned radio station and the crown jewel of Inner City Broadcasting Corporation . A co @-@ founder of Inner City was Percy Sutton , a former Manhattan borough president and long one of the city 's most powerful black leaders . WLIB began broadcasts for the African @-@ American community in 1949 and regularly interviewed civil rights leaders like Malcolm X and aired live broadcasts from conferences of the NAACP . Influential WQHT , also known as Hot 97 , claims to be the premier hip @-@ hop station in the United States . WNYC , comprising an AM and FM signal , has the largest public radio audience in the nation and is the most @-@ listened to commercial or non @-@ commercial radio station in Manhattan . WBAI , with news and information programming , is one of the few socialist radio stations operating in the United States .
The oldest public @-@ access television cable TV channel in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network , founded in 1971 , offers eclectic local programming that ranges from a jazz hour to discussion of labor issues to foreign language and religious programming . NY1 , Time Warner Cable 's local news channel , is known for its beat coverage of City Hall and state politics .
= = Education and scholarly activity = =
Education in Manhattan is provided by a vast number of public and private institutions . Public schools in the borough are operated by the New York City Department of Education , the largest public school system in the United States . Charter schools include Success Academy Harlem 1 through 5 , Success Academy Upper West , and Public Prep .
Some of the best @-@ known New York City public high schools , such as Beacon High School , Stuyvesant High School , Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School , High School of Fashion Industries , Eleanor Roosevelt High School , NYC Lab School , Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics , Hunter College High School and High School for Math , Science and Engineering at City College are located in Manhattan . Bard High School Early College , a hybrid school created by Bard College , serves students from around the city .
Many prestigious private prep schools are located in Manhattan , including the Upper East Side 's Brearley School , Dalton School , Browning School , Spence School , Chapin School , Nightingale @-@ Bamford School , Convent of the Sacred Heart , Hewitt School , Saint David 's School , and Loyola School , along with the Upper West Side 's Collegiate School and Trinity School . The prestigious Regis High School , on the Upper East Side , is the only all @-@ scholarship Catholic high school for boys in the country . The borough is also home to two private schools that are known as the most diverse in the nation , Manhattan Country School and United Nations International School . Manhattan has the only official Italian American school in the U.S. , La Scuola d 'Italia .
As of 2003 , 52 @.@ 3 % of Manhattan residents over age 25 have a bachelor 's degree , the fifth highest of all counties in the country . By 2005 , about 60 % of residents were college graduates and some 25 % had earned advanced degrees , giving Manhattan one of the nation 's densest concentrations of highly educated people .
Manhattan has various colleges and universities , including Columbia University ( and its affiliate Barnard College ) , Cooper Union , Marymount Manhattan College , New York Institute of Technology , New York University ( NYU ) , The Juilliard School , Pace University , Berkeley College , The New School , Yeshiva University , and a campus of Fordham University . Other schools include Bank Street College of Education , Boricua College , Jewish Theological Seminary of America , Manhattan School of Music , Metropolitan College of New York , School of Visual Arts , Touro College and Union Theological Seminary . Several other private institutions maintain a Manhattan presence , among them St. John 's University , The College of New Rochelle and Pratt Institute .
The City University of New York ( CUNY ) , the municipal college system of New York City , is the largest urban university system in the United States , serving more than 226 @,@ 000 degree students and a roughly equal number of adult , continuing and professional education students . A third of college graduates in New York City graduate from CUNY , with the institution enrolling about half of all college students in New York City . CUNY senior colleges located in Manhattan include : Baruch College , City College of New York , Hunter College , John Jay College of Criminal Justice , and the CUNY Graduate Center ( graduate studies and doctoral granting institution ) . The only CUNY community college located in Manhattan is the Borough of Manhattan Community College .
The State University of New York is represented by the Fashion Institute of Technology , State University of New York State College of Optometry and Stony Brook University – Manhattan .
Manhattan is a world center for training and education in medicine and the life sciences . The city as a whole receives the second @-@ highest amount of annual funding from the National Institutes of Health among all U.S. cities , the bulk of which goes to Manhattan 's research institutions , including Memorial Sloan @-@ Kettering Cancer Center , Rockefeller University , Mount Sinai School of Medicine , Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons , Weill Cornell Medical College and New York University School of Medicine .
Manhattan is served by the New York Public Library , which has the largest collection of any public library system in the country . The five units of the Central Library — Mid @-@ Manhattan Library , Donnell Library Center , The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts , Andrew Heiskell Braille and Talking Book Library and the Science , Industry and Business Library — are all located in Manhattan . More than 35 other branch libraries are located in the borough .
= = Culture and contemporary life = =
Manhattan has been the scene of many important American cultural movements . In 1912 , about 20 @,@ 000 workers , a quarter of them women , marched upon Washington Square Park to commemorate the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire , which killed 146 workers on March 25 , 1911 . Many of the women wore fitted tucked @-@ front blouses like those manufactured by the Triangle Shirtwaist Company , a clothing style that became the working woman 's uniform and a symbol of women 's liberation , reflecting the alliance of labor and suffrage movements .
The Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s established the African @-@ American literary canon in the United States . Manhattan 's vibrant visual art scene in the 1950s and 1960s was a center of the American pop art movement , which gave birth to such giants as Jasper Johns and Roy Lichtenstein . Perhaps no other artist is as associated with the downtown pop art movement of the late 1970s as Andy Warhol , who socialized at clubs like Serendipity 3 and Studio 54 .
Broadway theatre is often considered the highest professional form of theatre in the United States . Plays and musicals are staged in one of the 39 larger professional theatres with at least 500 seats , almost all in and around Times Square . Off @-@ Broadway theatres feature productions in venues with 100 – 500 seats . Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts , anchoring Lincoln Square on the Upper West Side of Manhattan , is home to 12 influential arts organizations , including the Metropolitan Opera , New York City Opera , New York Philharmonic , and New York City Ballet , as well as the Vivian Beaumont Theater , the Juilliard School , Jazz at Lincoln Center , and Alice Tully Hall .
Manhattan is also home to some of the most extensive art collections in the world , both contemporary and historical , including the Metropolitan Museum of Art , the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) , the Frick Collection , the Whitney Museum of American Art , and the Frank Lloyd Wright @-@ designed Guggenheim Museum . The Upper East Side has many art galleries , and the downtown neighborhood of Chelsea is known for its more than 200 art galleries that are home to modern art from both upcoming and established artists .
Manhattan is the borough most closely associated with New York City by non @-@ residents ; even some natives of New York City 's boroughs outside Manhattan will describe a trip to Manhattan as " going to the city " .
The borough has a place in several American idioms . The phrase a New York minute is meant to convey a very short time , sometimes in hyperbolic form , as in " perhaps faster than you would believe is possible " . It refers to the rapid pace of life in Manhattan . The term " melting pot " was first popularly coined to describe the densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side in Israel Zangwill 's play The Melting Pot , which was an adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet set by Zangwill in New York City in 1908 . The iconic Flatiron Building is said to have been the source of the phrase " 23 skidoo " or scram , from what cops would shout at men who tried to get glimpses of women 's dresses being blown up by the winds created by the triangular building . The " Big Apple " dates back to the 1920s , when a reporter heard the term used by New Orleans stablehands to refer to New York City 's racetracks and named his racing column " Around The Big Apple . " Jazz musicians adopted the term to refer to the city as the world 's jazz capital , and a 1970s ad campaign by the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau helped popularize the term .
= = Sports = =
Manhattan is home to the NBA 's New York Knicks , the NHL 's New York Rangers , and the WNBA 's New York Liberty , who all play their home games at Madison Square Garden , the only major professional sports arena in the borough . The New York Jets proposed a West Side Stadium for their home field , but the proposal was eventually defeated in June 2005 , leaving them at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey .
Today , Manhattan is the only borough in New York City that does not have a professional baseball franchise . The Bronx has the Yankees ( American League ) and Queens has the Mets ( National League ) of Major League Baseball . The Minor League Baseball Brooklyn Cyclones play in Brooklyn , while the Staten Island Yankees play in Staten Island . Yet three of the four major league teams to play in New York City played in Manhattan . The New York Giants played in the various incarnations of the Polo Grounds at 155th Street and Eighth Avenue from their inception in 1883 — except for 1889 , when they split their time between Jersey City and Staten Island , and when they played in Hilltop Park in 1911 — until they headed west with the Brooklyn Dodgers after the 1957 season . The New York Yankees began their franchise as the Highlanders , named for Hilltop Park , where they played from their creation in 1903 until 1912 . The team moved to the Polo Grounds with the 1913 season , where they were officially christened the New York Yankees , remaining there until they moved across the Harlem River in 1923 to Yankee Stadium . The New York Mets played in the Polo Grounds in 1962 and 1963 , their first two seasons , before Shea Stadium was completed in 1964 . After the Mets departed , the Polo Grounds was demolished in April 1964 , replaced by public housing .
The first national college @-@ level basketball championship , the National Invitation Tournament , was held in New York in 1938 and remains in the city . The New York Knicks started play in 1946 as one of the National Basketball Association 's original teams , playing their first home games at the 69th Regiment Armory , before making Madison Square Garden their permanent home . The New York Liberty of the WNBA have shared the Garden with the Knicks since their creation in 1997 as one of the league 's original eight teams . Rucker Park in Harlem is a playground court , famed for its streetball style of play , where many NBA athletes have played in the summer league .
Though both of New York City 's football teams play today across the Hudson River in MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey , both teams started out playing in the Polo Grounds . The New York Giants played side @-@ by @-@ side with their baseball namesakes from the time they entered the National Football League in 1925 , until crossing over to Yankee Stadium in 1956 . The New York Jets , originally known as the Titans , started out in 1960 at the Polo Grounds , staying there for four seasons before joining the Mets in Queens in 1964 .
The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League have played in the various locations of Madison Square Garden since their founding in the 1926 – 1927 season . The Rangers were predated by the New York Americans , who started play in the Garden the previous season , lasting until the team folded after the 1941 – 1942 NHL season , a season it played in the Garden as the Brooklyn Americans .
The New York Cosmos of the North American Soccer League played their home games at Downing Stadium for two seasons , starting in 1974 . In 1975 , the team signed Pelé , officially recorded by FIFA as the world 's greatest soccer player , to a $ 4 @.@ 5 million contract , drawing a capacity crowd of 22 @,@ 500 to watch him lead the team to a 2 – 0 victory . The playing pitch and facilities at Downing Stadium were in dreadful condition though and as the team 's popularity grew they too left for Yankee Stadium , and then Giants Stadium . The stadium was demolished in 2002 to make way for the $ 45 million , 4 @,@ 754 @-@ seat Icahn Stadium , which includes an Olympic @-@ standard 400 @-@ meter running track and , as part of Pele 's and the Cosmos ' legacy , includes a FIFA @-@ approved floodlit soccer stadium that hosts matches between the 48 youth teams of a Manhattan soccer club .
= = Government = =
Since New York City 's consolidation in 1898 , Manhattan has been governed by the New York City Charter , which has provided for a strong mayor @-@ council system since its revision in 1989 . The centralized New York City government is responsible for public education , correctional institutions , libraries , public safety , recreational facilities , sanitation , water supply , and welfare services in Manhattan .
The office of Borough President was created in the consolidation of 1898 to balance centralization with local authority . Each borough president had a powerful administrative role derived from having a vote on the New York City Board of Estimate , which was responsible for creating and approving the city 's budget and proposals for land use . In 1989 the Supreme Court of the United States declared the Board of Estimate unconstitutional because Brooklyn , the most populous borough , had no greater effective representation on the Board than Staten Island , the least populous borough , a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause pursuant to the high court 's 1964 " one man , one vote " decision .
Since 1990 , the largely powerless Borough President has acted as an advocate for the borough at the mayoral agencies , the City Council , the New York state government , and corporations . Manhattan 's current Borough President is Gale Brewer , elected as a Democrat in November 2013 with 82 @.@ 9 % of the vote . Brewer replaced Scott Stringer , who went on to become New York City Comptroller .
Cyrus Vance , a Democrat , has been the District Attorney of New York County since 2010 . Manhattan has ten City Council members , the third largest contingent among the five boroughs . It also has twelve administrative districts , each served by a local Community Board . Community Boards are representative bodies that field complaints and serve as advocates for local residents . As the host of the UN , the borough is home to the world 's largest international consular corps , comprising 105 consulates , consulates general and honorary consulates . It is also the home of New York City Hall , the seat of New York City government housing the Mayor of New York City and the New York City Council . The mayor 's staff and thirteen municipal agencies are located in the nearby Manhattan Municipal Building , completed in 1916 , one of the largest governmental buildings in the world .
= = = Politics = = =
The Democratic Party holds most public offices . Registered Republicans are a minority in the borough , only constituting approximately 12 % of the electorate . Registered Republicans are more than 20 % of the electorate only in the neighborhoods of the Upper East Side and the Financial District . The Democrats hold 66 @.@ 1 % of those registered in a party . 21 @.@ 9 % of the voters were unaffiliated ( independents ) .
Manhattan is divided between three congressional districts , all of which are represented by Democrats .
Jerrold Nadler represents the 8th district , based on the West Side , which covers most of the Upper West Side , Hell 's Kitchen , Chelsea , Greenwich Village , Chinatown , Tribeca and Battery Park City , as well as some sections of Southwest Brooklyn .
Carolyn B. Maloney represents the 14th district , the so @-@ called " Silk Stocking " district that was the political base for Teddy Roosevelt and John Lindsay . It covers most of the Upper East Side , Yorkville , Gramercy Park , Roosevelt Island and most of the Lower East Side and the East Village , as well as portions of western Queens .
Nydia Velázquez of the Brooklyn / Queens @-@ based 12th district , represents a few heavily Puerto Rican sections of the Lower East Side , including Avenues C and D of Alphabet City .
No Republican has won the presidential election in Manhattan since 1924 , when Calvin Coolidge won a plurality of the New York County vote over Democrat John W. Davis , 41 @.@ 20 % – 39 @.@ 55 % . Warren G. Harding was the most recent Republican presidential candidate to win a majority of the Manhattan vote , with 59 @.@ 22 % of the 1920 vote . In the 2004 presidential election , Democrat John Kerry received 82 @.@ 1 % of the vote in Manhattan and Republican George W. Bush received 16 @.@ 7 % . The borough is the most important source of funding for presidential campaigns in the United States ; in 2004 , it was home to six of the top seven ZIP codes in the nation for political contributions . The top ZIP code , 10021 on the Upper East Side , generated the most money for the United States presidential election for all presidential candidates , including both Kerry and Bush during the 2004 election .
= = = Federal offices = = =
The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Manhattan . The James Farley Post Office in Midtown Manhattan is New York City 's main post office . It is located at 421 Eighth Avenue , between 31st Street and 33rd Street . The post office stopped 24 @-@ hour service on May 9 , 2009 , due to decreasing mail traffic .
Both the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit are located in lower Manhattan 's Foley Square , and the U.S. Attorney and other federal offices and agencies maintain locations in that area .
= = = Crime and public safety = = =
Starting in the mid @-@ 19th century , the United States became a magnet for immigrants seeking to escape poverty in their home countries . After arriving in New York , many new arrivals ended up living in squalor in the slums of the Five Points neighborhood , an area between Broadway and the Bowery , northeast of New York City Hall . By the 1820s , the area was home to many gambling dens and brothels , and was known as a dangerous place to go . In 1842 , Charles Dickens visited the area and was appalled at the horrendous living conditions he had seen . The area was so notorious that it even caught the attention of Abraham Lincoln , who visited the area before his Cooper Union speech in 1860 . The predominantly Irish Five Points Gang was one of the country 's first major organized crime entities .
As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century many joined ethnic gangs , including Al Capone , who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang . The Mafia ( also known as Cosa Nostra ) first developed in the mid @-@ 19th century in Sicily and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration . Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan , forming alliances with other criminal enterprises , including the Jewish mob , led by Meyer Lansky , the leading Jewish gangster of that period . From 1920 – 1933 , Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor , upon which the Mafia was quick to capitalize .
As in the whole of New York City , Manhattan experienced a sharp increase in crime during the 1960s and 1970s . Since 1990 , crime in Manhattan has plummeted in all categories tracked by the CompStat profile . A borough that saw 503 murders in 1990 has seen a drop of nearly 88 % to 62 in 2008 . Robbery and burglary are down by more than 80 % during the period , and auto theft has been reduced by more than 93 % . In the seven major crime categories tracked by the system , overall crime has declined by more than 75 % since 1990 , and year @-@ to @-@ date statistics through May 2009 show continuing declines . Based on 2005 data , New York City has the lowest crime rate among the ten largest cities in the United States .
= = Housing = =
During Manhattan 's early history , wood construction and poor access to water supplies left the city vulnerable to fires . In 1776 , shortly after the Continental Army evacuated Manhattan and left it to the British , a massive fire broke out destroying one @-@ third of the city and some 500 houses .
The rise of immigration near the turn of the 20th century left major portions of Manhattan , especially the Lower East Side , densely packed with recent arrivals , crammed into unhealthy and unsanitary housing . Tenements were usually five @-@ stories high , constructed on the then @-@ typical 25x100 lots , with " cockroach landlords " exploiting the new immigrants . By 1929 , stricter fire codes and the increased use of elevators in residential buildings , were the impetus behind a new housing code that effectively ended the tenement as a form of new construction , though many tenement buildings survive today on the East Side of the borough .
Manhattan offers a wide array of public and private housing options . There were 852 @,@ 575 housing units in 2013 at an average density of 37 @,@ 345 per square mile ( 14 @,@ 419 / km ² ) . As of 2003 , only 20 @.@ 3 % of Manhattan residents lived in owner @-@ occupied housing , the second @-@ lowest rate of all counties in the nation , behind the Bronx . Although the city of New York has the highest average cost for rent in the United States , it simultaneously hosts a higher average of income per capita . Because of this , rent is a lower percentage of annual income than in several other American cities .
As of 2012 , Manhattan 's real estate market for luxury housing was among the most expensive in the world .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Public transportation = = = =
Manhattan is unique in the U.S. for intense use of public transportation and lack of private car ownership . While 88 % of Americans nationwide drive to their jobs , with only 5 % using public transport , mass transit is the dominant form of travel for residents of Manhattan , with 72 % of borough residents using public transport to get to work , while only 18 % drove . According to the 2000 United States Census , 77 @.@ 5 % of Manhattan households do not own a car .
In 2008 , Mayor Bloomberg proposed a congestion pricing system to regulate entering Manhattan south of 60th Street . The state legislature rejected the proposal in June 2008 .
The New York City Subway , the largest subway system in the world by number of stations , is the primary means of travel within the city , linking every borough except Staten Island . There are 148 subway stations in Manhattan and four under construction , out of the 469 stations . A second subway , the Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ( PATH ) system , connects six stations in Manhattan to northern New Jersey . Passengers pay fares with pay @-@ per @-@ ride MetroCards , which are valid on all city buses and subways , as well as on PATH trains . There are 7 @-@ day and 30 @-@ day MetroCards that allow unlimited trips on all subways ( except PATH ) and MTA bus routes ( except for express buses ) . The PATH QuickCard is being phased out , having been replaced by the SmartLink . The MTA is testing " smart card " payment systems to replace the MetroCard . Commuter rail services operating to and from Manhattan are the Long Island Rail Road ( which connects Manhattan and other New York City boroughs to Long Island ) , the Metro @-@ North Railroad ( which connects Manhattan to Upstate New York and Southwestern Connecticut ) and NJ Transit trains to various points in New Jersey . Multibillion @-@ dollar heavy @-@ rail transit projects under construction in Manhattan include the Second Avenue Subway , the East Side Access project , and the World Trade Center Transportation Hub . Two multi @-@ billion @-@ dollar projects were completed in the mid @-@ 2010s , with the $ 1 @.@ 4 billion Fulton Center having been completed in November 2014 and the $ 2 @.@ 4 billion 7 Subway Extension having been completed in September 2015 .
MTA New York City Transit offers a wide variety of local buses within Manhattan under the brand New York City Bus . An extensive network of express bus routes serves commuters and other travelers heading into Manhattan . The bus system served 784 million passengers citywide in 2011 , placing the bus system 's ridership as the highest in the nation , and more than double the ridership of the second @-@ place Los Angeles system .
The Roosevelt Island Tramway , one of two commuter cable car systems in North America , whisks commuters between Roosevelt Island and Manhattan in less than five minutes , and has been serving the island since 1978 . ( The other system in North America is the Portland Aerial Tram . ) The Staten Island Ferry , which runs 24 hours a day , 365 days a year , annually carries over 21 million passengers on the 5 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) run between Manhattan and Staten Island . Each weekday , five vessels transport about 65 @,@ 000 passengers on 109 boat trips . The ferry has been fare @-@ free since 1997 , when the then @-@ 50 @-@ cent fare was eliminated .
The metro region 's commuter rail lines converge at Penn Station and Grand Central Terminal , on the west and east sides of Midtown Manhattan , respectively . They are the two busiest rail stations in the United States . About one @-@ third of users of mass transit and two @-@ thirds of railway passengers in the country live in New York and its suburbs . Amtrak provides inter @-@ city passenger rail service from Penn Station to Boston , Philadelphia , Baltimore , and Washington , D.C. ; Upstate New York and New England ; cross @-@ Canadian border service to Toronto and Montreal ; and destinations in the Southern and Midwestern United States .
= = = = Taxis = = = =
New York 's iconic yellow taxicabs , which number 13 @,@ 087 city @-@ wide and must have the requisite medallion authorizing the pick up of street hails , are ubiquitous in the borough . Various private transportation network companies compete in Manhattan with each other and with the city 's taxicabs .
= = = = Bikes = = = =
Manhattan also has tens of thousands of bicycle commuters .
= = = = Streets and roads = = = =
The Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 called for twelve numbered avenues running north and south roughly parallel to the shore of the Hudson River , each 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide , with First Avenue on the east side and Twelfth Avenue on the west side . There are several intermittent avenues east of First Avenue , including four additional lettered avenues running from Avenue A eastward to Avenue D in an area now known as Alphabet City in Manhattan 's East Village . The numbered streets in Manhattan run east @-@ west , and are generally 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , with about 200 feet ( 61 m ) between each pair of streets . With each combined street and block adding up to about 260 feet ( 79 m ) , there are almost exactly 20 blocks per mile . The typical block in Manhattan is 250 by 600 feet ( 76 by 183 m ) .
According to the original Commissioner 's Plan , there were 155 numbered crosstown streets , but later the grid was extended up to the northernmost corner of Manhattan , where the last numbered street is 220th Street ( Manhattan ) . Moreover , the numbering system continues even in The Bronx , north of Manhattan , despite the fact that the grid plan is not so regular there , and the last numbered street is 263rd Street . Fifteen crosstown streets were designated as 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide , including 34th , 42nd , 57th and 125th Streets , which became some of the borough 's most significant transportation and shopping venues . Broadway is the most notable of many exceptions to the grid , starting at Bowling Green in Lower Manhattan and continuing north into the Bronx at Manhattan 's northern tip . In much of Midtown Manhattan , Broadway runs at a diagonal to the grid , creating major named intersections at Union Square ( Park Avenue South / Fourth Avenue and 14th Street ) , Madison Square ( Fifth Avenue and 23rd Street ) , Herald Square ( Sixth Avenue and 34th Street ) , Times Square ( Seventh Avenue and 42nd Street ) , and Columbus Circle ( Eighth Avenue / Central Park West and 59th Street ) .
" Crosstown traffic " refers primarily to vehicular traffic between Manhattan 's East Side and Manhattan 's West Side . The trip is notoriously frustrating for drivers because of heavy congestion on narrow local streets laid out by the Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 , absence of express roads other than the Trans @-@ Manhattan Expressway at the far north end of Manhattan Island , and only 4 crosstown roads for travel through Central Park , which is between 59th Street and 110th Street . Proposals in the mid @-@ 1900s to build express roads through the city 's densest neighborhoods , namely the Mid @-@ Manhattan Expressway and Lower Manhattan Expressway , did not go forward . The congestion makes Manhattan 's crosstown buses the perennial " winners " of the " Pokey Awards " for slowest service in New York City .
Another consequence of the strict grid plan of most of Manhattan , and the grid 's skew of approximately 28 @.@ 9 degrees , is a phenomenon sometimes referred to as Manhattanhenge ( by analogy with Stonehenge ) . On separate occasions in late May and early July , the sunset is aligned with the street grid lines , with the result that the sun is visible at or near the western horizon from street level . A similar phenomenon occurs with the sunrise in January and December .
The FDR Drive and Harlem River Drive , both designed by controversial New York master planner Robert Moses , comprise a single , long limited @-@ access parkway skirting the east side of Manhattan along the East River and Harlem River south of Dyckman Street . The Henry Hudson Parkway is the corresponding parkway on the West Side north of 57th Street .
= = = = River crossings = = = =
Being primarily an island , Manhattan is linked to New York City 's outer boroughs by numerous bridges , of various sizes . Manhattan has fixed highway connections with New Jersey to its west by way of the George Washington Bridge , the Holland Tunnel , and the Lincoln Tunnel , and to three of the four other New York City boroughs — the Bronx to the northeast , and Brooklyn and Queens ( both on Long Island ) to the east and south . Its only direct connection with the fifth New York City borough , Staten Island , is the Staten Island Ferry across New York Harbor , which is free of charge . The ferry terminal is located near Battery Park at Manhattan 's southern tip . It is also possible to travel on land to Staten Island by way of Brooklyn , via the Verrazano @-@ Narrows Bridge .
The George Washington Bridge , the world 's busiest motor vehicle bridge , connects Washington Heights , in Upper Manhattan , to Bergen County , in New Jersey . There are numerous bridges to the Bronx across the Harlem River , and five of those ( listed north to south ) — the Triborough ( known officially as the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge ) , Ed Koch Queensboro ( also known as the 59th Street Bridge ) , Williamsburg , Manhattan , and Brooklyn Bridges — connect Manhattan to Long Island .
Several tunnels also link Manhattan Island to New York City 's outer boroughs and New Jersey . The Lincoln Tunnel , which carries 120 @,@ 000 vehicles a day under the Hudson River between New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan , is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world . The tunnel was built instead of a bridge to allow unfettered passage of large passenger and cargo ships that sail through New York Harbor and up the Hudson River to Manhattan 's piers . The Holland Tunnel , connecting Lower Manhattan to Jersey City , New Jersey , was the world 's first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel . The Queens @-@ Midtown Tunnel , built to relieve congestion on the bridges connecting Manhattan with Queens and Brooklyn , was the largest non @-@ federal project in its time when it was completed in 1940 ; President Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first person to drive through it . The Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel runs underneath Battery Park and connects the Financial District at the southern tip of Manhattan to Red Hook in Brooklyn .
= = = = Heliports = = = =
Manhattan has three public heliports : the East 34th Street Heliport ( also known as the Atlantic Metroport ) at East 34th Street , owned by New York City and run by the New York City Economic Development Corporation ( " NYCEDC " ) ) ; the Port Authority Downtown Manhattan / Wall Street Heliport , owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and run by the NYCEDC ; and the West 30th Street Heliport , a privately owned heliport that is owned by the Hudson River Park Trust . US Helicopter offered regularly scheduled helicopter service connecting the Downtown Manhattan Heliport with John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens and Newark Liberty International Airport in New Jersey , before going out of business in 2009 .
= = = Utilities = = =
Gas and electric service is provided by Consolidated Edison to all of Manhattan . Con Edison 's electric business traces its roots back to Thomas Edison 's Edison Electric Illuminating Company , the first investor @-@ owned electric utility . The company started service on September 4 , 1882 , using one generator to provide 110 volts direct current ( DC ) to 59 customers with 800 light bulbs , in a one @-@ square @-@ mile area of Lower Manhattan from his Pearl Street Station . Con Edison operates the world 's largest district steam system , which consists of 105 miles ( 169 km ) of steam pipes , providing steam for heating , hot water , and air conditioning by some 1 @,@ 800 Manhattan customers . Cable service is provided by Time Warner Cable and telephone service is provided by Verizon Communications , although AT & T is available as well .
Manhattan , surrounded by two brackish rivers , had a limited supply of fresh water . To satisfy the growing population , the city of New York acquired land in Westchester County and constructed the old Croton Aqueduct system , which went into service in 1842 and was superseded by the new Croton Aqueduct , which opened in 1890 , but this was interrupted in 2008 for the construction since underway of a US $ 3 @.@ 2 billion water purification plant that can supply an estimated 290 million gallons daily when completed , representing almost a 20 % addition to the city 's availability of water , with this addition going to Manhattan and the Bronx . Water comes to Manhattan through New York City Water Tunnel No. 1 , Tunnel No. 2 , and Tunnel No. 3 , completed in 1917 , 1936 , and ( Manhattan 's supply ) 2013 , respectively .
Manhattan witnessed the doubling of the natural gas supply delivered to the borough when a new gas pipeline opened on November 1 , 2013 .
The New York City Department of Sanitation is responsible for garbage removal . The bulk of the city 's trash ultimately is disposed at mega @-@ dumps in Pennsylvania , Virginia , South Carolina and Ohio ( via transfer stations in New Jersey , Brooklyn and Queens ) since the 2001 closure of the Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island . A small amount of trash processed at transfer sites in New Jersey is sometimes incinerated at waste @-@ to @-@ energy facilities . Like New York City , New Jersey and much of Greater New York relies on exporting its trash to far @-@ flung areas .
New York City has the largest clean @-@ air diesel @-@ hybrid and compressed natural gas bus fleet , which also operates in Manhattan , in the country . It also has some of the first hybrid taxis , most of which operate in Manhattan .
= = = Address algorithm = = =
The address algorithm of Manhattan is commonly used to find an address on a major street in Manhattan . It is commonly found in telephone directories , New York City guide books , and MTA Manhattan bus maps .
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= Institutions of the European Union =
The institutions of the European Union are the seven principal decision making bodies of the European Union . They are , as listed in Article 13 of the Treaty on European Union : the European Parliament , the European Council , the Council of the European Union , the European Commission , the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Central Bank and the Court of Auditors . Institutions are different from agencies of the European Union .
= = History = =
Most EU institutions were created with the establishment of the European Community in 1958 . Much change since then has been in the context the shifting of the power balance away from the Council and towards the Parliament . The role of the Commission has often been to mediate between the two or tip the balance . However the Commission is becoming more accountable to the Parliament : in 1999 it forced the resignation of the Santer Commission and forced a reshuffle of the proposed Barroso Commission in 2004 . The development of the institutions , with incremental changes from treaties and agreements , is testament to the evolution of the Union 's structures without one clear " master plan " . Some such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post said of the institutions that " nobody would have deliberately designed a government as complex and as redundant as the EU " .
= = = Under the Treaty of Paris = = =
The first institutions were created at the start of the 1950s with the creation of the ECSC , based on the Schuman declaration , between six states . The ECSC was designed to bring the markets of coal and steel , the materials needed to wage war , under the control of a supranational authority with the aim of encouraging peace and economic development . It established the first institutions . At its core was an independent executive called the " High Authority " with supranational powers over the Community . The laws made by the Authority would be observed by a Court of Justice in order to ensure they were upheld and to arbitrate .
During the negotiations , two supervisory institutions were put forward to counterbalance the power of the High Authority . The " Common Assembly " proposed by Jean Monnet to act as a monitor , counterweight and to add democratic legitimacy was composed of 78 national parliamentarians . The second was the Council of Ministers , pushed by the smaller states also to add an intergovernmental element and harmonise national polices with those of the authority .
= = = Establishment and changes = = =
In 1957 the Treaties of Rome established two , similar , communities creating a common market ( European Economic Community ) and promoting atomic energy co @-@ operation ( Euratom ) . The three institutions shared the Court of Justice and the Parliament , however they had a separate Council and High Authority , which was called the Commission in these Communities . The reason for this is the different relationship between the Commission and Council . At the time the French government was suspicious of the supranationalism and wanted to limit the powers of the High Authority in the new Communities , giving the Council a greater role in checking the executive .
The three communities were later merged in 1967 , by the Merger Treaty , into the European Communities . The institutions were carried over from the European Economic Community ( making the Commission of that community the direct ancestor of the current Commission ) . Under the Treaties of Rome , the Common Assembly ( which renamed itself the Parliamentary Assembly , and then the European Parliament ) was supposed to become elected . However this was delayed by the Council until 1979 . Since then it gained more powers via successive treaties . The Maastricht Treaty also gave further powers to the Council by giving it a key role in the two new pillars of the EU which were based on intergovernmental principles .
The 2009 Lisbon Treaty brought nearly all policy areas ( including the budget ) under the codecision procedure ( renamed " ordinary legislative procedure " ) , hence increasing the power of the Parliament . The rules for the distribution of seats in the parliament were also changed to a formula system . The High Representative merged with the European Commissioner for External Relations and joined the Commission . The appointment of the Commission President became dependent upon the last EU elections . The Council of Ministers adopted more qualified majority voting and the European Council was made a distinct institution with a permanent president . The Court of Justice had some minor renaming and adjustments . In addition , the central bank became a full institution .
= = Overview = =
= = List = =
There are three political institutions which hold the executive and legislative power of the Union . The Council of the European Union represents governments , the Parliament represents citizens and the Commission represents the European interest . Essentially , the Council of the European Union , Parliament or another party place a request for legislation to the Commission . The Commission then drafts this and presents it to the Parliament and the Council of the European Union , where in most cases both must give their assent . Although the exact nature of this depends upon the legislative procedure in use , once it is approved and signed by both bodies it becomes law . The Commission 's duty is to ensure it is implemented by dealing with the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the Union and taking others to Court if they fail to comply . According to the 2014 edition of The Official Directory of the European Union , women account for 33 % of higher @-@ ranking officials .
= = = European Parliament = = =
The European Parliament ( EP ) shares the legislative and budgetary authority of the Union with the Council of the European Union ( not to be confused with the European Council ) . Its 751 members are elected every five years by universal suffrage and sit according to political allegiance . They represent nearly 500 million citizens ( the world 's second largest democratic electorate ) and form the only directly elected body in the Union . Despite forming one of the two legislative chambers of the Union , it has weaker powers than the Council in some sensitive areas , and does not have legislative initiative . It does , however , have powers over the Commission which the Council does not . It has been said that its democratic nature and growing powers have made it one of the most powerful legislatures in the world .
The Parliament 's President ( its speaker ) is Martin Schulz ( S & D / PES ) , who was elected from the Parliament 's members in 2012 .
= = = European Council = = =
The European Council is the group of heads of state or government of the EU member states . It meets four times a year to define the Union 's policy agenda and give impetus to integration . The President of the European Council is the person responsible for chairing and driving forward the work of the institution , which has been described as the highest political body of the European Union .
The current president is Donald Tusk .
= = = Council = = =
The Council of the European Union ( informally known as the Council of Ministers or just the Council ) is a body holding legislative and some limited executive powers and is thus the main decision making body of the Union . Its Presidency rotates between the states every six months , but every three Presidencies now cooperate on a common programme . This body is separate from the European Council , which is a similar body , but is composed of national leaders .
The Council is composed of twenty @-@ eight national ministers ( one per state ) . However the Council meets in various forms depending upon the topic . For example , if agriculture is being discussed , the Council will be composed of each national minister for agriculture . They represent their governments and are accountable to their national political systems . Votes are taken either by majority or unanimity with votes allocated according to population . In these various forms they share the legislative and budgetary power of the Parliament , and also lead the Common Foreign and Security Policy .
The presidency has been held by Slovenia since July 1st , 2016 .
= = = Commission = = =
The European Commission ( EC ) is the executive arm of the Union . It is a body composed of one appointee from each state , currently twenty @-@ eight , but is designed to be independent of national interests . The body is responsible for drafting all law of the European Union and has a near monopoly on proposing new laws ( bills ) . It also deals with the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the Union and has the duty of upholding the law and treaties ( in this role it is known as the " Guardian of the Treaties " ) .
The Commission is led by a President who is nominated by the Council ( in practice the European Council ) and approved by Parliament . The remaining 27 Commissioners are nominated by member @-@ states , in consultation with the President , and have their portfolios assigned by the President . The Council then adopts this list of nominee @-@ Commissioners . The Council ’ s adoption of the Commission is not an area which requires the decision to be unanimous , their acceptance is arrived at according to the rules for qualified majority voting . The European Parliament then interviews and casts its vote upon the Commissioners . The interviews of individual nominees are conducted separately , in contrast to Parliament ’ s vote of approval which must be cast on the Commission as a whole without the ability to accept or reject individual Commissioners . Once approval has been obtained from the Parliament the Commissioners can take office . The current President is Jean @-@ Claude Juncker ( EPP ) ; his commission was elected in 2014 .
= = = Court of Justice of the European Union = = =
The Court of Justice of the European Union ( CJEU ) is the EU 's judicial branch . It is responsible for interpreting EU law and treaties . It comprises the main chamber : Court of Justice , the General Court and the Civil Service Tribunal .
The CJEU is located in Luxembourg .
= = = European Central Bank = = =
The European Central Bank ( ECB ) is the central bank for the eurozone ( the states which have adopted the euro ) and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability .
It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks which comprises all EU national banks . The bank is governed by a board of national bank governors and a President .
The ECB is located in Frankfurt .
The current president is Mario Draghi .
= = = Court of Auditors = = =
The European Court of Auditors , despite its name , has no judicial powers . It ensures that taxpayer funds from the budget of the European Union have been correctly spent . The court provides an audit report for each financial year to the Council and Parliament . The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission 's handling of the budget . The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti @-@ fraud actions .
The Court of Auditors was set up in 1975 . It was created as an independent institution due to the sensitivity of the issue of fraud in the Union ( the anti @-@ fraud agency , OLAF , is also built on its independence ) . It is composed of one member from each state appointed by the Council every six years . Every three years one of them is elected as the president of the court , who is currently Vítor Manuel da Silva Caldeira .
= = Acts and procedures = =
There are a number of types of legislation which can be passed . The strongest is a regulation , an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety . Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve . They do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them . A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person / group and is directly applicable . Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non @-@ binding declarations .
The ordinary legislative procedure is used in nearly all policy areas and provides an equal footing between the two bodies . Under the procedure , the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council . They then send amendments to the Council which can either adopt the text with those amendments or send back a " common position " . That proposal may either be approved or further amendments may be tabled by the Parliament . If the Council does not approve those , then a " Conciliation Committee " is formed . The Committee is composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs who seek to agree a common position . Once a position is agreed , it has to be approved by Parliament again by an absolute majority . There are other special procedures used in sensitive areas which reduce the power of Parliament .
= = Comparisons = =
While the EU 's system of governance is largely unique , elements can be compared to other models . One general observation on the nature of the distribution of powers would be that the EU resembles the federalism of Germany . There , powers are predominantly shared ( states can exercise federal powers where the federation has not already exercised them ) between the levels of government , and the states participate strongly with decision making at the federal level . This is in contrast with other federations , for example the United States , where powers are clearly divided between the levels of government , and the states have little say in federal decision making .
The EU 's institutional set up is also somewhat similar to the government of Switzerland ( which , although in Europe , is not an EU member state ) . The Swiss consensus @-@ driven system is seen as successfully uniting a state divided by language and religion , although the EU was not directly modelled on the Swiss system despite bearing a number of similarities . The European Commission has similarities to the Swiss Federal Council in that both have all @-@ party representation and are appointed on the basis of nationality rather than popularity . The President of the Federal Council rotates between its members each year , in a fashion similar to that of the EU 's Council Presidency . Due to this system of presidency Swiss leaders , like those of the EU , are relatively unknown with national politics viewed as somewhat technocratic resulting in low voter turnout , in a similar fashion to that of the European Parliament . Other parallels include the jealously guarded powers of states , the considerable level of translation and the choice of a lesser city as the capital .
Furthermore , executive power in the EU isn 't concentrated in a single institution . It becomes clearer under the Lisbon Treaty with the division of the European Council as a distinct institution with a fixed President . This arrangement has been compared to the dual executive system found in the French republic where there is a President ( the Council President ) and Prime Minister ( the Commission President ) . However , unlike the French model , the Council President does not hold formal powers such as the ability to directly appoint and sack the other , or the ability to dissolve Parliament . Hence while the Council President may have prestige , it would lack power and while the Commission President would have power , it would lack the prestige of the former .
The nature of the European Parliament is better compared with the United States House of Representatives than with the national parliaments of the European Union . This is notable in terms of the committees being of greater size and power , political parties being very decentralised and it being separated from the executive branch ( most national governments operate under a parliamentary system ) . A difference from all other parliaments is the absence of a Parliamentary legislative initiative . However , given that in most national parliaments initiatives not backed by the executive rarely succeed the value of this difference is in question . Equally , its independence and power means that the European Parliament has an unusually high success rate for its amendments in comparison to national parliaments ; 80 % average and 30 % for controversial proposals .
The composition of the council can only be compared with the quite unique and unusual composition of the German upper house , the Bundesrat . Membership of the Bundesrat is limited to members of the governments of the states of Germany and can be recalled by those governments in the same manner as the EU 's Council . They retain their state role while sitting in the Bundesrat and if their term ends when they are recalled by their state governments ( who are solely responsible for their appointment ) or they cease to sit in their state government . Hence they also are not elected at the same time and the body as a whole cannot be dissolved like most parliaments . As government representatives , members do not vote as individual members but in state blocks , rather than political alignment , to their state governments ' agreed line . Each state has unequal voting powers based on population , with an absolute majority required for decisions . Likewise , the presidency rotates equally between members , though each year rather than every six months like in the EU Council . However , unlike the EU 's Council , the Bundesrat does not vary its composition depending on the topic being discussed . They both bear similar criticisms , because of the interference , of executives in the legislative process .
= = Locations = =
The institutions are not concentrated in a single capital city : instead , their headquarters are spread across four cities , Brussels , Luxembourg , Strasbourg and Frankfurt . The current arrangement was approved in 1992 and attached to the Treaty of Amsterdam . The treaty states that the Commission and Council would be based in Brussels , the Courts in Luxembourg and the Parliament in Strasbourg . However some departments of the Commission and meetings of the Council take place in Luxembourg , while the Parliament has its committees and some sessions in Brussels and its secretariat in Luxembourg . Of the new institutions , the Central Bank is based in Frankfurt while the European Council is based in Brussels ( but has some extraordinary meetings elsewhere ) .
Brussels ' hosting of institutions has made it a major centre for the EU . Together with NATO it has attracted more journalists and ambassadors than Washington D.C. However the three @-@ city agreement has been criticised , notably concerning the Parliament due to the large number of people that move between the cities . The European Green Party estimated that the arrangement costs 200 million euro and 20 @,@ 268 tonnes of carbon dioxide . Brussels is preferred by some due to the presence of other institutions and other groups whereas Strasbourg is supported due to its historical importance to European unity .
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= People v. Aguilar =
People v. Aguilar , 2 N.E.3d 321 ( Ill . 2013 ) , was an Illinois Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the Aggravated Unlawful Use of a Weapon ( AUUF ) statute violated the right to keep and bear arms as guaranteed by the Second Amendment . The Court stated that this was because the statute amounted to a wholesale statutory ban on the exercise of a personal right that was specifically named in and guaranteed by the United States Constitution , as construed by the United States Supreme Court . A conviction for Unlawful Possession of a Firearm ( UPF ) was proper because the possession of handguns by minors was conduct that fell outside the scope of the Second Amendment 's protection .
In 2008 , Alberto Aguilar , then 17 , was arrested and charged with AUUF and UPF . After being convicted and sentenced to probation by the trial court , he appealed , arguing that both statutes were unconstitutional infringements of his Second Amendment rights . The Illinois Court of Appeals affirmed his conviction , and he appealed that ruling to the Illinois Supreme Court . While Aguilar 's appeal was pending , the Federal Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals had ruled that the AUUF statute was unconstitutional .
When the matter was decided by the Illinois Supreme Court , they agreed with the Seventh Circuit and declared the AUUF law unconstitutional , but upheld the constitutionality of the UPF law .
= = Background = =
= = = Legal background = = =
Illinois was the last state in the nation to allow concealed carry of a handgun . Prior to 2013 , Illinois prohibited the carry of a firearm in a loaded condition , other than at one 's own property . If the firearm was loaded and not in a locked case , or if it was otherwise available for immediate use , it was a felony offense called Aggravated Unlawful Use of a Weapon ( AUUF ) . Illinois courts had uniformly upheld the constitutionally of the statute prior to 2008 . The state also had a law called Unlawful Possession of a Firearm ( UPF ) , which prohibited anyone under the age of 18 from possessing a firearm . Additionally , the City of Chicago had enacted strict gun control laws prohibiting the possession of any handgun that had not been registered prior to 1982 , when the law took effect .
On June 26 , 2008 , exactly two weeks after Aguilar 's arrest , the U.S. Supreme Court decided District of Columbia v. Heller . In Heller , the Court ruled that a law of the District of Columbia which had the effect of banning handguns in the city violated the Second Amendment and was unconstitutional . The Court said that the fundamental right protected by the Second Amendment was the right to self @-@ defense ; however since the District of Columbia was a federal jurisdiction , it was not clear that this applied to the individual states .
= = = Factual background = = =
On June 12 , 2008 , Chicago Police Officer Thomas Harris was in a surveillance position in the Little Village neighborhood of Chicago and observed a group of male teenagers creating a disturbance and throwing bottles at cars . Harris observed one of the teenagers , later identified as Alberto Aguilar , holding the right side of his waist , and Harris notified other officers . The other officers made contact with the teens and Officer John Dolan saw Aguilar drop a gun onto the ground . Aguilar , then 17 , was arrested . The officers noted that the handgun had three rounds loaded in it and that the serial number was filed off .
= = = Lower courts = = =
= = = = Circuit Court = = = =
Aguilar was tried for AUUF and UPF at the Circuit Court for Cook County . The officers testified that Aguilar had the gun and had dropped it , while Aguilar claimed that he never had a gun , but was waiting for his mother to pick him up when officers came running into the back yard and tackled him . Aguilar 's testimony was corroborated by Romero Diaz , who stated that Aguilar did not have a gun . Judge Charles P. Burns determined that the officers were more credible and found Aguilar guilty on both counts , sentencing him to 24 months probation on the AUUF charge ; he did not pass sentence on the UPF charge .
= = = = Illinois Court of Appeals = = = =
Aguilar then appealed his conviction , arguing that the AUUF statute violated the Second Amendment and was unconstitutional . The Court of Appeals , evaluating Heller , found that Heller only protected the right to possess a handgun in the home . The court also evaluated McDonald and found that while it applied the Second Amendment to the states , it also only applied to handguns possessed in the home . The court , using an intermediate scrutiny test , determined that the Illinois statute was substantially related to an important governmental objective to protect the public from gun violence . The court affirmed the conviction .
= = = Other relevant events = = =
= = = = McDonald v. City of Chicago = = = =
In 2008 , shortly after the Heller decision , three lawsuits were filed in Illinois , challenging the constitutionally of handgun bans in Chicago and Oak Park . All three cases were consolidated and heard in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois , and were dismissed based on earlier U.S. Supreme Court rulings that the Second Amendment did not apply to the states . The cases were appealed to the Seventh Circuit , which affirmed based on the same reasoning . The U.S. Supreme Court reversed that decision , holding that the Second Amendment was applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment , and clarified that " self @-@ defense was ' the central component of the right itself . ' "
= = = = Moore v. Madigan = = = =
In 2011 , two federal lawsuits were filed in the Southern District of Illinois and the Central District of Illinois . In both cases , the plaintiffs claimed that AUUF statute violated the Second Amendment in that it did not allow any method for a citizen to bear arms outside the home . Mary Shepard argued that the statutes were facially unconstitutional , while Michael Moore argued that the statutes were unconstitutional as applied . In both cases , the judges granted the state 's motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim , holding that the Second Amendment only protected the right to possess arms in the home . Both Moore and Shepard appealed their cases to the Seventh Circuit , where the cases were consolidated .
The Seventh Circuit found that Illinois law did violate the Constitution in that there was no method for a person to carry a weapon for self @-@ defense outside of the home . The court stated that the district courts had read Heller and McDonald too narrowly — that the right protected was self @-@ defense , and there was as great if not greater need outside the home . The court rejected the state 's argument that strict gun regulation lowered crime , noting that the evidence did not support that . The decisions of the district courts were reversed and the cases remanded to those courts with instructions to declare the Illinois law unconstitutional , issuing a permanent injunction against the law 's enforcement . The court then stayed the order for 180 days to give the Illinois legislature an opportunity to amend the law to make it constitutional .
= = = = Legislative actions = = = =
In January 2013 the Illinois Legislature began to look at enacting legislation to address the Moore decision . Lt. Governor Sheila Simon formed a working group of thirteen Democrats and two Republicans to look into the issue . During hearings on the matter , debate centered on concealed carry permits , with gun rights groups preferring shall @-@ issue permits while gun control groups favored may @-@ issue permits . On May 31 , 2013 , the state house passed a shall @-@ issue bill by a vote of 89 – 28 , after state senate passed it by a vote of 45 – 12 . Both had veto @-@ proof margins . On July 9 , 2013 , the Illinois legislature overrode Governor Pat Quinn 's veto , and concealed carry was authorized for the state once the Illinois State Police issued permits .
= = Supreme Court of Illinois = =
= = = Arguments = = =
On appeal , Aguilar again argued that the AUUF statute was unconstitutional on its face . Aguilar also made the argument that the UPF statute was unconstitutional , since at the time the Second Amendment was adopted , 16- and 17 @-@ year @-@ olds could lawfully bear arms .
The state argued that Aguilar lacked standing to contest the constitutionality of the statute . The state claimed that since Aguilar denied having committing the act that the statute prohibited , he could not contest the constitutionality of it .
= = = Opinion of the court = = =
Justice Robert R. Thomas delivered the opinion of a unanimous court . Thomas first disposed of the standing argument by the state , noting that Aguilar was not challenging the statute as applied , but was arguing that the statute was facially unconstitutional since it did not provide for any person to legally bear arms . Since anyone could challenge the constitutionality of a statute when they were charged with violating it , even without admitting the underlying conduct , the state 's argument was without merit .
Thomas then evaluated the constitutionality of the AUUF statute , noting that the Heller court had " concluded that the second amendment ' guarantee [ s ] the individual right to possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation . . . . ' " He noted that McDonald reiterated that self @-@ defense was at the core of the right . He analyzed what other courts in Illinois had done , noting that they had all focused on the ruling in Heller that the right existed in the home , and that they had held the AUUF statute constitutional since it affected conduct outside of the home . Thomas then compared this to the ruling by the Seventh Circuit in Moore and concluded that their ruling was correct , that the AUUF statute did in fact infringe on the rights guaranteed by the Second Amendment . Since the statute was unconstitutional , Aguilar 's conviction must be reversed .
Thomas rejected the argument on the unconstitutionality of the UPF statute , noting that all courts that had addressed this issue had found that persons under 21 could be barred from possessing firearms . The conviction for UPF was affirmed , and the case was remanded .
= = Subsequent developments = =
Following the decision , Cook County prosecutors stated that they would drop charges against some of the pending cases for AUUF , but that only those with valid Illinois Firearms Owner Identification cards would have the charges dropped . By September 16 , 2013 , the first case had been dismissed in Cook County . A number of law enforcement agences , such as the Springfield Police and the Sangamon Sheriff 's Office , made a plea to the public to not immediately begin to carry concealed handguns . Some prosecutors have already announced that they do not intend to prosecute these cases .
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= Optical properties of carbon nanotubes =
Within materials science , the optical properties of carbon nanotubes refer specifically to the absorption , photoluminescence ( fluorescence ) , and Raman spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes . Spectroscopic methods offer the possibility of quick and non @-@ destructive characterization of relatively large amounts of carbon nanotubes . There is a strong demand for such characterization from the industrial point of view : numerous parameters of the nanotube synthesis can be changed , intentionally or unintentionally , to alter the nanotube quality . As shown below , optical absorption , photoluminescence and Raman spectroscopies allow quick and reliable characterization of this " nanotube quality " in terms of non @-@ tubular carbon content , structure ( chirality ) of the produced nanotubes , and structural defects . Those features determine nearly any other properties such as optical , mechanical , and electrical properties .
Carbon nanotubes are unique " one @-@ dimensional systems " which can be envisioned as rolled single sheets of graphite ( or more precisely graphene ) . This rolling can be done at different angles and curvatures resulting in different nanotube properties . The diameter typically varies in the range 0 @.@ 4 – 40 nm ( i.e. " only " ~ 100 times ) , but the length can vary ~ 10 @,@ 000 times , reaching 55 @.@ 5 cm . The nanotube aspect ratio , or the length @-@ to @-@ diameter ratio , can be as high as 132 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 : 1 , which is unequalled by any other material . Consequently , all the properties of the carbon nanotubes relative to those of typical semiconductors are extremely anisotropic ( directionally dependent ) and tunable .
Whereas mechanical , electrical and electrochemical ( supercapacitor ) properties of the carbon nanotubes are well established and have immediate applications , the practical use of optical properties is yet unclear . The aforementioned tunability of properties is potentially useful in optics and photonics . In particular , light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) and photo @-@ detectors based on a single nanotube have been produced in the lab . Their unique feature is not the efficiency , which is yet relatively low , but the narrow selectivity in the wavelength of emission and detection of light and the possibility of its fine tuning through the nanotube structure . In addition , bolometer and optoelectronic memory devices have been realised on ensembles of single @-@ walled carbon nanotubes .
= = Terminology = =
This article uses the following abbreviations :
Carbon nanotube ( CNT )
Single wall carbon nanotube ( SWCNT )
Multiwall carbon nanotube ( MWCNT )
However , C is often omitted in scientific literature , so NT , SWNT and MWNT are more commonly used . Also , " wall " is often exchanged with " walled " .
= = Electronic structure of carbon nanotube = =
A single @-@ wall carbon nanotube can be imagined as graphene sheet rolled at a certain " chiral " angle with respect to a plane perpendicular to the tube 's long axis . Consequently , SWCNT can be defined by its diameter and chiral angle . The chiral angle can range from 0 to 30 degrees .
However , more conveniently , a pair of indices ( n , m ) is used instead . The indices refer to equally long unit vectors at 60 ° angles to each other across a single 6 @-@ member carbon ring . Taking the origin as carbon number 1 , the a1 unit vector may be considered the line drawn from carbon 1 to carbon 3 , and the a2 unit vector is then the line drawn from carbon 1 to carbon 5 . ( See the upper right corner of the diagram at right . ) To visualize a CNT with indices ( n , m ) , draw n a1 unit vectors across the graphene sheet , then draw m a2 unit vectors at a 60 ° angle to the a1 vectors , then add the vectors together . The line representing the sum of the vectors will define the circumference of the CNT along the plane perpendicular to its long axis , connecting one end to the other . In the diagram at right , Ch is a ( 4 , 2 ) vector : the sum of 4 unit vectors from the origin directly to the right , then 2 unit vectors at a 60 ° angle down and to the right .
Tubes having n |
= m ( chiral angle =
30 ° ) are called " armchair " and those with m |
= 0 ( chiral angle =
0 ° ) " zigzag " . Those indices uniquely determine whether CNT is a metal , semimetal or semiconductor , as well as its band gap : when | m – n | |
= 3k ( k is integer ) , the tube is metallic ; but if | m – n | =
3k ± 1 , the tube is semiconducting . The nanotube diameter d is related to m and n as
<formula>
In this equation , a = 0 @.@ 246 nm is the magnitude of either unit vector a1 or a2 .
The situation in multi @-@ wall CNTs is complicated as their properties are determined by contribution of all individual shells ; those shells have different structures , and , because of the synthesis , are usually more defective than SWCNTs . Therefore , optical properties of MWCNTs will not be considered here .
= = Van Hove singularities = =
Optical properties of carbon nanotubes derive from electronic transitions within one @-@ dimensional density of states ( DOS ) . A typical feature of one @-@ dimensional crystals is that their DOS is not a continuous function of energy , but it descends gradually and then increases in a discontinuous spike . In contrast , three @-@ dimensional materials have continuous DOS . The sharp peaks found in one @-@ dimensional materials are called Van Hove singularities .
Van Hove singularities result in the following remarkable optical properties of carbon nanotubes :
Optical transitions occur between the v1 − c1 , v2 − c2 , etc . , states of semiconducting or metallic nanotubes and are traditionally labeled as S11 , S22 , M11 , etc . , or , if the " conductivity " of the tube is unknown or unimportant , as E11 , E22 , etc . Crossover transitions c1 − v2 , c2 − v1 , etc . , are dipole @-@ forbidden and thus are extremely weak , but they were possibly observed using cross @-@ polarized optical geometry .
The energies between the Van Hove singularities depend on the nanotube structure . Thus by varying this structure , one can tune the optoelectronic properties of carbon nanotube . Such fine tuning has been experimentally demonstrated using UV illumination of polymer @-@ dispersed CNTs .
Optical transitions are rather sharp ( ~ 10 meV ) and strong . Consequently , it is relatively easy to selectively excite nanotubes having certain ( n , m ) indices , as well as to detect optical signals from individual nanotubes .
= = Kataura plot = =
The band structure of carbon nanotubes having certain ( n , m ) indexes can be easily calculated . A theoretical graph based on this calculations was designed in 1999 by Hiromichi Kataura to rationalize experimental findings . A Kataura plot relates the nanotube diameter and its bandgap energies for all nanotubes in a diameter range . The oscillating shape of every branch of the Kataura plot reflects the intrinsic strong dependence of the SWCNT properties on the ( n , m ) index rather than on its diameter . For example , ( 10 , 1 ) and ( 8 , 3 ) tubes have almost the same diameter , but very different properties : the former is a metal , but the latter is a semiconductor .
= = Optical absorption = =
Optical absorption in carbon nanotubes differs from absorption in conventional 3D materials by presence of sharp peaks ( 1D nanotubes ) instead of an absorption threshold followed by an absorption increase ( most 3D solids ) . Absorption in nanotubes originates from electronic transitions from the v2 to c2 ( energy E22 ) or v1 to c1 ( E11 ) levels , etc . The transitions are relatively sharp and can be used to identify nanotube types . Note that the sharpness deteriorates with increasing energy , and that many nanotubes have very similar E22 or E11 energies , and thus significant overlap occurs in absorption spectra . This overlap is avoided in photoluminescence mapping measurements ( see below ) , which instead of a combination of overlapped transitions identifies individual ( E22 , E11 ) pairs .
Interactions between nanotubes , such as bundling , broaden optical lines . While bundling strongly affects photoluminescence , it has much weaker effect on optical absorption and Raman scattering . Consequently , sample preparation for the latter two techniques is relatively simple .
Optical absorption is routinely used to quantify quality of the carbon nanotube powders .
The spectrum is analyzed in terms of intensities of nanotube @-@ related peaks , background and pi @-@ carbon peak ; the latter two mostly originate from non @-@ nanotube carbon in contaminated samples . However , it has been recently shown that by aggregating nearly single chirality semiconducting nanotubes into closely packed Van der Waals bundles the absorption background can be attributed to free carrier transition originating from intertube charge transfer .
= = = Carbon nanotubes as a black body = = =
An ideal black body should have emissivity or absorbance of 1 @.@ 0 , which is difficult to attain in practice , especially in a wide spectral range . Vertically aligned " forests " of single @-@ wall carbon nanotubes can have absorbances of 0 @.@ 98 – 0 @.@ 99 from the far @-@ ultraviolet ( 200 nm ) to far @-@ infrared ( 200 μm ) wavelengths .
These SWNT forests ( buckypaper ) were grown by the super @-@ growth CVD method to about 10 μm height . Two factors could contribute to strong light absorption by these structures : ( i ) a distribution of CNT chiralities resulted in various bandgaps for individual CNTs . Thus a compound material was formed with broadband absorption . ( ii ) Light might be trapped in those forests due to multiple reflections .
= = Luminescence = =
= = = Photoluminescence ( Fluorescence ) = = =
Semiconducting single @-@ walled carbon nanotubes emit near @-@ infrared light upon photoexcitation , described interchangeably as fluorescence or photoluminescence ( PL ) . The excitation of PL usually occurs as follows : an electron in a nanotube absorbs excitation light via S22 transition , creating an electron @-@ hole pair ( exciton ) . Both electron and hole rapidly relax ( via phonon @-@ assisted processes ) from c2 to c1 and from v2 to v1 states , respectively . Then they recombine through a c1 − v1 transition resulting in light emission .
No excitonic luminescence can be produced in metallic tubes . Their electrons can be excited , thus resulting in optical absorption , but the holes are immediately filled by other electrons out of the many available in the metal . Therefore , no excitons are produced .
= = = Salient properties = = =
Photoluminescence from SWCNT , as well as optical absorption and Raman scattering , is linearly polarized along the tube axis . This allows monitoring of the SWCNTs orientation without direct microscopic observation .
PL is quick : relaxation typically occurs within 100 picoseconds .
PL efficiency was first found to be low ( ~ 0 @.@ 01 % ) , but later studies measured much higher quantum yields . By improving the structural quality and isolation of nanotubes , emission efficiency increased . A quantum yield of 1 % was reported in nanotubes sorted by diameter and length through gradient centrifugation , and it was further increased to 20 % by optimizing the procedure of isolating individual nanotubes in solution .
The spectral range of PL is rather wide . Emission wavelength can vary between 0 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 1 micrometers depending on the nanotube structure .
Excitons are apparently delocalized over several nanotubes in single chirality bundles as the photoluminescence spectrum displays a splitting consistent with intertube exciton tunneling .
Interaction between nanotubes or between a nanotube and another material may quench or increase PL . No PL is observed in multi @-@ walled carbon nanotubes . PL from double @-@ wall carbon nanotubes strongly depends on the preparation method : CVD grown DWCNTs show emission both from inner and outer shells . However , DWCNTs produced by encapsulating fullerenes into SWCNTs and annealing show PL only from the outer shells . Isolated SWCNTs lying on the substrate show extremely weak PL which has been detected in few studies only . Detachment of the tubes from the substrate drastically increases PL .
Position of the ( S22 , S11 ) PL peaks depends slightly ( within 2 % ) on the nanotube environment ( air , dispersant , etc . ) . However , the shift depends on the ( n , m ) index , and thus the whole PL map not only shifts , but also warps upon changing the CNT medium .
= = = Applications = = =
Photoluminescence is used for characterization purposes to measure the quantities of semiconducting nanotube species in a sample . Nanotubes are isolated ( dispersed ) using an appropriate chemical agent ( " dispersant " ) to reduce the intertube quenching . Then PL is measured , scanning both the excitation and emission energies and thereby producing a PL map . The ovals in the map define ( S22 , S11 ) pairs , which unique identify ( n , m ) index of a tube . The data of Weisman and Bachilo are conventionally used for the identification .
Nanotube fluorescence has been investigated for the purposes of imaging and sensing in biomedical applications .
= = = Sensitization = = =
Optical properties , including the PL efficiency , can be modified by encapsulating organic dyes ( carotene , lycopene , etc . ) inside the tubes . Efficient energy transfer occurs between the encapsulated dye and nanotube — light is efficiently absorbed by the dye and without significant loss is transferred to the SWCNT . Thus potentially , optical properties of a carbon nanotube can be controlled by encapsulating certain molecule inside it . Besides , encapsulation allows isolation and characterization of organic molecules which are unstable under ambient conditions . For example , Raman spectra are extremely difficult to measure from dyes because of their strong PL ( efficiency close to 100 % ) . However , encapsulation of dye molecules inside SWCNTs completely quenches dye PL , thus allowing measurement and analysis of their Raman spectra .
= = = Cathodoluminescence = = =
Cathodoluminescence ( CL ) — light emission excited by electron beam — is a process commonly observed in TV screens . An electron beam can be finely focused and scanned across the studied material . This technique is widely used to study defects in semiconductors and nanostructures with nanometer @-@ scale spatial resolution . It would be beneficial to apply this technique to carbon nanotubes . However , no reliable CL , i.e. sharp peaks assignable to certain ( n , m ) indices , has been detected from carbon nanotubes yet .
= = = Electroluminescence = = =
If appropriate electrical contacts are attached to a nanotube , electron @-@ hole pairs ( excitons ) can be generated by injecting electrons and holes from the contacts . Subsequent exciton recombination results in electroluminescence ( EL ) . Electroluminescent devices have been produced from single nanotubes and their macroscopic assemblies . Recombination appears to proceed via triplet @-@ triplet annihilation giving distinct peaks corresponding to E11 and E22 transitions .
= = Raman scattering = =
Raman spectroscopy has good spatial resolution ( ~ 0 @.@ 5 micrometers ) and sensitivity ( single nanotubes ) ; it requires only minimal sample preparation and is rather informative . Consequently , Raman spectroscopy is probably the most popular technique of carbon nanotube characterization . Raman scattering in SWCNTs is resonant , i.e. , only those tubes are probed which have one of the bandgaps equal to the exciting laser energy . Several scattering modes dominate the SWCNT spectrum , as discussed below .
Similar to photoluminescence mapping , the energy of the excitation light can be scanned in Raman measurements , thus producing Raman maps . Those maps also contain oval @-@ shaped features uniquely identifying ( n , m ) indices . Contrary to PL , Raman mapping detects not only semiconducting but also metallic tubes , and it is less sensitive to nanotube bundling than PL . However , requirement of a tunable laser and a dedicated spectrometer is a strong technical impediment .
= = = Radial breathing mode = = =
Radial breathing mode ( RBM ) corresponds to radial expansion @-@ contraction of the nanotube . Therefore , its frequency νRBM ( in cm − 1 ) depends on the nanotube diameter d as , νRBM = A / d + B ( where A and B are constants dependent on the environment in which the nanotube is present . For example , B = 0 for individual nanotubes . ) ( in nanometers ) and can be estimated as νRBM |
= 234 / d + 10 for SWNT or νRBM =
248 / d for DWNT , which is very useful in deducing the CNT diameter from the RBM position . Typical RBM range is 100 – 350 cm − 1 . If RBM intensity is particularly strong , its weak second overtone can be observed at double frequency .
= = = Bundling mode = = =
The bundling mode is a special form of RBM supposedly originating from collective vibration in a bundle of SWCNTs .
= = = G mode = = =
Another very important mode is the G mode ( G from graphite ) . This mode corresponds to planar vibrations of carbon atoms and is present in most graphite @-@ like materials . G band in SWCNT is shifted to lower frequencies relative to graphite ( 1580 cm − 1 ) and is split into several peaks . The splitting pattern and intensity depend on the tube structure and excitation energy ; they can be used , though with much lower accuracy compared to RBM mode , to estimate the tube diameter and whether the tube is metallic or semiconducting .
= = = D mode = = =
D mode is present in all graphite @-@ like carbons and originates from structural defects . Therefore , the ratio of the G / D modes is conventionally used to quantify the structural quality of carbon nanotubes . High @-@ quality nanotubes have this ratio significantly higher than 100 . At a lower functionalisation of the nanotube , the G / D ratio remains almost unchanged . This ratio gives an idea of the functionalisation of a nanotube .
= = = G ' mode = = =
The name of this mode is misleading : it is given because in graphite , this mode is usually the second strongest after the G mode . However , it is actually the second overtone of the defect @-@ induced D mode ( and thus should logically be named D ' ) . Its intensity is stronger than that of the D mode due to different selection rules . In particular , D mode is forbidden in the ideal nanotube and requires a structural defect , providing a phonon of certain angular momentum , to be induced . In contrast , G ' mode involves a " self @-@ annihilating " pair of phonons and thus does not require defects . The spectral position of G ' mode depends on diameter , so it can be used roughly to estimate the SWCNT diameter . In particular , G ' mode is a doublet in double @-@ wall carbon nanotubes , but the doublet is often unresolved due to line broadening .
Other overtones , such as a combination of RBM + G mode at ~ 1750 cm − 1 , are frequently seen in CNT Raman spectra . However , they are less important and are not considered here .
= = = Anti @-@ Stokes scattering = = =
All the above Raman modes can be observed both as Stokes and anti @-@ Stokes scattering . As mentioned above , Raman scattering from CNTs is resonant in nature , i.e. only tubes whose band gap energy is similar to the laser energy are excited . The difference between those two energies , and thus the band gap of individual tubes , can be estimated from the intensity ratio of the Stokes / anti @-@ Stokes lines . This estimate however relies on the temperature factor ( Boltzmann factor ) , which is often miscalculated – a focused laser beam is used in the measurement , which can locally heat the nanotubes without changing the overall temperature of the studied sample .
= = Rayleigh scattering = =
Carbon nanotubes have very large aspect ratio , i.e. , their length is much larger than their diameter . Consequently , as expected from the classical electromagnetic theory , elastic light scattering ( or Rayleigh scattering ) by straight CNTs has anisotropic angular dependence , and from its spectrum , the band gaps of individual nanotubes can be deduced .
Another manifestation of Rayleigh scattering is the " antenna effect " , an array of nanotubes standing on a substrate has specific angular and spectral distributions of reflected light , and both those distributions depend on the nanotube length .
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= St Dona 's Church , Llanddona =
St Dona 's Church , Llanddona is a small 19th @-@ century parish church in the village of Llanddona , in Anglesey , north Wales . The first church on this site was built in 610 . The present building on the site dates from 1873 , and was designed by the rector at the time . It reuses earlier material including a decorated 15th @-@ century doorway and a 17th @-@ century bell .
The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of seven churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is regarded as " a simple late 19th @-@ century essay in Gothic revival " .
= = History and location = =
St Dona 's Church is on a steep hill near the coast on the eastern side of Anglesey , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the village of Llanddona itself . The village takes its name from its parish church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " – ddona " is a modified form of the saint 's name . St Dona 's is surrounded by a churchyard , entered through a lychgate dated 1906 which bears a memorial to Henry Stanley , 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley , " Patron and Benefactor of this church " .
According to the 19th @-@ century Anglesey historian Angharad Llwyd , a church was built here in 610 , dedicated to St Dona , who lived on the sea shore nearby . The presence of a church here was recorded in the Norwich Taxation of 1254 . Repairs were carried out in the 1840s : one 19th @-@ century writer , Samuel Lewis , recorded that the internal state of St Dona 's was " wretched in the extreme " until the rural dean at the time put it " into a state of creditable repair " . In 1873 , the rector ( Peter Jones ) had the church entirely rebuilt to his own design .
St Dona 's is still in use for worship and belongs to the Church in Wales . It is one of seven churches in the combined benefice of Beaumaris with Llanddona and Llaniestyn . It is within the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the rector is the Reverend Neil Fairlamb .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Dona 's is built of rubble masonry , dressed with freestone . The roof is made from slate , and has a bellcote made from stone at the west end . There is a stone cross finial at the east end of the roof . The church is entered through a porch on the south side which leads to a doorway dating from the 15th century . The rounded doorway is decorated with figures of a bird , a dog and a human face on the left , and a cherub on the right . Inside , the nave is separated from the chancel by a step , and the sanctuary is itself raised one step above the chancel . The roof timbers can be seen from inside . The window at the east end has three lights ( vertical sections separated by mullions ) topped with ogee curves , and is set within a pointed arch with an external hoodmould . It contains stained glass added in 1963 , depicting Christ with sea in the background ( centre ) , St Curig ( left ) and St Dona ( right ) ; above them are images of a lion , dove , lamb and eagle . A stone bearing the date 1566 has been set upside down into the wall above the east window . The other windows are plain and smaller , with one or two lights . The glass in the other windows has been described as " unusual opaque leaded glass " .
The fittings are from the late 19th century , although the octagonal font ( made of gritstone ) is of uncertain date , possibly 14th century . The bell is dated 1647 . A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded the presence of an 18th @-@ century communion table , an Elizabethan cover @-@ paten dated 1574 , and a silver cup dated 1769 – 1772 .
= = Churchyard = =
The churchyard contains two Commonwealth war graves , of a Royal Welsh Fusiliers soldier of World War I and a RNVR officer of World War II .
= = Assessment = =
St Dona 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 , and has been listed because it is " a simple late 19th @-@ century essay in Gothic revival " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes that " its simple character " is " appropriate to its scale and site " . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region described St Dona 's as " drably rebuilt " .
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= Gerald Ratner Athletics Center =
The Gerald Ratner Athletics Center is a $ 51 million athletics facility within the University of Chicago campus in the Hyde Park community area on the South Side of Chicago , Illinois in the United States . The building was named after University of Chicago alumnus , Gerald Ratner . The architect of this suspension structure that is supported by masts , cables and counterweights was César Pelli , who is best known as the architect of the Petronas Towers .
The Ratner Athletics Center was approved for use in September 2003 . The facility includes , among other things : a competition gymnasium , a multilevel fitness facility , an Olympic @-@ sized swimming pool , a multipurpose dance studio , meeting room space , and athletic department offices . It serves as home to several of the university 's athletic teams and has hosted numerous National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III regional and University Athletic Association conference championship events .
Located at the southwest corner of Ellis Avenue and 55th Street , the Ratner Center has an award @-@ winning design that substitutes a complex external mast and counterweight system for interior support devices to allow for large open @-@ space areas inside the building . Cesar Pelli & Associates Inc. was credited as the design architect and OWP / P was the architect of record .
= = History = =
A ceremonial groundbreaking was held for the Ratner Center on October 28 , 2000 . The Ratner Center opened to the public on September 29 , 2003 , although it was not officially dedicated until homecoming weekend on October 11 . The building , which represented a collaboration between Cesar Pelli & Associates and Chicago 's OWP / P , was the first new athletic facility on the University of Chicago campus in 68 years . It was a part of a $ 500 million University @-@ wide capital improvement plan that occurred between 1999 and 2005 . Part of the plan included the Pelli @-@ designed parking structure across the street from the Athletics Center . The parking structure is named the Gerald Ratner Athletics Center Parking Structure . The athletic center is known for its innovative asymmetrically supported cable @-@ stayed structural system and S @-@ shaped roofs . It is composed of a masted building to the north containing the Myers @-@ McLoraine Swimming Pool , a masted building to the south containing the gymnasia , and a central building containing the Bernard DelGiorno fitness center .
Ratner , Ph.B. , ’ 35 , J.D. , ’ 37 , contributed $ 15 million toward the $ 51 million cost . He was a Phi Beta Kappa graduate and played for the baseball team during the time that the University participated in the Big Ten Conference . After graduating with a law degree , Order of the Coif , he eventually founded his own law firm Gould & Ratner in 1949 . Helen Myers McLoraine , also an alumnus from the 1930s , contributed in excess of $ 5 million to fund the swimming pool . Bernard DelGiorno — a gymnast with many degrees from the university : AB ’ 54 , AB ’ 55 , MBA ’ 55 — has made numerous donations including a $ 5 million one in 2006 to fund athletic facilities as well as other infrastructure on campus . DelGiorno worked in industrial relations and personnel at a steel plant before becoming a stockbroker for Paine Webber , which became a part of UBS Financial Services .
= = Details = =
The building features the 50 @-@ metre ( 55 yd ) x 25 @-@ yard ( 23 m ) Myers @-@ McLoraine Swimming Pool , which can be configured with up to 20 lanes in the 25 @-@ yard dimension and nine lanes in the 50 @-@ meter dimension . The pool 's configuration is flexible with a moveable bulkhead which allows for simultaneous activities . It also has a pair of one @-@ meter diving boards . The pool depth ranges from 4 to 13 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 4 @.@ 1 m ) in the shallow end and the diving well , respectively . The 24 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 295 m2 ) competition natatorium features seating for 350 spectators .
The building also includes the Bernard DelGiorno fitness center . The DelGiorno Fitness Center facility occupies two levels of the Ratner center plus the rotunda area . In addition to a general fitness center , it includes a multipurpose dance studio ; classroom and meeting room space ; permanent and day lockers and locker rooms ; the University of Chicago Athletics Hall of Fame ; and the athletic department offices .
The building also features a competition gym and auxiliary gym , both of which are available to recreational users . The competition gym , which is the southernmost building , accommodates practice and game site for varsity basketball , volleyball , and wrestling , but is convertible into two recreational courts . The auxiliary gym is multipurpose and can accommodate indoor soccer , as well as basketball , volleyball , and badminton .
= = Use = =
The Ratner Center also serves as the home of the University of Chicago basketball , volleyball , and wrestling teams . The 1 @,@ 658 @-@ seat competition gymnasium has played host to the 2004 , 2007 and 2010 University Athletic Association Wrestling Championships and the 2006 NCAA Division III Great Lakes Regional Wrestling Championship . The building also hosted the 2009 University Athletic Association Women 's Volleyball Championship . The Myers @-@ McLoraine Swimming Pool was the site of the 2005 University Athletic Association Swimming and Diving Championship . It also hosted swimming at the 2006 Gay Games .
The center is available to University and hospital faculty , staff , alumni , and retirees as well as their spouses and children on a paid membership basis and registered students for free . As of 2010 , the University of Chicago is one of the few remaining universities in the United States to have a swimming requirement for its undergraduate degree program . Aside from the military service academies and a few of the Ivy League schools only a half dozen Universities had such a requirement as of 2006 . The swimming pool is the location of the administration of the two @-@ lap requirement . The facilities memberships are available to students as well as University and hospital faculty , staff , alumni and retirees , as well as spouses and children . Registered students ' memberships are free .
The building is complemented at the University by its predecessors the Henry Crown Field House and the modern incarnation of Stagg Field , which will continue to augment the athletic facilities needs of the campus patrons . Features of the indoor Henry Crown Field House include a 200 @-@ meter indoor running track ; racquetball , handball and squash courts ; multipurpose courts ; a multipurpose room ; and cardiovascular and weight training equipment . The Stagg Field outdoor complex includes a 400 @-@ meter track , eight tennis courts , and fields for baseball , softball , American football and soccer .
= = Design = =
The construction employed 2 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 814 t ; 1 @,@ 786 long tons ) of steel . The 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 907 @,@ 185 kg ) roof of the gym is supported by a pair of 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) steel masts . The pool 's roof is supported by three masts . Each mast is composed of three 18 @-@ inch ( 46 cm ) diameter steel hollow structural sections ( HSS ) filled with high @-@ strength concrete that are arranged in a tapered tied @-@ column configuration .
The German @-@ import masts are united by 120 high @-@ strength steel cables that total approximately 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 981 m ) in length . They are inclined at a 10 degree angle from vertical . Each tapered composite mast that supports the flattened S @-@ shaped roof girders is supported by 15 splaying cables ; 9 fore @-@ stay cables and 6 backstay cables . During construction , the masts were filled with 10 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 69 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Pa ) cast @-@ in @-@ place concrete using innovative pumping techniques .
Concrete counterweights totaling 2 @,@ 500 cubic yards ( 1 @,@ 911 m3 ) — with some as large as 50 by 25 by 13 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 by 7 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 0 m ) — counteract the weight of the roof from below the ground . The masts and counterweights are likened as external form @-@ giving elements to flying buttresses in gothic architecture , which predominates the campus ' architecture . The building is said to interpret gothic architecture through structural expressionism . The exterior support design made the interior space more receptive to open natural lighting and more accommodating for free movement .
The roof design incorporated multi @-@ level splayed cables so that the structural roof members could form a 33 @-@ inch ( 83 @.@ 8 cm ) deep uniformly curved roof plane . The roof members are curved and shallow . They support 7 2 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) thick 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) metal roof deck spans between the roof girders . The W33x169 girders are cold bent with reverse curves to multiple radii . The curved roof planes are suspended from German “ full @-@ lock ” steel cables and include three outer layers of interlocking Z @-@ shaped wires designed to minimize water infiltration and corrosion .
The engineering of the masts was complicated because stability was so important to the overall design success of the suspension structure . Mast displacements could significantly alter cable length and tension and redistribute loads through the superstructure contrary to design . The key to successful design was control of the foundation settlement . The sites natural underlying subsurface conditions were stiff silty clay below a medium dense sand layer , which was determined to be too accommodating to settlement to host the structure . Ground improvement , consisting of triple @-@ fluid jet grouting , was performed to reduce the compressibility of the silty clay , stiffen the sand deposit and provide a desirable shallow foundation system . This site marked the first time that these geotechnical ground improvement techniques were employed .
= = Reception = =
The facility 's engineering and design has earned it awards from the American Council of Engineering Companies , the American Institute of Steel Construction , and the Consulting Engineers Council of Illinois . The building earned a Merit Award in the category of new buildings in the $ 30 million and over category in the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations 2004 Excellence in Structural Engineering Awards program . The building earned the 2003 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement of the Year award by the American Society of Civil Engineers and the 2004 Project of the Year Overall by Midwest Construction News .
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= No Me Queda Más =
" No Me Queda Más " ( English : " There 's Nothing Left for Me " ) is a song by American recording artist Selena for her fourth studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . It was released as the third single from the album in October 1994 by EMI Latin . " No Me Queda Más " was written by Ricky Vela , while production was handled by Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla . A downtempo mariachi and pop ballad , " No Me Queda Más " portrays the ranchera storyline of a woman in agony after the end of a relationship . Its lyrics express an unrequited love , with the singer saying their love was the best and most important time for her even though he now is done with it .
" No Me Queda Más " , praised by music critics for its emotive nature , was one of the most successful singles of Selena 's career . It topped the United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks , her third successive number @-@ one song . It was Selena 's first number @-@ one track on the US Regional Mexican Airplay chart , and became the most successful US Latin single of 1995 . It has been ranked the ninth @-@ best Tejano recording by Billboard magazine and the eleventh @-@ best Hot Latin Songs chart single in 2011 .
A music video for " No Me Queda Más " was shot in San Antonio 's Amtrak station . It received the Music Video of the Year award at the Billboard Latin Music Awards , whilst the recording received two Broadcast Music honors including Song of the Year . Many musicians have since recorded cover versions , including Mexican singer Pepe Aguilar , American salsa singer Tito Nieves , and Mexican pop group Palomo . The Palomo version peaked at number six on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart , while Nieves ' version reached number seven on the US Tropical Songs chart .
= = Inspiration , writing and production = =
In 1980 , Ricky Vela joined Selena y Los Dinos as their keyboardist . Although Vela was attracted to the group 's drummer , Suzette Quintanilla , he kept his feelings to himself . When he confessed his feelings to Suzette 's father , group manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , he began teasing him about it . After Suzette 's September 1993 marriage , Vela wrote " No Me Queda Más " and it was given to Selena to record for Amor Prohibido . Although the song was originally planned to be recorded as a mariachi track , EMI Latin president Jose Behar believed that a mariachi recording would not appeal to the popular market . Following this , the group gave it to Argentine arranger Bebu Silvetti to rework into a pop @-@ style track , and Behar asked Silvetti to " sweeten " the song to boost its airplay and chart performance . The result enhanced Selena 's pop @-@ radio success . Behar said in a Billboard interview that the song was " internalized " without affecting the originality of its recording . In a 2002 interview , Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla , said that during a recording session he had asked Selena to record the song for a fifth time . The singer replied , " What you got there is what you got " and left to go shopping : " Now looking back , she really did a beautiful job when recording the song , she had so much passion . The song became a classic . That 's what I can remember from one of the beautiful memories I have of Amor Prohibido . "
= = Music , theme and lyrics = =
" No Me Queda Más " is a downtempo mariachi and pop ballad , incorporating ranchera and flamenco influences into its sound . Musicologists Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum called the song a bolero @-@ mariachi mix . This was echoed by the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , which noted its bolero influences . Texas Monthly editor Joe Nick Patoski wrote that Vela " riffed off romantic boleros " and the song " showcase [ d ] Selena 's vocal range and control " . " No Me Queda Más " has a " traditional trumpet duet harmony from [ styles of traditional Mexican mariachi music ] " , using traditional violins and guitars in a lush string arrangement . Written in the key of B minor , the beat is set in double time and moves at a moderate 95 beats per minute .
" No Me Queda Más " uses the traditional ranchera storyline , with the female singer agonizing over the end of a relationship . Its lyrics explore unrequited love ; when the singer 's lover leaves her for another woman , she nevertheless wishes them " nothing but happiness . " Selena sings the song " in a low , sober voice " , in a " desperate " and " sentimental " way . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News called her overdubbed vocals " powerful " and " emotive " , while music critics have described " No Me Queda Más " ' lyrics as " torchy " , " mournful " , " piercing " and " heartbreaking " .
= = Critical reception and impact = =
" No Me Queda Más " was praised by music critics , who considered it one of Selena 's most successful singles . Author Deborah Paredez called the song " romantic " . Roger Burns wrote in his book , Icons of Latino America , that " No Me Queda Más " became an " instant classic " . Billboard magazine Latin music contributor Leila Cobo called the recording " evocative " , while Paul Verna of Billboard called it " bittersweet " . Ramiro Burr wrote that the song , with its lyrics about " finding the strength to walk away " , was " touching " and Selena " fully conveyed the pain of love and the tone of redemption " . Author Jorge Velasquez called " No Me Queda Más " a " bonafide hit " , and the Polish web portal Onet.pl described it as one of Amor Prohibido 's biggest hits . Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum called " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " and " Techno Cumbia " the " key hits of [ Amor Prohibido ] " . Writing for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , Michael Clark complimented A.B. Quintanilla 's use of " world @-@ music flourishes " on the song . Lisa Leal of KVTV said that " No Me Queda Más " and Selena 's 1994 single , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , continue to be popular with fans and are Spanish @-@ language counterparts of the Beatles ' 1965 single , " Yesterday " , in fan popularity . It was the most popular song from Amor Prohibido on Mexican radio . " No Me Queda Más " was the Song of the Year at the 1995 Broadcast Music Awards , while Vela received the Songwriter of the Year award in 1996 . Its video was honored Music Video of the Year at the 1995 Billboard Latin Music Awards . " No Me Queda Más " was ranked as the ninth @-@ best Tejano song of all time on Ramiro Burr 's top @-@ ten list . It has appeared on a number of critics ' " best Selena songs " lists , including BuzzFeed ( at number one ) , Latino Post ( number four ) , and Latina ( number five ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
Billboard announced that a new airplay @-@ measuring system for its music charts would be based on Nielsen ratings beginning on November 12 , 1994 . " No Me Queda Más " entered the US Hot Latin Songs chart at number 40 on that date , and " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " remained at number one . On November 19 , the song rose to number ten on that chart and subsequently debuted on the US Regional Mexican Airplay chart at number seven . The following week , " No Me Queda Más " climbed to the fifth and fourth positions on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , respectively . Billboard contributor John Lannert , noting that three different songs had topped the Hot Latin Songs chart since the inception of the Nielsen @-@ rating system , predicted that Luis Miguel 's number one single " La Media Vuelta " could be unseated by " No Me Queda Más " . The following week , " La Media Vuelta " remained atop the chart and " No Me Queda Más " rose to number two . " No Me Queda Más " topped the Regional Mexican Airplay chart for three consecutive weeks beginning on December 3 , Selena 's first number one on that chart . The song peaked at number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart on December 17 , her third consecutive number one . It debuted at number 13 on the US Latin Pop Songs chart on January 7 , 1995 , remaining atop the Hot Latin Songs chart . " No Me Queda Más " reclaimed the number @-@ one spot on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart for January 14 , unseating La Mafia 's " Me Duele Estar Solo " . La Mafia displaced " No Me Queda Más " from the top of the Regional Mexican Airplay and Hot Latin Songs charts on January 21 , ending the song 's five @-@ week reign on the latter . The following week , " No Me Queda Más " regained the top of both charts . On February 4 , " No Me Queda Más " fell to number two on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart and retained the top spot on the Hot Latin Songs chart for its seventh nonconsecutive week . It was displaced from the top of the Hot Latin Songs chart on February 11 by Grupo Bronco 's " Que No Me Olvide " .
Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of the singer 's Selena Etc. boutiques , on March 31 , 1995 . Four of her singles — " No Me Queda Más " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " Como la Flor " and " Amor Prohibido " — reentered the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts on April 15 . " No Me Queda Más " placed fifth and eighth on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , respectively , and remained in the top ten of the Hot Latin Songs chart for 12 consecutive weeks . Billboard posthumously named Selena the Top Latin Artist of the 1990s in recognition of her fourteen top @-@ ten singles on the Hot Latin Songs chart , including seven number ones . " No Me Queda Más " was the most successful US Latin single of 1995 . It ranked eleventh on Billboard 's quarter @-@ century celebration of the Hot Latin Songs chart in 2011 . Billboard began monitoring digital downloads of Latin songs during the week ending January 23 , 2010 . " No Me Queda Más " made its debut at number 23 on the Latin Digital Songs chart following the twentieth anniversary of Selena 's death . On the Latin Pop Digital Songs chart , the song debuted at number 22 and peaked at number nine .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " No Me Queda Más " was filmed in October 1994 at the San Antonio Amtrak station . Produced by Summit Productions , the video was directed by Sean Roberts . Shooting took four days to complete . Jack Morgan was the on @-@ set photographer , and Diego Aguilar produced the video . Selena wore the same dress that she did when she won a Grammy Award for Best Mexican / American Album in 1994 . Veronica Flores , a reporter for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , was asked to make a cameo appearance as a wedding guest . The video 's location was later used for Selena 's fashion @-@ show scene in Selena ( 1997 ) , starring Jennifer Lopez . Hillary Clinton used " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " as part of her 2016 presidential campaign in San Antonio ( which was well received by Hispanics ) , playing the song at the location where Selena recorded the music video for " No Me Queda Más " . Univision ranked the music video at number four on their top ten favorite music videos of Selena .
In the video , Selena is sitting in a restaurant where a mariachi band is performing . A waiter offers her a glass of water . As the singer enjoys her dinner , the waiter returns with a note saying that her lover ( for whom she has been waiting ) has left her for another woman . Selena takes a sip of water before she leaves the restaurant , crying .
The singer is in the dark behind a busy highway , sobbing and peeling petals off a white rose in a game of He loves me ... he loves me not as a montage of images of Selena and her former lover plays . Selena then sings on a staircase in a white dress , accompanied by an orchestra . She considers crashing her ex @-@ lover 's beach wedding , but instead runs away in tears . Selena 's ex @-@ lover and his new wife kiss , and a video plays in which he kisses Selena 's hands . He then embraces his wife as Selena looks down , sobbing .
= = Cover versions = =
American salsa singer Tito Nieves recorded " No Me Queda Más " for his third studio album , Un Tipo Comun ( 1996 ) . The song was commercially more successful than the four singles released from the album , where it peaked at number seven on the US Tropical Songs chart . That same year , Dominican singer Kat DeLuna won first place when she sang " No Me Queda Más " at the New Jersey Hispanic Youth Showcase ; a children 's singing competition . In 1998 , Los Tres Reyes ( a mariachi group produced by Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . ) recorded a duet version of the song . Graciela Beltran covered the song during a memorial for Selena in Houston in 2003 . Mexican singer Pepe Aguilar performed and recorded " No Me Queda Más " for a live , televised tribute concert , Selena ¡ VIVE ! , in April 2005 . According to Michael Clark of the Houston Chronicle , " [ Aguilar 's ] vocal on " No Me Queda Más " was reminiscent of Aaron Neville " .
Mexican pop group Palomo recorded " No Me Queda Más " for their live album , En Concierto @-@ En Vivo Desde L.A. ( 2005 ) . The song debuted at number 37 on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart on March 19 , 2005 , and at number 46 on the Hot Latin Songs chart on April 2 . It remained on the chart until July 16 , peaking at numbers 19 and six on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , respectively . American singer José Feliciano recorded it for his album , Jose Feliciano y Amigos , in 2006 ; Ramiro Burr of the Chicago Tribune called it a " bittersweet ranchera " . Cuban singer Toñita recorded " No Me Queda Más " for her album , Desafiando al Destino , in 2007 . A year later , American singer Maria Williams recorded an English @-@ language version entitled " Nothing Left For Me " for her debut album Hybrid . American singer David Archuleta performed the song as a tribute to Selena at the 2010 Tejano Music Awards , and Karen Rodriguez sang it during the tenth season of American Idol . On May 1 , 2015 Jennifer Lopez performed " A Selena Tribute " at the 2015 Latin Billboard Music Awards , which included " No Me Queda Más " . Lopez was praised by music critics , who appreciated the singer 's Selena @-@ esque costumes . The recording debuted and peaked at number 33 on the Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Amor Prohibido .
= = Charts = =
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