page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= New Jersey Route 81 =
Route 81 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . The route is a freeway connector between exit 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) and U.S. Route 1 / 9 near Newark Liberty International Airport . It runs for 1 @.@ 18 miles ( 1 @.@ 90 km ) , entirely within the city of Elizabeth in Union County . A freeway called Route S100 was initially proposed on the current alignment of Route 81 in 1938 ; it , along with its parent Route 100 , was never built . The current route was conceived in the 1960s as a freeway replacement for Route 164 , which followed Humboldt Avenue , a surface road . It was to be designated Route 76 , but was renumbered to Route 81 when Interstate 76 was created in New Jersey .
It was legislated in 1966 to run parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike from exit 13 until North Avenue , where it would turn northwest and intersect U.S. Route 1 / 9 near the airport . The routing was eventually shifted to begin from a new interchange along the New Jersey Turnpike . A total of $ 50 million in funding was allocated for the road and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was responsible for designing the road . The state had wanted the port authority to pay for construction ; however it was ruled that they could not build the road . Construction on Route 81 took place between 1979 and 1982 .
= = Route description = =
Route 81 is a freeway for its entire length through Elizabeth in Union County . It southern terminus is at the toll plaza for exit 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) , near the Jersey Gardens outlet mall and Elizabeth Center power center . The route heads north from this interchange as a four @-@ lane a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) freeway maintained by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority . A short distance north of the toll plaza , the route comes to an interchange with County Route 624 ( North Avenue ) , which serves the aforementioned shopping areas as well as the Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal .
Route 81 heads northwest , running in between the travel lanes of North Avenue for a distance , with industrial areas located to the southwest and Newark Liberty International Airport to the northeast . Upon splitting from North Avenue , Route 81 features a northbound ramp to Newark Liberty International Airport and has an interchange with Dowd Avenue . From here , the route continues along the airport property with three northbound lanes and two southbound lanes maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation before reaching its terminus at U.S. Routes 1 and 9 just south of the Elizabeth – Newark city line . South of the terminus , ramps allow Route 81 traffic to access either the local or express lanes of US 1 / 9 as well as Newark Liberty International Airport .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessors to Route 81 = = =
Route S100 was originally proposed as a freeway on the rough alignment of present @-@ day Route 81 in 1938 , running between the proposed Route 100 freeway ( now the New Jersey Turnpike ) and U.S. Route 1 / 9 and Route 25 . However , Route S100 was not built . The original plan in the early 1960s for what is now Route 81 was to connect Newark International Airport with Elizabeth Seaport , bypassing Humboldt Avenue , which at the time was designated Route 164 ; Humboldt Avenue is no longer a state highway . The planned route was initially numbered Route 76 , but was renumbered to Route 81 when Interstate 80S in the southern part of the state became Interstate 76 . In 1966 , Route 81 was legislated to run parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike from Exit 13 near the Goethals Bridge north to the vicinity of North Avenue , and head west along the southern edge of the airport to U.S. 1 & 9 . By the 1970s , it was decided by the state of New Jersey to have Route 81 start at a new interchange 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike . In 1975 , Governor Brendan Byrne requested $ 882 million in bonds to construct several roads in New Jersey , including Route 81 .
= = = Construction begins and finishes = = =
The state allocated a total of $ 50 million for construction of Route 81 in 1976 , with $ 16 @.@ 6 million to be used within the next year , and the design for the proposed road , which was to provide a direct link to Newark Airport , began . The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was responsible for designing the road and half of the $ 1 @.@ 6 million cost was to be paid for by the port authority while the state and the New Jersey Turnpike Authority were to split the other half . In 1977 , the state wanted the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to pay the $ 50 million to build Route 81 and filed suit . However , the State Court of Appeals ruled in 1978 that the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey could not help build the road as it needed permission from both the New Jersey and New York legislatures , who wanted the port authority to focus on mass transit construction to airports .
With the construction of the new interchange on the New Jersey Turnpike , a service area along the turnpike named after William Halsey was subsequently closed down . Exit 13A , in turn , revitalized the Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal area . A retail center has arisen on the east side of the New Jersey Turnpike in an Urban Enterprise Zone , accessible from the North Avenue exit off Route 81 . With the construction of the Jersey Gardens outlet mall , Exit 13A was reconstructed by Schoor DePalma Inc and financed by mall owner Glimcher Realty Trust .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Elizabeth , Union County .
|
= Antoine Huré =
General Antoine Jules Joseph Huré ( 11 February 1873 - December 1949 ) was a French army officer and engineer noted for his service in Morocco . Huré joined the army as a volunteer in 1893 and after training at the École Polytechnique and École d 'Application de l 'Artillerie et du Génie he was commissioned into the 3rd Regiment of Engineers . He spent a number of years with his regiment and on staff appointments in France before transferring to Algeria first with the 19th Army Corps , and then the 15th Army Corps . In 1912 Huré transferred to the general staff in eastern Morocco and earned the Colonial Medal .
Huré was recalled to France at the start of the First World War and was shot in the chest whilst serving with the 1st Moroccan Infantry Division , being mentioned in dispatches for continuing with his duties despite his wound . He was posted back to Morocco in 1916 to become military commander of the Fes region . In January 1919 he took over command of French operations against the uprising led by Sidi Mhand n 'Ifrutant in the Tafilalt after General Joseph @-@ François Poeymirau was wounded . Huré suppressed the uprising within a month . In April 1919 he led a column to the relief of a French garrison at Aïn Médiouna which had put up a defence against a Moroccan force twenty times their number for four days during another uprising against French rule . Huré then launched further operations that stabilised the military situation in the area within the month . In July he was appointed commander of French troops in Southern Morocco .
Huré eventually reached the rank of général de division and became supreme commander of all French troops in Morocco . Under his supervision the country was finally pacified in 1934 . He returned to France in 1935 to serve on the Supreme Council of War and was later made inspector general of engineers . He wrote two books on military history , including one on the pacification of Morocco that was published after his death . Huré was rewarded for his work by appointment as Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and as Commander of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite .
= = Early career = =
Huré was born in Corbie in the Somme department of France on 11 February 1873 , the son of Eugene Edouard Edmund Huré and Céline Clémence Marie Burgeat Huré . Huré joined the French Army as a volunteer on 20 October 1893 and became an officer candidate at the École Polytechnique in Paris until 1 October 1895 when he transferred to the École d 'Application de l 'Artillerie et du Génie ( school of Applied Artillery and Engineering ) as a sous lieutenant . He received his commission as a second lieutenant on 1 October 1897 and was posted to the 3rd Regiment of Engineers . He was promoted to first lieutenant on 20 November 1898 and captain on 16 March 1901 . Huré was married on 11 April 1899 to Josephe Marie Magdaleine Francine , though the marriage was childless . Between 27 April 1901 and 22 August 1904 he was attached to the staff as an engineer at Valenciennes . He rejoined his regiment for two years before attending the École Supérieur de Guerre from 30 October 1906 . He was promoted to first captain on 23 June 1907 and joined the staff of the 19th Army Corps in Algiers on 24 October 1908 . He transferred to the staff of the 15th Army Corps on 24 December 1910 and on 24 April 1912 to the staff of the military subdivision of Oran .
Huré first arrived in Morocco on 9 October 1912 when he was attached to the general staff in the east of the new French protectorate and received the Colonial Medal for Morocco on 28 April 1914 . On 3 August 1914 he became attached to the staff of the 1st Moroccan Infantry Division , being promoted to commandant ( major ) six days later , and served in the defence of France in the First World War . Huré was wounded in the left breast by a bullet on 28 August 1914 in Faissault and received a mention in dispatches for continuing his duties despite his injury . He was appointed a knight of the Legion of Honour on 28 December 1914 , with precedence backdated to the 1 December . Huré became chef de bataillon on 10 January 1916 when he left France to become military commander of the Fes region of Morocco and on 3 January 1918 was appointed an officer of the Legion of Honour , with precedence of 29 December 1917 . He was honoured for his service to the country by appointment as a commander of the Moroccan Order of Ouissam Alaouite and on 19 April 1918 he was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel .
As a colonel in January 1919 he participated in an operation in the Tafilalt region , under the command of General Joseph @-@ François Poeymirau , to put down an uprising against French rule led by Sidi Mhand n 'Ifrutant as part of the Zaian War . After Poeymirau was wounded by the accidental explosion of an artillery shell Huré assumed command and won victories against bands of Moroccans at Zrigat and Erfoud . Huré engaged n 'Ifrutant at Tizimi on 25 January , comprehensively defeating his entrenched forces in a six @-@ hour battle and inflicting 600 casualties . Huré received reinforcements from a 10 @,@ 000 strong irregular tribal force sent by Thami El Glaoui , Pasha of Marrakesh and a French ally , and with their help was able to defeat the n 'Ifrutant uprising by 31 January .
= = Battle of Aïn Médiouna = =
From 15 February to 5 March 1919 Huré commanded a French column in the area to the north of Boudenib , near the Algerian border , consisting of the 18th battalion of Senegalese Tirailleurs and the 1st battalion Algerian Tirailleurs . Huré 's men demolished some ksars belonging to the Aït Aïssa tribe but were scarcely troubled by attack , only his rear guard being fired upon . On 31 March 1919 a French reconnaissance force fighting Abdelmalek bin Muhyi al Din , grandson of the Algerian resistance leader Abdelkader El Djezairi , were threatening the town of Beni Oulid when they detached a unit under Captain Macouillard to take a forward position on the peak of the Gueznaïa hill . The next day , in heavy fog with visibility of only a few metres , Macouillard 's force was attacked , in close hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting his artillerymen are killed at their guns and despite repeated bayonet charges the French position became untenable . A grievously wounded Macouillard handed command to his second , Lieutenant Biron , with orders to take the surviving men back to the fortified French camp at Aïn Médiouna , around 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) distant . Just fifty men made the journey , Biron and the other officers being killed in an ambush set by local villagers who then besieged the French post , assisted by other tribesmen attracted by the sound of gunfire . Attacks on the camp were repulsed by artillery fire directed by Lieutenant Solomon but the French were unable to break the siege . Solomon and Lieutenant Andrew held out against twenty times their number for the next four days , being resupplied with food and water by air , with total casualties ( including the fight at Gueznaïa ) reaching 4 officers and 292 killed or missing and 67 injured .
Huré led a relief column of 10 infantry companies , seven machine gun sections , 10 cavalry troops , a battery of 75mm artillery and three sections of 65mm mountain guns from Ain Matour to relieve Solomon and Andrew . His men endured forced marches on routes made almost impassable by heavy rain , with one unit covering 62 kilometres ( 39 mi ) in a single day . On the morning of 5 April Huré pushed back the besieging force and made contact with the garrison by 9 @.@ 00 . However the Moroccans counterattacked at 10 @.@ 00 , inflicting casualties of 24 Frenchmen killed and 59 wounded in a close @-@ quarters fight in which they suffered heavy losses .
At 11 @.@ 00 on 6 April Huré sent out patrols to bury the dead at Gueznaïa , whilst he reinforced the defences at Aïn Médiouna and directed 12 aircraft to bomb the tribesmen remaining in the area . Huré left three companies to garrison Aïn Médiouna before withdrawing the remainder of the men . He and his men were commended for their enthusiasm and spirit which enabled the garrison to be relieved earlier than expected . Huré singled out the French Foreign Legion machine gunners for praise , noting that they had held the enemy off for four hours to cover the retreat of other units . He said " despite your small number ... I knew at once that you would save the situation " .
Despite Huré 's victory at Aïn Médiouna attacks on loyal villages increased through April 1919 and on the 26th of that month Huré launched another column to defend them . He was attacked at Had Recifa but his hastily fortified camp held and the next morning Huré successfully defeated the tribesmen in battle , at the cost of 12 men killed and 4 officers and 63 men wounded . By the time General Hubert Lyautey and former prime @-@ minister Louis Barthou arrived on an inspection tour on 3 May the military situation had been stabilised thanks to Huré 's actions . On 31 July 1919 Huré was appointed to replace Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mayade in command of French troops in Southern Morocco fighting an uprising led by self @-@ proclaimed Sultan Sembali . Huré later became a général de brigade ( brigadier ) and commander of the Marrakesh region and was commander of the Legion of Honour on 21 February 1928 .
= = Pacification of Morocco = =
Huré became supreme commander of all troops in Morocco in 1931 . Upon his appointment the War Minister , André Maginot , warned him that " if you have one unfortunate engagement , I will hide your losses and I will lie against the evidence ; but I can only do that once . If you have a second reverse I will be obliged to tell the truth , and then all those - like me - who wish for the pacification of Morocco will be swept away , like Ferry after Lang Son " . Referring to the fall of Prime Minister Jules Ferry after the disastrous retreat from Lang Son in Vietnam in 1885 . On 16 March 1932 he was promoted to grand @-@ officer of the Legion , having also received promotion to général de division ( major @-@ general ) .
The years of 1933 and 1934 were spent in hard mountain warfare in the last bastions of Moroccan resistance in the High Atlas and Anti @-@ Atlas mountain ranges . Huré himself took personal command of the siege of the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) high mountain fortress of Bu Gafer in February and March 1933 , where he fought alongside General Henri Giraud , in a costly battle that caused the deaths of hundreds of French troops and up to 2 @,@ 300 Moroccans . In July Huré led another campaign in the Dadès Gorges , laying a new road as he went and utilising his engineering knowledge to procure dozens of truck @-@ powered pneumatic drills for his sappers . By the end of the month this region too was pacified leaving the last pocket of resistance at Mount Baddou , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) high peak home to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ 3 @,@ 000 Berber tribesmen . Huré again led directly , commanding a two @-@ week complete siege that successfully forced the tribesmen and their families to surrender , they were treated well and given food and supplies and allowed to return to their homes . There were further minor skirmishes in the Anti @-@ Atlas in the winter of 1933 / 4 but by March 1934 Huré had pacified the remainder of the country and brought to an end almost 30 years of continuous French military involvement in Morocco .
= = Return to France = =
Huré returned to France to serve on the Supreme Council of War in 1935 and also sat on Louis Franchet d 'Espèrey 's African Friendship Committee , an organisation established to encourage the loyalty of North Africa to France in case of war . By 1936 he was inspector general of French North African troops and in 1938 was appointed inspector general of engineers . He was appointed grand cross of the Legion of Honour on 8 July 1938 and in the same year co @-@ wrote Lyautey du Tonkin au Maroc par Madagascar et le Sud @-@ Oranais ( Lyautey in Tonkin and Morocco by way of Madagascar and South Oran [ Algeria ] ) with British historian Sonia E. Howe . Huré was president of the Islam study group of the Politique étrangère journal for 1939 . After the outbreak of the Second World War Huré became Inspector General of the Military Regions of France on 5 June 1940 , holding that position until 1 July by which point France had surrendered to the Germans .
Huré died in December 1949 at Saint @-@ Valéry @-@ sur @-@ Somme in France . In 1952 a book he had written , La Pacification du Maroc . Dernière étape : 1931 – 1934 ( The Pacification of Morocco . The Last Step : 1931 – 1934 ) , was published with a preface written by Marshal Alphonse Juin .
|
= Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf =
Friedrich Joseph of Nauendorf , a general in Habsburg service during the French Revolutionary Wars , was noted for his intrepid and daring raids .
Like most Austrian generals of the French Revolutionary Wars , he joined the military as a young man , and served in the War of Bavarian Succession , in which he took part in its first action by successfully repelling a Prussian border raid , which earned him the admiration of the Empress Maria Theresa 's son , Joseph . His continued success in the Habsburg border wars with the Ottoman Empire added to his reputation as a commander .
In the Wars of the First and Second Coalitions , his forces were vital to the successful relief of Mainz , and his commands captured the French siege train and most of the supplies during the French evacuation . In the campaigns in Swabia ( 1799 ) , he commanded the advanced guard , and later the center of the main column at the Battle of Stockach on 25 March 1799 . At the First Battle of Zürich in 1799 , he commanded the right wing in the Austrian victory of André Masséna 's force . After the Swabian and Swiss campaigns , he retired in poor health , and died in 1801 .
= = Early career = =
Born in the village of Heilsdorf , in the Saxon Vogtland , 3 August 1749 , Nauendorf came from a family of minor Saxon aristocracy and Prussian state administrators . His grandfather was a states ’ attorney in Jena . His father , Freiherr ( Baron ) Carl Georg Christian Nauendorf , was a cavalry officer in Habsburg military service in the Seven Years ' War , and was present at the Battle of Kolín . He was also part of Baron Ernst Gideon von Laudon 's army on 30 September – 1 October 1761 , when Laudon led the force in the storming of Schweidnitz .
Nauendorf joined the 8th Hussar Regiment in 1763 . In 1766 , his father became Colonel and Proprietor ( Inhaber ) of the regiment ; upon his father 's death in 1775 , Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser became Colonel and Inhaber , and the Regiment became known as 8th Hussar Wurmser , or Wurmser 's Hussars .
= = = War in Bohemia and Silesia = = =
In 1778 , Nauendorf was a Rittmeister ( captain of cavalry ) of the Wurmser Hussar Regiment , and stationed near the border of Bohemia and Prussia , by Pressburg , the regiment 's peace @-@ time garrison . At the end of the year , the Duke of Bavaria , Maximilian III Joseph , Elector of Bavaria , died unexpectedly of smallpox . As the last of the Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty , descended from 13th century Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Bavarian , Maximilian was related to most of the German houses , and Bavaria was strategically located to entice the Habsburgs , chiefly Archduke and co @-@ Regent Joseph , to covet the duchy . Tensions rose between and among the princes of the German states , principally Elector of Saxony , King of Prussia , and Joseph ; their diplomats shuttled between courts to resolve problems raised by the Bavarian Succession crisis , while Frederick II of Prussia , Frederick August of Saxony and Joseph of Austria moved their extensive armies into position in Bohemia .
In early July 1778 , the Prussian General Johann Jakob von Wunsch ( 1717 – 1788 ) crossed into Bohemia near the fortified town of Náchod , in the opening action of the War of the Bavarian Succession . Nauendorf had only 50 Hussars , but they sallied from their garrison to engage the larger Prussian force . Encountering Wunsch , Nauendorf greeted the old Prussian general and his men as friends ; by the time the Prussians realized the allegiance of the Hussars , Nauendorf and his small force had acquired the strategic advantage . Following a brief skirmish , Wunsch withdrew . The next day Nauendorf was promoted to major . ) . In a letter to her son , Joseph , the Empress Maria Theresa wrote : " They say you are so pleased with the rookie Nauendorf , the Carlstätter or Hungarian who killed seven men , that you gave him 12 ducats . " Enamored with the possibility of acquiring Bavaria , Joseph encouraged successful raids against the Prussian troops . On 7 August 1778 , with two squadrons of his regiment , Nauendorf led a raid against a Prussian convoy at Biebersdorf in the County of Kladsko . The surprised convoy surrendered , and Nauendorf captured its officers , 110 men , 476 horses , 240 wagons of flour , and 13 transport wagons .
In another raid , on 17 – 18 January 1779 , Nauendorf 's commander , Dagobert von Wurmser advanced into the County of Glatz in five columns , surrounded Habelschwerdt , stormed the village . In a subsequent assault on the so @-@ called Swedish blockhouse in Oberschwedeldorf ( now Szalejów Górny ) , it and the village of Habelschwerdt were set on fire by howitzers . In total , the raid resulted in the capture of Prince Adolf of Hesse @-@ Philippsthal and over 1 @,@ 000 men , three cannon and ten colors . Wurmser 's forward patrols reached the outskirts of Glatz , and patrolled much of Silesia 's border with Prussia , near Schweidnitz . Halberschwerdt and Oberschedeldorf were both destroyed .
On 3 March 1779 , Nauendorf raided the Berbersdorf again , this time with a larger force of infantry and hussars , and took the entire Prussian garrison as prisoner . Following this action , Joseph , now Emperor , awarded him the Knight 's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa ( 19 May 1779 ) . This kind of action characterized the entire war ; there were no major battles . The armies of the opposing sides conducted series of raids and counter @-@ raids from which they lived off the country @-@ side and tried to deny each other access to supplies and fodder .
= = = Action in the border war = = =
Nauendorf served with the Habsburg forces during the Ottoman wars from 1787 to 1791 . On 19 – 20 October 1788 , near Tomaševac ( present day Serbia ) , Nauendorf routed 1 @,@ 200 of the elite Sipahis with two squadrons of hussars . On 23 October 1788 , with only six squadrons of hussars , he attacked the Turkish rearguard in the village of Pančevo , in the Banat , during which the Turkish commander was mortally wounded . On 16 September 1789 , he led the successful raid on the island of Borecs in the Danube , which garnered greatly needed supplies from the Turkish forces . On 9 November of that year , he led four squadrons of his regiment to capture Gladova , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the so @-@ called Iron Gate of the Danube . Nauendorf was awarded command of 30th Hussar Regiment Wurmser , as the so @-@ called second colonel , who functioned as an executive officer . On 12 March 1779 , Joseph elevated Nauendorf to the rank of Count , or Graf .
= = Austrian action on the Rhine = =
In 1792 , Nauendorf 's regiment served on the lower ( northern ) Rhine river and at Trier on the Moselle river in the French Revolutionary Wars . In December of that year , his regiment successfully defended Pellingen , Merzkirchen and Oberleuken from the attacks of General of Division La Baroliére 's Army of the Moselle .
In 1795 , Nauendorf served in Field Marshal Charles Joseph de Croix , Count of Clerfayt ’ s Army of the Lower Rhine , which relieved Mainz . On 13 October , he commanded part of Count Clerfayt 's Corps of Observation , totaling close to 8 @,@ 000 men . On 10 October , a portion of the Corps of Observation had surprised the French at Hochst ; Jourdan was withdrawing his force from the blockade of Mainz . Nauendorf 's cavalry swam across the Main River and the infantry followed in boats ; they surprised and overwhelmed Jourdan 's rear guard at Niederhausen , capturing five guns , 30 + wagons and 80 ammunition caissons . On 29 October , Nauendorf captured most of the French siege train and supply wagons evacuated from Mainz . Finally , in that year on 6 November , his victory at Rochenhausen prevented the unification of the French armies of the Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle and the Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse .
During the maneuvers leading to the Battle of Amberg on 24 August 1796 , Nauendorf 's cavalry reconnaissance discovered crucial intelligence , after which he sent Archduke Charles the message : " If your Royal Highness will or can advance 12 @,@ 000 men against Jourdan 's rear , he is lost . " After the Austrian victory at Amberg , Nauendorf prevented General Jean @-@ Victor Moreau 's attempted Danube crossing at Neuburg and thwarted Moreau 's next attempt to flank the Austrians by passing through Ulm .
= = = Action in Switzerland and Swabia = = =
When the War of the Second Coalition began in early 1799 , Nauendorf fought in the Austrian victories at Ostrach ( 21 March ) and then at Stockach ( 25 March ) . In early March he led the Advanced Guard of 17 @,@ 000 across the Lech River by Augsburg , to deploy at Ostrach , a village about 9 kilometres ( 6 mi ) of the Danube River , and less than 2 kilometres ( 1 mi ) from the Free Imperial City of Pfullendorf . Jourdan 's Army of the Danube had crossed the Rhine on 1 March , and moved east to cut communication between the main Austrian force , quartered near Augsburg , and the Austrian troops in northern Italy . At Ostrach , his Advanced Guard sustained the immediate shock of contact , but the main force of the army was less than a day behind him , and Archduke Charles , the commander of the Austrian force , divided his army into three assault columns to make a simultaneous attack at three points on the French line ; after a day of nasty fighting , the Austrians flanked the French at the north and south , and threatened to break through the line in the middle . The French withdrew to Mösskirch , and then to Engen and Stockach , where , on 25 March , the fighting renewed . At Stockach , Nauendorf again commanded the Austrian advanced guard , which was composed of troops seasoned , as he had been , in the Habsburg border wars . The advanced guard , or Vorhut , was redeployed before the battle as the center of the main Austrian line , and took the brunt of the initial fighting .
After the French retreat from the Hegau into the Black Forest , Nauendorf took his force across the Rhine between Constance and Stein am Rhein on 22 May , and positioned himself at Steinegg . After Friedrich , Freiherr von Hotze 's column successfully pushed the French out of Winterthur on 26 May , Archduke Charles instructed Nauendorf to secure the village of Neftenbach , which effectively closed a semicircle around the French force at Zürich . Once the Austrian main army united with its left wing , under Nauendorf , and its far left , under Hotze , Charles ordered the assault on Zürich . On 4 June , Nauendorf helped to rout the French force at Battle of Zürich , commanding the Coalition 's right wing ; with sustained pressure on Andre Massena 's force , Massena pulled his army across the Limmat river , and dug into positions on the low ring of hills there , biding his time until the propitious moment to retake the city , which he did in September , 1799 , at the Second Battle of Zürich ; Nauendorf was not present for this action , being with Archduke Charles on a march north , toward Mainz . In 1800 , Nauendorf fought in the Austrian losses at Stockach and Engen on 3 May , Mösskirch on 5 May , and Biberach on 9 May .
Nauendorf retired in poor health at the end of the 1800 campaign . He died in Troppau , Austrian Silesia ( today Opava , in the Czech Republic ) , 30 December 1801 .
|
= Capture of Afulah and Beisan =
The Capture of Afulah and Beisan occurred on 20 September 1918 , during the Battle of Sharon which together with the Nablus , formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought during the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon , the 4th Cavalry Division of the Desert Mounted Corps attacked and captured the main communications hub at Afulah , located in the centre of the Esdraelon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the plain of Armageddon ) , and Beisan on the plain 's eastern edge near the Jordan River , some 40 – 50 miles ( 64 – 80 km ) behind the front line in the Judean Hills .
Infantry attacks by the British Empires XXI Corps had begun the Battle of Sharon on 19 September , along an almost continuous trench line from the Mediterranean across the Plain of Sharon and into the foothills of the Judean Hills . These attacks captured the Ottoman front line at Tulkarm , Tabsor , and Arara , in the process outflanking and decimating the Ottoman Eighth Army on the coast . During the attack on Tulkarm , the infantry created a gap in the Ottoman front line defences , through which cavalry from General Edmund Allenby 's Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) rode north . The three cavalry divisions in the Desert Mounted Corps successfully captured the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies ' lines of communication across the Esdraelon Plain from their headquarters in the Judean Hills .
The Desert Mounted Corps began the advance riding up the Plain of Sharon to Liktera , on 19 September where they attacked and captured an entrenched line barring their advance . Subsequently , the Corps crossed the Mount Carmel Range by the Musmus Pass and the northern Shushu Pass , during the night of 19 / 20 September . As the 4th Cavalry Division rode out across the Esdraelon Plain on the morning of 20 September , towards their primary objective ; the main communications hub at Afulah , they attacked and captured a force sent from Yildirim Army Group headquarters at Nazareth , to hold and bar the Musmus Pass , which had failed to get into position . Afulah was captured by units from both the 5th and the 4th Cavalry Divisions shortly after . Leaving the 5th Cavalry Division and one regiments at Afulah , the 4th Cavalry Division advanced to capture Beisan and later in the day , the regiment advanced directly from Afulah to occupy the railway bridges at Jisr el Mejamie , across the Jordan and Yarmuk Rivers . The capture of Jenin on the southern edge of the Esdraelon Plain , also blocked the main line of retreat to Damascus from the Judean Hills . The General Headquarters of the Yildirim Army Group commanded by General Otto Liman von Sanders at Nazareth was captured the next day , and Haifa two days later .
Several days later while garrisoning Beisan , the 4th Cavalry Division advanced southwards down the Jordan River to close a 20 miles ( 32 km ) long gap , through which the retreating remnants of the Seventh and Eighth Armies had been escaping . They successfully attacked and captured several fords during 23 and 24 September , to completely cut off all remaining Ottoman soldiers in the Judean Hills . By the end of the month , one Ottoman army had been destroyed , while the remnants of two others were in retreat to Damascus after the German rearguard at Samakh was captured by Australian Light Horsemen on 25 September . Damascus was captured on 1 October , and by the time the Armistice of Mudros between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire was signed at the end of October , fighting for Aleppo was underway .
= = Background = =
= = = Esdraelon Plain = = =
The Esdraelon Plain stretches from Lejjun in the west to Nazareth 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the north , in the foothills of the Galilean Hills , through Afulah in the centre of the plain , to Beisan on its eastern edge and close to the Jordan River , and then to Jenin on the southern edge of the plain , at the foot of the Judean Hills .
Near Lejjun , the remains of the ancient fortress of Megiddo on Tell al Mutesellim dominate the entry to the plain from the Musmus Pass . Here a relatively small garrison could control the routes across the Esdraelon Plain where the armies of Egyptians , Romans , Mongols , Arabs , and Crusaders who had fought Saladin near Afulah during the Battle of Al @-@ Fule , as well as of Napoleon , had marched and fought towards Nazareth , the Galilean Hills , and Damascus .
Aerial reconnaissance reported that no defensive works of any kind had been identified on the plain or covering the approaches to it , apart from German troops , garrisoned at the Yildirim Army Group headquarters of Otto Liman von Sanders at Nazareth . At 12 : 30 on 19 September Liman von Sanders ordered the 13th Depot Regiment at Nazareth and the military police , a total of six companies and 12 machine guns , to occupy Lejjun and defend the Musmus Pass .
= = = Deployment = = =
The Desert Mounted Corps , commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Sir Harry Chauvel , was made up of the 4th , and the 5th Cavalry Divisions , and the Australian Mounted Division .
Each division consisted of three cavalry brigades , with three regiments to each brigade and support troops . The regiments consisted of a headquarters and three squadrons ; 522 men and horses in each regiment . Five of the six brigades in the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions consisted of one British yeomanry regiment and two British Indian Army cavalry regiments one of which was usually lancers , the sixth brigade being the lancers of the 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade . Some of the yeomanry regiments were also armed with the lance in addition to their swords , rifles , and bayonets , while the Australian Mounted Division was armed with swords , .303 rifles and bayonets .
The 4th Cavalry Division consisted of the 10th , 11th and 12th Cavalry Brigades , the 5th Cavalry Division was made up of the 13th , 14th and 15th Cavalry Brigades and the Australian Mounted Division was made up of the 3rd , 4th and 5th Light Horse Brigades . The 5th Light Horse Brigade , was temporarily attached to the 60th Division for the Battle of Tulkarm . These mounted units were supported by machine gun squadrons , three artillery batteries from the Royal Horse Artillery or Honourable Artillery Company , and light armoured car units ; two Light Armoured Motor Batteries , and two Light Car Patrols .
The Desert Mounted Corps concentrated near Ramleh , Ludd ( Lydda ) , and Jaffa , where they dumped surplus equipment in preparation for their advance before moving up behind the XXI Corps ' infantry divisions , assembled near the Mediterranean coast . By 17 September , the 5th Cavalry Division , which would lead the Desert Mounted Corps ' advance , was deployed north @-@ west of Sarona 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the front line , with the 4th Cavalry Division in orange groves east of Sarona , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the front , and the Australian Mounted Division in reserve near Ramleh and Ludd 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the front line .
All movement had been restricted to night time , culminating in a general move forwards on the eve of battle . On the night of 18 / 19 September , the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions moved forward behind the infantry , while the Australian Mounted Division moved up to Sarona . Here the three divisions concentrated , with their supplies carried in massed horse @-@ drawn transport and on long camel trains , clogging the roads . The divisions carried one iron ration and two days ' special emergency rations per man , and 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) of grain per horse , all carried on the horse , with an additional day 's grain per horse carried on the first line transport limbered wagons .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps objectives = = =
The three lowlands of the Plain of Sharon , the Esdraelon Plain 40 miles ( 64 km ) behind the Ottoman front line , and the Jordan River Valley formed a semicircle to the north and around the Ottoman positions in the Judean Hills , held by the Seventh and Eighth Armies . After the successful infantry breakthrough , the three cavalry divisions were to ride through the gap northwards up the coastal Plain of Sharon , then eastwards across the Esdraelon Plain to the Jordan River , to cut off the Ottoman forces in the Judean Hills .
During the initial cavalry advance up the coastal Plain of Sharon to Litera on the Nahr el Mefjir , the Desert Mounted Corps were to advance while " strictly disregarding any enemy forces that did not directly bar its path . " They were to turn north @-@ east across the Mount Carmel Range through two passes onto the Plain of Esdraelon . The 5th Cavalry Division was to travel by the northern and more difficult track , from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh 18 miles ( 29 km ) south @-@ east of Haifa and on to attack Nazareth . Meanwhile , the 4th Cavalry Division was to take the southern pass to Lejjun via the Musmus Pass and on to capture Afulah . In reserve , the Australian Mounted Division was to follow the 4th Cavalry Division via the Musmus Pass to Lejjun .
If they could quickly capture the Esdraelon Plain while the two Ottoman armies were fighting in the Judean Hills against the XXI Corps infantry in the Battle of Sharon , and the XX Corps infantry in the Battle of Nablus , the railways could be cut , the roads controlled , and the lines of retreat across the plain for these two Ottoman armies west of the Jordan would be virtually cut . Success depended on the rapid capture of the communications hub at Afulah and the Yildirim Army Group 's general headquarters at Nazareth which would disrupt communication and simultaneously almost surround the Eighth Army and cut the communications and supply lines to both the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills . ( See Falls Map 21 below which shows these cavalry advances . ) Success required that the cavalry not only capture but hold Afulah , Nazareth , and the Esdraelon Plain for some time . The men and horses of three cavalry divisions would be dependent on rations being quickly and efficiently transported forward many miles from their base .
The 5th Cavalry Division 's objectives were to capture Nazareth , Liman von Sanders , and the Yildirim Army Group 's headquarters 70 miles ( 110 km ) from Asurf , before clearing the plain to Afulah . The 4th Cavalry Division 's objectives were to capture the town of Afulah and then advance eastwards across the Esdraelon Plain to capture Beisan and occupy the railway and / or road bridges over the Jordan River . In particular , they were to hold or destroy the Jisr el Mejamie bridge , 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Beisan , a distance of 97 miles ( 156 km ) from their starting point . The Australian Mounted Division , in reserve , was to enter the Esdraelon Plain and occupy Lejjun while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to capture Jenin , 68 miles ( 109 km ) from their starting point .
= = Prelude = =
According to David Woodward , " concentration , surprise , and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . " Victory at Megiddo depended on controlling the skies by destroying or dominating German aircraft activities and reconnaissances , through constant bombing raids by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , on Afulah to disrupt communications between the Yildirim Army Headquarters at Nazareth and the Seventh and Eighth Armies ' headquarters at Tulkarm and Nablus . Victory also depended on artillery barrages of sufficient intensity and effectiveness , to enable the infantry to quickly outflank the Ottoman defenders on the coast , and drive a gap in the Ottoman front line , for the Desert Mounted Corps to ride through on their way to the Esdraelon Plain , on the first day of battle .
= = = 4th Cavalry Division breakthrough = = =
With the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery and 1st Light Car Patrol attached , the 4th Cavalry Division watered at the ' Auja River before moving to the south @-@ east of Jlil , close behind the infantry and the front line . From here , a divisional pioneer party reached the front line at 07 : 00 on 19 September to cut a gap and flag a path through the Ottoman wire . By 08 : 40 permission was given by the 7th ( Meerut ) Division , which had attacked the western sector of the Tabsor defences , for the 4th Cavalry Division , accompanied by three horse artillery batteries which had rejoined the division after taking part in the bombardment and creeping barrage at the beginning of the Battle of Sharon , to pass through the gap in the Ottoman front line defences created by their attacks . ( See Falls Map 20 ) The vanguard 11th Cavalry Brigade was led by the 36th Jacob 's Horse as advance guard .
The 4th Cavalry Division advance began at 09 : 00 , riding through the Ramadan and Zerkiyeh marches , and northwards towards Liktera and the southern end of the Musmus Pass 25 miles ( 40 km ) away . By 10 : 00 the 11th and 12th Cavalry Brigades had crossed the Nahr el Falik and were moving along both sides of the Tabsor to El Mugheir road , followed by the 10th Cavalry Brigade .
By 11 : 15 the division had passed the Zerqiye crossing , and after an hour 's halt on the Burj el ' Atot to Maghaiyir line , they moved in three brigade columns in echelon . The 12th Cavalry Brigade proceeded straight on to Jelame , while the 10th and 11th Cavalry Brigades crossed the edge of the Iskanderune marches at Shellalif . By 13 : 00 the division was approaching El Mugheir before crossing the Iskanderune River , where they rested before advancing to Liktera .
= = = Capture of Liktera = = =
An entrenched Ottoman line of defence garrisoned by the Eighth Army Depot Regiment , stretched through Jelameh , El Mejdel , and Liktera to the sea near the mouth of the Nahr Mefjir .
Although the 4th Cavalry Division had started later , riding north on the left and to the rear of 5th Cavalry Division in echelon , both divisions approached Liktera on the Nahr el Mefjir . Faced with the " whole plain alive with cavalry twelve miles behind the Turkish line " , Liktera was quickly captured , along with 50 prisoners . The remainder of the Liktera garrison retreated towards Qaqun , closely followed by the Jacob 's Horse ( 11th Cavalry Brigade , 4th Cavalry Division ) , which took 126 prisoners . This regiment went forward to Tell edh Dhrur , where another 80 prisoners were captured .
= = = Musmus Pass = = =
At 18 : 30 on 19 September , the 4th Cavalry Division halted for three hours to water , feed , and rest . The 11th Cavalry Brigade concentrated and watered at Tell edh Dhrur ; the 12th Cavalry Brigade reached Jelame on the railway north of Qaqun and also watered , while the 10th Cavalry Brigade rode on to Kerkur at the entrance to the Musmus Pass , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) north of Tell edh Dhrur . After watering , the 2nd Lancers ( Gardner 's Horse ) ( 10th Cavalry Brigade ) pushed forward with the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery to occupy Kh . ' Ara , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north @-@ east of Kerkur and about one @-@ third of the way through the Musmus Pass , at 23 : 00 .
The 14 miles ( 23 km ) long Musmus Pass across the Mount Carmel Range had been in use since before the 15th century BC when the army of the Egyptian Pharaoh Thothmes III travelled through it , and during the 1st century AD by the Roman Emperor Vespasian and his army . The pass rises to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level , as it follows the Wadi Ara up the southern side of the Samarian Hills , at the time only about 300 yards ( 270 m ) wide . Beyond Kh . ' Ara and ' Arara ( not to be confused with Arara in the Judean Hills , which was captured during the Battle of Arara on 19 September 1918 ) , both high up on either side of the Musmus Pass , the pass narrows for several miles as it approaches Musmus on the watershed . From here the route becomes very narrow , descending to a steep ridge and a rough section before reaching Lejjun at the mouth of the pass on the Esdraelon Plain with the whole of the Esdraelon Plain stretching out 300 – 400 feet ( 91 – 122 m ) below .
Major General George Barrow , commanding the 4th Cavalry Division , ordered the 10th Cavalry Brigade to march on Lejjun by 23 : 00 " at the latest " , whether or not watering was finished . He then motored forward to the 2nd Lancers , the advance guard , and at 11 : 45 ordered them " to push right through the pass to El Lejjun " to avoid being held up beyond Kh . ' Ara . They arrived at Lejjun at 03 : 30 on 20 September without meeting any opposition . Here they captured about 100 Ottoman soldiers , possibly the advance guard of the Ottoman battalion Liman von Sanders had ordered to occupy the pass .
Meanwhile , Barrow returned along the Musmus Pass to meet the 10th Cavalry Brigade , which had missed the entrance to the pass and gone 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north on a wrong road , followed by the 11th Cavalry Brigade . Barrow , now on horseback , rode back to the 12th Cavalry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier General Wigan , which was to have been the rearguard , and ordered it forward to support the 2nd Lancers , which regiment came under Wigan 's orders . At 01 : 10 on 20 September , more than two hours after the 10th Cavalry Brigade should have started into the Musmus Pass , the 12th Cavalry Brigade 's advance guard , the 6th King Edward 's Own Cavalry , moved out from Kerkuk . They trotted for 20 minutes , walked for 20 minutes , and halted for five minutes to arrive at Lejjun at 04 : 05 , with the rest of the 12th Cavalry Brigade arriving , without incident , soon after . They moved by half @-@ sections of horse through the pass , without sending out flank guards to piquet " the heights . " As they negotiated the pass , they overtook and stopped a long column of Ottoman transport , capturing about 200 prisoners . Barrow later commented that a " couple of machine guns would have sufficed to hold us up for hours . "
Although the entrance to the pass had been secured by a regiment , the remainder of the 10th Cavalry Brigade did not reinforce the regiment . The brigade commander , Brigadier General Richard Howard @-@ Vyse had disobeyed divisional orders to do so and when the brigade finally advanced , twice got lost . In consequence , Barrow , the commander of the 4th Cavalry Division , relieved Howard @-@ Vyse of his command on the spot . Lieutenant Colonel W. G. K. Green of the Jacob 's Horse took command of the brigade .
= = Battle = =
= = = Lancers charge Musmus defenders = = =
After arriving at Lejjun at 03 : 30 , the 2nd Lancers watered , fed , and breakfasted before setting out at 05 : 30 for Afulah on a " three @-@ squadrons front followed by the 11th Light Armoured Car Battery and a subsection of the 17th Machine @-@ Gun Squadron . " Ten minutes later , the centre squadron was fired on by six companies of the 13th Depot Regiment and military police , supported by 12 machine guns , which Liman von Sanders had ordered to occupy the Musmus Pass at Lejjun at 12 : 30 on 19 September . They had had to march from Nazareth to Lejjun , a distance of 15 miles ( 24 km ) .
Having failed to reach Lejjun , Liman von Sanders ' force had taken up a position across the Lejjun to Afulah road in the Esdraelon Plain . One squadron of the 2nd Lancers , supported by machine guns and armoured cars , attacked frontally , while the reserve squadron moved to the right along a slight depression to charge from the flank . A second line of Ottoman defences was encountered by the third squadron on the right ; the two squadrons eventually cooperating in a simultaneous charge which " was driven home . " The lancers speared 46 and captured 470 prisoners , suffering one man wounded and 12 horses killed .
British Empire reconnaissance aircraft reported three British armoured cars halfway across the Esdraelon Plain , on their way to Afulah . One cavalry brigade was seen at Lejjun , while two were just entering the plain , advancing on a broad front .
... bullets were coming unpleasantly close ... [ as I ] edged towards the right with the intention of locating the enemy 's left flank ... Just then the squadron ran into a wire fence hidden in the jowar [ millet ] which covered that part of the plain . I went on ahead and left it to my second in command ( Ressaidar Jang Bahadur Sing ) to reform the squadron ... Bullets were coming thick and fast now , and I imagined that the squadron had had pretty heavy casualties ; added to this I was in a blue funk of striking an uncrossable nullah ... the map showing a tributary of the Kishon between me and the enemy ... I galloped back to lead the squadron off more to the right . There seemed to be plenty of the men left , and the formation was still tolerably good . We were moving at a good 15 miles ( 24 km ) an hour by now ... but I was still in mortal terror that the Turks ' determined stand might be fortified by the knowledge that a deep nullah lay between themselves and us ... However , I need not have worried , for we were in for it now ... Before I realized it we were right on top of the enemy , and it was only when I saw a young Turk deliberately aiming at me that I realized that I was still holding my map in my right hand , and had forgotten to draw my sword .
= = = Afulah = = =
The 2nd Lancers continued their advance to Afulah forty minutes after their successful charge , and were fired on at 07 : 45 on 20 September , when they were 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the town . By the time they circled around to gallop in from the north , two regiments of the 14th Cavalry Brigade ( 5th Cavalry Division ) , the 29th Lancers ( Deccan Horse ) and the 34th Prince Albert Victor 's Own Poona Horse , had captured the railway station and the road to Nazareth , respectively .
The 5th Cavalry Division 's leading ' D ' Squadron , 34th Poona Horse ( 14th Cavalry Brigade ) , had skirted the town of Birket El Fuleh to ride directly towards Afulah . At 06 : 30 they encountered seven lorries carrying German and Ottoman soldiers on the Afulah road , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the town . Led by a German officer , the enemy soldiers quickly jumped out of the lorries and opened machine gun fire , killing a British Indian Army cavalry trooper and wounding a non @-@ commissioned officer . ' D ' squadron returned fire with Hotchkiss guns . Shortly afterwards , they were reinforced by the remainder of the 14th Cavalry Brigade ; the brigade 's machine gun squadron winning the engagement .
At about 08 : 00 , the 4th Cavalry Division 's 2nd Lancers ( 10th Cavalry Brigade ) and the 5th Cavalry Division 's 29th Lancers ( Deccan Horse ) ( 14th Cavalry Brigade ) entered Afulah . Here about 75 German and 200 Ottoman prisoners were captured at the railway station , along with ten locomotives and 50 railway trucks or wagons in the sidings . A hospital , an aerodrome with three undamaged aircraft , a large quantity of petrol , and large stocks of champagne and hock were also captured . Armoured cars continued the pursuit , capturing 12 German lorries on the road to Beisan , while the railway running south and east from Afulah was cut ; the line to the west had already been cut by the 13th Cavalry Brigade ( 5th Cavalry Division ) .
On the morning after the charge outside Afule [ 21 September ] , having settled down to a Boche cigar and a bottle of ditto hock , I would not have changed places with President Wilson himself !
= = = Capture of Beisan = = =
The 5th Cavalry Division remained to garrison Afulah , where they were rejoined later that day by the 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade and their divisional artillery , which had been left the night before to move through the Abu Shusheh pass during daylight .
Barrow ordered the 4th Cavalry Division , less the 19th Lancers ( Fane 's Horse ) , 12th Cavalry Brigade , to advance to Beisan ; leaving Afulah at 13 : 00 on 20 September , led by the 10th Cavalry Brigade . They advanced quickly along the main road protected by flank guards ; the 36th Jacob 's Horse , 11th Cavalry Brigade , capturing some German soldiers along the way . About 100 enemy soldiers retreating from the direction of Mount Ephraim were captured during this advance , and while moving down the railway through Shatta into Beisan another 100 or more soldiers with three 150 @-@ mm howitzers facing eastwards were captured . A line of piquets was established from Afulah to Beisan and another 700 prisoners were captured during the night .
Beisan was captured without a fight between 16 : 30 and 18 : 00 on 20 September . Here the 4th Cavalry Division rested , having covered 70 miles ( 110 km ) , the first 20 miles ( 32 km ) over sandy soil , and fought two actions all in 34 hours with the loss of only 26 horses . This was the first opportunity for the division to take saddles off the horses since the cavalry advance began .
At Beisan , the 4th Cavalry Division was well in advance of their rations transport , which did not catch up until the next day , when lorries delivered rations . Until then , the division had the remains of their two days ' special emergency ration , which had been carried in sandbags on their saddles . Ration transport had been 50 miles ( 80 km ) behind the division ; ' A ' , ' B ' Echelons , the Divisional Transport Train , and Ammunition Column bivouacking for the night at Shellalif on 19 September . The special camel convoy had been unable to keep up , and its provisions were distributed elsewhere . By the evening of 20 September rations had also been delivered to the 5th Cavalry Division at Aujah by motor lorry via the Musmus Pass , while ' A ' Echelon and the Divisional Transport Train were bivouacked at Qaqun .
The 10th Cavalry Brigade had had only two full night 's rest since leaving the Jordan Valley on 11 September , nine nights before and about 150 miles ( 240 km ) away . " They had had no rest during the last three nights . " The brigade had participated in long advances as part of divisional formations , during which such things as watering and off @-@ saddling were complicated by the large numbers involved . Despite this , the brigade only lost 15 horses ; 36th Jacob 's Horse lost four , and the 19th Lancers , one .
By the evening of 20 September , Chauvel 's communications with his cavalry divisions , were limited to wireless and aircraft . The last aerial reconnaissance on 20 September reported three large fires burning at Nablus railway station , fires burning at the Balata dumps , and the whole Ottoman front line from El Lubban to the Jordan alarmed . They also reported a brigade of British cavalry entering Beisan .
= = = Capture of the Jisr el Mejamie bridge = = =
The 19th Lancers ( 12th Cavalry Brigade , 4th Cavalry Division ) remained at Afulah , with orders to ride during the evening directly to Jisr el Mejamie , 9 miles ( 14 km ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Beisan , to capture the railway bridges and prepare them for demolition .
Accompanied by a section of the 18th Machine Gun Company and a party of the 4th Field Squadron Royal Engineers , the regiment left Afulah at 19 : 30 after handing over to the 5th Cavalry Division . They rode 20 miles ( 32 km ) during the night over very rough stony country to reach Jisr el Mejamie at 05 : 00 on 21 September . The rail tracks on the left bank of the Jordan River and on the right bank of the Yarmuk River were picked up , thus blocking the connection between the Hedjaz Railway and the Palestine Railway systems . Explosive charges were attached to the bridge over the Jordan River and over the Yarmuk River to the north , but were not exploded . The second bridge was not captured , but it was later blown up by retreating Yildirim forces .
= = Aftermath = =
Allenby described the successful advance :
... my infantry ... have driven the enemy into the arms of the Desert Mounted Corps operating from Beisan and Jenin . Cavalry have occupied Nazareth . I cannot estimate total number of prisoners , but 18 @,@ 000 have been counted . I motored to Lejjun , today ; 65 miles N. of here , overlooking the plain of Esdraelon . A beautiful view across the flat vale . Nazareth , high in hills , to the N. ; Mount Tabor opposite ; Mount Gilboa to the E. , overlooking Jezreel . Some of the Indian cavalry got into Turks with the lance , in the plain yesterday , and killed many . I ... passed through thousands of prisoners today ...
During the first 36 hours of battle , from 04 : 30 on 19 September until 17 : 00 on 20 September , the German and Ottoman front line had been cut by infantry , and the cavalry had passed through the gap to reach their objectives at Afulah , Nazareth , and Beisan . The continuing British Empire infantry attack in the Judean Hills had forced the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies to withdraw northwards towards the waiting Desert Mounted Corps .
By dusk on 19 September , 4 @,@ 000 prisoners had been captured and brigade transport following the cavalry divisions was 20 miles ( 32 km ) behind enemy lines in what had been Ottoman Empire territory .
On 22 September the 4th Cavalry Division 's motor ambulances , which had been working in the Judean Hills transporting wounded infantry , rejoined their division at Beisan .
= = = Liman von Sanders ' withdrawal = = =
Liman von Sanders had no combat formations available to stop the cavalry advance up the coast and across the Esdraelon Plain ; Allenby 's attack forced the Yildirim Army Group and its commander to retire . Liman von Sanders ' retreat from Nazareth , began in the early hours of 20 September , taking him to Tiberias and Samakh late in the afternoon , and then on to Deraa , where he arrived on the morning of 21 September on his way to Damascus .
= = = Retreat of the Asia Corps = = =
With about 700 German and 1 @,@ 300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions , von Oppen was moving northwards from Tubas towards Beisan when he learned it had already been captured . He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh , where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order a strong rearguard action . However , Jevad , the commander of the Eighth Army , ordered him to cross the Jordan instead ; he successfully got all the Germans and some of the Ottoman soldiers across during 23 September , before the 11th Cavalry Brigade attack , which closed the last Jordan River gap . Those who had not crossed were captured .
= = = Jordan River gap closed = = =
The Jisr ed Damieh bridge , which carried the Wadi Fara road from Nablus across the Jordan River , was captured on 22 September by Meldrum 's Force , comprising the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and 1st and 2nd Battalions , British West Indies Regiment , supported by artillery . All fords south of this bridge were also denied to the enemy .
Between 21 and 23 September the Ottoman III Corps ( Ottoman Seventh Army ) fought a rearguard action from Tubas to the Jordan River , which delayed the British cavalry encirclement and enable what remained of the Ottoman Eighth Army and the Ottoman Seventh Army to retreat to the eastern side of the Jordan River .
Late in the evening of 22 September , Chauvel ordered Barrow 's 4th Cavalry Division to advance south from Beisan along the Jordan River to close a 20 miles ( 32 km ) gap north from the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , which Chaytor 's Force had captured .
= = = = 23 September = = = =
During the day , strong patrols by the 4th Cavalry Division had moved southwards down the Beisan to Nablus road , on the west bank of the Jordan , and down the Merka to Jisr ed Damieh road , on the east bank .
The 11th Cavalry Brigade advance southwards ; the 36th Jacob 's Horse on the east bank was fired on , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) south of Beisan to the south @-@ east of Kh. es Samriye . A long column of retiring Ottoman soldiers was attempting to cross the Jordan River at Makhadet Abu Naji under cover of a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong rearguard with 30 machine guns . As the 29th Lancers , advanced down on the west bank , they were fired on from the rearguard at Makhadat abu Naji which was attacked in the rear and the flank by the 36th Jacob 's Horse ; they broke the rearguard into a " hopeless rout " . The commander of the 16th Division , Rushdi Bey , and 18 machine guns were captured , along with 800 prisoners , which were later identified to have been the rearguard of von Oppen 's Asia Corps .
Meanwhile , another stronger rearguard on the east bank protecting the retreating columns was attacked by the 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry , 11th Cavalry Brigade 4th Cavalry Division . Further attacks by the 36th Jacob 's Horse were repulsed by a second much larger body of Ottoman soldiers moving towards the Jordan River 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the south . The support of the Hampshire Battery RHA and the cooperation of the 36th Jacob 's Horse from the east bank was requested in a third attack .
At 11 : 00 the Hampshire Battery RHA came into action , but they drew accurate fire from two batteries of field guns south @-@ east of the ford , which hit all their guns . About 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) south , a squadron of 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry found a ford across the Jordan River . They quickly deployed and put the enemy guns " out of action . " The 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry began their attack from both sides of the river and eventually captured the ford , along with 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , leaving many dead . At 15 : 00 the defenders withdrew from the Makhadat Abu Naji ford , " suffering very heavily indeed from machine @-@ gun and automatic @-@ rifle fire , and abandoning an enormous amount of material . "
= = = = 24 – 25 September = = = =
Units of the 4th Cavalry Division continued the advance southwards from Beisan on 24 September , after rations had been distributed . At 10 : 35 an observation post sighted a column of Ottoman soldiers making for a ford across the Jordan River at Makhadet el Mas 'udi , where the Ottoman advanced guard arrived and deployed its machine guns to cover the escape of a larger body of Ottoman troops across another ford 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) further south . ( See Falls Sketch Map 36 Detail ' A ' Situation at 11 : 00 ) The 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry attack at Makhadet el Mas 'udi ford succeeded at 12 : 30 , while the 29th Lancers reinforced the Yeomanry attack on the main column , capturing a total of 5 @,@ 000 prisoners , including an Ottoman divisional commander , with many dead .
Troops captured by the 11th Cavalry Brigade on 24 September were the rear of the Seventh Ottoman Army , the majority of which had crossed during the previous night and early morning , continuing their retreat towards Irbid , while von Oppen 's Asia Corps and the Fourth Ottoman Army were retreating towards Deraa .
The 11th Cavalry Brigade continued their advance 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south to Ras Umm Zoka without encountering any further Ottoman columns , while the XX Corps Cavalry Regiment , which made contact with the 29th Lancers , reached ' Ain Male 7 miles ( 11 km ) east of Tubas , capturing several thousand prisoners . The 11th Cavalry Brigade subsequently returned to Beisan on 25 September .
|
= Spice ( Perfume song ) =
" Spice " ( スパイス , Supaisu ) is a song recorded by Japanese girl group Perfume for their third studio album , JPN ( 2011 ) . It premiered on November 2 , 2011 as the fifth and final single from the album in Japan . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Glitter " , which appeared on the parent album . It was also released on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America . Musically , " Spice " is a house song .
Upon its release , the track garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Some critics highlighted the song as one of Perfume 's best singles from their album , whilst some felt the composition was uninteresting . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number two both on the Oricon Singles Chart and Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . An accompanying music video was shot by Shimada Daisuke ; it features the girls performing the song in a dining room . It was performed on the groups 2011 JPN concert tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Spice " was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . It was recorded , mixed , and mastered by him . The song was recorded in 2010 at Contemode Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo by Nakata . Together with the album ’ s remaining material , " Spice " has partial rights by Nakata through Yahama Music Communications . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Glitter " ; another version , re @-@ composed by Nakata , appeared on JPN instead . It premiered on November 2 , 2011 as the fifth and final single from the album . It was also released digitally on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America .
The maxi CD of the single contains both " Spice " and " Glitter " , plus their instrumental versions . The cover artwork was photographed by Japanese photographer Hiroshi Nomura and features the girls sitting on a circle window . Musically , " Spice " was described as an house song with elements of pop music and synthpop . Paul Browne from J @-@ Pop Go noted that the song " sees Perfume step down gear a bit for a more mid @-@ tempo effort . " A staff editor from Selective Hearing noted that the song incorporated elements of 80s synthpop music . Ian Martin from The Japan Times said the song incorporated elements of Westernised pop music .
= = Critical response = =
Upon its release , " Spice " received mixed reviews from most music critics . Asian Junkie editor Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog , and highlighted it as one of the best tracks on the album . Similarly , Paul Browne from J @-@ Pop Go also selected it as one of the album 's best tracks . A staff editor from CD Journal was positive in his / her review , complimenting Nakata 's composition . A staff editor from Selective Hearing was mixed in his / her review of the song ; the reviewer said that it , " isn ’ t the greatest thing the group has done for an a @-@ side but there ’ s enough to make it worth listening to . The layered vocals will probably hook most before they realize that they ’ ve heard all this before . " As a result , the reviewer concluded that they would recommended the B @-@ side " Glitter " over " Spice " . Ian Martin from The Japan Times was particularly negative in his review , labelling the song an " otherwise unremarkable closing number ... "
= = Commercial performance = =
In Japan , " Spice " was successful on several record charts . It debuted at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart ; it sold 75 @,@ 688 units in its first week of sales . It was the group 's fifth consecutive charting single to reach number two on that chart . The following week , the single fell outside the top ten to number 13 , selling 7 @,@ 136 units . It lasted for 10 weeks on the chart , totaling 90 @,@ 471 units by the end of 2011 . The song peaked at number two on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video was directed by Shimada Daisuke . The group 's outfits from the single cover sleeve was used again for the video shoot . The music video was released on October 27 , 2011 , through Tokuma Japan 's official YouTube channel . The music video appeared on the DVD single . The music video also appeared on Perfume 's DVD compilation sets for JPN and Perfume Clips ( 2014 ) .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video opens with several shots of a dining table ; it includes uneaten sweets , foods , and small pink bird ornaments . The first verse features close @-@ ups of the girls singing and dancing to the song , in front of a beige backdrop . The chorus section has three scenes of each member ; Kashiyuka is seen laying down with an electronics cable in her hand ; Nocchi is seen at the dining table ; and A @-@ Chan is seen under a table with a cable telephone . During the instrumental break , close @-@ up shots ( yet very blurry ) features a fish bowl that have small fishing swimming around . The second verse repeats the first verses video shoots .
The second chorus has the girls dancing on the table , knocking several pieces of food and tuppleware onto the ground . A @-@ Chan is seen lying down on a pillow , whilst Kashiyuka balances a book and an apple on her head . Both of these scenes have them throwing several pieces of food onto the table . Nocchi is seen at the dining table , holding a fork and listen to music through her headphones . She witnesses a small door underneath a stool , opens it , and sees a small green room . In the room , a blurred image of a cup starts to become clear , and holds small candy . As the girls eat the pieces of candy , their cream @-@ coloured dresses turn into the outfits from the cover sleeve from the single . The girls start dancing in the fish bowl , surrounded by glittery lights . The final scene has the girls looking through the small door again , only to witness the dining room table empty ; the small cup with candy appears in beige colouring rather than full @-@ on vibrancy .
= = Promotion and live performances = =
The song and its B @-@ side track has been used in commercials and television series within Japan . " Spice " was used as the theme song for the Japanese Tokyo Broadcasting System television series , Sengyoshufu Tantei . The B @-@ side song , " Glitter " , was first used in the commercial for Japanese company Kirin . The group 's producer , Yasutaka Nakata , was heavily influenced by the image of the drama when he wrote " Spice " ; it ’ s also the first time that he produced a soundtrack for them . The single was performed on their 2011 JPN concert tour , where it was included during the second segment . It was included on the live DVD , released in mid 2012 . The song was included on the group 's 180 Gram vinyl compilation box set , Perfume : Complete LP Box ( 2016 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the parent album .
Ayano Ōmoto ( Nocchi ) – vocals
Yuka Kashino ( Kashiyuka ) – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki ( A @-@ Chan ) – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
Shimada Daisuke – video director
Tokuma Japan Communications – record label
= = Chart and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= 10 Story Fantasy =
10 Story Fantasy ( occasionally referred to as Ten Story Fantasy ) was a science fiction and fantasy pulp magazine which was launched in 1951 . The market for pulp magazines was already declining by that time , and the magazine only lasted a single issue . The stories were of generally good quality , and included work by many well @-@ known writers , such as John Wyndham , A.E. van Vogt and Fritz Leiber . The most famous story it published was Arthur C. Clarke 's " Sentinel from Eternity " , which later became part of the basis of the movie 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
= = Publication history = =
The early 1950s saw dramatic changes in the world of U.S. science fiction ( sf ) publishing . At the start of 1949 , all but one of the major magazines in the field were in pulp format ; by the end of 1955 , almost all had either ceased publication or switched to digest format . Despite the rapid decline of the pulp market , several new science fiction magazines were launched in pulp format during these years . In 1950 , Avon Publications experimented with a format that included several pages of comics , trying new pulp magazines in three genres : romance , westerns , and science fiction . The sf pulp , titled Out of This World Adventures , lasted for two issues ; the others for only one .
Despite these failures , Joseph Meyers , Avon 's owner , decided to try another pulp magazine the following year when his printer , J.W. Clements offered Meyers a low price for printing a pulp magazine . Donald A. Wollheim , Avon 's executive editor , titled the new magazine 10 Story Fantasy , although it actually contained thirteen stories . The layout bore a strong resemblance to that of Out of This World Adventures : both magazines had unusually elaborate artwork for the table of contents , and in both magazines the first letter of each story was decorated with black and white art . As in Out of This World Adventures , the interior art was mostly supplied by William McWilliam and " Martin " , both of whom worked in Avon 's comics department .
The cover art , selected by Meyers , not Wollheim , illustrates John Wyndham 's story " Tyrant & Slave @-@ Girl on Planet Venus " ( published under the pseudonym " John Beynon " ) . This story had been sold first to the British magazine New Worlds , under the title " No Place Like Earth " ; Wyndham subsequently sold the American rights to Wollheim , and it appeared on both sides of the Atlantic at the same time . Myers picked the new , more lurid title ; all subsequent reprint appearances used the title " No Place Like Earth " .
10 Story Fantasy 's most famous story is Arthur C. Clarke 's " Sentinel from Eternity " , which Clarke submitted to a BBC writing competition in 1948 ; it did not receive a prize or honorable mention . The story later became part of the basis of the movie 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The stories were generally of good quality , with several well @-@ known contributors such as A.E. van Vogt , L. Sprague de Camp , August Derleth , and Lester del Rey . Among the better @-@ received stories were " Friend to Man " , by C.M. Kornbluth ; " Private Worlds " , by Wollheim , under the pseudonym " Martin Pearson " ; " Cry Witch " , by Fritz Leiber ; and " Seeds of Futurity " , by Kris Neville .
Although the quality of the stories was high , the publisher was unwilling to commit to future issues , and the Spring 1951 issue was the only one that appeared .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The magazine was announced as a quarterly but only one issue was published . Donald Wollheim was editor for the only issue , which was numbered volume 1 number 1 . It was published in pulp format , priced at 25 cents and was 128 pages . The publisher was Avon Periodicals of New York .
|
= Washington State Route 3 =
State Route 3 ( SR 3 ) is a 59 @.@ 81 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 96 @.@ 25 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving the Kitsap Peninsula in Mason and Kitsap counties . The highway begins at U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) south of Shelton and travels northeast onto the Kitsap Peninsula through Belfair to Gorst , where it intersects SR 16 and begins its freeway . SR 3 travels west of Bremerton , Silverdale and Poulsbo before it terminates at the eastern end of the Hood Canal Bridge , signed as SR 104 . The highway is designated as a Strategic Highway Network ( STRAHNET ) corridor under the National Highway System as the main thoroughfare connecting both parts of Naval Base Kitsap and is also part of the Highways of Statewide Significance program .
SR 3 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering and codified in 1970 as the successor to Secondary State Highway 14 ( SSH 14 ) from Shelton to Belfair , Primary State Highway 14 ( PSH 14 ) from Belfair to Gorst , and PSH 21 from Gorst to the Hood Canal Bridge . PSH 21 was previously part of State Road 21 from 1915 to 1937 , while PSH 14 was part of State Road 14 and the Navy Yard Highway from 1919 to 1937 . The present SR 3 freeway was opened in 1968 in the Bremerton area and was extended north to Poulsbo in 1973 and to Bangor in 1977 .
= = Route description = =
SR 3 begins at a diamond interchange with US 101 south of Shelton in unincorporated Mason County on the Olympic Peninsula . The highway travels north into Shelton at the end of Oakland Bay on 1st Street and crosses over a Puget Sound and Pacific Railroad line and Goldsborough Creek . SR 3 turns east on Pine Street and leaves Shelton , traveling northeast along Oakland Bay and a US Navy rail line . The highway continues north along Oakland Bay and Case Inlet past heavily forested areas to Allyn @-@ Grapeview , where it serves as the western terminus of SR 302 at North Mason High School . SR 3 travels towards the southern end of the Hood Canal and intersects the eastern termini of SR 106 and SR 300 in Belfair . The highway continues northeast past Bremerton National Airport towards the community of Gorst in Kitsap County , where it forms the western terminus of SR 16 .
SR 3 becomes a four @-@ lane divided freeway and travels northeast along the Sinclair Inlet to an interchange with SR 304 in Navy Yard City , serving the city of Bremerton and Naval Station Bremerton . The freeway continues through western Bremerton past the diamond interchange with SR 310 and the community of Chico along Dyes Inlet . SR 3 travels west of Silverdale past the western terminus of SR 303 at the Kitsap Mall and east of Naval Submarine Base Bangor in Bangor . The freeway continues north towards Poulsbo past the termini of SR 308 and SR 305 , which serve Keyport and Bainbridge Island respectively . SR 3 travels north from Poulsbo as a two @-@ lane road towards Port Gamble and ends at the eastern approach of the Hood Canal Bridge at an intersection with SR 104 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 3 was between SR 16 in Gorst and SR 304 in Navy Yard City , serving 69 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was southwest of Allyn @-@ Grapeview at an intersection with Grapeview Loop Road , serving 6 @,@ 600 vehicles . SR 3 is designated as a STRAHNET corridor within National Highway System , connecting Naval Base Kitsap to the state highway system between Gorst and Bangor , while the rest of the highway is part of the system , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility . WSDOT designates the entire route of SR 3 as a Highway of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
SR 3 follows the route of a paved section of State Road 21 between Belfair and Port Gamble on the Kitsap Peninsula that was added to the state highway system in 1915 . The highway was later split between the Navy Yard Highway from Belfair to Bremerton and State Road 21 from Bremerton to Port Gamble in 1919 . In 1923 , the state highway system was restructured and the Navy Yard Highway was numbered as State Road 14 , while State Road 21 kept its designation . The Navy Yard Highway was paved on a 48 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 77 km ) section connecting Union to Charleston and was dedicated by Naval Station Bremerton on June 13 , 1923 , while the rest of the highway remained a gravel road into the 1930s .
During the creation of the primary and secondary state highway system in 1937 , the paved State Roads 14 and 21 kept their numerical designations and became PSH 14 and PSH 21 , respectively . PSH 21 was extended southwest from Bremerton on the former Navy Yard Highway to Gorst , while PSH 14 turned south at Gorst and headed towards Tacoma . A branch of PSH 14 , named SSH 14A , was designated on a gravel road that connected the main highway at Belfair to US 101 in Shelton . In 1955 , PSH 21 was extended southwest along PSH 14 from Gorst to Union , shortening PSH 14 to its current route as SR 16 .
During the 1964 highway renumbering , a new state route system replaced the existing primary and secondary state highways and SR 3 was designated along SSH 14A , PSH 14 , and PSH 21 on its present route when it was codified in 1970 . Construction of the freeway section of SR 3 began in 1963 between SR 304 in Navy Yard City and Silverdale west of Bremerton and was opened in February 1968 . The freeway was extended north to Poulsbo in late 1973 , and further north to Naval Submarine Base Bangor in 1977 after the arrival of Ohio @-@ class submarines at Bangor . WSDOT re @-@ built the interchange between SR 3 and SR 303 in Silverdale at a cost of $ 26 million , paid for by a 2003 gas tax . The new interchange , opened in November 2007 , split the western terminus of SR 303 between two exits , signed as 45A and 45B , and removed a loop ramp that created turning conflicts . WSDOT began study of a Belfair bypass in 1966 and completed a provisional report in 2010 that did not recommend constructing a bypass of the community , instead opting for a project to widen the highway and add safety improvements that began work in fall 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
|
= Michael Phelps =
Michael Fred Phelps II ( born June 30 , 1985 ) is an American competition swimmer and the most decorated Olympian of all time , with a total of 22 medals in three Olympiads . Phelps also holds the all @-@ time records for Olympic gold medals ( 18 , double the second highest record holders ) , Olympic gold medals in individual events ( 11 ) , and Olympic medals in individual events for a male ( 13 ) . In winning eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games , Phelps took the record away from fellow American swimmer Mark Spitz ( 7 ) for the most first @-@ place finishes at any single Olympic Games . Five of those victories were in individual events , tying the single Games record . In the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Phelps won four golds and two silver medals , making him the most successful athlete of the Games for the third Olympics in a row .
Phelps is the long course world record holder in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , 200 @-@ meter butterfly and 400 @-@ meter individual medley as well as the former long course world record holder in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle and 200 @-@ meter individual medley . He has won a total of 77 medals in major international long @-@ course competition , totalling 61 gold , 13 silver , and 3 bronze spanning the Olympics , the World , and the Pan Pacific Championships . Phelps 's international titles and record @-@ breaking performances have earned him the World Swimmer of the Year Award seven times and American Swimmer of the Year Award nine times as well as the FINA Swimmer of the Year Award in 2012 . His unprecedented Olympic success in 2008 earned Phelps Sports Illustrated magazine 's Sportsman of the Year award .
After the 2008 Summer Olympics , Phelps started the Michael Phelps Foundation , which focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles . He continues to work with his foundation after the 2012 Olympics , which he had said would be his last . In April 2014 , Phelps came out of retirement , and he qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil .
= = Early life = =
Phelps was born in Baltimore , Maryland , and raised in the Rodgers Forge neighborhood of nearby Towson , Maryland . He attended Rodgers Forge Elementary , Dumbarton Middle School , and Towson High School . Michael is the youngest of three children . His mother , Deborah Sue " Debbie " ( née Davisson ) , is a middle school principal . His father , Michael Fred Phelps , is a retired Maryland state trooper who played football in high school and college and tried out for the Washington Redskins in the 1970s . Phelps 's parents divorced in 1994 , when he was nine years old , and his father remarried in 2000 . His ancestry includes English , Irish , Scottish , Welsh , and German . Phelps graduated from Towson High School in 2003 .
Phelps began swimming at the age of seven , partly because of the influence of his sisters and partly to provide him with an outlet for his energy . When Phelps was in the sixth grade , he was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . By the age of 10 , he held a national record for his age group , and Phelps began to train at the North Baltimore Aquatic Club under coach Bob Bowman . More age group records followed , and as of 2016 Phelps still holds 12 age group records ( nine in long course and three in short course ) .
= = 2000 Summer Olympics = =
Phelps 's rapid improvement culminated in his qualifying for the 2000 Summer Olympics at the age of 15 and becoming the youngest male to make a U.S. Olympic swim team in 68 years . While he did not win a medal , he did make the finals and finished fifth in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly .
= = 2001 World championships = =
At the World Championship Trials for the 2001 World Aquatics Championships , on March 30 , Phelps broke the world record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly to become , at 15 years and 9 months , the youngest male ever to set a swimming world record . Previously this was Ian Thorpe , who lowered the 400 @-@ meter freestyle world record at 16 years , 10 months . At the World Championships in Fukuoka , Japan , Phelps broke his own world record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly en route to becoming a world champion for the first time .
= = 2002 Pan Pacific championships = =
At Nationals , the selection meet for the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , Phelps set an American record in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley and was just off the world record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . In the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps bettered the world record held by Tom Dolan with a time of 4 : 11 @.@ 09 , just ahead of Erik Vendt , who finished second with a time of 4 : 11 @.@ 27 , also below the old world record . In the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps was barely beaten by Klete Keller and in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps beat Ian Crocker .
At the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Yokohama , Japan , Phelps won three gold medals and two silvers . In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won gold ahead of Erik Vendt with a time of 4 : 12 @.@ 48 . In the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps lost to Tom Malchow , finishing behind him 1 : 55 @.@ 41 to 1 : 55 @.@ 21 . Phelps said he lost because he did not take butterfly training seriously after he broke the world record . In the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 59 @.@ 70 . In the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Nate Dusing , Klete Keller , and Chad Carvin , won the silver medal with a time 7 : 11 @.@ 81 finishing behind Australia . The U.S. 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay team consisted of Aaron Peirsol , Brendan Hansen , Phelps , and Ian Crocker . In the final for the medley relay , Phelps swam a 51 @.@ 1 split , at the time the fastest split in history . The final time of 3 : 33 @.@ 48 was a world record .
= = 2003 World championships = =
At Nationals , Phelps won the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , 200 @-@ meter backstroke , and the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . He became the first American swimmer to win three different races in three different strokes at a national championship . At the 2003 Duel in the Pool , a meet that pits swimming stars from Australia and the United States , Phelps broke the world record in the 400 @-@ meter individual medley with a time of 4 : 10 @.@ 73 and almost broke the world record in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , just missing the record by 0 @.@ 03 seconds . At a meet in Santa Clara County , California , Phelps broke the world record in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 94 . Phelps said he broke the 200 @-@ meter individual medley world record after Don Talbot said Phelps was unproven , using his words as motivation .
At the 2003 World Aquatics Championships , Phelps won four gold medals , two silver medals , and broke five world records . Phelps broke his first world record on July 22 in the semi @-@ finals for the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . Phelps swam a 1 : 53 @.@ 93 to break his own world record of 1 : 54 @.@ 58 set in 2001 and became the first man to swim under 1 : 54 @.@ 00 . In the final of the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , on July 23 , Phelps easily won the gold medal , but did not come close to his world record with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 35 . Less than an hour later , Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg for the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay . Phelps put up a solid time of 1 : 46 @.@ 60 ( an American record ) but the Americans could not match the depth of the Australians and ultimately finished second 7 : 10 @.@ 26 to 7 : 08 @.@ 58 . In the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps dominated . On July 24 , in the semifinals of the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , he broke his own world record with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 52 . On July 25 , in the final of the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps smashed his own record with a time of 1 : 56 @.@ 04 to win the gold medal and finished almost 3 seconds ahead of Ian Thorpe . About an hour before the final of the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps swam in the semifinals of the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . Phelps dominated again , finishing in the top seed position with a world record time of 51 @.@ 47 . However , in the final of the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , on July 26 , Ian Crocker erased Phelps 's world record with a time of 50 @.@ 98 , to become the first man under 51 seconds . Phelps swam a 51 @.@ 10 ( also under his former world record ) , but had to settle for silver . In the final of the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , on July 27 , Phelps broke his own world record with a time of 4 : 09 @.@ 09 to easily claim the gold medal . About half an hour later , Phelps earned his final gold medal when the United States team won the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . Phelps did not swim in the finals , but still earned a medal because he swam in the heats .
= = 2004 Summer Olympics = =
= = = Trials = = =
At the 2004 U.S. Olympic Team Trials , Phelps competed in six events ; the 200- and 400 @-@ meter individual medley , the 100- and 200 @-@ meter butterfly , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , and the 200 @-@ meter backstroke . In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps easily won with a world record time of 4 : 08 @.@ 41 . Two days later , in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 46 @.@ 27 , finishing sixth @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Klete Keller . Phelps , however , was not pleased with the result and wanted to be in the 1 : 45s and was uncertain if he would swim the event in Athens . The following day , Phelps won in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 31 , three seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher Tom Malchow . After two days off , Phelps was back in the pool and finished second to Aaron Peirsol in the 200 @-@ meter backstroke . Less than half an hour later , Phelps won the 200 @-@ meter individual medley title ahead of Ryan Lochte by 2 @.@ 70 seconds . The following day , Phelps finished second to Ian Crocker in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . Crocker won in a time of 50 @.@ 76 , a world record and 0 @.@ 39 seconds ahead of Phelps . When the Trials were over , Phelps became the first person to qualify in six individual events for a U.S. Olympic team . However , Phelps dropped the 200 @-@ meter backstroke to focus on the 200 @-@ meter freestyle because he wanted to race Ian Thorpe . Even though Phelps didn 't compete in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle at the Trials , he was still selected for the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . Gary Hall , Jr. thought this was unfair and said Phelps did not deserve a spot on the relay . Phelps argued his program was too crowded to compete in 100 @-@ meter freestyle and was at least among the top four swimmers because he had beaten the top @-@ seeded Jason Lezak the last time he had swum against him .
= = = Athens = = =
In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a world record time of 4 : 08 @.@ 26 to win his first Olympic gold medal . The following day , in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Ian Crocker , Neil Walker , and Jason Lezak , finished in third place with a time of 3 : 14 @.@ 62 . Crocker 's lead @-@ off time of 50 @.@ 05 was the worst among the field and was blamed on sickness . In the event many were calling The Race of the Century , held the following day , Phelps finished in third place behind Ian Thorpe and Pieter van den Hoogenband in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle . Although this race ended the chance to match Spitz 's record , Phelps had savored the challenge even though it was not his strongest event , saying " How can I be disappointed ? I swam in a field with the two fastest freestylers of all time " . In his fourth event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , held the following day , Phelps finished first with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 04 , breaking Tom Malchow 's Olympic record . About an hour later , in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Ryan Lochte , Peter Vanderkaay , and Klete Keller , finished in first place with a time of 7 : 07 @.@ 33 . Two days later , in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps finished first with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 14 , an Olympic record . In the 100 @-@ meter butterfly final , held the following day , Phelps defeated American teammate Ian Crocker ( who held the world record in the event at the time ) by just 0 @.@ 04 seconds with a time of 51 @.@ 25 . Traditionally , the American who places highest in an individual event will be automatically given the corresponding leg in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay final . This gave Phelps an automatic entry into the medley relay , but he deferred and Crocker swam instead . Phelps 's gesture gave Crocker a chance to make amends as well getting his final shot at a gold medal . The American medley team went on to win the event in world @-@ record time , and , since Phelps had raced in a preliminary heat of the medley relay , he was also awarded a gold medal along with the team members who competed in the final . In winning six gold and two bronze medals , Phelps , still a teenager , had the second @-@ best performance ever at a single Olympics , behind Mark Spitz 's seven gold medals at the 1972 Summer Olympics . Also , he became the second male swimmer ever to win more than two individual titles at a single Games with four , tying Spitz 's four from 1972 .
= = 2005 World championships = =
At the 2005 World Championship Trials , Phelps decided to drop his specialty events , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley and the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , and experiment with the 400 @-@ meter freestyle and the 100 @-@ meter freestyle . Phelps went on to win the 400 @-@ meter freestyle , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , and the 200 @-@ meter individual medley at the Trials .
At the 2005 World Aquatics Championships , Phelps won a total of six medals , 5 golds and one silver . In the 400 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps did not make it past the preliminary heats and finished 18th overall with a time of 3 : 50 @.@ 53 . Later that day , in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps won his first gold in the Championships . Two days later , on July 26 , Phelps won his second gold in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle with a new American record time of 1 : 45 @.@ 20 , finishing ahead of Grant Hackett . Two days later , on July 28 , Phelps finished seventh in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle final . Later that day , Phelps won his third gold in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley . On July 29 , Phelps , along with Ryan Lochte , Peter Vanderkaay and Klete Keller , won the gold in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay with a time of 7 : 06 @.@ 58 . This was the fourth gold medal for Phelps . On July 30 , Phelps swam in his last individual event , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . In the final , Phelps could not match the speed of Ian Crocker and had to settle for silver , finishing 51 @.@ 65 to 50 @.@ 40 . On July 31 , Phelps earned his final gold medal when the United States team won the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . Phelps did not swim in the finals but still earned a medal because he swam in the heats .
= = 2006 Pan Pacific championships = =
At the 2006 National Championships , Phelps won a total of three events . In his first event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 32 . In his second event , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps just edged out Ian Crocker 51 @.@ 51 to 51 @.@ 73 . In his third event , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 56 @.@ 50 , just ahead of Ryan Lochte 's time of 1 : 56 @.@ 78 .
At the 2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Victoria , British Columbia , Phelps won five gold medals and one silver . In his first event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won in a world record time of 1 : 53 @.@ 80 , his first world record in two years . In his second event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps easily won with a time of 4 : 10 @.@ 47 , 3 @.@ 38 seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher Robert Margalis . In his third event , the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Ryan Lochte , Peter Vanderkaay , and Klete Keller , won the gold medal with a time of 7 : 05 @.@ 28 . In his fourth event , the 200 @-@ meter backstroke , Phelps won the silver medal , finishing behind Aaron Peirsol 1 : 56 @.@ 81 to 1 : 54 @.@ 44 . In his fifth event , the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Neil Walker , Cullen Jones , and Jason Lezak , won the gold medal with a world @-@ record time 3 : 12 @.@ 46 . In his sixth event , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a world record time of 1 : 55 @.@ 84 , breaking his record of 1 : 55 @.@ 94 set in 2003 .
= = 2007 World championships = =
At the 2007 World Aquatics Championships , Phelps won seven gold medals , tying the record , and broke five world records . Phelps first gold medal came in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle . Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 48 @.@ 42 seconds and Neil Walker , Cullen Jones and Jason Lezak each expanded the lead to win in a Championship record of 3 : 12 @.@ 72 , just missing the world record of 3 : 12 @.@ 46 set the previous year . His lead @-@ off time was faster than the winning time in the individual 100 @-@ meter freestyle final later in the meet . Phelps set his first world record in the Championships in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , his second race . Phelps won the gold ahead of Pieter van den Hoogenband and broke Ian Thorpe 's six @-@ year @-@ old world record with a time of 1 : 43 @.@ 86 . For his third race , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won the gold and bettered his own world record of 1 : 53 @.@ 71 with a time of 1 : 52 @.@ 09 . For his fourth race , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps set his third world record with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 98 , bettering his own world @-@ record time of 1 : 55 @.@ 84 For his fifth race , the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 1 : 45 @.@ 36 as the American team of Ryan Lochte , Klete Keller , and Peter Vanderkaay went on to win the gold medal and beat the previous world record set by Australia in 2001 with a time 7 : 03 @.@ 24 . For his sixth race , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps edged out Ian Crocker 50 @.@ 77 to 50 @.@ 82 to win his sixth gold medal . For his seventh event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won the gold medal in a world @-@ record time of 4 : 06 @.@ 22 , more than 3 @.@ 5 seconds ahead of Ryan Lochte . By winning seven gold medals , Phelps broke the record of six set by Ian Thorpe at the 2001 World Championships . The 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay team would have competed in the final , but received a disqualification for a false start during a changeover in the heats , ending Phelps 's chance of eight gold medals .
Even though Phelps competed in the backstroke in international competition only once ( at the 2006 Pan Pacific Championships ) , he was among the best backstroke swimmers in the world . This is illustrated by his personal best times set in 2007 , four months after the World Championships . At the US Nationals in Indianapolis on August 1 , 2007 , Phelps swam a 1 : 54 @.@ 65 in the 200 @-@ meter backstroke , which was the third fastest of all time in the event , 0 @.@ 33 of a second off the world record of 1 : 54 @.@ 32 held by Ryan Lochte . Two days later Phelps swam a time of 53 @.@ 01 sec in the 100 @-@ meter backstroke , 0 @.@ 03 of a second short of the world record of 52 @.@ 98 held by Aaron Peirsol and the second @-@ fastest performance of all time . In 2007 Phelps swam into the all @-@ time top 3 performances in seven individual events , four of these being world records .
= = 2008 Summer Olympics = =
= = = Trials = = =
At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Team Trials , Phelps competed in six individual events . In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps broke his own world record of 4 : 06 @.@ 22 with a time of 4 : 05 @.@ 25 . In his second event , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 44 @.@ 10 , ahead of Peter Vanderkaay 's time 1 : 45 @.@ 85 . In his third event , the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps placed second in his heat with a time of 47 @.@ 92 , ensuring him a spot on the relay . In his fourth event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 52 @.@ 20 . In his fifth event , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps broke his own world record of 1 : 54 @.@ 98 with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 80 . In his sixth and final event , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won with a time of 50 @.@ 89 . When asked about his chances of winning eight gold medals in Beijing , Phelps said , " I am going to prepare for that meet just like I do every other meet ... There is only so much I can do in a month and then I am going to prepare myself the best that I can . "
= = = Beijing = = =
Phelps set an Olympic record in the preliminary heats of the 400 @-@ meter individual medley . He followed that up in the final by winning the gold medal , as well as breaking his previous world record by nearly two seconds .
Phelps swam the first leg of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay in a time of 47 @.@ 51 seconds ( an American record for the 100 @-@ meter freestyle ) , and won his second gold medal of the 2008 Olympics , as well as setting his second world record of the Olympics ( 3 : 08 @.@ 24 ) . Teammate Jason Lezak , after beginning the anchor leg more than half a body length behind Alain Bernard , managed to finish ahead of the favored French swimmer by eight hundredths of a second . The top five teams in the final finished ahead of the world record of 3 : 12 @.@ 23 set the previous day by the American B team in a preliminary heat .
For his third race , Phelps broke his previous world record in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle by nearly a second and won his third gold medal . He also set his third world record at the Olympics , 1 : 42 @.@ 96 , winning by nearly two seconds over silver medalist Park Tae @-@ hwan . In this race , Phelps became the fifth Olympic athlete in modern history to win nine gold medals , joining Mark Spitz , Larisa Latynina , Paavo Nurmi , and Carl Lewis .
The next day , Phelps participated in two finals . In his first event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps made it four gold medals and world records in four events by swimming the final in 1 : 52 @.@ 03 , defeating silver medalist László Cseh by almost seven @-@ tenths of a second despite his goggles ' having filled up with water and being unable to " see anything for the last 100 meters . This fourth gold medal was his tenth , and made him the all @-@ time leader for most Olympic gold medals won by an individual in the modern Olympic era . Moreover , Phelps became the first swimmer , male or female , to win three Olympic butterfly titles , after his two titles in the Athens 2004 Olympics . He also became the first swimmer to successfully defend an Olympic butterfly title .
Less than one hour after his gold medal victory in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg of the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay . With Lochte , Ricky Berens , and Peter Vanderkaay , he won his fifth gold and set his fifth world record as the American team finished first with a time of 6 : 58 @.@ 56 . The Americans were the first team to break the seven @-@ minute mark in the relay , and broke the previous record , set in Melbourne , Australia , by more than four and a half seconds .
After taking a day off from finals ( Phelps did swim in qualifying heats ) , Phelps won his sixth gold of the Beijing Games on August 15 by winning the 200 @-@ meter individual medley with a world record time of 1 : 54 @.@ 23 , finishing ahead of Cseh by over two seconds .
= = = = Seventh gold medal = = = =
Before the final of the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , US born Serbian swimmer Milorad Čavić caused a minor stir when he said it would be " good " if Phelps lost . " It 'd be good for him if he loses . It would be nice if historians talk about Michael Phelps winning seven gold medals and losing the eighth to ' some guy . ' I 'd like to be that guy " , Čavić said . Phelps responded , " When people say things like that , it fires me up more than anything . " On August 16 , Phelps won his seventh gold medal of the Games in the men 's 100 @-@ meter butterfly , setting an Olympic record for the event with a time of 50 @.@ 58 seconds and edging out his nearest competitor Čavić , by one hundredth ( 0 @.@ 01 ) of a second .
Unlike all six of his previous events in the 2008 Games , Phelps did not set a new world record , leaving intact Ian Crocker 's world @-@ record time of 50 @.@ 40 seconds , set in 2005 .
Phelps 's 0 @.@ 01 @-@ second finish ahead of Čavić prompted the Serbian delegation to file a protest . Subsequent analysis of the video by the FINA panel , which required analyzing frames shot 1 / 10,000th of a second apart , was used to officially confirm Phelps 's victory , but the images were not immediately released to the press . The initial refusal by official timekeeper Omega to release underwater photos of the finish also raised questions due to Phelps 's sponsorship relationship with Omega . Čavić later wrote in his blog , " People , this is the greatest moment of my life . If you ask me , it should be accepted and we should move on . I 've accepted defeat , and there 's nothing wrong with losing to the greatest swimmer there has ever been . "
Phelps 's seventh gold medal of the Games tied Mark Spitz 's record for gold medals won in a single Olympic Games , set in the 1972 Olympics . It was also his fifth individual gold medal in Beijing , tying the record for individual gold medals at a single Games originally set by Eric Heiden in the 1980 Winter Olympics and equaled by Vitaly Scherbo at the 1992 Summer Games . Said Phelps upon setting his seventh @-@ straight Olympic record of the Games in as many events , " Dream as big as you can dream , and anything is possible ... I am sort of in a dream world . Sometimes I have to pinch myself to make sure it is real . "
= = = = All @-@ time record = = = =
On August 17 , Phelps won his eighth gold medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , breaking Mark Spitz 's record of seven gold medals won in a single Olympic Games , which had stood since 1972 . Phelps , along with teammates Brendan Hansen , Aaron Peirsol , and Jason Lezak , set a new world record in the event with a time of 3 minutes and 29 @.@ 34 seconds , 0 @.@ 7 seconds ahead of second @-@ place Australia and 1 @.@ 34 seconds faster than the previous record set by the United States at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens . When Phelps dived in to swim the 100 @-@ meter butterfly leg , the third leg of the 400 @-@ meter medley , the United States had been trailing Australia and Japan . Phelps completed his split in 50 @.@ 1 seconds , the fastest butterfly split ever for the event , giving teammate Jason Lezak a more than half @-@ second lead for the final leg , which he held onto to clinch the event in world record time . Said Phelps , upon completing the event that awarded him his eighth gold medal and eighth Olympic record in as many events , " Records are always made to be broken no matter what they are ... Anybody can do anything that they set their mind to . "
= = 2009 World championships = =
At the 2009 National Championships , Phelps drastically shortened his program , swimming in only three individual events . In his first event , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 44 @.@ 23 . In his second event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps easily won with a time of 1 : 52 @.@ 76 , 0 @.@ 88 seconds ahead of the second @-@ place finisher . In his third event , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won with a world @-@ record time of 50 @.@ 22 .
At the 2009 World Aquatics Championships , Phelps won a total of 6 medals , 5 golds and 1 silver . In his first event , the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 47 @.@ 78 , well off his 47 @.@ 51 performance in Beijing , but the American team was able to edge out Russia and France for the gold . For his second race , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps lost his first race in four years to Germany 's Paul Biedermann . Phelps touched second in 1 : 43 @.@ 22 , but Biedermann smashed Phelps 's record of 1 : 42 @.@ 96 set in Beijing a year ago with a time of 1 : 42 @.@ 00 . Phelps took the silver graciously , but coach Bob Bowman threatened to withdraw Phelps from international competition because Bowman claimed Biedermann had an unfair advantage because he was wearing a full polyurethane swimsuit , specifically an Arena X @-@ Glide . Bowman said , " It took me five years to get Michael from 1 : 46 to 1 : 42 and this guy has done it in 11 months . That 's an amazing training performance . I 'd like to know how to do that . " Phelps rebounded from this loss and for his third race , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won the gold and broke his own world record of 1 : 52 @.@ 03 with a time of 1 : 51 @.@ 51 . For his fourth race , the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 1 : 44 @.@ 49 as the team went on to win the gold medal and break the world record set the previous year . After his loss in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , many thought Phelps was vulnerable coming into the final for the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . His closest competitor , Milorad Čavić , who wore an Arena X @-@ Glide ( the same suit Biedermann beat Phelps with ) , thought people were making excuses for Phelps because he was wearing an LZR Racer . Čavić even offered to buy Phelps a new suit . For his fifth race , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won the gold and became the first man to complete it in under 50 seconds , beating Čavić 49 @.@ 82 to 49 @.@ 95 . The victory prompted a fierce celebration from Phelps , who sat on the lane rope and pumped his chest and swimsuit . For his final event , the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , Phelps won his fifth gold medal . Phelps , along with teammates Aaron Peirsol , Eric Shanteau , and David Walters , set a new world record in the event with a time of 3 minutes and 27 @.@ 28 seconds .
= = 2010 Pan Pacific championships = =
At the 2010 National Championships , Phelps competed in five individual events . In the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps won ahead of Ryan Lochte in a time of 1 : 45 @.@ 61 . About an hour later , Phelps returned to the pool to win the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . But Phelps was not happy with his performance and called it the " worst " 200 @-@ meter butterfly of his life . In the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won his 50th national title in 50 @.@ 65 . After the race , Phelps said he was " fairly pleased " with the result . In the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps finished second to Lochte 1 : 55 @.@ 94 to 1 : 54 @.@ 84 . It was the first time Lochte had beat Phelps in a major national meet . In the 200 @-@ meter backstroke , Phelps finished in 4th place in 1 : 56 @.@ 98 .
On the first day of competition at the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , Phelps opted out swimming in the final of the 200 @-@ meter freestyle to focus on the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . In the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps led from start to finish , coming in first with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 11 . Although it was much slower than his 1 : 51 @.@ 51 time from the previous year , Phelps had not lost a 200 @-@ meter butterfly final since 2002 . On day two of the competition , Phelps swam in the heats of the 400 @-@ meter individual medley and contributed in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay . In the heats of the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps failed to make the A final , with Lochte and Tyler Clary taking the top two American positions . Phelps did not swim in the B final of the 400 @-@ meter individual medley . In the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , with Peter Vanderkaay , Ricky Berens , and Lochte , finished first ahead of Japan and Australia . On day three of the competition , Phelps competed in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly and contributed in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . In the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps finished first in a time of 50 @.@ 86 , a championship record . In the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , with Lochte , Jason Lezak , and Nathan Adrian , finished first ahead of Australia and South Africa . As the lead @-@ off leg in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps set the championship record in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle with a time of 48 @.@ 13 . In his final event , Phelps swam in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay with Aaron Peirsol , Mark Gangloff , and Adrian and finished first ahead of Japan and Australia .
= = 2011 World championships = =
In his first event at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships in Shanghai , Phelps won bronze in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay with Garrett Weber @-@ Gale , Jason Lezak , and Nathan Adrian . This was Phelps 's first bronze in a World Aquatics Championships . Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 48 @.@ 08 , the second @-@ best lead @-@ off in the field behind James Magnussen 's 47 @.@ 49 . In his second event , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps won silver for the second consecutive time at a World Aquatics Championships . This time he finished second to Ryan Lochte in the event with a time of 1 : 44 @.@ 79 , compared to Lochte 's time of 1 : 44 @.@ 44 . In his third final , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , he won his first gold medal with a time of 1 : 53 @.@ 34 to become the first swimmer to win five gold medals in one discipline at the World Aquatics Championships . In his fourth event , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps again finished second to Lochte in a personal best of 1 : 54 @.@ 16 , which was 0 @.@ 16 behind Lochte who swam a new world record . It was Phelps 's 30th medal in the World Aquatics Championships . Shortly after completing the semifinals of the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps competed in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay with Peter Vanderkaay , Ricky Berens , and Ryan Lochte . Phelps 's team won the gold medal in a time of 7 : 02 @.@ 67 . Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 1 : 45 @.@ 53 , the third @-@ best leg in the field . In the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won his third consecutive title ( also winning in 2007 and 2009 ) and second individual title of the meet with a time of 50 @.@ 71 . In his last event , the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , Phelps teamed with Nick Thoman , Mark Gangloff , and Nathan Adrian to win gold in a time of 3 : 32 @.@ 06 . Phelps 's butterfly leg of 50 @.@ 57 was by far the fastest butterfly leg in the field .
= = 2012 Summer Olympics = =
= = = Trials = = =
For the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Phelps originally stated he would never do eight events again , and would instead try new events . Phelps said , " I keep saying I want to go down and start sprinting , but Bob [ Bowman , Phelps 's coach ] really isn 't so keen on that ... I don 't think that 's going to happen ... Over the next four years , I 'd like to try some different events , maybe not do some of the events I did here . " However , at the 2012 United States Olympic Trials , the qualifying meet for the 2012 Summer Olympics , Phelps qualified in the same eight events that he swam in Beijing in 2008 . He later dropped the 200 @-@ meter freestyle from his program , as he stated he wanted to focus on the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . During the trials , Phelps finished first in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , 100 @-@ meter butterfly , 200 @-@ meter butterfly , 200 @-@ meter individual medley , and second in the 400 @-@ meter individual medley . In making his fourth Olympic team , Phelps holds the record for men for the most Olympic appearances in swimming representing the United States .
= = = London = = =
On July 28 , 2012 , Phelps placed eighth in the morning prelims for the 400 @-@ meter individual medley . Phelps , the two @-@ time defending Olympic champion , won his heat in 4 minutes , 13 @.@ 33 seconds with a time that was well off his world record of 4 : 03 @.@ 84 set four years ago in Beijing , when Phelps won a record eight gold medals . He out @-@ touched László Cseh by 0 @.@ 07 seconds in his heat to qualify last for the final , locking out Cseh . In his first finals of the Summer Olympics , Phelps placed fourth behind fellow American Ryan Lochte , Thiago Pereira of Brazil , and Kosuke Hagino of Japan in the 400 @-@ meter individual medley . It was the first time Phelps failed to medal in an Olympic event since 2000 . The next night , in his second event of the Games , he got a silver as a member of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter free relay . Phelps swam the fastest leg of the US relay team and the second @-@ fastest of anyone in the race .
On July 31 , 2012 , Phelps won a silver medal in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly behind South African Chad le Clos by 5 / 100ths of a second , and a gold medal in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , thereby equaling and then surpassing Larisa Latynina to become the all @-@ time record holder for most Olympic medals won . Latynina was present at the race and asked to be the presenter of Phelps 's medal , but was told that Olympic rules would not allow it . She called Phelps deserving of the record .
On August 2 , 2012 , Phelps won his 16th Olympic gold medal when he edged out Ryan Lochte to win the 200 @-@ meter individual medley with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 27 , and by that victory also became the first male swimmer to win the same event in three consecutive Olympics . Rebecca Soni and Phelps ( twice ) are the only swimmers to successfully defend an individual title from the 2008 Games . This win also marked Phelps 's fifth Olympic title in the individual medley , breaking the record of four shared by Hungarian Tamás Darnyi and Ukrainian Yana Klochkova .
He repeated the achievement of winning the same event at three Olympics the following evening , winning the Olympic gold medal in the 100 m butterfly , his last individual event . After two very close victories in the 100 m butterfly at the 2004 and 2008 Olympics ( by 0 @.@ 04 and 0 @.@ 01 sec , respectively ) , in this race Phelps beat Le Clos and Yevgeny Korotyshkin , who tied for silver , by 0 @.@ 23 sec .
Phelps 's final event was the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay in which he went on to win his 18th career gold medal and his 22nd overall . By winning 4 gold and 2 silver medals , Phelps concluded the 2012 Olympics as the most successful swimmer of the meet for the third Olympics in a row . After his last event , the international swimming federation FINA honored Phelps with an award commemorating his standing as the most decorated Olympian ever .
= = 2014 Coming back from retirement = =
In April 2014 , Phelps announced he would come out of retirement , and would enter an event later that month . In May 2014 , he won the 100 @-@ meter butterfly event at the Arena Grand Prix in Charlotte , North Carolina .
= = 2015 US Nationals = =
After having been dropped from the team for the 2015 World Aquatics Championships for his DUI , Phelps competed in the US National Championships ( long course ) in San Antonio instead as his target meet of the summer . He won gold medals in the 100 meter butterfly ( 50 @.@ 45 s ) , 200 meter butterfly ( 1 : 52 @.@ 94 ) , and the 200 meter individual medley ( 1 : 54 @.@ 75 ) . In each of these events he swam the fastest time in the world for 2015 .
In December 2015 at the Winter Nationals in Federal Way , Phelps won titles in the 200 m individual medley , and the 100 m and 200 m butterfly ( long course ) , bringing his career total to 62 national titles .
= = 2016 Summer Olympics = =
= = = Trials = = =
At the US trials for the 2016 Summer Olympics , Phelps won the 200 m butterfly ( 1 : 54 @.@ 84 ) , the 200 m individual medley ( 1 : 55 @.@ 91 ) , and the 100 m butterfly ( 51 @.@ 00 s ) events . This made him the first American male swimmer , and the second American swimmer overall after Dara Torres , to qualify for a fifth Olympics .
= = Testing for performance @-@ enhancing drugs = =
During the 2008 Olympics , Phelps was questioned by the press as to whether perhaps his feats were " too good to be true " , a reference to unsupported rumors that Phelps might be taking performance @-@ enhancing drugs . In response , Phelps noted that he had signed up for Project Believe , a project by the United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency in which U.S. Olympians can volunteer to be tested in excess of the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency guidelines . During the Games , Phelps passed all nine tests that were administered to him .
= = Bob Bowman = =
Phelps has trained under Bob Bowman since he was 11 years old . Bowman swam for Florida State University from 1983 to 1985 . Phelps has said Bowman reminded him of a drill sergeant because of his disciplined and regimented ways . However , Phelps has said , " Training with Bob is the smartest thing I 've ever done ... I 'm not going to swim for anyone else . " After the 2004 Summer Olympics , Bowman was hired as the head coach for the University of Michigan after Jon Urbanchek retired . Phelps joined Bowman at Michigan to train and attended classes , but did not pursue a degree . Phelps served as a volunteer assistant coach at Michigan . After the 2008 Summer Olympics , Bowman returned to Baltimore as CEO at the North Baltimore Aquatic Club . Phelps also returned to Baltimore with Bowman .
= = Personal life = =
Bob Bowman described Phelps as " a solitary man " with a " rigid focus " at the pool prior to a race , but afterward " a man incredibly invested in the success of the people he cares about " . " He 's unbelievably kind @-@ hearted " , recounting Phelps 's interaction with young children after practices . In February 2015 , Phelps announced he was engaged to model Nicole Johnson . They had met in 2009 and temporarily broke up in 2012 . Their son , Boomer Robert Phelps was born on May 5 , 2016 .
= = = Controversies = = =
In November 2004 , at the age of 19 , Phelps was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol in Salisbury , Maryland . He pleaded guilty to driving while impaired , and was sentenced to serve 18 months ' probation , fined $ 250 , ordered to speak to high school students about drinking and driving and to attend a Mothers Against Drunk Driving ( MADD ) meeting . Asked about the incident later by Matt Lauer on the Today Show , Phelps said that he had " let a lot of people in the country down . "
In February 2009 , publication of a photograph of Phelps using a water pipe , a device used for smoking , resulted in the loss of the Kellogg Company as a sponsor , as well as a three @-@ month suspension by USA Swimming . Phelps admitted that the photo , taken at a party at the University of South Carolina , was authentic . He publicly apologized , saying his behavior was " inappropriate " .
In September 2014 , he was arrested again , on driving under the influence of alcohol and speeding charges in Baltimore , Maryland . As a result , USA Swimming suspended him from all competitions for six months , and stated he would not be chosen to represent the United States at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships in August .
= = = Ian Thorpe = = =
Phelps idolized Australian swimmer Ian Thorpe as a teenager , modelling his public image after him . Thorpe initially said it was highly unlikely for Phelps to win eight gold medals at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Phelps used the remarks as motivation , taping them to his locker during the Games . Thorpe was in the stands for the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , where Phelps was swimming for his eighth Olympic title . When Phelps and his teammates captured the gold , Thorpe gave a congratulatory kiss to Phelps 's mother , then gave a handshake and a hug to congratulate Phelps . Thorpe afterwards said " I 'm really proud of him not just because he won eight golds . Rather , it 's how much he has grown up and matured into a great human being . Never in my life have I been so happy to have been proved wrong . "
= = = Philanthropy = = =
After the 2008 Olympics , Phelps used his $ 1 million Speedo bonus to set up the Michael Phelps Foundation . His foundation focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles .
In 2010 , the Michael Phelps Foundation , the Michael Phelps Swim School and KidsHealth.org developed and nationally piloted the " im " program for Boys & Girls Club members . The im program teaches children the importance of being active and healthy , with a focus on the sport of swimming . It also promotes the value of planning and goal @-@ setting. im is offered through the Boys & Girls Clubs of America and through Special Olympics International . The Foundation has since developed two other programs , Level Field Fund @-@ Swimming and Caps @-@ for @-@ a @-@ Cause .
The Foundation 's largest event is its annual fundraiser , the Michael Phelps Foundation Golf Classic . Phelps stated he hopes to work with his Foundation more after he retires from competition following the 2012 Summer Olympics in London .
= = Honors and awards = =
Phelps was a USA Olympic team member in 2000 , 2004 , 2008 , 2012 and 2016 , and holds the records for most Olympic gold medals ( 18 ) , most such medals in individual events ( 11 ) , and most such medals at a single games ( 8 , in Beijing 2008 ) . A street in his hometown of Baltimore was renamed The Michael Phelps Way in 2004 . On April 9 , 2009 , Phelps was invited to appear before the Maryland House of Delegates and the Maryland Senate , to be honored for his Olympic accomplishments .
Phelps has also received the following awards :
Swimming World Magazine World Swimmer of the Year Award : 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012
Swimming World Magazine American Swimmer of the Year Award : 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012
FINA swimmer of the year ( since 2010 ) : 2012
Golden Goggle Male Performance of the Year ( since 2004 ) : 2004 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009
Golden Goggle Relay Performance of the Year ( since 2004 ) : 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009
Golden Goggle Male Athlete of the Year ( since 2004 ) : 2004 , 2007 , 2008 , 2012 , 2014 , 2015
USOC SportsMan of the Year Award : 2004 , 2008 , 2011 – 12
James E. Sullivan Award : 2003
Gazzetta dello Sport Sportsman of the Year : 2003 , 2004
Laureus World Sports Sportsman of the Year Award ( nominated ) : 2004 , 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2013
Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year : 2008
Associated Press Athlete of the Year : 2008 , 2012
Marca Leyenda ( 2008 )
= = Career best times = =
= = = Long course ( 50 @-@ meter pool ) = = =
r = relay lead @-@ off
= = = Short course meters ( 25 @-@ meter pool ) = = =
= = World records = =
With 39 world records ( 29 individual , 10 relay ) , Phelps set more records than any other swimmer , surpassing Mark Spitz 's previous record of 33 world records ( 26 individual , 7 relay ) .
All but two of the records were set in a long @-@ course ( 50 @-@ meter ) pool ; records that currently stand are indicated in bold . Currently , he holds seven world records , not including his records for most Olympic medals and most Olympic gold medals ever won by one person .
a with Aaron Peirsol , Brendan Hansen , and Jason Lezak
b with Neil Walker , Cullen Jones , and Jason Lezak
c with Ryan Lochte , Klete Keller , and Peter Vanderkaay
d with Garrett Weber @-@ Gale , Cullen Jones , and Jason Lezak
e with Ryan Lochte , Ricky Berens , and Peter Vanderkaay
f with Ryan Lochte , Ricky Berens , and David Walters
g with Aaron Peirsol , Eric Shanteau and David Walters
h short course record with Nick Thoman , Mark Gangloff and Nathan Adrian
i short course record with Nathan Adrian , Matt Grevers and Garrett Weber @-@ Gale
|
= Psychedelic rock =
Psychedelic rock is a style of rock music that is inspired or influenced by psychedelic culture and attempts to replicate and enhance the mind @-@ altering experiences of psychedelic drugs , most notably LSD . It often uses new recording techniques and effects and sometimes draws on sources such as the ragas and drones of Indian music .
It was pioneered by musicians including the Beatles , the Beach Boys , and the Byrds , emerging as a genre during the mid @-@ 1960s among folk rock and blues rock bands in the United Kingdom and United States , such as the 13th Floor Elevators , Grateful Dead , Jefferson Airplane , the Jimi Hendrix Experience , Cream , The Doors and Pink Floyd . It reached a peak in between 1967 and 1969 with the Summer of Love and Woodstock Rock Festival , respectively , becoming an international musical movement and associated with a widespread counterculture , before beginning a decline as changing attitudes , the loss of some key individuals and a back @-@ to @-@ basics movement , led surviving performers to move into new musical areas .
The terms " psychedelic rock " and " acid rock " are often deployed interchangeably , but " acid rock " sometimes refers to the more extreme ends of the genre . Psychedelic rock influenced the creation of psychedelic soul and bridged the transition from early blues- and folk music @-@ based rock to progressive rock , glam rock , hard rock and as a result influenced the development of subgenres such as heavy metal . Since the late 1970s it has been revived in various forms of neo @-@ psychedelia .
= = Characteristics = =
As a musical style , psychedelic rock attempted to replicate the effects of and enhance the mind @-@ altering experiences of hallucinogenic drugs , incorporating new electronic sound effects and recording effects , extended solos , and improvisation , and it was particularly influenced by Eastern mysticism , reflected in use of exotic instrumentation , particularly from Indian music or the incorporation of elements of Eastern music . Major features include :
electric guitars , often used with feedback , wah wah and fuzzbox effects units ;
elaborate studio effects , such as backwards tapes , panning , phasing , long delay loops , and extreme reverb ;
non @-@ Western instruments , specifically those originally used in Indian classical music such as the sitar and tabla ;
a strong keyboard presence , especially electric organs , harpsichords , or the Mellotron ( an early tape @-@ driven ' sampler ' ) ;
extended instrumental solos , especially guitar solos , or jams ;
complex song structures , key and time signature changes , modal melodies and drones ;
electronic instruments such as synthesizers and the theremin ;
lyrics that made direct or indirect reference to hallucinogenic drugs , as in Jefferson Airplane 's " White Rabbit " or Jimi Hendrix 's " Purple Haze " ;
surreal , whimsical , esoterically or literary @-@ inspired , lyrics .
= = Etymology = =
The term " psychedelic " was first coined in 1956 by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond as an alternative descriptor for hallucinogenic drugs in the context of psychedelic psychotherapy . As the countercultural scene developed in San Francisco , the terms acid rock and psychedelic rock were used in 1966 to describe the new drug @-@ influenced music and were being widely used by 1967 . The terms psychedelic rock and acid rock are often used interchangeably , but some commentators have distinguished the former , which generally evoked the effects of psychedelic drugs , and acid rock , which can be seen as a more extreme variation that was heavier , louder , relied on long jams , focused more directly on LSD , and made greater use of distortion .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
From the second half of the 1950s , Beat Generation writers like William Burroughs , Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg wrote about and took drugs , including cannabis and Benzedrine , raising awareness and helping to popularise their use . In the same period Lysergic acid diethylamide , better known as LSD , or " acid " ( at the time a legal drug ) , began to be used in the US and UK as an experimental treatment , initially promoted as a potential cure for mental illness .
In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by proponents of the new " consciousness expansion " , such as Timothy Leary , Alan Watts , Aldous Huxley and Arthur Koestler , their writings profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth . The sensory effects of LSD may include hallucinations of colored patterns , crawling geometric patterns , after image @-@ like trails of moving objects ( " tracers " ) , synthaesia and auditory effects such as an echo @-@ like distortion of sounds and a general intensification of the experience of music .
By the mid @-@ 1960s , the psychedelic life @-@ style had already developed in California , and an entire subculture developed . This was particularly true in San Francisco , due in part to the first major underground LSD factory , established there by Owsley Stanley . There was also an emerging music scene of folk clubs , coffee houses and independent radio stations catering to a population of students at nearby Berkeley , and to free thinkers that had gravitated to the city . From 1964 , the Merry Pranksters , a loose group that developed around novelist Ken Kesey , sponsored the Acid Tests , a series of events based around the taking of LSD ( supplied by Stanley ) , accompanied by light shows , film projection and discordant , improvised music known as the psychedelic symphony . The Pranksters helped popularize LSD use through their road trips across America in a psychedelically @-@ decorated school bus , which involved distributing the drug and meeting with major figures of the beat movement , and through publications about their activities such as Tom Wolfe 's The Electric Kool @-@ Aid Acid Test ( 1968 ) .
= = = = Precursors = = = =
Music critic Richie Unterberger states : " Trying to pin down the first psychedelic record is nearly as elusive as trying to name the first rock & roll record . Far @-@ fetched claims have been advanced for songs running from the Tornados ' futuristic 1962 number one instrumental ' Telstar ' to the Dave Clark Five 's massively reverb @-@ laden ' Any Way You Want It ' . " There had long been a culture of drug use among jazz and blues musicians , and , in the early 1960s , use of drugs ( including cannabis , peyote , mescaline and LSD ) had begun to grow among folk and rock musicians , who also began to include drug references in their songs . The first mention of LSD on a rock record was the Gamblers ' 1960 surf instrumental " LSD 25 " . New York folk musician Peter Stampfel claimed to be the first to use the word " psychedelic " in a song lyric ( The Holy Modal Rounders ' version of " Hesitation Blues " , 1963 ) .
In terms of bridging the relationship between music and hallucinogens , the Beatles and the Beach Boys were the most pivotal . In 1965 , the Beach Boys ' leader Brian Wilson started experimenting with song composition while under the influence of psychedelic drugs , and after being introduced to cannabis by Bob Dylan , members of the Beatles also began using LSD . The phenomenal success of these two bands allowed them the means to experiment with new technology over entire albums . The Beatles introduced guitar feedback with " I Feel Fine " ( 1964 ) and incorporated drug @-@ inspired drone on " Ticket to Ride " ( 1965 ) . The Kinks and the Yardbirds also incorporated droning guitars to mimic the qualities of the sitar , but the Beatles ' " Norwegian Wood " ( 1965 ) marked the first released recording on which a member of a Western rock group played an Indian instrument . The song is generally credited for sparking a musical craze for the sound of the sitar in the mid @-@ 1960s – a trend which would later be associated with the growth of the essence of psychedelic rock . The Beatles ' May 1966 B @-@ side " Rain " was the first pop recording to include reversed sounds . Drug references began to appear in the Beatles ' songs with " Day Tripper " ( 1965 ) and the Beach Boys ' " Sloop John B " ( March 1966 ) .
In Unterberger 's opinion , the Byrds , emerging from the Californian folk scene , were more responsible than the Beatles for " sounding the psychedelic siren " . Drug use and attempts at psychedelic music moved out of acoustic folk @-@ based music towards rock soon after the Byrds " plugged in " to produce a chart topping version of Dylan 's " Mr. Tambourine Man " in the summer of 1965 , which became a folk rock standard . In the song 's lyric , the narrator requests : " Take me on a trip upon your magic swirling ship " . A number of Californian @-@ based folk acts followed the Byrds into folk @-@ rock , bringing their psychedelic influences with them , to produce the " San Francisco Sound " .
= = = = Local scenes = = = =
= = = = = United States = = = = =
The San Francisco music scene continued to develop as The Fillmore , the Avalon Ballroom , and The Matrix began booking local rock bands on a nightly basis . The first Trips Festival , sponsored by the Merry Pranksters and held at the Longshoremen 's Hall in January 1966 , saw The Grateful Dead , and Big Brother and the Holding Company play to an audience of 10 @,@ 000 , giving many their first encounter with both acid rock , with its long instrumentals and unstructured jams , and LSD .
A major figure in the expansion of the genre was promoter Bill Graham , whose first rock concert in 1965 was a benefit that included Allen Ginsberg and the then unknown Jefferson Airplane on the bill . He produced shows attracting most of the major psychedelic rock bands and operated The Fillmore . When this proved too small he took over Winterland and then the Fillmore West ( in San Francisco ) and the Fillmore East ( in New York City ) , where the major rock artists , from both the US and the UK , came to play .
Although San Francisco was the centre of American psychedelic music scene , many other American cities contributed significantly to the new genre . Los Angeles boasted dozens of important psychedelic bands . New York City produced their share of psychedelic bands , as did the Detroit area , and Chicago ( H. P. Lovecraft ) . Texas ( particularly Austin ) is often cited for its contributions to psychedelic music .
= = = = = United Kingdom = = = = =
Before 1967 , British media outlets for psychedelic culture were limited to stations like Radio Luxembourg and pirate radio like Radio London , particularly the programmes hosted by DJ John Peel . The growth of underground culture was facilitated by the emergence of alternative weekly publications like IT ( International Times ) and OZ magazine which featured psychedelic and progressive music together with the counterculture lifestyle , which involved long hair , and the wearing of wild shirts from shops like Mr Fish , Granny Takes a Trip and old military uniforms from Carnaby Street ( Soho ) and Kings Road ( Chelsea ) boutiques .
Soon psychedelic rock clubs like the UFO Club in Tottenham Court Road , Middle Earth Club in Covent Garden , The Roundhouse in Chalk Farm , the Country Club ( Swiss Cottage ) and the Art Lab ( also in Covent Garden ) were drawing capacity audiences with psychedelic rock and ground @-@ breaking liquid light shows . A major figure in the development of British psychedelia was the American promoter and record producer Joe Boyd , who moved to London in 1966 . He co @-@ founded venues including the UFO Club , produced Pink Floyd 's first single , " Arnold Layne " ( 1967 ) , and went on to manage folk and folk rock acts including Nick Drake , the Incredible String Band and Fairport Convention .
British psychedelic rock , like its American counterpart , had roots in the folk scene . Blues , drugs , jazz and eastern influences had featured since 1964 in the work of Davy Graham and Bert Jansch . However , the largest strand was a series of bands that emerged from 1966 from the British blues scene , but influenced by folk , jazz and psychedelia , including Pink Floyd , Traffic , Soft Machine , Cream , and the Jimi Hendrix Experience ( led by an American , but initially produced and managed in Britain by Chas Chandler of the Animals ) .
= = = 1966 : Beginnings = = =
Author Jim DeRogatis says the birth date of psychedelic ( or acid ) rock is " best listed at 1966 " . In March 1966 , the Byrds moved rapidly away from folk rock with their single " Eight Miles High " , which made use of free jazz and Indian ragas , and the lyrics of which were widely taken to refer to drug use . The result of this directness was limited airplay , and there was a similar reaction when Dylan , who had also electrified to produce his own brand of folk rock , released " Rainy Day Women ♯ 12 & 35 " ( April 1966 ) , with its repeating chorus of " Everybody must get stoned ! " .
The Beach Boys ' album Pet Sounds ( May 1966 ) is often considered one of the earliest in the canon of psychedelic rock . It contained many elements that would be incorporated into psychedelia , with its artful experiments , psychedelic lyrics based on emotional longings and self @-@ doubts , elaborate sound effects and new sounds on both conventional and unconventional instruments . Scholar Philip Auslander explains that even though psychedelic music is not normally associated with the Beach Boys , the " odd directions " and experiments in Pet Sounds " put it all on the map . ... basically that sort of opened the door — not for groups to be formed or to start to make music , but certainly to become as visible as say Jefferson Airplane or somebody like that . " According to The Kindland 's Mike McPadden , the album " ignited a psychedelic pop revolution " , inspiring mainstream pop acts to take part in the psychedelic culture .
Like Pet Sounds , the Beatles ' album Revolver ( August 1966 ) explored musical soundscapes that could not be replicated on stage , even with the help of an orchestra , and it helped precipitate the psychedelic pop style . That same month , the Texas band 13th Floor Elevators debuted with The Psychedelic Sounds of the 13th Floor Elevators . They were the first group to advertise themselves as psychedelic rock , having done so since the end of 1965 . Psychedelic Sounds was the first album to use " psychedelic " as part of its title . Wondering Sound contributor Rachael Maddux writes that even though Pet Sounds and Psychedelic Sounds are considered early psychedelic rock albums , there are " obvious differences " in their music : " Even the album covers are a study in contrasts . "
The first acid ( or psychedelic ) rock single to break into the top 10 in popular music charts was Count Five 's " Psychotic Reaction " ( June 1966 ) . As in most early acid rock music , the song 's most characteristic element was its replacement of the melodic electric guitar with howling feedback and distortion . By the end of the year , the Beatles and the Beach Boys were the only acts to have high @-@ charting psychedelic rock songs . The Beach Boys ' October 1966 single " Good Vibrations " was one of the first pop songs to incorporate psychedelic lyrics and sounds . As psychedelia gained prominence , Beach Boys @-@ style harmonies would be ingrained into the newer psychedelic pop .
= = = 1967 – 69 : Peak years = = =
Psychedelic rock reached its apogee in the last years of the decade . Key recordings included Jefferson Airplane 's Surrealistic Pillow ( February 1967 ) , the first album to come out of San Francisco during this era , which sold well enough to bring the city 's music scene to the attention of the record industry : from it they took two of the earliest psychedelic hit singles : " White Rabbit " and " Somebody to Love " . The Doors ' first hit single " Light My Fire " ( May 1967 ) , running for over seven minutes , became one of the defining records of the genre , although their follow up album Strange Days ( September 1967 ) only enjoyed moderate success .
February 1967 saw the Beatles release the double A @-@ side " Strawberry Fields Forever " and " Penny Lane " , opening a strain of British " pastoral " or " nostalgic " psychedelia , followed by the release of what is often seen as their definitive psychedelic statement in Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( June 1967 ) , including the controversial track " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " . The Small Faces managed to get drug references past the censors with their first single " Here Come the Nice " ( June 1967 ) . Existing " British Invasion " acts now joined the psychedelic revolution , including Eric Burdon ( previously of The Animals ) and The Who , whose The Who Sell Out ( December 1967 ) included psychedelic influenced tracks " I Can See for Miles " and " Armenia City in the Sky " . The Incredible String Band 's The 5000 Spirits or the Layers of the Onion ( July 1967 ) developed their folk music into full blown psychedelia , which would be a major influence on psychedelic rock .
In America the Summer of Love of 1967 saw a huge number of young people from across America and the world travel to the Haight @-@ Ashbury district of San Francisco , boosting the population from 15 @,@ 000 to around 100 @,@ 000 . It was prefaced by the Human Be @-@ In event in March and reached its peak at the Monterey Pop Festival in June , the latter helping to make major American stars of Janis Joplin , lead singer of Big Brother and the Holding Company , Jimi Hendrix , and the Who . Santana , led by guitarist Carlos Santana , used Latin rhythms as the basis for their psychedelic music .
These trends climaxed in the 1969 Woodstock festival , which saw performances by most of the major psychedelic acts , including Jimi Hendrix , Jefferson Airplane , and the Grateful Dead . Psychedelic rock was glamorized on screen in Easy Rider ( 1969 ) , which used songs including Steppenwolf 's " Born to be Wild " as part of its soundtrack .
= = = International expansion = = =
The US and UK were the major centres of psychedelic music , but in the late 1960s scenes began to develop across the world , including continental Europe , Australasia , Asia and south and Central America .
= = = = Europe = = = =
In the later 1960s psychedelic scenes developed in a large number of countries in continental Europe , including the Netherlands with bands like The Outsiders , Denmark where it was pioneered by Steppeulvene , and Germany , where musicians began to fuse music of psychedelia and the electronic avant @-@ garde . 1968 saw the first major German rock festival in Essen , and the foundation of the Zodiak Free Arts Lab in Berlin by Hans @-@ Joachim Roedelius , and Conrad Schnitzler , which helped bands like Tangerine Dream and Amon Düül achieve cult status .
= = = = Australia and New Zealand = = = =
Although only a few singles gained recognition outside the region , the thriving Australian and New Zealand rock scenes that formed in wake of Beatlemania produced a wealth of inventive and original psychedelic pop and rock music . Much of this was strongly influenced by British psychedelia , since many bands included first @-@ generation British ( and European ) immigrants , and bands such as The Twilights , whose members were British immigrants , were able to keep up to date on current musical developments , thanks to regular " care packages " of the latest singles and albums , tapes and cassettes of radio broadcasts , and even the latest Mod fashions , sent to them by family and friends back in the UK . After gaining local success , a number of these groups returned to the UK further their musical careers . The most internationally successful Australian pop @-@ rock band of this period were The Easybeats , formed in Sydney in 1964 by a group of English , Scottish and Dutch immigrants , who scored a string of local hits in Australia and became hugely popular there before travelling to the UK . They recorded their international hit " Friday on My Mind " ( 1966 ) in London and remained there for their forays into psychedelic @-@ tinged pop until they disbanded in 1970 . A similar path was pursued by the Bee Gees , formed in Brisbane , but whose first album Bee Gees ' 1st ( 1967 ) , was recorded in London , and gave them three major hit singles and contained folk , rock and psychedelic elements , heavily influenced by the Beatles .
Two bands that formed in Adelaide in the mid @-@ 1960s also figured prominently in Australian psychedelic pop / rock . The Masters Apprentices started out as a gritty R & B band in the style of the early Rolling Stones and the Pretty Things , but they rapidly absorbed the changes in music spearheaded by The Beatles , and during 1967 they released several accomplished psychedelic singles - " Wars or Hands of Time " ( the B @-@ side of their 1966 debut single " Undecided " ) is generally regarded as the first Australian pop single to address the Vietnam War ; their second single " Buried and Dead " ( 1967 ) , showed the unmistakable influence of the nascent " Raga rock " genre , and their third single , the psych @-@ pop classic " Living In A Child 's Dream " , became a major national hit and was voted " Single of the Year " by the readers of the Australian pop magazine Go @-@ Set . The group also performed at one of the first psychedelic " happenings " in Australia , the " Living In A Child 's Dream Ball " , staged on 14 October 1967 at the University of New South Wales in Sydney , which featured a full psychedelic light @-@ show , with liquid slide projections , smoke machines and mirror balls , with the band wheeled to the stage inside a specially @-@ constructed giant die . All the groups ' early singles tracks were penned by rhythm guitarist Mick Bower , who was sadly forced to quit the music scene for health reasons soon after " Living In A Child 's Dream " was released , but after a period of upheaval , the band was able to continue with new members , scoring another Australian psych @-@ pop hit in late 1967 with the classic Brian Cadd song " Elevator Driver " . The Twilights , also formed in Adelaide and likewise became nationwide pop stars in the mid @-@ 1960s before making the trip to London . Here they recorded a series of minor hits , and absorbing the psychedelic scene , before returning home in mid @-@ 1967 , where they performed the entire Sgt Pepper 's album live on stage some weeks before its official release in Australia . This was followed by the release of their psychedelic 1968 concept album Once upon a Twilight .
Although The Easybeats were the only Australian band working in the psychedelic style to score a major international hit , many other Australian bands scored local or national hits with singles that were strongly influenced by psychedelic trends . This included the cult Brisbane @-@ based group The Wild Cherries , led by guitarist Lobby Loyde , whose 1967 single " Krome Plated Yabby " / That 's Life " combined influences from R & B , soul and psychedelia , and the single 's driving B @-@ side , " That 's Life " is believed to be the first Australian pop single to employ phasing in its production . The most successful New Zealand band of the period , The La De Das , produced the psychedelic pop concept album The Happy Prince ( 1968 ) , based on the Oscar Wilde children 's classic , but failed to break through in Britain and the wider world .
Although British influences were predominant , a number of progressive Sydney @-@ based groups such as Tamam Shud and Tully produced music that combined influences from Eastern mystical philosophy , avant @-@ garde jazz and American psychedelic groups like The Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane . Both bands also regularly collaborated with the experimental Sydney film and light @-@ show collective Ubu , and Tully were also notable for being the first Australian group to buy and use a Moog synthesiser , as well as performing as the house band in the original Australian stage production of Hair , which premiered in Sydney in 1969 . Australian psychedelic music in the late 1960s peaked with the two singles by Melbourne singer Russell Morris . His 1969 solo debut " The Real Thing " ( penned by mid @-@ Sixties pop star Johnny Young ) broke new ground in Australian popular music , both for its lavish production by Ian Meldrum and John L. Sayers - it was reputedly the most expensive Australian single ever produced up to that time - and for its running time of almost seven minutes , unprecedented for an Australian pop single . It became a national number one hit in Australia , where it charted for 23 weeks , and also went to number one on local charts in New York , Houston and Chicago . It was followed by " Part Three Into Paper Walls " ( co @-@ written by Young and Morris ) , which was deliberately crafted as a virtual " sequel " to " The Real Thing " , featured similarly dazzling production , was just over seven minutes long , and gave Morris his second consecutive number one hit in Australia .
= = = = Asia = = = =
A thriving psychedelic music scene in Cambodia , influenced by psychedelic rock and soul broadcast by US forces radio in Vietnam , was pioneered by artists such as Sinn Sisamouth and Ros Sereysothea . In South Korea , Shin Jung @-@ Hyeon , often considered the godfather of Korean rock , played psychedelic @-@ influenced music for the American soldiers stationed in the country . Following Shin Jung @-@ Hyeon , the band San Ul Lim ( Mountain Echo ) often combined psychedelic rock with a more folk sound . In Turkey , Anatolian rock artist Erkin Koray blended classic Turkish music and Middle Eastern themes into his psychedelic @-@ driven rock , helping to found the Turkish rock scene with artists such as Cem Karaca , Mogollar and Baris Manco .
= = = = Latin America = = = =
Latin America proved a particularly fertile ground for psychedelic rock . The Brazilian psychedelic rock group Os Mutantes formed in 1966 , although little known outside Brazil at the time ( due to the fact that they recorded in Portuguese ) , they have since accrued a substantial international cult following . Os Mutantes also played a central role in the short @-@ lived but revolutionary Brazilian aesthetic movement Tropicália , also known as ' Tropicalismo ' ( Tropicalism ) , an anti @-@ authoritarian artistic reaction to the repressive military junta that seized power in Brazil in 1964 . Encompassing visual art , theatre , poetry and music , Tropicália combined the popular and the avant @-@ garde , and fused traditional Brazilian culture with foreign influences , including contemporary developments in British and American psychedelic music , and above all the music of The Beatles . As well as recording their own material , Os Mutantes collaborated with other key figures in the burgeoning Tropicalist movement , including singer @-@ songwriter Gilberto Gil , whom they backed on Gil 's second LP .
The musical manifesto of the Tropicalist movement was the landmark 1968 collaborative LP Tropicália : ou Panis et Circencis ( " Tropicalia : or Bread and Circuses " ) which brought together the talents of Os Mutantes , Gilberto Gil , Caetano Veloso , Tom Zé and Gal Costa , with arrangements by avant @-@ garde composer @-@ arranger Rogerio Duprat ( who had studied with Pierre Boulez ) and lyrical contributions from poet Torquato Neto . The album 's group cover photograph depicted the collective holding a variety of objects and images , in a deliberate reference to the cover of The Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . The collective also performed a number of concert " happenings " which were intended to both involve and provoke audiences , and these reportedly had a similar effect on Brazilian audiences to that experienced by folk purists who witnessed Bob Dylan 's early " electric " concerts - the performers sported long hair , wore outlandish psychedelic costumes , used electric guitars and amplification , and played at full volume . Brazil 's military junta was becoming increasingly suspicious of the anarchic anti @-@ establishment attitudes of the Tropicalistas , who also found themselves at odds with the nationalistic student left @-@ wing , who favoured traditional Brazilian musical forms , and rejected what they saw as the corrupting influence of Western pop music .
In September 1968 Caetano Veloso gave two tumultuous performances at the third annual International Popular Song Festival in Rio , where the audience included a large contingent of left @-@ wing students who were vehemently opposed to the Tropicalistas . When Veloso ( backed by Os Mutantes ) performed in the first round of the Festival 's song competition on 12 September , he was initially greeted with enthusiastic applause , but the situation soon turned ugly . Dressed in a shiny green plastic suit , festooned with wires and necklaces strung with teeth , Veloso provoked the students with his sensual movements and startling new psychedelic music . He was bombarded by insults , jeers and boos from the students , who became even more incensed when American pop singer John Dandurand made a surprise appearance during the song . The ideological conflict climaxed three days later when Veloso returned for the second round of the competition on 15 September , at which he performed a new song entitled " Prohibido a Prohibir " ( " It is Forbidden to Forbid " ) , which was recorded live and later released as single .
The students began hissing and booing as soon as Veloso 's name was announced , and when he began his performance , his overtly sexual stage moves and the experimental music of Os Mutantes provoked an outpouring of anger - the audience began booing so loudly stood that Veloso could barely be heard , and a large number then stood and turned their backs on the performers , prompting Os Mutantes to turn their backs on the audience . As the song continued , the students pelted the stage with fruit , vegetables , eggs , paper balls and anything else that came hand . Veloso stopped playing and launched into a furious monologue , in which he excoriated the students for their conservatism . After being joined by Gilberto Gil , who came on stage to show his support , Veloso finished his diatribe by telling the students " ... if you are the same in politics as you are in aesthetics , we ’ re done for ! " and declaring he was withdrawing from the competition . He then deliberately finished the song out of tune , angrily shouted " Enough ! " and walked off arm @-@ in @-@ arm with Gil and Os Mutantes .
Tropicália had a major effect on the Brazilian music scene during its brief heyday ( 1967 – 68 ) , and the main performers made regular appearances on Brazilian stage , television and radio , but the movement was abruptly shut down in early 1969 , following a provocative December 1968 TV performance which parodied the Brazilian national anthem . Gil and Veloso were both arrested in February 1969 on the orders of the military junta - they were held in prison for three months without charge or trial , and after a further four months under house arrest , they were released on condition that they leave the country , and they spent the next few years in exile in the UK . Others in the Tropicalist movement were treated even more harshly - several were arrested and tortured , or forced to undergo psychiatric ' treatment ' .
In the late 1960s , a wave of Mexican rock , heavily influenced by psychedelia and funk emerged , especially in northern border Mexican states , in particular , Tijuana , Baja California . Among the most recognized bands from this " Chicano Wave " ( Onda Chicana in Spanish ) were Three Souls in my Mind , Love Army , El Ritual and Los Dug Dug 's . In Chile from 1967 to 1973 , between the ending of the government of President Frei Montalva and the government of President Allende , a cultural movement was born from a few Chilean bands that emerged playing a unique fusion of folkloric music with heavy psychedelic influences . The 1967 release of Los Mac 's album Kaleidoscope Men ( 1967 ) inspired bands such as Los Jaivas and Los Blops , the latter going on to collaborate with the iconic Chilean singer @-@ songwriter Victor Jara on his 1971 album El derecho de vivir en paz . Meanwhile , in the Argentinian capital Buenos Aires , a burgeoning psychedelic scene gave birth to three of the most important bands in Argentine rock : Los Gatos , Manal and Almendra .
= = = Decline = = =
By the end of the 1960s , psychedelic rock was in retreat . LSD had been made illegal in the US and UK in 1966 . In 1969 , the murders of Sharon Tate and Leno and Rosemary LaBianca by Charles Manson and his " family " of followers , claiming to have been inspired by Beatles ' songs such as " Helter Skelter " , has been seen as contributing to an anti @-@ hippie backlash . At the end of the same year , the Altamont Free Concert in California , headlined by the Rolling Stones , became notorious for the fatal stabbing of black teenager Meredith Hunter by Hells Angel security guards . Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys ( whose much anticipated Smile project would not emerge until 2004 ) , Brian Jones of the Rolling Stones , Peter Green of Fleetwood Mac and Syd Barrett of Pink Floyd were early " acid casualties " , helping to shift the focus of the respective bands of which they had been leading figures . Some groups , such as the Jimi Hendrix Experience and Cream , broke up . Jimi Hendrix died in London in September 1970 , shortly after recording Band of Gypsys ( 1970 ) , Janis Joplin died of a heroin overdose in October 1970 and they were closely followed by Jim Morrison of the Doors , who died in Paris in July 1971 . Many surviving acts moved away from psychedelia into either more back @-@ to @-@ basics " roots rock " , traditional @-@ based , pastoral or whimsical folk , the wider experimentation of progressive rock , or riff @-@ based heavy rock .
In 1966 , even while psychedelic rock was becoming dominant , Bob Dylan spearheaded the back @-@ to @-@ basics roots revival when he went to Nashville to record the album Blonde on Blonde . This , and the subsequent more clearly country @-@ influenced albums , John Wesley Harding ( 1967 ) and Nashville Skyline ( 1969 ) , have been seen as creating the genre of country folk . Dylan 's lead was also followed by The Byrds , joined by Gram Parsons to record Sweetheart of the Rodeo ( 1968 ) , helping to define the genre of country rock , which became a particularly popular style in the California music scene of the late 1960s , and was adopted by former folk rock artists including Hearts and Flowers , Poco and New Riders of the Purple Sage . Other acts that followed the back to basics trend in different ways were the Canadian group The Band and the Californian @-@ based Creedence Clearwater Revival . The Grateful Dead also had major successes with the more reflective and stripped back Workingman 's Dead and American Beauty in 1970 . The super @-@ group Crosby , Stills and Nash , formed in 1968 from members of The Byrds , Buffalo Springfield , and The Hollies , were joined by Neil Young for Deja Vu in 1970 , which moved away from many of what had become the " clichés " of psychedelic rock and placed an emphasis on political commentary and vocal harmonies .
After the death of their manager Brian Epstein and the unpopular surreal television film , Magical Mystery Tour , the Beatles returned to a raw style with The Beatles ( 1968 ) , Abbey Road ( 1969 ) and Let It Be ( 1970 ) , before their eventual break up . The back to basics trend was also evident in The Rolling Stones ' albums starting from Beggar 's Banquet ( 1968 ) to Exile on Main St. ( 1972 ) . Fairport Convention released Liege and Lief in 1969 , turning away from American @-@ influenced folk rock toward a sound based on traditional British music and founding the subgenre of electric folk , to be followed by bands like Steeleye Span and Fotheringay . The psychedelic @-@ influenced and whimsical strand of British folk continued into the 1970s with acts including Comus , Mellow Candle , Nick Drake , The Incredible String Band , Forest and Trees and with Syd Barrett 's two solo albums .
= = Influence = =
= = = Other genres = = =
As psychedelia emerged as a mainstream and commercial force , particularly through the Beatles ' Revolver , it began to influence pop music , which incorporated hippie fashions , as well as the sounds of sitars , fuzz guitars , and tape effects . Scottish folk singer Donovan 's transformation to ' electric ' music gave him a series of pop hits , beginning with " Sunshine Superman " , which reached number one in both Britain and the US , to be followed by " Mellow Yellow " ( 1966 ) and " Atlantis " ( 1968 ) . American pop @-@ oriented bands that followed in this vein included the Electric Prunes , the Blues Magoos and the Strawberry Alarm Clock . International acts such as the Bee Gees and the Easybeats were also prominent in the development of psychedelic pop . Psychedelic sounds were also incorporated into the output of early bubblegum pop acts like The Monkees and The Lemon Pipers .
Following the lead of Hendrix in rock , psychedelia began to influence African American musicians , particularly the stars of the Motown label . This psychedelic soul was influenced by the civil rights movement , giving it a darker and more political edge than much acid rock . Building on the funk sound of James Brown , it was pioneered from about 1968 by Sly and the Family Stone and The Temptations . Acts that followed them into this territory included the Supremes , The Chambers Brothers , The 5th Dimension , Edwin Starr and the Undisputed Truth . George Clinton 's interdependent Funkadelic and Parliament ensembles and their various spin @-@ offs took the genre to its most extreme lengths making funk almost a religion in the 1970s , producing over forty singles , including three in the US top ten , and three platinum albums . While psychedelic rock began to waver at the end of the 1960s , psychedelic soul continued into the 1970s , peaking in popularity in the early years of the decade , and only disappearing in the late 1970s as tastes began to change . Acts like Earth , Wind and Fire , Kool and the Gang and Ohio Players , who began as psychedelic soul artists , incorporated its sounds into funk music and eventually the disco which partly replaced it .
= = = Rock music = = =
Many of the British musicians and bands that had embraced psychedelia went on to create progressive rock in the 1970s , including Pink Floyd , Soft Machine and members of Yes . King Crimson 's album In the Court of the Crimson King ( 1969 ) has been seen as an important link between psychedelia and progressive rock . While bands such as Hawkwind maintained an explicitly psychedelic course into the 1970s , most dropped the psychedelic elements in favour of wider experimentation . The incorporation of jazz into the music of bands like Soft Machine and Can also contributed to the development of the jazz rock of bands like Colosseum . As they moved away from their psychedelic roots and placed increasing emphasis on electronic experimentation , German bands like Kraftwerk , Tangerine Dream , Can and Faust developed a distinctive brand of electronic rock , known as kosmische musik , or in the British press as " Kraut rock " . The adoption of electronic synthesisers , pioneered by Popol Vuh from 1970 , together with the work of figures like Brian Eno ( for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music ) , would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock . In Japan , Osamu Kitajima 's 1974 psychedelic rock album Benzaiten utilized electronic equipment such as a synthesizer and drum machine , and one of the record 's contributors was Haruomi Hosono , who later started the electronic music band Yellow Magic Orchestra ( as " Yellow Magic Band " ) in 1977 .
Psychedelic rock , with its distorted guitar sound , extended solos and adventurous compositions , has been seen as an important bridge between blues @-@ oriented rock and later heavy metal . American bands whose loud , repetitive psychedelic rock emerged as early heavy metal included the Amboy Dukes and Steppenwolf . From England , two former guitarists with the Yardbirds , Jeff Beck and Jimmy Page , moved on to form key acts in the genre , The Jeff Beck Group and Led Zeppelin respectively . Other major pioneers of the genre had begun as blues @-@ based psychedelic bands , including Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Judas Priest and UFO . Psychedelic music also contributed to the origins of glam rock , with Marc Bolan changing his psychedelic folk duo into rock band T. Rex and becoming the first glam rock star from 1970 . From 1971 David Bowie moved on from his early psychedelic work to develop his Ziggy Stardust persona , incorporating elements of professional make up , mime and performance into his act .
= = Neo @-@ psychedelia = =
Neo @-@ psychedelia ( or acid punk ) is a diverse subgenre of alternative / indie rock that originated in the 1970s as an outgrowth of the British post @-@ punk scene . Its practitioners drew from the unusual sounds of 1960s psychedelic music , either updating or copying the approaches from that era . Neo @-@ psychedelia may include forays into psychedelic pop , jangly guitar rock , heavily distorted free @-@ form jams , or recording experiments .
|
= King Charles 's Castle =
King Charles 's Castle is a ruined artillery fort overlooking New Grimsby harbour on the island of Tresco in the Isles of Scilly . Built between 1548 and 1551 to protect the islands from French attack , it would have held a battery of guns and an accompanying garrison , designed to prevent enemy vessels from entering the harbour . The castle is polygonal in design , constructed from granite stone , with the gun battery at the front , and a dining room , kitchen and living accommodation at the rear . An additional defensive earthwork was constructed around it during the 17th century . The design of the castle is unusual for the period , and is only seen elsewhere in blockhouses along the River Thames .
The castle 's design was unsatisfactory , as its guns could not be angled so to fire down into the harbour , and its defences were considered vulnerable to attack . To mitigate this , an additional blockhouse was probably constructed below , closer to the water , but eventually a new fortification , the Star Castle , was built instead on the neighbouring island of St Mary 's , which became the main fort in the Scilly Isles . In the aftermath of the English Civil War , the Scilly Isles were held by the Royalist sympathisers of King Charles I , who gave the castle its current name . The islands were then attacked by a Parliamentary force led by Sir Robert Blake in 1651 , who landed on Tresco but bypassed the fort as he took the island . Its Royalist defenders blew up parts of the castle as they left , and some of its stone appears to have been used to build the newer Cromwell 's Castle by the harbour .
Although King Charles 's Castle was being used to house soldiers in 1660 , by the 18th century it was described as ruinous . After 1922 , the castle passed into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works , and archaeological excavations were carried out in 1954 . In the 21st century the site is controlled by English Heritage and is open to visitors . It is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument and a Grade II * listed building .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
King Charles 's Castle was built between 1548 and 1551 to protect the Scilly Isles against French attack . Tensions with France had grown during the reign of Henry VIII and spilled over into war in 1538 . Henry initially responded by fortifying the coasts of England , constructing new artillery forts designed to defend against the longer @-@ range cannons that were becoming common in the 16th century . Henry 's son , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Edward VI , inherited the throne in 1547 , facing renewed war with France . Edward Seymour was made the Lord Protector to the King , and he appointed his brother , Thomas , as England 's Lord Admiral . Thomas inspected the Scilly Isles personally and concluded that they were vulnerable to a French invasion .
As a result of the inspection , Sir Francis Flemming , the Lieutenant @-@ General of the Ordnance , was tasked in February 1558 with improving the defences on the islands . Flemming was supported in this effort with a shipment of lead to aid in construction , and money raised from the dissolution of the monasteries in England . The building work initially focused on the island of Tresco and was carried out under the direction of John Killigrew , the captain of Pendennis Castle in Falmouth . Tresco was in need of modern defences , but Killigrew also wanted to use the work programme to increase his political influence on the island .
The castle was built as part of this programme of work . It was positioned on the high ground of Castle Down to protect New Grimsby harbour , overlooking the narrow , northern entrance to the harbour . It would have held a battery of guns and an accompanying garrison , designed to prevent enemy vessels from entering the harbour .
Edward Seymour fell from power in 1549 , and after his removal a new survey was carried out by Captain William Tyrell , in part to confirm that the new fortifications were suitably located across the islands . Building work across the Scilly Isles continued , expanding to include the neighbouring island of St Mary 's . At least 540 oak trees from South Wales were dispatched to the islands in early 1550 , as the islands lacked suitable sources of timber of their own . Orders were given in 1551 to send bows , arrows and the ingredients required to make gunpowder to the islands , where construction teams were kept at work throughout 1552 .
The Old Blockhouse appears to have been completed , but the Crown 's resources had become badly stretched and it was decided at the end of 1552 to curtail further expenditure on the Scilly Isles . Between 1548 and 1552 , a total of £ 3 @,@ 123 had been spent on improving the fortifications on the islands ; a 1579 survey suggested that , with the cost of the garrisons , the project had come to a total of £ 6 @,@ 000 . Edward 's successor , Queen Mary I , intended to establish a garrison of 150 soldiers on the islands , but it is uncertain if these numbers were ever achieved . By 1558 , Killigrew held the title of the " captain in the Castell of Tresco " , referring to King Charles 's Castle .
= = = = Weaknesses = = = =
It soon became evident that King Charles 's Castle had been built in a poor location . It was 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above sea level and its guns could only fire at enemy ships in the harbour by being angled downwards . Artillery pieces in the 16th century could not fire in this position as the cannonballs would fall out of their muzzles , making the castle much less effective in defending Tresco . By 1554 , a small blockhouse had been built beneath the castle on the future site of Cromwell 's Castle , overlooking the harbour just above the sea level to compensate for this weakness .
The concerns over the castle were significant . Francis Godolphin , who at the time was renting Tresco from the Crown , commented at the end of the century that the castle could not defend the island as " it neither discovereth the whole harbour so through the iminent height thereof can make no good shot so steep downwards " , and also complained about its fortification , " which is worst , is of so weak form as it cannot be defended " . Partially in response to these problems , the new Star Castle was constructed on St Mary 's island between 1593 to 1594 ; a more modern , well @-@ positioned design , Star Castle rapidly became the key defensive site in the Scilly Isles .
= = = 17th century = = =
The Scilly Isles supported Charles I during the English Civil War , and after a short period in Parliamentary control rebelled in favour of Charles in 1648 . The Royalists on Tresco appeared to have believed that King Charles 's Castle was a critical defensive point on the island and probably built new earthwork defences around the castle to defend it against an attack from the land . It is possible , however , that these defences instead date from around 1627 , and were built by the King 's engineer , Bernard Johnson . During this period the castle was given its current name .
Tresco formed a base for Royalist privateers , and Parliament became concerned that the Dutch , then hostile to England , might counter the piracy by occupying the islands , gaining a foothold they could then use against England . In 1651 Parliament sent Sir Robert Blake in charge of a naval task force to retake the islands .
Blake arrived at St Helen 's Pool in April 1651 , and set about invading the island of Tresco . Taking the harbour of Old Grimsby in an amphibious assault on 18 April , he then simply bypassed King Charles ' Castle and marched south , using Tresco as a basis for then taking the neighbouring island of St Mary 's .
The Royalist commander of the castle , William Edgecumbe , retreated from the castle on 19 April and the defenders blew up part of the site as they left , leaving the remains to the Parliamentary commander Colonel George Fleetwood . Some of the castle 's stonework appears to have been reused in the construction of the new Cromwell 's Castle by the Parliamentarians , just beneath King Charles 's Castle , the new fortification being sited in a much better position to defend the harbour .
In 1660 , Charles II was restored to the throne and Edward Sherburne was sent to the Scilly Isles to inspect the defences . He recommended that repairs be carried out to King Charles 's Castle , which was then being used to house soldiers .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
The Crown , in the form of the Duchy of Cornwall , leased the islands in 1687 to the Godolphin family , followed by Augustus Smith in 1834 . The antiquary William Borlase was critical of the castle — by then in ruins — during his 1752 visit , describing it as a " work of labour and expense , rather than of skill " , and attributing its abandonment to its poor military utility . The writer John Troutbeck , commenting at the end of the century , took a similar perspective , praising the thickness of the walls , but noting that it was ill @-@ positioned to fire into the harbour , unlike its replacement below .
In 1922 , the lease passed to Arthur Dorrien @-@ Smith , who agreed to pass several properties on Tresco , including the castle , into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works . The castle was partially excavated in 1954 , uncovering coins , pottery and a buckle . Parts of the first floor of the battery were reconstructed from the fallen stonework uncovered during the dig .
In the 21st century , the blockhouse is controlled by English Heritage , the successor to the Ministry , and open to tourists . It is protected as a scheduled monument and a Grade II * listed building under UK law .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Buildings = = =
King Charles 's Castle is a polygonal stone building , composed of a gun battery on one side and living quarters on the other . On the west side , overlooking the sea , is a large room which originally contained the battery , with embrasures for five guns . At some point after its initial construction , the north @-@ east gun embrasure was blocked by the construction of an internal chamber within the gun battery , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) by 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 ft 7 in ) , with the embrasure being opened up to form a window .
Behind the battery is a large room , 8 @.@ 8 metres ( 29 ft ) by 6 metres ( 20 ft ) , forming a hall and kitchen , originally for the use of the garrison and containing a fireplace and oven . The room has two bedrooms leading off it , each 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 9 ft 6 in ) square . The north bedroom may have been heated by a small brazier . A guardroom , 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) square , forms the entrance to the building , leading into the hall .
The castle is made from dressed and rubble granite , incorporating an underling rocky outcrop into the design in the north @-@ west and south @-@ west corners . In places the walls survive up to 3 @.@ 4 metres ( 11 ft ) high and 1 @.@ 65 metres ( 5 ft 5 in ) thick , but are on average only 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) tall and 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 ft 7 in ) thick . Opinions vary as to how tall the castle was when first built ; it may have been two storeys high throughout , or may only have been that height in the gun battery , with the living accommodation being a single storey construction . The upper storey of the gun battery would have held additional guns .
Architecturally , the castle is unusual for this period . Its design appears somewhat backward , particularly in comparison to the nearby fortification of Harry 's Walls , built at the same time as the castle , but which adopted a more contemporary design that employed bastions . Its closest equivalents are the blockhouses built by Henry VIII on the River Thames .
= = = Earthworks = = =
The castle is surrounded by a rectangular earthwork , probably built in 1627 , and similar to that at Sandsfoot and Pendennis Castles . It stretches away north @-@ east from the castle , with an earth and rubble bank up to 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high and 8 metres ( 26 ft ) wide , with a bastion and demi @-@ bastion at its corners and a ditch , up to 0 @.@ 4 metres ( 1 ft 4 in ) deep and 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide along the north and east sides .
Another line of earthworks survives around 40 metres ( 130 ft ) south @-@ east of these earthworks ; its bank is 0 @.@ 3 metres ( 1 ft 0 in ) high , with a ditch up to 0 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) deep . It lies just behind the crest of the hill , possibly for concealment , and is defended with bastions and orillons although it appears not to have been finished . It probably dates from the mid @-@ 16th century , possibly having been built at around the same time as the castle .
|
= Anton Meyer =
Anton Meyer is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City , played by actor George Irving . He appeared in the series from its first episode , broadcast on 12 January 1999 , until series four , episode 46 , broadcast on 20 August 2002 . His role in the show is that of consultant cardiothoracic surgeon and head of the cardiothoracic surgery department at Holby General . Irving had considerable input in creating the character , who was initially envisioned by the series producers as an Iranian surgeon named Hussein . At Irving 's suggestion , Meyer became Hungarian , an emigrant to Britain following the 1956 Hungarian Revolution . Little of the backstory created for Meyer was ever revealed on @-@ screen , as part of a deliberate bid to present the character as enigmatic , allowing viewers to project their own imagination onto him .
Meyer is a driven , arrogant surgeon , with high expectations of his colleagues . His major storylines see him operate on his own sister , fear that he may have Motor Neurone Disease , lose his spleen after being shot in a road rage incident , and ultimately depart from Holby for Michigan when the hospital Board make impositions on his autonomy . Irving made the decision to leave the series as he struggled to set the character aside outside of work , which had a negative impact on his personal life . He ruled out the possibility of returning to Holby City in future , preferring his memory of Meyer to remain untarnished .
Meyer proved popular with viewers and critics . Following the series launch , he was described by Jaci Steph of the Daily Mail as the series ' " only distinctive character " . Peter Paterson , also of the Daily Mail , deemed Meyer an asset to the show , which he finds " feeble " in Meyer 's absence . Jim Shelley of The Mirror described Meyer as " one of the best characters on television in recent years " . Meyer was particularly well received by female fans , attaining sex @-@ symbol status , described by journalist Lynda Lee @-@ Potter as " the kind of domineering , unsmiling hero who made Mills & Boon heroines swoon . "
= = Storylines = =
Meyer 's major storylines include operating on his own sister when she falls ill , despite a long @-@ term enmity with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Greg . He seeks help from his friend , neurologist Professor Charles Merrick ( Simon Williams ) , when he fears he may have Motor Neurone Disease , but Merrick deduces he has an easily treatable thyroid problem instead . Merrick 's daughter Victoria ( Lisa Faulkner ) works on Meyer 's firm for a period as a Senior house officer ( SHO ) . When she is murdered by the irate father of one of her patients , Meyer becomes involved when he is trapped in a lift with her killer , James Campbell . Campbell overdoses on pills and dies in the lift before Meyer can revive him to face justice .
At the beginning of series four , Meyer is shot in a road @-@ rage incident on his way to work . The culprit is later admitted to the hospital as a patient , when he crashes his car after trying to flee following the shooting . He tries to escape from the hospital in fear that the police will discover him , and after three attempts at leaving the hospital , he finally achieves his goal but collapses in the hospital car park and dies .
When the parents of Rufus Wooding , a young patient of Meyer 's , suddenly withdraw their consent for a complicated operation , total cavo @-@ pulmonary connection ( TCPC ) , Meyer discovers that his SHO , Sam Kennedy ( Collette Brown ) , has intervened and persuaded the parents not to go ahead with surgery . Believing that his authority has been undermined , Meyer promptly fires her . Kennedy threatens to go to the press if Meyer is not investigated , so the hospital Board begin an enquiry , during which Meyer is suspended . The investigation is headed by Meyer 's old friend and rival , Tom Campbell @-@ Gore ( Denis Lawson ) . It concluded that Meyer 's clinical skills were exemplary and unquestionable , although the Board , aware that Meyer 's penchant for taking extremely difficult cases has made hospital death rates appear bad , remove Meyer 's discretion to decide when to operate in such cases . This decision angers Meyer , who argues that he performs operations that are in the interests of the patients not league tables . The Board also relieve Meyer of his registrar Alex Adams ( Jeremy Sheffield ) . Meyer resigns to work in Michigan to develop an artificial heart , while Campbell @-@ Gore takes his post at Holby .
= = Creation = =
Irving was heavily involved in the creation of his character , writing Meyer 's biography before assuming the role . He felt that it was important for him to understand Meyer 's motivation and the reason he is so driven , as the character is presented as a " peacock ogre " who throws scalpels at one of his colleagues in an early episode , and unless Irving could fathom why , his portrayal would be " one step removed " . Meyer was loosely based on the cardiothoracic surgeon Sir Magdi Yacoub . He was originally intended to be of Iranian descent and had the surname Hussein , before the series producers changed their minds and made him central European instead . Irving had developed a Hungarian accent for a film role prior to his involvement with Holby City , and decided that " Meyer was temperamentally Hungarian – gloomy with a bit of Mediterranean liveliness . " It was decided that Meyer had left Hungary following the 1956 uprising , with his parents , who were intellectuals .
Although it was decided he has a sister , a wife and a daughter , Meyer 's personal life is rarely mentioned on screen , enabling viewers to perceive him as a strong man onto whom they can " project whatever they want from their own imagination . " Irving believes that modern television drama is populated by characters prone to disclosing everything about themselves , and so feels that having an enigmatic character like Meyer , who behaves in the reserved vein of Humphrey Bogart and Spencer Tracy , makes for a " refreshing change " . He commented that revealing more of Meyer 's personal life would be anticlimatic compared to viewers ' expectations . As preparation for the role , Irving observed coronary artery bypass surgery performed at Papworth and Middlesex Hospital , deeming the experience an " enormous privilege " . He had a " real fascination " with medicine and the human body prior to assuming the role , and considered studying biology at university . Upon receiving the script for the first episode of Holby City , Irving felt immediately connected to Meyer , commenting : " I knew instinctively how he moved , how he spoke , what he felt . I could feel his heartbeat . "
= = Development = =
Irving concentrated on his own ideas of Meyer 's characterisation when playing him , believing it was important to ignore outside input , as Meyer in turn is unperturbed by others ' opinions of him . Irving describes Meyer as a driven man , determined to only work with colleagues who meet his exacting standards . He feels that Meyer 's " dry sense of humour " and bullying manner are both tools he uses to ensure colleagues meet his standards . Irving believes that Meyer 's manipulative nature actually serves the greater good of the hospital , and despite his perfectionist and purist tendencies , Meyer is actually a great humanist , who holds his staff in the highest regard .
Graham Keal of the Birmingham Post observed that Meyer begins the series as a " hate figure " – ferocious , unbending and unsmiling , but is actually more complex a character than that , with " much to admire too . " Peter Paterson of the Daily Mail described Meyer as " an arrogant , sarcastic , demanding tyrant " , a surgeon who " insults his subordinates , terrifies the nurses , and unashamedly puts his social life at least on a level with his hospital duties . " Paterson called Meyer " saturnine and sinister in appearance " , likening him to James Robertson Justice 's Doctor in the House consultant Lancelot Spratt . Shane Donaghey of The People compared Meyer to Hannibal Lecter , describing him as " Part panto villain , part grim reaper , with a bedside manner of a cruel vet " and commenting that he manages his department " with an iron fist veiled in a concrete glove . " The Daily Mail 's Christopher Matthew called Meyer " wonderfully supercilious " , and " one of the great television monsters of our age " , likening Irving 's portrayal to that of a foreign spy in a 1950s British war film .
Meyer has a penchant for listening to classical music whilst in theatre , and has a " right @-@ hand @-@ man " in his registrar , Nick Jordan ( Michael French ) , who is presented as Meyer 's " more humane " counterpart . Meyer 's catchphrase is " Walk with me " , an instruction he issues to his staff while , according to The Mirror 's Jim Shelley , " sneer [ ing ] imperiously " and " saunter [ ing ] around the wards like a Roman emperor , suavely saving lives and damning other doctors with their own inadequacies . "
Irving was dismayed by the storyline which saw Meyer shot in a road rage incident , describing filming the scenes as an " unpleasant experiences " , the worst aspect being that Meyer loses his spleen as a result of his injuries . Of the later storyline which sees Meyer investigated by Tom Campbell @-@ Gore on behalf of the hospital Board , Denis Lawson explained : " [ Campbell @-@ Gore ] actually rather fancies Meyer 's job but if he finds against him in the investigation he cannot get the job because it 's a conflict of interest . So he has to play a rather clever game , which he does . " On taking over as head of the cardiothoracic surgery department , he commented : " George is fantastic in the show , but obviously I 'm going to do something very , very different , so I don 't feel that I 'm stepping into his shoes . "
After four years in the role , Irving decided to leave Holby City and return to performing in theatre . He stated : " I 've had four great years but I felt the time had come to leave . The show has gone from strength to strength so now seems a good time to go . " Of his decision to leave , Irving explained that , while he enjoyed Meyer 's sureness and confidence , he found it difficult to " switch off " the character outside of work , and had been forced to " put the rest of his life on hold " whilst part of the series , deeming it to be an " intense experience . " He felt that , had he stayed in the series , Meyer could not have remained enigmatic much longer , and believed : " you have to stop when a character 's time is through . " Following Irving 's departure from Holby City , Benji Wilson of the Radio Times questioned whether he would ever consider returning . Irving responded : " I don 't know – my feeling is that Meyer was of his time . He 's the kind of character that belongs at the launch of series like Holby and I think that 's where he should remain . The memory of Meyer is important to me and I want it to stay as it is . "
= = Reception = =
The broadcast of the first episode brought positive comments for Irving and Meyer from television critics . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail described Meyer as the series ' " only distinctive character " , while Peter Paterson , also of the Daily Mail , deemed Meyer a welcome change to the caring , politically correct and compassionate characters seen in Casualty . In the Birmingham Post , Graham Keal called Irving 's portrayal " a charismatic combination of autocratic arrogance and dry wit " , and noted that the character 's interactions with Nick Jordan " form the programme 's primary double act " . Andrew Billen in the New Statesman called Meyer the most compelling character of the series , while Kathleen Morgan of the Daily Record similarly deemed Meyer the star of the show , writing that Irving : " gave a chilling performance as a man who saves lives simply to boost his ego . " Following the broadcast of the second episode , Daily Mirror critic Charlie Catchpole wrote that Irving gave the best performance in a hospital drama as " a rude , eccentric , conceited , arrogant bully " since Tom Baker in Medics .
John Russell of The People disliked the storyline which saw Meyer operate on his own sister , describing it as " something between a carve up and a cock up " , and commenting that he was " so disturbed " he " switched the tripe off " , however fellow People critic Shane Donaghey lauded Meyer as the only reason to watch Holby City . Tony Purnell of The Mirror gave a poor review when Meyer did not appear for several episodes , commenting that the show was in " very poor health " in his absence , and " the sooner he returns , the better . " Purnell praised Meyer 's return two episodes later , however was concerned by his Motor Neurone Disease scare , deeming Meyer " the lifeblood of the series " and writing that Holby City could " ill afford to lose him " .
In April 2001 , Paterson again reviewed the character positively , writing that the series is " feeble " in his absence , and that : " when surgeon Meyer is not strutting arrogantly around the hospital , Holby City loses much of its zing and bite . " He deemed Meyer one of the series ' two major assets , alongside Siobhan Redmond as paediatrician Janice Taylor , and criticised the opening episode of series four , in which Meyer is shot in a road rage incident , believing that Meyer was " wasted " in spending " most of a wearisome hour @-@ long show under the knife " . Jim Shelley of The Mirror similarly hoped for Meyer to " get well soon and resuscitate the series . " Shelley selected the character as a runner @-@ up for his 2001 " Man of the Year " award , and upon the character 's exit from Holby City , described him as " a study in arrogance and laconic authority [ ... ] one of the best characters on television in recent years . "
Meyer has been particularly well received by female Holby City fans , elevating Irving to sex @-@ symbol status . The Dail Mail 's Lynda Lee @-@ Potter described him as " devastatingly attractive , brusque and autocratic " and " the kind of domineering , unsmiling hero who made Mills & Boon heroines swoon . " Irving felt that this was " fairly predictable in terms of the nature of Meyer – tough and masterful – combined with the aphrodisiac of power , and the life and death aspects of his job . " He commented that he was surprised by the positive reaction to his character , explaining : " He seems to have captured people 's imaginations , but it 's difficult to put your finger on what he has . I think it 's got something to do with being a character who says exactly what he means all the time . He 's got integrity , which I admire anyway , and I expect the audience responds to that . Surgeons seem to like him too . I find that particularly gratifying . He 's got the courage to do what 's right for his work and his patients and not worry about popularity or being liked . " Conversely , Irving noted that after assuming the role , members of the public would sometimes " give a kind of shudder " upon encountering him , associating him with his character .
|
= George Armstrong ( ice hockey ) =
George Edward " Chief " Armstrong ( born July 6 , 1930 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played 21 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Toronto Maple Leafs . He played 1 @,@ 188 NHL games between 1950 and 1971 , all with Toronto and a franchise record , and was the team 's captain for 13 seasons . Armstrong was a member of four Stanley Cup championship teams and played in seven NHL All @-@ Star Games . He scored the final goal of the NHL 's " Original Six " era as Toronto won the 1967 Stanley Cup .
Armstrong played both junior and senior hockey in the Toronto Marlboros organization and was a member of the 1950 Allan Cup winning team as senior champions of Canada . He returned to the Marlboros following his playing career and coached the junior team to two Memorial Cup championships . He served as a scout for the Quebec Nordiques , as an assistant general manager of the Maple Leafs and for part of the 1988 – 89 NHL season as Toronto 's head coach . Armstrong was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1975 and the Maple Leafs honoured his uniform number 10 in 1998 .
= = Early life = =
Armstrong was born in 1930 in Skead , Ontario , to a Scottish Canadian father and part Ojibway mother . He grew up in Falconbridge , Ontario where his father was a nickel miner . Sport was an important part of Armstrong 's family as his father played soccer and his mother was a canoeist . The younger Armstrong developed a passion for hockey but was a poor skater , which his father believed was a consequence of a case of spinal meningitis George suffered at the age of six .
While attending Sudbury High School , Armstrong played on the hockey team with Red McCarthy and Tim Horton . Inspired by a newspaper advertisement offering tryouts with the Copper Cliff Redmen of the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey Association ( NOJHA ) , Armstrong convinced Horton and McCarthy to join him in trying out . They made the team and Armstrong began his junior hockey career at age 16 in the 1946 – 47 season . He recorded six goals and five assists in nine games and caught the attention of scouts for the National Hockey League ( NHL ) ' s Toronto Maple Leafs who added him to their protected list . He also played with the Prince Albert Blackhawks for part of that season . Armstrong quit school in grade 11 to focus on his hockey career .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and senior = = =
The Maple Leafs placed Armstrong on the Stratford Kroehlers in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) junior division for the 1947 – 48 season . He led the league in both assists ( 43 ) and points ( 73 ) , and was named recipient of the Red Tilson Trophy as the OHA 's most valuable player . Promoted to the Toronto Marlboros for the 1948 – 49 season , Armstrong recorded 62 points in 39 games with the junior squad and played in three regular season and ten post @-@ season matches for the senior team . Armstrong remained with the senior Marlboros in 1949 – 50 where he served as captain . He led the OHA senior division with 64 goals , at the time an OHA record , and recorded 115 points in 39 games . He was again named the winner of the Red Tilson Trophy .
The Maple Leafs briefly recalled Armstrong during the 1949 – 50 season and he made his NHL debut on December 3 , 1949 . He appeared in two games before returning to the Marlboros . In the 1950 Allan Cup playdowns , he recorded 19 goals and 19 assists in 14 games as the Marlboros won the national senior championship . It was also during the season that he earned his nickname . While visiting the Stoney Reserve in Alberta with the Marlboros , the locals presented Armstrong with a ceremonial headdress and called him " Big Chief Shoot the Puck " owing to his own Native heritage . The nickname was often shortened to " Chief " .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
Upon turning professional in 1950 – 51 , Armstrong was assigned to Toronto 's American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Pittsburgh Hornets . In 71 games for Pittsburgh , he recorded 15 goals and 48 points . Despite being hampered by hand and wrist injuries suffered in fights , Armstrong was the AHL 's leading goal scorer and stood second in points by mid @-@ season in 1951 – 52 . He was recalled to Toronto during the season and scored his first NHL goal , against goaltender Gerry McNeil of the Montreal Canadiens . It was the first goal ever scored by a player with Native heritage . He finished the season with three goals and three assists in 20 games with Toronto .
Though he missed the start of the 1952 – 53 season due to a separated shoulder , Armstrong earned a permanent spot on the Maple Leafs ' roster . He quietly established himself as an important contributor for Toronto by recording 25 points that season , then scoring 32 points the following season and 28 in 1954 – 55 . A 48 @-@ point season in 1955 – 56 was second on the team to Tod Sloan 's 66 . Armstrong then led the Maple Leafs in scoring with 44 points in 1956 – 57 despite missing 14 of his team 's games . He was named to play in the NHL All @-@ Star Game in both seasons . They were the first two of seven he would ultimately play .
The Maple Leafs named Armstrong the team 's captain in 1957 – 58 as he succeeded Ted Kennedy and Jim Thomson who served as co @-@ captains the season before . He finished fourth in team scoring with 42 points , then played his third All @-@ Star Game during the 1958 – 59 season . He recorded four assists in the playoffs as the Maple Leafs reached the 1959 Stanley Cup Final , but lost to the Montreal Canadiens . With 51 points in 1959 – 60 , Armstrong finished one behind Bob Pulford for the team lead . Toronto again reached the Stanley Cup Final where they were again eliminated by Montreal .
The Maple Leafs finally reached the NHL 's peak two seasons later . Armstrong set a career high with 53 points in the 1961 – 62 regular season , then added 12 points in 12 playoff games for Toronto . He started the play that resulted in the Stanley Cup clinching goal , rushing the puck up ice before passing to Tim Horton , who then passed to goal @-@ scorer Dick Duff that capped off a 2 – 1 victory in the sixth and deciding game of the series against the Chicago Black Hawks . As Maple Leafs captain , Armstrong was presented the trophy by league president Clarence Campbell . It was the first of three consecutive championships for Toronto as the Maple Leafs of 1962 – 1964 became the fourth dynasty in NHL history . Individually , Armstrong scored 21 , 19 and 20 goals over the three seasons and by virtue of the NHL 's All @-@ Star Game format of the time that had the defending champion play the all @-@ stars of the remaining teams , appeared in his fourth , fifth and sixth All @-@ Star Games . Early in the 1963 – 64 season , on December 1 , 1963 , Armstrong scored his 200th career NHL goal .
A 37 @-@ point season followed in 1964 – 65 , then 51 points the 1965 – 66 season . By 1966 – 67 , Armstrong led an aging Maple Leafs team that entered the playoffs as an underdog against a dominant Chicago team . The Maple leafs nonetheless eliminated the Black Hawks in six games to set up the 1967 Stanley Cup Final against Montreal . The Canadiens were so confident of victory that a display area for the Stanley Cup had been set up at the Quebec pavilion at Expo 67 prior to the series ' start . The Maple Leafs dashed Montreal 's hopes by winning the championship in six games . Armstrong scored the final goal of the series in a 3 – 1 victory in the deciding contest . It was also the last goal scored in the NHL 's " Original Six " era as the league was set to double in size to 12 teams for the 1967 – 68 season .
Armstrong announced his intention to retire as a player following the championship but changed his mind and returned for another season . The Maple Leafs placed him on their protected list for the 1967 Expansion Draft , and he remained with Toronto . He played in his seventh All @-@ Star Game in 1968 and finished the season with 34 points . Retiring following the season before changing his mind became an annual event for Armstrong as he announced his intention to leave the game in five straight years . He remained a consistent scorer for Toronto , recording 27 , 28 and 25 points in his following three seasons . He finally ended his playing career after the 1970 – 71 season to take an office position in the Maple Leafs .
= = Coaching and scouting career = =
Armstrong was announced as the head coach of his former junior team , the Toronto Marlboros , in July 1972 . Though he had preferred his previous role as a scout to coaching , Armstrong led the Marlboros to Memorial Cup victories on two occasions : in 1973 and 1975 . In 1977 , Armstrong 's name circulated as a possible successor to Maple Leafs coach Red Kelly when the latter was fired by the team . When approached by the organization with the prospect of assuming head coaching duties however , Armstrong rejected the possibility . His decision resulted in animosity from within the organization and subsequently led to his resignation as coach of the Marlboros that season to accept a scouting post with the Quebec Nordiques .
Some 10 years later , Armstrong returned to the Maple Leafs organization in the dual capacities of assistant general manager and scout . During the 1988 – 89 season , and after management had fired head coach John Brophy , team owner Harold Ballard was adamant that Armstrong be named Brophy 's replacement . Armstrong agreed to take the position , but increasingly delegated majority of his duties to assistant coach Garry Lariviere . The Maple Leafs finished with 17 wins in 47 Armstrong 's games coached . He was replaced by Doug Carpenter the following season and returned to his scouting capacities with the team . Armstrong remains a scout with the Maple Leafs to this day .
= = Playing style = =
The Toronto Maple Leafs described Armstrong as being a " consistent , durable and hardworking " player throughout his 21 @-@ season career that spanned parts of four decades . A consummate leader , Armstrong was lauded by owner Conn Smythe as " the best captain , as a captain , the Leafs have ever had " . His 713 career points were the second most all @-@ time in Toronto franchise history at the time of his retirement , and As of 2014 remains fifth @-@ best . His 1 @,@ 187 NHL games are the most by any player in Toronto history , and he remains the franchise leader with 417 career assists and 713 points by a right wing . The Maple Leafs named him the co @-@ recipient , with Bob Pulford , of the J. P. Bickell Memorial Award in 1959 . The award is presented to members of the organization who perform with a high standard of excellence . In 1998 , the franchise honoured his uniform number 10 . In 2013 , he ranked was number 14 on Sportsnet 's list of the greatest Maple Leafs . Armstrong was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1975 and the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 2010 .
= = Personal life = =
Armstrong resides in Toronto with his wife Betty . The couple have four children : Fred , Betty @-@ Ann , Brian and Lorne . He is the uncle of Dale McCourt , a former first overall draft pick by the Detroit Red Wings in the 1977 NHL Amateur Draft . When given a day with the Stanley Cup in 2005 , Armstrong elected to have a family gathering with it at his son 's home in Vaughan , Ontario . Armstrong was recognized by the NHL for his charitable efforts in 1969 when he was named the inaugural recipient of the Charlie Conacher Humanitarian Award . Proud of his Native heritage , Armstrong often supported programs organized by both Indian and Northern Affairs and non @-@ governmental agencies that aimed to promote positive role models for Native children .
Armstrong had a brief film career , appearing as himself in the 1971 film Face @-@ Off , a.k.a. " Winter Comes Early " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Playing career = = =
* Stanley Cup champion
= = = Coaching career = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
|
= Punch @-@ up in Piestany =
The Punch @-@ up in Piestany was a bench @-@ clearing brawl between Canada and the Soviet Union , during the final game of the 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Piešťany , Czechoslovakia ( now Slovakia ) , on January 4 , 1987 . The incident resulted in the ejection of both nations , and while the Soviets had already been eliminated from medal contention , the disqualification cost Canada a certain medal – potentially the gold . The brawl is famous for officials having turned off the arena lights in a desperate attempt at ending the 20 @-@ minute melee . Much of the blame was placed on Norwegian referee Hans Rønning , who had been selected for the game based on his perceived neutrality rather than experience .
Following the brawl , the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) suspended the players involved for 18 months and the coaches for three years . The players ' suspensions were later reduced to six months on appeal , allowing several players from both teams to return for the 1988 tournament in Moscow . Both nations won medals in 1988 ; Canada won the gold medal while the Soviets won silver .
The brawl dramatically raised the profile of the World Junior Hockey Championships in Canada , where it is now one of the top events on the annual sports calendar . The fervent patriotism displayed by Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analyst Don Cherry in the aftermath led to a sharp rise in his own popularity with Canadian fans . Several players in that game went on to play in the National Hockey League , including Brendan Shanahan , Theoren Fleury , Sergei Fedorov , Alexander Mogilny and Vladimir Konstantinov .
= = Hockey 's " Cold War " = =
Canada and the Soviet Union had engaged in an increasingly intense rivalry since the Soviets first emerged on the international scene by winning the 1954 World Ice Hockey Championships . From 1963 until 1983 , the Soviets captured 17 World Championship titles amidst repeated accusations from Canada that their teams were made up of professionals masquerading as amateurs . The accusations eventually led to Canada boycotting all World Championships and Olympic hockey tournaments between 1970 and 1976 . Finally , the 1972 Summit Series was organized , pitting the Soviet all @-@ stars against Canada 's NHL all @-@ stars . The eight @-@ game series was won by Canada 4 – 3 – 1 as Paul Henderson scored the winning goal late in the deciding contest . The Soviets handily won a second Summit Series against World Hockey Association all @-@ stars in 1974 . The series led to the creation of the Canada Cup , a tournament held five times between 1976 and 1991 . Canada won four titles , losing to the Soviet Union in 1981 . Also from 1976 until 1991 , top Soviet club teams toured the NHL in what became known as the Super Series .
The World Junior Championships were formally created in 1977 , and to that point had been dominated by the Soviet Union with seven championships . Until 1982 , Canada sent either their Memorial Cup champion or an all @-@ star team . 1982 was the first time Canada sent a national junior team , under the auspices of Hockey Canada 's Program of Excellence . The Canadians won that tournament , and again in 1985 .
The " Cold War " culminated in 1987 with Rendez @-@ vous ' 87 , as the Soviet national team played a two @-@ game series against the NHL all @-@ stars in place of the NHL All @-@ Star Game . The series was split , with the NHL winning the first game 4 – 3 , and the Soviets the second , 5 – 3 . The 1987 Canada Cup followed , and was won by Canada two games to one , with the third game being described as the greatest in hockey history . The winning goal was scored by Mario Lemieux on a pass from Wayne Gretzky .
= = Game summary = =
In 1987 , the World Junior Hockey Championship was a round robin tournament . The teams with the top three records won the gold , silver and bronze medals . Finland had finished their schedule with a 5 – 1 – 1 record to lead the tournament . Canada entered the game with a 4 – 1 – 1 record , and had already been assured the bronze medal . A victory against the Soviets would have guaranteed Canada the silver , and a victory by more than four goals would have won the gold medal . The Soviet Union , entering the game with a 2 – 3 – 1 record , had already been eliminated from medal contention . The match @-@ up between the two squads was deliberately scheduled to be the final game of the tournament as organizers expected at least one of the teams would be playing for the gold medal .
The IIHF assigned Norway 's Hans Rønning as the referee for this game . The assignment was made based on his neutrality despite his inexperience officiating at the international level . Upon hearing of Rønning 's assignment , Canadian representative Dennis McDonald sought out IIHF supervisor of officials , René Fasel , hoping to convince him to select a different referee . Aside from the question of his competence to call a game of this magnitude , the Canadians were concerned about Rønning following an earlier game in the tournament he officiated between Canada and the United States . A wild brawl had broken out during the pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups against the Americans three days earlier . The officials were not on the ice when the melee occurred ; however , Rønning ejected one player from each team at random for starting the brawl . Canadian captain Steve Chiasson was thus barred from the game against the Americans , as well as the following game after being assessed a match penalty . Unable to convince IIHF officials to change the assignment , McDonald was concerned about how the game would be played . Rønning 's inexperience at that level was later identified as a significant cause of the brawl , as several stick infractions by both sides had gone uncalled , causing anger to rise between both teams .
Off the opening faceoff , Sergei Shesterikov elbowed Canadian Dave McLlwain , who responded by cross @-@ checking the Soviet player . Neither player was assessed a penalty . Five minutes in , Theoren Fleury scored the opening goal for Canada . In celebrating the goal , Fleury slid across centre ice on his knees acting as if his stick was a machine gun and pretended to " open fire " on the Soviet bench . Canadian Amateur Hockey Association president Murray Costello later called it an " inflammatory act , completely unnecessary , lacking any sort of respect . " The first period continued in similar fashion with both teams repeatedly slashing their opponents and Canada emerging with a 3 – 1 lead . Interviewed by the CBC during the intermission , Fleury described the atmosphere on the ice : " The boys are up for the gold medal . Everybody is so tense . Tempers are flying . It 's really tough out there ... I can 't believe it . It 's so tense . It 's so tense . "
Early in the second period , the game was paused for a moment of silence in memory of four Swift Current Broncos players who were killed when their team bus crashed in Saskatchewan five days previous . There was a drop in intensity in the five minutes of play that followed . However , just after the six @-@ minute mark , following a minor scuffle that sent two players from each team to the penalty box , the teams resumed shoving and slashing at each other . Each team also scored a goal , giving Canada a 4 – 2 lead halfway through the game .
= = = The brawl = = =
The brawl began after a face @-@ off as Shesterikov collided with Everett Sanipass with 6 : 07 left in the second period , resulting in a fight between the two . Soviet player Pavel Kostichkin also leveled a two @-@ handed slash at Fleury , leading to another fight . The battle quickly escalated into a line brawl involving all skaters on the ice for both teams . Returning from a commercial break , Canadian commentator Don Wittman understated the severity of the fighting by saying " well , we had a real skirmish just moments ago following a face @-@ off . " Evgeny Davydov was the first player from either team to leave his bench to join the melee , prompting all players from both teams to leave their benches .
Mike Keane paired off against Valeri Zelepukin , with the Canadian " fighting like it was for the world title " according to Fleury . In another fight , Vladimir Konstantinov leveled a head @-@ butt that broke Greg Hawgood 's nose ; Brendan Shanahan later described it as " the greatest head @-@ butt I 've ever seen " . Stéphane Roy was pummeled by two Soviet players . The remaining players paired off as the officials attempted to break up the fighting . There were at least a dozen separate fights over the entire ice surface . Unable to control the situation , Rønning and his linesmen eventually left the ice under the orders of Czechoslovakian officials . In a desperate attempt at ending the brawl , tournament officials had the arena lights turned off , leaving the players to fight in the dark as the fans whistled loudly in disapproval of the entire situation . The whole stadium shouted " My chceme hokej , my chceme hokej " , which translates to " We want hockey , we want hockey " . By the time the fights had finally broken up , the IIHF declared the game null and void .
= = Aftermath = =
The IIHF held an emergency meeting in an arena office to decide how to handle the incident . Each team was represented by a delegate , and the meeting was chaired by IIHF President Günther Sabetzki . The delegates voted 7 – 1 in favour of ejecting both teams from the tournament , the lone dissenting vote being that of Canada 's Dennis McDonald . McDonald was incensed by the voting : Finland , Czechoslovakia and Sweden all stood to gain medal position by voting the two teams out , the Americans only promised support if other nations supported Canada , and Sabetzki could barely control his disdain for the Canadians .
After voting to eject the two teams , officials banned the Soviet team from the tournament banquet and medal ceremony , but they still invited Canada . McDonald stated the Canadians were not interested , which Sabetzki and Czechoslovak officials responded to by ordering the Canadian team out of the arena within half an hour . They were met by armed soldiers who escorted them across the border and out of Czechoslovakia . The IIHF voided the standing of both teams , including individual statistics . In the words of McDonald , " it was like we were never here . " However , the other teams kept the points they gained in the matches against both teams .
Both teams attempted to blame the other for allowing the violence to get out of hand . Soviet official Anatoly Kastriukov blamed a Canadian trainer for igniting hostilities by running over to the Soviet bench and punching one of their assistant coaches in the stomach . The Canadians , meanwhile , pointed to Davydov being the first off the bench as being the spark that led to the brawl . CBC commentator Don Cherry was one of the first to float a conspiracy theory that the Soviets had done so as a deliberate attempt to have Canada ejected , and therefore lose a medal . Alan Eagleson suggested that the IIHF 's decision would have been different had it been the Soviets in contention for a medal , and not the Canadians .
The IIHF voted to suspend all players involved from competing in international events for 18 months , and all coaches for three years . The player suspensions were later cut to six months , which allowed eligible players to participate in the 1988 tournament , and Alexander Mogilny to play in the 1988 Winter Olympics . The IIHF also considered either demoting both teams to the B pool or banning them from the 1988 tournament as further punishment , but backed off as the next year 's tournament was set to be held in the Soviet Union , while Canada represented the only media revenue the tournament generated at the time .
Among the Canadians , only two players were not suspended : goalie Jimmy Waite and forward Pierre Turgeon . Waite felt he could not risk being ejected for fighting under the belief that the game would resume , and that the Canadian backup goaltender , Shawn Simpson , was injured . Steve Nemeth would later apply for early reinstatement arguing that he was not fighting , but trying to help break the players apart . Many of their teammates never forgave Turgeon for failing to defend his teammates . In the words of Everett Sanipass : " I 'm looking for someone to help ( Stéphane ) Roy out and I look over at the bench . There 's this dog Turgeon , just sitting there , with his head down . He wouldn 't get his ass off the bench ... just sitting there when everyone 's off the Soviet bench and at least one of our guys is in real trouble getting double @-@ teamed . "
= = Legacy = =
At the 1988 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Moscow , Canada and the Soviet Union won the gold and silver medals , respectively , as both teams ' rosters featured several players from the 1987 tournament . Since the 1987 tournament , the two nations have maintained their dominance of the tournament . Canada has won 14 gold medals between 1988 and 2015 , while the Soviet Union , and its successor , Russia , has won six .
Hans Rønning 's assignment to officiate the game was viewed by other on @-@ ice officials as a nod to organizers from Lillehammer , Norway , who had just won the right to host the 1994 Winter Olympics and were observing the game . At age 38 , Rønning expected the 1987 tournament to be among his last international assignments . Rønning never officiated another international game , though he did referee two more seasons in Norway before retiring .
In Canada , public sentiment widely supported the players . Opinion polls taken in the aftermath of the brawl saw 87 – 92 % of respondents supporting their actions . Don Cherry 's passionate defence of the Canadian team led to a sharp increase in his popularity . Toronto Maple Leafs owner Harold Ballard had special gold medals made up for the Canadian team . Ballard stated that " I believe the Canadian boys deserve the gold medal and I 'm going to see to it that they get them . Imagine how these Russians engineered this whole thing over there just because they 've got a lousy team and were scared to go home finishing in sixth place . "
Canadian hockey officials criticized the players for the brawl . In 2005 , the suggestion of a reunion for the 1987 team was met with uncomfortable silence and " I don 't think so " from Hockey Canada officials . Immediately following the tournament , Canadian officials were seen as trying to distance themselves from the team : " The CAHA ( Canadian Amateur Hockey Association ) didn 't do anything for these kids " , reporter Jim Cressman said . " These kids were good enough to make this team . They gave up their holidays , did their best , risked getting hurt and ended up on the wrong end of a bad decision - and the CAHA basically handed them their tickets . " Winnipeg Jets assistant general manager Mike Smith was in the Vienna airport while the Canadian juniors were waiting for their flight , and took the opportunity to criticize them for their play at the tournament as well as the brawl .
Before Piešťany , the junior tournament had a small following in Canada . Only one Canadian reporter flew overseas to cover the 1987 tournament . That changed in 1988 , as the major Canadian media outlets all sent reporters to Moscow . The tournament 's prestige in Canada continued to grow . By the 2005 tournament , over 100 Canadian reporters covered the tournament in Grand Forks , North Dakota .
The brawl was seen as an embarrassment by Soviet officials who prided themselves on the discipline of their teams . A senior official , Anatoly Kostryukov , said that the " ice hockey department and the Ice Hockey Federation of the USSR will soon analyze the Soviet team 's performance at the championship , and those guilty of the incident will be strictly punished " . The Soviet media agency , Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union , was highly critical of the coaching staff 's inability to control the players . Head coach Vladimir Vasiliev was fired as the coach of the Soviet national junior team as a result of Piešťany .
= = Players = =
Of the 20 players who dressed for Canada in that game , 19 went on to play in the National Hockey League . ( Shawn Simpson was drafted by the Capitals , and dressed for two games for them , but ultimately only played for their associate team . ) In 1987 , only one Soviet had ever played in the NHL , Victor Nechayev . The players for this Soviet team would be among the first wave of Eastern Bloc players to arrive in the NHL with the fall of the Iron Curtain . Five of them would ultimately win the Stanley Cup .
|
= Humphrey Stafford , 1st Earl of Devon =
Humphrey Stafford , 1st Earl of Devon ( ca . 1439 – 17 August 1469 ) was a dominant magnate in south @-@ western England in the mid @-@ 15th century , and a participant in the Wars of the Roses . A distant relative of the earls of Stafford , Humphrey Stafford became the greatest landowner in the county of Dorset through fortunes of inheritance . Later , Stafford was one of several men promoted rapidly through the nobility by King Edward IV , to fill the power vacuum left by dead or forfeit Lancastrians . In the West Country it was particularly the forfeitures of the Lancastrian Courtenay family that benefited Stafford . In 1469 he received the Courtenay title of earl of Devon .
Stafford held the comital title for only three months . In July he was sent north to quell a rebellion instigated by the discontented Earl of Warwick . Even though he escaped the disastrous Battle of Edgecote , he was executed by a mob at Bridgwater on 17 August 1469 . Considered an overambitious man by many , Stafford was nevertheless a capable administrator , who enjoyed the absolute confidence of the king .
= = Family background = =
The Staffords of Hooke in Dorset and Southwick in Wiltshire were a cadet branch of the earls of Stafford and later dukes of Buckingham . Humphrey 's grandfather was another Humphrey Stafford , called Sir Humphrey " of the silver hand " ( d . 1442 ) . His heir was a grandson – yet another Humphrey Stafford – who died childless in 1461 . This left Humphrey Stafford , the future Earl of Devon , heir to the family lands , the greatest part of which was in Dorset and the rest mostly in Somerset and Wiltshire . Humphrey 's father , William , was already dead by this time , having fallen victim to Cade 's rebellion on 18 June 1450 . William 's uncle , and Humphrey 's great uncle , was John Stafford , Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1443 – 1452 ) .
The inheritance of these family lands made Stafford the greatest landowner in the county of Dorset . Through his mother Katherine , he was also heir to the possessions of her father John Chidiock , another major south @-@ western landowner . At some point – definitely after 21 June 1450 – he married Isabel , daughter of Sir John Barre of Herefordshire .
= = Service to the House of York = =
In the late 1450s , Stafford might have been in the service of his distant relative John Stafford , Earl of Wiltshire , son of Humphrey Stafford , Duke of Buckingham . His association with James Touchet , Baron Audley – one of Wiltshire 's men – implies so . If so , this represent a short episode of loyalty to the House of Lancaster over the House of York in the ongoing civil war . In 1460 the two were sent to Guînes to relieve the English garrison there . Bad weather forced them into the harbour of Calais , which was held by the Yorkist leader Richard Neville , Earl of Warwick . Here they were both recruited for the Yorkist cause .
Stafford took part in the Battle of Mortimer 's Cross , where the Yorkist forces under Edward , Earl of March , won a major victory on 2 February 1461 . After the Battle of Towton on 29 March that year , Stafford was knighted by Edward , who had by now been pronounced King Edward IV after the deposition of Henry VI . Later that same year , on 26 July , he received a summons to Parliament for the first time , as Lord Stafford of Southwick . Over the course of the following years , the king granted him numerous lands and offices . In 1461 he was appointed steward of the Duchy of Cornwall and constable of Bristol , and in 1462 he received the greater part of the Devon estates of Thomas Courtenay , Earl of Devon , who had been captured at Towton and executed . In 1464 he was made keeper of Dartmoor , and in 1467 he was granted more of the Courtenay manors .
Stafford repaid the king 's generosity by serving him faithfully as a local commissioner , in a part of the country that had up until that point been fiercely Lancastrian . Throughout the 1460s he presided at Quarter Sessions and other courts all over the West Country . His activities were not limited to legal commissions ; in 1461 – 2 he performed military service against the Scots , and in 1468 he conducted diplomacy with Brittany . In 1469 he was admitted to the Royal Council , and served on the commission that convicted Henry Courtenay , Thomas Courtenay 's brother , for treason . According to the chronicler John Warkworth , Henry 's downfall was due to the machinations of Stafford , who was rewarded with further land and the earldom of Devon on 17 May 1469 . However , the king himself took great interest in the trial against Courtenay , and it is more reasonable to see the decision as a result of Edward 's need for a loyal agent in the region .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Stafford 's quick rise did not go unnoticed among the established aristocracy . In 1468 , the discontented Warwick named the Earl of Devon as a courtier with undue influence on King Edward . Warwick and Devon were later reconciled , but the next year Warwick repeated his accusations once more . In an act of rebellion by proxy , Warwick instigated an insurrection in Yorkshire led by a " Robin of Redesdale " . At the same time Warwick – together with George , Duke of Clarence , King Edward 's brother – staged an invasion of the country from Warwick 's stronghold of Calais . Devon , together with William Herbert , Earl of Pembroke , was ordered to gather troops to quell the rebellion .
The royal army under Devon and Pembroke intercepted the northern rebels – on their way south to meet up with Warwick and Clarence – by Banbury in Oxfordshire . It is not clear what happened after this . According to Warkworth , Devon and Pembroke quarrelled over billeting arrangements , and Devon took off with the majority of the archers . The next day , on 26 July 1469 , Pembroke met the rebels at the Battle of Edgecote , but without artillery support he was thoroughly defeated . When Devon finally arrived , he was either unable to engage his troops , or too late to make a difference . The French chronicler Jean de Waurin , however , gives a different account . According to Waurin , Devon left the field of battle once he heard news that Clarence was arriving with reinforcements . In either case , Pembroke was captured and executed on Warwick 's order . Devon managed to escape , but was later captured by a mob at Bridgwater in Somerset , and executed on 17 August .
Humphrey Stafford had been Earl of Devon for exactly three months at the time of his death . He and Isabel had no children , so when he died his title became extinct . It was restored the next year for John Courtenay , the brother of Thomas , the last Courtenay earl of Devon . Stafford was buried in Glastonbury Abbey , and a dispute over his lands followed between his cousins .
Stafford was considered over @-@ ambitious and unscrupulous by many contemporaries . This can be seen both by Warkworth implicating him in the downfall of Henry Courtenay , and Warwick targeting him as one of King Edward 's evil councillors . This thread has also been picked up by modern historians ; Charles Ross calls him a " greedy and ambitious man " . At the same time , his skills as an administrator can hardly be doubted , as evidenced by King Edward 's heavy reliance on him . He could also show a more human and sympathetic side . Michael Hicks describes his activity , from 1467 onwards , in adding codicils to his will " to right the wrongs that he was conscious of committing " – the last of these he added as he faced his own execution .
|
= The C Word =
" The C Word " is the fourteenth episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by series creator Tina Fey and directed by Adam Bernstein . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on February 15 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , Rachel Dratch , John Lutz , Keith Powell , Lonny Ross , Rip Torn , and Charlyne Yi .
In the episode , after being criticized for her working habits by her co @-@ workers , head writer Liz Lemon ( Fey ) decides to be more lenient with her writing staff . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) brings Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to a major golf event to get closer to Don Geiss ( Torn ) , the CEO of General Electric ( GE ) , but his plan backfires when Tracy decides to drop " truth bombs " .
" The C Word " has received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 0 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric ( GE ) , invites Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to a GE diabetes charity golf event . Jack hopes that bringing Tracy along can help him get close to GE CEO Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) . At the event , Tracy becomes the hit of the party , but quickly begins to feel that the reason he was brought along was to be " the funny black man " . Tracy insults Geiss by accusing him of not hiring more black people , which results in Tracy and Jack not being invited to golf along with Geiss . Jack blames Tracy for this , but Tracy doesn 't care , as he tells Jack that he cannot help but drop " truth bombs " . Later , to make amends with both Jack and Geiss , Tracy gives a heartfelt speech about his daughter battling diabetes , which moves Geiss . This results in Geiss inviting Jack , Tracy , and Tracy 's daughter to the Vineyard . Tracy admits to Jack that he does not have a daughter , which prompts Jack to say , " Let 's have a casting session on Monday . "
Meanwhile , at the 30 Rock studios , TGS with Tracy Jordan head writer Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and her writing staff are discussing potential topics to use in the show . J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) suggests one of his sketches , " Dancing with the Hobos " , which Liz criticizes , thus embarrassing him in front of everyone . Later , Liz talks to Greta Johansen ( Rachel Dratch ) , the show 's cat wrangler . At the same time , she overhears Lutz calling her the C word . Outraged by this , Liz tells Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) and Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) about what Lutz called her and wants to fire him . Frank reveals that Lutz 's poor behavior is due to the passing of his grandmother . After it 's pointed out that she has been a terrible boss to the staff , Liz begins acting nice , but this backfires when they take advantage of her . Angered by this , Liz confronts the writers about their actions , and tells Lutz she knows what he called her . Liz warns all of them that if they call her that " horrible word " she will fire them .
At the same time , Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) struggles with his feelings for another page , Grace Park ( Charlyne Yi ) who demonstrates affection for him . Kenneth explains to Pete that he is afraid of " disgracing the peacock " by becoming romantically involved with her . Throughout the episode , it is shown to be sexually awkward for the two of them during their job , though towards the end , Kenneth confronts her with his feelings about her . Their kiss is interrupted by Kenneth 's work , which allows him to abruptly forget about her .
= = Production = =
" The C Word " was written by series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , making it her seventh writing credit after the pilot episode , " The Aftermath " , " Tracy Does Conan " , " The Head and the Hair " , " Black Tie " , and " Up All Night " . The episode was directed by supervising producer Adam Bernstein , making it his fifth for the series . " The C Word " originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 15 , 2007 , as the fourteenth episode of the show 's first season .
In an April 2007 interview with Entertainment Weekly , Fey revealed that she was once called " the c word " by one of her writers . In discussion of this , she said , " That C @-@ word thing actually did happen . I was furious , and I had this weird reaction where I kept saying , ' You can 't say that ! My parents love me ! ' " In another interview , she was asked whether the c @-@ word was based on experience , to which she said , " It was a little bit . It was a little bit based on the experience of having someone call you that and not knowing how to deal with it . " . In December 2015 Fey revealed that the writer who called her " the c word " was Colin Quinn .
Comedian actress Rachel Dratch , longtime comedy partner and fellow Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) alumna of Fey , the latter who was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 , was originally cast to portray the character Jenna Maroney . Dratch played the role in the show 's original pilot , but in August 2006 , actress Jane Krakowski was announced as Dratch 's replacement . Executive producer Lorne Michaels announced that while Dratch would not be playing a series regular , she would appear in various episodes in a different role . In the pilot , " The Baby Show " , and in this episode , she played Greta Johansen , The Girlie Show 's cat wrangler . " The C Word " was actor Rip Torn 's debut as GE CEO Don Geiss .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The C Word " was watched by 5 @.@ 0 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It earned a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 6 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Up All Night " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 2 million American viewers .
IGN contributor Robert Canning , wrote , " Even in an episode like ' The ' C ' Word , ' where some of the ideas fall a bit short , there were still plenty of laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments to talk about . [ ... ] In the end , the great writing outweighed the slightly bothersome contrivances to make this yet another laugh @-@ filled episode of 30 Rock . " He said that the pairing of Jack and Tracy " gave us another opportunity to enjoy the pairing of the polar opposite personalities " . Canning reported that the Liz plot had " its funny moments " , but opined that it was hard to " get past the fact this wasn 't exactly the Liz we knew " , in regards to her being a " domineering boss that cares little about her employees . " Canning gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 rating . Julia Ward of AOL 's TV Squad wrote that putting Alec Baldwin and Rip Torn together " was a genius move . " She was complimentary towards Tina Fey , citing that it was " another great week " in her " continuing portrayal of what being a hard @-@ working gal is actually like . " Ward enjoyed Tracy 's speech , noting that it was " priceless " , and was glad to see him having " ample screen time ... which was a nice change of pace . " TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich wrote he enjoyed all of the episode 's storyline pairings , but much enjoyed Jack and Tracy . Further in his recap , Mitovich reported that Liz 's plot could have been better had the comedy show How I Met Your Mother " not gone there with the C @-@ word " in an episode . Though , he said that Liz 's story " had a fitting message – that she is held to a different standard , yet shouldn 't be , as a female head writer . Plus , her story gave us that winning flurry of flashbacks to times when she was a ... not very nice lady . "
|
= Michael Grabner =
Michael @-@ René Grabner ( born 5 October 1987 ) is an Austrian professional ice hockey player for the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Grabner grew up playing for the local team in Villach , EC VSV . He moved to North America at the age of 17 and joined the Spokane Chiefs of the major junior Western Hockey League ( WHL ) to further his hockey career . After his second season with the Chiefs , he was selected 14th overall by the Vancouver Canucks in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft . Grabner played one more season in the WHL before moving to the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , where he played two seasons in the Canucks ' farm system . He was traded during the 2010 NHL Entry Draft to the Florida Panthers , but was claimed by the New York Islanders after Florida placed him on waivers with the intention of assigning him to their AHL affiliate . Grabner spent five seasons with the Islanders before being traded to the Maple Leafs in 2015 . Internationally Grabner has appeared for Austria in both junior and senior tournaments , and played in the 2014 Winter Olympics .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Villach , Grabner began playing hockey at the age of five . He joined his EC VSV 's junior team , scoring 10 points over 13 games in 2002 – 03 . The following year , he improved to 32 goals and five assists over 23 games , while also debuting with EC VSV 's men 's team in the Austrian Hockey League . In the subsequent off @-@ season , he was selected 22nd overall by the Spokane Chiefs in the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) Import Draft . Grabner believed that playing major junior in North America would help his goal of making it to the NHL . He had been exposed to Chiefs general manager Tim Speltz through a connection with his head coach in EC VSV , Greg Holst .
Grabner left Austria to join Spokane for the 2004 – 05 WHL season , but suffered a broken collarbone in his first exhibition game . He missed approximately a month with the injury and scored his first WHL goal on 29 October 2004 , in a 4 – 2 loss against the Seattle Thunderbirds . He went on to record 13 goals and 24 points in his rookie season .
The following season , he improved to 36 goals and 50 points . Playing in his NHL draft year , he competed in the CHL Top Prospects Game and scored a goals and two assists . Shortly thereafter , he notched his first WHL career hat trick on 4 February 2007 , in a 7 – 5 win against the Tri @-@ City Americans . Grabner 's draft stock went up significantly in the second half of the season , as he scored 22 goals in the final 23 games of 2005 – 06 .
He entered the 2006 NHL Entry Draft having been ranked 23rd overall among prospects playing in North America by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . He was chosen 14th overall by the Vancouver Canucks . Grabner was admittedly surprised to be chosen in that position of the draft , as he was projected to be a late first @-@ round to early second @-@ round pick . He had been scouted as highly skilled offensively with his speed and his shot his strengths .
He participated in his first NHL training camp in 2006 , before being returned to the Chiefs for the 2006 – 07 season . Early in his third WHL season , he suffered a hip pointer after receiving a slash . Due to lingering pain from the injury he was in and out of the lineup for several games before being sidelined for a month in November and early @-@ December . In mid @-@ February , he recorded six goals in a span of three games to be named WHL and CHL Player of the Week ( 12 – 18 February 2007 ) . Grabner with 39 goals and 16 assists in 55 games for a point @-@ per @-@ game pace over the course of the season . However , he was criticized by his coach for his lack of physical play .
= = = Manitoba Moose and Vancouver Canucks = = =
After the Chiefs were eliminated from the 2007 WHL playoffs , Grabner joined the Canucks ' American Hockey League affiliate , the Manitoba Moose for their final two games of the regular season and the playoffs . Grabner joined the Moose for his first full professional season in 2007 – 08 , recording 44 points in 74 games as a rookie .
The following season , on 26 February 2009 , Grabner was recalled by the Canucks to replace Pavol Demitra who suffered a fractured finger the night before . However , later that day , Grabner was reassigned to Manitoba after Demitra was deemed fit to play . He finished his second season with the Moose improving to 30 goals , tied for the team lead with Jason Krog , and 48 points in 66 games , helping the Moose to the league 's best regular season record . After eliminating the Toronto Marlies and Grand Rapids Griffins in the first two rounds of the 2009 playoffs , Grabner scored the series @-@ clinching goal in the sixth game of the semifinals , a 3 – 1 win over the Houston Aeros . Grabner finished with 17 points in 20 games as the Moose finished as Calder Cup runners @-@ up .
Coming off a successful second AHL season , Grabner was expected to challenge for a roster spot at the Canucks ' 2009 – 10 training camp , but was sent back down to the Moose before the start of the regular season . After a quick start with the Moose , however , scoring four goals in five games , he was called up by the Canucks on 14 October 2009 , to replace injured star winger Daniel Sedin . Grabner then scored his first NHL goal on 21 October on the powerplay against Antti Niemi in a 3 – 2 win against the Chicago Blackhawks . Nine games into his initial stint with the Canucks , however , he injured himself during a pre @-@ game warmup on 1 November . Grabner was kicking a soccer ball around with teammates before a game against the Colorado Avalanche when he rolled over his ankle .
Upon recovering , he returned to the Moose on 27 December 2009 , until being recalled on 17 March 2010 , following an injury to Canucks forward Mikael Samuelsson . On 2 April , Grabner scored his first NHL career hat trick in a 5 – 4 shootout win against the Anaheim Ducks . Remaining with the club for the 2010 playoffs , Grabner notched his first career NHL post @-@ season goal against Antti Niemi ( the same goaltender he scored his first regular season goal against ) on 1 May 2010 , in the opening game of the second round against the Chicago Blackhawks .
= = = New York Islanders = = =
On 25 June 2010 , during the 2010 NHL Entry Draft , Grabner was traded , along with Steve Bernier and the Canucks first round choice in the draft , the twenty @-@ fifth selection ( used to select Quinton Howden ) to the Florida Panthers for Keith Ballard and Victor Oreskovich . Grabner attended the Panthers training camp , where it was expected he would compete for a position on the team , but failed to do so . On 3 October 2010 , it was announced Grabner was placed on waivers by the Panthers , who intended to assign him to their AHL affiliate , the Rochester Americans . However he was claimed by the New York Islanders two days later .
He played his first game with the Islanders on 11 October 2010 , against the New York Rangers . His first point with the Islanders came on 13 October . Grabner 's first goal with the Islanders came against Craig Anderson of the Colorado Avalanche on 16 October . In January 2011 Grabner was selected to participate in the 2011 SuperSkills as one of twelve rookies in the competition , winning the fastest skater competition with times of 14 @.@ 061 and 14 @.@ 238 . In February Grabner led all rookies in scoring with 10 goals and 16 points . He also had a six @-@ game goal scoring streak which was the longest rookie streak since the 2006 – 07 season when Evgeni Malkin also scored in six straight . For his efforts Grabner was named rookie of the month . He finished his rookie year with 34 goals and 52 points , his goal total led all rookies , as well as the Islanders . Ranking third in points by a rookie Grabner earned a Calder Memorial Trophy nomination for NHL rookie of the year . Following his successful rookie year the Islanders signed Grabner to a five @-@ year , $ 15 million contract extension on 13 May 2011 , backloaded to start at $ 1M and then increase by another $ 1M each year .
On 21 October 2013 , Grabner was suspended for two games for an illegal check to the head of Carolina Hurricanes forward Nathan Gerbe .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
On 17 September 2015 , after five seasons with the Islanders , he was traded to Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Taylor Beck , Carter Verhaeghe , Matt Finn , Tom Nilsson , and goaltender Christopher Gibson and made assistant captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
With his freedom from the Maple Leafs obtained , on July 1 , 2016 , Grabner signed as a free agent to a two @-@ year deal with the New York Rangers .
= = International play = =
Grabner made his international debut with Austria in Division I play of the 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships in Minsk , Belarus . Underaged for the tournament at sixteen @-@ years @-@ old , he scored three goals and an assist in five games . The following year , he competed for Austria in Division I of the 2005 World Junior Championships , held in Great Britain . He recorded three points in four games as Austria finished third in Group A. Several months later , he was named to his second under @-@ 18 team for the 2005 IIHF World U18 Championships , where Austria again competed in Division I play . Grabner tied for second in team @-@ scoring with four goals and an assists over five games . Austria finished in fifth place out of six teams in Group A , coming within a loss of being relegated to Division II for the next year . He joined Austria in their qualifying tournament for the 2010 Winter Olympics in early 2009 and led the four team tournament in scoring with five goals ; Austria finished second to Germany and failed to qualify for the Olympics .
It was during the 2012 World Championships that Grabner first played for the Austrian national team . Austria participated in Division IA , the second tier of the World Championships , and earned a promotion to the elite level for 2013 .
He also represented Austria in the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi , where he scored five goals and made one assist . He scored a hat @-@ trick against Finland . He finished tied for first in goal @-@ scoring and tied for fifth in points . He led Austria in scoring .
= = Personal life = =
On 31 March 2011 , Grabner and wife Heather , whom he met while playing in Spokane , welcomed a son .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
NHL Rookie of the Month - February 2011
NHL All @-@ Star Game Skills Fastest Skater 2011
Named as a 2011 finalist for the Calder Trophy as NHL rookie of the year .
NHL All @-@ Rookie Team – 2011
2014 Winter Olympics – Goal Scoring Leader ( 5 ) ( tied )
|
= The Frighteners =
The Frighteners is a 1996 New Zealand @-@ American horror comedy film directed by Peter Jackson and co @-@ written with his wife , Fran Walsh . The film stars Michael J. Fox , Trini Alvarado , Peter Dobson , John Astin , Dee Wallace Stone , Jeffrey Combs , and Jake Busey . The Frighteners tells the story of Frank Bannister ( Fox ) , an architect who develops psychic abilities allowing him to see , hear , and communicate with ghosts after his wife 's murder . He initially uses his new abilities to befriend ghosts , whom he sends to haunt people so that he can charge them handsome fees for " exorcising " the ghosts . However , the spirit of a mass murderer appears able to attack the living and the dead , posing as the ghost of the Grim Reaper , prompting Frank to investigate the supernatural presence .
Jackson and Walsh conceived the idea for The Frighteners during the script @-@ writing phase of Heavenly Creatures . Executive producer Robert Zemeckis hired the duo to write the script , with the original intention of Zemeckis directing The Frighteners as a spin @-@ off film of the television series , Tales from the Crypt . With Jackson and Walsh 's first draft submitted in January 1994 , Zemeckis believed the film would be better off directed by Jackson , produced by Zemeckis and funded / distributed by Universal Studios . The visual effects were created by Jackson 's Weta Digital , which had only been in existence for three years . This , plus the fact that The Frighteners required more digital effects shots than almost any movie made until that time , resulted in the eighteen @-@ month period for effects work by Weta Digital being largely stressed .
Despite a rushed post @-@ production schedule , Universal was so impressed with Jackson 's rough cut on The Frighteners , the studio moved the theatrical release date closer by four months . The film was not a box office success , but received generally positive reviews from critics . Despite its lackluster performance at the box office , the film has gained a cult following in more recent years .
The Frighteners is also Fox 's last leading role in a live @-@ action feature film ; Fox then went on to a four @-@ year run on the television series Spin City before semi @-@ retiring in 2000 due to the effects of Parkinson 's disease .
= = Plot = =
In 1990 , architect Frank Bannister 's ( Michael J. Fox ) wife , Debra , dies in a car accident . He abandons his profession , and his unfinished " dream house " sits incomplete . Following the accident , Frank gained the power to see ghosts and befriends three : 1970s street gangster Cyrus ( Chi McBride ) , 1950s nerd Stuart ( Jim Fyfe ) , and The Judge ( John Astin ) , a gunslinger from the Old West . The ghosts haunt houses so Frank can then " exorcise " them for a fee . Most locals consider him a con man .
Soon after Frank cons local health nut Ray Lynskey ( Peter Dobson ) and his wife Lucy ( Trini Alvarado ) , a physician , Ray dies of a heart attack . Frank discovers there is an entity , appearing as the Grim Reaper , killing people , first marking numbers on their foreheads that only Frank sees . Frank 's late wife Debra had a similar number when she was found .
Frank 's ability to foretell the murders puts him under suspicion with the police and FBI agent Milton Dammers ( Jeffrey Combs ) , who is convinced Frank is responsible . Frank is arrested for killing newspaper editor Magda Rees @-@ Jones ( Elizabeth Hawthorne ) , who had attacked him in the press .
Lucy investigates the murders and becomes a target of the Grim Reaper . She is attacked while visiting Frank in jail ; but they escape with the help of Cyrus and Stuart , who are both dissolved in the process . Frank wants to commit suicide to stop the Grim Reaper . Lucy helps Frank have a near @-@ death experience by putting him into hypothermia and using barbiturates to stop his heart . Dammers abducts Lucy , revealing that he had been a victim of Charles Manson and his " Family " in 1969 .
In his ghostly form , Frank confronts the Grim Reaper and discovers that he is the ghost of Johnny Bartlett ( Jake Busey ) , a psychiatric hospital orderly who killed twelve people 32 years earlier , before being captured , convicted , and executed . Newspaper reports reveal that his greatest desire was to become the most prolific serial killer ever , showing pride at killing more than contemporaries like Charles Starkweather . Patricia Bradley ( Dee Wallace @-@ Stone ) , then a teenager , was accused as his accomplice , although she escaped the death penalty due to her underage status . Lucy resuscitates Frank and they visit Patricia . Unknown to them , Patricia is still in love with Bartlett and on friendly , homicidal terms with Bartlett 's ghost , and eventually kills her own mother , who had been trying to monitor her daughter 's behavior . Lucy and Frank trap Bartlett 's spirit in his urn , which Patricia has kept . The pair make for the chapel of the now @-@ abandoned psychiatric hospital hoping to send Bartlett 's ghost to Hell .
Patricia and Dammers chase them through the ruins . Dammers throws the ashes away , releasing Bartlett 's ghost again before Patricia kills him . Bartlett 's ghost and Patricia hunt down Frank and Lucy . Frank realizes that Bartlett 's ghost , with Patricia 's help , was responsible for his wife 's death and the number on her brow , and that he is still trying to add to his body count ( and infamy ) even after his death .
Out of bullets , Patricia strangles Frank to death , but Frank in spirit form rips Patricia 's spirit from her body , forcing Bartlett to follow them . Bartlett grabs Patricia 's ghost , while Frank makes it to Heaven , where he is reunited with Cyrus and Stuart along with his wife Debra . Bartlett and Patricia 's spirits claim they will now go back to claim more lives , but the portal to Heaven quickly changes to a demonic looking appearance , and they are both dragged to Hell by a giant worm @-@ like creature . Frank learns it is not yet his time and is sent back to his body , as Debra 's spirit tells him to " be happy . "
Frank and Lucy fall in love . Lucy is now able to see ghosts as well . Frank later begins demolishing the unfinished dream house and building a life with Lucy while the morose @-@ looking ghost of Dammers is riding around in the sheriff 's car . Frank and Lucy then enjoy their picnic .
= = Cast = =
Michael J. Fox as Frank Bannister : Although Jackson and Walsh envisioned The Frighteners as a low @-@ budget film with unknown actors , Zemeckis suggested casting his Back to the Future star Fox in the lead role . Fox became enthusiastic about working with Jackson when he saw Heavenly Creatures at the Toronto International Film Festival .
Trini Alvarado as Dr. Lucy Lynskey : The character is named after Heavenly Creatures star Melanie Lynskey ( who also cameos in The Frighteners ) .
Peter Dobson as Ray Lynskey , Lucy 's health @-@ obsessed and comically hot @-@ headed husband who dislikes Frank 's tactics
John Astin as The Judge , a decaying gunslinger ghost from the Old West with a penchant for mummies and firing guns at random .
Dee Wallace Stone as Patricia Ann Bradley , Bartlett 's mentally ill lover ( escaping execution at the time of the original murders as she was underage ) who is under strict observation by her mother .
Jeffrey Combs as Special Agent Milton Dammers , an eccentric FBI agent who has a vendetta against Bannister . A former undercover agent known for his work with cultists , which caused him to sustain multiple massive mutilations and driven to the brink of insanity . He has a problem with women screaming at him . Jackson opted to cast Combs as Dammers because he was a fan of the actor 's work in Re @-@ Animator .
Jake Busey as John Charles " Johnny " Bartlett , a mass murderer who continues his work in the afterlife , focusing on increasing his body count as a form of competition with other famous murderers . He returns from Hell , able to attack the living and the dead as the ghost of the Grim Reaper .
R. Lee Ermey as the ghost of Sergeant Hiles .
Chi McBride as Cyrus , a gangster who is one of Frank 's deceased associates for his ghost @-@ hunting business .
Jim Fyfe as Stuart , a nerd who is one of Frank 's deceased associates for his ghost @-@ hunting business .
Angela Bloomfield as Debra Bannister , Frank 's deceased wife .
Troy Evans as Sheriff Walt Perry , a local law enforcement officer and ally to Frank .
Julianna McCarthy as Mrs. Bradley , Patricia 's mother and former director of the psychiatric hospital , who is constantly monitoring her daughter .
Elizabeth Hawthorne as Magda Rees @-@ Jones , the snooty British editor of the local newspaper .
Peter Jackson ( cameo ) as a man with piercings .
Melanie Lynskey ( cameo ) as a deputy , who is briefly seen standing next to Trini Alvarado 's " Lucy Lynskey " .
= = Development = =
Peter Jackson and wife / co @-@ writer Fran Walsh conceived the idea for The Frighteners in 1992 , during the script @-@ writing phase of Heavenly Creatures . Together , they wrote a three @-@ page film treatment and sent it to their talent agent in Hollywood . Robert Zemeckis viewed their treatment with the intention of directing The Frighteners as a spin @-@ off film of the television series , Tales from the Crypt ( which he helped produce ) . Zemeckis hired Jackson and Walsh to turn their treatment into a full @-@ length screenplay in January 1993 . The husband and wife duo completed their first draft for The Frighteners in early @-@ January 1994 . Zemeckis was so impressed with their script , he decided The Frighteners would work better directed by Jackson , executive produced by Zemeckis and funded / distributed by Universal Pictures . Universal greenlighted the film to commence pre @-@ production on a $ 26 million budget in April 1994 . The studio also granted Jackson and Zemeckis total artistic control and the right of final cut privilege .
= = = Production = = =
Jackson decided to film The Frighteners entirely in New Zealand . Zemeckis and Universal agreed on the condition that Jackson made New Zealand look similar to the Midwestern United States . Principal photography began on May 14 , 1995 and lasted until November 16 , which is one of the longest shooting schedules ever approved by Universal Pictures . Six weeks into the shoot , cinematographer Alun Bollinger had a serious car accident . His replacement , John Blick , later alternated duties with Bollinger for much of the rest of the shoot . Location shooting primarily included Wellington and three weeks spent in Lyttelton . Interior scenes were compiled at Camperdown Studios in Miramar .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Jackson 's Weta Digital created the visual effects , which included computer @-@ generated imagery , as well as scale models ( which were necessary to make Wellington look American ) , prosthetic makeup and practical effects with help from Weta Workshop . Visual effects supervisor Richard Taylor explained that effects work on The Frighteners was complex due to Weta 's inexperience with computer technology in the mid @-@ 1990s . Prior to this film , Weta worked largely with physical effects . With so many ghosts among its main cast , The Frighteners required more digital effects shots than almost any movie made up till that time . For a special effects company that had been in existence less than three years , the eighteen @-@ month period for completing The Frighteners was largely stressful . Some shots were handled by a small New Zealand company called Pixel Perfect , many of whose employees would eventually join Weta Digital . Rick Baker was hired to design the prosthetic makeup for The Judge , portrayed by John Astin ( the detachable jawbone was later added digitally ) . However , Baker was not able to apply Astin 's five hours of makeup himself due to his commitment on The Nutty Professor . Makeup artist Brian Penikas ( Pirates of the Caribbean trilogy , Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull ) fulfilled Baker 's duties .
The extended shooting schedule owed much to the fact that scenes where ghosts and human characters interacted had to be filmed twice ; once with human characters acting on set , and then with the ghost characters acting against a blue screen . The two elements would later be digitally composited into one shot with the use of split screen photography . Such sequences required precise timing from the cast as they traded dialogue with characters who were merely blank air . The hardest challenge for the digital animators at Weta was creating the Grim Reaper , which went through many transformations before finding physical form . " We set out with the intention of doing the Reaper as a rod puppet , maybe shooting it in a water tank , " Jackson commented . " We even thought of filming someone , dressed in costume , at different camera speeds . " Test footage was shot with puppets and a man in a Reaper suit , but in the end , it was decided that using computer animation would be the easiest task . Another entirely computerized character called " the Gatekeeper " , a winged cherub who helps guard the cemetery , was deleted from the final cut .
With digital effects work running behind schedule , Zemeckis convinced Wes Takahashi , an animation supervisor from visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic , to help work on The Frighteners . " The shots Zemeckis showed me were pretty remarkable , " Takahashi reflected , " but there were still about 400 shots to do , and everyone was kind of worried . " Takahashi was quickly drafted as a visual effects supervisor , and began looking at the schedule , trying to work out whether The Frighteners could be finished in time . " There was no way we 'd make the deadline . I figured out a concerted plan involving Jackson and Zemeckis to convince Universal it was worthy of asking for more money . " The executives at Universal proposed splitting some of the shots to visual effects companies in the United States , but Jackson , for whom the film was a chance to show New Zealand filmmaking could stand alongside Hollywood , convinced Universal otherwise . Instead , The Frighteners received an accelerated release date , four months earlier than planned , and an additional $ 6 million in financing , with fifteen digital animators and computer workstations ( some were borrowed from Universal and other effects companies in the US ) . Andrew Adamson was hired as a digital effects supervisor .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film score was written and composed by Danny Elfman . It was released in 1996 on cassette and compact disc by Universal Records . The closing credits play a cover of Blue Öyster Cult 's " ( Don 't Fear ) The Reaper " performed by New Zealand alternative rock band The Mutton Birds . The Mutton Birds version of the song had been previously released as a B @-@ side to their single " She 's Been Talking " released in 1996 . It plays also " Superstar " , written by Bonnie Bramlett + Leon Russell and performed by Sonic Youth
Critical reception was average ; Jason Ankeny of album database Allmusic described the soundtrack as " imaginative " giving it three stars out of five . This was a lower rating on the site than Elfman 's other scores of the era , such as Mission : Impossible , Mars Attacks ! and Flubber . The soundtrack review website Filmtracks referred to the album as " lacking much cohesion or singular creativity " .
= = Release = =
The original release date was October 31 , 1996 , but after Universal studio executives viewed a rough cut of The Frighteners , they were impressed enough to move the release date to their " summer blockbuster slot " on July 19 , 1996 . In addition , Universal offered the filmmaker the opportunity to make King Kong , which was not released until 2005 . Jackson often disputed over the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) over the film 's rating . Aware that he was meant to be delivering Universal a PG @-@ 13 rating , Jackson tried his best to omit the amount of graphic violence as much as possible , but the MPAA still believed The Frighteners deserved an R rating .
= = = Box office = = =
The Frighteners was released in the United States in 1 @,@ 675 theaters , and opened at # 5 , earning $ 5 @,@ 565 @,@ 495 during its opening weekend , averaging $ 3 @,@ 335 per theater . The film eventually grossed a worldwide total of $ 29 @,@ 359 @,@ 216 . The Frighteners ended up being a box office disappointment , mostly due to competition from Independence Day ; in interviews conducted years after The Frighteners ' release , Jackson commented he was disappointed by Universal 's ubiquitous marketing campaign , including a poster which " didn 't tell you anything about the picture " , which he believed was the primary reason the film was not a financial success . Additionally , the film opened on the same day the Atlanta Summer Olympics began ; when Jackson realized this and told the studio , they answered " ' We don 't think so ; our research indicates that 's not the case ... ' And I just thought how the hell do they know ? There had only ever been three Olympic Games held in the United States in one hundred years ! " Jackson acknowledged The Frighteners ' tone made it hard to pigeon @-@ hole and sell , and his experience on the film made him understand the importance of marketing .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Frighteners received generally positive reviews from film critics . As of June 2014 , 64 % of the 36 reviewers selected by review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a positive review , certifying it " Fresh " with an average score of 6 @.@ 2 / 10 ; the consensus states : " Boasting top @-@ notch special effects and exuberant direction from Peter Jackson , The Frighteners is visually striking but tonally uneven . "
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times stated " Director Peter Jackson , at home with all kinds of excess in New Zealand , keeps everything spinning nicely , not even losing a step when the mood turns increasingly disturbing . " Janet Maslin from The New York Times enjoyed The Frighteners , but " walked out the theater with mixed emotions , " she commented that " Peter Jackson deserves more enthusiasm for expert , imaginative effects than for his live actors anyhow . These lively touches would leave The Frighteners looking more like a more frantic Beetlejuice if Jackson 's film weren 't so wearyingly overcrowded . The Frighteners is not immune to overkill , even though most of its characters are already dead . " Jeff Vice of the Deseret News praised the acting in the film , with the performances of Fox and Alvarado in particular , but said that there were also " bits that push the taste barrier too far and which grind things to a screeching halt " , and that if " Jackson had used the restraint he showed in Heavenly Creatures , the movie could have " been the best of its kind " . Critic Christopher Null praised the film , as he described it as a mixture between Ghostbusters and Twin Peaks . Michael Drucker of IGN said that although the film wouldn 't make Jackson 's top five of movies , it " is a harmless and fun dark comedy that you 'll enjoy casually watching from time to time " . The Frighteners received mixed reviews from critics from Jackson 's native country , New Zealand .
Conversely , Todd McCarthy of Variety thought that the film should have remained an episode of Tales from the Crypt . Critic James Berardinelli believed that although The Frighteners wasn 't " a bad film " , it was " a disappointment , following Jackson 's powerful , true @-@ life matricide tale , Heavenly Creatures " , and because of that " The Frighteners fell short of expectations by being just one of many in the long line of 1996 summer movies . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Roger Ebert , felt that Jackson was more interested in prosthetic makeup designs , computer animation , and special effects than writing a cohesive storyline . Ebert and critic Gene Siskel gave it a " two thumbs down " rating on their TV show At the Movies with Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert . Chicago Reader critic Jonathan Rosenbaum , described the film 's special effects as " ugly , aggressive " and " proliferating " , saying that " trying to keep interested in [ the special effects ] was like trying to remain interested in a loudmouth shouting in [ his ] ear " . Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle stated that " instead of moving the horror genre in new directions , The Frighteners simply falls apart from its barrage of visual effects and the overmixed onslaught of Danny Elfman 's music score " . The Austin Chronicle 's Joey O 'Brien , said that although the screenplay was " practically loaded with wild ideas , knowingly campy dialogue and offbeat characterizations " , it " switched gears " too fast and too frequently that " the audience is left struggling to catch up as [ The Frighteners ] twists and turns its way unmercifully towards a literally out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ world finale " .
At the 23rd Saturn Awards , the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films honored Jackson with nominations for Best Direction and Best Writing , the latter he shared with wife Fran Walsh . The Frighteners also was nominated the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film , and for its Special Effects , Make @-@ up ( Rick Baker ) and Music ( Danny Elfman ) . Michael J. Fox and Jeffrey Combs were also nominated for their work .
= = Home media = =
The Frighteners was first released on DVD in August 1998 , but included no special features .
To coincide with the release of Jackson 's King Kong , Universal Studios Home Entertainment issued a double @-@ sided director 's cut DVD of the film in November 2005 , which featured a version of The Frighteners that was 12 minutes longer . The other side includes a documentary prepared by Jackson and WingNut Films originally for the Laserdisc release . The director 's cut was also made available in HD DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
|
= Dragonfly =
A dragonfly is an insect belonging to the order Odonata , suborder Anisoptera ( from Greek ἄνισος anisos " uneven " and πτερόν pteron , " wing " , because the hindwing is broader than the forewing ) . Adult dragonflies are characterized by large multifaceted eyes , two pairs of strong transparent wings , sometimes with coloured patches and an elongated body . Dragonflies can be mistaken for the related group , damselflies ( Zygoptera ) , which are similar in structure , though usually lighter in build ; however , the wings of most dragonflies are held flat and away from the body , while damselflies hold the wings folded at rest , along or above the abdomen . Dragonflies are agile fliers , while damselflies have a weaker , fluttery flight . Many dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced by structural coloration , making them conspicuous in flight . An adult dragonfly eye has nearly 24 @,@ 000 ommatidia .
Fossils of very large dragonfly ancestors in the Protodonata are found from 325 million years ago ( Mya ) in Upper Carboniferous rocks ; these had wingspans up to about 750 mm ( 30 in ) . About 3000 species of Anisoptera are in the world today . Most are tropical , with fewer species in temperate regions .
Dragonflies are predators , both in their aquatic larval stage , when they are known as nymphs or naiads , and as adults . Several years of their lives are spent as nymphs living in fresh water ; the adults may be on the wing for just a few days or weeks . They are fast , agile fliers , sometimes migrating across oceans , and are often found near water . They have a uniquely complex mode of reproduction involving indirect insemination , delayed fertilization , and sperm competition . During mating , the male grasps the female at the back of the head or on the prothorax , and the female curls her abdomen under her body to pick up sperm from the male 's secondary genitalia at the front of his abdomen , forming the " heart " or " wheel " posture .
Loss of wetland habitat threatens dragonfly populations around the world . Dragonflies are represented in human culture on artifacts such as pottery , rock paintings , and Art Nouveau jewellery . They are used in traditional medicine in Japan and China , and caught for food in Indonesia . They are symbols of courage , strength , and happiness in Japan , but seen as sinister in European folklore . Their bright colours and agile flight are admired in the poetry of Alfred , Lord Tennyson and the prose of H. E. Bates .
= = Phylogeny = =
Dragonflies and their relatives are an ancient group . The oldest fossils are of the Protodonata from the 325 Mya Upper Carboniferous of Europe , a group that included the largest insect that ever lived , Meganeuropsis permiana from the early Permian , with a wingspan around 750 mm ( 30 in ) ; their fossil record ends with the Permian – Triassic extinction event ( about 247 Mya ) . The Protoanisoptera , another ancestral group which lacks certain wing vein characters found in modern Odonata , lived from the Early to Late Permian age until the end Permian event , and are known from fossil wings from current day United States , Russia , and Australia , suggesting they might have been cosmopolitan in distribution . The forerunners of modern Odonata are included in a clade called the Panodonata , which include the basal Zygoptera ( damselflies ) and the Anisoptera ( true dragonflies ) Today there are some 3000 species extant around the world .
The relationships of anisopteran families are not fully resolved as of 2013 , but all the families are monophyletic except the Corduliidae ; the Gomphidae are a sister taxon to all other Anisoptera , the Austropetaliidae are a sister to the Aeshnoidea , and the Chlorogomphidae are a sister to a clade that includes the Synthemistidae and Libellulidae . On the cladogram , dashed lines indicate unresolved relationships ; English names are given ( in parentheses ) :
= = Distribution and diversity = =
About 3012 species of dragonflies were known in 2010 ; these are classified into 348 genera in 11 families . The distribution of diversity within the biogeographical regions are summarised below ( the world numbers are not ordinary totals , as overlaps in species occur ) .
Dragonflies are found on every continent except Antarctica . In contrast to the damselflies ( Zygoptera ) , which tend to have restricted distributions , some genera and species are found across continents . For example , the blue @-@ eyed darner Rhionaeschna multicolor is found all across North America , and in Central America ; emperors Anax are found throughout the Americas from as far north as Newfoundland to as far south as Bahia Blanca in Argentina , across Europe to central Asia , North Africa , and the Middle East . The globe skimmer Pantala flavescens is probably the most widespread dragonfly species in the world ; it is cosmopolitan , occurring on all continents in the warmer regions . Most Anisoptera species are tropical , with far fewer species in temperate regions .
Dragonflies including libellulids and aeshnids are found in desert pools , for example in the Mojave Desert , where they are active in shade temperatures between 18 and 45 ° C ( 64 @.@ 4 to 113 ° F ) ; these insects were able to survive body temperatures above the thermal death point of insects of the same species found in cooler places .
Dragonflies can be found from sea level up to the mountains , decreasing in species diversity with altitude . Their altitudinal limit is about 3700 m , represented by a species of Aeshna in the Pamirs .
Dragonflies become scarce at higher latitudes . They are not native to Iceland , but individuals are occasionally swept in by strong winds , including a Hemianax ephippiger native to North Africa , and an unidentified darter species . In Kamchatka , only a few species of dragonfly including the treeline emerald Somatochlora arctica and some aeshnids such as Aeshna subarctica are found , possibly because of the low temperature of the lakes there . The treeline emerald is also found in northern Alaska , within the Arctic Circle , making it the most northerly of all dragonflies .
= = General description = =
Dragonflies ( suborder Anisoptera ) are heavy @-@ bodied , strong @-@ flying insects that hold their wings horizontally both in flight and at rest . By contrast , damselflies ( suborder Zygoptera ) have slender bodies and fly more weakly ; most species fold their wings over the abdomen when stationary , and the eyes are well separated on the sides of the head .
An adult dragonfly has three distinct segments , the head , thorax , and abdomen as in all insects . It has a chitinous exoskeleton of hard plates held together with flexible membranes . The head is large with very short antennae . It is dominated by the two compound eyes , which cover most of its surface . The compound eyes are made up of ommatidia , the numbers being greater in the larger species . Aeshna interrupta has 22650 ommatidia of two varying sizes , 4500 being large . The facets facing downward tend to be smaller . Petalura gigantea has 23890 ommatidia of just one size . These facets provide complete vision in the frontal hemisphere of the dragonfly . The compound eyes meet at the top of the head ( except in the Gomphidae , as also in the genus Epiophlebia ) . Also , they have three simple eyes or ocelli . The mouthparts are adapted for biting with a toothed jaw ; the flap @-@ like labrum , at the front of the mouth , can be shot rapidly forward to catch prey . The head has a system for locking it in place that consists of muscles and small hairs on the back of the head that grip structures on the front of the first thoracic segment . This arrester system is unique to the Odonata and is activated when feeding and during tandem flight .
The thorax consists of three segments as in all insects . The prothorax is small and is flattened dorsally into a shield @-@ like disc which has two transverse ridges . The mesothorax and metathorax are fused into a rigid , box @-@ like structure with internal bracing , and provides a robust attachment for the powerful wing muscles inside it . The thorax bears two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs . The wings are long , veined , and membranous , narrower at the tip and wider at the base . The hindwings are broader than the forewings and the venation is different at the base . The veins carry haemolymph which is pumped in at the time of emergence from the nymphal stage to expand the wings . The leading edge of each wing has a node where other veins join the marginal vein , and the wing is able to flex at this point . In most large species of dragonflies , the wings of females are shorter and broader than those of males . The legs are not used for walking , but are used to catch and hold prey , for perching , and for climbing on plants . Each has two short basal joints , two long joints , and a three @-@ jointed foot , armed with a pair of claws . The long leg joints bear rows of spines , and in males , one row of spines on each front leg is modified to form an " eyebrush " , for cleaning the surface of the compound eye .
The abdomen is long and slender and consists of 10 segments and a terminal appendage @-@ bearing segment . The second and third segments are enlarged , and in males , a cleft on the underside of the second segment contains a pair of claspers and the penis . The spermaries open on the 9th segment . In females , the genital opening is on the underside of the eighth segment and is covered by a simple flap or an ovipositor , depending on species and the method of egg @-@ laying .
Dragonfly nymphs vary in form with species and are loosely classed into claspers , sprawlers , hiders , and burrowers . The first instar is known as a prolarva , a relatively inactive stage from which it quickly moults into the more active nymphal form . The general body plan is similar to that of an adult , but the nymph lacks wings and reproductive organs . The lower jaw has a huge , extensible labium , armed with hooks and spines , which is used for catching prey . This labium is folded under the body at rest and struck out at great speed by hydraulic pressure created by the abdominal muscles . Whereas damselfly nymphs have three feathery external gills , dragonfly nymphs have internal gills , located around the fourth and fifth abdominal segments . Water is pumped in and out of the abdomen through an opening at the tip . The naiads of some clubtails ( Gomphidae ) that burrow into the sediment , have a snorkel @-@ like tube at the end of the abdomen enabling them to draw in clean water while they are buried in mud . Naiads can forcefully expel a jet of water to propel themselves with great rapidity .
= = = Coloration = = =
Many adult dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced by structural coloration , making them conspicuous in flight . Their overall coloration is often a combination of yellow , red , brown , and black pigments , with structural colours . Blues are typically created by microstructures in the cuticle that reflect blue light . Greens often combine a structural blue with a yellow pigment . Freshly emerged adults , known as tenerals , are often pale @-@ coloured and obtain their typical colours after a few days , some have their bodies covered with a pale blue , waxy powderiness called pruinosity ; it wears off when scraped during mating , leaving darker areas .
Some dragonflies , such as the green darner , Anax junius , have a noniridescent blue which is produced structurally by scatter from arrays of tiny spheres in the endoplasmic reticulum of epidermal cells underneath the cuticle .
The wings of dragonflies are generally clear , apart from the dark veins and pterostigmata . In the chasers ( Libellulidae ) , however , many genera have areas of colour on the wings : for example , groundlings ( Brachythemis ) have brown bands on all four wings , while some scarlets ( Crocothemis ) and dropwings ( Trithemis ) have bright orange patches at the wing bases . Some aeshnids such as the brown hawker ( Aeshna grandis ) have translucent , pale yellow wings .
Dragonfly nymphs are usually a well @-@ camouflaged blend of dull brown , green , and grey .
= = Biology = =
= = = Ecology = = =
Dragonflies and damselflies are predatory both in the aquatic nymphal and adult stages . Nymphs feed on a range of freshwater invertebrates and larger ones can prey on tadpoles and small fish . Adults capture insect prey in the air , making use of their acute vision and highly controlled flight . The mating system of dragonflies is complex and they are among the few insect groups that have a system of indirect sperm transfer along with sperm storage , delayed fertilization , and sperm competition .
Adult males vigorously defend territories near water ; these areas provide suitable habitat for the larvae to develop , and for females to lay their eggs . Swarms of feeding adults aggregate to prey on swarming prey such as emerging flying ants or termites .
Dragonflies as a group occupy a considerable variety of habitats , but many species , and some families , have their own specific environmental requirements . Some species prefer flowing waters , while others prefer standing water . For example , the Gomphidae ( clubtails ) live in running water , and the Libellulidae ( skimmers ) live in still water . Some species are found in temporary water pools and are capable of tolerating changes in water level , desiccation , and the resulting variations in temperature , but some genera such as Sympetrum ( darters ) have eggs and larvae that can resist drought and are stimulated to grow rapidly in warm , shallow pools , also often benefiting from the absence of predators there . Vegetation and its characteristics including submerged , floating , emergent , or waterside are also important . Adults may require emergent or waterside plants to use as perches ; others may need specific submerged or floating plants on which to lay eggs . Requirements may be highly specific , as in Aeshna viridis ( green hawker ) , which lives in swamps with the water @-@ soldier , Stratiotes aloides . The chemistry of the water , including its trophic status ( degree of enrichment with nutrients ) and pH can also affect its use by dragonflies . Most species need moderate conditions , not too eutrophic , not too acid ; a few species such as Sympetrum danae ( black darter ) and Libellula quadrimaculata ( four @-@ spotted chaser ) prefer acidic waters such as peat bogs , while others such as Libellula fulva ( scarce chaser ) need slow @-@ moving , eutrophic waters with reeds or similar waterside plants .
= = = Behaviour = = =
Many dragonflies , particularly males , are territorial . Some defend a territory against others of their own species , some against other species of dragonfly and a few against insects in unrelated groups . A particular perch may give a dragonfly a good view over an insect @-@ rich feeding ground , and the blue dasher ( Pachydiplax longipennis ) jostles other dragonflies to maintain the right to alight there .
Defending a breeding territory is fairly common among male dragonflies , especially among species that congregate around ponds in large numbers . The territory contains desirable features such as a sunlit stretch of shallow water , a special plant species , or a particular substrate necessary for egg @-@ laying . The territory may be small or large , depending on its quality , the time of day , and the number of competitors , and may be held for a few minutes or several hours . Some dragonflies signal ownership with striking colours on the face , abdomen , legs , or wings . The common whitetail ( Plathemis lydia ) dashes towards an intruder holding its white abdomen aloft like a flag . Other dragonflies engage in aerial dogfights or high @-@ speed chases . A female must mate with the territory holder before laying her eggs .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Mating in dragonflies is a complex , precisely choreographed process . First , the male has to attract a female to his territory , continually driving off rival males . When he is ready to mate , he transfers a packet of sperm from his primary genital opening on segment 9 , near the end of his abdomen , to his secondary genitalia on segments 2 – 3 , near the base of his abdomen . The male then grasps the female by the head with the claspers at the end of his abdomen ; the structure of the claspers varies between species , and may help to prevent interspecific mating . The pair flies in tandem with the male in front , typically perching on a twig or plant stem . The female then curls her abdomen downwards and forwards under her body to pick up the sperm from the male 's secondary genitalia , while the male uses his " tail " claspers to grip the female behind the head : this distinctive posture is called the " heart " or " wheel " ; the pair may also be described as being " in cop " .
Egg @-@ laying ( ovipositing ) involves not only the female darting over floating or waterside vegetation to deposit eggs on a suitable substrate , but also the male hovering above her or continuing to clasp her and flying in tandem . The male attempts to prevent rivals from removing his sperm and inserting their own , something made possible by delayed fertilisation and driven by sexual selection . If successful , a rival male uses his penis to compress or scrape out the sperm inserted previously ; this activity takes up much of the time that a copulating pair remains in the heart posture . Flying in tandem has the advantage that less effort is needed by the female for flight and more can be expended on egg @-@ laying , and when the female submerges to deposit eggs , the male may help to pull her out of the water .
Egg @-@ laying takes two different forms depending on the species . The female in some families has a sharp @-@ edged ovipositor with which she slits open a stem or leaf of a plant on or near the water , so she can push her eggs inside . In other families such as clubtails ( Gomphidae ) , cruisers ( Macromiidae ) , emeralds ( Corduliidae ) , and skimmers ( Libellulidae ) , the female lays eggs by tapping the surface of the water repeatedly with her abdomen , by shaking the eggs out of her abdomen as she flies along , or by placing the eggs on vegetation . In a few species , the eggs are laid on emergent plants above the water , and development is delayed until these have withered and become immersed .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Dragonflies are hemimetabolous insects ; they do not have a pupal stage and undergo an incomplete metamorphosis with a series of nymphal stages from which the adult emerges . Eggs laid inside plant tissues are usually shaped like grains of rice , while other eggs are the size of a pinhead , ellipsoidal , or nearly spherical . A clutch may have as many as 1500 eggs , and they take about a week to hatch into aquatic nymphs or naiads which moult between six and 15 times ( depending on species ) as they grow . Most of a dragonfly 's life is spent as a nymph , beneath the water 's surface . The nymph extends its labium ( a toothed mouthpart ) to catch animals such as mosquito larvae , tadpoles , and small fish . They breathe through gills in their rectum , and can rapidly propel themselves by suddenly expelling water through the anus . Some naiads , such as the later stages of Antipodophlebia asthenes , hunt on land .
The larval stage of dragonflies lasts up to five years in large species , and between two months and three years in smaller species . When the naiad is ready to metamorphose into an adult , it stops feeding and makes its way to the surface , generally at night . It remains stationary with its head out of the water , while its respiration system adapts to breathing air , then climbs up a reed or other emergent plant , and moults ( ecdysis ) . Anchoring itself firmly in a vertical position with its claws , its skin begins to split at a weak spot behind the head . The adult dragonfly crawls out of its larval skin , the exuvia , arching backwards when all but the tip of its abdomen is free , to allow its exoskeleton to harden . Curling back upwards , it completes its emergence , swallowing air , which plumps out its body , and pumping haemolymph into its wings , which causes them to expand to their full extent .
Dragonflies in temperate areas can be categorized into two groups , an early group and a later one . In any one area , individuals of a particular " spring species " emerge within a few days of each other . The springtime darner ( Basiaeschna janata ) , for example , is suddenly very common in the spring , but has disappeared a few weeks later and is not seen again until the following year . By contrast , a " summer species " emerges over a period of weeks or months , later in the year . They may be seen on the wing for several months , but this may represent a whole series of individuals , with new adults hatching out as earlier ones complete their short lifespans .
= = = Sex ratios = = =
The sex ratio of male to female dragonflies varies both temporally and spatially . Adult dragonflies have a high male @-@ biased ratio at breeding habitats . The male @-@ bias ratio has contributed partially to the females using different habitats to avoid male harassment . As seen in Hine ’ s emerald dragonfly ( Somatochlora hineana ) , male populations use wetland habitats , while females use dry meadows and marginal breeding habitats , only migrating to the wetlands to lay their eggs or to find mating partners . Unwanted mating is energetically costly for females because it affects the amount of time that they are able to spend foraging .
= = = Flight = = =
Dragonflies are powerful and agile fliers , capable of migrating across oceans , moving in any direction , and changing direction suddenly . In flight , the adult dragonfly can propel itself in six directions : upward , downward , forward , back , to left and to right . They have four different styles of flight : A number of flying modes are used that include counter @-@ stroking , with forewings beating 180 ° out of phase with the hindwings , is used for hovering and slow flight . This style is efficient and generates a large amount of lift ; phased @-@ stroking , with the hindwings beating 90 ° ahead of the forewings , is used for fast flight . This style creates more thrust , but less lift than counter @-@ stroking ; synchronised @-@ stroking , with forewings and hindwings beating together , is used when changing direction rapidly , as it maximises thrust ; and gliding , with the wings held out , is used in three situations : free gliding , for a few seconds in between bursts of powered flight ; gliding in the updraft at the crest of a hill , effectively hovering by falling at the same speed as the updraft ; and in certain dragonflies such as darters , when " in cop " with a male , the female sometimes simply glides while the male pulls the pair along by beating his wings .
The wings are powered directly , with the flight muscles attached to the wing bases . Dragonflies have a high power / weight ratio , and have been documented accelerating at 4 G linearly and 9 G in sharp turns while pursuing prey .
Dragonflies generate lift in at least four ways at different times , including classical lift like an aircraft wing ; supercritical lift with the wing above the critical angle , generating high lift and using very short strokes to avoid stalling ; creating vortices ; and vortex shedding . Some families appear to use special mechanisms , as for example the Libellulidae which take off rapidly , their wings beginning pointed far forward and twisted almost vertically . Dragonfly wings behave highly dynamically during flight , flexing and twisting during each beat . Among the variables are wing curvature , length and speed of stroke , angle of attack , forward / back position of wing , and phase relative to the other wings .
= = = = Flight speed = = = =
Old and unreliable claims are made that dragonflies such as the southern giant darner can fly up to 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . However , the greatest reliable flight speed records are for other types of insects . In general , large dragonflies like the hawkers have a maximum speed of 10 – 15 metres per second ( 22 – 34 mph ) with average cruising speed of about 4 @.@ 5 metres per second ( 10 mph ) . Dragonflies can fly at 100 body @-@ lengths per second , and three lengths per second backwards .
= = = = Motion camouflage = = = =
In high @-@ speed territorial battles between male Australian emperors ( Hemianax papuensis ) , the fighting dragonflies adjust their flight paths to appear stationary to their rivals , minimizing the chance of being detected as they approach . To achieve the effect , the attacking dragonfly flies towards his rival , choosing his path to remain on a line between the rival and the start of his attack path . The attacker thus looms larger as he closes on the rival , but does not otherwise appear to move . Researchers found that six of 15 encounters involved motion camouflage .
= = = Temperature control = = =
The flight muscles need to be kept at a suitable temperature for the dragonfly to be able to fly . Being cold @-@ blooded , they can raise their temperature by basking in the sun . Early in the morning , they may choose to perch in a vertical position with the wings outstretched , while in the middle of the day , a horizontal stance may be chosen . Another method of warming up used by some larger dragonflies is wing @-@ whirring , a rapid vibration of the wings that causes heat to be generated in the flight muscles . The green darner ( Anax junius ) is known for its long @-@ distance migrations , and often resorts to wing @-@ whirring before dawn to enable it to make an early start .
Becoming too hot is another hazard , and a sunny or shady position for perching can be selected according to the ambient temperature . Some species have dark patches on the wings which can provide shade for the body , and a few use the obelisk posture to avoid overheating . This behaviour involves doing a " handstand " , perching with the body raised and the abdomen pointing towards the sun , thus minimising the amount of solar radiation received . On a hot day , dragonflies sometimes adjust their body temperature by skimming over a water surface and briefly touching it , often three times in quick succession . This may also help to avoid desiccation .
= = = Feeding = = =
Adult dragonflies hunt on the wing using their exceptionally acute eyesight and strong , agile flight . They are almost exclusively carnivorous , eating a wide variety of insects ranging from small midges and mosquitoes to butterflies , moths , damselflies , and smaller dragonflies . A large prey item is subdued by being bitten on the head and is carried by the legs to a perch . Here , the wings are discarded and the prey usually ingested head first . A dragonfly may consume as much as a fifth of its body weight in prey per day .
The larvae are voracious predators , eating most living things that are smaller than they are . Their staple diet is mostly bloodworms and other insect larvae , but they also feed on tadpoles and small fish . A few species , especially those that live in temporary waters , are likely to leave water . Nymphs of Cordulegaster bidentata sometimes hunt small arthropods on the ground at night .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Although dragonflies are swift and agile fliers , some predators are fast enough to catch them . These include falcons such as the American kestrel , the merlin , and the hobby ; nighthawks , swifts , flycatchers and swallows also take some adults ; some species of wasps , too , prey on dragonflies , using them to provision their nests , laying an egg on each captured insect . In the water , various species of ducks and herons eat dragonfly larvae and they are also preyed on by newts , frogs , fish , and water spiders . Amur falcons , which migrate over the Indian Ocean at a period that coincides with the migration of the globe skimmer dragonfly , Pantala flavescens , may actually be feeding on them while on the wing .
Dragonflies are affected by three major parasites : water mites , gregarine protozoa , and trematode flatworms ( flukes ) . Water mites , Hydracarina , can kill smaller dragonfly larvae , and may also be seen on adults . Gregarines infect the gut and may cause blockage and secondary infection . Trematodes are parasites of vertebrates such as frogs , with complex lifecycles often involving a period as a stage called a cercaria in a secondary host , a snail . Dragonfly nymphs may swallow cercariae , or these may tunnel through a nymph 's body wall ; they then enter the gut and form a cyst or metacercaria , which remains in the nymph for the whole of its development . If the nymph is eaten by a frog , the amphibian becomes infected by the adult or fluke stage of the trematode .
= = Dragonflies and humans = =
= = = Conservation = = =
Most odonatologists live in temperate areas and the dragonflies of North America and Europe have been the subject of much research . However , the majority of species live in tropical areas and have been little studied . With the destruction of rainforest habitats , many of these species are in danger of becoming extinct before they have even been named . The greatest cause of decline is forest clearance with the consequent drying up of streams and pools which become clogged with silt . The damming of rivers for hydroelectric schemes and the drainage of low @-@ lying land has reduced suitable habitat , as has pollution and the introduction of alien species .
In 1997 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature set up a status survey and conservation action plan for dragonflies . This proposes the establishment of protected areas around the world and the management of these areas to provide suitable habitat for dragonflies . Outside these areas , encouragement should be given to modify forestry , agricultural , and industrial practices to enhance conservation . At the same time , more research into dragonflies needs to be done , consideration should be given to pollution control and the public should be educated about the importance of biodiversity .
Habitat degradation has reduced dragonfly populations across the world , for example in Japan . Over 60 % of Japan 's wetlands were lost in the 20th century , so its dragonflies now depend largely on rice fields , ponds , and creeks . Dragonflies feed on pest insects in rice , acting as a natural pest control . Dragonflies are steadily declining in Africa , and represent a conservation priority .
The dragonfly 's long lifespan and low population density makes it vulnerable to disturbance , such as from collisions with vehicles on roads built near wetlands . Species that fly low and slow may be most at risk .
Dragonflies are attracted to shiny surfaces that produce polarization which they can mistake for water , and they have been known to aggregate close to polished gravestones , solar panels , automobiles , and other such structures on which they attempt to lay eggs . These can have a local impact on dragonfly populations ; methods of reducing the attractiveness of structures such as solar panels are under experimentation .
= = = In culture = = =
A blue @-@ glazed faience dragonfly amulet was found by Flinders Petrie at Lahun , from the Late Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt .
For some Native American tribes , dragonflies represent swiftness and activity ; for the Navajo , they symbolize pure water . They are a common motif in Zuni pottery ; stylized as a double @-@ barred cross , they appear in Hopi rock art and on Pueblo necklaces . They have been used in traditional medicine in Japan and China . In Indonesia , adults are caught on poles made sticky with birdlime , then fried in oil as a delicacy .
In the United States , dragonflies and damselflies are sought out as a hobby similar to birding and butterflying , known as oding , from the Latin name of the dragonfly order , Odonata . Oding is especially popular in Texas , where 225 different species of odonates have been observed . With care , and with dry fingers , dragonflies can be handled and released by oders , as can be done with butterflies , though it is not encouraged .
Images of dragonflies are common in Art Nouveau , especially in jewellery designs . They have also been used as a decorative motif on fabrics and home furnishings . Douglas , a British motorcycle manufacturer based in Bristol , named its innovatively designed postwar 350 @-@ cc flat @-@ twin model the Dragonfly .
Among the classical names of Japan are Akitsukuni ( 秋津国 ) , Akitsushima ( 秋津島 ) , Toyo @-@ akitsushima ( 豊秋津島 ) . Akitu or akidu are archaic or dialectal Japanese words for dragonfly , so one interpretation of Akitsushima is " Dragonfly Island " . This is attributed to a legend in which Japan 's mythical founder , Emperor Jinmu , was bitten by a mosquito , which was then eaten by a dragonfly .
As a seasonal symbol in Japan , the dragonfly is associated with autumn . More generally , dragonflies are symbols of courage , strength , and happiness , and they often appear in art and literature , especially haiku . Japanese children catch large dragonflies as a game , using a hair with a small pebble tied to each end , which they throw into the air . The dragonfly mistakes the pebbles for prey , gets tangled in the hair , and is dragged to the ground by the weight .
In Europe , dragonflies have often been seen as sinister . Some English vernacular names , such as " horse @-@ stinger " , " devil 's darning needle " , and " ear cutter " , link them with evil or injury . Swedish folklore holds that the devil uses dragonflies to weigh people 's souls . The Norwegian name for dragonflies is Øyenstikker ( " eye @-@ poker " ) , and in Portugal , they are sometimes called tira @-@ olhos ( " eyes @-@ snatcher " ) . They are often associated with snakes , as in the Welsh name gwas @-@ y @-@ neidr , " adder 's servant " . The Southern United States term " snake doctor " refers to a folk belief that dragonflies follow snakes around and stitch them back together if they are injured .
The watercolourist Moses Harris ( 1731 – 1785 ) , known for his The Aurelian or natural history of English insects ( 1766 ) , published in 1780 , the first scientific descriptions of several Odonata including the banded demoiselle , Calopteryx splendens . He was the first English artist to make illustrations of dragonflies accurate enough to be identified to species ( Aeshna grandis at top left of plate illustrated ) , though his inaccurate drawing of a larva ( at lower left ) appears to be plagiarised .
= = = In poetry and literature = = =
Lafcadio Hearn wrote in his 1901 book A Japanese Miscellany that Japanese poets had created dragonfly haiku " almost as numerous as are the dragonflies themselves in the early autumn . " The poet Matsuo Bashō ( 1644 – 1694 ) wrote haiku such as " Crimson pepper pod / add two pairs of wings , and look / darting dragonfly " , relating the autumn season to the dragonfly . Hori Bakusui ( 1718 – 1783 ) similarly wrote " Dyed he is with the / Colour of autumnal days , / O red dragonfly . "
The poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson , described a dragonfly splitting its old skin and emerging shining metallic blue like " sapphire mail " in his 1842 poem " The Two Voices " , with the lines " An inner impulse rent the veil / Of his old husk : from head to tail / Came out clear plates of sapphire mail . "
The novelist H. E. Bates described the rapid , agile flight of dragonflies in his 1937 nonfiction book Down the River :
I saw , once , an endless procession , just over an area of water @-@ lilies , of small sapphire dragonflies , a continuous play of blue gauze over the snowy flowers above the sun @-@ glassy water . It was all confined , in true dragonfly fashion , to one small space . It was a continuous turning and returning , an endless darting , poising , striking and hovering , so swift that it was often lost in sunlight .
|
= Big King =
The Big King sandwich is one of the major hamburger products sold by the international fast @-@ food restaurant chain Burger King , and has been part of its menu for more than twenty years . During its testing phase in 1996 – 1997 , it was originally called the Double Supreme and was configured similarly to the McDonald 's Big Mac — including a three piece roll . It was later reformulated as a more standard double burger during the latter part of product testing in 1997 . It was given its current name when the product was formally introduced in September 1997 , but maintained the more conventional double cheeseburger format . Its introduction capped a period of sales success for Burger King , when the company successfully took on its rival McDonald 's .
The product was renamed King Supreme in 2001 when it was slightly reformulated as part of a menu restructuring during a period of corporate decline . A later restructuring eliminated the King Supreme in favor of its new BK Stacker line of sandwiches . When the Stacker line was discontinued in the United States shortly after , the Big King returned in November 2013 as a permanent product .
Despite being off the menu in the United States for several years , the product was still sold in several other countries under several names during the interim of its unavailability in the United States . One such example sold by BK 's European arm of the company is a larger version of the sandwich called the Big King XXL , based on the company 's Whopper sandwich . The Big King XXL is part of a line of larger double cheeseburgers known as the BK XXL line ; the XXL line was the center of controversy over product health standards and advertising in Spain when first introduced .
There is a chicken variant of the sandwich in the United States and Canada . To promote continuing interest in the product , Burger King occasionally releases limited @-@ time variants on the Big King . As one of the company 's major offerings , the Big King sandwich is sometimes at the center of advertising promotions and product tie @-@ ins . Additionally , as a major product in the company 's portfolio , Burger King has registered many global trademarks to protect its investment in the product .
= = History = =
= = = Initial product run = = =
The sandwich that would eventually become the Big King was preceded by a similar sandwich called the Double Supreme cheeseburger . Burger King 's take on rival McDonald 's well @-@ known Big Mac sandwich was released as a test product in January 1996 when McDonald 's was having difficulties within the American market . Hoping to build on improving sales of Burger King and take advantage of perceived market weakness of McDonald 's , the chain introduced the Double Supreme as part of an advertising blitz against its competitor . Originally , the burger had a look and composition that resembled the Big Mac : it had two beef patties , " King " sauce , lettuce , cheese , pickles and onions on a three @-@ part sesame seed bun . Because its patties are flame @-@ broiled and larger than McDonald 's grill fried and seasoned patties , and the formulation of the " King Sauce " was different from McDonald 's " Special sauce " , the sandwich had a similar , but not exact , taste and different caloric content . The sandwich was reformulated after the initial test run , removing the center roll . The Double Supreme was advertised with a direct attack on the Big Mac , using the claims that it had 75 % more beef and less bread than the McDonald 's sandwich . A review of the Burger King sandwich by the Chicago Tribune verified these claims and also stated that the ingredients of the newer sandwich were of better quality than those of the McDonald 's product .
After the initial testing period , the sandwich was renamed the Big King and added to the national menu at the end of the summer of 1997 — the first major product introduction since the company added its BK Broiler chicken sandwich in 1990 . Unlike the Double Supreme , the new Big King lacked the interior bread piece the Big Mac had , and the advertising used to promote the Big King continued to utilize the 75 % more beef claim . However , the new sandwich was introduced while the company was dealing with a highly publicized beef recall from one of its key suppliers , Hudson Foods , and had to deal with accusations that the introduction was designed to distract the public and media from the recall . The sandwich was initially introduced in the United States at a 99 ¢ ( USD ) price point , which helped propel sales to nearly twice the estimated volume and causing many locations to sell out of the burger patties used to produce the sandwich .
McDonald 's initially downplayed the new sandwich , with a spokesman stating that there was only one place to get the real Big Mac . Despite McDonald 's claims that the sandwich was not a major issue for the company , its highly promoted Arch Deluxe sandwich was not a success and its " Campaign 55 " promotion , which reduced the price of certain sandwiches to 55 ¢ ( USD ) , was eliminated after franchisees complained that it had failed to boost sales . Against McDonald 's struggles , Burger King 's successful introduction of the Big King was later paired with a newly introduced , improved type of french fry in November of the same year . Along with these two product introductions , the company began a massive financial investment in product development across all parts of its menu which , in total , provided a boost in the chain 's market performance . The mirrored failure and success for the two companies showed itself in the market share of the United States fast @-@ food market : Burger King 's share rose a percentage point , to 19 @.@ 2 % , while McDonald 's share slipped 0 @.@ 4 points , to 41 @.@ 9 % by the end of 1997 . The McDonald 's drop capped a three @-@ year decline in the larger chain 's market share in the United States , which stood at 42 @.@ 3 % at the start of 1995 .
By 2001 , Burger King 's chain @-@ wide sales were lagging . Corporate indifference from parent Diageo coupled with lagging sales at larger franchises caused by declining consumer demand for its products led the company to initiate a menu redesign to try to lure customers back into stores . The company decided to introduce a series of new product launches in a planned menu revamp . Along with a new Whopper @-@ based burger designed to compete with McDonald 's Quarter Pounder , a new breakfast sandwich designed to compete with the McMuffin sandwich , and other new products , Burger King introduced a reformulated Big King replacement called the King Supreme . The new sandwich 's ingredients were basically the same as the Big King , but the King Sauce used in the sandwich was reformulated to , according to company claims , enhance the savory nature of the grilled burger patties Burger King uses in its sandwiches . This knock @-@ off driven menu reorganization was designed to better compete with a similar menu expansion at McDonald 's , called the New Tastes Menu , introduced earlier the same year .
= = = BK Stackers = = =
Burger King changed ownership in 2002 when Diageo sold its interest in the company to a group of investment firms led by TPG Capital . After assuming ownership , TPG 's newly appointed management team began focusing menu development and advertising on a very narrow demographic group , young men aged 20 – 34 who routinely ate at fast food restaurants several times per month which the chain identified as the " super fan " . Amid this new super @-@ fan focused menu expansion the chain introduced its new BK Stacker sandwich in late 2006 , a family of sandwiches featuring the same set of toppings served as a single , double , triple or quadruple hamburger . The Stacker line was part of a series of larger , more calorie @-@ laden products introduced by the company to entice the super @-@ fan into the chain 's restaurants . These new additions helped propel same store profits for more than sixteen quarters .
The Stacker consisted of anywhere from one to four 1 @.@ 7 oz ( 48 g ) beef patties , American cheese , bacon and a Thousand @-@ Island dressing variant called Stacker sauce served on a sesame seed bun . The new sandwiches had a muted reaction in several reviews — Chowhound.com readers rated the Quad Stacker as one of the most over @-@ the @-@ top gluttonous burgers in a poll , while the Impulsive Buy stated that the sandwich was much like any other bacon cheeseburger but meatier . Despite its lukewarm reception , an internet meme relating to the sandwich developed rather quickly . Customers would create an " Octo @-@ Stacker " sandwich by purchasing two quad Stackers and mashing the two together sandwiches to create a sandwich with eight patties , eight slices of cheese and sixteen half pieces of bacon . They would then film themselves trying to eat the 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) sandwich in under five minutes .
With the onset of the Great Recession in 2008 – 2009 , this narrowly @-@ defined demographic @-@ based sales plan faltered and sales and profits for the chain declined ; Burger King 's same @-@ store comparable sales in the United States and Canada declined 4 @.@ 6 % in the three months ended September 30 , while McDonald 's posted same @-@ store comparable sales growth of 2 @.@ 5 % within the United States . The Stacker line underwent a minor reformulation in 2011 that involved deleting the top layer of cheese and changing the amount of bacon in the sandwiches , and moving the sandwiches from the core section of its menu to the company 's value menu . The changed ingredient list and pricing structure created a situation such that the distribution of ingredients did not scale at the same rate as increasing numbers of burger patties . Consumer Reports ' blog The Consumerist noted that two single Stackers at $ 1 @.@ 00 included more cheese and more bacon than one double Stacker for $ 2 @.@ 00 . Three single Stackers had 50 % more cheese and double the bacon of one triple Stacker . The Stacker line and other related calorie @-@ heavy menu items were dropped in 2012 when 3G Capital of Brazil bought the company and initiated a menu restructuring focusing on a broader demographic base .
= = = BK Toppers = = =
The BK Toppers line was a line of cheeseburgers introduced by Burger King in October 2011 as a limited time offer in North America . The sandwiches featured a new 3 @.@ 2 oz ( 91 g ) chopped beef patty made with a coarser grind than the company 's 2 oz ( 57 g ) hamburger patty . The three sandwiches included a larger version of Burger King 's Rodeo Cheeseburger , one made with sautéed mushrooms and processed Swiss cheese and the Cheeseburger Deluxe . The cheeseburger deluxe consisted of lettuce , pickles , onions , American cheese and Stacker sauce in a combinations similar to the King Supreme .
The sandwiches were a part of the new ownership 's plans to expand its customer base beyond the 18- to 34 @-@ year @-@ old demographic which it had been targeting over the previous several years . The product resurrected a previous name from the BK Hot Toppers line of sandwiches from the 1980s .
= = = Reintroduction = = =
The TPG @-@ led group of owners divested itself of Burger King in 2012 when the chain was sold to 3G Capital of Brazil . After 3G purchased Burger King , its new management team refocused on a broader menu strategy to lure a more diverse customer base . The first major change to the product base was a reformulation and name change of the company 's chicken nuggets in January 2013 . Along with other new products such as smoothies , wraps and chicken strips that broadly copied McDonald 's menu once again , the chain reintroduced the Big King as a permanent menu item in November of the same year .
The new version of the sandwich was originally made with two of the chain 's 1 @.@ 7 oz ( 48 g ) hamburger patties , but after negative consumer response regarding the size of the patties the sandwich was reformulated to use two 2 oz ( 57 g ) Whopper Jr. patties instead . A chicken variant was introduced in May 2014 . The new chicken variant swapped out the burger patties with two chicken patties used for the chain 's value menu chicken sandwiches and added a third layer of sauce to increase the moisture content of the sandwich . The sandwich was introduced nationwide in the U.S. after a period of testing in Indiana . While the chicken version of the sandwich was new to Burger King , it again copied a product from McDonald 's — in the Middle East the competing chain offers a Chicken Big Mac sandwich .
A primary reason the product was brought back was because of a new approach the company was taking regarding new and limited time offering ( LTO ) products . Instead of putting out large numbers of products that may only appeal to a small audience , it would only add a smaller amount of products that have broader market appeal . Along with its BK Chicken Fries product , the Big King was part of that goal , with the reintroduction utilizing a three prong approach : its stated intention to introduce products to those that will have most impact , a bid to appeal to Millennials utilizing social media focused campaigns , and to utilize a former product from its portfolio that the company probably should have thought about before discontinuing . The idea of reintroducing older , possibly discontinued products is appealing to companies such as Burger King and McDonald 's because it is operationally easier than launching a completely new product . In many cases the reintroduction allows these companies to utilize older advertising along with its existing supply chain which is already established to deliver the product ingredients while catering to the public 's feelings of nostalgia for these products . The limited @-@ time offers allow chains to bring " new " products to the menu without adding permanent complexity to their kitchen operations . The Chicken Big King was introduced because of an increased spike in demand for chicken @-@ based products , coupled with the success of the Big King 's reintroduction .
Burger King accredited the reintroduction of the Big King as helping the company regain a limited domestic same @-@ store comparable sales rise of .1 % in 2014 over a .9 % loss the previous fiscal year . At the same time the company 's total sales were up 2 % , with adjusted earnings per share increasing 19 @.@ 7 % to $ 0 @.@ 20 per share . This contrasted with main competitor McDonald 's only reporting a 3 % increase in global system @-@ wide sales , a 0 @.@ 5 % rise in same @-@ store sales , and a 1 @.@ 7 % decrease in same @-@ store sales in the U.S. and Canada which the competitor attributed to " challenging industry dynamics and severe winter weather . "
= = = Competitive products = = =
As noted , the Big King sandwich was introduced to compete directly with the McDonald 's Big Mac sandwich . It joins a group of sandwiches from other vendors that are designed as counters to the more well @-@ known McDonald 's sandwich . This includes the Big Shef sandwich originally from now @-@ defunct chain Burger Chef and occasionally produced as a LTO from current trademark owner Hardees .
The Big King was introduced at a time when McDonald 's was planning a similar move with a direct competitor to Burger King 's signature Whopper sandwich . The Big N ' Tasty was introduced in California at approximately the same time Big King was being nationally introduced in 1997 . Other similar products from McDonald 's were also undergoing testing at the same time ; either called the Big Xtra or the MBX , these other two sandwiches were being test marketed in the Northeastern United States . The Big N ' Tasty eventually won out in testing , however its national roll @-@ out was delayed due to a corporate reorganization at McDonald 's .
= = Product description = =
The Big King is a hamburger , consisting of two 2 oz ( 57 g ) grilled beef patties , sesame seed bun , King Sauce ( a Thousand Island dressing variant ) , iceberg lettuce , onions , pickles and American cheese . When first reintroduced in 2013 , the sandwich was made with two of the company 's 1 @.@ 7 oz ( 48 g ) hamburger patties , but was modified in February 2014 to use two of the larger 2 @.@ 0 oz ( 57 g ) Whopper Jr. patties .
= = = Notable variants = = =
The Chicken Big King was added April 2014 . This new variation on the original Big King sandwich was part of a corporate menu restructuring that began the previous year . This was part of Burger King CEO Alex Macedo 's plan to introduce simpler products that require few or no new ingredients in order to simplify operations . This new sandwich uses the company 's existing Crispy Chicken Jr patty in place of the beef and adds an extra layer of King sauce to ensure that the product stays moist .
The Big King XXL is part of a line of sandwiches consisting of larger , 8 oz ( 230 g ) double cheeseburgers sold by Burger King in the European and Middle Eastern markets . It is one of their late @-@ teen to young @-@ adult male @-@ oriented products . Besides the Big King XXL , there are double cheeseburger and bacon double cheeseburger variants .
= = Advertising = =
= = = Double Supreme = = =
The Double Supreme was promoted in a series of advertisements created by the New York firm of Ammirati Puris Lintas ( APL ) . The first ad compared the Double Supreme cheeseburger to the Big Mac , with one 30 @-@ second television spot touting the Burger King product contained 75 % more beef than the McDonald 's one and asked the viewer if Big Mac lovers were " ready for a new relationship ? " A second advertisement featured actors playing McDonald 's employees going to Burger King to get the new sandwich because they had realized that they preferred the Burger King product over the sandwich they normally sold . The attack ads were the result of the comparatively strong sales year for Burger King in 1996 coupled with domestic sales problems for McDonald 's , leaving BK acting in a " cocky " manner towards its main rival .
While Burger King 's advertising programs were highly focused on its new product , most of the company 's sales gains were the result of aggressive price cutting by Burger King , specifically pricing its signature Whopper sandwich at 99 ¢ , according to analysts at Salomon Brothers . The price cutting promotions by Burger King , and number @-@ three chain Wendy 's , forced McDonald 's into its own price cutting program . According to Salomon , the burger segment 's price wars would have a detrimental effect on the profits of segment leaders , allowing other smaller chains such as Sonic Drive @-@ In , Jack in the Box and Carl 's Jr to position themselves as attractive alternatives to the big three chains .
= = = 1997 Big King = = =
Advertising for the Big King was spearheaded by a national television program from APL that debuted on September 1 , 1997 . The television ads were part of a US $ 30 million program to promote the sandwich . It was introduced with a promotional price of 99 ¢ for the first two weeks of sales , which helped drive sales for the product . The advertisements featured the company 's new " Get Your Burger 's Worth " tagline and they attacked the Big Mac with the claim " Get ready for a new taste that beats the Big Mac . " Additional ads continued the attacks , stating " just like a Big Mac , except it 's got 75 % more beef . And it 's flame @-@ broiled . "
= = = King Supreme = = =
The King Supreme debuted with an advertising campaign created by the McCaffery Ratner Gottlieb & Lane agency and commercials produced by Aspect Ratio which featured blues legend B.B. King . The ads pushed the company 's lunch and dinner periods as the best time to have the sandwich and had King doing a voice over in which he alternately talked or sang about the sandwiches . The advertisements featured 15- and 30 @-@ second television spots in which King is shown sitting on a crescent moon , playing his guitar Lucille while speaking about the products and singing the company 's slogan . The 30 @-@ second ads were for both the King Supreme and the company 's other copycat product , the Egg McMuffin clone called the Egg 'Wich Muffin sandwich , while the 15 @-@ second ads were for each product individually . On the radio side , 30- and 60 @-@ second spots had King discussing the new sandwiches and singing their praise . The tag line for the ads was " BK and BB let you have it your way , " a variation on the company 's motto " Have it your way . "
Shortly after their debut , the ads came under fire from several fronts . Fans complained that the legendary musician was debasing himself by doing the commercials , that he was selling out by allowing his image to be used to peddle fast food . Other groups such as the American Diabetes Association pointed out that King , known for having weight issues and poorly controlled diabetes , was a questionable spokesperson for a burger chain that sells products that are not part of a healthier diet . Finally , several firms complained off the record that King was inconsistent in his endorsements , selling a highly fattening product while similarly endorsing diabetic products manufactured by the Johnson & Johnson company .
= = = 2014 Big King = = =
= = = BK XXL = = =
The ads for the XXL bacon double cheeseburger described the XXL as a Whopper " with two enormous portions of flame @-@ broiled meat that will give you all the energy you need to take the world by storm , " and used the tag line of " It 's awful being a vegetarian , right ? " .
The British and German ad program for an LTO variant called the Cheesy Bacon XXL featured an edited version of the Manthem commercial created by Crispin Porter + Bogusky that was originally used for the company 's LTO Texas Double Whopper . The line mentioning the Whopper was edited out and replaced and the picture of the product was digitally replaced with one of the Cheesy Bacon XXL . The ad was sung entirely in English ; all signage , including road signs license plates on vehicles , etc . , was not translated into German .
= = = Controversies = = =
The company 's online advertising program in Spain described the BK XXL line as being made " with two enormous portions of flame @-@ broiled meat that will give you all the energy you need to take the world by storm . " This claim combined with the television advertising were the prime motivators behind the Spanish government 's concerns with the XXL sandwich line . The government claimed that campaign violated an agreement with the government to comply with an initiative on curbing obesity by promoting such a large and unhealthy sandwich . In response to the government 's claims , Burger King replied in a statement : " In this campaign , we are simply promoting a line of burgers that has formed part of our menu in recent years . Our philosophy can be summed up with the motto ' As you like it , ' in which our customers ' taste trumps all . " The company went on to say that it offers other healthier items such as salads and that customers are free to choose their own foods and modify them as they desire .
= = Naming and trademarks = =
The name Big King was originally a registered trademark of Burger King Brands , Inc . , and displayed with the " circle @-@ R " ( ® ) symbol in its home market ; however , the federal trademark registration was cancelled in 2005 due to failure to file the required 5 @-@ year declaration of use . It was reassigned in 2014 to a California @-@ based ice cream manufacturer . [ Notes 1 ] As of February 2015 , the name is displayed with the lesser raised " TM " symbol . In most other markets in which the sandwich is sold , it is designated as a registered mark . [ Notes 2 ] The names King Supreme and Double Supreme were formerly registered trademarks in the US , [ Notes 3 ] [ Notes 4 ] while the King Supreme is still registered in Canada in both English and French spellings . [ Notes 5 ] [ Notes 6 ]
|
= 2002 Gator Bowl =
The 2002 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Florida State Seminoles at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on January 1 , 2002 . The game was the final contest of the 2001 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 30 @-@ 17 victory for Florida State .
Virginia Tech was selected to play in the 2002 Gator Bowl with an 8 – 3 regular @-@ season record despite having just played in Jacksonville at the end of the previous year . The selection of Virginia Tech over the Syracuse Orangemen ( now just the " Orange " ) despite losing head @-@ to @-@ head and Syracuse having better conference and overall records was controversial . Florida State , who had failed to win at least a share of the Atlantic Coast Conference title for the first time since joining the league in 1992 , and who had played in all three BCS National Championship games held to that point , was selected as the opponent .
The 2002 Gator Bowl kicked off on January 1 , 2002 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida , exactly one year since the Hokies had last played in the game . The game 's early going seemed promising for the defense @-@ minded Hokies . In the first quarter , Tech held Florida State scoreless despite only managing a single field goal on offense . In the second quarter , however , Florida State began to find gaps in the Hokie defense and scored 10 points . At halftime , Florida State held a 10 – 3 lead .
In the third quarter , Tech struck back . The Hokies scored 14 points in the quarter , while Florida State managed just a field goal . The Hokies ' All @-@ American tailback Lee Suggs had suffered a season @-@ ending injury in the first game of the season , but freshman Kevin Jones had carried the offense for the season , and continued to perform well in the post @-@ season Gator Bowl game . With a 5 @-@ yard run from Jones and a 55 @-@ yard pass from Grant Noel to André Davis , Tech took a 17 – 13 lead going into the fourth quarter . But the lead quickly evaporated on a 77 @-@ yard catch and run from Chris Rix to Javon Walker .
Florida State added ten more points after the long touchdown pass , and the Seminoles went on to win the game , 30 – 17 .
= = Team selection = =
At the start of the 2001 college football season , the Gator Bowl Committee held contracts with the Atlantic Coast Conference , Big East Conference , and Notre Dame , allowing the committee to select either Notre Dame or a team from each of the conferences to fill the two available slots . According to contract , the committee had the first selection of teams from each of the two conferences after the conferences ' champions were given automatic bids to a Bowl Championship Series game .
According to contract , the Gator Bowl was allowed to select any bowl @-@ eligible Big East team as long as it was within two wins of the second @-@ place team in the conference . This clause generated controversy when Virginia Tech ( 8 – 3 record ) received the Big East 's Gator Bowl spot instead of Syracuse ( 9 – 2 record ) . Syracuse fans , coaches , and players protested the selection of the third @-@ place Hokies ahead of second @-@ place Syracuse . Representing the Atlantic Coast conference was Florida State , which finished second in its conference with a record of 7 – 4 .
= = = Florida State = = =
Florida State entered the 2001 college football season after a 13 – 2 loss to Oklahoma in the national championship game . The loss was just the second for the Seminoles that season , and they finished with an 11 – 2 record . Despite their appearance in the previous year 's national championship game , the Seminoles were ranked as the No. 5 team in the country in the USA Today college football preseason poll . Florida State , which had a 70 – 2 record in Atlantic Coast Conference games since joining the conference , was again favored to win the ACC , but the Seminoles faced challenges replacing Heisman Trophy @-@ winning quarterback Chris Weinke and 14 other starters from the previous year 's team . Adding to the Seminoles ' challenges in the 2001 season was the loss of two starting wide receivers : Robert Morgan and Anquan Boldin , both of whom suffered season @-@ ending injuries before the first game of the season .
The bad omens of the preseason were discarded in the Seminoles ' first two games of the season : a 55 – 13 win against Duke and a 29 – 7 victory over Alabama @-@ Birmingham . In their third game of the season , however , Florida State suffered what was then the worst defeat in its history of play as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference , a 41 – 9 loss to North Carolina . Florida State recovered from the loss by beating Wake Forest , 48 – 24 , but lost to No. 2 Miami in the following week , 49 – 27 .
Three wins followed the loss to Miami , but two losses followed the brief winning streak : to Atlantic Coast Conference rival NC State , 34 – 28 , and in @-@ state rival Florida , 37 – 13 . The loss to NC State was the Seminoles ' first home defeat at the hands of an ACC opponent and dropped the Seminoles out of contention for the ACC championship . Following the loss to Florida , the Seminoles accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl . Florida State 's final game , a win against ACC opponent Georgia Tech , had no effect other than to improve Florida State 's regular @-@ season record , and the Seminoles began to prepare for the Gator Bowl .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies began the 2001 season having gone 11 – 1 the previous season , ending with a 41 – 20 victory in the 2001 Gator Bowl against Clemson . Fans ' hopes for the new season were not as high as the previous year , however . Star quarterback Michael Vick was selected with the first pick in the 2001 NFL Draft , and there were questions about how well the team would cope with the loss of Vick and several other important players . Despite those fears , the Hokies began the 2001 season ranked No. 9 in the coaches ' poll and were picked in the annual poll of media covering the Big East to finish second in that conference .
In the opening game of the season , Virginia Tech defeated Connecticut , 52 – 10 , but lost starting running back Lee Suggs , who tore his anterior cruciate ligament during the game . Suggs ' absence did not affect the Hokies in their next game , as they defeated Western Michigan , 31 – 0 . The Hokies continued their winning streak through the first Virginia Tech games of the season , heading into a conference contest against Syracuse with a 6 – 0 record and ranked No. 5 in the country . On October 27 , however , Syracuse ended Tech 's 16 @-@ game home winning streak by defeating the Hokies , 22 – 14 , in Lane Stadium .
The loss to Syracuse was followed by another to Pittsburgh in the following week . The twin losses effectively knocked Tech out of contention for the Big East championship , as the Hokies were then two games behind first @-@ place Miami . Tech won its next two games of the season , but because Miami remained undefeated , the matchup between No. 1 Miami and No. 14 Virginia Tech was played without conference title implications . Before the Miami game , Virginia Tech accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl , which had the first pick of Big East teams after the Bowl Championship Series gave an automatic bid to the Big East champion . Miami defeated Tech in the final regular @-@ season game for both teams , 26 – 24 , and the Hokies began preparations for the Gator Bowl .
= = = Controversy = = =
Virginia Tech 's selection for the Gator Bowl was not without controversy . The Hokies ' three Big East losses pushed them to third place in the conference , behind Miami ( which earned an automatic bid to the national championship game ) and Syracuse , which lost only one Big East Conference game . Instead of attending the Gator Bowl , Syracuse earned a bid to the 2002 Insight Bowl , considered to be a less prestigious game due to its lesser payout and shorter history . Syracuse fans , coaches , and players were offended that Virginia Tech was awarded a bid to the Gator Bowl despite Syracuse 's better record due to Tech 's reputation for bringing large numbers of fans to bowl games . In the wake of Tech 's selection , Syracuse athletic director Jake Crouthamel vowed to lobby for changes in the way the Gator Bowl 's Big East selection was made .
= = Pregame buildup = =
The Florida State / Virginia Tech matchup was the 31st game between the two teams since they first met in 1955 . At the time , Florida State held the advantage in wins , with a 19 – 10 – 1 record against Virginia Tech . Heading into the 2002 Gator Bowl , however , spread bettors predicted a reversal of that trend as Virginia Tech was favored to win by two points on Dec. 10 . This was reflective of an overall feeling of pessimism toward the Seminoles , who hadn 't finished out of first place in the ACC since joining the league in 1992 , and would not participate in the national championship game for the first time in four years . Because of this decline in stature , the fact that the game was a rematch of the 2000 national championship game received less coverage than it would have otherwise .
Ticket sales for the game were relatively rapid . By Dec. 7 , Virginia Tech had sold almost its entire initial allotment of 12 @,@ 500 tickets , Florida State fans had purchased approximately 6 @,@ 800 tickets , and total ticket sales neared the 50 @,@ 000 mark . Tech 's sales increased to more than 13 @,@ 000 by Dec. 14 , and Virginia Tech officials requested an initial allotment from the Gator Bowl . Four days later , more than 60 @,@ 000 tickets had been sold , and there were expectations that the game would be a sellout . The growing demand for tickets was demonstrated by an incident in which nearly 200 all @-@ access passes to the game were stolen in transit from the printer and resold , causing a police search for the culprits .
= = = Florida State offense = = =
At the conclusion of the regular season , Florida State was ranked No. 26 in total offense , averaging 426 @.@ 09 yards per game . The Seminoles ' rushing offense was ranked No. 55 ( 159 @.@ 64 yards per game ) , but their passing offense was No. 26 ( 266 @.@ 45 ypg ) and their scoring offense was No. 21 , averaging 33 @.@ 91 points per game on average .
On the field , the Seminoles ' offense was led by quarterback Chris Rix , whose passer rating of 150 @.@ 76 was the seventh @-@ highest in the country . Rix completed 165 of his 286 pass attempts for 2 @,@ 734 yards and 24 touchdowns , setting an Atlantic Coast Conference record for total offense by a freshman . In recognition of the achievement , he was named the ACC Freshman of the Year . Rix 's preferred passing target was wide receiver Javon Walker , who led the team by catching 45 passes for 944 yards and seven touchdowns . Fellow wide receiver Talman Gardner outpaced Walker in touchdowns , catching 11 during the season , enough for No. 5 in Florida State history to that point .
The Seminoles ' ground offense was led by running back Greg Jones , who finished the regular season with 713 yards and six rushing touchdowns . Florida State 's rushing game also was assisted by the mobility of Chris Rix , who gained 389 yards during the regular season , enough for No. 3 on the team in rushing yards . The Seminoles ' kicking game was run by placekicker Xavier Beitia , who successfully kicked 13 of 14 field goals and 44 of 48 extra points during the season for a total of 83 points .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offense was slightly worse than the national average during the regular season . The Hokies were ranked No. 64 in total offense , averaging 374 @.@ 09 yards per game . In particular , Tech 's passing offense was lacking . That segment of the offense was ranked No. 86 , averaging 179 @.@ 36 yards . This figure was somewhat balanced by the Hokies ' rushing attack , which was ranked No. 55 ( 194 @.@ 73 ypg ) . Despite the worse @-@ than @-@ average yardage totals , Tech was ranked No. 25 in scoring offense , or 32 @.@ 64 points per game . Prior to the Gator Bowl , it was announced that Virginia Tech offensive coordinator Rickey Bustle would be leaving the team to take the same position at the Louisiana @-@ Lafayette . Despite the move , he confirmed he would coach the Hokies during the bowl game in his last act as a Virginia Tech coach .
On the field , the Hokies were led by quarterback Grant Noel , who completed 146 of his 254 pass attempts for 1 @,@ 826 passing yards , 16 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions . Noel 's favorite passing target was André Davis , who caught 39 passes for 623 yards and seven touchdowns . In recognition of his success , Davis was named a first @-@ team all @-@ Big East selection . Fullback Jarrett Ferguson also set three single @-@ season receiving records by catching 25 passes for 256 yards and three touchdowns , all of which were school records for a fullback . Despite those numbers , most of Virginia Tech 's offense was gained on the ground . At the beginning of the season , running back Lee Suggs was the leader of the Hokies ' rushing offense . He set Virginia Tech records for career rushing touchdowns and career touchdowns before suffering a season @-@ ending injury in the Hokies ' game against Connecticut . Following Suggs ' injury , his role was taken up by freshman running back Kevin Jones , who set a Tech freshman running record by accumulating 957 yards . That figure also was the fifth most in Division I @-@ A , and he was named Big East rookie of the year and an All @-@ American by The Sporting News .
= = = Florida State defense = = =
Florida State 's defense was ranked No. 43 in the country at the conclusion of the regular season . The Seminoles allowed 356 @.@ 36 yards per game , on average . State 's rushing defense was ranked No. 32 ( 126 ypg ) , while its passing defense was ranked No. 76 ( 230 @.@ 36 ypg ) . The Seminoles ' defensive squad was led by middle linebacker Bradley Jennings , who had 121 tackles during the regular season — the most on the team . Defensive tackle Darnell Dockett also was a standout performer statistically for the Seminoles , leading the team in tackles for loss and setting the single @-@ season and single @-@ game Florida State records in that category .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
During the 2001 regular season , the Hokies ' defense was the second @-@ best in the country , allowing 237 @.@ 91 yards per game . In no defensive statistical category were the Hokies worse than No. 10 , and that ranking came in punt return defense , where Tech allowed 13 @.@ 33 yards per return . The Hokies were No. 2 in rushing defense ( 71 @.@ 64 ypg ) and No. 8 in passing defense ( 166 @.@ 27 ypg ) . Defensively , the Hokies were led by linebacker Ben Taylor , who had 121 tackles ( the most on the team ) and was named a semifinalist for the Butkus Award , given annually to the best linebacker in the country . Free safety Willie Pile was the team 's No. 2 tackler , accumulating 94 tackles , four interceptions , and two fumble recoveries . Unexpectedly , linebacker Chad Cooper was diagnosed with Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome and had to be hospitalized prior to the game .
= = Game summary = =
The 2002 Gator Bowl kicked off at 12 : 30 p.m. EST on January 1 , 2002 , at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . The in @-@ person attendance was announced as 72 @,@ 202 , and the television broadcast earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 9 . The Gator Bowl was the only New Year 's Day bowl game in 2002 to see a ratings increase over the previous year . The broadcast was provided by NBC , and Tom Hammond , Pat Haden , and Chris Wragge were the sportscasters . Country music artist Lee Greenwood performed his song " God Bless the USA " prior to the game , and sang the traditional pre @-@ game national anthem .
At kickoff , the weather was sunny with variable winds at 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) . The temperature was 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) , and the humidity was 42 percent . David Witvoet was the referee . In exchange for playing in the game , the two teams split a payout of $ 3 @,@ 212 @,@ 364 . Virginia Tech won the traditional pre @-@ game coin toss to determine first possession and elected to kick off to Florida State to begin the state .
= = = First quarter = = =
The kickoff was fielded near the Florida State six @-@ yard line and returned 16 yards to the State 22 @-@ yard line . The first play of the game was a long pass by quarterback Chris Rix , but the throw was not caught . On the second play , Rix was sacked for a loss of nine yards . A third @-@ down pass was incomplete , and Florida State punted . Virginia Tech returned the kick into Florida State territory , and the Hokies ' offense began Tech 's first possession of the game at the State 48 @-@ yard line . The Hokies ' first play was an 18 @-@ yard pass from quarterback Grant Noel to tight end Bob Slowikowski , long enough for a first down at the Florida State 29 @-@ yard line . From there , running back Kevin Jones gained 12 yards and a first down on a run up the middle of the field . Jones gained three yards on the next play , then Noel was sacked by the Seminoles for a loss of nine yards . On third down , Jones regained some of the lost yardage but was unable to pick up a first down . Facing fourth down , Tech sent in kicker Carter Warley to attempt a 36 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was successful , and with 10 : 56 remaining in the first quarter , Virginia Tech took a 3 – 0 lead .
Virginia Tech 's post @-@ score kickoff was downed in the end zone for a touchback , and Florida State 's second possession of the game began at its 20 @-@ yard line . On first down , running back Greg Jones gained four yards . A second @-@ down pass from Rix to Gardner gained 11 yards and the Seminoles ' first first down of the game . They were unable to gain another first down , however , and punted for the second time in the game . During the return , Florida State was penalized five yards for violating the halo rule that required two yards between the player catching the ball and the nearest defender . The rule has since been rescinded .
Virginia Tech 's second drive of the game started at its 28 @-@ yard line after the penalty . Jones was stopped for little or no gain on the first two plays of the drive , then Noel completed a long pass to wide receiver Andre Davis , who dodged defenders and advanced the ball to the Florida State 17 @-@ yard line , a gain of 55 yards and a first down . Two running plays after the long play gained little yardage , then Tech appeared to gain a touchdown on a passing play from Noel to wide receiver Ernst Wilford . During the play , however , a Tech offensive lineman committed a holding penalty that negated the score . After a 10 @-@ yard penalty , Noel fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by Florida State at the State 45 @-@ yard line , and Tech was denied a chance to score .
On State 's first play after the turnover , Rix was sacked for a four @-@ yard loss . On the next play , Virginia Tech defender Eric Green jumped in front of an errant Rix pass and intercepted it . Green returned the ball to the State 44 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ' offense started a drive inside Florida State territory . On the first play of the drive , Tech attempted a reverse pass , but the ball fell incomplete . Two subsequent plays were stopped for no gain , and Tech punted for the first time in the game .
The kick was stopped at the State five @-@ yard line , and with 3 : 56 remaining in the first quarter , State was pinned deep in its half of the field . After a running play gained four yards , State earned a first down at the 11 @-@ yard line with a seven @-@ yard pass . After the first down , Rix fumbled the ball , recovered it , and was sacked by the Tech defense at the State nine @-@ yard line . Two long rushing plays made up the lost yardage , and State earned a first down at their 27 @-@ yard line . From there , Rix completed a 44 @-@ yard pass to Javon Walker for a first down at the Tech 29 @-@ yard line . In the final seconds of the quarter , Rix attempted a touchdown pass , but the ball fell incomplete . With one quarter elapsed , Virginia Tech led , 3 – 0 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter of the Gator Bowl began with the Seminoles facing third down and 12 from the Virginia Tech 30 @-@ yard line . The first play of the quarter resulted in the third Virginia Tech sack of the game as Nathaniel Adibi tackled Rix for a long loss . The sack pushed Florida State out of field goal range , and the Seminoles punted . The ball bounced out of bounds at the Tech 11 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their first possession of the second quarter . After a running play that was stopped for no gain , Noel completed a 20 @-@ yard pass to Slowikowski for a first down at their 31 @-@ yard line . Tech fumbled on the first play after the first down , Noel threw an incomplete pass , were pushed back five yards by a false start penalty , then had a first @-@ down run negated by a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty . Tech was unable to gain a first down after the penalties , and punted .
With 11 : 23 remaining in the first half , Florida State returned the kick to its 18 @-@ yard line and began its first full possession of the second quarter . After a running play was stopped for no gain , Florida State gained a first down on a short pass and a short run . After a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty against the Seminoles , Rix scrambled for eight yards and completed a 19 @-@ yard pass for a first down at the 50 @-@ yard line . After Rix gained five yards on another scramble , he threw two incomplete passes and the Seminoles punted . The ball rolled into the end zone , and Tech 's offense began a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line with 7 : 43 remaining in the first quarter .
Two incomplete passes and a one @-@ yard run later , Tech prepared to punt the ball away . During the kick , Florida State 's defense broke through the Virginia Tech offensive line and blocked the kick . The ball rolled inside the one @-@ yard line , where Florida State 's offense took over . On the first play after the block , Rix leaped across the goal line for the game 's first touchdown . The extra point attempt was a success , and with 6 : 32 remaining in the first half , Florida State took a 7 – 3 lead .
The post @-@ score kickoff was returned to the Tech 34 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began another drive . Two rushing plays resulted in a first down for the Hokies at their 49 @-@ yard line . The Hokies were unable to enter Florida State 's half of the field , however , as two incomplete passes and a running play resulted in a loss of yardage . Florida State 's offense returned to the game at their 30 @-@ yard line following the kick with 4 : 17 remaining in the first half .
On the first play of the drive , Rix completed a 42 @-@ yard pass to Craphonso Thorpe . On the next play , the Seminoles advanced the ball 11 more yards on a running play . From the Tech 18 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles were stopped for no gain , endured a sack of Rix , then committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty . After being pushed back to the Tech 34 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles were unable to get a first down and elected to try a long field goal kick . Florida State placekicker Xavier Beitia entered the game to attempt a 50 @-@ yard kick . The kick was successful , and with 1 : 27 remaining in the first half , Florida State extended its lead to 10 – 3 .
After Virginia Tech went three @-@ and @-@ out , the Hokies punted to Florida State , who proceeded to run out the remaining seconds on the clock . The first half ended with Florida State leading , 10 – 3 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Florida State received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Florida State 's kickoff was returned to their 29 @-@ yard line , and Virginia Tech 's offense had the first possession of the second half . Jones rushed for six yards , then Noel completed a first @-@ down pass to Andre Davis at the Florida State 45 @-@ yard line . The Seminoles sacked Noel , but Noel regained the lost yardage and earned a first down with a completed pass to the 20 @-@ yard line . Three Tech rushes advanced the ball to the nine @-@ yard line and earned a first down . Two plays later , Jones dashed across the goal line for the first Tech touchdown of the game . The extra point kick was good , and Tech tied the score , 10 – 10 , with 10 : 02 remaining in the third quarter .
Florida State received the Tech kickoff and returned it to their 23 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass from Rix , Virginia Tech 's defense was caught offsides , resulting in a five @-@ yard gain for Florida State . A short run after the penalty gained a first down , but on the first play after the first down , the Seminoles fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by Virginia Tech 's defense , and the Hokies began their second possession of the second half at the State 31 @-@ yard line . Tech was unable to capitalize on the field position , however . Noel threw an incomplete pass , was sacked , then threw a pass for a loss of yardage . Tech punted the ball , which was downed at the Florida State 12 @-@ yard line .
The Seminoles ' second possession of the second half began with more success than their first possession . State gained a first down on two running plays , then Rix completed a 14 @-@ yard pass for another first down . Now at their 36 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles advanced the ball for short ground gains on the next two plays , then Rix completed a 30 @-@ yard pass to Bell . Following the pass and first down , the Seminoles were at the Tech 34 @-@ yard line . Two short gains and an incomplete pass failed to gain another first down , so State head coach Bobby Bowden ordered kicker Beitia into the game to attempt a 47 @-@ yard field goal . The kick attempt was successful , and Beitia gave Florida State a 13 – 10 lead with 1 : 42 remaining in the quarter .
Following Florida State 's kickoff and a 38 @-@ yard return , Virginia Tech 's offense began work at its 45 @-@ yard line . On the second play of the drive , Noel completed a 55 @-@ yard pass to Andre Davis , who ran into the end zone for Virginia Tech 's second touchdown of the game . The extra point kick was good , and Virginia Tech regained the lead , 17 – 13 , with 40 seconds remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech kicked the ball off , and Florida State returned the kick 12 yards to its 18 @-@ yard line . The Seminoles gained five yards on two rushing plays before time ran out on the quarter , which ended with Virginia Tech leading , 17 – 13 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Florida State in possession of the ball and facing a third down and five yards . On the first play of the quarter , Rix was hit by a Virginia Tech defender , but not before he released a 77 @-@ yard pass to Walker , who ran into the end zone for a touchdown . The extra point try was good , and Florida State regained the lead , 20 – 17 , with 14 : 48 remaining in the game .
Florida State 's post @-@ score kickoff sailed through the end zone for a touchback , and Tech 's offense began its first drive of the quarter from its 20 @-@ yard line . Tech 's first play of the quarter was a 15 @-@ yard completed pass by Noel for a first down . That was followed by an 11 @-@ yard run by Jones for another first down . After an incomplete pass , Noel ran for a first down at the State 41 @-@ yard line . Inside Florida State territory , gaining ground became much more difficult . The next three plays netted Tech only nine yards , setting up a critical fourth @-@ and @-@ one play . With Virginia Tech outside field goal range and trailing , the Hokies needed another first down to move within potential scoring range . But on fourth down , Jones was stopped for no gain on a running play , and the Hokies turned the ball over on downs . The play later was cited as the game 's turning point .
After the turnover , Florida State received the ball at its 32 @-@ yard line with a 20 – 17 lead and 12 : 08 remaining in the game . On the first play after the turnover , Rix completed a 51 @-@ yard pass to Walker for a first down at the Tech 18 @-@ yard line . The three plays that followed netted only three yards , and Beitia was sent into the game to attempt a 35 @-@ yard field goal . The kick ricocheted off one of the uprights but through the goal posts , extending the Seminoles ' lead to 23 – 17 with 10 : 13 remaining in the game .
Florida State 's kickoff was fielded inside the Virginia Tech five @-@ yard line and returned to the Tech eight @-@ yard line . Tech gained five yards on two running plays , then Noel completed a 15 @-@ yard pass to Davis for a first down at the Tech 28 @-@ yard line . Noel and Jones each carried the ball , together gaining enough for a first down at the Tech 39 @-@ yard line . A completed pass and a short run by Jones resulted in another first down , this time at the 50 @-@ yard line . Florida State committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , but the Hokies were unable to gain a first down on the Seminoles ' side of the field . Rather than attempt to convert another fourth down , the Hokies punted the ball .
The kick was downed by Virginia Tech at the State 22 @-@ yard line with 5 : 22 remaining in the game . On the first play of the drive , Jones gained 13 yards and a first down at the 45 @-@ yard line of Florida State . This was followed by a 22 @-@ yard run and a first down by Jones at the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . Three more runs by Jones gained another nine yards , but rather than attempt a field goal , Bowden ordered his offense to attempt to convert the first down . A quarterback sneak resulted in just enough of a gain for a first down , and State 's drive continued . On the first play after the conversion , Rix completed a 23 @-@ yard pass to Walker for a touchdown . The score and subsequent extra point gave State a 30 – 17 lead with 2 : 14 remaining in the game .
Virginia Tech returned Florida State 's kickoff to their 23 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass , the Hokies gained a first down at their 33 @-@ yard line with a short pass . After the first down , Noel was sacked on successive plays . During the second sack , Florida State lineman Darnell Dockett collided with Noel 's helmet , twisting Dockett 's knee . Following the injury , Tech sent in backup quarterback Bryan Randall to attempt a long pass . The pass was intercepted by Florida State with 19 seconds remaining in the game . Following the interception , the Seminoles ran out the clock and secured a 30 – 17 win .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performances during the game , Florida Statewide receiver Javon Walker was named the most valuable player of the winning team , and Virginia Tech wide receiver André Davis was named the most valuable player of the losing team . Walker finished the game with 195 receiving yards on just four receptions , an average of almost 50 yards — half the field — per reception . On the opposite side of the ball , Davis caught five passes for 158 yards , an average of more than 31 yards per catch .
The two teams ' quarterbacks benefited from their receivers ' success in eluding the opposing defenses . Florida State quarterback Chris Rix completed 12 of his 25 pass attempts for two touchdowns , 269 yards , and one interception . Rix also ran the ball 12 times during the game . Although he lost a total of 19 yards , one of his positive rushes resulted in a rushing touchdown . Despite that score , the game marked the first time all season that Rix had been held to negative rushing yardage . For Virginia Tech , quarterback Grant Noel completed 15 of 27 pass attempts for 269 yards and a touchdown . Backup quarterback Bryan Randall threw an interception on his only pass attempt of the game , and wide receiver Richard Johnson 's trick pass attempt fell incomplete .
On the ground , Florida State running back Greg Jones led all players with 23 carries for 120 yards . Virginia Tech running back Kevin Jones was second in overall rushing , having carried the ball 23 times for 55 yards and a touchdown . Defensively , Florida State had 12 tackles for loss , causing the Hokies negating 66 yards of offense . Virginia Tech had eight tackles for loss , encompassing 48 yards of loss . Five of Virginia Tech 's tackles for loss were sacks , while four of Florida State 's tackles for loss were sacks .
Beitia 's three successful field goals tied a Gator Bowl record . Rix 's 326 passing yards were the sixth @-@ most recorded in Gator Bowl history to that point , and Javon Walker 's 195 receiving yards were the second @-@ most ever recorded in a Gator Bowl . The 77 @-@ yard pass from Rix to Walker was the third @-@ longest in Gator Bowl history . On the opposite side of the ball , Davis ' 158 receiving yards were the ninth @-@ most recorded in Gator Bowl history , and his 55 @-@ yard reception from Noel was the ninth @-@ longest in Gator Bowl history . The two receivers ' totals also were Virginia Tech bowl @-@ game records : in one case , for receiving yards gained by a single player , in the other , for receiving yards allowed by a single player .
= = Postgame effects = =
Florida State 's victory raised it to a final record of 8 – 4 , and Virginia Tech 's loss brought it also to a final record of 8 – 4 . Following the loss , the Hokies had a 5 – 10 record in bowl games , including 1 – 3 in the Gator Bowl and 4 – 5 in bowl games under head coach Frank Beamer . Florida State 's victory gave Seminoles head coach Bobby Bowden the 322nd win of his career , tying him for second in the overall Division I career wins list with Bear Bryant .
= = = 2002 NFL Draft = = =
Because of their strong performance in college and during the 2002 Gator Bowl , several players from each team were selected to play in the National Football League during the 2002 NFL Draft . Florida State had three players selected , led by wide receiver Javon Walker , who was picked in the first round ( 20th overall ) by the Green Bay Packers . Following Walker were defensive back Chris Hope ( 94th ) and Milford Brown , who was taken in the supplemental draft by the expansion Houston Texans . In addition to the Seminoles who were drafted , Florida State running back Eric Shelton transferred from the team because of a lack of playing time . Virginia Tech had eight players selected in the 2002 draft . The first of these was wide receiver Andre Davis , who was selected in the second round ( 47th overall ) , by the Cleveland Browns . Following Davis were linebacker Ben Taylor ( 111th ) , defensive back Kevin McAdam ( 148th ) , David Pugh ( 182nd ) , Bob Slowikowski ( 211th ) , Chad Beasley ( 218th ) , Derrius Monroe ( 224th ) , and Jarrett Ferguson ( 251st ) .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
Following the Gator Bowl loss , Virginia Tech offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach Rickey Bustle became the head coach at Louisiana @-@ Lafayette as had been announced prior to the game . His position offensive coordinator was filled by then @-@ offensive line coach Bryan Stinespring . To fill the quarterbacks coach position vacated by Bustle , Tech hired former Notre Dame offensive coordinator Kevin Rogers .
|
= Ian Gillan =
Ian Gillan ( born 19 August 1945 ) is an English singer and songwriter . He originally found commercial success as the lead singer and lyricist for Deep Purple .
Initially influenced by Elvis Presley , Gillan started and fronted several local bands in the mid @-@ sixties , and eventually joined Episode Six when their original singer left . He first found widespread commercial success after joining Deep Purple in 1969 . After an almost non @-@ stop workload , during which time he recorded six albums in four years , and problematic relationships with other band members , particularly guitarist Ritchie Blackmore , Gillan resigned from the band in June 1973 , having given a lengthy notice period to their managers .
After a short time away from the music business , he resumed his music career with solo bands the Ian Gillan Band and Gillan , before a year @-@ long stint as the vocalist for Black Sabbath . He rejoined a reformed Deep Purple in 1984 , but was fired in 1989 . He rejoined the band for a second time in 1992 for their twenty @-@ fifth anniversary , and following the recruitment of guitarist Steve Morse in 1994 , has helped transform the group into a regular touring outfit , which he has fronted ever since .
In addition to his main work — performing with Deep Purple and other bands during the 1970s and 1980s — he sang the role of Jesus in the original recording of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar , performed in the charity supergroup Rock Aid Armenia , and engaged in a number of business investments and ventures , including a hotel , a motorcycle manufacturer , and music recording facilities at Kingsway Studios . More recently , he has performed solo concerts concurrently with his latter career in Deep Purple , and his work and affinity with Armenia , combined with his continued friendship with Tony Iommi since his brief time in Black Sabbath , has led him to form the supergroup WhoCares with Iommi . His solo career outside of Deep Purple was given a comprehensive overview with the Gillan 's Inn box set in 2006 .
= = Early life = =
Gillan was born on 19 August 1945 at Chiswick Maternity Hospital . His father , Bill , was a storekeeper at a factory in London , who came from Govan , Glasgow and left school at 13 , while his mother , Audrey , came from a family where she was the eldest of four children , who all enjoyed music and singing , and whose father ( Gillan 's grandfather ) had been an opera singer and amateur pianist . His sister , Pauline , was born in 1948 . One of Gillan 's earliest musical memories was of his mother playing " Blue Rondo a la Turk " on the piano .
He grew up moving between council flats before settling in a three @-@ bedroom semi @-@ detached on a council estate in Cranford , Hounslow , he was fond of animals in his early life , and enjoyed reading the comic strips of Dan Dare . His parents separated after Audrey discovered Bill had had an affair that started while he was stationed in the army during World War II . He began attending Hounslow College and stayed there through his early teenage years . He was influenced by Elvis Presley by hearing his records at home and at the local youth club . He switched to go to Acton County Grammar School ( now Acton High School ) to take his O Levels , where he was in the same class as Pete Townshend , but became distracted from studies after leaving the local cinema having watched a Presley film , deciding that he wanted to be a rock 'n'roll singer . He subsequently took a job manufacturing ice machines in Hounslow .
= = Career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Gillan 's first attempt at a band was called Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners , and consisted of himself on vocals and drums , alongside guitarist Chris Aylmer , who later went on to work with Bruce Dickinson . The band covered songs such as Tommy Roe 's Sweet Little Sheila and the Shadows ' Apache . He discovered he couldn 't sing and play drums at the same time , so settled on the role of lead vocalist , performing regularly at St Dunstan 's Hall , the local youth club . He soon switched to another local band who also played at Dunstan 's Hall , Ronnie and the Hightones , who renamed themselves as the Javelins after he joined . The band played covers of Sonny Boy Williamson , Chuck Berry , Jerry Lee Lewis and Little Richard , and were early customers of then @-@ local music shop owner Jim Marshall . The Javelins disbanded in March 1964 , with guitarist Gordon Fairminer leaving to join what eventually became the Sweet .
After the Javelins , Gillan joined a soul band , Wainwright 's Gentlemen , which included another future Sweet member , drummer Mick Tucker . The band recorded a number of tracks including a cover of The Hollies hit " Ain 't That Just Like Me " . Although the band played several local popular music venues , they did not find success , so in April 1965 , he decided to join Hatch End based Episode Six .
= = = Episode Six = = =
Gillan had been contacted by Episode Six 's manager Gloria Bristow , who worked for Helmut Gordon , original manager of The Detours , later to become the Who . He replaced original lead singer Andy Ross , who left to get married , and joined keyboardist and singer Sheila Carter , guitarists Graham Carter and Tony Lander , bassist Roger Glover and drummer Harvey Shields . Gillan considers Episode Six to be his first truly professional band , and in their early days were sponsored and championed by Tony Blackburn , who occasionally accompanied Gillan on stage . Later , as well as performing concerts in the UK , Episode Six also toured Germany and Beirut . , and had regular appearances on the BBC Light Programme . During his time with Episode Six , Gillan began writing songs together with Glover , forming an ultimately long lasting partnership . After a strained tour of Beirut , Shields left the band and was replaced first by John Kerrison , then by Mick Underwood . Underwood had previously played in The Outlaws with Ritchie Blackmore , and it was via him that Ian was put in touch with to form Deep Purple in 1968 . Gillan originally declined the position of lead singer in the band , though by 1969 , after having released nine singles , none of which charted in the UK , and finding their style of music too restrictive for him , he decided to leave Episode Six .
= = = Deep Purple , 1969 – 73 = = =
By spring 1969 , Deep Purple had had a top 5 US hit with " Hush " , but the band , particularly Ritchie Blackmore , Jon Lord and Ian Paice , decided their future lay in hard rock , rather than the psychedelic pop sound of the early band . On 4 June 1969 , Blackmore , Lord and Paice went to see Episode Six perform at the Ivy Lodge Club in Woodford , and subsequently offered Gillan the job as new lead singer , asking him if he also knew any good bassists . Since Glover was by this point a reasonably experienced songwriter , having penned several Episode Six B sides , he was also recruited . They were both accepted into the band on 16 June 1969 , replacing singer Rod Evans and bassist Nic Simper respectively . The old line up of Deep Purple continued to do several concerts until the end of the month , whereupon Evans and Simper were both fired by managers Tony Edwards and John Colletta after their last show on 4 July .
Gillan made his first onstage appearance with Deep Purple at the Speakeasy in London 's West End on 10 July . As the band had only been rehearsing for a few weeks , they relied on older instrumentals such as " Wring That Neck " and " Mandrake Root " to fill in a set . Unsure of what to do , Gillan found a pair of congas onstage , and decided to play them during these instrumental sections . The congas would subsequently become a trademark of his live performances with the band .
Deep Purple Mk.II continued rehearsing at Hanwell Community Centre . One of Gillan 's first notable contributions to the band during these rehearsals was the vocal melody and lyrics to " Child in Time " . At Hanwell , the band wrote what would eventually become most of In Rock during 1969 , though were interrupted in September to perform Lord 's Concerto for Group and Orchestra , a one off performance in September at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . Gillan , along with Blackmore , was initially unhappy at having to perform the concerto , and wrote the lyrics to the second movement on the afternoon of the performance on a napkin in an Italian restaurant .
In 1970 , Gillan received a call from Tim Rice , asking him to perform the part of Jesus on the original 1970 album recording of Jesus Christ Superstar , having been impressed with his performance on " Child in Time " . After rehearsing a few times with Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber , he recorded his entire vocal contributions in three hours . He was subsequently offered the lead role in the 1973 film adaptation . Gillan demanded to not only be paid £ 250 @,@ 000 for his role in the movie , but also insisted , without the consent of his manager , that the entire band be paid because filming would conflict with a scheduled tour . The producers declined , instead casting Ted Neeley in the Jesus role , and Gillan continued on in the band .
After 1971 , particularly after the release of Fireball , Gillan started to become disillusioned with the workload of the band , who had not had any holiday since their initial rehearsals at Hanwell . He started drinking , and relationships between him and the rest of the band became strained , particularly with Blackmore . On 6 November 1971 , he collapsed with hepatitis while waiting to board a plane in Chicago , cancelling the remainder of a US tour .
By December 1972 , having recorded Machine Head , Made in Japan and the yet to be released Who Do We Think We Are with Deep Purple , Gillan finally decided the workload had driven him to exhaustion . Unlike some band members , he was unhappy about Made in Japan , and disliked live albums in general . He tended to go into the studio after the rest of the band had recorded and finished the backing tracks , particularly for Who Do We Think We Are , to lay down his vocals separately . He had been continually at loggerheads with Blackmore , disagreeing about music regularly , which culminated in Gillan writing " Smooth Dancer " about him . While on tour in Dayton , Ohio , he sat down and wrote a resignation letter to the band 's managers , stating he intended to leave the band , effective from 30 June 1973 . He was replaced by David Coverdale .
= = = Post @-@ Purple = = =
After his departure from Deep Purple , Gillan retired from performing to pursue various unsuccessful business ventures . These included a £ 300 @,@ 000 investment in a hotel near Oxford . A second was the Mantis Motor Cycles project , which suffered from the collapse of the British motorcycle industry in the mid @-@ 1970s , culminating in Gillan being forced to file for liquidation . A more successful opportunity , however , came with his investment in Kingsway Studios in 1974 , This led to a live performance at the Butterfly Ball on 16 October 1975 , replacing Ronnie James Dio at the last minute . Encouraged by his reception there , he decided to resume his musical career .
= = = Ian Gillan Band = = =
In 1975 , Gillan formed the Ian Gillan Band with guitarist Ray Fenwick , keyboardist Mike Moran , quickly replaced with Mickey Lee Soule and then Colin Towns on keyboards , Mark Nauseef on drums and John Gustafson on bass . Their first album , Child in Time was released in July 1976 , followed by Clear Air Turbulence in April 1977 and Scarabus in October . The sound of the band had a distinct jazz @-@ rock aspect which , although interesting to Gillan , proved unpopular , particularly since punk rock was in vogue at that time .
= = = Gillan = = =
Gillan then formed a new band , simply called Gillan , retaining Towns ( who would co @-@ write most of the material ) , and adding guitarist Steve Byrd , bassist John McCoy and drummer Pete Barnacle . Byrd and Barnacle were quickly replaced by Bernie Torme and by former Episode Six bandmate Mick Underwood , after Gillan saw Torme playing with his punk trio . This band had a more high powered hard rock sound , and the release of Mr. Universe in October 1979 saw Ian Gillan back in the UK charts , although the independent record company the album came out on – Acrobat Records – folded soon after the album was released , prompting a contract with Richard Branson 's Virgin Records .
In Christmas 1979 , Gillan was visited by Blackmore , who offered him the position of lead vocalist in Rainbow . Gillan declined due to the smaller workload the band had compared to his own . However , the pair did jam together for three nights at Marquee Club – the first time the two men had shared a stage since 1973 .
Gillan continued , releasing Glory Road in 1980 , which contained the hit single " Trouble " , and resulted in the band making the first of several appearances on Top of the Pops . He considered the album to be his best work since Machine Head nearly a decade earlier . Following subsequent album Future Shock , Torme was fired after missing an appearance on Top of the Pops , and was replaced by Janick Gers . Gers appeared on the band 's next two albums , Double Trouble and Magic .
In 1982 Ian Gillan announced the band would fold , as he needed to rest his damaged vocal cords . The tone and style of his singing changed considerably when he eventually returned . His voice had a more nasal tone and this can be heard on albums he has made from 1983 to the present day . His use of multi @-@ tracked backing vocals also became highly prominent . The rest of the band Gillan , particularly McCoy and Towns , were not happy at the sudden disbanding of the group so soon after the success of Magic , and sued Gillan for royalties .
= = = Black Sabbath = = =
In 1983 , manager Don Arden invited Gillan to join Tony Iommi , Geezer Butler and Bill Ward , all founding members of Black Sabbath , to form a supergroup . Although the band had reservations , on 6 April 1983 , it was formally announced that Gillan had replaced Ronnie James Dio in Black Sabbath . The group recorded the album Born Again at the Manor Studios in Oxfordshire . Citing health problems , Ward decided not to accompany the others during the subsequent tour , and was replaced by Bev Bevan .
As a member of Black Sabbath , Gillan was required to learn their old repertoire , but had difficulty remembering the words . He eventually came up with a solution of writing the lyrics out on a perspex folder , and balancing it on a wedge monitor , turning the pages with his feet . Unfortunately , the dry ice on stage made it impossible to read the words , resulting the audience witnessing glimpses of him peering over the microphone to sing a few lines , then disappearing below the dry ice to read the next set . As well as material from Born Again , and older Sabbath numbers , the band regularly played Deep Purple 's " Smoke on the Water " as an encore .
Gillan was largely dissatisfied with his brief stint in Sabbath , notably the final mix of Born Again ( though he liked the songs and their original mixes ) , and its cover , which featured a demonic @-@ looking baby . He was quoted in Kerrang ! in 1984 as saying , " I looked at the cover and puked . " In an interview supporting Deep Purple 's reformation in 1984 , he stated of Born Again , " They had sent me a box of records . And , when I saw the cover , and heard the mix , I smashed every single one of them to pieces . " Born Again also received mostly negative reviews from the critics upon its release but was appreciated by several fans and other musicians who covered some songs from the album .
= = = Reunion of Deep Purple , 1984 – 89 and 1992 – present = = =
After the disappointment of Black Sabbath , Gillan joined a reunited Deep Purple in April 1984 , announcing their comeback on Tommy Vance 's radio show . The reformed band rehearsed in Stowe , Vermont , and recorded the album Perfect Strangers , followed by a world tour . Another studio album with this formation , The House of Blue Light followed in 1987 , but Gillan was concerned with the final results , stating " There 's something missing in the overall album . I can 't feel the spirit of the band . "
This was followed by the live album Nobody 's Perfect in 1988 . The live album also featured a studio re @-@ recording of the 1968 hit " Hush " with Gillan on vocals , to commemorate Deep Purple 's 20th anniversary . ( The original 1968 release had been sung by Rod Evans ) . Gillan later remarked that the album was " the embodiment of all the things wrong with Purple . "
In contrast to his experiences with Deep Purple in the 1970s , Gillan felt frustrated that the band were no longer working enough . To fulfil his contract with Virgin , he formed a side project with Glover , writing and recording songs which didn 't fit Purple 's established hard rock style , which resulted in the album Accidentally on Purpose . By 1989 , tensions between Gillan and Blackmore had resurfaced , due to the former 's greater enthusiasm for touring and differences over the music – the song " Mitzi Dupree " on The House of Blue Light is the original demo as Blackmore refused to re @-@ record it . This culminated in Blackmore calling a rehearsal session without Gillan . After an acrimonious argument , Glover told Gillan , " Ian , you 've gone too far this time , " and he was fired , to be replaced by former Rainbow vocalist Joe Lynn Turner for one Deep Purple studio album .
Gillan , meanwhile formed a new version of Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners with keyboardist Mark Buckle , bassist Keith Mulholland , drummer Louis Rosenthal and guitarists Harry Shaw and Steve Morris . The band toured regularly through 1989 , and recorded the album Naked Thunder . Gillan later expressed dissatisfaction with the album , calling it " rather hum @-@ de @-@ dum " . During this time , Gillan also made an appearance on a re @-@ recording of " Smoke on the Water " with Rock Aid Armenia , consisting of himself , Bryan Adams , Tony Iommi , David Gilmour , Roger Taylor , Brian May , Bruce Dickinson and Paul Rodgers as a charity record for aid relief in Armenia following the then @-@ recent earthquake . He continued to tour with his solo band , albeit with several line up changes throughout Europe , the US and Russia .
At the urging of Glover , Lord and Paice , who wanted him in the fold for the band 's 25th anniversary tour , Gillan rejoined Deep Purple in 1992 to record the album The Battle Rages On . Gillan was unhappy with working on the album , as it had already been partially completed with Joe Lynn Turner , and he was only required to write replacement lyrics and vocal melodies , which , unsurprisingly , drew criticism from Blackmore . Part @-@ way through the tour for this album , Ritchie Blackmore left the band for good in November 1993 .
Gillan was especially enthusiastic about carrying on after Blackmore 's departure , and after a brief stint with Joe Satriani , Deep Purple recruited Dixie Dregs / Kansas guitarist Steve Morse . He was keen to make changes to the live set immediately , adding the then @-@ seldom played " Maybe I 'm a Leo " ( named after Gillan 's birth sign ) and " When a Blind Man Cries " – the latter becoming a mainstay in the band 's setlist ever since . He said that their first album with Morse , Purpendicular , " was a such important record for Deep Purple that without that [ other records ] couldn 't have been possible . " . Although the band has found more success touring than with producing records , Gillan remains the band 's singer to this day .
Gillan pays particular interest to the lyrics in Deep Purple , and considers it his prime composing role within the band . Discussing the importance of lyrics , he said " Words have to sound good . They have to sound like an instrument , they have to have the right percussive value . " He described the words of 2003 's Bananas as " politics mostly . " Since 2005 's Rapture of the Deep , Deep Purple has been touring continually . Gillan is particularly motivated to keeping the band touring , as he feels that regular live performance is required to keep his voice in shape , and enjoys the band 's improvisational skills , feeling that it keeps the performance " fresh " for fans .
" I haven 't ever had any ambition in my life . I just drift from day to day with a stupid grin on my face . "
= = = Later Solo Activity = = =
Though Gillan has kept touring with Deep Purple regularly since 1994 , he has found time to commit to other projects .
On 31 March 2006 Gillan appeared at the Tommy Vance tribute concert in London . He was accompanied by Roger Glover , Steve Morris , Dean Howard , Michael Lee Jackson , Harry James , Sim Jones and Richard Cottle .
In April 2006 Gillan released a CD / multimedia project to document his 44 @-@ year career called Gillan 's Inn . Tony Iommi , Jeff Healey , Joe Satriani , Dean Howard , as well as current and former members of Deep Purple such as Jon Lord , Roger Glover , Ian Paice , Don Airey and Steve Morse are featured on this 2006 CD and DVD . The project , produced by Nick Blagona , includes a re @-@ recorded selection of his Deep Purple , Black Sabbath and solo tracks . At the same time as Gillan 's Inn , Gillan announced that his solo albums with the Ian Gillan Band and Gillan from the 1970s and 1980s would be re @-@ issued late in 2006 and early 2007 through Demon Records .
Ian Gillan sang on two songs off the Jon Lord & Hoochie Coochie Men studio album , Danger . White Men Dancing , released in late 2007 .
On 2 April 2007 Gillan released a DVD Highway Star - A Journey in Rock . The DVD has 6 hours of footage including documentaries and music clips . This was followed in February 2008 by a double live album on Edel Records , Live in Anaheim that features Gillan and Deep Purple classic songs and several rarities . A companion DVD was released in May 2008 .
On 3 May 2008 Ian Gillan performed at the Jeff Healey memorial concert in Toronto , Canada . He had previously played live with Healey in Toronto in February 2005 .
He released a studio album entitled One Eye to Morocco in March 2009 .
In recent years Ian Gillan has been performing occasionally with orchestras in Europe singing mainly Deep Purple hits ( 2007 : Greece , 2008 : Italy , 2009 : Germany , Poland ) . During his visit in Poland , in August 2009 , Ian Gillan was presented with the plaque at the Gdansk Walk of Fame .
= = = WhoCares = = =
Gillan has expressed particular fondness for Armenia and has maintained popularity there since Rock Aid Armenia in 1989 , which has led to him forming the supergroup WhoCares as a side @-@ project to Deep Purple .
In May 1990 Gillan visited Armenia and played four concerts at the Karen Demirchyan Complex .
On 2 October 2009 , in honour of the 20th anniversary of Rock Aid Armenia , Gillan together with Tony Iommi , Geoff Downes , and the project organiser Jon Dee were received by the Prime Minister of Armenia who awarded them with the republic 's Orders of Honour .
On 26 and 27 March 2010 , in Yerevan , Gillan performed with State Philharmonic Orchestra of Armenia . At a press conference in Yerevan on 27 March , Gillan said he considers Armenia his spiritual motherland .
In 2010 , Ian Gillan met Tony Iommi , Nicko McBrain and Jon Lord , Mikko Lindström from HIM and Jason Newsted at a studio in London to finish recording a song called " Out of my Mind " , which was released 6 May 2011 . This is for the benefit of the music school to be built in Gyumri , Armenia – a project Ian Gillan has been working on with others since his 1990 solo concerts in Yerevan .
On the flight back from Armenia in 2011 , after each receiving the Armenian Presidential medal of Honour , Gillan and Iommi decided to form the side project WhoCares for ad hoc recordings ( and possible performances ) dedicated to raising money for specific causes .
On 20 September 2013 Ian Gillan participated in the opening of the Octet Music School in Gyumri . The Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church of America named Ian Gillan as its 2014 " Friend of the Armenians " and presented him the award at the 112th Diocesan Assembly in New York City .
= = = Non @-@ musical Side projects = = =
In 2010 Ian Gillan hosted a documentary about great Polish composer and pianist Fryderyk Chopin in Poland directed by Jerzy Szkamruk . Chopin 's Story is about the rise of artistic genius of the composer and documents his Polish years . The film has won several international awards , including the Best Documentary award at Tourfilm International Festival in Florianopolis , Brazil . It will be aired on Polish channel Discovery Historia on 21 June 2011 . A worldwide DVD release is also in the works .
= = Personal life = =
Gillan was in a relationship with Zoe Dean from 1969 to 1978 . They had known each other since his time in Episode Six .
In 1984 , Gillan married his girlfriend Bron , to whom he had dedicated " Keep It Warm " from Black Sabbath 's 1983 album Born Again . They have twice since renewed their marriage vows . Gillan has two children and three grandchildren , all of whom were brought up in Scotland . Gillan moved to southern Portugal in the late 2000s .
Gillan is a passionate football fan , supporting Queens Park Rangers . He is also a big fan of cricket . He is also known for his intolerance of aggressive crowd security personnel at concerts . On 15 August 1998 , he was charged with assault after striking a security guard on the head with a microphone .
His surname is sometimes misspelled as " Gillian " . Gillan himself made light of this in the lyrics to " MTV " , a track from Deep Purple 's 2005 album Rapture of the Deep , when he sang about " Mr. Grover ' n ' Mr Gillian " .
= = = Professional relationship with Blackmore = = =
Gillan was room @-@ mates with Ritchie Blackmore in the 1970s , but left the band in 1973 amid tensions with Blackmore and overall exhaustion . In a 2006 interview , Gillan said of Blackmore 's final 1993 departure from Deep Purple , " he turned into a really weird guy , and the day he walked out of the tour was the day the clouds disappeared and the day the sunshine came out and we haven 't looked back since . " He added that " there are certain personal issues that I have with Ritchie , which means that I will never speak to him again . Nothing I 'm going to discuss publicly , but deeply personal stuff . "
In March 2009 , Gillan claimed that prior to the 1993 reunion of the band , Blackmore had requested $ 250 @,@ 000 be deposited in his bank account in order for him to continue with the reunion . The other members of the band did not receive anything . This claim was subsequently denied by Blackmore 's solicitor in a statement released soon after .
In August 2014 , he was quoted in Rolling Stone magazine as saying : " I don 't have an issue with Ritchie , nor does anyone . I 've been in touch with Ritchie recently and everything 's cool , so there 's no bitter , personal problem . We 're too old for that and everything 's in the past . " He did however add that if Deep Purple was chosen as one of the inductees of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , it would be out of the question to have Blackmore play with the band again due to it being " disrespectful " to the current lineup of the band .
= = Selected discography = =
Prominent releases .
|
= Glarentza =
Glarentza ( Greek : Γλαρέντζα ) is a medieval town located near the site of modern Kyllini in Elis , at the westernmost point of the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece . Founded in the mid @-@ 13th century by William II of Villehardouin , the town served as the main port and mint of the Frankish Principality of Achaea , being located next to the Principality 's capital , Andravida . Commerce with Italy brought great prosperity , but the town began to decline in the early 15th century as the Principality itself declined . In 1428 , Glarentza was ceded to the Byzantine Despotate of the Morea , and served as its co @-@ capital , being the residence of one of the Palaiologos despots , until the Ottoman conquest in 1460 . Under Ottoman rule , Glarentza declined rapidly as the commercial links with Italy were broken , and by the 16th century was abandoned and falling into ruin . Little remains of the town today : traces of the city wall , of a church and a few other buildings , as well as the silted @-@ up harbour .
= = History = =
Glarentza was founded in the mid @-@ 13th century by William II of Villehardouin ( ruled 1246 – 78 ) , the ruler of the Principality of Achaea , a Frankish state established after the Fourth Crusade and encompassing the Peloponnese or Morea peninsula in southern Greece . Its Frankish foundation is evident in its name , Clarence or Clairence in French , Chiarenza or Clarenza in Italian , Clarentia or Clarencia in Latin , rendered Κλαρέντσα ( Klarentsa ) , Κλαρίντζα ( Klarintza ) , or Γλαρέντζα ( Glarentza ) in contemporary Greek documents .
The medieval town was located a bit further west of the modern village of Kyllini , on the northern tip of a headland that forms the westernmost point of the Peloponnese . This was a site known since Antiquity as the best anchorage in all of Elis , and was likely the site of the ancient city of Cyllene . Glarentza was established as the haven for the Principality 's capital , located inland at Andravida , some 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) away . Along with Andravida and the fortress of Clermont or Chlemoutsi , some 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from the port , Glarentza formed the administrative heart of the Principality of Achaea .
Glarentza profited from its location and became the main port for communication and traffic between the Morea and Italy . As described in the town 's Greek Ministry of Culture website , Glarentza " rapidly established itself as the most important financial and urban centre of the Crusader principality , with an international renown " , while according to the medievalist Antoine Bon , it was " the agglomeration which should most resemble , by its activity , a city in the modern sense of the word " . It was a cosmopolitan city , frequented by emissaries from Italy , soldiers and merchants , chiefly Venetians . Trade brought great prosperity , as evidenced by the fact that it used its own system of weights and measures in the 14th century . It featured a hospital as well as banks , lodgings for the mariners , and a Franciscan monastery . Based on a 1391 list of fiefs , the town counted ca . 300 hearths , making it among the largest in the Principality .
The town was also the site of the princely mint , which from the 13th century until its cessation , in 1353 , struck denier tournois or tornese coins , inscribed initially with [ DE ] CLARENTIA , and , from the reign of Florent of Hainaut ( ruled 1289 – 97 ) onwards , with DE CLARENCIA . Although Andravida was the main residence of the princely court , Glarentza too was a location of political significance , and several parliaments and assemblies took place there , such as the adjudication on the inheritance of the Barony of Akova in 1276 , or the parliament and oath of allegiance to Isabella of Villehardouin and Florent of Hainaut in 1289 . Glarentza was surrounded by a set of walls , but scholars have long disputed exactly when this was done . The debate concerns the relation between Glarentza and the nearby fortress of Clermont / Chlemoutsi , which in the view of those who consider Glarentza to have originally been unfortified served as the town 's citadel , in which case this was probably the original site of the mint , whence its alternative name of " Castel Tornese " .
In June 1315 , Glarentza was captured by the Aragonese troops of the infante Ferdinand of Majorca , who claimed the princely title of Achaea for himself by virtue of his marriage to Isabella of Sabran , granddaughter of William II of Villehardouin . Ferdinand made Glarentza his residence , and soon seized all of Elis , aided by the defection of several Achaean barons dissatisfied with the Principality 's rule by the Angevins of Naples . Ferdinand began minting coins with his name — the rarest issues of the Glarentza mint — but his reign was cut short with the arrival of the legitimate claimants , Matilda of Hainaut and Louis of Burgundy . In the Battle of Manolada , fought to the northeast of Glarentza on 5 July 1316 , the Aragonese were defeated and Ferdinand was killed . The remainder of his army fled to Glarentza , and soon handed over the town and the other fortresses they had occupied and departed the Peloponnese , taking the corpse of Ferdinand with them .
The town 's decline began in the early 15th century , following the worsening fortunes of the Principality itself . At that time , Achaea , under Prince Centurione II Zaccaria ( ruled 1404 – 30 ) , found itself endangered by the attacks of the Byzantines of the Despotate of the Morea on the one hand and the expansionist designs of the Tocco family of Cephalonia and Zakynthos on the other . In late 1407 , Centurione 's own brother @-@ in @-@ law Leonardo II Tocco seized Glarentza and reaped an enormous booty , as recorded in the Chronicle of the Tocco . It took several years of conflicts and diplomatic manoeuvrings before a Venetian @-@ mediated deal restored the city to Centurione in July 1414 . In 1417 , the Byzantines under the Despot Theodore II Palaiologos and his brother John VIII Palaiologos , launched another attack on the remains of the Principality . The brothers made swift progress , forcing Prince Centurione to retire to Glarentza , which was unsuccessfully attacked by the Byzantines . A truce was concluded in 1418 , but in the same year , an Italian adventurer , Olivier Franco , seized the town , which in 1421 he sold to Carlo I Tocco , Leonardo 's elder brother .
With Glarentza in their hands , the Tocchi now began to openly pursue their aspirations in the Peloponnese , and attacked the territories of the Latin Archbishop of Patras Stephen Zaccaria , Centurione 's brother . In 1427 , the Byzantines , led by emperor John VIII in person , attacked the Tocco lands in the Peloponnese . After the Byzantine fleet defeated his navy , Carlo was forced to submit , and in 1428 , Glarentza was handed over as part of the dowry of his niece , Maddalena , who was married to the Despot Constantine Palaiologos ( the future last Byzantine emperor ) . When Constantine besieged Patras in 1429 , a Catalan fleet that came to the city 's aid captured Glarentza , forcing Constantine to ransom it back . He then destroyed its fortifications , so that it could no longer be seized and used by a western power .
In 1430 , following the final subjugation of the Principality of Achaea by the Byzantines , the Peloponnese was divided into appanages among the various Palaiologos princes . Glarentza became the residence of Thomas Palaiologos until 1432 , when he exchanged his portion with Constantine , who had originally settled at Kalavryta . In 1446 , Glarentza and its surrounding region were raided by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Murad II , and in 1460 , it fell to the Ottomans along with the remainder of the Byzantine Peloponnese . Although nearby Chlemoutsi continued to play a role as a military stronghold until the 19th century — it was garrisoned by the Venetians during the Ottoman – Venetian War of 1463 – 79 , and attacked by the Knights of Malta in 1620 — Glarentza itself seems to have rapidly fallen into obscurity under the Ottomans , apparently declining as the maritime links with Italy were severed . By the 16th century , it was already abandoned and half @-@ ruined . The ruins were described by successive travellers until the 19th century , and photographs were also taken later . During the German occupation of Greece in World War II , the German Army demolished many of the remains .
In the early 19th century , several authors and travellers , like Robert Byron , contended that Glarentza ( in its Latin form , Clarentia / Clarencia ) gave its name to the royal English title of the " Duke of Clarence " , via Princess Matilda of Hainaut and her cousin Philippa of Hainaut , a claim that has been repeated by reputable publications like the Meyers Konversations @-@ Lexikon encyclopedia into the 20th century . However , this view was conclusively rejected already in 1846 by the military officer and antiquarian William Martin Leake , who pointed out that at no time did English royalty hold Moreote titles , and that " Clarence " originates from Clare , Suffolk , and not Glarentza .
= = Location and archaeological remains = =
The town of Glarentza was situated on a small plateau , sloping slightly downwards from west to east , at the extreme northwestern end of the peninsula known in Antiquity as Chelonatas . The town occupied an irregular shape of ca . 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) from east to west and 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) from north to south , i.e. a surface of ca . 8 @,@ 800 square metres ( 95 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The northern and western sides of the town bordered on the sea and were protected by a cliff of some 50 m in height descending to the sea . The port was located in the north , shielded from the dangerous western and southwestern winds .
There are very few material remains of the medieval town today . The city wall that surrounded the settlement has largely disappeared and is difficult to trace today , but from the remains of its foundations it does not appear to have been a substantial fortification . It was lightly built , with a thickness of perhaps 1 @.@ 8 – 2 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , reinforced by rectangular towers . The three gates have left far more substantial remains . The eastern , southeastern and southern sides were fronted by a ditch of some 20 – 22 metres ( 66 – 72 ft ) , with the excavated soil dumped on the inner side and used to elevate the city wall . A small citadel was located in the southwestern corner of the town . The port was separated from the main town by a wall , and was situated in an excavated basin ( today a swamp ) and probably separated from the sea by an artificial mole and protected by extensions of the city walls . The entrance to the harbour was from the west , offering protection from both the wind and the coast 's shoals .
Among the few remains of buildings from the interior of the town , most notable are a large monumental staircase and a large church , with dimensions of some 43 by 15 metres ( 141 ft × 49 ft ) , in the northeast . The church was of relatively simple construction , but of unusual size , and A. Bon proposes its identification with the church of the Franciscans , where assemblies of the nobles of Achaea were held in 1276 and 1289 . The remaining portions of the church 's walls were completely destroyed by the German Army during the Occupation .
The site is currently managed by the 6th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities . It is accessible by car , and is open for visitors .
= = External link = =
D. Athanasoulis , Γλαρέντζα - Clarence
|
= Band Hero =
Band Hero is a spinoff video game as part of the Guitar Hero series of music rhythm games , released by Activision on November 3 , 2009 , for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , Wii and Nintendo DS consoles . The game is structurally similar to Guitar Hero 5 , and supports full band play ( lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals ) including the drop @-@ in / drop @-@ out and in @-@ song instrument and difficulty change menus , and additional multiplayer modes as Guitar Hero 5 . The console versions use instrument @-@ shaped game controllers , while the DS version uses either the " Guitar Grip " introduced with the Guitar Hero : On Tour series or a new Drum Skin that comes with the game . Like previous games , virtual avatars of Taylor Swift , Adam Levine , and the band No Doubt are presented in the game .
Band Hero received mixed reviews from journalists . Some considered the game to be an appropriately flavored version of Guitar Hero 5 for the " Top 40 " pop rock hits , while others felt the game was strictly aimed at teenagers . They also contested the cost of the full game , featuring only 65 songs compared with 85 songs in Guitar Hero 5 , and considered if the content would have been better in downloadable form . A day after the game 's release , the band No Doubt sued Activision , citing similar misuse of their avatars as the Kurt Cobain avatar in Guitar Hero 5 .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Main version = = =
The game is functionally similar to the features of Guitar Hero 5 , including bands composed of any combination of four instruments , drop @-@ in / drop @-@ out play , in @-@ song menus to change difficulty and instrument , and additional multiplayer modes compared to Guitar Hero 5 's " Rockfest " . Band Hero also retains the Band Moment and the Band Revival feature from Guitar Hero 5 . Taylor Swift , Adam Levine ( of Maroon 5 ) , and the band No Doubt have been confirmed to be playable avatars in the game . Artists performed motion capture for their in @-@ game avatars .
Band Hero also introduced an updated revision of the drum kit that shipped with Guitar Hero World Tour . Many changes were made to address weight and size concerns that made assembly difficult , and the stand 's crossbar was moved to the bottom to improve leg room and allow the bass pedal to be supported by it . The cymbals were changed to a circular shape from the previous triangular design , and the sensitivity of the drums themselves were adjusted . An in @-@ game sensitivity adjustment feature is also supported . In the United States , the new controller was , for a limited time , exclusive to the game and instrument bundles of Band Hero on Wii . The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of the controller were released at a later date ; Band Hero bundles for these platforms in the U.S. included the World Tour drum controller .
= = = DS version = = =
Band Hero for the Nintendo DS features the ability to play the same instruments as the console @-@ based versions . Though the game is compatible with the DS , DS Lite , and DSi , only players on the DS Lite will receive the " full band " experience due to the nature of the hardware extensions for the unit .
Guitar and bass parts are played with the same " Guitar Grip " previously created for the Guitar Hero : On Tour series , though this unit will not work on the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS due to lack of a GBA slot . The gameplay for guitar and bass is considered to be the fourth iteration of the Guitar Hero On Tour design by developers Vicarious Visions , and have further improvements to meet with different strumming styles .
A new " drum skin " that fits over the bottom half of the DS unit provides four " pads " for drumming that map to the unit 's directional pad and face buttons ; this design was selected over use of the touch screen due to the inability of the touch screen to recognize near @-@ simultaneous taps , a factor that would have interfered with the drumming experience . The drum skin is limited to the Nintendo DS Lite due to the skin 's form factor . The decision to design towards the DS Lite rather than the newer DSi was due to the much larger volume of DS Lite units that have been sold relative to the DSi .
The DS microphone is used for vocal parts . The DS has 30 of the songs from console versions . The game also supports up to four player multiplayer in a similar manner as Guitar Hero 5 using the DS 's local wireless connections , allowing any combination of instruments . However , there is no support for the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection nor plans for additional downloadable content for the DS game .
= = Development = =
A television advertisement , featuring Taylor Swift , Pete Wentz ( Fall Out Boy ) , Travis Barker ( Blink @-@ 182 ) , and Rivers Cuomo ( Weezer ) , was created for the game by director Brett Ratner in the same manner as previous ads for other recent Guitar Hero games , initially paying tribute to the scene in Risky Business with Tom Cruise dancing in his underwear to the song " Old Time Rock and Roll " . Though it appears as if all four performed together , Wentz stated that Swift performed her parts separately using a green screen to impose her into the footage of the other musicians .
A three @-@ song demo was made available on Xbox Live on October 15 , 2009 , and included " Paralyzer " by Finger Eleven , " Picture to Burn " by Taylor Swift and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . The demo was solely the Party Mode , with the three songs playable in random order .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = = Console soundtrack = = =
Band Hero for consoles features 65 songs from " mainstream acts " . The game also allows Guitar Hero World Tour ’ s downloadable content to be used within Band Hero , and is expected to also use similar content for Guitar Hero 5 . In addition , some on @-@ disc songs from Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero Smash Hits will be importable into Band Hero and Guitar Hero 5 for an undetermined fee , with music licensing limiting those that can be transferred . Furthermore , 69 of the 85 on @-@ disc songs from Guitar Hero 5 can be imported into Band Hero ; similarly , 61 of the 65 songs from Band Hero can be exported for use in Guitar Hero 5 and Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock .
= = = Nintendo DS soundtrack = = =
The Nintendo DS version of Band Hero features thirty songs ( per regional version from a forty @-@ five song combined setlist ) of the same genre as the console @-@ based soundtrack . Although they feature some of the same artists from the console version , the tracks themselves are different .
= = = Importable content = = =
On release of Band Hero , 35 of the songs from World Tour and 21 from Smash Hits are importable into Band Hero for a small fee ( approximately $ 0 @.@ 10 per song ) , and are treated as downloadable content for the game playable in all game modes . Furthermore , 69 of the 85 tracks from Guitar Hero 5 will be importable into Band Hero . All transferred songs will also be playable in the Guitar Hero 5 and will be free if downloaded in either games . However , Guitar Hero 5 or Band Hero is not backwards @-@ compatible with World Tour nor any other Guitar Hero game . The transfer process requires the player to enter a unique code from the World Tour or Smash Hits manual to be able to redownload available songs in a pack ( on the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 ) or individual songs ( on the Wii ) that have been updated to include the new features . Players on the Xbox 360 can delete individual songs after downloading the pack . Some songs are not transferable because of licensing issues — not technical issues — according to Bright . Tim Riley , the head of music licensing at Activision , stated that the company will continue to seek licenses for more songs from previous games and downloadable content to be exported into Band Hero , but cannot guarantee that these songs will be licensed for future Guitar Hero games .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
While Band Hero does not have its own separate library of downloadable content , it supports downloadable content from the Guitar Hero 5 DLC library . In addition , 152 of the 158 available downloadable songs for Guitar Hero World Tour are forward @-@ compatible with Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero ; the existing content is automatically upgraded to include all features new to these games and was immediately available to players upon release of Band Hero . Downloaded songs can be used in all game modes , provided all participating players have the song , including in the game 's Career mode when players are given the option to select any song to play . The entire Band Hero DLC library is also available in Guitar Hero 5 , and vice versa , so both games embrace the same DLC library . Some DLC songs have specific focus on Band Hero , like the " Celebrity New Years Track Pack " which includes Taylor Swift , Maroon 5 and No Doubt songs , and the " Band Hero Track Pack " with Miley Cyrus , Demi Lovato , and Selena Gomez & the Scene songs .
= = Reception = =
Band Hero has received mixed to positive reviews from gaming critics . Most recognized the game as having the same feature sets as Guitar Hero 5 , including any benefits or flaws that may come from that . Reviewers praised the reuse of the Guitar Hero 5 features such as the Party Play mode that allows for players to jump in and out , the improved Career mode , and the improved GHTunes . Some identified that the target market of the game appears to be towards teenage girls , such as the featuring of Taylor Swift , the color schemes used in the game , and other parts of the song selection . Reviewers noted that setlist would be the strongest measure of whether players should purchase the game . The reviewers also commented on the smaller setlist , which contains only 65 songs compared to Guitar Hero 5 's 85 .
Review did note that the " Top 40 " songs do not always make for challenging songs , as many featured simple chord repetition throughout the song or simply following pre @-@ programmed electronic keyboard or drum beats . However , most songs were found to feature at least one difficult instrument portion that would be fun to play . Reviews also noted that the censoring of songs in order to affirm a family @-@ friendly rating is awkward , such as censoring the word " whiskey " from Don McLean 's " American Pie " ( 8 times ) , and can ruin the enjoyment of some songs . Greg Miller of IGN further noted that these censoring are at odds with the straight @-@ up inclusion of other songs such as " Gasoline " by The Airborne Toxic Event which , Miller claims , is about sex .
Some reviews saw Band Hero as a good addition to the Guitar Hero franchise , and pointed out the strength of the game is improved in part due to the ability to import and export songs between Band Hero , Guitar Hero 5 , and content . Justin Haywald of 1UP.com , in consideration of the equivalent nature of featured , considered that players now had a choice of " ' Top 40 ' Band Hero or ' Hard Rock ' [ Guitar Hero 5 ] " skins to select for playing the music on , and positive direction for the series . However , others saw the simple rebranding of the game , and that some may see the product as little more than a " full @-@ price track pack " .
The game has sold 596 @,@ 000 units in North America through January 2010 , according to data from NPD Group . Prior to the end of 2009 , Activision had expressed plans to publish a sequel to Band Hero in 2010 . However , as a result of overall decline in music game sales , in part due to the large number of SKUs released by Activision during 2009 , such plans have been shelved , as Activision only plans to release continuing sequels to Guitar Hero and DJ Hero in 2010 .
= = = Lawsuit by No Doubt = = =
A day following Band Hero 's release , the band No Doubt filed a lawsuit against Activision . In a similar manner as Guitar Hero 5 , where the avatar of Kurt Cobain could be used to play any of the songs in the game and leading to questionable virtual performances , the same was found to be true for the No Doubt avatars in Band Hero . No Doubt 's lawsuit claimed their contract limited their performance to the three songs within the game and that they were never told their avatars would be used in that manner . Activision argued that it believes that the manner of use of the band 's avatars in the game is within the bounds of the contract . Activision subsequently filed a counter @-@ suit against the band , alleging contract breaches ; Activision claimed that it was " publicly known " that in @-@ game characters in the Guitar Hero series , once unlocked , could be used for all game modes , and that No Doubt 's request came well after the game 's code was finalized . Courtney Love , who has expressed an intention to follow legal action for Cobain 's appearance in Guitar Hero 5 , said to NME that she will join No Doubt in their lawsuit against Activision .
In April 2010 , the Los Angeles County Superior Court denied Activision 's motion to dismiss No Doubt 's rights of publicity claims under California 's anti @-@ SLAPP law . In February 2011 , the 2nd District Court of Appeal upheld the Superior Court 's ruling , allowing No Doubt 's case to proceed against Activision . In May 2012 , the Superior Court denied Activision 's motion for summary judgment , though it also denied a preliminary injunction sought by the band . In October 2012 , on the eve of trial , the case was settled for undisclosed terms .
|
= 2003 Pacific hurricane season =
The 2003 Pacific hurricane season was a season to feature no major hurricanes Category 3 or higher since 1977 . It Produced an unusually large number of tropical cyclones which affected Mexico . The most notable cyclones during the year were Hurricanes Ignacio and Marty , which killed 2 and 12 people in Mexico , respectively , and were collectively responsible for about US $ 1 billion ( 2003 USD ) in damage . Three other Pacific storms , two of which were hurricanes , and three Atlantic storms also had a direct impact on Mexico . The only other significant storm of the season was Hurricane Jimena , which passed just to the south of Hawaii , the first storm to directly threaten Hawaii for several years .
The season officially started on May 15 , 2003 , in the eastern Pacific Ocean , and on June 1 , 2003 , in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 2003 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The season saw 16 tropical storms form , of which 7 became hurricanes , which is about average . However , this season was the first Pacific hurricane season since 1977 to have no systems become major hurricanes by reaching Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Preseason forecasts = = =
On June 12 , 2003 , NOAA published a forecast for the East Pacific hurricane season , the first time it had done so . The scientists predicted a 50 % chance of below normal activity this season , due to the expectation that La Niña conditions would develop . La Niña conditions generally restrict tropical cyclone development in the northeast Pacific , which is the opposite of its effect in the Atlantic .
On May 19 , 2003 , NOAA published its forecast for the Central Pacific hurricane season . The forecast called for a slightly below @-@ average level of activity in 2003 , due to the same forecast of the onset of La Niña which would later prompt the low forecast for the Eastern Pacific .
= = = Seasonal activity = = =
There were 16 named storms and 7 hurricanes during the 2003 Pacific hurricane season , which is comparable with the long @-@ term averages . However , there were no major hurricanes ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale ) ; this was the first time this had happened in the eastern Pacific since 1977 , and is well below the long @-@ term average of four . The first hurricane , Ignacio , formed on August 24 . This is the latest formation of the first hurricane of a season recorded in the east Pacific since reliable satellite observation began in 1966 .
Whilst the total activity was below average , there was an unusually high number of landfalls in Mexico . A total of eight Pacific and North Atlantic tropical cyclones had a direct impact in Mexico in 2003 , second only to 1971 , when 9 did so . This is well above the long @-@ term average of 4 @.@ 2 Atlantic and east Pacific storms affecting Mexico . Five Pacific storms impacted Mexico , of which Hurricanes Ignacio and Marty both hit the state of Baja California Sur as hurricanes . The combined damage from the two hurricanes totaled about US $ 1 billion ( 2003 USD ) . Two other storms hit mainland Mexico as tropical storms and a third as a tropical depression . Three storms hit Mexico within a very short space of time , the Pacific hurricanes Nora and Olaf , and the Atlantic Tropical Storm Larry . As a result of the flooding caused by these storms , disaster areas were declared in 14 states .
Activity in the Central Pacific was below average , with only one tropical depression forming in the basin and one hurricane entering the basin from the east Pacific . In addition , a third system , Tropical Storm Guillermo , weakened to a remnant low just to the east of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility . Although activity was generally low , Hurricane Jimena was the first direct threat to the Hawaiian Islands for several years and a hurricane watch was issued for the island of Hawaii . Jimena passed to the south , but still brought tropical @-@ storm @-@ force gusts and heavy rain to the island .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Andres = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on May 19 well to the south of Mexico as it moved west . A good outflow developed and it became a tropical storm the next day , before reaching its peak strength with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Increasing shear prevented any further development as the storm moved quickly west @-@ northwest . On May 25 , the shear and a reduction in water temperatures weakened Andres to a tropical depression , and it dissipated soon after . The storm did not approach land .
= = = Tropical Storm Blanca = = =
Tropical Depression Two @-@ E formed when an organized tropical wave interacted with another disturbance near the southwestern Mexican coast early on June 17 . The storm strengthened and became Tropical Storm Blanca 12 hours later . The storm moved slowly to the west and reached its peak on June 18 with 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds . Although Blanca never developed a true eye , at its peak there was a ring of convection resembling one . Under the influence of strong shear from the southeast , Blanca began to weaken and move erratically . The storm degenerated to a remnant low on June 22 and lasted a further two days . There were no effects from Blanca on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Carlos = = =
Tropical Storm Carlos formed on June 26 from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico . It quickly strengthened as it approached the coast , and early on June 27 Carlos moved ashore in Oaxaca with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The storm rapidly deteriorated to a remnant low , which persisted until dissipating on June 29 . Carlos brought heavy rainfall to portions of southern Mexico , peaking at 337 mm ( 13 @.@ 3 in ) in two locations in Guerrero . Throughout its path , the storm damaged about 30 @,@ 000 houses , with a monetary damage total of $ 86 @.@ 7 million pesos ( 2003 MXN , US $ 8 million 2003 USD ) . At least nine people were killed throughout the country , seven due to mudslides and two from river flooding ; there was also a report of two missing fishermen .
= = = Tropical Storm Dolores = = =
Convection developed within an area of low pressure embedded in a tropical wave as it moved west . The disturbance organized into Tropical Depression Four @-@ E on July 6 well to the south @-@ southwest of the tip of the Baja California Peninsula . It soon strengthened further into Tropical Storm Dolores as it moved to the northwest and reached its peak as a minimal tropical storm with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . However , wind shear had an adverse effect on Dolores , and it weakened back into a depression 12 hours after becoming a tropical storm . The northwest motion brought it over colder water and it dissipated on July 9 .
= = = Tropical Storm Enrique = = =
On July 10 , a tropical wave formed into Tropical Depression Five @-@ E. The storm became more organized and was named Tropical Storm Enrique the next day at an unusually high latitude . The storm continued to strengthen and at one point was forecast to briefly become a hurricane . This did not occur as the storm reached its peak strength with 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . It maintained this strength before moving over significantly cooler water late on July 12 . Due to the cold water temperatures Enrique rapidly weakened , despite favorable atmospheric conditions . The storm degenerated into a remnant low late on July 13 and continued to move west before dissipating after a further 3 days . Enrique had no effects on land , but there were two ship reports of tropical storm force winds .
= = = Tropical Storm Felicia = = =
A tropical wave passed over Central America on July 12 and started to become more organized two days later . It formed into a tropical depression on July 17 as it continued to move to the west . The depression became Tropical Storm Felicia the next day and as there was low shear over the system , the NHC predicted that it would become a minimal hurricane . However , the storm remained disorganized and peaked with 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) winds late on July 18 . The storm gradually weakened under increasing shear as it headed west , weakening back to a tropical depression on July 20 . The remnant low entered the central Pacific before dissipating on July 24 well to the east of Hawaii . Felicia had no effect on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Guillermo = = =
A weak surface low developed within a tropical wave on August 6 and the convection associated with it became isolated from that of the wave . The circulation of the system became better defined and a Tropical Depression , Seven @-@ E , formed early the next day . Although the depression was initially forecast to dissipate quickly , it became more organized as it moved to the west . On August 8 it became Tropical Storm Guillermo and it reached its peak strength with 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds that day . It maintained this strength for a full day , until outflow from the developing Tropical Storm Hilda to its east disrupted its convection . The remnant low entered the central Pacific shortly before dissipating on August 13 .
= = = Tropical Storm Hilda = = =
A tropical wave developed persistent thunderstorm activity on August 5 , which soon became more organized , forming into Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E to the south of Cabo San Lucas . An impressive outflow pattern caused the NHC to predict an intensification to hurricane strength , but strong easterly shear affected the system . The depression became Tropical Storm Hilda on August 10 but did not get any stronger than a minimal tropical storm with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Hilda moved west @-@ northwest before it moved over colder waters , which caused it to weaken . Low @-@ level flow forced the weakening cyclone westwards and it dissipated on August 13 , having never approached land .
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C = = =
The only tropical cyclone to form in the central Pacific in 2003 developed on August 15 , and resulted from an interaction between remnants of Tropical Storm Guillermo and a non @-@ tropical low . Unfavorable wind shear prevented the development of the depression and weakened as it drifted to the west . It weakened to a remnant low on August 17 and never regained depression strength . The remnant passed just south of Johnston Atoll before it crossed the International Date Line on August 20 . The storm had a minimal effect on the weather of the Hawaiian Islands .
= = = Hurricane Ignacio = = =
A tropical wave organized into a distinct area of disturbed weather just south of the Mexican port of Manzanillo , Colima , on August 22 and gradually moved to the northwest . It became Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E off Cabo Corrientes in the state of Jalisco two days later and under the influence of favorable atmospheric conditions rapidly strengthened . It was named Tropical Storm Ignacio on August 25 before it peaked as a 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) hurricane on August 26 , the first of the season . Ignacio entered the southern Gulf of California before it made landfall just to the east of La Paz , Baja California Sur . Ignacio weakened overland and dissipated early on August 28 over central Baja California .
Due to the storm 's slow movement , rainfall was high and the resulting flooding was severe , and Ignacio was responsible for approximately US $ 21 million of damage . Two rescue workers drowned in the flood waters brought by the storm and some 10 @,@ 000 people were evacuated to shelters .
= = = Hurricane Jimena = = =
On August 28 , an area of disturbed weather within the Intertropical Convergence Zone developed into Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E , some 1725 miles ( 2775 km ) east of the Hawaiian Islands . The storm rapidly developed over warm ocean waters , gaining an eye shortly before it became Hurricane Jimena on August 29 . The storm moved to the west , entering the central Pacific as it continued to strengthen . After reaching its peak strength with 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) winds 800 miles ( 1300 km ) to the east of Hawaii it began to weaken as a result of increased shear . The storm passed about 120 miles ( 195 km ) to the south of the southern tip of Hawaii on September 1 , just after losing hurricane strength . The storm then moved west , south of the archipelago , becoming a tropical depression on September 3 . The weakening Jimena crossed the International Date Line before dissipating on September 5 .
The storm brought 6 to 10 inches ( 150 to 250 mm ) of rain and 11 foot ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) surf to the island of Hawaii . There were also tropical storm force winds recorded on several of the Hawaiian Islands , but there was no significant damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Kevin = = =
A large low pressure area developed within a tropical wave and organized slowly into Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E on September 3 south @-@ southwest of the tip of Baja California . The broad wind field prevented rapid intensification and the system reached tropical storm strength on September 4 . Although wind shear was light , Kevin weakened into a depression after just six hours , as it moved over colder waters . On September 6 the system degenerated to a non @-@ convective low pressure area , which managed to survive for four days before finally dissipating . Tropical Storm Kevin had no effects on land .
= = = Hurricane Linda = = =
Convection began to increase in a tropical wave on September 9 and a few days later a surface low developed . On September 12 it organized into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E to the southwest of the Mexican port of Manzanillo , Colima . The cyclone moved to the northwest , becoming a tropical storm on September 14 before reaching its peak strength as a Category 1 hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds . The National Hurricane Center predicted further strengthening , but this did not occur and Linda weakened back to a tropical storm after just 12 hours as a hurricane . As the storm continued to weaken it turned to the west and then to the southwest , becoming a tropical depression on September 17 . The remnant drifted to the southwest and finally dissipated on September 26 . There were no reports of any effects from this storm .
= = = Hurricane Marty = = =
A tropical wave moved into the Pacific Ocean on September 10 and the convection associated with it gradually increased . By September 16 , while the system was south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas , it organized into Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E. The depression strengthened as it headed towards the Baja California Peninsula , becoming a tropical storm on September 19 and a hurricane two days later . Hurricane Marty reached its peak strength on September 22 , just before it made landfall at Cabo San Lucas , when it was packing winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . After moving over the southern tip of the peninsula Marty moved up the western coast of the Gulf of California , gradually weakening as it did so . The storm weakened to a tropical depression on September 23 and dissipated two days later after meandering over the northern Gulf .
Hurricane Marty was the deadliest storm of the 2003 Pacific hurricane season and was responsible for 12 deaths and either damaged or destroyed over 4 @,@ 000 homes . It brought heavy rainfall to the entire region and some rain affected the Southwest United States . A 5 foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) storm surge flooded parts of La Paz , Baja California Sur , and sank 35 yachts moored in various ports . Marty was also the costliest east Pacific storm of the year and was responsible for US $ 50 million of damage in western Mexico .
= = = Hurricane Nora = = =
A tropical wave moved over Central America on September 25 and moved parallel to the south Mexican coast . It became more organized on October 1 and developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E to the south of the Baja California Peninsula . It continued to strengthen as it moved northwest in favorable conditions , becoming a tropical storm the next day . On October 4 it became a hurricane and reached its peak that day with 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) winds . Nora made a sharp turn to the east and began to weaken , as the result of the influence of a mid @-@ level trough and the outflow from Hurricane Olaf to the southeast . The cyclone rapidly weakened before it made landfall just north of Mazatlán , Sinaloa , on October 9 . Nora dissipated over land soon after landfall . Hurricane Nora was the strongest storm of the season and brought heavy rain to the state of Sinaloa , but there was no significant damage or casualties .
= = = Hurricane Olaf = = =
A tropical wave became increasingly organized on October 2 to the south @-@ southeast of Acapulco and developed into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E the next day . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Olaf six hours after forming as it moved to the northwest in a low shear environment . Olaf reached its peak strength as a minimal hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds on October 5 and developed a partial eyewall . The storm soon became disorganized and was only a hurricane for a few hours , before turning towards the Mexican coast . Olaf made landfall near Manzanillo , Colima , on October 7 and soon dissipated overland .
The storm caused severe flooding in the states of Jalisco and Guanajuato which damaged crops , roads and over 12 @,@ 000 houses . However , there were no deaths as a result of Hurricane Olaf .
= = = Hurricane Patricia = = =
On October 20 the convection associated with a tropical wave became more organized , and Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E formed to the south of Acapulco . It soon became Tropical Storm Patricia and reached hurricane strength on October 21 , as it moved further west . 12 hours later , its winds had increased to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and the NHC forecast further strengthening . However , on October 22 , increasing westerly shear caused Patricia to weaken to below hurricane strength . The storm weakened further to a depression on October 25 , and it dissipated the next day , ending the season . Hurricane Patricia had no effects on land .
= = Storm names = =
The following list of names was used to name storms that formed in the northeast Pacific in 2003 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . No names were retired by the World Meteorological Organization , therefore this list was used again in the 2009 season . This is the same list which was used for the 1997 season except for Patricia , which replaced Pauline . The name Patricia was previously used in 1970 and 1974 .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 2003 are shown below ; however , none of them were used .
|
= Ayers Rock ( band ) =
Ayers Rock were an Australian jazz fusion , progressive rock band which formed in August 1973 . Ray Burton ( guitar and vocals ) , Mark Kennedy ( drums ) , and Duncan McGuire ( bass ) , members of Leo de Castro and Friends , left to form the eponymous trio of Burton , McGuire & Kennedy . They added a guitarist , Jimmy Doyle , changed their name to Ayers Rock and invited Col Loughnan ( saxophones and flutes ) to join . The group signed with independent label Mushroom Records in December 1973 . Burton left the following March , and was replaced by Chris Brown ( guitar , vocals ) . With live appearances , coverage in print media and word of mouth the group had a high national profile despite little radio airplay , and journalists praised their musicianship , music , and live energy .
The band 's first album , Big Red Rock ( November 1974 ) , received positive reviews and peaked at number 32 on the Australian Kent Music Report album chart . It featured mainstream rock and three longer , instrumental tracks which introduced progressive styles , including jazz fusion . Label owner Michael Gudinski promoted Ayers Rock in Los Angeles and they signed with A & M Records , the first Mushroom Records artists to sign with an international label . The United States release of Big Red Rock in February 1975 was followed by a tour there , later that year . The band played to large crowds , supporting major international artists ( including Bachman – Turner Overdrive ) before 35 @,@ 000 people – the first Australian band to perform in large US stadiums . Ayers Rock were named 1975 Musicians of the Year on RAM 's " New Year 's Honors List " . Kennedy left before their second album , Beyond ( April 1976 , recorded at the Record Plant in Los Angeles ) , was released . The album blended a number of music genres and had a positive critical reception , charting at number 50 . The band toured the US again ; Loughnan remained there , and Ayers Rock temporarily broke up in August 1976 .
A year later Doyle and Brown recruited members for a new lineup , including Andy Cowan ( keyboards and vocals ) and Hamish Stuart ( drums ) . In 1980 they released their third album , Hotspell , on their own Red Rock Records label . This album had a soft @-@ rock style , with sophisticated arrangements and featured keyboards . It failed to chart , and the group permanently disbanded in 1981 . Although Ayers Rock 's first two albums were successful in Australia , none of their six singles charted . During their early years ( from 1973 to 1976 ) , the group were praised by local media for their music , stylistic diversity , use of technology , and the energy of their live performances . Ayers Rock received positive reviews in Billboard and Cashbox . Late @-@ 1990s music historians recognised the band 's talent but considered their music over @-@ indulgent at times , failing to bridge the gap between artistic and commercial success . Duncan Kimball of Milesago.com wrote " that they never really got the chance to reach their full potential . "
= = Australian music scene = =
Ayers Rock were formed in the Australian pop @-@ music scene of the early 1970s , which included artists in a number of genres : mainstream pop ( Zoot and Liv Maessen ) , blues rock ( Chain ) , heavy rock ( Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs ) , and boogie ( Carson ) . Bands such as Blackfeather and Madder Lake combined mainstream and progressive rock . Most pop and rock listeners had never heard jazz fusion ; when Ayers Rock incorporated the music into their sets , it was rarely performed by fellow Australian artists .
At that time , the Australian music media expressed frustration that few local musicians were successful overseas . Many artists ( such as The Twilights , The Masters Apprentices , The Groop and Axiom ) had gone to the United Kingdom with little commercial success , and music papers such as Go @-@ Set regularly addressed the situation . The " third wave " of Australian rock , from 1970 to 1975 , saw an increase in pub rock venues in the southern and eastern states .
= = History = =
= = = 1973 : Formation = = =
Ayers Rock formed in Melbourne in August 1973 . Ray Burton , Mark Kennedy , and Duncan McGuire , members of Leo de Castro and Friends , left in June to form the eponymous trio of Burton McGuire & Kennedy . Burton had played guitar with the Dave Bridge Quartet , the Delltones and the Executives , and co @-@ wrote " I Am Woman " ( May 1972 ) in the United States with Australian singer Helen Reddy . McGuire , on bass , was a recording engineer , producer , and a member of Australian groups since the late 1950s ( including the Phantoms , the Epics , the Questions – which later became Doug Parkinson in Focus ; see Doug Parkinson – and King Harvest ) . Kennedy , on drums , had played in Spectrum , Doug Parkinson in Focus , King Harvest , and Leo de Castro and Friends .
Burton McGuire & Kennedy were joined in August 1973 by Jimmy Doyle on guitar . Doyle had worked for the Delltones and Dig Richards , was musical director for pianist Winifred Atwell on her Australian tours , and was a session player in Sydney on Neil Sedaka 's 1969 album Workin ' on a Groovy Thing . In September 1973 Burton McGuire & Kennedy changed their name to Ayers Rock , using the European name for the sandstone rock formation sacred to local indigenous Australians . The group were nicknamed " the Rock " by the Australian press . Since 1993 the sandstone monolith has been called by its Pitjantjatjaran name , Uluru .
Doyle had worked sporadically for several years with multi @-@ instrumentalist and arranger Col Loughnan , who joined London @-@ based blues @-@ pop group Kala in late 1972 . Doyle invited his former bandmate to join in October 1973 . With Ayers Rock , Loughnan played saxophones , flute , and electric piano . He had begun his career as lead vocalist for the Crescents in 1958 , joining the Delltones in 1962 . Loughnan diversified into arranging and playing jazz tenor saxophone with the Daly @-@ Wilson Big Band . By December 1973 Ayers Rock had signed with Mushroom Records , which released their first single – " Rock ' n Roll Fight ( Going On ) " , one of the label 's early records . Mushroom Records co @-@ owner Michael Gudinski became their manager .
In January 1974 Ayers Rock performed at the Sunbury Pop Festival and " Morning Magic " ( written by Burton ) appeared on the live album , Highlights of Sunbury ' 74 Part 2 , released by Mushroom Records later that year . In March Burton returned to the US and was replaced on guitar and lead vocals by Chris Brown , formerly of Python Lee Jackson . Loughnan and Brown had played together in London as members of Kala . The band traced their origins to rock or pop bands from Sydney , except for Kennedy ( who was from Melbourne ) .
= = = 1974 – 75 : Big Red Rock = = =
In 1974 Ayers Rock began recording their debut album , Big Red Rock , at Festival Records ' 24 @-@ track studio in Sydney . They were dissatisfied with the sound , which failed to capture their music 's " live " essence , and recorded it live @-@ in @-@ the @-@ studio at Armstrong 's in Melbourne that September . Kennedy told Margaret MacIntyre of Rolling Stone Australia , " Doing the album live was an experiment really and it seemed to work . " Big Red Rock , released in November , peaked at number 32 on the Kent Music Report album chart . The album had " a more jazz @-@ rock edge " and its single , " Lady Montego " ( written by McGuire ) , was a new version of a song originally performed by Leo de Castro and Friends . According to Juke Magazine , " the single lifted to push the album , ' Lady Montego ' ... received three weeks airplay and was then dumped . " " Lady Montego " was Ayers Rock 's most @-@ aired single in Australia , and Kennedy said : " Without AM radio support you can 't sell too well in this country . " Juke called their songs " lyrically banal " but said the group compensated with " sheer talent " , instrumentally and electronically .
A song from Ayers Rock 's live set was a cover of " Boogie Woogie Waltz " , written by Joe Zawinul of Weather Report for the US group 's album Sweetnighter ( April 1973 ) . In November 1974 Loughnan temporarily stopped performing live due to back pain , and the band continued with four members . He returned after surgery , and contemporary photos and video show him playing sitting down during his convalescence .
Manager and label owner Gudinski visited the US in December 1974 to promote his recording artists , including Skyhooks , Daddy Cool , and Madder Lake , to major labels there . At that time only Ayers Rock were successful , with Gudinski signing them to A & M Records within days . He told Tony Wilson of The Sun , " Jerry Moss , the president of A & M Records USA , flipped when he heard it , so A & M will release it ( Big Red Rock ) world @-@ wide . " This was a surprise to the Australian media , since many other artists were more commercially successful locally than Ayers Rock . Skyhooks were Australia 's most popular band ; their first album ( Living in the 70 's , released in October 1974 ) sold 226 @,@ 000 units , the best @-@ selling album by a local artist in Australia to date . However , Living in the 70 's was rejected by A & M and not released outside Australia . Ayers Rock were the first Mushroom Records artists to sign a recording contract with an international label . From the mid @-@ 1970s , and into the 1990s , Mushroom were successful with many other artists including Split Enz , Kylie Minogue , and Yothu Yindi , turning the label into Australia 's largest independent record company .
In January 1975 the group performed at the fourth Sunbury Pop Festival , and Big Red Rock and " Lady Montego " were released in the US on 28 February . On 20 April , they performed at a benefit concert for Bangladesh at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl with the La De Das , Jim Keays , AC / DC , Phil Manning , Daddy Cool , Toulouse & Too Tight , the Dingoes , and the Moir Sisters .
From July to September , they promoted Big Red Rock in the US and Vancouver . The band played to an audience of 35 @,@ 000 at a stadium concert in Seattle , supporting Bachman – Turner Overdrive , on 27 July and opened for Status Quo , the J. Geils Band , Lynyrd Skynyrd , and Nils Lofgren . According to Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane , " Ayers Rock was the first Australian band to play to massive crowds on the USA touring circuit " , years before fellow Australians the Little River Band , AC / DC , and Air Supply made their first US tours .
= = = 1975 – 76 : Beyond = = =
At the end of their US tour in September 1975 Ayers Rock recorded their second album , Beyond , at the Record Plant in Los Angeles . The album , produced by the group and John Stronach , received a $ 60 @,@ 000 advance from A & M Records .
On 18 October , The Sun reported that McGuire had left the band . At a reception when Ayers Rock returned to Australia , he said : " The pressure of the tour was just too much . We were on the road all the time and I guess I wasn 't as strong as the rest of the band . When we got into the studio I had the shakes . I mean I was playing the right notes , but not in the right places . " To finish the album McGuire 's friend Les Young played some of the bass guitar parts , and American Jeff Castleman played bass on " Catchanemu " . Young also briefly played live with Ayers Rock in Australia , including an October 1975 show at the State Theatre in Sydney . McGuire returned to the group at the Dallas Brooks Hall on 21 October 1975 , to warm applause .
In late November Ayers Rock appeared at the final Reefer Cabaret event , at Ormond Hall in Prahran . The performance was recorded for a double album , A @-@ Reefer @-@ Derci ( 1976 ) . In January 1976 , Rock Australia Magazine named Ayers Rock Musicians of the Year for 1975 in their " New Year 's Honors List " . Kennedy left to join Marcia Hines ' backing band in February 1976 , and they reportedly married late in the decade . In Ayers Rock , Kennedy was temporarily replaced by Doug Gallacher . In April 1976 Beyond was released in Australia and the US , making the Kent Music Report top 50 . Two singles from the album were released : " Little Kings " ( October 1975 ) and " Song for Darwin " ( May 1976 ) , but neither charted .
The US cover for Beyond features a rock in the distance , which becomes the face of an Aboriginal man with eyes closed when the cover is rotated 90 ° to the right . Artist and Mushroom Records art director Ian McCausland also designed The Rolling Stones ' 1973 Australian tour poster . The album cover illustrates a central principle of Aboriginal spirituality : the deep connection between the land and the Aboriginal peoples . In an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission publication , " Our Land Our Life " , S. Knight described the Aboriginal position : " We don 't own the land , the land owns us . The land is my mother , my mother is the land . Land is the starting point to where it all began . " According to the Australian government webpage , The Dreaming : " Once the ancestor spirits had created the world , they changed into trees , the stars , rocks , watering holes or other objects . These are sacred places of Aboriginal culture . "
In May 1976 Gallacher was replaced by Russell Dunlop , formerly of Aesop 's Fables , Levi Smith 's Clefs , SCRA , Mother Earth , and the Johnny Rocco Band . In an interview with Greg Kelton of The Advertiser , Loughnan outlined the band 's future : " If Beyond doesn 't make it for us in the States we might as well forget all about Ayers Rock . " From May to July they toured the US again , " only achiev [ ing ] limited success overseas . " After the tour Dunlop and Loughnan left , and on 25 August Mushroom Records announced that Ayers Rock had broken up after Loughnan decided to remain in the US to study . Brown , Doyle , and McGuire indicated that they would revive the group with new members .
= = = 1977 – 81 : Hotspell = = =
In 1977 Brown and Doyle re @-@ formed Ayers Rock with Bermuda @-@ born Keith Caisey on percussion , Joe Tattersall ( formerly of Healing Force and the Barry Leef Band ) on drums , and John Young ( formerly of Leo de Castro 's eponymous group ) on bass guitar . By 1978 Brown , Caisey and Doyle were joined by Andy Cowan ( formerly of Madder Lake ) on keyboards and vocals , Steve Hogg ( formerly of Bakery ) on bass guitar , and Hamish Stuart on drums . In March 1980 the band released another single , " On the Avenue " , followed in May by their third LP – Hotspell – on their own Red Rock Records ( distributed by RCA Records ) . Recorded at the Music Farm in Byron Bay , it was engineered by former member Duncan McGuire .
In The Canberra Times , Luis Feliu noted the " new @-@ sounding " Ayers Rock and their " laid @-@ back " style . There had been a major change in songwriting , with Brown contributing less ; Cowan was the most active ( writing five tracks ) , and Stuart and Doyle co @-@ wrote two . Doyle , with no writing credits on previous albums , wrote " On the Road " ( which was included in the band 's live sets from 1978 ) . Jillian Burt of Juke Magazine described it as " reminiscent of the cool , calm , collectedness that typifies Steely Dan " . Hotspell featured soft @-@ rock songs with sophisticated , keyboard @-@ centred arrangements .
According to Feliu 's review of the album and a July 1980 performance in Sydney , Ayers Rock were " once Australia 's hottest progressive rock " group . Feliu wrote that most of the audience seemed to appreciate the band 's new direction : " the capacity audience showed hearty approval ... probably old allegiance , and only a few comments of dissatisfaction , like ' boring ' , were heard , then that was at the bar up the back " . Hotspell did not reach the Kent Music Report album top 100 , and has not been released on CD . In July 1981 the group released a final single , " Lies " , before disbanding later that year .
= = Other projects = =
In late 1974 Ayers Rock members Brown , McGuire , Kennedy and Loughnan played on several tracks of Jim Keays ' debut solo album , The Boy from the Stars . At the January 1975 Sunbury Pop Festival Keays performed most of the album live , with three Ayers Rock members ( Brown , McGuire and Kennedy ) joining the ensemble to record " Nothing Much Left " and " Urantia " . Returning to the US , Burton was a session player for Billy Joel and Jimmy Webb and wrote " Best Friend " for the film Airport 1975 ( 1974 ) . In 1976 , he formed the Ray Burton Band with Rex Bullen , Terry Gascoine , Steve Hogg and Tim Piper . From 1977 to 1980 , McGuire was bass guitarist for the Southern Star Band with Doug Parkinson on vocals , Tommy Emmanuel on guitar and Kennedy on drums . In 1978 Burton released a solo album , Dreamers and Nightflyers , which spawned the singles " Too Hard to Handle " and " Paddington Green " . After touring with Crossfire in 1979 , he returned to the US as a songwriter .
Cowan was later a member of Kevin Borich Express , Ian Moss Band and Renée Geyer Band before pursuing a solo music career . Georgie Fame 's album No Worries ( 1988 ) included Ayers Rock alumni Loughnan , Doyle , and Dunlop . McGuire died in July 1989 of a brain tumour . During the late 1980s , Hogg formed The Rhythm Snakes with Clayton Black on drums , Howie Smallman on harmonica , and Bob Thorne on guitar . In 1989 , Hogg assembled a studio band to record a solo album with Thorne , Mark Alderman on harmonica , Ian Ironside on drums , Bob Patient on piano , and Bernie Payne on saxophone . Steve Hogg died on 20 July 1990 and his album , Various Fools & Vices , was released in 1992 .
In 1993 , Kennedy drummed for The Blazing Salads with Brian Cadd , Glenn Shorrock , Rex Goh , and Kirk Lorange . Hamish Stuart played drums on Chris Abrahams and Melanie Oxley 's 1998 album , Jerusalem Bay . Doyle died on 5 May 2006 , and on 28 May the Jim Doyle Tribute Concert was played at the Basement in Sydney . Musicians included Renée Geyer , Billy Field , bandmate Loughnan , and Barry Leef , with proceeds benefiting Doyle 's family . Dunlop died on 16 May 2009 ; he had collapsed after drumming at his son 's wedding in Sydney . As of 2015 , Loughnan is a lecturer in jazz saxophone at the University of Sydney 's Conservatorium of Music and has been a member of its Jazz Faculty since 1978 . In 2007 he released a solo album , Ellen St.
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Genres = = =
Although Ayers Rock 's music is described as jazz @-@ rock , this is a simplification . In the 2011 radio documentary " Rare Collections " , presented by David and Jordie Kilby on Jazz @-@ Rock in Australia for 666 ABC Canberra , Loughnan described other Mushroom Records artists as playing pop rock styles and Ayers Rock playing some jazz : " We were a bit of both " . Critics called Big Red Rock 's side one its " song " side and side two its " jazz " side . " Lady Montego " , " Talkin ' ' Bout You " , " Goin ' Home " and " Nostalgic Blues " are rock songs ; the first three were written by McGuire , and the fourth by Brown .
Loughnan 's " Crazy Boys " highlighted the band 's larrikin side , with working @-@ class men talking at a hamburger shop ; each used local slang or spoke in a stereotypical ethnic accent , poking fun at Australians from a variety of backgrounds . At one point " Hey , listen mate , give me one ' Gudinskiburger ' , please , hold the bacon , please " is heard ; Michael Gudinski , whose parents are Jewish immigrants , does not eat pork and went along with the joke . Another voice mentions " Dr. Hopontopovus , the Greek gynaecologist " . More slang is heard later in the track , including " Who yer sayin ’ that to , yer drongo ? "
Although " Crazy Boys " has two lines of lyrics , most of the track is instrumental . Described by a Juke Magazine reviewer as " free form jazz " , it features solos by Brown , Doyle , and Loughnan and heavily @-@ processed guitars , electric saxophone , and vocals . Asked about the group 's use of electronics by Eloe Fanouche of RAM , Loughnan answered : " You 've got to be able to use them well in order to sound good . We use them to colour the sounds as much as possible . "
The title track , Loughnan 's " Big Red Rock " , is an eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute instrumental described by Juke Magazine as " expertly capturing the stark loneliness and cosmic tranquility one gets standing before their namesake rock " . According to Loughnan , the atmosphere they wanted to create was " that spacey sort of feeling — like desert [ ... ] and we wanted to get the sound of the didgeridoo — which we did electronically " . Doyle imitated a didgeridoo by playing guitar with a wah @-@ wah pedal . Tony Catterall of The Canberra Times praised " Big Red Rock " , saying that it " suggests the huge expanse of the outback , then takes you [ ... ] to the Aboriginal secrets [ ... ] [ and evokes ] the power surrounding the area [ of Uluru ] in a burst of truly inspired musicianship " .
Gil Wahlquist of The Sydney Morning Herald called the album " heavily accented towards jazz . " It has changing moods , with quiet moments which are " eerie , euphonic , and evocative . " Aboriginal clapsticks and the imitation didgeridoo allude to the indigenous character of Uluru and the surrounding area . Another section is double @-@ tempo jazz fusion with guitar and saxophone solos , complemented by a rhythm section driving to a crescendo . The section concludes with a rapid rallentando ( slowing of tempo ) to another gentle phase . Changes in tempo and volume are heard throughout the title track , in contrast to disco ( featuring one tempo and volume , which was becoming more popular ) .
Like Big Red Rock , the vastness of rural and outback landscapes were reflected in the artwork and music of Beyond . According to a review by Forester in The Age , the band and album have " titles to suggest space , time and distance " and some tracks had an " indigenous appeal " . The lead track 's title , " Moondah " , translates into English as " beyond " . In April 1976 Loughnan , who wrote the song , said in a TV Times interview : " The aborigines have had a raw deal in the past . The song expresses the hope that they get better treatment in the future " . " Moondah ( beyond ) " begins with clapsticks , log drum , imitation didgeridoo , and sounds evocative of indigenous singing .
This combination creates sounds similar to indigenous Australian music , which later segues into a European style before returning to its original theme . The overall effect is a fusion of indigenous Australian music , rock , and improvisational jazz by European Australians , before indigenous rock artists Yothu Yindi and No Fixed Address created their own fusions of indigenous and rock music .
Beyond featured a 23 @-@ piece string section , arranged and conducted by Loughnan , on " Place to Go " , " Song for Darwin " and " Angel in Disguise " . Loughnan had originally written " Angel in Disguise " years before for his wife , expanding it into an instrumental . According to Derek Johnson 's RAM review , " The violin tones and guitar sounds are particularly well produced , dissolving into each other one moment , separating and circling around each other the next . "
= = = Airplay = = =
Ayers Rock 's treatment by Australian radio stations during the 1970s was related to the popularity of AM . Unlike the US , which had a vibrant FM radio scene , in 1976 Australia only had ABC FM and a few community FM stations which primarily played classical music . Commercial AM stations , playing pop and rock music , dominated the local airwaves . The group established their reputation with live performances , exposure in print media , and word of mouth , with minimal Australian radio promotion .
Kennedy told a Juke interviewer , " Radio airplay has never happened for us here — except 2JJ and the occasional Album Shows " . Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) youth @-@ oriented AM radio station 2JJ was limited to Sydney during the 1970s , with poor reception in some areas . The US attitude toward the band 's music was different ; according to Greg Kelton of The Advertiser , Beyond had " been played by about 50 radio stations in the ( U.S. ) . ' It is being played on two [ stations ] in Australia ' , said Jimmy Doyle . "
= = = Live performance = = =
Ayers Rock began incorporating rock @-@ jazz fusion into their sets , increasing the jazz aspect of their music . In his review of a concert on 19 October 1975 , Paul Gardiner wrote for Rolling Stone : " Big Red Rock was still tied quite closely to existing American styles . " According to Gardiner , at the State Theatre " evidence " of jazz @-@ rock " came through loud and clear " . This was their first major Australian concert after their first US tour and recording sessions .
The group were fundamentally a high @-@ volume rock band . In the smoke @-@ filled bar of Martinis in Carlton , Juke Magazine collected a vox populi of the " packed to the rafters " audience . One person said , " I don 't mind a bit of volume with my improvisation but this is so goddamn heavy . " Gardiner 's review described the group 's live show :
The band ... have cut their teeth on pure rock and roll and have , [ as of ] Ayers Rock , moved on to what amounts to a rock @-@ jazz fusion . The inversion of the term is becoming important ; unlike the bands to which they are compared in America , which have all lived and breathed jazz in its purer , more traditional forms , ... [ the ] Rock is made up of rock musicians .
In a Rolling Stone interview by Margaret MacIntyre , Kennedy explained : " Ayers Rock was getting a live response that , to speak for myself , I hadn 't seen happen with a crowd ... for a long time " . In the same interview , Doyle described the key to their success : " This band is going somewhere ... it 's not the same thing every night , unlike many bands , the arrangements change . " Reviewers were enthusiastic about the band 's performances ; according to Gardiner , " The impression they now generate on stage is one of total energy ... energy which sets them apart . " Juke Magazine called them " a band that could reward its audiences with ( the ) sheer exhilaration of seeing real master musicians ... taking their audiences to virgin territory that other explorers had only dreamed about . "
Eloe Fanouche of RAM focussed on another aspect :
Unlike many groups they were able to capture the ethereal quality of their recorded sound on stage ... On being asked how live gigs compared to studio work , they all declared that the straight atmosphere of the studio was too clinical .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary ( 1973 to 1981 ) = = =
Big Red Rock received positive reviews in Australia and the US . The Canberra Times quoted a Cashbox review praising their music which ended : " It was something different and something beautiful . " Billboard magazine gave the album a good review , saying that it featured " excellent sax work throughout and top @-@ notch lead guitar and drum work " . Australian reviewers called the album " an extremely good record , well worth owning " , " a classic record in Australian rock " and " an inspiring success " .
Critical response to their second album , Beyond , was generally positive . Sean Hanrahan wrote for the Melbourne Sunday Press : " Beyond to me stands as something of a crowning achievement for a band that has already been described as the high @-@ water mark in Australian rock . " According to Pat Bowring of the Melbourne Sun , " it is one of the best records from an Australian band " and " better than ... Big Red Rock . " The band emphasised that their music was " essentially Australian " , despite being recorded in Los Angeles , and critics noted their music 's Australian character . Tony Catterall of The Canberra Times wrote that the group " has absorbed its influences so well that they 're almost unrecognisable in the final product . And into this synthesis the band has infused some things peculiarly Australian . "
= = = Later ( 1999 to present ) = = =
In February 1998 Billboard 's Christie Eliezer interviewed Gudinski , he recalled that signing Ayers Rock had " allowed the band to tour the US and record their second album there . " He explained that they " were a fantastic jazz @-@ fusion band , a real muso 's band , but ultimately they didn 't have that something unique to cross over . " In his 1999 encyclopaedia Dreams , Fantasies , and Nightmares From Far Away Lands , American author Vernon Joynson called Big Red Rock " an excellent example of jazz rock fusion Australian style . The musicianship is of high quality although it tends to become a little over @-@ indulgent in places " . According to Joynson the album had " radio friendly " material and three tracks " filled with fine virtuoso guitar and saxophone " , but despite being " quite a popular live act , [ Ayers Rock 's ] recordings were hampered by a dilemma over whether to opt for a more serious pursuit of expanding the horizons or for a commercial sound " .
On MilesAgo.com in 2006 , Duncan Kimball wrote : " The group 's relatively short lifespan and small catalogue meant that they never really got the chance to reach their full potential . " According to Ian McFarlane in his 1999 Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop , the members of Ayers Rock " were seen as ' musician 's musicians ' . The band issued a series of technically proficient recordings , but in the long run any quest for commercial acceptance was marred by the seriousness of the music " . In December 2011 , Jordie Kilby called Big Red Rock " a great record ; quite an influential ( album ) ... now one that 's held in quite high regard . "
= = Members = =
Ray Burton – guitar , vocals ( 1973 – 74 )
Mark Kennedy – drums ( 1973 – 76 )
Duncan McGuire – bass guitar ( 1973 – 76 ; died 1989 )
Jimmy Doyle – guitar , vocals ( 1973 – 81 ; died 2006 )
Col Loughnan – saxophones , flute , piano , percussion , vocals ( 1973 – 76 )
Phil Stone – guitar ( 1974 )
Chris Brown – guitar , vocals ( 1974 – 81 )
Les Young – bass guitar ( 1975 )
Doug Gallacher – drums ( 1976 )
Russell Dunlop – drums ( 1976 ; died 2009 )
Joe Tattersall – drums ( 1977 )
Keith Caisey – percussion ( 1977 – 81 )
John Young – bass guitar ( 1977 – 78 )
Andy Cowan – keyboards ( 1978 – 81 )
Steve Hogg – bass guitar ( 1978 – 81 ; died 1990 )
Hamish Stuart – drums ( 1978 – 81 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Big Red Rock ( Mushroom Records ( L 35354 , MUSH32017.2 ) , November 1974 ) AUS No. 32
Beyond ( Mushroom Records ( D 19762 ) , February 1975 ) AUS No. 50
Hotspell ( Red Rock / RCA Records ( RRM 6321 ) , May 1980 )
= = = Singles = = =
" Rock ' n Roll Fight " ( December 1973 )
" Lady Montego " ( November 1974 )
" Little Kings " ( October 1975 )
" Song for Darwin " ( May 1976 )
" On the Avenue " ( 1979 )
" Lies " ( July 1981 )
= = = Other appearances = = =
" Morning Magic " ( live ) , on Highlights of Sunbury ' 74 Part 2 ( Mushroom Records ( L 25123 ) , 1974 )
" Gimme Shelter " ( live ) , " Boogie Woogie Waltz " ( live ) on A @-@ Reefer @-@ Derci ( Mushroom Records ( L 45657 / 8 ) , 1976 )
|
= Cleveland Railway ( England ) =
The Cleveland Railway was a railway line in north @-@ east England running from Normanby Jetty on the River Tees , near Middlesbrough , via Normanby and then via Guisborough through the Eston Hills , to Loftus in East Cleveland . It carried minerals from numerous iron ore mines along its route to the River Tees for shipment to Tyneside and elsewhere . The line was jointly proposed by the West Hartlepool Harbour and Railway ( WHH & R ) , who provided half its capital , together with various landowners . The WHH & R lay on the north bank of the Tees , to which it had a cross @-@ river connection via a jetty at Normanby .
The Cleveland Railway was built as a freight railway and provided no passenger services during its brief existence as an independently owned railway . It was built in a number of stages , bypassing the centre of Guisborough , and opened in November 1861 . Its construction was repeatedly held up by disputes with its main rival , the Stockton and Darlington Railway , which attempted unsuccessfully to use all means at its disposal to maintain its rail monopoly south of the Tees . However , the Cleveland Railway remained independent only until 1865 , when the company and its rivals were bought out by the North Eastern Railway ( NER ) . The new management linked the line with an existing coastal railway via Saltburn , running north of the Eston Hills , and closed the line west of Guisborough in 1873 after only twelve years of service , though part of the line continued in service until 1966 as a freight route for a brickworks and carried passengers to Eston between 1902 and 1929 . The NER constructed four passenger stations at the eastern end of the line in the 1870s . These were closed between 1958 – 1964 along with the section of the line from Guisborough to Brotton , but the easternmost part of the line is still in use today as a mineral railway .
= = History = =
= = = Origins of the line = = =
The construction of the line was prompted by the need of mine owners around Guisborough and East Cleveland to transport their iron ore to the River Tees . Guisborough was already served by the Middlesbrough and Guisborough Railway ( M & GR ) , a subsidiary of the Stockton and Darlington ( S & D ) , which had built a line ( opened in 1854 ) running along the south of the valley in which Guisborough sits . However , the line was an inconveniently long distance from the lucrative iron ore mines in the north of the valley , along the south flank of the Eston Hills , and provided no connection at all for mines east of Guisborough . The M & GR had been built by a group of industrialists based in Stockton and Darlington who used it to service their own mines , deliberately avoiding the estates of their rivals . It only provided a minimal passenger service to Middlesbrough – one train a day each way – and the line had originally not even been planned to have a passenger station in Guisborough .
The M & GR was unpopular with local people and mine owners who saw it as a would @-@ be monopolist that served narrow commercial interests rather than the wider public good . During Parliamentary discussions into the Cleveland Railway 's proposed route , a Select Committee of the House of Commons was told that the M & GR was " unwilling to give facility for people carrying traffic not connected with the furnaces with which they are connected . " The M & GR 's attitude aroused strong local resentment . When one of those testifying to the Select Committee was asked what the local landowners would think of a new railway independent of the S & D , he replied that " they would all jump at having such a proposal made to them . "
The West Hartlepool Harbour and Railway ( WHH & R ) and a number of landowners struck an agreement to construct a line from the Tees at Cargo Fleet via Normanby , Upsall and Guisborough to Skinningrove , with connecting links and branches to Staithes and Skelton @-@ in @-@ Cleveland . The line would connect to the WHH & R 's own route north of the river via a crossing of the Tees . Several local landowners through which the proposed line ran were key to the scheme – Captain Thomas Chaloner of Guisborough , J.T. Wharton of Skelton Castle , Anthony Lax Maynard of Skinningrove and Ralph Ward Jackson of Greatham Hall , Normanby . Ward Jackson , who was the chairman of the WHH & R , was the driving force behind the project and envisaged making West Hartlepool into the industrial heart of Teesside .
The construction of the line was strongly opposed by the S & D , which put forward a rival proposal that led to a Parliamentary enquiry . The two companies each had part of their schemes accepted and part rejected . The Ward Jackson group was allowed to build a railway east from Guisborough to Skinningrove with a branch at Slapewath to reach the mine at Skelton . They were not permitted to build their own separate line to Middlesbrough and had to rely instead on the M & GR for their connection to the Tees . The S & D was allowed to build an extension from Redcar to Saltburn but was not allowed to build a new bridge across the Tees . An Act permitting the construction of the railway was passed in July 1858 . The company was capitalised with £ 120 @,@ 000 , half of which came from the WHH & R , with Ward Jackson as its first chairman .
= = = Extension of the line to Normanby = = =
Ward Jackson continued to seek independence from the M & GR and put forward a fresh proposal in 1859 to extend the line from Guisborough to the Tees at Cargo Fleet , so that the increasing demand for iron ore shipments to Tyneside could more easily be met . The S & D again opposed it . Although the House of Commons unanimously approved the Cleveland Extension Bill , it was rejected by the House of Lords . However , this left the door open for a private railway on the lands owned by Ward Jackson and his supporters . They began to construct it in 1860 under the auspices of the " Upsall , Normanby and Ormesby Railway " . Once again , the S & D opposed it , this time on the grounds that the new line had to cross the S & D 's Redcar branch line , but it eventually gave permission for the construction of a bridge to cross its line .
A more serious problem was raised by the need to construct a new river crossing at the end of the line in Normanby . The WHH & R had sought to build a bridge across the Tees at that point but had been blocked by the Tees Conservancy Commission , at the prompting of the S & D. The WHH & R instead resolved to build a jetty that would enable loaded iron ore wagons to be transported across the river on barges . The S & D used its influence with the Commissioners to stop the jetty as well . They undertook legal action in the Court of Chancery to stop it but construction proceeded regardless . The dispute led to violent clashes between the two sides on 10 September 1860 in an event dubbed the " Battle of the Tees " , when Tees Conservancy barges sent to blockade the jetty were forcibly removed by West Hartlepool steam tugs . The police had to intervene to restore order . The WHH & R was the clear winner of the confrontation and was able to complete its jetty .
The line was substantially completed by the spring of 1861 . It consisted of two linked private railways running through the estates of Ward Jackson and Captain Chaloner of Guisborough . A bridge was constructed in March 1861 to carry Chaloner 's section of the line over the M & GR just outside Guisborough station , bypassing the town to connect with the Cleveland Railway 's existing eastbound line to Skinningrove . A fresh Act of Parliament , the Cleveland Railway Act , was passed in July 1861 to authorise the Cleveland Railway Company to operate the new line . Although the S & D was still vehemently opposed , Parliament had by now tired of the disputes between the companies and passed the Act over the objections of the S & D.
The line was opened on 23 November 1861 , with a total length of 13 miles ( 21 km ) running from Skelton Mine to Normanby Jetty . Crossing the gorge at Slapewath on the eight @-@ arched Waterfall Viaduct , which still stands today , it skirted the south @-@ west of Guisborough and crossed Chapel Beck on wooden viaducts . From there it ran on a nearly straight embankment across the fields west of Guisborough before curving northwards to Normanby through a gap in the Eston Hills . Branch lines and tramways connected the line to a number of mines along its route . It had no passenger stations and did not offer any passenger services , despite the poor connections from Guisborough that had caused so much discontent with the M & GR .
= = = Mergers , onward connections and closures = = =
Financial irregularities at the WHH & R led in 1862 to the company suffering severe financial difficulties , resulting in the resignation of Ward Jackson from the boards of the WHH & R and the Cleveland Railway . Parliament refused to authorise further contributions from the WHH & R to the Cleveland Railway . Nonetheless , funds were raised to construct new extensions via Boosbeck and Loftus .
The Cleveland Railway , the M & GR and the S & D were all taken over in 1865 by the North Eastern Railway ( NER ) . The new management authorised the construction of a link from Saltburn ( which the S & D had reached in 1861 ) via Skelton to the Cleveland Railway 's route at Brotton , forking south to reach Guisborough . This connection , completed in 1872 , provided a new connection between Teesside and the East Cleveland mines , running north of the Eston Hills . Further capacity was provided by doubling the tracks on the line running east of Guisborough . This made the former Cleveland Railway 's line west of Guisborough redundant and it was closed in 1873 after only twelve years of service , though the parallel MG & R line to Middlesbrough remained open for a further 90 years .
Although the old Cleveland Railway had not provided any passenger services , during the 1870s the NER built a number of stations at the eastern end of the line . Passenger services began from Brotton , Skinningrove and Loftus in 1875 , plus Boosbeck in 1878 . The tortuous history of the Cleveland Railway had a lasting effect on the provision of rail services to Guisborough . It did not at any time offer a passenger service to the town , leaving that instead to the M & GR , which provided only a single @-@ platform station at the end of its line into the town . This line was bypassed by the Cleveland Railway en route to Skinningrove . After the westbound Cleveland Railway was closed , the eastbound line was joined with the M & GR line , leaving Guisborough railway station at the end of a spur . Trains thus had to reverse out of the station before continuing along the line to Loftus . It remained this way until the line was closed in 1964 .
= = Cleveland Railway today = =
The east end of the Cleveland Railway , from Loftus to Brotton plus the connection to the Tees Valley Line west of Saltburn , is still in use as a mineral railway serving Boulby Mine . There are no passenger services . The short connection from the Tees Valley Line to Normanby Jetty survived until 1966 as the Normanby Branch of the Tees Valley Line , serving the Normanby brickworks and Eston railway station . It is now a public footpath , the South Bank Walkway , which links Flatts Lane Country Park to South Bank . The middle section of the line from Normanby to Guisborough is in private ownership or has been built on , though the former railway 's embankment can still be clearly seen running alongside the A171 Middlesbrough Road . The section from Guisborough to Slapewath has been converted into a public footpath , the Guisborough Branch Walkway .
= = Gallery = =
|
= Astrology and science =
Astrology consists of a number of belief systems that hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events or descriptions of personality in the human world . Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe . Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted , and no evidence has been found to support the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions .
Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions , it has been falsified . The most famous test was headed by Shawn Carlson and included a committee of scientists and a committee of astrologers . It led to the conclusion that natal astrology performed no better than chance . Astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin claimed to have found statistical support for " the Mars effect " in the birth dates of athletes , but it could not be replicated in further studies . The organisers of later studies claimed that Gauquelin had tried to influence their inclusion criteria for the study by suggesting specific individuals be removed . It has also been suggested , by Geoffrey Dean , that the reporting of birth times by parents ( before the 1950s ) may have caused the apparent effect .
Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity , and as such , is regarded as pseudoscience . There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well @-@ understood , basic aspects of biology and physics .
= = Introduction = =
The majority of professional astrologers rely on performing astrology @-@ based personality tests and making relevant predictions about the remunerator 's future . Those who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so " in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs , and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary " . Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson commented on astrological belief , saying that " part of knowing how to think is knowing how the laws of nature shape the world around us . Without that knowledge , without that capacity to think , you can easily become a victim of people who seek to take advantage of you " .
The continued belief in astrology despite its lack of credibility is seen as one demonstration of low scientific literacy .
= = Historical relationship with astronomy = =
The foundations of the theoretical structure used in astrology originate with the Babylonians , although widespread usage did not occur till the start of the Hellenistic period after Alexander the great swept through Greece . It was not known to the Babylonians that the constellations are not on a celestial sphere and are very far apart . The appearance of them being close is illusory . The exact demarcation of what a constellation is , is cultural , and varied between civilisations . Ptolemy 's work on astronomy was driven to some extent by the desire , like all astrologers of the time , to easily calculate the planetary movements . Early western astrology operated under the ancient Greek concepts of the Macrocosm and microcosm ; and thus medical astrology related what happened to the planets and other objects in the sky to medical operations . This provided a further motivator for the study of astronomy . While still defending the practice of astrology , Ptolemy acknowledged that the predictive power of astronomy for the motion of the planets and other celestial bodies ranked above astrological predictions .
During the Islamic Golden Age , astronomy was funded so that the astronomical parameters , such as the eccentricity of the sun 's orbit , required for the Ptolemaic model could be calculated to a sufficient accuracy and precision . Those in positions of power , like the Fatimid Caliphate vizier in 1120 , funded the construction of observatories so that astrological predictions , fuelled by precise planetary information , could be made . Since the observatories were built to help in making astrological predictions , few of these observatories lasted long due to the prohibition against astrology within Islam , and most were torn down during or just after construction .
The clear rejection of astrology in works of astronomy started in 1679 , with the yearly publication La Connoissance des temps . Unlike the west , in Iran , the rejection of heliocentrism continued up towards the start of the 20th century , in part motivated by a fear that this would undermine the widespread belief in astrology and Islamic cosmology in Iran . The first work , Falak al @-@ sa 'ada by Ictizad al @-@ Saltana , aimed at undermining this belief in astrology and " old astronomy " in Iran was published in 1861 . On astrology , it cited the inability of different astrologers to make the same prediction about what occurs following a conjunction , and described the attributes astrologers gave to the planets as implausible .
= = Philosophy of science = =
Astrology provides the quintessential example of a pseudoscience since it has been tested repeatedly and failed all the tests .
= = = Falsifiability = = =
Science and non @-@ science are often distinguished by the criterion of falsifiability . The criterion was first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper . To Popper , science does not rely on induction , instead scientific investigations are inherently attempts to falsify existing theories through novel tests . If a single test fails , then the theory is falsified .
Therefore , any test of a scientific theory must prohibit certain results that falsify the theory , and expect other specific results consistent with the theory . Using this criterion of falsifiability , astrology is a pseudoscience .
Astrology was Popper 's most frequent example of pseudoscience . Popper regarded astrology as " pseudo @-@ empirical " in that " it appeals to observation and experiment " , but " nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards " .
In contrast to scientific disciplines , astrology does not respond to falsification through experiment . According to Professor of neurology Terence Hines , this is a hallmark of pseudoscience .
= = = " No puzzles to solve " = = =
In contrast to Popper , the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific , but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non @-@ empirical . To Kuhn , although astrologers had , historically , made predictions that " categorically failed , " this in itself does not make it unscientific , nor do the attempts by astrologers to explain away the failure by claiming it was due to the creation of a horoscope being very difficult ( through subsuming , after the fact , a more general horoscope that leads to a different prediction ) .
Rather , in Kuhn 's eyes , astrology is not science because it was always more akin to medieval medicine ; they followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings , but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research , and so , " They had no puzzles to solve and therefore no science to practise . "
While an astronomer could correct for failure , an astrologer could not . An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way . As such , to Kuhn , even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life astrology is not scientific .
= = = Progress , practice and consistency = = =
Philosopher Paul Thagard believed that astrology can not be regarded as falsified in this sense until it has been replaced with a successor . In the case of predicting behaviour , psychology is the alternative . To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of science from pseudoscience was that the state of the art must progress and that the community of researchers should be attempting to compare the current theory to alternatives , and not be " selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations " .
Progress is defined here as explaining new phenomena and solving existing problems , yet astrology has failed to progress having only changed little in nearly 2000 years . To Thagard , astrologers are acting as though engaged in normal science believing that the foundations of astrology were well established despite the " many unsolved problems " , and in the face of better alternative theories ( Psychology ) . For these reasons Thagard viewed astrology as pseudoscience .
To Thagard , astrology should not be regarded as a pseudoscience on the failure of Gauquelin 's to find any correlation between the various astrological signs and someone 's career , twins not showing the expected correlations from having the same signs in twin studies , lack of agreement on the significance of the planets discovered since Ptolemy 's time and large scale disasters wiping out individuals with vastly different signs at the same time . Rather , his demarcation of science requires three distinct foci ; " theory , community [ and ] historical context " .
While verification and falsifiability focused on the theory , Kuhn 's work focused on the historical context , but the astrological community should also be considered . Whether or not they :
are focused on comparing their approach to others .
have a consistent approach .
try to falsify their theory through experiment .
In this approach , true falsification rather than modifying a theory to avoid the falsification only really occurs when an alternative theory is proposed .
= = = Irrationality = = =
For the philosopher Edward W. James , astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments , but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning .
What if throughout astrological writings we meet little appreciation of coherence , blatant insensitivity to evidence , no sense of a hierarchy of reasons , slight command over the contextual force of critieria , stubborn unwillingness to pursue an argument where it leads , stark naivete concerning the efficacy of explanation and so on ? In that case , I think , we are perfectly justified in rejecting astrology as irrational . ... Astrology simply fails to meet the multifarious demands of legitimate reasoning . "
This poor reasoning includes appeals to ancient astrologers such as Kepler despite any relevance of topic or specific reasoning , and vague claims . The claim that evidence for astrology is that people born at roughly " the same place have a life pattern that is very similar " is vague , but also ignores that time is reference frame dependent and gives no definition of " same place " despite the planet moving in the reference frame of the solar system . Other comments by astrologers are based on severely erroneus interpretations of basic physics , such as a claim by one astrologer that the solar system looks like an atom . Further , James noted that response to criticism also relies on faulty logic , an example of which was a response to twin studies with the statement that coincidences in twins are due to astrology , but any differences are due to " heredity and environment " , while for other astrologers the issues are too difficult and they just want to get back to their astrology . Further , to astrologers , if something appears in their favour , they latch upon it as proof , while making no attempt to explore its implications , preferring to refer to the item in favour as definitive ; possibilities that do not make astrology look favourable are ignored .
= = = Quinean dichotomy = = =
From the Quinean web of knowledge , there is a dichotomy where one must either reject astrology or accept astrology but reject all established scientific disciplines that are incompatible with astrology .
= = Tests of astrology = =
Astrologers often avoid making verifiable predictions , and instead rely on vague statements that let them try to avoid falsification . Across several centuries of testing , the predictions of astrology have never been more accurate than that expected by chance alone . One approach used in testing astrology quantitatively is through blind experiment . When specific predictions from astrologers were tested in rigorous experimental procedures in the Carlson test , the predictions were falsified . All controlled experiments have failed to show any effect .
= = = Carlson 's experiment = = =
The Shawn Carlson 's double @-@ blind chart matching tests , in which 28 astrologers agreed to match over 100 natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory ( CPI ) test , is one of the most renowned tests of astrology , and was published in a highly prestigious journal , Nature . Double blinding helps to practically eliminate all bias from a study , including from participants as well as the person performing the study . The experimental protocol used in Carlson 's study was agreed to by a group of physicists and astrologers prior to the experiment . Astrologers , nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research , acted as the astrological advisors , and helped to ensure , and agreed , that the test was fair . They also chose 26 of the 28 astrologers for the tests , the other 2 being interested astrologers who volunteered afterwards . The astrologers came from Europe and the United States . The astrologers helped to draw up the central proposition of natal astrology to be tested . Published in Nature in 1985 , the study found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance , and that the testing " clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis " .
= = = Dean and Kelly = = =
Scientist and former astrologer Geoffrey Dean and psychologist Ivan Kelly conducted a large @-@ scale scientific test , involving more than one hundred cognitive , behavioural , physical and other variables , but found no support for astrology . A further test involved 45 confident astrologers , with an average of 10 years experience and 160 test subjects ( out of an original sample size of 1198 test subjects ) who strongly favoured certain characteristics in the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire to extremes . The astrologers performed much worse than merely basing decisions off the individuals ' ages , and much worse than 45 control subjects who did not use birth charts at all .
= = = Other tests = = =
A meta @-@ analysis was conducted , pooling 40 studies consisting of 700 astrologers and over 1 @,@ 000 birth charts . Ten of the tests , which had a total of 300 participating , involved the astrologers picking the correct chart interpretation out of a number of others that were not the astrologically correct chart interpretation ( usually three to five others ) . When the date and other obvious clues were removed , no significant results were found to suggest there was any preferred chart .
In 10 studies , participants picked horoscopes that they felt were accurate descriptions , with one being the " correct " answer . Again the results were no better than chance .
In a study of 2011 sets of people born within 5 minutes of each other ( " time twins " ) to see if there was any discernible effect , no effect was seen .
Quantitative sociologist David Voas examined the census data for more than 20 million individuals in England and Wales to see if star signs corresponded to marriage arrangements . No effect was seen .
= = = Mars effect = = =
In 1955 , astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin stated that although he had failed to find evidence to support such indicators as the zodiacal signs and planetary aspects in astrology , he had found positive correlations between the diurnal positions of some of the planets and success in professions ( such as doctors , scientists , athletes , actors , writers , painters , etc . ) , which astrology traditionally associates with those planets . The best @-@ known of Gauquelin 's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the natal charts of successful athletes and became known as the " Mars effect " . A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim , but found no statistical evidence . They attributed the effect to selective bias on Gauquelin 's part , accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add or delete names from their study .
Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self @-@ reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin . The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession . The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common . Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations , where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information . The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower , indicating more evidence that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs .
= = Theoretic obstacles = =
Beyond the scientific tests astrology has failed , proposals for astrology face a number of other obstacles due to the many theoretical flaws in astrology including lack of consistency , lack of ability to predict missing planets , lack of any connection of the zodiac to the constellations , and lack of any plausible mechanism . The underpinnings of astrology tend to disagree with numerous basic facts from scientific disciplines .
= = = Lack of consistency = = =
Testing the validity of astrology can be difficult because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict . Dean and Kelly documented 25 studies , which had found that the degree of agreement amongst astrologers was measured as a low 0 @.@ 1 . Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person 's personality and life , but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone .
Georges Charpak and Henri Broch dealt with claims from western astrology in the book Debunked ! ESP , Telekinesis , and other Pseudoscience . They pointed out that astrologers have only a small knowledge of astronomy and that they often do not take into account basic features such as the precession of the equinoxes , which would change the position of the sun with time . They commented on the example of Elizabeth Teissier who claimed that " the sun ends up in the same place in the sky on the same date each year " as the basis for claims that two people with the same birthday but a number of years apart should be under the same planetary influence . Charpak and Broch noted that " there is a difference of about twenty @-@ two thousand miles between Earth 's location on any specific date in two successive years " and that thus they should not be under the same influence according to astrology . Over a 40 years period there would be a difference greater than 780 @,@ 000 miles .
= = = Lack of physical basis = = =
Edward W. James , commented that attaching significance to the constellation on the celestial sphere the sun is in at sunset was done on the basis of human factors — namely , that astrologers didn 't want to wake up early , and the exact time of noon was hard to know . Further , the creation of the zodiac and the disconnect from the constellations was because the sun is not in each constellation for the same amount of time . This disconnection from the constellations led to the problem with precession separating the zodiac symbols from the constellations that they once were related to . Philosopher of science , Massimo Pigliucci commenting on the movement , opined " Well then , which sign should I look up when I open my Sunday paper , I wonder ? "
The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars , and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign , astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations because they don 't reference them . Charpak and Broch , noting this , referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being " ... empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars . " Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made , by the same astrologers , to the Age of Aquarius , which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius .
= = = Lack of predictive power = = =
Some astrologers make claims that the position of all the planets must be taken into account , but astrologers were unable to predict the existence of Neptune based on mistakes in horoscopes . Instead Neptune was predicted using Newton 's law of universal gravitation . The grafting on of Uranus , Neptune and Pluto into the astrology discourse was done on an ad hoc basis .
On the demotion of Pluto to the status of dwarf planet , Philip Zarka of the Paris Observatory in Meudon , France wondered how astrologers should respond :
Should astrologers remove it from the list of luminars [ Sun , Moon and the 8 planets other than earth ] and confess that it did not actually bring any improvement ? If they decide to keep it , what about the growing list of other recently discovered similar bodies ( Sedna , Quaoar. etc ) , some of which even have satellites ( Xena , 2003EL61 ) ?
= = = Lack of mechanism = = =
Astrology has been criticised for failing to provide a physical mechanism that links the movements of celestial bodies to their purported effects on human behaviour . In a lecture in 2001 , Stephen Hawking stated " The reason most scientists don 't believe in astrology is because it is not consistent with our theories that have been tested by experiment . " In 1975 , amid increasing popular interest in astrology , The Humanist magazine presented a rebuttal of astrology in a statement put together by Bart J. Bok , Lawrence E. Jerome , and Paul Kurtz . The statement , entitled ' Objections to Astrology ' , was signed by 186 astronomers , physicists and leading scientists of the day . They said that there is no scientific foundation for the tenets of astrology and warned the public against accepting astrological advice without question . Their criticism focused on the fact that there was no mechanism whereby astrological effects might occur :
We can see how infinitesimally small are the gravitational and other effects produced by the distant planets and the far more distant stars . It is simply a mistake to imagine that the forces exerted by stars and planets at the moment of birth can in any way shape our futures .
Astronomer Carl Sagan declined to sign the statement . Sagan said he took this stance not because he thought astrology had any validity , but because he thought that the tone of the statement was authoritarian , and that dismissing astrology because there was no mechanism ( while " certainly a relevant point " ) was not in itself convincing . In a letter published in a follow @-@ up edition of The Humanist , Sagan confirmed that he would have been willing to sign such a statement had it described and refuted the principal tenets of astrological belief . This , he argued , would have been more persuasive and would have produced less controversy .
The use of poetic imagery based on the concepts of the macrocosm and microcosm , " as above so below " to decide meaning such as Edward W. James ' example of " Mars above is red , so Mars below means blood and war " , is a false cause fallacy .
Many astrologers claim that astrology is scientific . If one were to attempt to try to explain it scientifically , there are only four fundamental forces ( conventionally ) , limiting the choice of possible natural mechanisms . Some astrologers have proposed conventional causal agents such as electromagnetism and gravity . The strength of these forces drops off with distance . Scientists reject these proposed mechanisms as implausible since , for example , the magnetic field , when measured from earth , of a large but distant planet such as Jupiter is far smaller than that produced by ordinary household appliances . Astronomer Phil Plait noted that in terms of magnitude , the sun is the only object with an electromagnetic field of note , but astrology isn 't based just off the sun alone . While astrologers could try to suggest a fifth force , this is inconsistent with the trends in physics with the unification of Electromagnetism and the weak force into the electroweak force . If the astrologer insisted on being inconsistent with the current understanding and evidential basis of physics , that would be an extraordinary claim . It would also be inconsistent with the other forces which drop off with distance . If distance is irrelevant , then , logically , all objects in space should be taken into account .
Carl Jung sought to invoke synchronicity , the claim that two events have some sort of acausal connection , to explain the lack of statistically significant results on astrology from a single study he conducted . However , synchronicity itself is considered neither testable nor falsifiable . The study was subsequently heavily criticised for its non @-@ random sample and its use of statistics and also its lack of consistency with astrology .
= = Psychology = =
It has also been shown that confirmation bias is a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology . Confirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias .
From the literature , astrology believers often tend to selectively remember those predictions that turned out to be true , and do not remember those that turned out false . Another , separate , form of confirmation bias also plays a role , where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not .
Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief .
The Barnum effect is the tendency for an individual to give a high accuracy rating to a description of their personality that supposedly is tailored specifically for them , but is in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people . If more information is requested for a prediction , the more accepting people are of the results .
In 1949 Bertram Forer conducted a personality test on students in his classroom . Each student was given a supposedly individual assessment but actually all students received the same assessment . The personality descriptions were taken from a book on astrology . When the students were asked to comment on the accuracy of the test , more than 40 % gave it the top mark of 5 out of 5 , and the average rating was 4 @.@ 2 . The results of this study have been replicated in numerous other studies .
The study of the Barnum / Forer effect has been focused mostly on the level of acceptance of fake horoscopes and fake astrological personality profiles . Recipients of these personality assessments consistently fail to distinguish common and uncommon personality descriptors . In a study by Paul Rogers and Janice Soule ( 2009 ) , which was consistent with previous research on the issue , it was found that those who believed in astrology are generally more susceptible to giving more credence to the Barnum profile than skeptics .
By a process known as self @-@ attribution , it has been shown in numerous studies that individuals with knowledge of astrology tend to describe their personalities in terms of traits compatible with their astrological signs . The effect is heightened when the individuals were aware that the personality description was being used to discuss astrology . Individuals who were not familiar with astrology had no such tendency .
= = Sociology = =
In 1953 , sociologist Theodor W. Adorno conducted a study of the astrology column of a Los Angeles newspaper as part of a project that examined mass culture in capitalist society . Adorno believed that popular astrology , as a device , invariably led to statements that encouraged conformity — and that astrologers who went against conformity with statements that discouraged performance at work etc. risked losing their jobs . Adorno concluded that astrology was a large @-@ scale manifestation of systematic irrationalism , where flattery and vague generalisations subtly led individuals to believe the author of the column addressed them directly . Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase opium of the people , by Karl Marx , by commenting , " Occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes . "
False balance is where a false , unaccepted or spurious viewpoint is included alongside a well reasoned one in media reports and TV appearances and as a result the false balance implies " there were two equal sides to a story when clearly there were not " . During Wonders of the Solar System , a TV programme by the BBC , the physicist Brian Cox said " Despite the fact that astrology is a load of rubbish , Jupiter can in fact have a profound influence on our planet . And it ’ s through a force . . . gravity . " This upset believers in astrology who complained that there was no astrologer to provide an alternative viewpoint . Following the complaints of astrology believers , Cox gave the following statement to the BBC : " I apologise to the astrology community for not making myself clear . I should have said that this new age drivel is undermining the very fabric of our civilisation . " In the programme Stargazing Live , Cox further commented by saying : " in the interests of balance on the BBC , yes astrology is nonsense . " In an editorial in the medical journal BMJ , editor Trevor Jackson cited this incident showing where false balance could occur .
Studies and polling has shown that the belief in astrology is higher in western countries than might otherwise be expected . In 2012 , in polls 42 % of Americans said they thought astrology was at least partially scientific . This belief decreased with education and education is highly correlated with levels of scientific knowledge .
Some of the reported belief levels are due to a confusion of astrology with astronomy ( the scientific study of celestial objects ) . The closeness of the two words varies depending on the language . A plain description of astrology as an " occult influence of stars , planets etc. on human affairs " had no impact on the general public 's assessment of whether astrology is scientific or not in a 1992 eurobarometer poll . This may partially be due to the implicit association amongst the general public , of any wording ending in " ology " with a legitimate field of knowledge . In Eurobarometers 224 and 225 performed in 2004 , a split poll was used to isolate confusion over wording . In half of the polls , the word " astrology " was used , while in the other the word " horoscope " was used . Belief that astrology was at least partially scientific was 76 % , but belief that horoscopes were at least partially scientific was 43 % . In particular , belief that astrology was very scientific was 26 % while that of horoscopes was 7 % . This appeared to indicate that the high level of apparent polling support for astrology in the EU was indeed due to confusion over terminology .
|
= Escape from Woomera =
Escape from Woomera is an unfinished point @-@ and @-@ click adventure video game , intended to criticise the treatment of mandatorily detained asylum seekers in Australia as well as the Australian government 's attempt to impose a media blackout on the detention centres . In the game , the player assumes the role of Mustafa , an Iranian asylum seeker being held at Woomera Immigration Reception and Processing Centre . Mustafa 's request for asylum has been denied , and , fearing that he will be killed by the Iranian government upon his repatriation to Iran , he decides to attempt to escape Woomera . Mustafa must explore Woomera and speak with other individuals at the centre to devise and execute an escape plan .
The game was developed in 2003 and 2004 by a team of Australian video game industry professionals and an investigative journalist , using Half @-@ Life 's GoldSrc engine . The developers received an AU $ 25 @,@ 000 grant from the Australia Council to make the game , propelling the project to national attention , where the idea received a predominantly negative reception . The Australia Council 's decision to fund the game drew condemnation from both Minister for Immigration Philip Ruddock and Australian Human Rights Commission leader Dr. Sev Ozdowski . Unable to secure further funding , a full game was never developed , and the playable prototype was made available free of charge online .
= = Plot = =
Escape from Woomera opens with three screens of text that explain the game 's background . Players assume the role of Mustafa , who paid smugglers to bring him to Australia after his parents were killed by the Iranian secret police . After the boat transporting him crashed in the Ashmore Reef , Mustafa was brought to the Woomera Immigration Reception and Processing Centre , where he was given the identification number " RAR @-@ 124 " . After three months , Mustafa was informed that his request for asylum was denied , and that he would be repatriated to Iran . Believing that he would be tortured and killed upon his return , Mustafa decided to escape Woomera .
Because the game was never completed , only a small portion of the intended gameplay exists . During the playable segment , Mustafa , through conversations with other detainees , discovers that another detainee is planning an escape but needs a pair of pliers to make the attempt . Mustafa must join a work detail to gain access to the pliers , hide the pliers in a garbage can to prevent them from being found during a search , recover them at night ( which requires Mustafa to find a way to pry open the area that the garbage cans are stored in ) , and deliver them to the other detainee . The playable section ends when Mustafa delivers the pliers . Other interactions during the playable section include speaking with a detainee who , after complaining that a guard threw her copy of the Quran to the ground , mentions the existence of a partially built tunnel from a previous escape attempt .
= = Gameplay = =
Escape from Woomera is a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game . The player , controlling Mustafa , explores the Woomera centre , which is populated with non @-@ player characters — computer @-@ controlled individuals that move about the facility on their own . Some of these characters can speak with Mustafa , giving him information about the facility , sharing their backgrounds or experiences at Woomera , or directing him to find and retrieve objects scattered throughout the facility . Speaking with characters and completing their tasks allows Mustafa to progress towards his goal of escaping the facility .
The game has a meter that tracks Mustafa 's hope . As he completes tasks that take him towards the goal of escaping , the meter increases . Listening to the experiences of fellow detainees , which in some cases is required to gain access to other information or tasks , drains Mustafa 's hope . If he is caught breaking rules by the guards , Mustafa is placed in solitary confinement , which also drains hope . Should the hope meter run out , Mustafa loses the ability to continue to attempt an escape , and is deported .
= = Development = =
The idea for a video game centred on asylum seekers in Australia came to Katharine Neil , then an developer at Atari 's Melbourne studio , in the aftermath of the 2001 Tampa affair . Neil spent a year and a half assembling a team to work on the game and securing initial funding for the project . Fourteen people contributed to the game , with a core development team of four . Many of the Australian members of the development team , including Neil , contributed to the project anonymously to protect their jobs .
Neil stated that her motivation for the project was a desire to create a video game in which the asylum seekers were the heroes . The purpose of the game , according to Neil , was twofold . The team wanted to criticise the treatment of detained asylum seekers in Australia , and they also wanted to prove that video games were capable of the task . At the time , the idea that video games could convey political topics in a serious manner , and that they were a form of culture worth being taken seriously , had not caught on strongly . The game also was a statement against the Australian government 's attempts to suppress media access to , and coverage of , the detention facilities .
The original plan for Escape from Woomera involved several choices in playable detainees , each with a different story about how they came to seek asylum in Australia . The game would have players " battle the bureaucracy and try and survive day to day " while working towards any of several escape strategies . As originally envisioned , players could attempt to escape through the legal channels , using lawyers and activists , or could attempt to flee by scaling fences or digging tunnels . The development team worked to create the most realistic depiction of the Woomera centre possible , despite the media not being allowed in the facility . The team utilised interviews with former detainees and activists , existing press reports , and a copy of the facility 's floor plan obtained from a member of the Department of Immigration . Kate Wild , an investigative journalist hired by the development team to conduct research , was able to visit Baxter Immigration Reception and Processing Centre . She witnessed guards using spotlights and helicopters to keep detainees awake throughout the night , and police on horseback trampling over tents . Aside from Woomera and Baxter , Port Hedland Immigration Reception and Processing Centre and Villawood Immigration Detention Centre were also used as influences . Details from the daily lives of detainees , such as their being referred to by number and communicating with the outside world through payphones , were incorporated into the game . Tasks that players had to complete , as well as the escape strategies themselves , were also based on the experiences of real detainees .
Initial funding for the development of Escape from Woomera came from the Australian government 's arts funding organisation , the Australia Council for the Arts . The Australia Council gave the developers AUD $ 25 @,@ 000 , intended to get the game developed to the point that it could secure funding from other sources . While a playable section of the game was developed , the developers never received additional funding . The playable demo , which was built as a modification of the video game Half @-@ Life , was made available for download on the game 's website .
= = Reception = =
The Australia Council 's decision to fund Escape from Woomera was poorly received . The game received heavy criticism before development even began . Australia 's Minister for Immigration , Philip Ruddock , released a statement saying that the " decision reflects poorly upon the Australia Council and its judgement , that the organisation should lend its name to the promotion of unlawful behaviour " . Kate Wild , in a 2013 interview , recalled that she was surprised at how strongly Ruddock attacked the game , a reaction she attributed to the government being sensitive over the issue of detainee treatment . The leader of the Australian Human Rights Commission , Dr. Sev Ozdowski , released a strongly worded statement accusing the game of misconstruing asylum seekers as criminals , and saying that " The idea of using issues in detention for entertainment is simply sick . " Chairman Michael Snelling of the New Media Arts Board , the branch of the Australia Council that granted the development money , defended the decision to fund Escape from Woomera , stating that the game 's purpose was not to promote crime . He characterised the team 's application for funding as both strong and closely aligned with the New Media Arts Board 's goal of promoting cross @-@ disciplinary media .
In the 2010s , the retrospective view of Escape from Woomera is significantly more positive . In 2013 , the Australian Broadcasting Corporation called it " one of the first — and still one of the most important — politically @-@ focused videogames " . The textbook The Alternative Media Handbook used the game as a case study in culture jamming , and categorised it as an early example of video games carrying a political message .
|
= The Constant =
" The Constant " is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the American Broadcasting Company 's ( ABC ) serial drama television series Lost , and the 77th episode overall . It was broadcast on February 28 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . It was written by executive producer Carlton Cuse and co @-@ creator / executive producer Damon Lindelof and directed by executive producer Jack Bender . " The Constant " was watched by 15 million American viewers and is widely regarded as one of Lost 's best episodes . It was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards , a Directors Guild of America Award , and a Hugo Award .
In the episode , Desmond Hume ( played by Henry Ian Cusick ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) are being flown by Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) to the freighter where Lapidus ' mission is set . After going through turbulence , Desmond 's consciousness unexpectedly travels through time between 1996 and 2004 . The helicopter reaches the freighter and Sayid and Desmond are introduced to communications officer George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) , who is " unstuck in time " like Desmond . The writers took twice the time expected to develop the episode 's script ; the biggest concern was the avoidance of a temporal paradox when dealing with time travel .
= = Plot = =
Desmond , Sayid and Lapidus experience turbulence while flying the 130 kilometers ( about 80 miles ) distance from the island where they were stranded to Lapidus ' team 's freighter , the Kahana . Desmond 's consciousness travels back eight years to 1996 , when he is serving with the British Army 's Royal Scots Regiment . Moments later , when his consciousness returns to the present day , he neither knows where he is nor recognizes his companions , and has no memory of his life since 1996 . After the helicopter lands , Desmond continues to jump between 1996 and 2004 . He is taken to the sick bay , where a man named Minkowski is strapped to a bed because he is experiencing similar problems . Minkowski explains that someone sabotaged the radio room two days earlier and that Desmond 's ex @-@ girlfriend Penny Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) has been trying to contact the freighter . Sayid uses the satellite phone to contact Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) on the island and explains that Desmond appears to have amnesia . Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) , a physicist from the freighter , asks Jack whether Desmond has recently been exposed to a high level of radiation or electromagnetism . Jack is unsure , and so Daniel speaks to Desmond and asks him about his situation . Desmond responds that he believes that he is in 1996 and is serving with the Royal Scots . Faraday understands and tells Desmond that when he returns to 1996 , he needs to go to the physics department of The Queen 's College , Oxford University in England to meet with Daniel 's past self , and gives Desmond some mechanical settings to relay , along with an extra phrase that Daniel assures him will convince Daniel 's past self that the story is legitimate .
Desmond 's flashbacks become more frequent and longer . In 1996 , Desmond tracks down a younger Faraday at Oxford , who takes Desmond into his laboratory where he is experimenting with a time machine . Setting his electromagnetic device with the settings that Desmond has given him , Daniel places his laboratory rat , Eloise , in a maze and exposes her to electromagnetic energy . The rat appears to become comatose , then awakens and runs the maze . Daniel becomes excited because he had just built the maze and had not yet taught Eloise how to run it . Desmond realizes that , like the rat , he is caught in a time warp that is moving his consciousness between two different bodies at two different points in time and space . Eloise dies of a suspected brain aneurysm brought on by the exposure to the time lapse . Desmond becomes worried that he will die like Eloise , and Daniel instructs him to find something or someone — a constant — who is present in both times and can serve as an anchor for Desmond 's mental stability . Desmond decides that Penny can be the constant ; however , he must make contact with her in 2004 . To find out where she lives , Desmond gets her address from her father Charles ( Alan Dale ) , who is at an auction buying a journal owned by Tovard Hanso written by a crew member of the 19th century ship called the Black Rock .
In 1996 , Desmond finds Penny , who is still distraught over their break @-@ up and is not willing to see him . However , he gets her telephone number and tells her not to change it because he will call her on Christmas Eve 2004 . In 2004 , Sayid , Desmond , and Minkowski escape the sick bay and begin to repair the broken communications equipment . Meanwhile , Minkowski enters into another flashback , and dies . Showing signs of suffering the same fate as Minkowski , Desmond telephones Penny , who tells Desmond that she has been searching for him for the past three years and they reconcile before the power is cut off . Having made contact with his " constant " , Desmond stops alternating between 1996 and 2004 . Back on the island , Daniel flips through his journal and discovers a note that he had written , " If anything goes wrong , Desmond Hume will be my constant . "
= = Production = =
" The Constant " is the second Lost episode to deal directly with the concept of time travel after " Flashes Before Your Eyes " from the third season . While promoting that episode , Lindelof said that it uses the flashback device " in a way we never have before and never will again " and while promoting " The Constant " , he said that it " upholds that pledge , unpledges it , then repledges it . " Lost 's writer @-@ producers enjoy science fiction themes such as time travel ; however , they were careful not to create a paradox . The rules for time @-@ travel in the series are outlined in " Flashes Before Your Eyes " — although , Lindelof has said that " The Constant " is a more important episode in terms of explaining time travel on the show — by Ms. Hawking ( Fionnula Flanagan ) , who explains that certain events are inevitable and the universe will eventually correct any errors . Had these rules not been established , the writers feared that viewers would lose interest because the stakes of the characters would be lessened . The writers hoped that " The Constant " would further establish that there are no parallel universes or alternate realities . Lindelof reminisced that " just breaking that episode was such a massive headache " and Cuse added that " it was definitely like doing the hardest New York Times crossword puzzle for the week " .
Cuse and Lindelof admitted they took some inspiration from the final episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation , " All Good Things ... " , where Captain Picard jumps between three time frames . The Lost writers compared Minkowski 's role to Q , as " someone who is undergoing and understands the same events as our protagonist " . Faraday , on the other hand , was the expert that always appears in time travel fiction — as Lindelof put it , " He 's our Doc Brown here , who basically is gonna tell the protagonist to go and find him in the past " . Whereas the average Lost episode took two weeks to plan and write , " The Constant " took five because the writers experienced difficulty when determining its effect on future stories . Popular Mechanics analyzed the possibility of time travel using Lost 's rules . Michio Kaku claimed that " the show 's producers did their homework " . According to Kaku , " there 's no law of physics preventing this kind of time travel — just a lack of know @-@ how … [ but ] it would take a very advanced civilization to really do this " . Cuse stated that " we [ the writers ] try to use enough science to give a sense of credibility " . " The Constant " was the first episode set on the Kahana , but the writers decided to avoid using the new setting just to give new information — Lindelof has declared that " you would have mindless exposition unless the characters were in a constant state of crisis " . According to Lindelof , Desmond 's confusion prevents the characters who arrived from the island from asking questions to the freighter 's crew .
Shooting occurred in the second half of October 2007 . The scenes on the freighter in this and later episodes were filmed for several days on a freighter ten to fifteen minutes off the west coast of Oahu , Hawaii , where Lost is filmed . Instead of docking the ship and returning to the ocean each day , the actors and crew slept on the freighter in areas that were not being used for filming . The Oxford scenes were shot at St. Andrew 's Cathedral in Honolulu . In 1996 , Desmond has short hair and no facial hair and in 2004 , Desmond sports long and untamed hair with a full beard . Cusick did not cut his hair ; it was hidden underneath a short @-@ haired wig by " really talented hair and makeup folks " , according to Carlton Cuse . All freighter scenes were shot before Cusick shaved most of his beard for the 1996 scenes . A fake beard was glued onto Cusick for the episodes " Ji Yeon " and " Meet Kevin Johnson " while his beard grew back . The equations on Faraday 's chalkboard were written by a physicist who was hired as a consultant by the producers . The way the transitions between the 1996 and 2004 scenes would take place was frequently discussed during production . The producers took the advice of editor Mark Goldman , who suggested sudden cuts with " no fancy effect , and in some cases , no sound cut " , similar to the way " All Good Things ... " was edited . The original ending would set up the following episode by having Charlotte ( Rebecca Mader ) drop a bag containing a gas mask at Faraday 's feet . But the producers thought it did not work after the emotional scenes between Desmond and Penny , and decided to finish with Faraday reading his diary .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Constant " was watched by 12 @.@ 893 million viewers , ranking Lost eighth in weekly ratings . The episode was watched by a total of 14 @.@ 998 million viewers , including those who watched within seven days of broadcast , making it the most recorded show of the week ; this number went toward the year @-@ end season average . It received 5 @.@ 4 / 13 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . The Canadian broadcast was watched by 1 @.@ 529 million people , making it the sixth most watched show of the week . In the United Kingdom , " The Constant " was watched by 911 @,@ 000 viewers . 770 @,@ 000 Australians tuned into Lost , placing it seventy @-@ fifth in the weekly ratings chart .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The Constant received universal acclaim from both critics and fans and is often cited as the best episode of the entire series . Time named " The Constant " the best television episode of 2008 , and according to Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV , " lots of people " referred to it as " the best Lost episode ever " . It was listed as the best episode of Lost by IGN , Los Angeles Times , and ABC2 , and was also featured in similar lists by TV Guide , and National Post .
In Entertainment Weekly , Alejandro Garay wrote , " One of my favorite episodes of 2008 was Lost ’ s ' The Constant . ' It was a beautiful episode that made us fans fall in love with the show even more . The creators managed to build momentum with smart narrative , by using the romance card to develop such a complicated topic as time traveling . It was exquisite , mind @-@ blowing , impeccably done , and unforgettable . " Bill Keveney of USA Today wrote that it is " arguably the most highly praised episode of [ the ] well @-@ received fourth season " , while his colleague Robert Bianco deemed Henry Ian Cusick worthy of an Emmy Award nomination . Patrick Day of the Los Angeles Times called the episode a " mind @-@ blowing tour de force " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune called it a " for @-@ the @-@ ages episode " with " a classic Lost moment " in Desmond and Penny 's phone call and " an especially spine @-@ tingling performance " by Cusick . Verne Gay of Newsday wrote , " last night 's forty @-@ four minutes of Lost were among the most satisfying forty @-@ four minutes in front of the tube in my life . " He added that " it wasn 't merely a brilliant episode , which pushed the mythology forward more rapidly and richly than any episode in my memory , but it was an emotional release … I actually cried when Penny and Desmond finally … connected " and " there wasn 't one , single , solitary false note " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that " it was brilliantly executed , as both a brain @-@ twister and as a love story " with an " outstanding " performance by Jeremy Davies . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly described the episode as " the best single outing since season 1 's ' Walkabout ' " and named the phone call between Desmond and Penny the best moment of the season excluding any moments from the then yet @-@ to @-@ air season finale . Nikki Stafford of Wizard described " The Constant " as " mindblowing " and cited it as " the reason the hardcore fans love Lost . " Matt Roush of TV Guide said that " the time @-@ tripping went into overdrive with this week 's brilliant episode … [ which ] worked beautifully as a showcase for Henry Ian Cusick as the tormented Desmond . It was almost a stand @-@ alone episode , a Twilight Zone / X @-@ Files @-@ style adventure with a start , middle and killer finish . "
Kristin Dos Santos of E ! " loved every minute " and admitted that " this was one of [ her ] all @-@ time favorite episodes , what with the undying love business and this indisputable fact : Henry Ian Cusick can frakking act " . " The Constant " received high praise from IGN reviewer Chris Carabott calling it " a brilliantly executed hour of television " and " one of the finest episodes in the series " . He gave it 10 / 10 , tying it with " Pilot – Part One " and " Through the Looking Glass " as the best reviewed episode of Lost . LTG of Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A + " — the highest grade for any Lost episode . Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad loved the episode and its unique flashback structure . " The Constant " strengthened her love for Desmond and Penny 's story , saying " my heart won 't break if none of [ Jack , Kate , Sawyer and Juliet ] end up together [ but ] if Desmond and Penny don 't reunite , I will be devastated . " Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV gave " The Constant " an excellent review , saying that " my mind has never spun this fast after a Lost episode " and the writers have " really outdone themselves " and " do not get enough credit for constantly tinkering with their story structure " . Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post said that this " episode of Lost not only continued this season 's thrilling momentum ; it proved to fans that even in its fourth season , it still leaves us with our jaws hanging open … this was the make of possibly one of my favorite Lost episodes ever . " Glatfelter also praised the characters , Daniel " more and more becoming one of [ his ] favorite characters " and calling Desmond " the most intriguing character on Lost [ with ] the best love story on the show and dare I say on television today " . Daniel of TMZ graded the episode as an " A + " , considering it to be one of the best Lost episodes . In his review , he compared television to film — specifically " The Constant " to No Country for Old Men , the 2007 Academy Award winner for Best Picture — and decided that television is far superior . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune wrote that " [ I was ] almost as touched and relieved by the reunion as Desmond and Penny are " ; however , she did not review " The Constant " as favorably as other critics , giving it an " A – " . Dan Compora of SyFy Portal gave " The Constant " a mixed review . He described it as " an entertaining episode [ with ] a fine acting performance by Henry Ian Cusick " , but criticized Desmond 's repetitive story arc , criticized Frank 's character , said that " Jeff Fahey is a fine actor , but so far , his character just hasn 't really evolved enough for me to care yet " and concluded , " this episode didn 't seem to really raise or answer anything of major importance , so I can 't help but feel that it was nothing more than mid @-@ season filler . " Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy graded it with four out of five stars , and wrote that " a refreshing shift in Lost 's tone enabled loyal viewers to have their hearts warmed by the long distance smoochfest between Desmond and his beloved Penny " .
= = = Awards = = =
" The Constant " was nominated for Outstanding Cinematography for a One @-@ Hour Series and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic Score ) at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards . Academy of Television Arts & Sciences , ( July 17 , 2008 ) It was Lost 's representative episode for Outstanding Drama Series and was indeed nominated , losing to Mad Men . Henry Ian Cusick and Jeremy Davies each submitted this episode for consideration on their own behalf for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series . This episode was also considered for Outstanding Directing and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . The episode was nominated for the 2009 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form . Jack Bender was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series .
|
= Multiple sequence alignment =
A multiple sequence alignment ( MSA ) is a sequence alignment of three or more biological sequences , generally protein , DNA , or RNA . In many cases , the input set of query sequences are assumed to have an evolutionary relationship by which they share a lineage and are descended from a common ancestor . From the resulting MSA , sequence homology can be inferred and phylogenetic analysis can be conducted to assess the sequences ' shared evolutionary origins . Visual depictions of the alignment as in the image at right illustrate mutation events such as point mutations ( single amino acid or nucleotide changes ) that appear as differing characters in a single alignment column , and insertion or deletion mutations ( indels or gaps ) that appear as hyphens in one or more of the sequences in the alignment . Multiple sequence alignment is often used to assess sequence conservation of protein domains , tertiary and secondary structures , and even individual amino acids or nucleotides .
Multiple sequence alignment also refers to the process of aligning such a sequence set . Because three or more sequences of biologically relevant length can be difficult and are almost always time @-@ consuming to align by hand , computational algorithms are used to produce and analyze the alignments . MSAs require more sophisticated methodologies than pairwise alignment because they are more computationally complex . Most multiple sequence alignment programs use heuristic methods rather than global optimization because identifying the optimal alignment between more than a few sequences of moderate length is prohibitively computationally expensive .
= = Dynamic programming and computational complexity = =
A direct method for producing an MSA uses the dynamic programming technique to identify the globally optimal alignment solution . For proteins , this method usually involves two sets of parameters : a gap penalty and a substitution matrix assigning scores or probabilities to the alignment of each possible pair of amino acids based on the similarity of the amino acids ' chemical properties and the evolutionary probability of the mutation . For nucleotide sequences a similar gap penalty is used , but a much simpler substitution matrix , wherein only identical matches and mismatches are considered , is typical . The scores in the substitution matrix may be either all positive or a mix of positive and negative in the case of a global alignment , but must be both positive and negative , in the case of a local alignment .
For n individual sequences , the naive method requires constructing the n @-@ dimensional equivalent of the matrix formed in standard pairwise sequence alignment . The search space thus increases exponentially with increasing n and is also strongly dependent on sequence length . Expressed with the big O notation commonly used to measure computational complexity , a naïve MSA takes O ( LengthNseqs ) time to produce . To find the global optimum for n sequences this way has been shown to be an NP @-@ complete problem . In 1989 , based on Carrillo @-@ Lipman Algorithm , Altschul introduced a practical method that uses pairwise alignments to constrain the n @-@ dimensional search space . In this approach pairwise dynamic programming alignments are performed on each pair of sequences in the query set , and only the space near the n @-@ dimensional intersection of these alignments is searched for the n @-@ way alignment . The MSA program optimizes the sum of all of the pairs of characters at each position in the alignment ( the so @-@ called sum of pair score ) and has been implemented in a software program for constructing multiple sequence alignments .
= = Progressive alignment construction = =
The most widely used approach to multiple sequence alignments uses a heuristic search known as progressive technique ( also known as the hierarchical or tree method ) developed by Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper in 1984 . Progressive alignment builds up a final MSA by combining pairwise alignments beginning with the most similar pair and progressing to the most distantly related . All progressive alignment methods require two stages : a first stage in which the relationships between the sequences are represented as a tree , called a guide tree , and a second step in which the MSA is built by adding the sequences sequentially to the growing MSA according to the guide tree . The initial guide tree is determined by an efficient clustering method such as neighbor @-@ joining or UPGMA , and may use distances based on the number of identical two letter sub @-@ sequences ( as in FASTA rather than a dynamic programming alignment ) .
Progressive alignments are not guaranteed to be globally optimal . The primary problem is that when errors are made at any stage in growing the MSA , these errors are then propagated through to the final result . Performance is also particularly bad when all of the sequences in the set are rather distantly related . Most modern progressive methods modify their scoring function with a secondary weighting function that assigns scaling factors to individual members of the query set in a nonlinear fashion based on their phylogenetic distance from their nearest neighbors . This corrects for non @-@ random selection of the sequences given to the alignment program .
Progressive alignment methods are efficient enough to implement on a large scale for many ( 100s to 1000s ) sequences . Progressive alignment services are commonly available on publicly accessible web servers so users need not locally install the applications of interest . The most popular progressive alignment method has been the Clustal family , especially the weighted variant ClustalW to which access is provided by a large number of web portals including GenomeNet , EBI , and EMBNet . Different portals or implementations can vary in user interface and make different parameters accessible to the user . ClustalW is used extensively for phylogenetic tree construction , in spite of the author 's explicit warnings that unedited alignments should not be used in such studies and as input for protein structure prediction by homology modeling . Current version of Clustal family is ClustalW2 . EMBL @-@ EBI announced that CLustalW2 will be expired in August 2015 . They recommend Clustal Omega which performs based on seeded guide trees and HMM profile @-@ profile techniques for protein alignments . They offer different MSA tools for progressive DNA alignments . One of them is MAFFT ( Multiple Alignment using Fast Fourier Transform ) .
Another common progressive alignment method called T @-@ Coffee is slower than Clustal and its derivatives but generally produces more accurate alignments for distantly related sequence sets . T @-@ Coffee calculates pairwise alignments by combining the direct alignment of the pair with indirect alignments that aligns each sequence of the pair to a third sequence . It uses the output from Clustal as well as another local alignment program LALIGN , which finds multiple regions of local alignment between two sequences . The resulting alignment and phylogenetic tree are used as a guide to produce new and more accurate weighting factors .
Because progressive methods are heuristics that are not guaranteed to converge to a global optimum , alignment quality can be difficult to evaluate and their true biological significance can be obscure . A semi @-@ progressive method that improves alignment quality and does not use a lossy heuristic while still running in polynomial time has been implemented in the program PSAlign .
= = Iterative methods = =
A set of methods to produce MSAs while reducing the errors inherent in progressive methods are classified as " iterative " because they work similarly to progressive methods but repeatedly realign the initial sequences as well as adding new sequences to the growing MSA . One reason progressive methods are so strongly dependent on a high @-@ quality initial alignment is the fact that these alignments are always incorporated into the final result — that is , once a sequence has been aligned into the MSA , its alignment is not considered further . This approximation improves efficiency at the cost of accuracy . By contrast , iterative methods can return to previously calculated pairwise alignments or sub @-@ MSAs incorporating subsets of the query sequence as a means of optimizing a general objective function such as finding a high @-@ quality alignment score .
A variety of subtly different iteration methods have been implemented and made available in software packages ; reviews and comparisons have been useful but generally refrain from choosing a " best " technique . The software package PRRN / PRRP uses a hill @-@ climbing algorithm to optimize its MSA alignment score and iteratively corrects both alignment weights and locally divergent or " gappy " regions of the growing MSA . PRRP performs best when refining an alignment previously constructed by a faster method .
Another iterative program , DIALIGN , takes an unusual approach of focusing narrowly on local alignments between sub @-@ segments or sequence motifs without introducing a gap penalty . The alignment of individual motifs is then achieved with a matrix representation similar to a dot @-@ matrix plot in a pairwise alignment . An alternative method that uses fast local alignments as anchor points or " seeds " for a slower global @-@ alignment procedure is implemented in the CHAOS / DIALIGN suite .
A third popular iteration @-@ based method called MUSCLE ( multiple sequence alignment by log @-@ expectation ) improves on progressive methods with a more accurate distance measure to assess the relatedness of two sequences . The distance measure is updated between iteration stages ( although , in its original form , MUSCLE contained only 2 @-@ 3 iterations depending on whether refinement was enabled ) .
= = Consensus methods = =
Consensus methods attempt to find the optimal multiple sequence alignment given multiple different alignments of the same set of sequences . There are two commonly used consensus methods , M @-@ COFFEE and MergeAlign . M @-@ COFFEE uses multiple sequence alignments generated by seven different methods to generate consensus alignments . MergeAlign is capable of generating consensus alignments from any number of input alignments generated using different models of sequence evolution or different methods of multiple sequence alignment . The default option for MergeAlign is to infer a consensus alignment using alignments generated using 91 different models of protein sequence evolution .
= = Hidden Markov models = =
Hidden Markov models are probabilistic models that can assign likelihoods to all possible combinations of gaps , matches , and mismatches to determine the most likely MSA or set of possible MSAs . HMMs can produce a single highest @-@ scoring output but can also generate a family of possible alignments that can then be evaluated for biological significance . HMMs can produce both global and local alignments . Although HMM @-@ based methods have been developed relatively recently , they offer significant improvements in computational speed , especially for sequences that contain overlapping regions .
Typical HMM @-@ based methods work by representing an MSA as a form of directed acyclic graph known as a partial @-@ order graph , which consists of a series of nodes representing possible entries in the columns of an MSA . In this representation a column that is absolutely conserved ( that is , that all the sequences in the MSA share a particular character at a particular position ) is coded as a single node with as many outgoing connections as there are possible characters in the next column of the alignment . In the terms of a typical hidden Markov model , the observed states are the individual alignment columns and the " hidden " states represent the presumed ancestral sequence from which the sequences in the query set are hypothesized to have descended . An efficient search variant of the dynamic programming method , known as the Viterbi algorithm , is generally used to successively align the growing MSA to the next sequence in the query set to produce a new MSA . This is distinct from progressive alignment methods because the alignment of prior sequences is updated at each new sequence addition . However , like progressive methods , this technique can be influenced by the order in which the sequences in the query set are integrated into the alignment , especially when the sequences are distantly related .
Several software programs are available in which variants of HMM @-@ based methods have been implemented and which are noted for their scalability and efficiency , although properly using an HMM method is more complex than using more common progressive methods . The simplest is POA ( Partial @-@ Order Alignment ) ; a similar but more generalized method is implemented in the packages SAM ( Sequence Alignment and Modeling System ) . and HMMER . SAM has been used as a source of alignments for protein structure prediction to participate in the CASP structure prediction experiment and to develop a database of predicted proteins in the yeast species S. cerevisiae . HHsearch is a software package for the detection of remotely related protein sequences based on the pairwise comparison of HMMs . A server running HHsearch ( HHpred ) was by far the fastest of the 10 best automatic structure prediction servers in the CASP7 and CASP8 structure prediction competitions .
= = Genetic algorithms and simulated annealing = =
Standard optimization techniques in computer science — both of which were inspired by , but do not directly reproduce , physical processes — have also been used in an attempt to more efficiently produce quality MSAs . One such technique , genetic algorithms , has been used for MSA production in an attempt to broadly simulate the hypothesized evolutionary process that gave rise to the divergence in the query set . The method works by breaking a series of possible MSAs into fragments and repeatedly rearranging those fragments with the introduction of gaps at varying positions . A general objective function is optimized during the simulation , most generally the " sum of pairs " maximization function introduced in dynamic programming @-@ based MSA methods . A technique for protein sequences has been implemented in the software program SAGA ( Sequence Alignment by Genetic Algorithm ) and its equivalent in RNA is called RAGA .
The technique of simulated annealing , by which an existing MSA produced by another method is refined by a series of rearrangements designed to find better regions of alignment space than the one the input alignment already occupies . Like the genetic algorithm method , simulated annealing maximizes an objective function like the sum @-@ of @-@ pairs function . Simulated annealing uses a metaphorical " temperature factor " that determines the rate at which rearrangements proceed and the likelihood of each rearrangement ; typical usage alternates periods of high rearrangement rates with relatively low likelihood ( to explore more distant regions of alignment space ) with periods of lower rates and higher likelihoods to more thoroughly explore local minima near the newly " colonized " regions . This approach has been implemented in the program MSASA ( Multiple Sequence Alignment by Simulated Annealing ) .
= = Phylogeny @-@ aware methods = =
Most multiple sequence alignment methods try to minimize the number of insertions / deletions ( gaps ) and , as a consequence , produce compact alignments . This causes several problems if the sequences to be aligned contain non @-@ homologous regions , if gaps are informative in a phylogeny analysis . These problems are common in newly produced sequences that are poorly annotated and may contain frame @-@ shifts , wrong domains or non @-@ homologous spliced exons .
The first such method was developed in 2005 by Löytynoja and Goldman . The same authors released a software package called PRANK in 2008 . PRANK improves alignments when insertions are present . Nevertheless , it runs slowly compared to progressive and / or iterative methods which have been developed for several years .
In 2012 , two new phylogeny @-@ aware tools appeared . One is called PAGAN that was developed by the same team as PRANK . The other is ProGraphMSA developed by Szalkowski . Both software packages were developed independently but share common features , notably the use of graph algorithms to improve the recognition of non @-@ homologous regions , and an improvement in code making these software faster than PRANK .
= = Motif finding = =
Motif finding , also known as profile analysis , is a method of locating sequence motifs in global MSAs that is both a means of producing a better MSA and a means of producing a scoring matrix for use in searching other sequences for similar motifs . A variety of methods for isolating the motifs have been developed , but all are based on identifying short highly conserved patterns within the larger alignment and constructing a matrix similar to a substitution matrix that reflects the amino acid or nucleotide composition of each position in the putative motif . The alignment can then be refined using these matrices . In standard profile analysis , the matrix includes entries for each possible character as well as entries for gaps . Alternatively , statistical pattern @-@ finding algorithms can identify motifs as a precursor to an MSA rather than as a derivation . In many cases when the query set contains only a small number of sequences or contains only highly related sequences , pseudocounts are added to normalize the distribution reflected in the scoring matrix . In particular , this corrects zero @-@ probability entries in the matrix to values that are small but nonzero .
Blocks analysis is a method of motif finding that restricts motifs to ungapped regions in the alignment . Blocks can be generated from an MSA or they can be extracted from unaligned sequences using a precalculated set of common motifs previously generated from known gene families . Block scoring generally relies on the spacing of high @-@ frequency characters rather than on the calculation of an explicit substitution matrix . The BLOCKS server provides an interactive method to locate such motifs in unaligned sequences .
Statistical pattern @-@ matching has been implemented using both the expectation @-@ maximization algorithm and the Gibbs sampler . One of the most common motif @-@ finding tools , known as MEME , uses expectation maximization and hidden Markov methods to generate motifs that are then used as search tools by its companion MAST in the combined suite MEME / MAST .
= = Non @-@ Coding Multiple Sequence Alignment = =
Non @-@ coding DNA regions , especially TFBSs , are rather more conserved and not necessarily evolutionarily related , and may have converged from non @-@ common ancestors . Thus , the assumptions used to align protein sequences and DNA coding regions are inherently different from those that hold for TFBS sequences . Although it is meaningful to align DNA coding regions for homologous sequences using mutation operators , alignment of binding site sequences for the same transcription factor cannot rely on evolutionary related mutation operations . Similarly , the evolutionary operator of point mutations can be used to define an edit distance for coding sequences , but this has little meaning for TFBS sequences because any sequence variation has to maintain a certain level of specificity for the binding site to function . This becomes specifically important when trying to align known TFBS sequences to build supervised models to predict unknown locations of the same TFBS . Hence , Multiple Sequence Alignment methods need to adjust the underlying evolutionary hypothesis and the operators used as in the work published incorporating neighbouring base thermodynamic information to align the binding sites searching for the lowest thermodynamic alignment conserving specificity of the binding site , EDNA .
= = Alignment visualization and quality control = =
The necessary use of heuristics for multiple alignment means that for an arbitrary set of proteins , there is always a good chance that an alignment will contain errors . For example , an evaluation of several leading alignment programs using the BAliBase benchmark found that at least 24 % of all pairs of aligned amino acids were incorrectly aligned . These errors can arise because of unique insertions into one or more regions of sequences , or through some more complex evolutionary process leading to proteins that do not align easily by sequence alone . As the number of sequence and their divergence increases many more errors will be made simply because of the heuristic nature of MSA algorithms . Multiple sequence alignment viewers enable alignments to be visually reviewed , often by inspecting the quality of alignment for annotated functional sites on two or more sequences . Many also enable the alignment to be edited to correct these ( usually minor ) errors , in order to obtain an optimal ' curated ' alignment suitable for use in phylogenetic analysis or comparative modeling .
However , as the number of sequences increases and especially in genome @-@ wide studies that involve many MSAs it is impossible to manually curate all alignments . Furthermore , manual curation is subjective . And finally , even the best expert cannot confidently align the more ambiguous cases of highly diverged sequences . In such cases it is common practice to use automatic procedures to exclude unreliably aligned regions from the MSA . For the purpose of phylogeny reconstruction ( see below ) the Gblocks program is widely used to remove alignment blocks suspect of low quality , according to various cutoffs on the number of gapped sequences in alignment columns . However , these criteria may excessively filter out regions with insertion / deletion events that may still be aligned reliably , and these regions might be desirable for other purposes such as detection of positive selection . A few alignment algorithms output site @-@ specific scores that allow the selection of high @-@ confidence regions . Such a service was first offered by the SOAP program , which tests the robustness of each column to perturbation in the parameters of the popular alignment program CLUSTALW . The T @-@ Coffee program uses a library of alignments in the construction of the final MSA , and its output MSA is colored according to confidence scores that reflect the agreement between different alignments in the library regarding each aligned residue . Its extension , TCS : ( Transitive Consistency Score ) , uses T @-@ Coffee libraries of pairwise alignments to evaluate any third party MSA . Pairwise projections can be produced using fast or slow methods , thus allowing a trade @-@ off between speed and accuracy . Another alignment program that can output an MSA with confidence scores is FSA , which uses a statistical model that allows calculation of the uncertainty in the alignment . The HoT ( Heads @-@ Or @-@ Tails ) score can be used as a measure of site @-@ specific alignment uncertainty due to the existence of multiple co @-@ optimal solutions . The GUIDANCE program calculates a similar site @-@ specific confidence measure based on the robustness of the alignment to uncertainty in the guide tree that is used in progressive alignment programs . An alternative , more statistically justified approach to assess alignment uncertainty is the use of probabilistic evolutionary models for joint estimation of phylogeny and alignment . A Bayesian approach allows calculation of posterior probabilities of estimated phylogeny and alignment , which is a measure of the confidence in these estimates . In this case , a posterior probability can be calculated for each site in the alignment . Such an approach was implemented in the program BAli @-@ Phy .
There free available programs for visualization of multiple sequence alignments : JalView , UGENE .
= = Use in phylogenetics = =
Multiple sequence alignments can be used to create a phylogenetic tree . This is made possible by two reasons . The first is because functional domains that are known in annotated sequences can be used for alignment in non @-@ annotated sequences . The other is that conserved regions known to be functionally important can be found . This makes it possible for multiple sequence alignments to be used to analyze and find evolutionary relationships through homology between sequences . Point mutations and insertion or deletion events ( called indels ) can be detected .
Multiple sequence alignments can also be used to identify functionally important sites , such as binding sites , active sites , or sites corresponding to other key functions , by locating conserved domains . When looking at multiple sequence alignments , it is useful to consider different aspects of the sequences when comparing sequences . These aspects include identity , similarity , and homology . Identity means that the sequences have identical residues at their respective positions . On the other hand , similarity has to do with the sequences being compared having similar residues quantitatively . For example , in terms of nucleotide sequences , pyrimidines are considered similar to each other , as are purines . Similarity ultimately leads to homology , in that the more similar sequences are , the closer they are to being homologous . This similarity in sequences can then go on to help find common ancestry .
= = = Survey articles = = =
Duret , L. ; S. Abdeddaim ( 2000 ) . " Multiple alignment for structural functional or phylogenetic analyses of homologous sequences " . In D. Higgins and W. Taylor . Bioinformatics sequence structure and databanks . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
Notredame , C. ( 2002 ) . " Recent progresses in multiple sequence alignment : a survey " . Pharmacogenomics 31 ( 1 ) : 131 – 144 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1517 / 14622416 @.@ 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 131 . PMID 11966409 .
Thompson , J. D. ; Plewniak , F. ; Poch , O. ( 1999 ) . " A comprehensive comparison of multiple sequence alignment programs " . Nucleic Acids Research 27 ( 13 ) : 12682 – 2690 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / nar / 27 @.@ 13 @.@ 2682 . PMC 148477 . PMID 10373585 .
Wallace , I.M. ; Blackshields , G. ; Higgins , D.G. ( 2005 ) . " Multiple sequence alignments " . Curr Opin Struct Biol 15 ( 3 ) : 261 – 266 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.sbi.2005.04.002. PMID 15963889 .
Notredame , C ( 2007 ) . " Recent Evolutions of Multiple Sequence Alignment Algorithms " . PLOS Computational Biology 8 ( 3 ) : e123. doi : 10 @.@ 1371 / journal.pcbi.0030123. PMC 1963500 . PMID 17784778 .
= = = Lecture notes , tutorials , and courses = = =
Multiple sequence alignment lectures — from the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics
Lecture Notes and practical exercises on multiple sequence alignments at the EMBL
Molecular Bioinformatics Lecture Notes
Molecular Evolution and Bioinformatics Lecture Notes
|
= The Naturalist on the River Amazons =
The Naturalist on the River Amazons , subtitled A Record of the Adventures , Habits of Animals , Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life , and Aspects of Nature under the Equator , during Eleven Years of Travel , is an 1863 book by the British naturalist Henry Walter Bates about his expedition to the Amazon basin . Bates and his friend Alfred Russel Wallace set out to obtain new species and new evidence for evolution by natural selection , as well as exotic specimens to sell . He explored thousands of miles of the Amazon and its tributaries , and collected over 14 @,@ 000 species , of which 8 @,@ 000 were new to science . His observations of the coloration of butterflies led him to discover Batesian mimicry .
The book contains an evenly distributed mixture of natural history , travel , and observation of human societies , including the towns with their Catholic processions . Only the most remarkable discoveries of animals and plants are described , and theories such as evolution and mimicry are barely mentioned . Bates remarks that finding a new species is only the start ; he also describes animal behaviour , sometimes in detail , as for the army ants . He constantly relates the wildlife to the people , explaining how the people hunt , what they eat and what they use as medicines . The book is illustrated with drawings by leading artists including E. W. Robinson , Josiah Wood Whymper , Joseph Wolf and Johann Baptist Zwecker .
On Bates 's return to England , he was encouraged by Charles Darwin to write up his eleven @-@ year stay in the Amazon as a book . The result was widely admired , not least by Darwin ; other reviewers sometimes disagreed with the book 's support for evolution , but generally enjoyed his account of the journey , scenery , people , and natural history . The book has been reprinted many times , mostly in Bates 's own effective abridgement for the second edition , which omitted the more technical descriptions .
= = Publication history = =
The first edition , in 1863 , was long and full of technical description . The second edition , in 1864 , was abridged , with most of the technical description removed , making for a shorter and more readable book which has been reprinted many times . Bates prefaced the 1864 edition by writing
Having been urged to prepare a new edition of this work for a wider circle than that contemplated in the former one , I have thought it advisable to condense those portions which , treating of abstruse scientific questions , presuppose a larger amount of Natural History knowledge than an author has a right to expect of the general reader .
An unabridged edition was reissued only after 30 years , in 1892 ; it appeared together with a ' memoir ' of Bates by Edward Clodd .
= = = Major versions = = =
Bates H.W. 1863 . The naturalist on the river Amazons . 2 volumes , Murray , London .
Bates H.W. 1864 . The naturalist on the river Amazons . 2nd edition as one volume , Murray , London . [ abridged by removing natural history descriptions ; much reprinted ]
Bates H.W. 1892 . The naturalist on the river Amazons , with a memoir of the author by Edward Clodd . [ only full edition since 1863 , with good short biography by Clodd ]
= = Approach = =
In 1847 , Bates and his friend Alfred Russel Wallace , both in their early twenties , agreed that they would jointly make a collecting trip to the Amazon " towards solving the problem of origin of species " . They had been inspired by reading the American entomologist William Henry Edwards 's pioneering 1847 book A Voyage Up the River Amazon , with a residency at Pará .
Neither had much money , so they determined to fund themselves by collecting and selling fine specimens of birds and insects . Both made extensive travels — in different parts of the Amazon basin — creating large natural history collections , especially of insects . Wallace sailed back to England in 1852 after four years ; on the voyage , his ship caught fire , and his collection was destroyed ; undeterred , he set out again , leading eventually ( 1869 ) to a comparable book , The Malay Archipelago . By the time he came home in November 1859 , Bates had collected over 14 @,@ 000 species , of which 8 @,@ 000 were new to science . His observations of the coloration of butterflies led him to describe what is now called Batesian mimicry , where an edible species protects itself by appearing like a distasteful species . Bates 's account of his stay , including observations of nature and the people around him , occupies his book .
In the abridged version , there is a balance between descriptions of places and adventures , and the wildlife seen there . The style is accurate , but vivid and direct :
The house lizards belong to a peculiar family , the Geckos , and are found even in the best @-@ kept chambers , most frequently on the walls and ceilings , to which they cling motionless by day , being active only at night . They are of speckled grey or ashy colours . The structure of their feet is beautifully adapted for clinging to and running over smooth surfaces ; the underside of their toes being expanded into cushions , beneath which folds of skin form a series of flexible plates . By means of this apparatus they can walk or run across a smooth ceiling with their backs downwards ; the plated soles , by quick muscular action , exhausting and admitting air alternately . The Geckos are very repulsive in appearance .
The book begins and ends suddenly . The journey out , as reviewer Joseph James observes , is dismissed in a few words . The last few lines of the book run :
On the 6th of June , when in 7 ° 55 ' N. lat. and 52 ° 30 ' W. long . , and therefore about 400 miles from the mouth of the main Amazons , we passed numerous patches of floating grass mingled with tree @-@ trunks and withered foliage . Amongst these masses I espied many fruits of that peculiarly Amazonian tree the Ubussu palm ; this was the last I saw of the Great River .
= = Illustrations = =
There are 39 illustrations , some of animals and plants , some of human topics such as the " Masked @-@ dance and wedding @-@ feast of Tucuna Indians " , which is signed by Josiah Wood Whymper . Some illustrations including " Turtle Fishing and Adventure with Alligator " are by the German illustrator Johann Baptist Zwecker ; some , such as " Bird @-@ Killing Spider ( Mygale Avicularia ) Attacking Finches " are by E.W. Robinson ; others by the zoological artist Joseph Wolf .
= = Chapters = =
The structure of the readable , cut @-@ down second edition of 1864 is as follows :
1 Pará — arrival , aspect of the country , etc . ( now the city of Belém )
Bates arrives , and at once starts learning about the country 's peoples and natural history .
The impressions received during this first walk can never wholly fade from my mind ... Amongst them were several handsome women , dressed in a slovenly manner , barefoot or shod in loose slippers ; but wearning richly @-@ decorated ear @-@ rings , and around their necks strings of very large gold beads . They had dark expressive eyes , and remarkably rich heads of hair . It was a mere fancy , but I thought the mingled squalor , luxuriance and beauty of these women were pointedly in harmony with the rest of the scene ; so striking , in the view , was the mixture of natural riches and human poverty .
He soon notices and describes the leafcutter ants . He stays in Pará for 18 months , making short trips into the interior ; the city is clean and safe compared to others in Brazil .
2 Pará — the swampy forests , etc .
Bates takes a house a few miles outside town on the edge of the forest , and soon starts to notice butterflies and climbing palms . He settles in to a routine of collecting during the day , and making notes and preparing specimens in the evening . At first he is disappointed by how few signs there are of larger animals such as monkeys , tapir or jaguar . Later he realizes these do exist , but are widely scattered and very shy . He meets a landowner who complains of the high price of slaves . There are colossal trees with buttressed trunks .
3 Pará — religious holidays , marmoset monkeys , serpents , insects
He witnesses Catholic processions , notably the festival for Our Lady of Nazareth at Pará . He describes the few monkeys that can be seen in the area , and the strange Amphisbaena , a legless lizard . There are beautiful Morpho butterflies of different species , and assorted spiders , including " monstrous " hairy ones .
4 The Tocantins and Cametá
Bates and Wallace travel up the Tocantins river , hiring a two @-@ masted boat , a crew of three , and taking provisions for three months . At Baiao he is astonished to be shown a young man 's books including Virgil , Terence , Cicero and Livy : " an unexpected sight , a classical library in a mud @-@ plastered and palm @-@ thatched hut on the banks of the Tocantins " . Their host kills an ox in their honour , but Bates is kept awake by swarms of rats and cockroaches . They see the hyacinthine macaw which can crush hard palm nuts with its beak , and two species of freshwater dolphin , one new to science . Bates visits Cameta ; Wallace goes to explore the Guama and Capim rivers . The large bird @-@ eating spider ( Mygalomorphae ) has urticating hairs : Bates handles the first specimen " incautiously , and I suffered terribly for three days " . He sees some children leading one with a cord around its waist like a dog . On the return journey , the boat with his baggage leaves before him ; when he catches up with it , he finds it " leaking at all points " .
5 Caripí and the Bay of Marajó
Bates stays three months in an old mansion on the coast , going insect @-@ hunting with a German who lives in the woods . His room is full of four species of bat : one leaf @-@ nosed bat , Phyllostoma , bites him on the hip : " This was rather unpleasant " . He finds stewed giant anteater delicious , like goose . Several times he shoots hummingbird hawkmoths , mistaking them for hummingbirds . He catches a pale brown tree snake 4 ft 8 in ( 140 cm ) long , but only 1 / 4 in ( 6mm ) thick , and a pale green one 6 ft ( 180 cm ) long " undistinguishable amidst the foliage " . When he has shot all the game around his house , he goes hunting with a neighbour by canoe , getting some agouti and paca rodents .
6 The Lower Amazons — Pará to Obydos ( now the city of Óbidos )
He describes how travellers went upriver before the steamboats arrived , and gives a history of earlier explorations of the Amazons . His preparations for the voyage to Obydos include household goods , provisions , ammunition , boxes , books and " a hundredweight ( 50 kg ) of copper money " . There are many species of palms along a river channel . A rare species of alligator and the armoured Loricaria fish are caught . Obydos is a pleasant town of 1200 people , on cliffs of pink and yellow clays , surrounded by cocoa plantations with four kinds of monkey and the huge Morpho hecuba butterfly up to 8 in ( 20 cm ) across , as well as slow @-@ flying Heliconius butterflies in great numbers . He obtains a musical cricket , Chlorocoelus tanana .
7 The Lower Amazons — Obydos to Manaos , or the Barra of the Rio Negro
Bates leaves Obydos ; he finds the people lazy , as otherwise they could easily become comfortable with mixed farming . They sail through a tremendous storm . He finds a Pterochroza grasshopper whose forewings perfectly resemble leaves , the Victoria waterlily , masses of ticks , the howler monkey and large Morpho butterflies . He meets Wallace again at Barra . Back in Para , he catches yellow fever .
8 Santarem
He describes Santarem and the customs of its people . He goes on short " excursions " around the little town . The pure " Indians " choose to build light open shelters , resting inside in hammocks , whereas those of mixed or African origin build more substantial mud huts . He enjoys watching small pale green Bembex and other kinds of sand wasps . He regrets that the people cut down the Oenocarpus distichus palm to harvest its fruits , which yield a milky , nutty beverage . He describes some potter wasps and mason bees . He meets a " feiticeira " or witch who knows the uses of many plants , but remarks that " the Indian men all become sceptics after a little intercourse with the whites " and that her witchcraft " was of a very weak quality " though others have more dangerous tricks .
9 Voyage up the Tapajos
Bates hires a boat made of stonewood for a three month trip up the Tapajos river . He prepares for the trip by salting meat , grinding coffee , and placing all the food in tin boxes to keep insects and damp out . He buys trade @-@ goods such as fishhooks , axes , knives and beads . He witnesses poison @-@ fishing using lianas of Paullinia pinnata . At Point Cajetuba he finds a line of dead fire @-@ ants , " an inch or two in height and breadth " , washed up on the shore " without interruption for miles " . Terrible wounds are inflicted by the stingray and the piranha . His men make a canoe from a trunk of the stonewood tree , and an anaconda steals two chickens from a cage on his boat ; the snake is " only 18 feet nine inches ( 6 metres ) in length " . Becoming weak from a diet of fish , he eats a spider monkey , finding it delicious . They notice the river is gently tidal , 530 miles ( 850 km ) from its mouth , " a proof of the extreme flatness of the land " . Bates is unimpressed by a homeopathy @-@ crazed priest , especially when his pills prove useless against fever .
10 The Upper Amazons — Voyage to Ega ( now the city of Tefé )
He sails from Barra ( continuing the story from Chapter 7 ) to Ega . In Solimões ( the Upper Amazons ) the soil is clay , alluvium or deep humus , with rich vegetation . They catch a manatee ( sea cow ) which tastes like coarse pork with greenish , fish @-@ flavoured fat , and he is badly bitten by small " Pium " bloodsucking flies . Pieces of pumice have floated 1200 miles ( 1900 km ) from the Andes volcanoes . Bates observes a large landslip on which masses of giant forest trees rock to and fro . He notes there are discomforts but " scarcely any danger from wild animals " . He becomes desperate for intellectual society , running out of reading matter , even the advertisements in the Athenaeum journal . He describes the food and fruits at Ega , and the curious seasons , with two wet and two dry seasons each year , the river thus rising and falling twice . The people regularly eat turtles .
11 Excursions in the Neighbourhood of Ega
Bates goes hunting with a native , who brings down a crested oropendola with a blowpipe at a range of 30 yards ( 27 metres ) ; he notes that the usefully silent weapon can kill at twice that range , but that he and Wallace " found it very difficult to hold steady the long tubes " . Around a campfire , he listens to tales ; the Bouto or river dolphin used to take " the shape of a beautiful woman , with hair hanging loose to her heels , and walking ashore at night in the streets of Ega , to entice the young men down to the water " where the Bouto would grab them and " plunge beneath the waves with a triumphant cry " . They go turtle @-@ hunting ; and Bates kills an alligator with a heavy stick . He finds many footprints of the jaguar , and " the great pleasure " of seeing the " rare and curious umbrella bird " . Arrived in Catua , he admires a woman of 17 : " her figure was almost faultless " , and her blue mouth " gave quite a captivating finish to her appearance " , but she was " extremely bashful " . He is amazed at how much alcohol the " shy Indian and Mameluco maidens " can drink , never giving way to their suitors without it .
12 Animals of the Neighbourhood of Ega
Having discovered over 3000 new species at Ega , Bates agrees that discovery " forms but a small item in the interest belonging to the study of the living creation . " He describes the scarlet @-@ faced and other monkeys , " a curious animal " , the kinkajou , bats , and toucans . He found 18 species " of true Papilio ( swallowtail ) butterflies and about 550 butterfly species in all at Ega , among over 7000 species of insect . He describes some unusual insects and their behaviour , including a moth which suspends its cocoon on a long strong silk thread , which while conspicuous is hard for birds to attack . He describes at length various species of Eciton or army ants , noting that confused accounts of these have appeared in travel books , then copied into natural histories .
13 Excursions beyond Ega
In November 1856 Bates travels on a steamboat from Ega upriver to Tunantins ; it travels all night despite the thick darkness , and makes the 240 miles ( 380 km ) in four days , with the captain at the wheel almost the whole time . He is delighted to discover a new butterfly , Catagramma excelsior , the largest of its genus . He finds the forest at St Paulo glorious , writing that five years would not be enough " to exhaust the treasures of its neighbourhood in Zoology and Botany " :
At mid @-@ day the vertical sun penetrates into the gloomy depths of this romantic spot , lighting up the leafy banks of the rivulet and its clean sandy margins , where numbers of scarlet , green , and black tanagers and brightly @-@ coloured butterflies sport about in the stray beams . Sparkling brooks , large and small , traverse the glorious forest ...
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
= = = = Charles Darwin = = = =
Charles Darwin , having encouraged Bates to publish an account of his travels , read The Naturalist on the River Amazons with great pleasure , writing to Bates on 18 April 1863 that
My criticisms may be condensed into a single sentence , namely that it is the best book of Natural History Travels ever published in England . Your style seems to me admirable . Nothing can be better than the discussion on the struggle for existence & nothing better than the descriptions on the Forest scenery . It is a grand book , & whether or not it sells quickly it will last . You have spoken out boldly on Species ; & boldness on this subject seems to get rarer & rarer . — How beautifully illustrated it is . The cut on the back is most tasteful . I heartily congratulate you on its publication .
Darwin noted in his letter that Athenaeum magazine reviewed the book coldly and insolently , while the Reader received it warmly . Darwin published An Appreciation of the book in the Natural History Review in 1863 , in which he notes that Bates sent back " a mass of specimens " of " no less than 14 @,@ 712 species " ( mostly of insects ) , of which 8000 were new to science . Darwin at once observes that although Bates is " no mean authority " on insects , the book is not limited to them , but ranges over natural history and more widely to describe his " adventures during his journeyings up and down the mighty river " . Darwin clearly enjoyed Bates 's account of the hyacinthine macaw , calling it a " splendid bird " with its " enormous beak " able to feed on mucuja palm nuts , and quoting Bates : " which are so hard as to be difficult to break with a heavy hammer , are crushed to a pulp by the powerful beak of this Macaw . " Darwin took the opportunity to hit back at the Athenaeum magazine which had criticised Bates 's book , at the same time painting a picture of Bates 's lonely life in the rainforest :
Mr. Bates must indeed have been driven to great straits as regards his mental food , when , as he tells us , he took to reading the Athenaeum three times over , " the first time devouring the more interesting articles — the second , the whole of the remainder — and the third , reading all the advertisements from beginning to end .
Darwin notes that " We need hardly say that Mr. Bates ... is a zealous advocate of the hypothesis of the origin of species by derivation from a common stock " , in other words that Bates was a staunch Darwinian . Darwin was happy to have the Naturalist on his side , and to use the book in the Origin of Species debate which was still heated in 1863 . In particular , Darwin was struck by Bates 's robust evidence of mimicry in " the Butterflies of the genus Heliconius " . Here Darwin quotes nearly a whole page from Bates 's conclusions , including Bates 's view of his own findings that hint at speciation actually in progress :
The facts just given are therefore of some scientific importance , for they tend to show that a physiological species can be and is produced in nature out of the varieties of a pre @-@ existing closely allied one . This is not an isolated case ... But in very few has it happened that the species which clearly appears to be the parent , co @-@ exists with one that has been evidently derived from it .
= = = = London Quarterly Review = = = =
The London Quarterly Review began with the observation that " When an intelligent man tells us that he has spent eleven of the best years of his life in any district , we may be pretty sure he has something to say about it which will interest even those who generally find travels dull reading " . The reviewer finds Bates among the most readable , and free of the usual " personal twaddle " of travel and adventure books . The reviewer also remarks on Bates 's subtitle " ... of the origin of species " , that Wallace had taken up that theme more fully . In the reviewer 's opinion , Bates says little about " the Darwinian hypothesis " , focusing instead steadily on natural history , while making " very shrewd remarks " about human society and giving " most glowing " descriptions of tropical scenery . The reviewer notes that most of the people Bates meets " had a tinge of colour " but made the " lonely Englishman " comfortable with their " winning cordiality " , and is amused that in a feast in Ega an Indian dressed up as an entomologist , complete with insect @-@ net , hunting @-@ bag , pincushion , and an old pair of spectacles . As for nature , the reviewer considers that " in Brazil man is oppressed , crushed , by the immensity of nature " .
Bates 's occasional hints at Darwinian evolution are unwelcome or misunderstood by the reviewer , as when Bates writes that if a kind of seed is found in two places , we have to " come to the strange conclusion " it has been created twice unless we can show it can be carried that far ; but the reviewer finds Bates in " too great a hurry to come to conclusions " ( sic ) . The reviewer , too , objects to Bates 's illustration of " transition forms between Heliconius Melpomene and H. Thelxiope , which he thinks are no more different than " a couple of Dorking hens " . Bates 's assumption that all forest animals are adapted to forest life is rejected by the reviewer , who sees the same features as signs of a beneficent Creator ; while his mention of " slow adaptation of the fauna of a forest @-@ clad country throughout an immense lapse of geological time " is criticised for being " haunted " by this " spectre of time " . However the reviewer is fascinated by the variety of life described in the book , and by Bates 's " rapturous manner " of speaking about how delicious monkey flesh is , which " almost puts a premium on cannibalism " . The review concludes " not without regret " ( at such an enjoyable book ) , and assures readers " that they will not find him heavy reading " ; supposes that 11 years was " perhaps a little too much " of tropical life ; and recommends intending museum curators to try it for " a year or two " .
= = = = Joseph F. James = = = =
An unabridged edition was reviewed by botanist and geologist Joseph F. James ( 1857 @-@ 1897 ) in Science in 1893 . James was reviewing a book which was at that time already a 30 @-@ year @-@ old classic that had been reprinted at least four times . He compared it to Gilbert White 's 1789 The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne , Darwin 's Voyage of the Beagle , and Alfred Russel Wallace 's The Malay Archipelago , writing that
No one can err , we believe , in placing Bates 's " Naturalist on the River Amazons " among the foremost books of travel of this age ; and no one who has read it , but recalls its graphic pages with delight .
James notes that " on the appearance of the book in 1868 it met with cordial praise from all quarters " . Despite his professed liking for Bates 's " direct and concise " style , he quotes at length Bates ' description of the tropics , with the
whirring of cicadas , the shrill stridulation of a vast number and variety of field @-@ crickets and grasshoppers , each species sounding its peculiar note ; the plaintive hootings of tree @-@ frogs , - all blended together in one continuous ringing sound , - the audible expression of the teeming profusion of nature . "
James spends much space in his review quoting Bates 's account of the strangling fig , called the " Murderer Liana or Sipo " , which he uses to emphasize the " struggle for existence " between plants , as much as for animals . Bates explains how the fig grows rings around the " victim " tree , which eventually dies , leaving the " selfish parasite clasping in its arms the lifeless and decaying body of its victim " , so that the fig itself must quickly flower , fruit and die when its support fails . James observes that " It is as much in the reflections that the varied phenomena under observation give rise to as in the descriptive portions that the value and charm of the book lie . " Unable to resist a final quotation , even after admitting he has " overstepped our space " , he cites Bates 's description of his last night in the " country of perpetual summer " , regretting he will have to live again in England with its " gloomy winters " and " factory chimneys " ; but after Bates has returned , he rediscovers " how incomparably superior is civilized life " which can nourish " feelings , tastes and intellect " .
= = = Modern assessment = = =
= = = = New Yorker = = = =
In 1988 , Alex Shoumatoff , writing in The New Yorker , makes Bates 's Naturalist his choice if he were allowed only one book for a tropical journey . In his view , it is " the basic text " and a monument of scientific travel writing . Shoumatoff had in fact spent eight months in Bates 's " glorious forest " ( he quotes ) with a copy in his backpack ; he thus admires Bates 's acceptance of the inevitable discomfort and homesickness from personal knowledge , noting that Bates only complained when all the following had occurred together : he had been robbed , he had gone barefoot having worn out his shoes , he had received no parcels from England , and worst of all he had nothing left to read . But otherwise Bates was " lost in wonder " at the astonishing diversity of the natural history of the Amazons . He was , writes Shoumatoff , one of the four largely self @-@ educated geniuses who pioneered tropical biology , and who all knew each other : Darwin , Wallace , Bates , and the botanist Richard Spruce .
Shoumatoff observes that " Reading Bates is an emotional experience for someone who has travelled in Amazonia , because much of what he describes so poignantly is no longer there " ; that the " charm and the genius " of the book is that Bates covers both natural history and everything else that is going on — as the subtitle so accurately says , " A Record of Adventures , Habits of Animals , Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life , and Aspects of Nature Under the Equator , During Eleven Years of Travel . "
He feels a dreamy quality in the best of Bates 's writing , as when he meets a boa constrictor : " On seeing me the reptile suddenly turned , and glided at an accelerated rate down the path . ... The rapidly moving and shining body looked like a stream of brown liquid flowing over the thick bed of fallen leaves . " However he is less impressed with Bates 's remarks about the " intellectual inferiority " of the natives , and observes that Bates was wrong about the fertility of tropical soils , which are often poor : the luxuriant growth results from rapid recycling of nutrients . He celebrates the " famous closing passage " of the book , where Bates expresses his " deep misgivings " about returning to England , and writes that recent " progress " in the Amazon is just as shocking .
= = = = John G.T. Anderson = = = =
In 2011 John G.T. Anderson chose to " recommend the reader ’ s attention " to Bates ' Naturalist in the Journal of Natural History Education and Experience , writing that
As much as I love Wallace , I feel that Bates is far and away the better storyteller of the pair , with a keen eye for landscapes , species , and peoples .
Anderson writes that Bates threw himself eagerly into the local culture , writing warmly about the people as well as delighting in everything from the odd to the mundane " in a modest yet engaging style that leaves this reader itching to go and see for himself . " Noting that Bates collected over 8 @,@ 000 species on the trip , the book shows , writes Anderson , how this was achieved :
the discomfort of narrow canoes , the encounters with alligators and giant spiders , drinking burning rum around a campfire while waiting for jaguars , and above all else the sheer fun and intense joy of seeing new things in new places through eyes of a keen observer and master storyteller ..
= = = = Zoological Society of London = = = =
The Zoological Society of London writes that " This fascinating , lucidly written book is widely regarded as one of the greatest reports of natural history travels . " It describes the book as " an eloquently written compendium of curious natural facts and observations on Amazon life before the rubber boom , revealing the amazing zoological and botanical richness of the region " and calls his specimens " a hugely significant contribution to zoological discovery . "
= = = = In science , education , and literature = = = =
Bates 's book is cited in papers for its accurate early observations , such as of the urticating hairs of tarantulas , the puddle drinking habits of butterflies , or of the rich insect fauna in the tropics . The book and Bates ' Amazon trip are covered in lecture courses on evolution . The warm reception of Bates 's Naturalist was not confined to scientists . The novelists D.H. Lawrence and George Orwell both wrote admiringly of the book . Lawrence wrote to his friend S. S. Koteliansky " I should like , from the Everyman Library Bates ' – Naturalist on the Amazon ... because I intend some day to go to South America – to Peru or Ecuador , not the Amazon . But I know Bates is good . "
= = = Primary = = =
This list identifies the places in the book where quotations come from .
= = = Secondary = = =
|
= 2009 Palma Nova bombing =
The 2009 Palma Nova bombing occurred on July 30 , 2009 when a limpet bomb went off outside a Civil Guard barracks in the town of Palma Nova , Majorca , Spain . The bomb was placed under a patrol car and two Civil Guard officers died as a result of the explosion . A second device was found under another Civil Guard vehicle at nearby barracks and safely exploded by police . On August 9 , the Basque nationalist and separatist organisation ETA claimed responsibility for the attack , while four other bombs exploded around restaurants and shopping centres in Palma , Majorca , causing no injuries .
The bombing was ETA 's first attack in Majorca since it tried to kill King Juan Carlos I in the summer of 1995 , and its deadliest attack since it killed two Civil Guard officers in Capbreton , France in 2007 . The attack came on the eve of the 50th anniversary of ETA 's founding , and days before the King 's yearly visit to Majorca .
= = Background = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , the organisation declared a ceasefire , and conversations between Batasuna , ETA and the Basque and Spanish governments started . Peace talks ended in December , when ETA broke the truce with a massive car bomb at the Madrid @-@ Barajas Airport . ETA officially ended the ceasefire in 2007 and resumed its attacks around Spain . At the same time , dozens of members were arrested by Spanish and French police . Despite that , the organisation did not lose the capacity of carrying out attacks .
In 2009 , Patxi López became the first non @-@ nationalist lendakari since the 1979 Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country . On June 19 , ETA killed inspector Eduardo Puelles García in Arrigorriaga near Bilbao , Biscay , when a bomb attached to his car exploded , and on July 9 , a powerful bomb exploded in a Socialist Workers ' Party local office in Durango , Biscay , causing no injuries . In late July , it was reported that ETA was preparing its " summer campaign " , with Spanish police looking for several vans the organisation had ready to explode . On July 29 , a van loaded with 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) of explosives went off in front of a Civil Guard barracks in Burgos , injuring 70 , including women and children .
The bombing was the first time since 2007 in which ETA killed more than one person in one of its attacks . On December 2 , 2007 two undercover Civil Guards were shot dead in the French town of Capbreton , Aquitaine . It was also the deadliest attack in Spanish soil since the Madrid @-@ Barajas Airport .
The attack was the first time ETA had killed in Majorca , one of the Spanish regions less targeted by ETA . On August 18 , 1977 a bomb was deactivated next to a seafront walk . On July 31 , 1991 two people were injured after two bombs went off in Palma . Two months later , a car bomb was defused in Palma 's main beach . In the summer of 1995 , Spanish authorities dismantled a cell of ETA ready to shoot king Juan Carlos I. In 2005 , the organisation attempted the magnicide once more in Majorca .
= = Attack = =
At 1 : 50 pm , a 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) bomb placed under a Civil Guard Nissan Patrol went off , killing officers Carlos Saénz de Tejada García and Diego Salva Lezaun . One of the officers died instantly , while paramedics failed to resuscitate the other officer . Both officers were inside the car when the bomb exploded . The vehicle had been parked in the Na Boira street , in front of a government @-@ owned building used as a post office and Civil Guard barracks , among other functions . Many hotels are located in the area , something which caused many foreign tourists , mainly German and British , to witness the blast .
After the attack , authorities started to look for other possible bombs in the area , with the Civil Guard giving the order to search in all barracks on the island . Soon after , a detection dog found a bomb attached to another Civil Guard Nissan Patrol parked in front of a barracks located 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from where the first bomb had exploded . The area was cordoned off and people evacuated from nearby houses and hotels . At 6 : 30 pm , Civil Guard bomb disposal officers TEDAX carried out a controlled explosion . The bomb had been placed in a broken down vehicle and was therefore not in use .
= = = Victims = = =
Diego Salvá Lezaun ( Pamplona , 1981 ) lived in Majorca and became a Givil Guard on August 25 , 2008 . He started working as an intern on January 31 , 2009 . A few months later , he suffered a motorbike accident which left him several weeks in coma . Once he recovered , he was assigned to the Palma Nova barracks , just four days before the attack took place . He was buried in Palma .
Carlos Sáenz de Tejada García ( Burgos , 1980 ) tried to join the National Police Corps after finishing his high school studies . He failed to do so and became a member of the Spanish Army , being stationed in an army barracks in Castrillo del Val . He joined the Civil Guard on February 18 , 2008 , and was sent to Majorca on July 19 . He had some relatives affected by the July 29 bombing in Burgos , where he was buried .
= = Aftermath = =
On July 31 , a funeral was held at the Cathedral of Santa Maria in Palma . The service was attended by Primer Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero and Prince and Princess of Asturias , Felipe and Letizia . Other people attending the mass were leader of the opposition Mariano Rajoy , Minister of the Interior Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba and Patxi López , among others . At least 2 @,@ 000 gathered outside of the cathedral and a minute of silence was held across Spain in memory of the dead .
= = = Operation Cage = = =
Right after the attack , and suspecting that the bombers were still on the island , the Civil Guard and the National Police Corps launched a lockdown , an operation named Operation Cage ( Spanish : Operación Jaula ) , the biggest manhunt in the history of the island . Similar operations had been done around Spain in other attacks , such as in the 2004 Madrid train bombings . Checkpoints were set up across the island , while the Palma de Mallorca Airport and all ports were temporarily closed . The airport was closed at 4 : 00 pm and was re @-@ opened at 5 : 55 pm , with several flights being delayed . During the rest of the afternoon , the ports were re @-@ opened as well .
The day after the attack , Spanish police released the picture of six members of ETA who could have possibly taken part in the bombing . Police named the suspects as Itziar Martínez Moreno , Iratxe Yáñez Ortiz de Barrón , Alberto Beraza Machain , Oroitz Gurruchaga Gogorza , Joanes Larretxea Mendiola and Iván Sáez de Jáuregui Ortigosa , although no direct evidence linked them to the attack . Meanwhile , at least 1600 police officers were deployed to keep checking around the island , including on fisherman . The intense search was still active in mid August .
= = = Reactions = = =
During a press conference at the Moncloa Palace , Rodríguez Zapatero blamed both bombings " on the terrorist group ETA " and vowed to bring all of its members to justice : " They have no chance to hide , they can 't flee , they can 't escape justice , they will be arrested , they will be sentenced , they will spend their lives in jail " . When arriving on Majorca on August 1 for his yearly summer holidays King Juan Carlos I condemned the attack and vowed to " go on and on hitting them in the head and we must fight to stop them " . Condemnation also came from governments worldwide following the bombing :
The European Commission condemned the bombing and gave its " total solidarity to the Spanish people and institutions " .
German Chancellor Angela Merkel condemned the attack , and gave Rodriguez Zapatero her support in " the fight against terrorism " .
The Mexican Secretariat of Foreign Affairs condemned the killing .
Then Foreign Minister of Argentina Jorge Taiana condemned the Majorca and Burgos attacks .
= = August bombings = =
On August 9 , the same day ETA claimed responsibility for the July 30 attack , four bombs exploded in three restaurants and one shopping centre around Palma . The bombs , which contained small amounts of explosives and caused little damage and no injuries , went off after three warning calls from ETA . At 11 : 16 am local time , a man speaking on behalf of ETA called the firefighters of Calvià , warning that three bombs would go off in Palma . Half an hour later , another person also speaking on behalf of ETA called a taxi company in Gipuzkoa , giving details of the location and time the bombs would explode . Finally , another warning call was mistakenly made to the personal mobile phone of an inhabitant of Córdoba . Authorities reported that the bombers had given contradicting details in each call , leading to confusion on the location of the bombs .
The first bomb exploded at 12 : 00 pm in the bar " Nica " , located in the avenue Comte de Sallent . The explosion was at first not reported , with authorities believing it was a gas explosion . The second bomb exploded at around 2 : 25 pm in the " La Rigoletta " restaurant , in front of one of Palma 's main beaches . The third bomb went off at around 4 : 00 pm in another restaurant , named " Enco " . The fourth device exploded around 6 : 00 pm in a shopping mall located next to the main square of Palma . As a result of the few details given by the warning calls , police failed to evacuate the attacked restaurants . Nonetheless , no one was injured .
= = Investigation = =
Authorities rapidly ruled out the possibility that ETA had a cell in the island , with police believing the attack had been carried out by a unit that had travelled to the island specifically to carry it out . Initial reports stated that the bombers had set the bomb off with a remote control . Once the second bomb was spotted , police announced that it had a timer device , which could have allowed the members of ETA to plant the bomb several days before the attack and leave the island . Earlier , Government delegate for Majorca , Ramon Socías , had said that security forces believed that the bombers had not left Majorca , and were hiding on the island , waiting for the situation to cool down before attempting to leave .
Regarding the August 8 bombings , Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba did not rule out any possibility , although he confirmed that the hypothesis of the bombers leaving the island before the attack was " reasonable " , due to the timer devices . All of the bombs had been planted in women 's toilets , which led authorities to believe that they had been set by one of the two female suspects , Itziar Martínez Moreno and Iratxe Yáñez Ortiz .
= = = Arrests = = =
On August 19 , Alberto Matxain Beraza was arrested in the French town of Le Corbier in Savoy , next to the French Alps . He was held along with fellow ETA members Aitzol Etxaburu and Andoni Sarasola . They were responsible for ETA ’ s logistics operation , and had the job of supplying weapons and explosives to the ETA cells operating in Spanish soil . The arrest led to the discovery of almost a tone of explosives , hidden by ETA in 12 small caches around France . On October 11 , Joanes Larretxea was arrested in Rivières , Gard along with top ETA member Iurgi Mendinueta Mintegi .
Iratxe Yañez Ortiz was arrested on January 10 , 2010 in Portugal after she was stopped in a routine traffic check @-@ point in the Spanish town of Bermillo de Sayago , next to Spain @-@ Portugal border . Yañez Ortiz was arrested along another member of ETA , Garikoitz García Arrieta , who was driving a van containing 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) of explosives , two pistols , a rifle and bomb @-@ making material . She was extradited to Spain on October 28 , 2010 .
|
= William Hillcourt =
William Hillcourt ( August 6 , 1900 – November 9 , 1992 ) , known within the Scouting movement as " Green Bar Bill " , was an influential leader in the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) organization from 1927 to 1992 . Hillcourt was a prolific writer and teacher in the areas of woodcraft , troop and patrol structure , and training ; his written works include three editions of the BSA 's official Boy Scout Handbook , with over 12 @.@ 6 million copies printed , other Scouting @-@ related books and numerous magazine articles . Hillcourt developed and promoted the American adaptation of the Wood Badge adult Scout leader training program .
Hillcourt was Danish , but moved to the United States as a young adult . From his start in Danish Scouting in 1910 until his death in 1992 , he was continuously active in Scouting . He traveled all over the world teaching and training both Scouts and Scouters , earning many of Scouting 's highest honors . His legacy and influence can still be seen today in the BSA program and in Scouting training manuals and methods for both youth and adults .
= = Personal life = =
Hillcourt was born in 1900 in Aarhus , Denmark and was the youngest of three sons of a building contractor . He was given the name Vilhelm Hans Bjerregaard Jensen . Around 1930 , he changed his name by anglicizing " Vilhelm " , translating " Bjerregaard " into " Hill @-@ court " and dropping " Jensen " . His first published work was a poem about trolls and elves , printed by an Aarhus newspaper when he was nine years old . For Christmas 1910 , Hillcourt 's brother gave him a Danish translation of Scouting for Boys by Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of the Scout movement . He went on to earn the highest award in Danish Scouting , Knight @-@ Scout in 1918 , at age 17 . He was selected to represent his troop at the 1st World Scout Jamboree in Olympia in 1920 where he first met Baden @-@ Powell , with whom he was later to work .
While Hillcourt studied pharmacy in Copenhagen , he became more involved in Scouting . As a Scout leader , he became a Scoutmaster , national instructor , writer and then the editor for the Danish Scouting journal . He wrote his first book , The Island , recounting his early Scouting experiences .
After deciding to experience Scouting around the world and to return home with the best ideas , Hillcourt worked his way through Europe and England and then arrived in the United States in February 1926 . He was soon hired by the BSA 's national office and worked for the BSA until he retired as a professional Scouter in 1965 . In 1933 Hillcourt married Grace Brown , the personal secretary of Chief Scout Executive James E. West .
= = Scouting career = =
Hillcourt worked at a BSA camp at Bear Mountain in Harriman State Park , New York , in 1926 where he became an instructor in American Indian dance . He then worked for the BSA Supply Division where he broke his leg when a crate fell on him . He met James West while working at the national office . West solicited Hillcourt 's thoughts on Scouting in the U.S. Hillcourt later sent West an 18 @-@ page memo detailing issues with the lack of patrol structure and leadership . He recommended that the BSA write a handbook for patrol leaders , and that it needed to be written by someone who had been both a patrol leader and a Scoutmaster . West hired Hillcourt as a writer and editor and was later persuaded to commission Hillcourt to write the first Handbook for Patrol Leaders which was published in 1929 .
From 1932 until his retirement in 1965 , Hillcourt was a major contributor to Boys ' Life , the magazine for Scouting youth . Each monthly issue included a page on advancement and Scoutcraft , outdoor Scouting skills , and included his signature superimposed over the two green bars that are the emblem of the patrol leader , which led to his moniker " Green Bar Bill " and its adoption as the logo of his regular Boys ' Life column .
Hillcourt was tasked to write a new manual for Scoutmasters in 1934 and worked with his good friend and colleague E. Urner Goodman , the national program director of the BSA . He and his wife moved to a house in Mendham Borough , New Jersey , to be near Schiff Scout Reservation , the BSA 's national training center , so he could be in place to put this theories to a practical test . In order to do so , he founded Troop 1 of Mendham in 1935 as a unit directly chartered to the National Council of the BSA . As the Scoutmaster , he used Troop 1 to test and validate his work for 16 years .
The Baden @-@ Powells visited Schiff in 1935 and began a steadfast friendship with the Hillcourts . Baden @-@ Powell died in 1941 . After World War II , Baden @-@ Powell 's widow , Olave Baden @-@ Powell , allowed Hillcourt to edit Aids to Scoutmastership into the World Brotherhood Editions to help the Scouting movement recover from the war . She then allowed Hillcourt access to Baden @-@ Powell 's letters , diaries and sketchbooks when she and Hillcourt co @-@ authored the narrative biography of Baden @-@ Powell , Baden @-@ Powell : The Two Lives of a Hero .
The BSA national office moved from New York City to North Brunswick , New Jersey , in 1954 , and the Hillcourts moved with it . He completed the sixth edition of the Boy Scout Handbook in time for the BSA 's 50th anniversary in 1960 .
= = = Wood Badge = = =
To encourage the creation of Rovering in the U.S. , J. S. Wilson travelled from the UK to oversee a Wood Badge course in May 1936 at Schiff . Hillcourt was a participant in that first course and four days later , he was the senior patrol leader for the second course . He received his Wood Badge beads in 1939 and was appointed as the deputy camp director for Wood Badge . After World War II , Wood Badge was revived and Hillcourt was the Scoutmaster for a test course begun on July 31 , 1948 , at Schiff and the first standard course at Philmont Scout Ranch . As the national director of training , Hillcourt wore five Wood Badge beads , a tradition that has been discontinued in the U.K. Scout Association , however other countries still continue the use of the five Wood Badge Beads and are still worn by the National Volunteer Leader of Wood Badge Training of each country as well as by special decree of Gilwell Park today .
In the year before his retirement on August 1 , 1965 , the national council began a program to update the Wood Badge program and shift its emphasis from teaching Scoutcraft to leadership skills . After he was officially retired , his opinion was still sought after and respected . Dr. John W. Larson , Director of Boy Scout Leader Training for the National Council , was working with Béla H. Bánáthy and Bob Perin , Assistant National Director , Volunteer Training Service , to adapt the leadership competencies of the White Stag Leadership Development Program into a new Wood Badge syllabus .
Hillcourt was among the few on the National Staff who strongly resisted the change to the Wood Badge program . He attended the presentation that Larson made to the national Scout committee on the new Wood Badge curriculum . Larson later reported , " He fought us all the way ... He had a vested interest in what had been and resisted every change . I just told him to settle down , everything was going to be all right . " Hillcourt presented an alternative to Larson 's plan to incorporate leadership into Wood Badge . Chief Scout Executive Joseph Brunton asked Larson to look at Hillcourt 's plan , and Larson reported back that it was the same stuff , just reordered and rewritten . Larson 's plan for Wood Badge was approved and he moved ahead to begin implementing the proposed changes .
= = Later life = =
Hillcourt retired from the BSA on August 1 , 1965 . In 1971 , he and Grace finally completed the world tour he had started in 1926 ; along the way they attended the 13th World Scout Jamboree in Fujinomiya , Japan . Grace Hillcourt died in 1973 . Rather than live alone , Bill moved into the home of his good friends Carson and Martha Buck .
The BSA had introduced the " Improved Scouting Program " in 1972 , along with a new edition of the Boy Scout Handbook . Many of the changes were intended to expand Scouting to a broader base of youth and to make Scouting more " in tune with the times " . Many Scouters , including Hillcourt , were critical of the new program changes , exclaiming that the de @-@ emphasis on traditional outdoor skills had taken the " outing out of Scouting " . This change proved to be unsuccessful , deterring existing adherents and attracting relatively few new enrolments . To remedy this situation , Hillcourt convinced Chief Scout Executive Harvey L. Price that a new handbook was needed . Hillcourt then came out of retirement and spent a year writing and editing the 1979 edition of The Official Boy Scout Handbook , returning to the focus of Scoutcraft . In addition , he helped to develop the All Out for Scouting program that launched the return to the old standards . Hillcourt was regarded as a prominent figure and guide in BSA 's recovery from its experiment earlier in that decade .
Hillcourt was recognized for his service to youth by the BSA with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award on May 19 , 1978 . In 1980 , the BSA presented Hillcourt with their highest national honor , the Silver Buffalo Award and was cited as " The Voice of Scouting " . The World Scout Committee of the World Organization of the Scout Movement recognized him for exceptional services to world Scouting in 1985 with the Bronze Wolf Award . In the same year , an article in the Scouting magazine proclaimed Hillcourt as " the foremost influence on development of the Boy Scouting program . " In 1990 he also became a member of Firecrafter , an American Scouting service organization . Travel and appearances at Scouting events both local and worldwide were part of his routine until he died , for which he was referred to as Scoutmaster to the World .
Hillcourt died at the age of 92 , in Stockholm , Sweden , while traveling on a Scouting tour with Carson Buck in 1992 . He is buried with his wife Grace in St. Joseph 's Cemetery in Mendham , New Jersey , at Row 8 , Block I , near Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation , where he had lived for so many years . His legacy in Scouting and his influence continue in the programs and training of Scouting . Consequently , his writings are still used within the Scouting movement and his material continues to be reprinted in Scouting magazine . The Longhouse Council operates the William Hillcourt Scout Museum and Carson Buck Memorial Library at Camp Woodland in New York to " keep the traditions of Scouting alive " through the preservation of the history that is a foundation for today 's Scouting movement .
= = Works = =
Hillcourt was one of the BSA 's most prolific writers . He wrote numerous articles for Boys ' Life and Scouting magazines , including a column aimed at patrol leaders under the by @-@ line of " Patrol Leader Green Bar Bill " . At least 12 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 copies of his three editions of the Boy Scout Handbook were printed .
( 1925 ) The Island
( 1929 ) Handbook for Patrol Leaders
( 1933 ) The 1933 Scout Jamboree Book with James E. West
( 1936 ) Handbook for Scoutmasters , Third edition in two volumes
( 1946 ) Aids to Scoutmastership , World Brotherhood Edition , by Baden @-@ Powell , revised by Hillcourt
( 1946 ) Scouting for Boys , World Brotherhood Edition , by Baden @-@ Powell , revised by Hillcourt
( 1948 ) Scout Fieldbook , First edition , with West
( 1950 ) Handbook for Patrol Leaders ; World Brotherhood Edition
( 1959 ) Boy Scout Handbook , Sixth edition
( 1961 ) Field Book of Nature Activities and Conservation : An Indispensable Guide for Nature Lovers
( 1964 ) Baden @-@ Powell : The Two Lives of a Hero ; biography of Baden @-@ Powell
( 1965 ) Boy Scout Handbook , Seventh edition
( 1967 ) Handbook for Patrol Leaders , Second edition ( heavily edited revision )
( 1967 ) Physical Fitness for Boys
( 1967 ) Physical Fitness for Girls
( 1968 ) Your Guide to Fitness
( 1970 ) New Field Book of Nature Activities & Hobbies
( 1970 ) Fun With Nature Hobbies
( 1971 ) The Golden Book of Camping
( 1975 ) Outdoor Things To Do : Year @-@ round Nature Fun for Girls and Boys
( 1977 ) Norman Rockwell 's World of Scouting ; biography of iconic illustrator Norman Rockwell
( 1979 ) The Official Boy Scout Handbook , Ninth edition
( 1980 ) The Official Patrol Leader Handbook , Third edition
|
= Black American Sign Language =
Black American Sign Language ( BASL ) or Black Sign Variation ( BSV ) is a dialect of American Sign Language ( ASL ) spoken most commonly by deaf African Americans in the United States . The divergence from ASL was influenced largely by the segregation of schools in the American South . Like other schools at the time , schools for the deaf were segregated based upon race , creating two language communities among deaf signers : White deaf signers at White schools and Black deaf signers at Black schools . Today , BASL is still used by signers in the South despite schools having been legally desegregated since 1954 .
Linguistically , BASL differs from other varieties of ASL in its phonology , syntax , and lexicon . BASL tends to have a larger signing space meaning that some signs are produced further away from the body than in other dialects . Signers of BASL also tend to prefer two @-@ handed variants of signs while signers of ASL tend to prefer one @-@ handed variants . Some signs are different in BASL as well , with some borrowings from African American English .
= = History = =
Like many educational institutions for hearing children during the 1800s and early 1900s , schools for deaf children were segregated based on race . The first school for the deaf in the United States , The American School for the Deaf ( ASD ) , was founded in 1817 but did not admit any Black students until 1952 . Of the schools for the deaf that began to be created , few admitted students of color . Seeing a lack of educational opportunities for the Black deaf , Platt Skinner founded the Skinner School for the Colored Deaf , Dumb , and Blind in 1856 in Niagara Falls , New York . Skinner described his school as " the first effort of its kind in the country ... We receive and instruct those and only those who are refused admission to all other institutions and are despised on account of their color . " The school moved to Trenton , New Jersey in 1860 . After its closure in 1866 , no Northern state created an institution for the Black deaf . Even after these states outlawed segregation by 1900 , integration was sparse as some institutions allowed Black students and others did not .
After the foundation and success of the American School for the Deaf , many other institutions for the deaf were founded throughout the country . Since schools , particularly in the South , were segregated , many Southern states created separate schools or departments for the Black deaf . The first school established for the Black deaf below the Mason – Dixon line opened in the District of Columbia in 1857 and remained segregated until 1958 . The last Southern state to create an institution for the Black deaf was Louisiana in 1938 . Black Deaf children thus became a language community isolated from the White Deaf with different means of language socialization , allowing for different dialects to develop . Because the education of White children was privileged over that of Black children , Oralism — the prominent pedagogical method of the time — was not as strictly applied to the Black deaf students . Oralist methods often forbade the use of sign language , so Black deaf students had more opportunities to use ASL than their White peers . Despite the decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 which declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional , integration was slow to come , and schools for the deaf were no exception : the last desegregated in 1978 , 24 years after the decision .
As schools began to integrate , students and teachers noticed differences in the way Black students and White students signed . Carolyn McCaskill , professor of ASL and Deaf Studies at Gallaudet University , recalls the challenge of understanding the dialect of ASL spoken by her White principal and teachers after her segregated school integrated : " When I began attending the school , I did not understand the teacher and she did not understand me because we used different signs . " Carl Croneberg was the first to discuss differences between BASL and White ASL in his appendices of the 1965 version of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , and work has continued on BASL since then .
As deaf education and sign language research continued to evolve , so did the perception of ASL . With the publication of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , ASL began to be recognized as a legitimate language . The greater acceptance of ASL as a language led to standardization and the development of a prestige dialect which was based upon the signs used at Gallaudet University . Despite this standardization , there are still regional accents of ASL similar to spoken languages . Dialects that are different from the standard one , and especially those spoken by marginalized groups , are often stigmatized . As a non @-@ standard dialect , BASL is stigmatized by signers and seen as inferior to prestige dialects of ASL . This difference in prestige has led BASL speakers to code switch to a prestige dialect when speaking with different groups of people , despite BASL being mutually intelligible with other dialects of ASL .
= = Phonology = =
When asked , many signers in the South gave anecdotal accounts of differences between the signing of Black and White signers . These differences turned out to be aspects of the differing phonology of BASL . Among these accounts were claims that Black signers had a larger signing space and used more two @-@ handed signs . Investigation into these anecdotes has found correlations .
When compared , Black signers were more likely to produce signs outside of the typical signing space and to use two @-@ handed signs than were White signers . Adverbs are most likely to utilize a larger signing space . Less marked forms such as pronouns , determiners , plain verbs , and nouns tend to be less likely to be produced outside the typical signing space . The selection of two @-@ handed signs over one @-@ handed signs was found to have systematic constraints on their production . When the sign could be produced with one or two hands , Black signers often produced the variant that matched the handedness of the following sign ; if the following sign was two @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce a two @-@ handed variant , while if the following sign was one @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce the one @-@ handed variant . The use of innovative one @-@ handed forms though , even in environments which favored them , did not exceed 50 percent .
BASL signers further tend to favor lowered variants of side @-@ of @-@ forehead signs resulting in contact at the cheek . The sign KNOW is usually produced by placing the fingers of a flat hand on the temple , but when lowered the fingers make contact at the cheek . Early research showed that BASL signers used these lowered forms at a rate of 53 percent with grammatical category being the strongest constraint . Other conditioning environments for lowered signs depend on preceding location ; for instance , signs produced in front of the body lead to lowered sign variants while signs produced at the head cause signers to favor non @-@ lowered forms .
= = Syntax = =
Unlike ASL , BASL allows for the frequent use of syntactic repetition . In a study conducted by McCaskill , of 26 signers ( 13 Black and 13 White ) , there were 57 instances of repetition from Black signers compared to 19 from White signers , and of those 19 instances , 18 came from a single signer . The use of repetition by BASL signers is considered to be pragmatic rather than as a way to clarify meaning .
A study in 2004 by Melanie Metzger and Susan Mather found that Black male signers used constructed action , with or without constructed dialogue , more often than White signers , but never used constructed dialogue by itself . These results were not reproduced in a later study into constructed action and constructed dialogue by McCaskill , which found that Black signers not only used constructed dialogue , but did so more frequently than white signers .
= = Lexical variation = =
Lexical variation between BASL and other dialects of ASL was first noted in the Dictionary of American Sign Language . In a later study of 34 lexical signs , Black signers had 28 signs that White signers did not know . Older signers are more likely to use variant signs than younger signers , and most , having been developed in segregated schools for the Black Deaf , refer to everyday life . Younger signers of BASL are less likely to use these variants , but when asked about them are aware that older signers have and use these innovative signs .
= = = Borrowing from African American English = = =
A body of work has arisen looking at the similarities between Black American Sign Language and African American English ( AAE ) since both are language varieties marked by their use in African American communities . In 1998 John Lewis investigated the incorporation of aspects of AAE into BASL . He reported that , during narrative storytelling by a Black signer , there were " Ebonic shifts " marked by shifts in posture and rhythmicity and by incorporating side @-@ to @-@ side head movement . He concluded that this " ' songified ' quality was related to the style of AAE . This finding was not reproduced by McCaskill , which she attributes to the nature of the speech acts : Lewis analyzed a narrative event while McCaskill utilized natural or elicited data . Lexical borrowing has been seen in BASL signers under age 35 which is likely due to the advances in mass media — younger signers would have more contact with AAE through movies , television , and the Internet .
When asked about distinctive features of their signing , Black Deaf signers tended to identify a number of idioms borrowed from AAE . Some were literal translations like I FEEL YOU or GIRL PLEASE which are signed the standard way but have meanings different from their literal interpretation . Other loan words modified existing signs like STOP TRIPPING which took the bent @-@ v handshape of TRIP and moved it up to the head to indicate a new meaning of " stop imagining things . "
|
= Mina ( singer ) =
Anna Maria Quaini or Mina Mazzini OMRI ( born 25 March 1940 ) , known as Mina , is one of the most successful Italian singers of all time . She was a staple of Italian television variety shows and a dominant figure in Italian pop music from the mid @-@ 1960s to mid @-@ 1970s , known for her three @-@ octave vocal range , the agility of her soprano voice , and her image as an emancipated woman .
In performance , Mina combined several modern styles with traditional Italian melodies and swing music , which made her the most versatile pop singer in Italian music . Mina dominated the Italian charts for fifteen years and reached an unsurpassed level of popularity . She has scored 79 albums and 71 singles on the Italian charts .
Mina 's TV appearances in 1959 were the first for a female rock and roll singer in Italy . Her loud syncopated singing earned her the nickname Queen of Screamers . The public also labeled her the Tiger of Cremona for her wild gestures and body shakes . When she turned to light pop tunes , Mina 's chart @-@ toppers in West Germany in 1962 and Japan in 1964 earned her the title of the best international artist in these countries . Mina 's more refined sensual manner was introduced in 1960 with Gino Paoli 's ballad " This World We Love In " , which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1961 .
Mina was banned from Italian TV and radio in 1963 because her pregnancy and relationship with a married actor did not accord with the dominant Catholic and bourgeois morals . After the ban , the Italian broadcasting service RAI tried to continue to prohibit her songs , which were forthright in dealing with subjects such as religion , smoking and sex . Mina 's cool act combined sex appeal with public smoking , dyed blonde hair , and shaved eyebrows to create a " bad girl " image .
Mina 's voice has distinctive timbre and great power . Her main themes are anguished love stories performed in high dramatic tones . The singer combined classic Italian pop with elements of blues , R & B and soul music during the late 1960s , especially when she worked in collaboration with the singer @-@ songwriter Lucio Battisti . Top Italian songwriters created material with large vocal ranges and unusual chord progressions to showcase her singing skills , particularly " Brava " by Bruno Canfora ( 1965 ) and the pseudo @-@ serial " Se telefonando " by Ennio Morricone ( 1966 ) . The latter song was covered by several performers abroad . Shirley Bassey carried Mina 's ballad " Grande grande grande " to charts in the U.S. , U.K. , and other English @-@ speaking countries in 1973 . Mina 's easy listening duet " Parole parole " was turned into a worldwide hit by Dalida and Alain Delon in 1974 . Mina gave up public appearances in 1978 but has continued to release popular albums on a yearly basis to the present day .
= = Early life = =
Anna Maria Mazzini was born into a working @-@ class family in Busto Arsizio , Lombardy . The family moved to work in Cremona in her childhood . She listened to American rock and roll and jazz records and was a frequent visitor at the Santa Tecla and the Taverna Messicana clubs of Milan , both known for promoting rock and roll . After finishing high school in 1958 , she attended college where she majored in accounting .
= = Career = =
= = = Queen of Screamers ( 1958 – 1961 ) = = =
While on summer holiday in Versilia on 8 August 1958 , Mazzini gave an improvised performance of the song " Un 'anima tra le mani " to amuse her family after a concert at the La Bussola night club . During the following nights , Sergio Bernardini , the owner of the club , held her back in her attempts to get back on stage .
In September , she started her solo career with the backing of the band Happy Boys . Her concert in September 1958 , before an audience of 2 @,@ 500 people at the Theatre of Rivarolo del Re , won enthusiastic approval from local critics . She soon signed with Davide Matalon , owner of the small record company Italdisc . Her first single , " Non partir " / " Malatia " , was produced under the stage name Mina for the Italian audience . Simultaneously , " Be Bop A Lula " / " When " was issued under the name Baby Gate for the international audience . Baby was chosen as a contrast to her 178 cm height ( 5 ft 10 in ) — exceptionally tall for an Italian woman — and Gate as a tribute to The Golden Gate Quartet . In December , her performance at the Sei giorni della canzone festival of Milan was described by the La Notte newspaper as the " birth of a star " . It was Mina 's last performance with the Happy Boys , as her family refused to let her skip college for a scheduled tour of Turkey .
Less than a month after the breakup with her previous band , Mina co @-@ founded a new group called Solitari , which consisted of a singer , a saxophonist , a pianist , a contrabassist , and a guitarist . Her first hit with the band featured Mina performed an extra @-@ loud , syncopated version of the popular song " Nessuno " ( " Nobody " ) , which she performed at the first rock festival in the Milan Ice Palace in February 1959 . Performances of the song on the TV game shows Lascia o raddoppia ? and Il musichiere on 1 March and 4 April were hailed by Italian critics . The starlet signed with Elio Gigante , an experienced artist manager . In the following years , he organized her performances in the grand ballrooms of Italy . Her first Italian # 1 hit was the up @-@ tempo " Tintarella di luna " ( " Moon Tan " ) in September 1959 , which was performed in her first musicarello ( musical comedy film ) , Juke box - Urli d 'amore . In late 1959 , Matalon had her drop the name Baby Gate in favour of Mina .
= = = Growing up ( 1960 – 1965 ) = = =
In 1960 , Mina made her Festival della canzone italiana in Sanremo debut with two songs . She turned to slow emotional love songs for the first time . The song " È vero " ( " It 's True " ) reached # 8 on the Italian charts . Gino Paoli 's song " Il cielo in una stanza " ( " The Sky in a Room " ) marked the beginning of the young singer 's transformation from a rock and roll shrieker to a feminine inspiration for cantautori . The idea for the song " Love can grow at any moment at any place " had come to Paoli while lying on a bed and looking at the purple ceiling . The single topped the list of annual sales in Italy and reached the Billboard Hot 100 as " This World We Love In " . Video performances of the song were included in the musicarellos Io bacio ... tu baci and Appuntamento a Ischia , and in 1990 , in the soundtrack of the film Goodfellas .
At the 1961 Sanremo song festival , Mina performed two songs . " Io amo , tu ami " ( " I Love , You Love " ) finished fourth and " Le mille bolle blu " ( " A Thousand Blue Bubbles " ) placed fifth . Disappointed with these results , Mina declared her intention of never performing at the Sanremo song festival again .
As her songs and movies were already popular abroad , Mina started to tour Spain and Japan , and performed on Venezuelan TV in 1961 . Mina performed on Spanish TV and at the Paris Olympia hall at the beginning of 1962 . The presentation of her German single " Heißer Sand " on 12 March 1962 on Peter Kraus 's TV show caused a boom of 40 @,@ 000 record sales in ten days in Germany . The record went to # 1 and spent over half the year on the German charts in 1962 . Mina had six more singles on the German chart in the next two years . In a listeners ' poll conducted in July 1962 in Germany , Austria , and the German @-@ speaking portion of Switzerland , Mina was voted the most popular singer in the world . In May 1962 , she performed in Buenos Aires . Meanwhile , her version of the mambo rhythm " Moliendo Cafe " and the surf pop " Renato " peaked at # 1 and # 4 respectively on the Italian charts . " L 'eclisse twist " appeared on the flipside of " Renato " , and was used on the soundtrack of Michelangelo Antonioni 's feature film Eclipse .
In 1963 Mina 's TV and radio career was interrupted by RAI , the Italian public broadcasting service , as she refused to cover up her relationship ( and resulting pregnancy ) with the married actor Corrado Pani . Mina 's record sales were unaffected and due to public demand , RAI ended the ban . On 10 January 1964 she returned to the TV screen on the program La fiera dei sogni , and performed the song " Città vuota " , a cover of Gene McDaniels ' " It 's a Lonely Town ( Lonely Without You ) " , which was her first release on the RiFi label . Her next single , " È l 'uomo per me " , a cover of Jody Miller 's " He Walks Like a Man " , became the biggest selling record of the year in Italy . Her new melodic manner was demonstrated again on 11 December 1964 TV program Il macchiettario , where she performed " Io sono quel che sono " ( " I Am What I Am " ) . A reminder of her previous adolescent image , her single " Suna ni kieta namida " ( " Tears Disappear in the Sand " ) , sung in Japanese , peaked at # 1 on the Japanese singles chart and earned Mina the title of Best International Artist in Japan .
The first episode of the Studio Uno live Saturday night series showcased Mina 's new blond look with shaved eyebrows . The shows included the brooding songs " Un bacio è troppo poco " ( " One Kiss is Not Enough " ) and " Un anno d 'amore " ( " A Year of Love " ) , a cover of Nino Ferrer 's " C 'est irreparable " . In the same series she performed " Brava " ( " Good " ) , a rhythmic jazz number specially written by Bruno Canfora to demonstrate the Mina 's vocal range and performing skills . Her Studio Uno album topped the Italian chart that year . Her recordings of 1965 included the scatting performance of " Spirale Waltz " , the theme song for the film The 10th Victim .
= = = Independence ( 1966 – 1968 ) = = =
Maurizio Costanzo and Ghigo De Chiara wrote the lyrics of " Se telefonando " ( " If Over the Phone " ) as the theme for the TV program Aria condizionata in spring 1966 . The lyrics were composed in a dark , Hal David mode . The serialist composer Ennio Morricone was asked to compose the music . Mina and the three songwriters met in a RAI rehearsal room at Via Teulada , Rome . Morricone started to repeat a short musical theme of just three notes ( by his term a micro @-@ cell ) on an upright piano . He had copied the snippet of melody from the siren of a police car in Marseilles . After a few bars Mina grabbed the lyrics sheet and started to sing as if she had known the tune before . Composed in this way , " Se telefonando " is a pop song with eight transitions of tonality that builds tension throughout the chorus . Morricone 's arrangement featured a sophisticated combination of melodic trumpet lines , Hal Blaine @-@ style drumming , a string set , a 1960s Europop female choir , and intense subsonic @-@ sounding trombones .
" Se telefonando " was presented in May 1966 in a Studio Uno episode and in August the same year at Aria condizionata . The single peaked at # 7 on the Italian chart and was 53rd in the annual list of sales . The album Studio Uno 66 featured the song as one of the standout tracks along with " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta " and " Una casa in cima al mondo " . It was the fifth biggest selling album of the year in Italy .
In 1966 , Mina started working with the Swiss Broadcasting Service and the Orchestra Radiosa in Lugano . She founded the independent record label PDU in collaboration with her father . The first record issued under the label was Dedicato a mio padre ( Dedicated to My Father ) . Mina 's growing interest in Brazilian music resulted in " La banda " ( " The Band " ) , a Chico Buarque song , which reached # 3 in Italy . Mina continued to perform on Italian TV , and presented " Zum zum zum " on the spring 1967 variety series Sabato sera , accompanied by the NATO naval band . The series also included " La coppia più bella del mondo " ( " The Most Beautiful Couple in the World " ) , a duet with Adriano Celentano . The title of the song " Sono , come tu mi vuoi " ( " I Am , as You Want Me to Be " ) was taken from Luigi Pirandello 's play Come tu mi vuoi . The lyrics talk about the manic attention of the press on an artist 's private life . Another hit from Sabato sera was " L 'immensità " ( " Immensity " ) , which was re @-@ scored by Augusto Martelli and released as " La inmensidad " in Spain and Latin American countries .
RAI broadcast the third episode of Senza rete ( " Unplugged " ) live on 18 July 1968 from the Auditorio A of the corporation 's regional headquarters in Naples . The program presented Mina 's homage to Luigi Tenco , who had recently died . She turned his song " Se stasera sono qui " ( " If I Stay Here Tonight " ) into a rigorous piece of soul music in the score of Pino Calvi . She celebrated the 10th anniversary of her career with a concert at La Bussola , backed by the Orchestra Augusto Martelli . The concert was recorded and issued as Mina alla Bussola dal vivo .
Canzonissima 1968 was a Saturday night prime time variety show that aired on Rai Uno from September 1968 to January 1969 . It was hosted by Mina , Walter Chiari and Paolo Panelli . The orchestrations were scored by the conductors Bruno Canfora and Augusto Martelli . " Sacumdì Sacumdà " , Mina 's talking and laughing version of Carlos Imperial 's bossa nova " Nem Vem Que Não Tem " , narrowly escaped a ban by RAI because of its irreverent lyrics . The song was performed as part of a musical fantasy , back to back with " Quelli che hanno un cuore " , her intense version of " Anyone Who Had a Heart " . Another interpretation of a Dionne Warwick song was " La voce del silenzio " ( " Silent Voices " ) by Paolo Limiti and Elio Isola , presented in a live session during the show . " Niente di niente " ( " Nothing at All " ) was her version of the Delfonics ' " Break Your Promise " . The series also included the songs " Fantasia " , " La musica è finita " ( " The Music is Over " ) and the elegant " Un colpo al cuore " ( " Heart Attack " ) . " Un colpo al cuore " ended up as # 68 on the best @-@ selling singles chart for that year in Italy . Each show was closed by Mina singing " Vorrei che fosse amore " ( " Wish It Was Love " ) , a piece of atmospheric music by Bruno Canfora that was # 50 on the best @-@ selling singles chart for 1968 in Italy . A selection of songs from the series were issued as the album Canzonissima ' 68 .
= = = Mogol @-@ Battisti ( 1969 – 1973 ) = = =
After a break of three months , Mina returned and recorded the song " Non credere " ( " Disbelieve " ) , composed by Luigi Clausetti and Pietro Soffici , with lyrics by Mogol , in April . The single became the third biggest @-@ selling record of the year in Italy . Mogol and his fellow composer Lucio Battisti , along with the Premiata Forneria Marconi on back @-@ up instrumentals , worked with Mina on several songs as a result of the success of " Non credere " . The team produced a set of songs including " Io e te da soli " ( " You and Me Alone " ) , " Insieme " ( " Together " ) , " Amor mio " ( " Love of Mine " ) , " Io vivrò senza te " ( " I 'll Live without You " ) , " E penso a te " ( " And I Think of You " ) . One of the first introductions of the new repertoire was the Senza rete live televised concert from the Auditorio A in Naples on 20 January 1970 . The material provided by Mogol @-@ Battisti was the core for five albums . Among them , ... bugiardo più che mai ... più incosciente che mai ... was Mina 's first independent album to reach # 1 of the weekly Italian charts and was the biggest selling album of 1969 in Italy . ... quando tu mi spiavi in cima a un batticuore ... was seventh on the annual record chart of 1970 . Del mio meglio ... ( My Best ... ) was second in 1971 . Mina was the biggest seller of 1972 . The latter two albums were recorded during a break from live performances to give birth to her daughter Benedetta .
Mina 's comeback took place at RAI 's variety series Teatro 10 in spring 1972 . One of the highlights of the series was a selection of Battisti 's songs performed in duet with the composer . The shows also included " Balada para mi muerte " ( " Ode to My Death " ) , a nuevo tango duet with Ástor Piazzolla at the bandoneón , backed by the Argentinian group Conjunto 9 . " Grande grande grande " , arranged by Pino Presti , was the second biggest @-@ selling single of the year in Italy . The successes encouraged Enrico Riccardi to copy Battisti 's style in Riccardi 's composition " Fiume azzurro " , which earned another place in the top 100 of annual record sales in Italy .
The final number of the eight Teatro 10 episodes was " Parole parole " ( " Words Words " ) , a duet with Alberto Lupo . The song is an easy listening dialogue between Mina 's singing and Lupo 's declamation . The lyrics ' theme are hollow words . These intertwine the lady 's lamentation of the end of love and the lies she has to hear with the male protagonist 's recitation . In the dialog she scoffs at the compliments he gives her , calling them parole – just words . The single was released in April 1972 and topped the Italian charts . It was covered by numerous Italian and French duets .
Mina said she would be retiring from public appearances after an exclusive concert at the La Bussola Club on 16 September . Thousands of people turned up at the nightclub 's doorstep . Gianni Ferrio 's Orchestra featured Gianni Basso on tenor saxophone and Oscar Valdambrini on trumpet .
Mina lost her husband Virgilio Crocco in a car accident in 1973 . She continued her career with the top Italian chart hits " E poi ... " ( " And Then ... " ) and " L 'importante è finire " ( " It 's Important to Finish " ) . She recorded the theme song " Fa presto , fa piano " ( " Works Quickly , Works Quietly " ) for the film La sculacciata , issued in 1974 .
= = = Since 1974 = = =
Mina 's last live TV appearance was the final episode of the Milleluci series on 16 March 1974 . Mina was the hostess of the series alongside Raffaella Carrà . During the series , she explored different musical styles in the songs " I Don 't Know How to Love Him " , " Mack the Knife " , " Night and Day " , and " Someday ( You 'll Want Me to Want You ) " . After " Non gioco più " ( " The Game Is Over " ) , a blues duet with the harmonica player Toots Thielemans , Mina announced her withdrawal from public performances . Her last appearance on TV was her performance of " Ancora ancora ancora " . The video was the final number of the " Mille e una luce " show on 1 July 1978 . Her last concert appearances , a series of thirteen fully booked concerts at La Bussola in 1978 , were cut short due to her illness . Mina gave her last public performance on 23 August 1978 at the Bussoladomani theatre . It was recorded and issued as Mina Live ' 78 .
Mina continued to release albums on a yearly basis with her son Massimiliano Pani as the producer . Between 1972 and 1995 , she published a double album each year . From 1973 , her LPs and CDs have been characterized by artistic motifs of the designers Luciano Tallarini , Gianni Ronco and the photographer Mauro Balletti . From the mid @-@ 1980s , the design of the album covers was trusted to Balletti alone . All of Mina 's records under the PDU label have reached the Italian Top 100 . A large part of her work has consisted of covering well @-@ known songs ; she has dedicated tribute albums to The Beatles , Frank Sinatra , Renato Zero , Domenico Modugno , the Neapolitan song , and religious music . After leaving the stage , her greatest chart successes have been duets . In 1985 , " Questione di feeling " , a duet with Riccardo Cocciante , was the 13th biggest @-@ selling single of the year in Italy and became an evergreen ( as a hit song is called in Europe ) . The duet album Mina Celentano , recorded with Adriano Celentano , was the biggest @-@ selling album of 1998 in Italy . Starting in 1989 , all of her records included the jazzy piano playing of Danilo Rea .
The break in Mina 's TV appearances lasted until 2001 , when she released footage of her recording sessions . The videos were broadcast over the Wind internet site on 30 March . This resulted in millions of visits to the site on that night , and additional millions on following days . The footage was released as the DVD Mina in Studio . After the event , Mina 's singles started to chart in Italy again . The track " Succhiando l 'uva " ( 2002 ) , written for her by Zucchero , peaked at # 3 on the chart . Mina 's cover of " Don 't call me baby ( Can 't take my eyes off you ) " ( 2003 ) reached # 4 in Italy . The single " Alibi " ( 2007 ) reached # 6 in Italy . The triple CD The Platinum Collection reached # 1 on the Italian charts . So did Olio ( 1999 ) , Veleno ( 2002 ) , Bula Bula ( 2005 ) and Todavía . Mina 's later releases have included duets with Mick Hucknall , Fabrizio De André , Piero Pelù , Adriano Celentano , Lucio Dalla , Joan Manuel Serrat , Chico Buarque , Tiziano Ferro , Giorgia and Seal . In recent years , Mina has been writing a weekly column on the front page of La Stampa and a page in the Italian edition of the magazine Vanity Fair , where she answers fan letters .
= = Musical style and public image = =
= = = Voice = = =
Mina is a soprano with great agility and a range of three octaves . Swingy and anti @-@ melodic in her early years ( " Tintarella di luna " , 1959 ) , her singing later acquired high dramatic tones . Louis Armstrong famously declared her to be “ the greatest white singer in the world . ”
= = = Queen of Screamers = = =
Caught up in the wave of rock and roll sweeping across Italy in 1958 , Mina listened to American records and was a frequent visitor at the Derby Club , the Santa Tecla , and the Taverna Messicana clubs of Milan , which promoted rock and roll music . Mina 's repertoire at the beginning of her career included clumsy imitations of British and American rock and jazz songs , while her extra @-@ loud and syncopated version of the song " Nessuno " showcased her excellent sense of rhythm . Earlier in 1958 , Domenico Modugno had caused astonishment by raising his hands in the air during his performance of Nel blu dipinto di blu ( " Volare " ) . In Mina 's first TV appearances she further broke with tradition by shaking her head , hands , and hips to the rhythm . The writer Edoardo Sanguineti recalled the Italian public 's first encounter with the enthusiastic singer as :
TV host Mario Riva named her one of the urlatori ( screamers ) , for her distinctive timbre and power . Later , the public called Mina the Queen of the Screamers . Her extravagant gestures earned her another nickname – Tiger of Cremona .
= = = Grown up = = =
Mina introduced her new sensual manner in her presentation of the ballad " Il cielo in una stanza " in 1960 . Three years later , her love affair with Corrado Pani challenged the moral foundations of Italy , a country where divorce was illegal and single motherhood was considered shameful . Thus , her non @-@ conformist choices represented the emancipation of women in Italy , which did not accord with the dominant Catholic and bourgeois virtues prevalent at the time . The subsequent ban from performing on Italian TV and radio channels further developed Mina 's image as an independent " bad girl " , which she emphasized with her choice of song themes . An example was her performance of " Sacumdì Sacumdà " on air after RAI had expressed their displeasure with the song 's lyrics about a girl 's encounter with the Devil . Other songs that RAI initially banned as immoral were " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta " ( dealing forthrightly with smoking ) , " La canzone di Marinella " , and " L 'importante è finire " ( alluding to sex without love ) . Mina 's cool act featured sex appeal , public smoking , dyed blonde hair , shaved eyebrows , and heavy use of eye make @-@ up .
The main themes of Mina 's songs were distressing love stories . Her style was to interpret them in a highly dramatic way by using gestures and body language to bring the story alive . Mina 's performance was typically characterised by expressive intensity , subtle variations , and original phrasing . The music critic Gherardo Gentili has noted her interpretive skills as :
To demonstrate Mina 's vocal range , the composer Bruno Canfora penned the song " Brava " , and Ennio Morricone wrote " Se telefonando " with numerous transitions of tonality . More songs were composed exclusively for Mina and arranged for RAI 's all @-@ star orchestras for performance on the TV variety series Studio uno , Sabato sera , Canzonissima and Teatro 10 . Mina ( alongside Carmen Villani ) pioneered by combining classic Italian pop and swing music with features of blues , R & B and soul music , particularly in the songs " Se stasera sono qui " and " Deborah " . She helped to incorporate new styles into Italian pop music , including nuevo tango , as seen in her duet " Balada para mi muerte " with Ástor Piazzolla .
= = = Mogol @-@ Battisti = = =
When she altered her musical style in 1969 , Mina changed her hairdo from short and straight to long blonde curls , and started to wear a black minidress . Mogol 's and Lucio Battisti 's first songs , particularly " Insieme " and " Io e te da soli " , showcased Mina 's blues and soul skills . Around the time of their collaboration , Mina turned towards middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road pop . Battisti 's melodies were sophisticated and had a complex chord sequence . The songs were characterized by frequent changes of rhythm , pauses , and dialogues between the voice and the orchestra . Another characterizing feature was an instrumental introduction without a rhythmic base .
= = = Mina Latina = = =
A fan of bossa nova , Mina recorded in Spanish and Portuguese from the start of her career and currently enjoys a fan base in Spain and Latin America . The Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar has used Mina 's songs in his movie soundtracks . In 2001 , Mina published the compilation album Colección Latina . It includes standards in Spanish , as well as Spanish covers of her originals . In 2003 , the musical Mina ... che cosa sei ? based on Mina 's songs was staged in Argentina , starring Elena Roger . It was nominated for four Premios ACE in 2003 and 2004 , among them Best Musical , and won the Premio Clarín for Best Musical . In 2007 , Mina published Todavía , an album in Spanish and Portuguese , which reached # 36 on the Spanish charts and # 1 on the Italian charts . It included duets with Joan Manuel Serrat , Miguel Bosé , Diego Torres , Chico Buarque , and Diego El Cigala .
= = Collaborations = =
= = = Collaborations with arrangers = = =
Tony De Vita ( " Tintarella di luna " , " Piano " , " Il cielo in una stanza " )
Ennio Morricone ( " Se telefonando " )
Bruno Canfora ( " Vorrei che fosse amore " , " Brava " , " Sono come tu mi vuoi " )
Augusto Martelli ( " E se domani " , " Un anno d 'amore " , " Non credere " )
Detto Mariano ( " Insieme " )
Gianpiero Reverberi ( " Amor mio " , " Io e te da soli " )
Gianni Ferrio ( " Parole parole " , " Non gioco più " )
Pino Presti ( " Grande grande grande " , " E poi " , " L 'importante è finire " , " Fiume azzurro " , " E penso a te " )
Alberto Nicorelli ( " Ancora ancora ancora " )
Paul Buckmaster ( " Questione di feeling " )
Massimiliano Pani ( " Sensazioni " , " Acqua e sale " , " Brivido Felino " )
= = = Collaborations with other performers = = =
With Adriano Celentano : Acqua e sale - Brivido felino - Che t 'aggia di ' - Dolce fuoco dell 'amore - Io non volevo - Messaggio d 'amore - Sempre sempre sempre - Specchi riflessi
With Alberto Lupo : Parole parole
With Alberto Sordi : Fumo di Londra
With Andrea Mingardi : Datemi della musica - Mogol Battisti
With Angel " Pato " Garcia : Contigo en la distancia
With Ástor Piazzolla : Balada para mi muerte
With the Audio 2 : Dentro ad ogni cosa - Rotola la vita
With Benedetta Mazzini : More Than Words
With Beppe Grillo : Dottore
With Enzo Jannacci : E l 'era tardi
With Fabrizio De André : La canzone di Marinella
With Fausto Leali : Via di qua
With Fred Bongusto : Medley Non ci lasceremo mai - Frida - Sei proprio tu - Doce doce - A Detroit
With Gianni Morandi : Reggio Emilia - Meglio sarebbe - L 'uva fogarina ( Teresina imbriaguna ) - Come porti i capelli bella bionda
With Giorgio Gaber : Medley Porta romana - La ballata del Cerutti - Trani a gogò - Barbera e champagne - Il Riccardo
With Johnny Dorelli and Renato Carosone : Medley Scapricciatiello - Pigliate ' na pasticca - Pasqualino Marajà - ' Na voce e ' na chitarra
With Lelio Luttazzi : Chi mai sei tu
With Lucio Battisti : Medley Insieme - Mi ritorni in mente - Il tempo di morire - E penso a te - Io e te da soli - Eppur mi son scordato di te - Emozioni
With Lucio Dalla : Amore disperato
With Massimiliano Pani : Come stai - If I Fell
With Massimo Lopez : Noi
With Mick Hucknall : Someday in My Life
With Miguel Bosé : Agua y sal
With Milva : Motherless Child - Non arrenderti uomo
With Mónica Naranjo : Él se encuentra entre tú y yo
With Piero Pelù : Stay with me
With Renato Zero : Neri - Tutti gli zeri del mondo
With Riccardo Cocciante : Amore - Bella senz 'anima - Questione di feeling
With Seal : You Get Me
With Toots Thielemans : Non gioco più
With the Voci Atroci : Suona ancora
= = Legacy = =
Mina has scored 77 albums and 71 singles on the Italian charts . She is the only artist to land an album at the top of the Italian charts in each of the five decades from the start of record keeping in 1965 . She released an album every year during 1958 – 2003 . President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi presented her with the Second Class of the Italian Order of Merit on 1 June 2001 .
British singer Dusty Springfield referenced Mina in performance . A number of Mina 's songs were turned into hits by singers in other languages . The first of these was " Piano " , scored by Matt Monro as " Softly , as I Leave You " , which reached # 10 in the UK Top 40 . In 1964 , the song reached # 27 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the version by Frank Sinatra . " Se telefonando " was covered by several performers in Italy and abroad , most notably by Françoise Hardy and Iva Zanicchi ( 1966 ) , Delta V ( 2005 ) , Vanessa and the O 's ( 2007 ) , and Neil Hannon ( 2008 ) . " Grande grande grande " , recorded by Shirley Bassey as " Never Never Never " in 1973 , reached the Billboard Hot 100 , UK Top 10 , # 1 of the Australian charts , # 2 in South Africa and # 3 in Singapore . A year later , Dalida and Alain Delon recorded the French version of " Parole parole " and made it an international hit . Mexican icon José José recorded the Spanish version of the hit " Sono , come tu mi vuoi " , entitled " Soy como quieras tú " . English musician Elvis Costello used a sample from Mina 's " Un bacio è troppo poco " on his album When I Was Cruel . Tanita Tikaram covered Mina 's " And I Think of You - E penso a te " in English as a track on the album The Best of Tanita Tikaram . It should be noted that Turkish singer Ajda Pekkan , nicknamed superstar , covered more than a dozen of Mina songs . Some of these songs are " Parole parole " as " Palavra " , " Senza fiato " as Son Yolcu , " Il cigno dell 'amore " as " Düşünme Hiç " , Giorni as " Ya Sonra " , " Mi mandi rose " as " Kim Olsa Anlatır " and " Ancora , ancora , ancora " as " Aldatma " . In 2010 , Chicago band La Scala released a rock cover of her hit " Tu Farai " with Gretta Rochelle on vocals .
Spanish artist Mónica Naranjo recorded the album Minage with Mina 's covers in Spanish , published on 20 March 1999 . The tracks included " Ancora , ancora , ancora " , " Io é te da soli " , " Fiume azzurro " ( as " Sobreviviré " ) and " L 'immensità " . Mina collaborated with the album recording the duet " Él se encuentra entre tú y yo " ( " He is between you and me " ) .
To celebrate Mina 's 70th anniversary , the la Repubblica newspaper held a reader 's poll to pick Mina 's best song of all time . In a vote of 30 @,@ 000 participants , " Se telefonando " emerged at the top of the list .
= = Awards , nominations , honours and records = =
1958
Nomination and performance at Sei giorni della canzone with " Proteggimi "
Second place
1959
Nomination and performance at Canzonissima with " Nessuno " and " Tua "
Juke Box d 'oro Award
Microfono d 'oro Award
1960
Nomination and performance at the Sanremo Music Festival with " Non sei felice " and " E ' vero "
Seventh place
Nomination and performance at Canzonissima with " Tintarella di luna " , " Il cielo in una stanza " , " Folle banderuola " , " E ' vero " , " Na sera ' e maggio " , " O Sarracino " , " Ma l 'amore no " , " Violino tzigan " e " Due note "
Finalist with " Tintarella di luna "
Finalist with " Na sera ' e maggio "
1961
Nomination and performance at the Sanremo Music Festival with :
" Io amo tu ami " ( Fourth place )
" Le mille bolle blu " ( Fifth place )
1963
Nomination and performance at Canzonissima with " Il cielo in una stanza " and " Stringimi forte i polsi "
Finalist with " Il cielo in una stanza "
1964
Best international artist Award , in Japan
Best Album of the Year Critics Award for the album " Mina "
Oscar del disco ' 64 Critics Award for the album " Mina "
1965
Nomination and performance at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera with " L 'ultima occasione "
1966
Nomination and performance at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera with " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta "
Gondola d 'oro Award at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera
1968
Nomination and performance at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera with " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta "
1987
Targa Tenco in the category Performer of the Year with the album " Rane supreme "
2001
– Grand Officer Order of Merit of the Italian Republic : Awarded the second highest civil honour in Italy , by President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi on 1 June 2001 .
2010
Career Award at Ti lascio una canzone
= = = Records = = =
Best selling Italian singer with Adriano Celentano , and best selling Italian female artist with over 150 million records sold .
The web event , live on the portal Wind , which portrays some video clips of the artist in the recording studio , has recorded over 20 million hits , and was one of the most followed of all times in Italy .
She is the most charted artist in the Italian charts , and between albums and singles , she has scored 24 number one , 61 top @-@ three , 86 top @-@ five , 114 top @-@ ten and 130 top @-@ twenty , for a total of 79 albums and 71 singles in the chart .
= = = = Albums : records in Italy = = = =
= = = = Singles : records in Italy = = = =
= = Personal life = =
In her early teens , Mina was a competitive swimmer for the Canottieri Baldesio sports club in Cremona , attended by the elite of the Cremonese bourgeoisie at the time . She met her first boyfriend , a fullback for the U.S. Cremonese football club , at the swimming pool at her age of 16 .
Mina fell in love with actor Corrado Pani in 1962 . Their relationship shocked Italian audiences as he was already married although separated from his wife . Their son , Massimiliano Pani , was born on 18 April 1963 . Due to Mina 's refusal to hide the relationship , the singer was banned from performing on public Italian television or radio channels . As her record sales were unaffected and audiences demanded to see Mina on the air , RAI was forced to end the ban and let Mina return to television on 10 January 1964 . Within a year , her affair with Corrado ended .
Mina 's brother Alfredo Mazzini died in a car accident in 1965 . A year later she and her father moved to Lugano , Switzerland . Mina 's intimate relationships , however , remained in Italy , as she had a brief affair with the actor Walter Chiari . A later relationship with actor Gian Maria Volontè ended after she found out about Volontè 's affair with an actress . Mina 's great love of the late 1960s , with whom she had a relationship that lasted three years and almost led to marriage , was the composer Augusto Martelli . Her second spouse was Virgilio Crocco , a journalist for Il Messaggero , in 1970 . As a result of their marriage , her legal name was changed to Anna Maria Mazzini Crocco . Their daughter Benedetta Mazzini was born on 11 November 1971 . Crocco died in a car accident in 1973 .
Mina became engaged to her current husband , cardiologist Eugenio Quaini , in 1981 . They were married on 10 January 2006 in Lugano . She obtained Swiss citizenship in 1989 . As required in that country , she took on her husband 's last name and her legal name became Anna Maria Quaini . To her public , however , she still addresses herself as Mina Mazzini , also seen in her website 's domain name .
= = Discography = =
= = Filmography = =
Juke box - Urli d 'amore ( 1959 )
Teddy Boys della canzone ( 1960 )
Urlatori alla sbarra ( 1960 )
Madri pericolose ( 1960 )
Io bacio ... tu baci ( 1961 )
Mina ... fuori la guardia ( 1961 )
Das haben die Mädchen gern ( 1962 )
Appuntamento in Riviera ( 1962 )
Silvester Show ( 1964 )
Per amore ... per magia ... ( 1967 )
= = = DVD = = =
Mina signed a contract with the Barilla food label in 1965 and starred in ten pasta commercials by 1971 , directed by Piero Gherardi and Valerio Zurlini among others . In 2005 , Mina 's performances in ads for Barilla were published on VHS and DVD as Nei caroselli Barilla .
The exclusive concert at the La Bussola Club on 16 September 1972 was released by the PDU record company in 2003 as Mina alla Bussola Live ' 72 . Recorded by Polivideo TV company , the event was aired on Sky Italia as a series from 1 to 21 January 1973 .
Footage of Mina 's recording session was released as the Mina in studio DVD in 2001 .
|
= Bill Quackenbush =
Hubert George " Bill " Quackenbush ( March 2 , 1922 – September 12 , 1999 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who played for the Boston Bruins and Detroit Red Wings in the National Hockey League . During his 14 @-@ year career , he was the first defenceman to win the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy . He won the award after playing the entire 1948 – 49 season without recording a penalty . The penalty @-@ less season was part of a total of 131 consecutive games he played without being assessed a penalty . Quackenbush , considered to be an elite offensive defenceman during his career , was named to the NHL All @-@ Star Team five times , played in eight NHL All @-@ Star games and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1976 .
Following his retirement from professional ice hockey , he spent 18 years as head coach of various teams at Princeton University . Quackenbush coached men 's golf , and both the men 's and women 's ice hockey teams , at various times . He won eight Ivy League Championships with the men 's golf team and three with the women 's ice hockey team .
= = Early life = =
Quackenbush was born on March 2 , 1922 , in Toronto , Ontario . He was born Hubert George Quackenbush but was given the nickname Bill by his aunt who disliked his given name . He played hockey on outdoor rinks around Toronto during the Great Depression as a youth , and was one of the top high school athletes in Canada as a teenager . In addition to hockey , he was a renowned football and soccer player . During the War Years , he played for the famous Canadian soccer club Toronto Scottish . Quackenbush had an opportunity to play football professionally , but he decided to pursue a career in hockey .
Quackenbush began his junior career playing for the Toronto Native Sons of the Ontario Hockey Association . He scored 13 points in 13 games during the 1940 – 41 season . The following season , he played for the Brantford Lions , scoring 34 points in 23 games , and caught the attention of the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League .
= = Professional career = =
Quackenbush signed as a free @-@ agent with the Red Wings on October 19 , 1942 , and played 10 games during the 1942 – 43 season before breaking his wrist . After recovering from the injury , Detroit assigned him to the American Hockey League where he joined the Indianapolis Capitals . He earned a regular position with the Red Wings during the 1943 – 44 season , scoring 4 goals and 18 points . In the next two seasons he averaged 21 points while only being assessed an average of 8 penalty minutes and scored a career high 11 goals in 1945 – 46 . The following season he earned his first post @-@ season honour , when he was named a Second Team NHL All @-@ Star . He was also named the Red Wings team MVP . He registered a career high 17 penalty minutes in 1947 – 48 and was named a First Team All @-@ Star . The season also saw the start of a streak of 131 consecutive games where Quackenbush was not assessed a penalty . It began with the final 5 regular season and 10 playoff games that year , continued through the entire 60 regular season and 11 playoff games during the 1948 – 49 season , and ended after 45 games of the 1949 – 50 season . At the conclusion of the 1948 – 49 season , he was awarded the Lady Byng Trophy , the NHL 's annual award for sportsmanship and gentlemanly conduct . He was the first defenceman to win the award , and remains one of only three in NHL history to capture the trophy . Detroit General Manager Jack Adams detested the award and felt that any player who won it did not belong on his team , so he promptly traded Quackenbush . He was sent to the Boston Bruins with Pete Horeck for Pete Babando , Lloyd Durham , Clare Martin and Jimmy Peters , Sr.
Quackenbush became a fan favorite upon his arrival in Boston , where his offensive style of play was compared to former Bruin ( and fellow Hall of Famer ) Eddie Shore . In his first season in Boston , Quackenbush scored 8 goals and 25 points . He continued to stay out of the penalty box , registering only 4 penalty minutes . However , it marked the first time in three seasons that he was not named to the NHL All @-@ Star Team . The Bruins defence core was depleted by injury in 1950 – 51 , forcing the team to use several first year players . While this resulted in Quackenbush having to play more minutes , including a game where he played 55 minutes , it also gave him the opportunity to play with his brother Max . It was the only time the two played professionally together . He also set a career high in points with 29 and was again named a First Team NHL All @-@ Star . Over the next five seasons Quackenbush hovered around the 20 point mark and was never assessed more than 8 penalty minutes in a year .
Quackenbush retired following the 1955 – 56 season , having accumulated only 95 penalty minutes over 774 games . This averaged out to seven seconds a game , one of the lowest in NHL history for a player at any position . He was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1976 .
= = Personal = =
Following his NHL career , Quackenbush worked as a manufacturer 's agent while attending night school at Northeastern University in Boston , Massachusetts . At Northeastern , he earned an Associate 's degree in engineering . Quackenbush also became an assistant coach at Northeastern .
In 1967 , he became the head coach for Princeton University 's men 's ice hockey team , a position he would hold for six seasons . His best season was his first in 1967 – 68 , when the Tigers posted a 13 – 10 – 0 record . It was the highest win total for Princeton since 1935 – 36 . However , his success with the men 's ice hockey team would not last ; Princeton won no more than five games for their next five seasons . His worst campaign was in 1970 – 71 , when Princeton had two 11 game losing streaks and a 1 – 22 – 0 overall record . Because of this , Quackenbush stepped down as the head coach in 1973 . In 1969 he began coaching the Princeton men 's golf team . He enjoyed much greater success with the golf team , leading them to eight Ivy League championships . In 1978 Princeton started a women 's ice hockey team , and Quackenbush was asked to coach them . He was still coaching the golf team but decided to accept the additional position and led them to three consecutive Ivy League championships between 1982 and 1984 . Quackenbush retired from coaching in 1985 , after which he moved to Orlando , Florida , where he lived for several years before moving to New Jersey in 1997 .
He married Joan Kalloch and the couple had three sons , Bruce , Scott and Todd . At the time of his death , Quackenbush also had seven grandchildren . He died of pneumonia and complications from Alzheimer 's disease on September 12 , 1999 , at Chandler Hall Hospice in Newtown , Pennsylvania , at the age of 77 .
= = Playing style = =
Quackenbush was an offensive defenceman who carried the puck up the ice , making use of his stick handling , passing skills and ability to read the play . Over the course of his career , he was considered one of the elite rushing defenceman in the NHL . He was a solid checker , but relied more on positioning and discipline than physical play . This is evident by his low yearly average of penalty minutes and the fact that he was assessed only one major penalty throughout his NHL career .
Defensively he made use of poke checks to take the puck from his opponents and excelled at getting to loose pucks and clearing them out of the defensive zone . He was adept at keeping opposing forwards from creating offense from behind the net .
= = Awards and honours = =
Lady Byng Trophy ( 1949 )
Three time NHL First Team All @-@ Star ( 1948 , 1949 , 1951 )
Two time NHL Second Team All @-@ Star ( 1947 , 1953 )
Eight time NHL All @-@ Star Game participant ( 1947 , 1948 , 1949 , 1950 , 1951 , 1952 , 1953 , 1954 )
Honored Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame ( 1976 )
= = Career statistics = =
All statistics taken from NHL.com
|
= Joint custody ( United States ) =
Joint custody is a court order whereby custody of a child is awarded to both parties . In joint custody both parents are custodial parents and neither parent is a non @-@ custodial parent , or , in other words , the child has two custodial parents . In the United States , many states recognize two forms of joint custody , which include joint physical custody ( called also " shared custody " or " shared placement " ) and joint legal custody . In joint physical custody , the actual lodging and care of the child is shared according to a court @-@ ordered custody schedule . In joint legal custody , both parents share the ability to have access to their children 's records , such as educational records , health records , and other records .
= = History of joint custody = =
In England , prior to the nineteenth century , common law considered children to be the property of their father . However , the economic and social changes that occurred during the nineteenth century lead to a shift in ideas about the dynamics of the family . Industrialization separated the home and the workplace , keeping fathers away from their children in order to earn wages and provide for their family . Conversely , mothers were expected to stay in the home and care for the household and the children . Important social changes such as women 's suffrage and child development theories allowed for ideas surrounding the importance of maternal care .
There has been a major shift which is favoring joint custody in the United States court system , which began in the mid @-@ 1980s . This change has shifted the emphasis from having the need for the child to have an attachment to one " psychological " parent to the need to have an ongoing relationship between both parents .
Originally , joint legal custody meant joint custody . In this joint legal custody arrangement , the child 's parents shared responsibility over discussing issues related to the child @-@ rearing . In these arrangements with joint legal custody , one of the parents was awarded physical custody , which designated them as the primary parent , or one of the parents was allowed to determine the primary residence of the children . Though this implied that both parents had a " significant period " of time with the children , it did nothing to ensure this factor , which meant that the parent without primary custody of the child could end up having little opportunity to see his or her children .
Increasingly , however , joint physical custody , in many U.S. states , is used with the presumption of equal shared parenting , however , in most states , it is still viewed as creating a necessity to provide each of the parents with " significant periods " of physical custody to ensure the children " frequent and continuing contact " with both parents .
= = Concept of joint custody = =
Many U.S. states recognize two forms of joint custody , which include joint physical custody , and joint legal custody . Joint custody , as a theory , has many different meanings across the United States , which involves different presumptions . One possibility of this meaning is that there is sole legal custody of the children with one of the parents , but there is a division of time in which the child spends time with both parents with a shared residence situation for the children . Alternatively , the children could primarily reside with only one of the parents , but have the authority over decision making be shared between the parents , which allows the parent who does not have the child residing with him or her to have authority over the children , but little chance for a strong relationship .
Joint physical custody and joint legal custody are different aspects of the joint custody arrangement , and determination is often made separately in many U.S. states ' divorce courts . Therefore , it is possible for one parent to have physical custody while sharing legal custody , or inversely , it is possible for one parent to have legal custody while sharing physical custody . In some states this is referred to as custodial parent and noncustodial parent .
Also , where there is joint physical custody , terms of art such as " primary custodial parent " and " primary residence " have no legal meaning other than for determining tax status , and both parents are still custodial parents .
= = = Joint legal custody = = =
Upon getting a divorce , a judge will decide the next few steps for any children involved when dealing with joint legal custody . It ’ s typical , with two parents , for one parent to have physical custody and the other parent to have some sort of visitation rights . Joint legal custody can be awarded to either both of the parents or just one of the parents , depending on the situation and the judgments . Joint legal custody involves having the parents make difficult decisions for their children . The parents decide how to raise their children in matters of schooling , spirituality , social events , sports religion , medical concerns , and other commonplace decisions . In joint legal custody , both parents share the ability to have access to their children 's records , such as educational records , health records , and other records . Both parents have equal decision @-@ making status where the welfare and safety of the children is concerned . This generally entails that both parents must be involved for major legal matters concerning the children , but the " day @-@ to @-@ day " matters and issues are left to the parent who has physical custody of the children .
= = = = Benefits and criticisms of joint legal custody = = = =
There are some inherent benefits to this form of custody arrangement . One main benefit of having joint legal custody is that the parents are legal equals , which means that both parents influence important decisions in the child 's upbringing , which leads to less animosity and negativity between the parents , along with encouraging both parents to be proactive in the child 's upbringing . A second benefit of having joint legal custody is that the parents exhibit a feeling of well being knowing they are working together in making decisions based on what their child 's / children 's needs are . This form of joint custody enables parents to focus solely on the children , with the emphasis on the health and well @-@ being of the child / children . By doing so , this has the potential to reverse some of the emotional effects on the children in the long @-@ run . Another benefit of joint legal custody is that it fosters an environment in which the parents of the child have some form of a means of communication in which open dialogue can lead to ensuring a safe , nurturing environment for the child .
When parents divorce and the children are in the picture , many problems will arise during the difficult process of determining custody . For instance , if there is an argument regarding joint legal custody , the process to earn legal custody will take longer than anticipated and will ultimately impact the relationship of the parents and the children . It may also encourage poor decisions and will damage bonds , which , in turn frequently escalates into a conflict over sole legal custody . Another criticism of having a joint legal custody arrangement is that it is a frequent occurrence for one parent to attempt to control the majority of decisions in the child 's life ( regardless of what the decree of joint legal custody states ) , which generally leads to conflict . Additionally , in a joint legal custody arrangement , if the parents of the children do not get along , this situation has the potential to cause parents to become combative and argue on every decision that needs to be made about their children , which can be extremely stressful for not only the children involved , but also for the parents .
= = = Joint physical custody = = =
In joint physical custody , which is also known as joint physical care , actual lodging and care of the child is shared according to a court @-@ ordered custody schedule ( also known as a " parenting plan " or " parenting schedule " ) . In many cases , the term visitation is no longer used in these circumstances , but rather is reserved to sole custody orders . In some states joint physical custody creates a presumption of equal shared parenting , however in most states , joint physical custody creates an obligation to provide each of the parents with " significant periods " of physical custody so as to assure the child of " frequent and continuing contact " with both parents . For example , states such as Alabama , California , and Texas do not necessarily require joint custody orders to result in substantially equal parenting time , whereas states such as Arizona , Georgia , and Louisiana do require joint custody orders to result in substantially equal parenting time where feasible . Courts generally have not clearly defined what " significant periods " and " frequent and continuous contact " mean , which requires parents to litigate to find out . In some states , however , courts have provided a clear definition , for instance , in Nevada , the Supreme Court has defined joint physical custody as an arrangement where each parent has at least 40 % of the custodial time on a yearly basis .
= = = = Benefits and criticisms of joint physical custody = = = =
According to Gayle Smith , a family lawyer , there are some inherent benefits to a joint physical custody arrangement . One benefit of joint physical custody is that the burden of sole custody is not placed on the parent as the time involved in raising the children is divided among the two parties involved , allowing each of the parties more time to spend on their careers , for instance . A second benefit of joint physical custody is that the children will still have a " significant period " of time with each of the parents , which closely resembles the relationship before the marriage . A third benefit of joint physical custody is that it helps ensure that the children will grow up with both a male and a female role model , which may not be ensured through sole physical custody , for instance .
There are some inherent criticisms to joint physical custody . A criticism of the joint physical custody arrangement is that due to the nature of the arrangement , the parents are in frequent contact with each other than in other situations , leading to conflict which has the potential to negatively impact all parties involved , including the children . Research does not support this concern . Numerous studies found that parents with joint physical custody had lower levels of conflict . There are numerous opinions that the constant moving back and forth between two homes will have a negative impact on children emotionally . The feeling that there is " Mom 's House " and " Dad 's House " doesn 't leave anywhere for the children to feel is " my home " .
= = = = Three main statutes relating to joint custody = = = =
States tend to have one of three main statutes in relation to joint physical custody . One of the statutes states that joint physical custody is chosen over other arrangements unless it is not in the best interest for the children , or in other words it is the preferred arrangement . A second statute states that it is simply an option in which parents may request it or the judge can order it , but it is not necessarily the preferred arrangement . The last statute states that it may be ordered by a judge even against the wishes of the parents .
= = = Frequent joint custody arrangements = = =
Some more frequent parenting schedules include :
Alternating weeks between the parents ' houses / apartments .
Splitting longer periods of time between the parents ' houses / apartments , such as months , several months , or even up to a year .
Spending weekends / holidays with one parent , but subsequently spending most weekdays with the other parent .
Shared 50 / 50 custody has some unique configurations to ensure equitable time sharing , for example the 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 5 @-@ 5 arrangement shown below .
Other shared custody arrangements include 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 3 , 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 , and alternating every 2 days .
= = Bird 's nest custody = =
Bird 's nest custody is a specific form of joint custody . Birds ' nest custody arrangements are arrangements in which , rather than having the children go from one parent 's house to the other parent 's house , the parents move in and out of the house that the children constantly reside in . The general reason for using this arrangement rather than a more commonly used arrangement is so that the burden of upheaval and moving is placed on the parents rather than the child / children .
= = Impact on families = =
Divorce is difficult on all parties involved in the process , including the children . Due to the stressful nature of divorce , along with inherent issues on the amount of time the children can spend with each parent , the process can have a long and lasting impact on the children . Unless the children 's parents are often involved in intense conflict , or one of the parents is abusive and / or mentally ill , the children tend to fare better if the custody arrangement is a joint custody arrangement . Numerous studies have found that in joint custody arrangements , the children tend to exhibit better relationships with their families , better performance in their schools , higher levels of self @-@ esteem , and fewer conduct and emotional issues . Further , it has been found that children that have a sole custody arrangement tend to have poorer outcomes when compared to average children ( or rather children who do not have divorced parents ) , where children that have a joint custody arrangement tend to fare as well as average children . However , joint physical custody with an even division of time is not always necessary . These effects are generally seen simply when the children spend a substantial amount of time with both parents . According to Robert Emery , a divorce mediation expert , " In many ways , joint physical custody is the ideal arrangement for children because they still have two parents very much involved in their lives . " This statement has been supported by psychological data , however this effect is not seen in situations involving high @-@ conflict parental relationships .
The most important factor influencing a child 's well @-@ being and adjustment after divorce is exposure to positive parenting and relationships , followed closely by family economic stability . Children that come from families with low or contained parental conflict , effective and cooperative parenting , positive relationships , and economic stability are more likely to benefit psychologically following divorce , when compared to average children . A study that specifically supports this theory has found that adolescents assigned to a joint custody arrangement scored higher in behavioral , emotional , and academic functioning when compared to children who have been placed in sole custody arrangements . Furthermore , children in joint custody report higher self @-@ esteem and lower levels of behavioral issues and greater overall post @-@ divorce adjustment as opposed to children in sole custody arrangements . However , a child 's temperament and age have also been shown to have a strong impact on the child 's development . Children that have easygoing , adaptable temperaments are much more likely to benefit from the transitions that they will inevitably experience from a joint custody arrangement . Furthermore , some commentators believe that infants and preschoolers are not likely to benefit from joint custody arrangements due to the importance of a consistent routine and the security of a primary attachment figure at that age . This belief is not the accepted and settled view of mainstream scholars according to the Warshak consensus report published in an American Psychological Association journal with the endorsement of 110 researchers and practitioners , many of whom are prominent international authorities on attachment , early child development , and divorce .
The benefits for children to maintain relationships with both parents have been repeatedly shown in research . Children in joint custody arrangements often report greater levels of satisfaction with the division of time between their parents and children are also are less likely to feel torn between their parents when compared with children who are in sole custody arrangements . In addition , children in joint custody arrangements report feeling closer to both parents than children in sole custody arrangements . Joint custody arrangements also appear to benefit the parents . Not only do parents in joint custody arrangements report lower levels of conflict with one another , when compared to those in sole custody arrangements , but joint custody is frequently related to more positive relationships , effective parenting , and lower inter @-@ parental conflict ; key factors that ensure a child ’ s well @-@ being following divorce . However , it is important to point out that children are far less likely to do well with joint custody and sole custody arrangements when their parents used them as pawns or when they consistently witness their parents ' frequent , intense , and ongoing conflict .
No matter which side of the debate the experts are on , they all agree on one thing : All forms of custody work best with good communication and a willingness for the parents to work and to shield children from being involved in their parents ' disputes .
= = Other forms of custody = =
Alternating custody is an arrangement whereby the children live for an extended period of time with one parent , and then for a similar amount of time with the other parent . While the children are with the parent , that parent retains sole authority over the children .
Sole custody is an arrangement whereby only one parent has physical and legal custody of a child .
Split custody is an arrangement whereby one parent has full @-@ time custody over some children , and the other parent has full custody over the other children .
Third @-@ party custody is an arrangement in whereby the children do not remain with either biological parent , and are placed under the custody of a third person .
|
= Brazilian monitor Santa Catharina =
The Brazilian monitor Santa Catharina ( in modern spelling , Santa Catarina ) was the sixth , and last , ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . By the time she was completed the war was winding down and she only had one significant engagement against Paraguayan forces in 1869 . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Santa Catharina sank at her moorings while under repair in 1882 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the central battery ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling .
The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Santa Catharina had a single 120 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The gun had a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 120 @-@ pounder gun weighed 151 pounds ( 68 @.@ 5 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 16 @,@ 660 pounds ( 7 @,@ 556 @.@ 8 kg ) . Most unusually the guns ' Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron .
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret .
= = Service = =
Santa Catharina was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 5 May 1868 and commissioned the next month . She reached Paraguay in mid @-@ 1868 , when the war was winding down . Santa Catharina , together with her sister ships Ceará and Piauí , broke through the Paraguayan defenses at Guaraio on 29 April 1869 and drove off the defenders . The monitor provided fire support to the army for the rest of the war . After the war she was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla . While docked for repairs in 1882 , Santa Catharina sank at her moorings due to the poor condition of her hull . Her ultimate fate is unknown .
|
= Mary , Queen of Hungary =
Mary , also known as Maria ( 1371 – 17 May 1395 ) , was Queen regnant of Hungary and Croatia between 1382 and 1385 , and from 1386 until her death . She was the daughter of Louis the Great , King of Hungary and Poland , and his wife , Elizabeth of Bosnia . Mary 's marriage to Sigismund of Luxembourg , a member of the imperial Luxembourg dynasty , was already decided before her first birthday . A delegation of Polish prelates and lords confirmed her right to succeed her father in Poland in 1379 .
Mary was crowned " king " of Hungary on 17 September 1382 , seven days after Louis the Great 's death . Her mother , who assumed regency , absolved the Polish noblemen from their oath of loyalty to Mary in favor of Mary 's younger sister , Hedwig , in early 1383 . The idea of a female monarch remained unpopular among the Hungarian noblemen , the majority of whom regarded Mary 's distant cousin , Charles III of Naples , as the lawful king . To strengthen Mary 's position , the queen mother wanted her to marry Louis , the younger brother of Charles VI of France . Their engagement was announced in May 1385 .
Charles III of Naples landed in Dalmatia in September 1385 . Sigismund of Luxemburg invaded Upper Hungary ( now Slovakia ) , forcing the queen mother to give Mary in marriage to him in October . However , they could not prevent Charles from entering Buda . After Mary renounced the throne , Charles was crowned king on 31 December 1385 , but he was murdered at the instigation of Mary 's mother in February 1386 . Mary was restored , but the murdered king 's supporters captured her and her mother on 25 July . Queen Elizabeth was murdered in January 1387 , but Mary was released on 4 June 1387 . Mary officially remained the co @-@ ruler with Sigismund , who had meanwhile been crowned king , but her influence on the government was minimal . She and her premature son died after her horse threw her during a hunting trip .
= = Childhood ( 1371 – 1382 ) = =
Mary was born in the latter half of 1371 to Louis the Great , King of Hungary and Poland , and his second wife , Elizabeth of Bosnia . She was the second daughter of her parents . They had been childless for over a decade before Mary 's older sister , Catherine , was born in 1370 . Mary and Catherine gained another sibling , Hedwig , in 1374 .
Since Louis had fathered no sons , the expectation that he would bequeath Hungary , Poland , and his claims to the Kingdom of Naples and Provence to his daughters made them desirable spouses for members of the European royal families . Before Mary 's first birthday , her father made a promise to Charles IV , Holy Roman Emperor , that Mary would marry the emperor 's second son , Sigismund of Luxembourg . Louis confirmed his promise in a deed in June 1373 . Mary and Sigismund were closely related , because her paternal grandmother , Elizabeth of Poland , was the sister of his great @-@ grandfather , Casimir III of Poland . Pope Gregory XI issued the dispensation necessary for their marriage on 6 December 1374 . The leading Hungarian and Polish lords confirmed Louis 's promise of Mary 's and Sigismund 's marriage on 14 April 1375 .
Mary 's older sister , Catherine , who had been betrothed to Louis of France , died in late 1378 . Louis the Great confirmed his earlier promise of Mary 's and Sigismund 's marriage to Sigismund 's brother , Wenceslaus , King of the Romans , in Zólyom ( now Zvolen in Slovakia ) in 1379 . Louis and Wenceslaus also agreed that they would acknowledge Urban VI as the lawful pope against Clement VII . Mary was formally engaged to Sigismund in Nagyszombat ( now Trnava in Slovakia ) in the same year . Sigismund , who had meanwhile become Margrave of Brandenburg , came to Hungary .
Louis summoned the Polish prelates and lords to Kassa ( now Košice in Slovakia ) in September 1379 , persuading them to acknowledge Mary 's right to succeed him in Poland . The contemporaneous Jan of Czarnków , who was biased against Louis , recorded that the Poles yielded to the monarch 's demand only after he had prevented them from leaving the town by shutting its gates . At a meeting with Leopold III , Duke of Austria in early 1380 , Louis strongly hinted that he would bequeath Hungary to his younger daughter , Hedwig , who had been engaged to Leopold III 's son , William . Upon Louis 's demand , a delegation of the Polish noblemen again paid homage to Sigismund and Mary on 25 July 1382 . According to the historian Oscar Halecki , Louis wished to divide his kingdoms between his two surviving daughters , but Pál Engel and Claude Michaud write that the ailing king wanted to bequeath both Hungary and Poland on Mary and Sigismund .
= = Reign = =
= = = First years ( 1382 – 1384 ) = = =
Louis the Great died on 10 September 1382 . Cardinal Demetrius , Archbishop of Esztergom , crowned Mary " king " with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár on 17 September , a day after her father 's burial . Mary 's title and her rapid coronation in the absence of her fiancé , Sigismund , show that her mother and her mother 's supporters wanted to emphasize Mary 's role as monarch and to postpone or even hinder Sigismund 's coronation .
The queen mother , Elizabeth , assumed regency . Palatine Nicholas Garai and Cardinal Demetrius became her main advisors . Most of Louis 's barons preserved their offices ; the queen mother only dismissed the master of the cupbearers , George Czudar , and his brother Peter , voivode of Ruthenia . According to the 15th @-@ century historian Jan Długosz , the Czudar brothers surrendered forts to the Lithuanians , who had " [ h ] eavily bribed " them . Queen Elizabeth had Peter Czudar imprisoned before 1 November ; her charters only stated that he " had obviously been disloyal " without specifying the reasons for his arrest .
All royal charters issued during the first six months of Mary 's reign emphasized that she had lawfully inherited her father 's crown . However , most Hungarian noblemen were strongly opposed to the very idea of a female monarch . They regarded Charles III of Naples as Louis the Great 's legitimate heir because Charles was the last male offspring of the Capetian House of Anjou . Charles could not openly lay claim to Hungary , because his rival for the Kingdom of Naples , Louis I , Duke of Anjou – who was Charles VI of France 's uncle – had invaded Southern Italy in the previous year .
Noblemen from Greater Poland offered to pay homage to either Mary or Hedwig at a meeting in Radomsko on 25 November , but they stipulated that the queen and her husband should live in Poland . The assembly of the nobility of Lesser Poland passed a similar resolution in Wiślica on 12 December . On the latter occasion , in response to Queen Elizabeth 's demand , the noblemen also promised that they would not pay homage to anyone else than either Mary or Hedwig . Mary 's fiancé , Sigismund , who had stayed in Poland , returned to Hungary . Bodzanta , Archbishop of Gniezno , the Nałęcz family , and their allies in Greater Poland favored a native prince , Siemowit IV of Masovia . To avoid a civil war , Queen Elizabeth sent envoys to the Polish noblemen 's next assembly which met in Sieradz in late February 1383 . Her envoys absolved the Poles from their 1382 oath of loyalty to Mary on 28 March , announcing that the queen mother would send her younger daughter , Hedwig , to Poland .
John of Palisna , Prior of Vrana , rose up in open rebellion against the rule of Mary and her mother in the spring of 1383 . The queens made Stephen Lackfi Ban of Croatia . The royal army marched to Croatia and laid siege to Vrana , forcing John of Palisna to flee to Bosnia . The defenders of Vrana surrendered to Mary , who had been present during the siege along with her mother , on 4 November . To strengthen Mary 's position against Charles of Naples , Queen Elizabeth sent her envoys to France and opened negotiations on the marriage of Mary to the younger brother of Charles VI of France , Louis , who had once been engaged to Mary 's sister , Catherine . Mary and the queen mother only left Croatia and Slavonia early next year . Queen Elizabeth replaced Stephen Lackfi with Thomas Szentgyörgyi , who used draconian measures to put an end to a conspiracy against the queens in Zadar in May 1384 .
Although the last Diet was held in the early 1350s , the queens convoked a Diet to deal with the grievances of the noblemen . Mary confirmed her father 's decrees of 1351 summarizing the noblemen 's privileges on 22 June 1384 . The negotiations of Mary 's marriage in France caused a new rift within the Hungarian nobility , because the Lackfis , Nicholas Zámbó and Nicholas Szécsi and other high officers , who had been appointed during Louis the Great 's reign , continued to support Mary 's fiancé , Sigismund , in accordance with Louis the Great 's will . The queen mother replaced them with Nicholas Garai 's supporters in August 1384 . The prelates were also opposed to the French marriage , because the French supported Clement VII whom the Hungarian clergy considered an antipope . Mary 's sister , Hedwig , went to Poland where she was crowned on 16 October 1384 . Cardinal Demetrius , who had accompanied Hedwig to Poland , remained absent from the queens ' court after his return to Hungary . The royal government could not properly function during his absence because he was the keeper of the royal seal .
= = = Neapolitan threat ( 1384 – 1385 ) = = =
Louis I of Anjou died on 10 September 1384 , enabling his rival , Charles III of Naples , to stabilize his rule in Southern Italy during the next months . The consolidation of Charles III 's position in Naples also contributed to the formation of a party of noblemen who supported his claim to Hungary . John Horvat , Ban of Macsó ( now Mačva in Serbia ) , and his brother , Paul , Bishop of Zagreb , were the leading figures of their movement . Sigismund of Luxembourg tried to persuade the queen mother to consent to his marriage to Mary , but she refused him . He left Hungary in early 1385 .
The queens and their supporters initiated negotiations with the representatives of the opposition , but no reconciliation was reached at their meeting in Požega in the spring of 1385 . After a French delegation came to Hungary in May 1385 , Mary was engaged to Louis of France . Louis of France thereafter signed his letters " Louis of France , King of Hungary " , according to Jean Froissart . In the same month , the queen mother dismissed Stephen Lackfi , accusing him of high treason . She also sent letters to Zagreb and other places in the kingdom , forbidding the local inhabitants to support Lackfi , Nicholas Szécsi , Bishop Paul Horvat and their relatives . John and Paul Horvat and their allies formally offered the crown to Charles III of Naples and invited him to Hungary in August . In the same month , Mary confirmed Tvrtko I of Bosnia 's acquisition of Kotor in Dalmatia . Sigismund stormed into Upper Hungary , accompanied by his cousins , Jobst and Prokop of Moravia , and occupied Pozsony County . The queen mother replaced Nicholas Garai with Nicholas Szécsi , and made Stephen Lackfi voivode of Transylvania and Nicholas Zámbó master of the treasury .
Charles III of Naples landed at Senj in Dalmatia in September 1385 and marched to Zagreb . Sigismund of Luxembourg came to Buda and persuaded the queen mother to give her consent to his marriage to Mary . The marriage took place in Buda in October , but Sigismund was not crowned king and received no governmental function . The queen mother convoked a new Diet and Mary again confirmed the noblemen 's liberties , but the queens ' rule remained unpopular . Sigismund left Buda and mortgaged the territories west of the River Vág to his Moravian cousins . Charles of Naples had meanwhile left Zagreb , stating that he wanted to restore peace and public order in Hungary .
= = = Charles 's reign ( 1385 – 1386 ) = = =
Many noblemen joined Charles of Naples who marched towards Buda . Mary and her mother received him ceremoniously before he reached Buda , and he entered the capital in the two queens ' company in early December 1385 . Mary renounced the crown without resistance in the middle of December out of fear that Charles would kill her . Charles first adopted the title governor , but the Diet elected him king . Charles was crowned king of Hungary in Székesfehérvár on 31 December . According to the contemporaneous Lorenzo de Monacis , Mary and her mother , who attended Charles 's coronation , visited Louis the Great 's tomb during the ceremony where they burst into tears because of their ill fate .
Charles did not detain Mary and her mother who continued to live in the royal palace in Buda . Queen Elizabeth and Nicholas Garai decided to get rid of Charles . They persuaded Blaise Forgách , the master of the cupbearers , to join them , promising him the domain of Gimes ( now Jelenec in Slovakia ) if he murdered the king . Upon Queen Elizabeth 's request , Charles visited her and her daughter on 7 February 1386 . During the meeting , Blaise Forgách attacked the king , seriously injuring him on the head . The wounded King Charles was carried to Visegrád where he died on 24 February .
= = = Restoration and capture ( 1386 – 1387 ) = = =
Mary was restored to the throne , with her mother ruling in her name . The queen mother informed the citizens of Kőszeg already on 14 February that " Queen Mary had regained the Holy Crown " . However , the Horvat brothers rose up in open rebellion on behalf of the murdered king 's son , Ladislaus of Naples . Mary 's husband , Sigismund , and his brother , Wenceslaus , invaded Upper Hungary in April . After weeks of negotiations , the queens acknowledged Sigismund 's position as consort in a treaty which was signed in Győr in early May . They also confirmed Sigismund 's mortgage of the lands west of the Vág to Jobst and Prokop of Moravia . After the treaty was signed , the queens returned to Buda and Sigismund went to Bohemia , suggesting that he was dissatisfied with the treaty .
Queen Elizabeth , who according to the 15th @-@ century historian Johannes de Thurocz was " driven by folly " , decided to visit the southern counties of the kingdom that were controlled by supporters of Ladislaus of Naples . The queen mother and Mary set out for Đakovo , accompanied by Nicholas Garai and a modest following around 15 July . However , John Horvát , John of Palisna and their retainers ambushed and attacked the queens and their retinue at Gorjani on 25 July . The queens ' small entourage fought the attackers , but all were killed or captured . Blaise Forgách and Nicholas Garai were beheaded and their heads were thrown into the queens ' carriage . Elizabeth took all blame for the rebellion and begged the attackers to spare her daughter 's life , according to Johannes de Thurocz 's account .
Mary and her mother were imprisoned . They were held in captivity in Gomnec Castle , which was a fortress of the Bishopric of Zagreb . In the queens ' absence , the barons of the realm convoked a Diet under the newly carved " seal of the regnicoles " . On Queen Mary 's behalf , they promised a general pardon , but the Horvats refused to submit . The two queens were dragged to Krupa , and from there to Novigrad Castle on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . The barons or the Diet elected Stephen Lackfi palatine and made Sigismund of Luxembourg regent . John Horvat 's henchmen strangled Queen Elizabeth in Mary 's presence in early January . In the same month , Sigismund invaded Slavonia , but could not defeat the rebels .
Taking advantage of the anarchy in Hungary , Polish troops invaded Lodomeria and Halych in February . Only Vladislaus II of Opole , who claimed the two realms for himself , protested against their action . Sigismund was crowned king on 31 March as it was decided that the kingdom could no longer be without an effective ruler . One of his supporters , Ivan of Krk , laid siege to Novigrad Castle with the assistance of a Venetian fleet , which was under the command of Giovanni Barbarigo . They captured the castle and liberated Mary on 4 June 1387 . She was especially grateful to Barbarigo ; she knighted him and granted an annuity of 600 golden florins to him .
= = = Her husband 's co @-@ ruler ( 1387 – 1395 ) = = =
Mary met her husband in Zagreb on 4 July . She officially remained Sigismund 's co @-@ ruler until the end of her life , but her influence on government was minimal . Sigismund 's land grants were always confirmed with Mary 's own great seal during the first year of their common rule , but thereafter the grantees rarely sought her confirmation . Royal charters counted her regnal years not from her ascension , but from her husband 's coronation . Nevertheless , Mary persuaded her husband to torture and execute John Horvat who was captured in July 1394 although Sigismund would have been willing to spare his life .
Mary was pregnant when she decided to venture out alone on a hunt in a Buda forest on 17 May 1395 . Her horse tripped , threw her and landed on top of her . The trauma induced labor and she gave birth prematurely to a son . The queen succumbed to the fatal injuries ; being far from any kind of assistance , her son died as well . She was buried in the cathedral of Várad ( now Oradea in Romania ) . Mary 's sister , Hedwig , claimed the crown , but Sigismund retained it without much difficulty .
= = Ancestors = =
|
= Shine ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Shine " is a song recorded by American singer Gwen Stefani and featuring vocals by American singer Pharrell Williams . Originally intended for the band No Doubt , it was written and produced by Williams , with additional songwriting from Stefani , as the theme song for the 2014 animated film Paddington . " Shine " is a pop song that incorporates elements of reggae pop and ska , and features lyrics that revolve around the lead character Paddington Bear 's journey to London and his identity crisis . Stefani initially disagreed with Williams ' choice to use literal references to Paddington , like " bear " and " station " , in the lyrics . She later praised the lyrics after watching the film with her children and seeing the complete animation for the Paddington Bear character . She reported that her involvement with the recording was inspired by her then husband Gavin Rossdale and her children 's connection to England .
The track was released on January 13 , 2015 , through a lyric video on The Weinstein Company 's YouTube channel . The song was also promoted in the American trailer for the film . While a low @-@ quality version leaked on December 31 , 2014 , a full version of the record remains unreleased digitally . It was omitted from the film 's soundtrack , and was not included on Stefani 's third studio album This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 ) . The lyric video is included on the DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases of the film . Critical response to " Shine " was mixed . Some critics praised Stefani and Williams ' chemistry as a team , while others compared it negatively to their previous collaborations and singles . It was frequently compared to Willams ' 2013 single " Happy " , and Stefani and Williams ' 2014 song " Spark the Fire " .
= = Concept and development = =
" Shine " was written and produced by Pharrell Williams , with additional songwriting from Gwen Stefani . In November 2014 , Stefani and Williams announced that they were collaborating on a song for the animated film Paddington . The pair had collaborated previously on the singles : " Hella Good " , " Can I Have It Like That " , " Hollaback Girl " , and " Spark the Fire " . They also served as judges on the American reality television singing competition The Voice in 2014 . Williams initially pitched " Shine " to Stefani as a song for No Doubt , a band in which Stefani is the lead vocalist . Stefani later commented that she immediately noticed similarities between the demo and her music with No Doubt and played it for the rest of the band to get their reaction . No Doubt recorded their version in late 2014 , with Patrick Doyle from Rolling Stone reporting that Stefani was working with the band on a song for the Paddington soundtrack . Despite the announcement , Doyle wrote that : " the song may now be released as a Pharrell / Stefani track " .
In an official statement , film executive Bob Weinstein called Stefani and Williams " the perfect artistic duo " , saying their work " brought to life the charm that Paddington represents " . Stefani said her involvement was motivated by her personal connection to the film 's English setting through her marriage to English musician Gavin Rossdale . She said the film and the track allowed her children to " recognize where they come from " . Williams considered the song to be : " a wonderful opportunity , as a parent , to contribute to something as classic , authentic and generational to all of our lives , as Paddington Bear " ; Stefani said that she was : " honored to join forces with Pharrell and be part of bringing this beloved classic to life for Paddington 's next big adventure " . Williams called the song " a trailer into a wonderful family experience " and developed its concept from his children 's connection with Paddington Bear .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Shine " is a reggae pop and ska song that lasts three minutes and twenty @-@ four seconds . It is composed in the key of E minor using common time and a moderately fast tempo of 140 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by strings , horns , a guitar , and a piano to create a " crawling beat " . March Robisch of Thought Catalog described the song as having " that ska quality that made No Doubt so successful " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner and Amy Davidson wrote that it is a : " ska @-@ flecked romp of pumped @-@ up foghorns and plodding brass " . A writer from Capital XTRA described the song as having a " mellow beat " while Rolling Stone 's Daniel Sannwald wrote it has a " party @-@ vibe production " .
During the track , Stefani 's vocal range spans two octaves , from the low note of D3 to the high note of A4 . Williams equated Stefani 's tone to that of a " child whisperer " due to her ability to make music that appeals to children . The lyrics are about Paddington Bear and his travels . Rolling Stone called it : " a pop @-@ reggae allegory about a bear with an identity crisis " . The song opens with Stefani singing the first verse and Williams joining in the chorus , with lyrics including " When you 're trying to get home / When you don 't wanna be alone / Look at yourself in the mirror / That 's your way home . " The hook features Stefani repeatedly singing " Shine ! " while Williams screams " Hey ! " . Andy Morris from Gigwise described the lyrics , " So we 're in a strange new land in Paddington station / But you end up in good hands in the fancy British nation " and " that bear with the red hat " , as obvious references to Paddington . According to Daniel Sannwald of Rolling Stone , the lyrics include " Pharrell 's ' Happy " -ish ' Everybody is the same inside ' bridge " that allows the song to appeal to both children and their parents " without sounding overly patronizing " . The song ends with Williams singing in the falsetto register .
In an interview with MTV News , Stefani said that she disagreed initially with Williams ' approach to the lyrics ; while he " was very specific about the lyrics " and wanted to include words directly connected to the film and its character like " bear " , " Paddington " , " station " , Stefani said that she " wanted it to be a little more abstract " . She later reversed this view , saying that she agreed with Williams ' interpretation of the lyrics after watching the film with her children and seeing the complete animations of the Paddington Bear character . In an interview with American Top 40 's Kathleen Perricone , Stefani credited Williams as being central to the song 's development , saying that he was : " the one who really got in there and was able to channel the film lyrically and make it really happen " . MTV 's John Walker questioned whether it could repeat the success of Williams ' previous single " Happy " from the 2013 animated film Despicable Me 2 .
= = Promotion and music video = =
While a low @-@ quality version leaked on December 31 , 2014 , a full version of the record remains unreleased for consumer consumption . A minute and thirty @-@ five second video displaying clips from the film was uploaded to The Weinstein Company 's YouTube channel on January 13 , 2015 ; it received over two million views in 24 hours . The video featured scenes from the film in which : " the iconic Peruvian bear finds himself in all manner of mishaps while trying to find a home and ultimately working his way into our hearts " . It is included on the DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases along with a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes feature on the making of the song . Matthew Jacobson of The Spectrum , a newspaper which is part of the USA Today Network , criticized the video for being " just clips of the movie set to a song " rather than a proper music video . Alternatively , Cinemablend.com 's Jessica Rawden found the video to be " satsifying " and a reviewer from Fanlala enjoyed being able to sing along with the lyrics .
" Shine " is featured in the American trailer and the closing credits for Paddington , but was not included in the British version of the film . Idolator 's Christina Lee wrote that the track was : " a U.S. and Canada exclusive for Paddington " . The song was excluded from the film 's soundtrack and Stefani 's third studio album This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 ) . During an interview with Stefani and Williams on January 21 , 2015 , radio host Ryan Seacrest erroneously announced the song was available for purchase on the ITunes Store .
= = Critical reception = =
" Shine " received mixed reviews from music critics . E ! News ' Bruna Nessif gave the song a positive review , stating : " When it comes to feel @-@ good music , leave it up to Gwen Stefani and Pharrell to get the job done " . A reviewer from Vibe praised it as " the perfect theme song " . Abe Dewing , a member of the Cambridge Symphony Orchestra , described it as a " sharp , hip tune " in the Boston Herald . He compared its opening trumpet riff to music by British composer Herbert Chappell , who created the theme for the 1975 television series Paddington . Chappell also composed music for the 1986 concerto " Paddington Bear 's First Concert " , which premiered as a part of the Cambridge Symphony Orchestra Family Concerts . Dewing praised Stefani and Willams ' ability : " to compose new music for existing source material intended for children " . A reviewer from the website antiMusic described the recording as " even more feel good " than the pair 's collaboration on " Spark the Fire " . After listening to the leaked version of the song , Aaron Butterfield of the BreatheHeavy website called it : " a catchy tune which feels much more like vintage Stefani than anything we 've seen so far this era " . Rolling Stone 's Daniel Sannwald gave it three and a half stars out of five , praising its " party @-@ vibe production " , and favorably comparing its melody to the chorus of Irish rock band The Cranberries 's 1994 single " Zombie " . Sannwald felt that it would appeal to both children and their parents .
Negative reviews criticized " Shine " for lacking the energy of Williams ' and Stefani 's previous releases . Kevin Apaza of Direct Lyrics described it as " just average " and said it was worse than " Spark the Fire " . In response to the leaked version , Music Times ' Carolyn Menyes wrote that it was too slow in comparison to the " crazy , happy beats and earwormmy hand claps " of " Happy " and the " inane catchiness " of Stefani 's previous singles " Spark the Fire " and " Baby Don 't Lie " . Menyes was critical of Stefani 's vocals , saying she used " an oddly harsh tone " throughout the song . Steven Pond of TheWrap wrote that Stefani 's vocal delivery " never quite crosses the line to catchy " .
" Shine " was included in the list of 79 contenders for the Academy Award for Best Original Song , but it did not receive a nomination .
= = Partial credits = =
Partial credits adapted from American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers .
Management
ASCAP / Harajuku Lover Music
Gwen Stefani appears courtesy of Interscope Records
Pharrell Williams appears courtesy of Columbia Records and i am OTHER Entertainment
Personnel
Writers – Gwen Renee Stefani , Pharrell Williams
Performance – Gwen Stefani , Pharrell Williams
|
= USS Illinois ( BB @-@ 65 ) =
Illinois ( BB @-@ 65 ) was to have been the fifth Iowa @-@ class battleship constructed for the United States Navy and was the fourth ship to be named in honor of the 21st US state .
Hull BB @-@ 65 was originally to be the first ship of the Montana @-@ class battleships , but changes during World War II resulted in her being reordered as an Iowa @-@ class battleship . Adherence to the Iowa @-@ class layout rather than the Montana @-@ class layout allowed BB @-@ 65 to gain eight knots in speed , carry more 20 mm and 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns , and transit the locks of the Panama Canal ; however , the move away from the Montana @-@ class layout left BB @-@ 65 with a reduction in the heavier armaments and without the additional armor that were to have been added to BB @-@ 65 during her time on the drawing board as USS Montana .
Like her sister ship Kentucky , Illinois was still under construction at the end of World War II . Her construction was canceled in August 1945 , but her hull remained until 1958 when it was broken up .
= = Design = =
The passage of the Second Vinson Act in 1938 had cleared the way for construction of the four South Dakota @-@ class battleships and the first two Iowa @-@ class fast battleships ( those with the hull numbers BB @-@ 61 and BB @-@ 62 ) . The latter four battleships of the class , those designated with the hull numbers BB @-@ 63 , BB @-@ 64 , BB @-@ 65 , and BB @-@ 66 were not cleared for construction until 1940 , and at the time BB @-@ 65 and BB @-@ 66 were intended to be the first ships of the Montana class .
Originally , BB @-@ 65 was to be the United States Navy 's counter to the Empire of Japan 's Yamato @-@ class battleships , whose construction at the time was known to the highest @-@ ranking members of the United States Navy , along with the rumors that the Yamato @-@ class ships would carry guns of up to 18 in ( 460 mm ) . To combat this , the United States Navy began designing a 58 @,@ 000 ton ship with an intended armament of twelve 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns . This battleship took shape in the mid @-@ 1930s as USS Montana , the lead ship of her class of battleships . She would have fielded three more 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns than those mounted aboard the Iowa class , a more powerful secondary battery of 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 54 caliber Mark 16 dual purpose mounts , and an increase in armor designed to enable Montana to withstand the effects of enemy guns comparable to her own .
The increase in Montana 's firepower and armor came at the expense of her speed and her Panamax capabilities , but the latter issue was to be resolved through the construction of a third , much wider set of locks at the Panama Canal . As the situation in Europe deteriorated in the late @-@ 1930s , the USA began to be concerned once more about its ability to move warships between the oceans . The largest US battleships were already so large as to have problems with the canal locks ; and there were concerns about the locks being put out of action by enemy bombing . In 1939 , to address these concerns , construction began on a new set of locks for the canal that could carry the larger warships which the US had either under construction or planned for future construction . These locks which would have enabled Montana to transit between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans without the need to sail around the tip of South America . As USS Montana , BB @-@ 65 would have been the only battleship class commissioned by the US to approach the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Yamato class on the basis of armor , armament , and tonnage .
By 1942 the United States Navy shifted its building focus from battleships to aircraft carriers after the successes of carrier combat in both the Battle of the Coral Sea , and to a greater extent , the Battle of Midway . As a result , the construction of the US fleet of Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers had been given the highest priority for completion in the US shipyards by the US Navy . The Essex @-@ class carriers were proving vital to the war effort by enabling the Allies to gain and maintain air supremacy in the Pacific War , and were rapidly becoming the principal striking arm of the United States Navy in the ongoing effort to defeat the Empire of Japan . Accordingly , the United States accepted shortcomings in the armor for their North Carolina @-@ class battleships , South Dakota @-@ class , and Iowa @-@ class battleships in favor of additional speed , which enabled these battleship classes to steam at a comparable speed with the Essex @-@ class and provide the carriers with the maximum amount of anti @-@ aircraft protection .
= = Development = =
When BB @-@ 65 was redesignated an Iowa @-@ class battleship , she was assigned the name Illinois and reconfigured to adhere to the " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair . Her funding was authorized via the passage of the Two @-@ Ocean Navy Act by the US Congress on 19 July 1940 , and she would now be the fifth Iowa @-@ class battleship built for the United States Navy . Her contract was assigned on 9 September 1940 , the same date as Kentucky . Illinois 's keel was laid down at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard , on 6 December 1942 ; her projected completion date was 1 May 1945 . This amounted to a construction time of about 30 months . She would be tasked primarily with the defense of the US fleet of Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers . In adherence with the Iowa @-@ class design , Illinois would have a maximum beam of 108 ft ( 33 m ) and a waterline length of 860 ft ( 260 m ) , permitting a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ) .
Like Kentucky , Illinois differed from her earlier sisters in that her design called for an all @-@ welded construction , which would have saved weight and increased strength over a combination riveted / welded hull used on the four completed Iowa @-@ class ships . Engineers considered retaining the original Montana @-@ class armor for added torpedo and naval mine protection because the newer scheme would have improved Illinois 's armor protection by as much as 20 % . This was rejected due to time constraints and Illinois was built with an Iowa @-@ class hull design . Funding for the battleship was provided in part by " King Neptune " , a Hereford swine auctioned across the state of Illinois as a fundraiser , ultimately helping to raise $ 19 million in war bonds .
= = Fate = =
Illinois 's construction was put on hold in 1942 after the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway , while the Bureau of Ships considered an aircraft carrier conversion proposal for Illinois and Kentucky . As proposed , the converted Illinois would have had an 864 @-@ foot ( 263 m ) long by 108 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) wide flight deck , with an armament identical to the carriers of the Essex class : four twin 5 @-@ inch gun mounts and four more 5 @-@ inch guns in single mounts , along with six 40 mm quadruple mounts . It was abandoned after the design team decided that the converted carriers would carry fewer aircraft than the Essex class , that more Essex @-@ class carriers could be built in the same amount of time to convert the battleships , and that the conversion project would be significantly more expensive than new Essexes . Instead , Illinois and Kentucky were to be completed as battleships , but their construction was given very low priority .
Ultimately , the ship was canceled on 11 August 1945 , when she was about 22 % complete . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 12 August 1945 . Her incomplete hulk initially was retained on the belief that it could be used as a target in nuclear weapons tests . The cost to complete the ship enough to be able to launch her — some $ 30 million — was too great , however , and the plan was abandoned . She remained in the dockyard until September 1958 , when she was broken up on the builder 's ways .
The ship 's bell was cast , and is now at the Memorial Stadium at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . It reads USS Illinois 1946 . The bell is on loan from the Naval Historical Center ( Accession # 70 @-@ 399 @-@ A ) , Washington Navy Yard , Washington DC , to the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps ( NROTC ) at the university . The bell is traditionally rung by NROTC members when the football team scores a touchdown or goal .
|
= Boughton Monchelsea Place =
Boughton Monchelsea Place , previously Boughton Court , is a 16th @-@ century country house in Boughton Monchelsea , Kent , England . The first part of the house was built by Robert Rudston circa 1567 – 75 on the site of an earlier manor house . It has been modified a number of times during its history achieving its present form in 1819 . It has been a home to a number of members of parliament for Maidstone or for Kent , including Sir Francis Barnham ( owner 1613 – 46 ) , Sir Robert Barnham ( 1646 – 85 ) Sir Barnham Rider ( 1698 – 1728 ) and Thomas Rider ( 1805 – 47 ) .
The house sits on a south facing slope giving views across the extensive deer park and the Weald beyond . Kitchen gardens to the north of the house remain as remnants of 16th @-@ century formal garden planting . The house is a Grade I listed building and its barn is listed Grade II . The parks and gardens are listed Grade II .
= = History = =
Prior to the sixteenth century , the manor of Boughton Monchelsea passed by marriage or sale through the ownership of several families of minor gentry . From 1214 , the manor was in the possession of the Hougham family . On the death of Robert de Hougham in 1317 , it passed to his daughter Benedicta , wife of John de Shelving . On her death in 1349 without a male heir , the manor was divided between her daughters Helen and Joan .
The portion of the manor of which the Boughton Monchelsea Place estate was part passed to Joan de Shelving 's husband John Brampton . The estate then passed to his daughter Benedicta , wife of Thomas Towne , and to her daughter Benedicta , wife of William Watton . Around 1460 , Watton sold the estate to Reginald Peckham who recombined the two parts of the manor . On the death of Peckham 's grandson Thomas Peckham in 1521 , the manor was left to his daughter . Her husband quickly sold the estate to Sir Thomas Wyatt .
His son , Sir Thomas Wyatt the younger , sold the estate to Robert Rudston in 1551 . Following Rudston 's involvement in Wyatt 's rebellion against Mary I , he was fortunate to be reprieved from a death sentence , though his estate was confiscated by the Crown . It was restored to him when Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558 . Rudston had the first parts of the current house built circa 1567 – 75 as an extension to an earlier house to the west .
Rudston 's son Isaac next owned the house . On his death without a son , he left the house to his brother Belknap Rudston , who , on his death in 1613 , left it to Sir Francis Barnham , several times member of parliament for Maidstone . Sir Francis 's son Sir Robert Barnham next occupied the house , taking the manor 's name as his territorial designation when created a baronet in 1663 . Sir Robert served as MP for Maidstone in the Convention Parliament of 1660 and in the Cavalier Parliament from 1661 to 1679 . His son Francis predeceased him and , on his death around 1685 , the estate was inherited by his daughter Philadelphia Barnham , wife of Thomas Rider .
Thomas Rider was MP for Maidstone in 1690 and from 1696 to 1698 . He carried out a number of alterations to the house and its grounds between 1685 and 1690 . Following his death in 1698 , the estate was inherited by his son Sir Barnham Rider , MP for Maidstone from 1722 to 1727 , and then his son , Thomas Rider . The second Thomas Rider left the house to his cousin Ingram Rider in 1786 . In 1805 , Ingram Rider left it to his son Thomas Rider , MP for Kent and West Kent from 1831 to 1835 . The third Thomas Rider rebuilt parts of the house and extended and re @-@ landscaped the park . On his death in 1847 , he left the house to his nephew , also Thomas Rider , who let the house to a series of tenants . From 1903 to 1998 , the house was occupied by the Winch family , firstly as leaseholders then , from 1960 , as freeholders . The Winches sold the house in 1998 ; it remains in private ownership and belongs to the Kendrick family .
= = Buildings = =
The two @-@ storey L @-@ shaped main house forms the east and south sides of a courtyard with single @-@ storey stables forming the north and west sides . To the south @-@ west of the house , is a second , larger courtyard flanked on its west side by a large barn and on its north and south by single storey return wings .
The house is the remainder of a former courtyard house built for Robert Rudston circa 1567 – 75 as an extension to an earlier , pre @-@ 16th @-@ century house . It is built of Kentish ragstone , roughly coursed on the north half of the east range and more regularly coursed on the south half of the east range and on the south range . The centre of the east range features a two @-@ storey porch with galleted stonework on the upper level . The roof is of plain clay tiles , stone gabled at the north end of the east range but otherwise hipped , with four stone gabled dormers on the east façade and five smaller ones on the south façade . A frieze band with cornice and moulded stone base runs above the first floor windows on the east façade but is not repeated on the south , where only a moulded string course appears . Battlements were added to the eaves on both façades in 1819 as part of the third Thomas Rider 's works .
Windows on the east façade are rectangular with eight windows at ground floor and five at first floor , all with gothic frames . On the south façade , the ground floor windows are taller with a number being two- and three @-@ lighted and stone framed . A chamfered two @-@ storey bay is located slightly to the right of centre . Windows on the first floor are simpler and less tall . The 1819 works also included the demolition and replacement of the north and west ranges and substantial rebuilding of the south range . The north range is built up in red and grey brick from the stone walls of the demolished range . The west range is surmounted by a 17th @-@ century clock turret relocated from the south range when that was rebuilt . The bell is dated 1647 .
Internally , the south range includes three 16th- or early @-@ 17th @-@ century stone fireplaces that have probably been reused from the earlier house . The north room of the attic floor and principal room on the first floor include 16th- or early @-@ 17th @-@ century timber panelling . The room over the entrance hall features late @-@ 17th @-@ century panelling . Two period staircases feature ; one from each of the 16th and 17th centuries . The windows in the entrance hall and north room of the east range include armorial stained glass windows dated 1567 , 1567 and 1575 . The stairwell includes windows with 17th @-@ century German stained glass taken from the adjacent church of St Peter and other , undated stained glass .
The timber @-@ framed western barn was constructed in the 15th or early 16th century with an extension or alternations made at the north end in the late 18th or early 19th century . The walls are constructed in a combination of methods – stone walling , weatherboarding or brick infill between timber studs . The steeply pitched plain tiled roof contains six dormers on the west side and one on the east side and is hipped with a gablet to the south end and half @-@ hipped to the north end . A carriage entry passes through the centre of the barn . A single @-@ storey extension runs at a right angle to the south end of the east side , probably built in the 16th century . The two @-@ storey extension to the east side of the north end is lower than the main barn with a half @-@ hipped roof .
The house and courtyard buildings are Grade I listed buildings . The barn is listed Grade II . Within the grounds are a sundial , a mounting block and a stone arch , each Grade II listed .
= = Park = =
The house sits in grounds of approximately 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) on a south @-@ facing escarpment giving views south and east across the Weald . The formal entrance is north @-@ west of the house , which is approached through woodland along a drive of approximately 850 metres ( 930 yd ) . Immediately to the east and south of the house are open lawns . To the north of the house are three enclosed gardens , two of which are arranged as kitchen gardens . These are remnants of a 16th @-@ century formal garden scheme which was removed and replaced by informal landscaping during the third Thomas Rider 's tenure . The steeply sloping ground to the south and south @-@ east of the house is maintained as a deer park with a lake about 400 metres ( 440 yd ) south @-@ east of the house .
The estate is private property and is not usually open to the public , but the Greensand Way long distance walk crosses the parkland east @-@ west to the north of the house .
|
= Showdown ( Pendulum song ) =
" Showdown " is the fourth single and first track from the album In Silico by Australian drum and bass band Pendulum . It has been remixed by several artists , including DJ Clipz ( who is also Red Light ) and Excision . It is also the first single taken from In Silico not to use the album logo prominently on its cover .
The single was originally released through various online music stores on 5 January 2009 . It was not available in any physical format until 9 February , when Warner Music UK released the 12 " picture disc of " Showdown " . To help promote the single , Pendulum also released a Space Invaders themed video game which offered players a chance of winning an official framed gold disc of In Silico .
= = Background and writing = =
" Showdown " was originally written and produced for the album In Silico by Rob Swire . Although primarily influenced by drum and bass , the song contains prominent elements of both early hard rock and techno , and has even been described as " dance metal " by some critics . " Showdown " opens with vocals from Swire , before going into a heavy guitar riff which is the main focus of the track . It also makes extensive use of both sampled and acoustic drums to produce large and heavy sounds respectively .
= = Critical reception = =
" Showdown " has received generally positive reviews from music critics . Angry Ape reviewer David Adair described the single as " a snappy and slightly abrasive number that will keep their new found fans amongst the Kerrang reading community , very happy " . David Knight observed that " you won 't hear a better riff on a dance track without a great amount of searching " , but described the remixes released with the single as " absolutely terrible " . It was chosen as " Single of the Week " on 12 January 2009 by the British tabloid newspaper Daily Star .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Showdown " , directed by Nick Bartleet , was released on MySpaceTV on 12 December 2008 to promote Pendulum 's upcoming single . It was originally intended to be Internet @-@ only , but was subsequently A @-@ listed on the television channel MTV Dance .
The video draws parallels from dog fighting , focusing on a fight scene in which the dogs are replaced by two young women , and culminates in the escape of one woman at the end of the video . It also depicts controversial scenes of women being kept in cages and men gambling on the outcome of fights , which contributed to Knight describing the video as " highly problematic " . Some scenes of the video have been compared with the movie Fight Club by various sources , including Bartleet .
= = Promotional video game = =
On 24 December , shortly after the release of their music video , Pendulum presented a Space Invaders themed video game on their website to further promote " Showdown " . By scoring more points , players who submitted their details could unlock more of the " Live at the Brixton Academy " version of " Showdown " . They also had a chance of winning an official framed gold disc of In Silico .
The game was a modified version of Space Invaders , in which the aliens had been replaced with different coloured variants of the In Silico logo , and the bunkers were replaced with pairs of letters spelling out the band 's name . Players had three lives to score as many points as possible , after which their score was logged on a high score table . The album version of " Showdown " was played during the game .
= = Marketing and release = =
" Showdown " was first released on 5 January 2009 through various online music stores , including 7digital , Amazon.com , and iTunes . Along with the album version and radio edit of the song , the download bundle included a live recording and several remixes by other artists . The single was later released on a 12 " picture disc , containing the album version and Excision remix of " Showdown " , on 9 February by Warner Music UK .
The song " Showdown " was featured on In Silico as the opening track . It was the first single from the album not to use the In Silico logo prominently on its cover , although most of the logo can be seen on a bass drum in the cover art . Live versions of the song have appeared on iTunes Live : London Festival ' 08 , as a B @-@ side on " The Other Side " , as well as in the single download bundle . It was also featured in the soundtrack of Disney Interactive Studios ' off @-@ road racing video game Pure . The track is also featured in the first trailer for Forza Motorsport 3 , on the Xbox 360 as well as in the game itself during races , and CSI : NY episode " Green Piece " . The song was featured for available in the soundtrack of Marvel 's The Punisher : War Zone .
= = = Release history = = =
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the major formats and associated track listings of single releases of " Showdown " , written and produced by Rob Swire .
= = Personnel = =
" Showdown " is credited to :
Pendulum :
Rob Swire – writer , producer , vocals , mixing
Gareth McGrillen – production assistant , bass
Peredur ap Gwynedd – guitar
Paul Kodish – acoustic drums
Other contributors :
= = = Video personnel = = =
The music video for " Showdown " is credited to :
|
= Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran =
The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran , located in the West Azerbaijan and East Azerbaijan provinces in Iran , is an ensemble of three Armenian churches that were established during the period between the 7th and 14th centuries A.D. The edifices — the St. Thaddeus Monastery , the Saint Stepanos Monastery , and the Chapel of Dzordzor — have undergone many renovations . These sites were inscribed as cultural heritages in the 32nd session of the World Heritage Committee on 8 July 2008 under the UNESCO ’ s World Heritage List . The three churches lie in a total area of 129 hectares ( 320 acres ) and were inscribed under UNESCO criteria ( ii ) , ( iii ) , and ( vi ) for their outstanding value in showcasing Armenian architectural and decorative traditions , for being a major centre for diffusion of Armenian culture in the region , and for being a place of pilgrimage of the apostle St. Thaddeus , a key figure in Armenian religious traditions . They represent the last vestiges of old Armenian culture in its southeastern periphery . The ensemble is in a good state of preservation .
= = Location = =
The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran are located in the West Azerbaijan and East Azerbaijan provinces in Iran . The ensemble consists of three Armenian churches that were established during the period between the 7th and 14th centuries A.D. The edifices — the St. Thaddeus Monastery , the Saint Stepanos Monastery , and the Chapel of Dzordzor — have undergone many renovations . The three churches lie in a total area of 129 hectares ( 320 acres ) . The St. Thaddeus Monastery also known as " Kara Kelisa " or " Black Church " in West Azerbaijan province is about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Maku . The Saint Stepanos Monastery is 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) to the west of Jolfa city , East Azarbaijan Province in northwest Iran .
= = History = =
The Armenian people arrived in northwestern Iran — known as Iranian Azerbaijan — in the 6th century B.C. , and converted to Christianity in the early 4th century A.D. A portion of the region forms part of historical Armenia . Some of the oldest Armenian chapels , monasteries and churches in the world are located within this region of Iran , and the Iranian Azerbaijan region in general is home to the oldest churches in Iran .
According to unverified reports it is believed that St. Thaddeus was buried at the site of the St. Thaddeus Monastery in the 1st century A.D. , and that St. Gregory was responsible for establishing a monastery here in the 4th century . However , there is recorded proof that St. Thaddeus Monastery dates to the 7th century . It was the second Armenian church to be built , following the Etchmiadzin Cathedral and was the seat of the diocese in the 10th century . It was destroyed in an earthquake in 1319 and was rebuilt due to the efforts of Bishop Zachariah in the 1320s .
During the reign of the Safavid dynasty in the 15th century , the monasteries were preserved . The monasteries were then deserted during the 16th and 17th centuries following a period of attacks by the Ottomans that prompted many Armenians to emigrate to central Iran . Once the Safavids reestablished themselves in the area , the monasteries were reoccupied and renovated . However , during the 18th century the area became a cauldron of conflicts for domination among the Russian , Ottoman , and Persian empires . When the Persians finally gained control , the monasteries were damaged . During the Qajar era , Armenians regained control over the monasteries and they were rebuilt . The existing St. Thaddeus Monastery was rebuilt in 1814 and refurbished in the 1970s .
Similarly , it is recorded that Saint Stepanos Monastery was first established in 649 A.D. and a new building constructed at the same location in the 10th century . It was a major Christian church during the history of Armenian independence and development . After it suffered damages due to earthquake , it was rebuilt by Bishop Zachariah in the 1320s . During the entire 14th century , it was the centre of influence in the region for Christian missionary work . This period marked the creation of literary manuscripts and paintings on religious themes . The monastery was rebuilt during the period from 1819 to 1825 and again became a center of religious activity . It was refurbished in the 1970s , and again during the period from 1983 to 2001 .
The Dzordzor Chapel was built on the bank of the Makuchay River at Dzordzor by Bishop Zachariah in 1314 on very modest lines , making use of the vestiges of an earlier religious monument dated between the 10th and 12th centuries . During the period of Ottoman rule , some parts of the building were destroyed . Later , the chapel came under threat of submergence from a proposed dam and had to be shifted to a new location upstream .
= = = World heritage status = = =
The three monasteries of the ensemble were inscribed on 2008 under UNESCO criteria ( ii ) , ( iii ) , and ( vi ) for their outstanding value in showcasing Armenian architectural and decorative traditions , for being a major centre for diffusion of Armenian culture in the region , and for being a place of pilgrimage of the apostle St. Thaddeus , a key figure in Armenian religious traditions . They represent the last vestiges of old Armenian culture in its southeastern periphery . The ensemble is in a good state of preservation .
= = Architecture = =
The three monuments represent a blend of architectural styles from the Byzantine , Persian , Eastern Orthodox , Assyrian , Persian , Muslim , and Armenian cultures .
= = = Saint Thaddeus Monastery = = =
The Saint Thaddeus Monastery ensemble is in two zones , the first of which covers an area of 29 @.@ 85 hectares ( 73 @.@ 8 acres ) and comprises four chapels and the monastery itself . A compound wall of 64 by 51 metres ( 210 ft × 167 ft ) with towers at the corners encircles the main monastery complex . Adjoining this wall , residential quarters have been built for the monks . In the interior courtyard , the main religious structures are located in a space of 41 @.@ 7 by 23 @.@ 6 metres ( 137 ft × 77 ft ) . There is a large entrance that is built on four pillars . The main church — the so @-@ called White Church — is built on a Greek cross plan . It has an umbrella @-@ shaped dome and a bell tower . There is also a Black Church , the oldest part of the ensemble , which is also crowned by a dome . The exterior artwork consists of cut @-@ stone fascia of different colours , an Armenian architectural art form . The ornamentation in the interior is a blend of Armenian and Persian themes . There are also three more chapels to the northeast of the main monastery .
The second zone is about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away to the southeast of the monastery , occupies an area of 1 @.@ 98 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) , and is the location of a fifth chapel , the Chapel of Sandokt . In one of the two cemeteries next to this chapel there is a sarcophagus .
= = = Saint Stepanos Monastery = = =
The Saint Stepanos Monastery ensemble is in the gorge of the Araxe River , which borders Azerbaijan . The central zone of the monastery is in an area of 72 @.@ 06 hectares ( 178 @.@ 1 acres ) . The main chapel is located on a steep slope within an enclosed wall in an area of 48 by 72 metres ( 157 ft × 236 ft ) . There are also residences built for the monks next to the monastery . The length of the church , built in a Greek cross form , is 27 metres ( 89 ft ) and its height is 25 metres ( 82 ft ) . A four @-@ pillared entrance is topped by a bell tower built in two levels ; the first level is rectangular in shape , and at the second level there are pillars supporting an umbrella @-@ shaped dome . Built in the style of Armenian religious architecture , it has cut @-@ stone fascia . Within the church there are paintings that are based on similar ones at the Echmiatsin Church , which is a blend of Christian and Islamic art forms .
Downstream of the monastery is an area of 10 @.@ 85 hectares ( 26 @.@ 8 acres ) where the village , the cemetery , and an associated church are located . The village is destroyed except for the church , which is built in the form of a basilica , with four pillars supporting a cupola . The cemetery in the village has tombs dated to 16th century .
Upstream , about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away , is the Chupan Chapel ( Chupan meaning " shepherd " ) , located close to the town of Jolfa on the bank of the Araxe River in an area of 4 @.@ 18 hectares ( 10 @.@ 3 acres ) . It is well preserved and is built to a rectangular plan of 5 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft × 21 ft ) . It has a dome that is supported over a tambour , but the rest of the structures next to the chapel are in ruins .
= = = Chapel of Dzordzor = = =
The old Chapel of Dzordzor lies in the Makuchay River valley , occupying an area of 0 @.@ 79 hectares ( 2 @.@ 0 acres ) . What is present now is a remnant of the large monastery that once existed there , as the entire chapel has been shifted to a new location 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) away due to submergence resulting from a dam that was built on the river . Before the building was dismantled , detailed plans were made and the dismantled elements numbered so that they could be reassembled to the same design at the new site . Of 1500 stones used at the new site to rebuild the chapel with the dome , only 250 were new stones as all the numbered stones from the old site were able to be reassembled according plan . This reconstruction was carried out during the period 1987 – 88 .
|
= Last Day in Florida =
" Last Day in Florida " is the eighteenth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 170th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 8 , 2012 . " Last Day in Florida " was written by Robert Padnick and directed by Matt Sohn . The episode features the final appearance of Lindsay Broad and guest stars Georgia Engel .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Robert California ( James Spader ) reveals he hates Nellie Bertram 's ( Catherine Tate ) business plan and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) swings into action to keep Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) from getting fired . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) learns that Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) is not going to return to Scranton . Also , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) compete to sell cookies to Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) .
" Last Day in Florida " received mixed reviews from critics , with multiple critics praising Wilson and Krasinski 's performance . Like the previous episodes involving Florida , the Scranton sub @-@ plot received mixed reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Last Day in Florida " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 89 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked second in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) celebrates his winning of the Vice President position on a golf outing with Jim ( John Krasinski ) , Robert California ( James Spader ) , and Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) . After playing , Robert tells Jim that he dislikes the business plan for the Sabre store , citing the poor quality of the products ; he only approved it because Jo Bennett wanted it , but he plans to sandbag it at a high @-@ level meeting , and Jim is stunned when Robert strongly hints he 's going to fire Dwight over it . Jim makes several attempts to stop Dwight from attending the meeting with Robert , but Dwight is heedless and continually insults Jim , who finally decides to leave Dwight to his fate . However , a guilt @-@ inducing phone call to Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) makes Jim decide he has to keep parsing Dwight 's insults until he directly tells him that he 's going to lose his job . Dwight ignores the news , thinking Jim is jealous of him , so Jim resorts to wrestling with Dwight outside the conference room . In the meantime , Nellie has Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) stand in as VP in Dwight 's absence . When Dwight makes it into the conference room , he hears Robert planning to fire the VP , so he sneaks out of the conference room and lets Packer take the fall in front of those present . Dwight then silently extends a hand to Jim , and they head back to Scranton with Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) , who has reverted to his old grumpy self over the thought of leaving Florida .
Back in Scranton , Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) and Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) are both trying to sell girl scout cookies for their daughters . When Toby 's requests clash with Darryl 's , Darryl tells him they need their own sections of the office to sell to in order to not interfere with each other . Darryl takes accounting while Toby gets every other section . Darryl asks for accounting because Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) buys more cookies than everyone else put together . Toby eventually realizes Darryl 's plan and the two end up fighting over who sells Kevin cookies , with Kevin coming up with absurd competition ideas . After doing a song and dance for Kevin , Kevin still can 't make up his mind , so Darryl and Toby contemplate giving up until Kevin mentions he plans to buy hundreds of boxes of cookies , at which point continue the competition . They finally give up for good when Kevin wants to ride them like a pony , citing they still want to maintain their dignity and will not go beyond the limit to what they 'd do for their daughters . When they walk away , Kevin says he 'll doing any absurd thing for them to continue , kissing Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) to prove it , but they still refuse .
Meanwhile , Andy ( Ed Helms ) learns that Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) isn 't coming back to Scranton after she takes a job helping an elderly lady she met at the Sabre store opening , leaving Andy very distraught , especially when he learns that everyone else already knew through Ryan ( B.J. Novak ) , who is revealed to have returned to Scranton after freaking out during the previous episode . When Dwight , Jim , and Stanley return to Scranton and Andy sees Jim happily reunite with Pam , Andy decides to travel to Florida to try and bring Erin back .
= = Production = =
" Last Day in Florida " was written by Robert Padnick , his second writing credit for the season after " Gettysburg " . The episode was directed by Matt Sohn , his third director 's credit for the season after " Pam 's Replacement " and " Tallahassee " . The episode marks the fifth appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her fourth consecutive appearance . Her character , Nellie , worked with several of the office workers on a special project for Sabre in a six episode arc . The episode also features a guest appearance from David Koechner , who appears as Todd Packer in the series . He recently made a deal with NBC to do more episodes for the series and also possibly join the cast of series developer Greg Daniels 's next series , Friday Night Dinner , an adaption of the British series of the same name . Lindsey Broad , who portrays Cathy Simms , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave , makes her twelfth and final appearance on the series . The episode also marks the second appearance of Georgia Engel as Irene , Erin 's elderly new friend . Showrunner Paul Lieberstein said in an interview that he was excited for her appearance calling her performance " fantastic " . She will appeared three episodes in the season . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Irene introducing Erin to her grandson who asks Erin to go on a date with him , which she says yes to , and Packer attempting to have a conversation with California over the HBO medieval fantasy series Game of Thrones , but learns Robert has not seen the series .
= = Cultural references = =
In the episode , Ryan mentions that he told everybody through his Tumblr account that Erin was not coming back from Florida . Kevin forces Toby and Darryl to sing " Hello ! Ma Baby " in the style of Michigan J. Frog . Sabre 's Pyramid tablet makes a reappearance in the episode . The device serves as a parody of several tablet computers , specifically the Apple iPad . B. J. Novak described the device as " really the worst piece of technology that you 've ever seen . " The device was created by Paul Lieberstein , who originally envisioned that the device only had the rights to the 1993 film Coneheads .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Last Day in Florida " aired on March 8 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 89 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Test the Store " . The episode finished second in its time slot , beating Fox drama series The Finder and reruns of the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy and The CW drama series Supernatural . Despite this , the episode was defeated by the CBS drama Person of Interest . In addition , " Last Day in Florida " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Last Day in Florida " received mixed reviews from critics , with many of them praising Rainn Wilson and John Krasinski 's performance in the episode and their characters ' interaction . Writing for New York , Michael Tedder called the scene featuring Dwight helping Jim up " eloquent " and wrote that it summarized their relationship over the years . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt called the episode the " most satisfying episode in the Florida arc " , mainly praising the Jim @-@ Dwight relationship , and said that since Steve Carell left the series they have become the " emotional core " of the show . He also complimented the writers for adding " business logic " to Sabre , specifically with Robert criticizing the Sabre Pyramid . Despite mainly praising the Florida plotline , he went on to criticize the Andy @-@ Erin plotline for Erin 's incompetence and also the fact he stopped caring about Andy and Erin 's relationship , although he did call their video chat " charming " . He ultimately gave the episode a B + . Brian Marder of Hollywood.com had a mixed response to the episode and wrote that it ruined the positive momentum the previous two episodes had . He also wrote that the episode wasn 't a good episode until the final scene of Andy telling the camera he 's going to Florida to get Erin back , calling the development " half intriguing , half mildly uninteresting " .
IGN writer Cindy White considered the Jim and Dwight scenes to be one of the only highlights of the episode , especially due to them being the core element to the series . She criticized Robert 's role in the episode and series , calling his character " a tool [ ... ] I mean that in both senses " , and also wrote that he was too much of an inconsistent character . She concluded that while the episode wasn 't " terrible " , it was a mediocre conclusion to the Florida storyline and wrote that " I 've got a suspicion that the best part of Season 8 is behind us " . She ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 0 / 10 . Jeffrey Hyatt of Screen Crave gave the episode a review of seven out of ten , writing that the only drawback for the episode was the Scranton subplot , because it " turned really old , really fast " , although he did compliment Lieberstein 's performance in the episode .
Like the previous episodes , the Scranton subplot received mixed reviews . Tedder called the subplot " typical , but likable " . VanDerWerff wrote that while it had good moments , the storyline ultimately felt like " rejected storylines from an old sitcom " while White wrote that she enjoyed the storyline .
|
= Srigala Item =
Srigala Item ( Indonesian for Black Wolf , also advertised with the Dutch title De Zwarte Wolf ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies that was directed by Tan Tjoei Hock and produced by The Teng Chun for Action Film . Starring Hadidjah , Mohamad Mochtar , and Tan Tjeng Bok , the film 's plot – inspired by Zorro – follows a young man who became a masked vigilante to take revenge against his conniving uncle . Srigala Item was a commercial success , which Misbach Yusa Biran credits to the plot 's use for escapism . A copy of the black @-@ and @-@ white film , which featured kroncong music , is stored at Sinematek Indonesia .
= = Plot = =
Through violence , Djoekri ( Tan Tjeng Bok ) is able to gain control of his brother Mardjoeki 's ( Bissoe ) wealth and plantation , Soemberwaras . The latter disappears , leaving behind his adult son Mochtar ( Mohamad Mochtar ) . At the plantation , the young man is treated as a servant and often beaten by Djoekri and his right @-@ hand man , Hasan . Djoekri 's son Joesoef ( Mohamad Sani ) , however , leads a life of plenty .
Soon Djoekri 's activities are targeted by a masked man known as the " Black Wolf " ( " Srigala Item " ) , who also foils Joesoef 's attempts to woo Soehaemi ( Hadidjah ) , whom Mochtar loves . Djoekri tires of the Black Wolf 's interference and takes him on in a battle . Though Djoekri almost wins , ultimately the Black Wolf emerges victorious . It is later revealed that Mardjoeki remains alive and Mochtar was the Black Wolf .
= = Production = =
The film was written and directed by Tan Tjoei Hock for Action Film , a subsidiary of producer The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film ( JIF ) . Tan , who had made his directorial debut in 1940 , based Srigala Item on the stories surrounding Johnston McCulley 's fictional bandit Zorro ; as with the American bandit , the Black Wolf used a whip and wore all black . The black @-@ and @-@ white film was shot by The Teng Chun 's brother Teng Gan , with Hajopan Bajo Angin as artistic designer .
The film starred Hadidjah and Mohamad Mochtar , who had first acted together in JIF 's Alang @-@ Alang ( Grass ; 1939 ) and were promoted as a celebrity couple in competition with Raden Mochtar and Roekiah of Tan 's Film . It also featured Bissoe , Tan Tjeng Bok , and Mohamad Sani . Bissoe had made his feature film debut with JIF 's Oh Iboe in 1938 , while Sani had made his debut for JIF in 1940 . Tan Tjeng Bok , a former stage star with Dardanella , made his feature film debut through Srigala Item .
Music for Srigala Item was done in the kroncong ( traditional music with Portuguese influences ) style , popular at the time , by Mas Sardi . Hadidjah is credited as singing two songs , " Ja . Ja . Ja . Ja . " ( " Yeah . Yeah . Yeah . Yeah . " ) and " Termenoeng @-@ Menoeng " ( " Pensive " ) ; Tan Tjeng Bok is also recorded as performing a song .
= = Release and reception = =
Srigala Item premiered in the first half of 1941 , one of nine films released by JIF and its subsidiaries that year . It was advertised , sometimes under the Dutch name of De Zwarte Wolf , as sensational , full of action , and mysterious " and marketed for all ages . The film was released in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) , the capital of the Indies , and by July 1941 it had reached Surabaya , in Eastern Java , and Singapore , then part of British Malaya .
An anonymous review of Srigala Item in the Surabaya @-@ based daily Soerabaijasch Handelsblad was positive , predicting the film would be a commercial success . This prediction was fulfilled , as Srigala Item reached extensive audiences – mostly lower @-@ class natives . The Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran credits this success to escapism . He writes that the film 's theme of an oppressed , financially destitute youth who is able to control his destiny by becoming a masked vigilante , allowed viewers to be able to see themselves as the Black Wolf , and thus take revenge against those who had wronged them .
Action Film and JIF continued producing films until the beginning of the Japanese occupation of the Indies began in early 1942 , leading to the closing of all but one film studio . The cast of Srigala Item remained with JIF until the company closed , as did Tan . According to JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Catalogue of Indonesian Films ) , a copy of Srigala Item is stored at Sinematek Indonesia in Jakarta . The reels have been damaged by acid , leading to part of the film being excised .
= = Explanatory notes = =
|
= University of Bristol =
The University of Bristol ( abbreviated as Bris. in post @-@ nominal letters , sometimes referred to as Bristol University ) is a red brick research university located in Bristol , United Kingdom . It received its royal charter in 1909 , and its predecessor institution , University College , Bristol , had been in existence since 1876 .
Bristol is organised into six academic faculties composed of multiple schools and departments running over 200 undergraduate courses situated in the Clifton area along with three of its nine halls of residence . The other six halls are located in Stoke Bishop , an outer city suburb located 1 @.@ 8 miles away . The university had a total income of £ 530 @.@ 9 million in 2014 / 15 , of which £ 148 @.@ 4 million was from research grants and contracts . It is the largest independent employer in Bristol .
The University of Bristol is ranked 11th in the UK for its research , according to the Research Excellence Framework ( REF ) 2014 by GPA . The University of Bristol is ranked 37th by the QS World University Rankings 2015 @-@ 16 , and is ranked amongst the top ten of UK universities by QS , THE , and ARWU . A highly selective institution , it has an average of 6 @.@ 4 ( Sciences faculty ) to 13 @.@ 1 ( Medicine & Dentistry Faculty ) applicants for each undergraduate place . The University of Bristol is the youngest British university to be ranked among the top 40 institutions in the world according to the QS World University Rankings , and has also been ranked at 15th in the world in terms of reputation with employers , placing higher than several American Ivy League universities , including Princeton University , Cornell and UPenn .
Current academics include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences , 13 fellows of the British Academy , 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society . The university has been associated with 12 Nobel laureates throughout its history , including Paul Dirac , Sir William Ramsay , Cecil Frank Powell , Sir Winston Churchill , Dorothy Hodgkin , Hans Albrecht Bethe , Max Delbrück , Gerhard Herzberg , Sir Nevill Francis Mott , Harold Pinter , Jean @-@ Marie Gustave Le Clézio and most recently , 2015 Economics Nobel Prize winner Angus Deaton .
Bristol is a member of the Russell Group of research @-@ intensive British universities , the European @-@ wide Coimbra Group and the Worldwide Universities Network , of which the university 's previous vice @-@ chancellor , Eric Thomas , was chairman from 2005 to 2007 . In addition , the university holds an Erasmus Charter , sending more than 500 students per year to partner institutions in Europe .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
The earliest antecedent of the university was the engineering department of the Merchant Venturers ' Technical College ( founded as a school as early as 1595 ) which became the engineering faculty of Bristol University . The university was also preceded by Bristol Medical School ( 1833 ) and University College , Bristol , founded in 1876 , where its first lecture was attended by only 99 students . The university was able to apply for a royal charter due to the financial support of the Wills and Fry families , who made their fortunes in tobacco plantations and chocolate , respectively . The Wills Family made a vast fortune from the tobacco industry and gave generously to the city and university . The royal charter was gained in May 1909 , with 288 undergraduates and 400 other students entering the university in October 1909 . Henry Overton Wills III became its first chancellor . The University College was the first such institution in the country to admit women on the same basis as men . However , women were forbidden to take examinations in medicine until 1906 .
= = = Historical development = = =
Since the founding of the university itself in 1909 , it has grown considerably and is now one of the largest employers in the local area , although it is smaller by student numbers than the nearby University of the West of England . Bristol does not have a campus but is spread over a considerable geographic area . Most of its activities , however , are concentrated in the area of the city centre , referred to as the " University Precinct " . It is a member of the Russell Group of research @-@ led UK universities , the Coimbra Group of leading European universities and the Worldwide Universities Network ( WUN ) .
= = = = Early years = = = =
After the founding of the University College in 1876 , Government support began in 1889 . After mergers with the Bristol Medical School in 1893 and the Merchant Venturers ' Technical College in 1909 , this funding allowed the opening of a new medical school and an engineering school — two subjects that remain among the university 's greatest strengths . In 1908 , gifts from the Fry and Wills families , particularly £ 100 @,@ 000 from Henry Overton Wills III ( £ 6m in today 's money ) , were provided to endow a University for Bristol and the West of England , provided that a royal charter could be obtained within two years . In December 1909 , the King granted such a charter and erected the University of Bristol . Henry Wills became its first chancellor and Conwy Lloyd Morgan the first vice @-@ chancellor . Wills died in 1911 and in tribute his sons George and Harry built the Wills Memorial Building , starting in 1913 and finally finishing in 1925 . Today , it houses parts of the academic provision for earth sciences and law , and graduation ceremonies are held in its Great Hall . The Wills Memorial Building is a Grade II * listed building .
In 1920 , George Wills bought the Victoria Rooms and endowed them to the university as a Students ' Union . The building now houses the Department of Music and is a Grade II * listed building .
At the point of foundation , the university was required to provide for the local community . This mission was behind the creation of the Department of Extra @-@ Mural Adult Education in 1924 to provide courses to the local community . This mission continues today ; a new admissions policy specifically caters to the ' BS ' postcode area of Bristol .
Among the famous names associated with Bristol in this early period is Paul Dirac , who graduated in 1921 with a degree in engineering , before obtaining a second degree in mathematics in 1923 from Cambridge . For his subsequent pioneering work on quantum mechanics , he was awarded the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics . Later in the 1920s , the H.H. Wills Physics Laboratory was opened by Ernest Rutherford . It has since housed several Nobel Prize winners : Cecil Frank Powell ( 1950 ) ; Hans Albrecht Bethe ( 1967 ) ; and Sir Nevill Francis Mott ( 1977 ) . The Laboratory stands on the same site today , close to the Bristol Grammar School and the city museum .
Sir Winston Churchill became the university 's third chancellor in 1929 , serving the university in that capacity until 1965 . He succeeded Richard Haldane who had held the office from 1912 following the death of Henry Wills .
During World War II , the Wills Memorial was bombed , destroying the Great Hall and the organ it housed , along with 7 @,@ 000 books removed from King 's College London for safe keeping . It has since been restored to its former glory , complete with oak panelled walls and a new organ .
= = = = Post @-@ war development = = = =
In 1946 , the university established the first drama department in the country . In the same year , Bristol began offering special entrance exams and grants to aid the resettlement of servicemen returning home . Student numbers continued to increase , and the Faculty of Engineering eventually needed the new premises that were to become Queen 's Building in 1955 . This substantial building housed all of the university 's engineers until 1996 , when the department of Electrical Engineering and Department of Computer Science moved over the road into the new Merchant Venturers ' Building to make space for these rapidly expanding fields . Today , Queen 's Building caters for most of the teaching needs of the Faculty and provides academic space for the " heavy " engineering subjects ( civil , mechanical , and aeronautical ) .
With unprecedented growth in the 1960s , particularly in undergraduate numbers , the Student 's Union eventually acquired larger premises in a new building in the Clifton area of the city , in 1965 . This building was more spacious than the Victoria Rooms , which were now given over to the Department of Music . The new Union provides many practice and performance rooms , some specialist rooms , as well as three bars : Bar 100 ; the Mandela ( also known as AR2 ) and the Avon Gorge . Whilst spacious , the Union building is thought by many to be ugly and out of character compared to the architecture of the rest of the Clifton area , having been mentioned in a BBC poll to find the worst architectural eyesores in Britain . The university has proposed relocating the Union to a more central location as part of its development ' masterplan ' . More recently , plans for redevelopment of the current building have been proposed .
The 1960s were a time of considerable student activism in the United Kingdom , and Bristol was no exception . In 1968 , many students marched in support of the Anderson Report , which called for higher student grants . This discontent culminated in an 11 @-@ day sit @-@ in at the Senate House ( the administrative headquarters of the university ) . A series of chancellors and vice @-@ chancellors led the university through these decades , with Henry Somerset , 10th Duke of Beaufort taking over from Churchill as chancellor in 1965 before being succeeded by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1970 who spent the next 18 years in the office .
As the age of mass higher education dawned , Bristol continued to build its student numbers . The various undergraduate residences were repeatedly expanded and , more recently , some postgraduate residences have been constructed . These more recent ventures have been funded ( and are run ) by external companies in agreement with the university .
Since 1988 , there have been only two further chancellors ; Sir Jeremy Morse , then chairman of Lloyds Bank who handed over in 2003 to Brenda Hale , the first female Law Lord .
One of the few Centres for Deaf Studies in the United Kingdom was established in Bristol in 1981 , followed in 1988 by the Norah Fry Centre for research into learning difficulties . Also in 1988 , and again in 2004 , the Students ' Union AGM voted to disaffiliate from the National Union of Students ( NUS ) . On both occasions , however , the subsequent referendum of all students reversed that decision and Bristol remains affiliated to the NUS .
In 2002 , the university was involved in argument over press intrusion after details of the son of then @-@ prime minister , Tony Blair 's , application to university were published in national newspapers .
As the number of postgraduate students has grown ( particularly the numbers pursuing taught master 's degrees ) , there eventually became a need for separate representation on university bodies and the Postgraduate Union ( PGU ) was established in 2000 . Universities are increasingly expected to exploit the intellectual property generated by their research activities and , in 2000 , Bristol established the Research and Enterprise Division ( RED ) to further this cause ( particularly for technology @-@ based businesses ) . In 2001 , the university signed a 25 @-@ year research funding deal with IP2IPO , an intellectual property commercialisation company . In 2007 , research activities were expanded further with the opening of the Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science ( ACCIS ) and The Bristol Institute for Public Affairs ( BIPA ) .
In 2002 , the university opened the new Centre for Sports , Exercise and Health in the heart of the university precinct . At a cost , local residents are also able to use the facilities .
Expansion of teaching and research activities continues . In 2004 , the Faculty of Engineering completed work on the Bristol Laboratory for Advanced Dynamics Engineering ( BLADE ) . This £ 18.5m project provides cutting @-@ edge technology to further the study of dynamics and is the most advanced such facility in Europe . It was built as an extension to the Queen 's Building and was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in March 2005 .
In January 2005 , the School of Chemistry was awarded £ 4.5m by the Higher Education Funding Council for England to create Bristol ChemLabS : a Centre for Excellence in Teaching & Learning ( CETL ) , with an additional £ 350k announced for the capital part of the project in February 2006 . Bristol ChemLabS stands for Bristol Chemical Laboratory Sciences ; it is the only chemistry CETL in the UK .
September 2009 saw the opening of the university 's Centre for Nanoscience and Quantum Information . This £ 11 million state of the art building is dubbed as the quietest building in the world and has other technologically sophisticated features such as self @-@ cleaning glass . Advanced research into quantum computing , nanotechnology , materials and other disciplines are being undertaken in the building .
There is also a plan to significantly redevelop the centre of the University Precinct in the coming years . The first step began in September 2011 , with the start of construction of a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Life Sciences building . In a time of heavy financial pressures on all Universities , this £ 50 million project is a clear statement that Bristol is committed to world class research and teaching facilities .
= = = = 2003 admissions controversy = = = =
The university has been regarded as being elitist by some commentators , taking 41 % of its undergraduate students from non @-@ state schools , according to the most recent 2009 / 2010 figures , despite the fact that such pupils make up just 7 % of the population and 18 % of 16 + year old pupils across the UK . The intake of state school pupils at Bristol is lower than many Oxbridge colleges . The high ratio of undergraduates from non @-@ state school has led to some tension at the university . In late February and early March 2003 , Bristol became embroiled in a row about admissions policies , with some private schools threatening a boycott based on their claims that , in an effort to improve equality of access , the university was discriminating against their students . These claims were hotly denied by the university . In August 2005 , following a large @-@ scale survey , the Independent Schools Council publicly acknowledged that there was no evidence of bias against applicants from the schools it represented . The university has a new admissions policy , which lays out in considerable detail the basis on which any greater or lesser weight may be given to particular parts of an applicant 's backgrounds – in particular , what account may be taken of which school the applicant hails from . This new policy also encourages greater participation from locally resident applicants .
= = Campus = =
Some of the University of Bristol 's buildings date to its pre @-@ charter days when it was University College Bristol . These buildings were designed by Charles Hansom , the younger brother of Joseph Hansom , Joseph being the inventor of the Hansom Cab . These buildings suffered being built in stages due to financial pressure . George Oatley added to them a tower in memory of Albert Fry which can still be seen on University Road . The first large scale building project the University of Bristol undertook on gaining a charter was the Wills Memorial Building which it was hoped would be a symbol of academic permanence for the university and a memorial to the chief benefactor of the university , Henry Overton Wills . It was requested to the architect George Oatley that the building be built to last at least 400 years but the site purchased , at the top of Park Street suffered from an awkward slope and a desirability to link the building with the Museum and Art Gallery situated adjacent to the plot . The architecture critic Roger Gill has stated that the building is " remarkable in size " but noted that the " ambience of a medieval University was strangely lacking " . He goes on to criticise the building as a " sham " and a " folly " . The armorials on the Founder 's Window represent all of the interests present at the founding of the University of Bristol including the Wills and Fry families . The Tyndalls Park Estate and Royal Fort House were also purchased from the trustees of the Tyndall family allowing the university to expand . Many Departments in the Faculty of Arts are housed in large Victorian houses which have been converted for teaching .
Goldney gardens entered the property of the University of Bristol through George Wills who had hoped to build an all male hall of residence there . This was prevented due to the moral objection of the then warden of Clifton Hall House who objected to the idea of male and female residences being in such close proximity . University records show that Miss Starvey was prepared to resign over the issue and that she had the support of the then Chancellor Conwy Lloyd Morgan . Eventually land was purchased in Stoke Bishop allowing Wills Hall to be bought , allowing the building of what has been described as a " quasi @-@ Oxbridge " hall , to which was added the Dame Monica Wills Chapel added by George Wills ' widow after his death .
Burwalls , a mansion house on the other side of the Avon Gorge , was used as a halls of residence in the past and was a home of Sir George Oatley . The building is now used to house the Centre for Continuing Education .
Many of the more modern buildings , including Senate House and the newer parts of the HH Wills Physics Laboratory , were designed by Raplh Brentnall after funds from the University Grants Committee . He is also responsible for the extension to the Wills Memorial Building library which was completed to such standard that few now realise that is an extension to the original building . Brentnall oversaw the rebuilding of the Great Hall of the Wills Memorial Building after it was partly destroyed during the Bristol Blitz of World War II . The buildings of St Michael 's Hill were rebuilt using hundreds of old photographs to recreate the original houses . The flats at Goldney Hall were designed by Michael Grice and received an award from the Civic Trust for their design . Bristol University owns some of the best examples of Georgian architecture in the city , the best examples being Royal Fort House , Clifton Hill House and Goldney Hall despite some additions . The Victoria Rooms which house the Music Department were designed by Charles Dyer and is seen as a good example of a Greek revival movement in British architecture . The tympanum of the building depicts a scene from The Advent of Morning designed by Jabez Tyley . Its major feature was a large organ which has since been destroyed by fire .
= = Academic reputation = =
League tables usually place Bristol within the top ten universities in the United Kingdom and it attracts many academically gifted students . For example , edition of 21 July 2011 of Times Higher Education reported that Bristol was fifth in a UK league table for the highest proportion of students with A @-@ level grades AAB or better . Bristol was ranked 10th overall in the The Sunday Times 10 @-@ year ( 1998 – 2007 ) average ranking of British universities based on consistent league table performance , and is a member of the ' Sutton 13 ' of top ranked Universities in the UK . Internationally , the 2012 / 2013 QS World University Rankings placed Bristol at 28th overall in the world . The rankings also placed Bristol at 15th in the world in terms of reputation with employers , placing higher than several American Ivy League universities , including Princeton University , Cornell and UPenn . Bristol was chosen as the ninth best university in the UK for the quality of graduates according to recruiters from the UK 's major companies . Another international ranking , the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities , placed Bristol 64th globally in 2013 The Times Higher Education World University Ranking placed Bristol at 66th in 2011 . Competition for places is high with an average 7 @.@ 7 applications per place according to the 2014 Sunday Times League Tables , making it the joint 11th most competitive university in the UK .
According to data published in The Sunday Times , Bristol has the sixth @-@ highest percentage of " good honours " of any UK university . In the 2010 Centre for Higher Education 's Development 's Excellence Rankings , Bristol is one of only four UK universities ( Oxford , UCL and Manchester ) to be rated Excellent in all seven departments .
The following courses offered by the University of Bristol managed to reach top 5 in The ' Times ranking ( 2008 ) : Computer Science ( 3rd ) ; Electrical and Electronic Engineering ( 3rd ) ; Civil Engineering ( 5th ) ; Biological Sciences ( 3rd ) ; Mathematics ( 3rd ) ; and Psychology ( 4th ) . Furthermore , the QS World University Rankings place Bristol in the world 's top 100 universities for all subject areas in 2011 : Arts and Humanities ( 57th ) , Natural Sciences ( 40th ) , Engineering & IT ( 83rd ) , Social Sciences ( 65th ) and Life Sciences ( 70th ) . A further breakdown of the QS World University Natural Sciences Ranking shows the following : Earth Sciences ( 25th ) , Mathematics ( 35th ) , Environmental Sciences ( 39th ) , Physics ( 41st ) , and Chemistry ( 48th ) .
In addition , Bristol is particularly strong in the field of social sciences , particularly in economics , finance and management , and was rated fourth in the 2008 Guardian University Guide for Business and Management Studies .
In 2011 , The Guardian also ranked Bristol as third in the UK for geography , just behind second place Oxford and ranked Bristol as 1st in the UK for Music .
In The Complete University Guide 2013 , Bristol ranked fifth for German , fourth for Russian , third for mechanical and civil engineering , third for music and second for drama .
Bristol is also known for its research strength , having 15 departments gaining the top grade of 5 * in the 2001 Research Assessment Exercise . Overall , 36 out of 46 departments rated gained the top two ratings of 5 or 5 * , and 76 % of all the academic staff working in departments scored these top two levels . In terms of teaching strength , Bristol had an average Teaching Quality Assessment score of 22 @.@ 05 / 24 before the TQA was abolished . For admission in October 2010 , Bristol reported an average of 10 @.@ 2 applications per place with the average A @-@ level score on admission being 478 @.@ 5 . Bristol 's drop @-@ out rate is also lower than the benchmark set by HEFCE of no more than 3 @.@ 1 % .
= = Academic structure = =
The university is made up of a number of schools and departments organised into six faculties :
= = = Faculty of Arts = = =
School of Arts
Archaeology and Anthropology
Film and Television
Music
Philosophy
Theatre
School of Humanities
Classics & Ancient History
English
History ( Historical Studies )
History of Art ( Historical Studies )
Religion and Theology
School of Modern Languages
French
German
Hispanic , Portuguese and Latin American Studies
Italian
Russian
Bristol Institute for Research in the Humanities and Arts
Centre for English Language and Foundation Studies
Graduate School of Arts and Humanities
= = = Faculty of Engineering = = =
Graduate School of Engineering
Merchant Venturers ' School of Engineering
Computer Science
Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Engineering Mathematics
Queen 's School of Engineering
Aerospace Engineering
Civil Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
= = = Faculty of Biomedical Sciences = = =
School of Biochemistry
School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine
School of Physiology and Pharmacology
= = = Faculty of Science = = =
School of Biological Sciences
School of Chemistry
School of Earth Sciences
School of Experimental Psychology
School of Geographical Sciences
School of Mathematics
School of Physics
Interface Analysis Centre
The Bristol Centre for Nanoscience and Quantum Information
= = = Faculty of Health Sciences = = =
Centre for Health Sciences Education
Centre for Comparative and Clinical Anatomy
Teaching and Learning for Health Professionals
School of Clinical Sciences
School of Oral & Dental Sciences
School of Social and Community Medicine
School of Veterinary Sciences
= = = Faculty of Social Sciences and Law = = =
Graduate School of Education
School for Policy Studies
Centre for Exercise , Nutrition and Health Sciences
Norah Fry Research Centre
School of Economics , Finance and Management
Accounting and Finance
Centre for Market and Public Organisation
Economics
Management
School of Sociology , Politics and International Studies
University of Bristol Law School
= = = Degrees = = =
Bristol awards a range of academic degrees spanning bachelor 's and master 's degrees as well as junior doctorates and higher doctorates . The postnominals awarded are the degree abbreviations used commonly among British universities . The university is part of the Engineering Doctorate scheme , and awards the Eng . D. in systems engineering , engineering management , aerospace engineering and non @-@ destructive evaluation .
Bristol notably does not award by title any bachelor 's degrees in music , which is available for study but awarded B.A. ( although it does award MMus and DMus ) , nor any degree in divinity , since divinity is not available for study ( students of theology are awarded a B.A. ) . Similarly , the university does not award BLitt ( Bachelor of Letters ) , although it does award both MLitt and DLitt . In regulations , the university does not name MD or DDS as higher doctorates , although they are in many universities as these degrees are normally accredited professional doctorates .
The degrees of DLitt . , DSc , DEng , LLD and DMus , whilst having regulations specifying the grounds for award , are most often conferred as honorary degrees ( in honoris causa ) . Those used most commonly are the DLitt , DSc and LLD , with the MA ( and occasionally the MLitt ) also sometimes conferred honorarily for distinction in the local area or within the University .
= = Governance = =
In common with most UK universities , Bristol is headed formally by the chancellor , currently Baroness Hale of Richmond , and led on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis by the vice @-@ chancellor , currently Hugh Brady , who is the academic leader and chief executive . There are four pro vice @-@ chancellors and three ceremonial pro @-@ chancellors . The chancellor may hold office for up to ten years and the pro @-@ chancellors for up to three , unless the University Court determines otherwise , but the vice @-@ chancellor and pro @-@ vice @-@ chancellors have no term limits . The vice @-@ chancellor is supported by a deputy vice @-@ chancellor .
Responsibility for running the university is held at an executive level by the vice @-@ chancellor , but the council is the only body that can recommend changes to the university 's statutes and charter , with the exception of academic ordinances . These can only be made with the consent of the senate , the chief academic body in the university which also holds responsibility for teaching and learning , examinations and research and enterprise . The chancellor and pro chancellors are nominated by council and appointed formally by court , whose additional powers are now limited to these appointments and a few others , including some lay members of council . Finally , Convocation , the body of all staff , ceremonial officers and graduates of the university , returns 100 members to court and one member to council , but is otherwise principally a forum for discussion and to ensure graduates stay in touch with the university .
= = Student life = =
= = = Students ' union = = =
The University of Bristol Union ( Bristol SU or BSU ) located on Queen 's Road is a founding member of the National Union of Students and is amongst the oldest students ' unions in England . The union oversees the two media outlets of the university , the Bristol University Radio Station ( BURST ) and the student newspaper Epigram . In terms of student life , the union is responsible for the organisation of the annual freshers ' fair , the co @-@ ordination of Bristol Student Community Action , which organises volunteering projects in the local community , and the organisation of entertainment events and very large number of student societies . Previous presidents have included Sue Lawley and former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik . There is a separate union for postgraduate students , as well as an athletic union , which is a member of the British Universities & Colleges Sport . In distinction to the " blues " awarded for sporting excellence at Oxford and Cambridge , Bristol 's most successful athletes are awarded " reds " .
= = = Halls of residence = = =
Accommodation for students is primarily in the central precinct of the university and two areas of Bristol : Clifton and Stoke Bishop . In Stoke Bishop , Wills Hall on the edge of the Clifton Downs was the first to be opened , in 1929 , by the then chancellor , Winston Churchill . Its original quadrangle layout has been expanded twice , in 1962 and 1990 . Churchill Hall , named for the chancellor , followed in 1956 , then Badock Hall in 1964 . At the time of Badock Hall 's establishment , some of the buildings were called Hiatt Baker Hall , but two years later , Hiatt Baker moved to its own site and is now the largest hall in the university . The first self @-@ catering hall in Stoke Bishop was University Hall , established in 1971 with expansion in 1992 . The University 's newest undergraduate residence , 33 Colston Street , was opened in the city centre in October 2011 after acquiring the property in 2009 . The university established a partnership with Unite PLC in order provide accommodation due to increase in number of students accepted for entry for academic year 2012 / 2013 . A £ 20 million project of expanding facilities of Hiatt Baker is to provide additional 327 places for undergraduate students in 2014 . All of the main halls elect groups of students to the Junior Common Room to organise the halls social calendar for the next year . Residents of student houses , private accommodation and students living at home become members of Orbital – a society organising social events for students throughout the year .
In Clifton , Goldney Hall was built first in the early 18th century by the wealthy merchant Goldney family and eventually became part of the university in 1956 . It is a popular location for filming , with The Chronicles of Narnia , The House of Eliott and Truly , Madly , Deeply , as well as episodes of Only Fools and Horses and Casualty , being filmed there . The Grotto in the grounds is a Grade I listed building . Clifton Hill House is another Grade I listed building now used as student accommodation in Clifton . The original building was constructed between 1745 and 1750 by Isaac Ware , and has been used by the university since its earliest days in 1909 . Manor Hall comprises five separate buildings , the principal of which was erected from 1927 – 1932 to the design of George Oatley following a donation from Henry Herbert Wills .
One of its annexes , Manor House , has recently been refurbished and officially ' reopened ' in 1999 . Goldney Hall has beautiful gardens and modern accommodation complexes . Clifton Hill House has more dated facilities , but as with all the Clifton residences also possesses attractive gardens . Manor Hall houses the largest and most dated rooms , some dating back to the early 20th century .
On the central precinct sits The Hawthorns , a student house accommodating 115 undergraduate students . The house started life as a collection of villas built somewhere between 1888 and 1924 that were later converted , bit by bit , into a hotel by John Dingle . The Hawthorns also houses conferencing facilities , the staff refectory and bar , the Accommodation Office and the Student Houses Office . Several of the residences in the central precinct are more recent and have been built and are managed by third @-@ party organisations under exclusivity arrangements with the University . These include Unite House and Chantry Court , opened in 2000 and 2003 respectively by the UNITE Group , as well as Dean 's Court ( 2001 , postgraduates only ) and Woodland Court ( 2005 ) , both run by the Dominion Housing Group .
= = Symbols = =
In common with other universities in the United Kingdom , Bristol uses its particular pattern of academic dress as well its logo and coat of arms to represent itself .
= = = Academic dress = = =
The university specifies a mix of Cambridge and Oxford academic dress . For the most part , it uses Oxford @-@ style gowns and Cambridge @-@ style hoods , which are required to be " university red " ( see the logo at the top of the page )
= = = Logo and arms = = =
In 2004 , the university unveiled its new logo . The icons in the logo are the sun for the Wills family , the dolphin for Colston , the horse for Fry and the ship @-@ and @-@ castle from the mediaeval seal of the City of Bristol , as also used in the coat of arms . The shape of the whole logo represents the open book of learning . This logo has replaced the university arms shown , but the arms continue to be used where there is a specific historical or ceremonial requirement . The arms comprise :
argent on a cross quadrate gules the arms of the City of Bristol between in pale and a sun in splendour ( for Wills ) and an open book proper , leaved and clasped or , and inscribed with the words Nisi quia Dominus , and in fesse to the sinister a dolphin embowed ( for Colston ) , and to the dexter a horse courant ( for Fry ) , both of the third .
The inscription on the book is the Latin opening of the 124th Psalm , " If the Lord Himself had not ( been on our side ... ) " .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Academics = = =
Current academics at the University of Bristol include 18 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences , 10 fellows of the British Academy , 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 31 fellows of the Royal Society . These include , Sir Michael Berry , one of the discoverers of quantum mechanics ' " geometric phase " , John Rarity international expert on quantum optics , quantum cryptography and quantum communication , David May , computer scientist and lead architect for the transputer , Mark Horton , a British maritime and historical archaeologist .
Past academics of the university include , Patricia Broadfoot , Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University of Gloucestershire , and Nigel Thrift , Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University of Warwick . Anthony Epstein , co @-@ discoverer of the Epstein @-@ Barr virus , was Professor of Pathology at the university from 1968 – 1982 . , Sir John Lennard @-@ Jones , discoverer of the Lennard @-@ Jones potential in physics and Alfred Marshall , one of the University College 's principals and influential economist in the latter part of the 19th century . Mathematicians and philosophers Rohit Parikh and Brian Rotman lectured in the mathematics department .
The University of Bristol is associated with two Ig Nobel Prizes , an award for unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research . Sir Michael Berry shared the award ( with Andre Geim , a Nobel Laureate ) for using magnets to levitate a frog . Gareth Jones also shared an Ig Nobel prize for scientifically documenting fellatio in fruit bats .
= = = Alumni = = =
Notable alumni include writers Dick King @-@ Smith , Sarah Kane , Angela Carter , David Gibbins and David Nicholls , author of the novel Starter for Ten , turned into a screenplay set in the University of Bristol . Mark Simmons , author of business books , Will Hutton , economist , author , commentator .
In entertainment and current affairs former students include , James Landale , BBC News Chief Political Correspondent who founded the university independent newspaper Epigram , William Lewis , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Telegraph Media Group , Derren Brown , illusionist , Sue Lawley , Radio 4 presenter , Alastair Stewart , newsreader and Dominic Waghorn , Sky News US Correspondent . Susanna Reid , ITV Breakfast anchor studied Politics , Philosophy and Law at the university between 1989 and 1992 and was also editor of the student newspaper , Epigram .
In comedy , Matt Lucas and David Walliams , Simon Pegg ( of Hot Fuzz fame ) , Chris Morris , creator of the controversial Brass Eye and Jon Richardson . Other comedy stars include Chris Langham , of The Thick of It fame , standup comic Marcus Brigstocke .
Other alumni include , Mike Bennett , digital media entrepreneur , Albert II , Prince of Monaco , musician James Blunt , former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik was President of Bristol University Students ' Union during his time . Paul Dirac , Lucasian Professor at Cambridge and Nobel Laureate , Sir Jonathan Evans former head of MI5 and Anne McClain , member of the 2013 NASA Astronaut Class
Notable alumni from the Film and Television Production department include film directors Mick Jackson , Michael Winterbottom , Marc Evans , Christopher Smith , Alex Cox and Peter Webber amongst many others .
|
= Songs by George Harrison =
Songs by George Harrison is a book of song lyrics and commentary by English musician George Harrison , with illustrations by New Zealand artist Keith West . It was published in February 1988 , in a limited run of 2500 copies , by Genesis Publications , and included an EP of rare or previously unreleased Harrison recordings . Intended as a luxury item , each copy was hand @-@ bound and boxed , and available only by direct order through Genesis in England . The book contains the lyrics to 60 Harrison compositions , the themes of which West represents visually with watercolour paintings . Starting in 1985 , Harrison and West worked on the project for two years , during which Harrison returned to music @-@ making with his album Cloud Nine , after focusing on film production for much of the early 1980s . The book includes a foreword by his Cloud Nine co @-@ producer , Jeff Lynne , and a written contribution from Elton John .
The musical disc contains three songs that Warner Bros. Records had rejected in 1980 for inclusion on Harrison 's album Somewhere in England , together with a live version of his Beatles track " For You Blue " . This last song was recorded during Harrison 's controversial 1974 North American tour , when his singing was marred by the effects of laryngitis ; it remains the only vocal performance from that tour to have been made available outside of concert bootlegs . While " Lay His Head " was issued as the B @-@ side to his 1987 single " Got My Mind Set on You " , the Songs by George Harrison EP remains the sole official release for this live version of " For You Blue " and for the studio tracks " Sat Singing " and " Flying Hour " .
Genesis undertook a single print run for the book , after which Songs by George Harrison became a highly priced collector 's item . It was followed by a second volume , published in 1992 . AllMusic describes the EP as " remarkable " and " classic Harrison " .
= = Background = =
George Harrison first worked with Genesis Publications on his 1980 autobiography , I Me Mine , for which his friend Derek Taylor served as editor and narrator . Harrison subsequently edited Taylor 's memoir , Fifty Years Adrift , which Genesis published in its customary , limited @-@ edition , deluxe format in 1984 . That year , Brian Roylance , the owner of Genesis Publications , met a New Zealand @-@ born botanical artist named Keith West , whose work Roylance considered might be suitable for a proposed illustrated book of Harrison 's songs .
Since 1982 , when he released the little @-@ promoted Gone Troppo album , Harrison had minimised his musical activities in favour of a role as a film producer , with the success of his company HandMade Films . The content of his previous album , Somewhere in England , had been the subject of scrutiny by Warner Bros. Records , the distributor of Harrison 's Dark Horse record label ; as a result , Harrison was obliged to replace four of the songs intended for that album with more commercial @-@ sounding recordings for its eventual release , in mid 1981 . On the musical disc accompanying the Songs by George Harrison book , Harrison decided to include three of the tracks that Warner Bros. had rejected . The fourth of those 1980 recordings , " Tears of the World " , would appear on the EP accompanying Harrison and West 's 1992 illustrated book , Songs by George Harrison 2 .
= = Production = =
Having relocated to north Wales by 1985 , West met with Harrison regularly over a period of two years at the latter 's Oxfordshire estate , Friar Park . The pair discussed the images required for all of Harrison 's songs , in order to ensure empathy between the illustrations and the message behind the lyrics . West worked up pencil sketches , which he would submit to Harrison , before completing the final watercolour illustrations .
Songs by George Harrison contains the lyrics to 60 of Harrison 's compositions , for each of which West hand @-@ lettered the words . Harrison provided text commenting on the story behind some of the songs , along with facsimiles of his original lyric sheets . The book was bound inside a black leather cover , and ran to 176 pages , measuring 175 by 250 millimetres .
During the two @-@ year period of production , Harrison resumed a more active musical career , which included working with producer Jeff Lynne on the soundtrack to HandMade Films ' Shanghai Surprise in 1986 before recording his first album in five years , Cloud Nine . The book includes a foreword by Lynne , a " middleword " by Elton John , and a " backword " by Harrison . The accompanying EP was offered in either vinyl or CD format , with the disc housed beside the book in a handmade Solander box .
= = Musical content = =
= = = " Sat Singing " = = =
The opening track on the EP , the 1979 @-@ copyright " Sat Singing " , was recorded at Harrison 's Friar Park studio , FPSHOT , in March 1980 . Among Harrison biographers , Simon Leng views the song as a " pivotal composition " in the artist 's career , while Dale Allison considers it to be " a crucial song for interpreting George 's religiosity " . The lyrics document an afternoon spent immersed in meditation , during which the singer surrenders the distractions of the physical world for a communion with his deity . The title references the Sanskrit term sat @-@ sang , which means time spent in the company of " the highest truth " , such as with one 's guru . Leng describes the song as " a companion piece " to the Beatles ' " Tomorrow Never Knows " , in that " Sat Singing " represents the " attainment " of John Lennon 's earlier exhortation to " Turn off your mind , relax and float downstream " .
= = = " Lay His Head " = = =
Like " Sat Singing " , " Lay His Head " was recorded during the sessions for Somewhere in England , in April 1980 . The title refers to a phrase from the gospels of St Matthew and St Luke that Harrison had taken to quoting when referring to the lack of privacy afforded him and his Beatles bandmates during the 1960s . In his adaptation , the phrase became : " Foxes have holes and birds have nests , but Beatles have nowhere to lay their heads . " Leng views the song as a reflection on " what a man loses when he becomes a media entity : a connection with other people that everyone else takes for granted " .
Harrison carried out further work on the recording in August 1987 . In October that year , " Lay His Head " was released as the B @-@ side to " Got My Mind Set on You " , the lead single from Cloud Nine . The version on Songs by George Harrison used the same mix as that issued on the single , which differed from the 1980 recording through the increased presence of percussion and drums . Percussionist Ray Cooper was credited as co @-@ producer with Harrison .
= = = " For You Blue " = = =
Originally recorded by the Beatles and released on their 1970 album Let It Be , " For You Blue " was one of the relatively few Beatles songs that Harrison chose to perform on his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar . The live version issued on Songs by George Harrison was the first recording from these 1974 concerts to receive an official release , despite Harrison 's statements post @-@ tour that a full live album would be made available .
Although the EP credits read " Live in Washington DC " , the song was recorded in nearby Largo , Maryland , on 13 December 1974 . The performance features solos from Robben Ford ( on electric guitar ) , Emil Richards ( marimba ) and Willie Weeks ( bass ) . During the tour , many reviewers had criticised Harrison for , variously , giving over stage @-@ time to his fellow musicians , being scornful of his audience 's nostalgia for the Beatles , and performing with a voice ravaged by the effects of laryngitis . In response , Leng writes that this live version of " For You Blue " contradicts the " ' given ' view " espoused by Rolling Stone magazine that Harrison 's 1974 concerts were a " calamity " . In 2001 , Record Collector editor Peter Doggett similarly commented on the track , with regard to the singer 's vocal issues : " Thankfully , the solitary official evidence of the tour ... showed little evidence of the strain . "
= = = " Flying Hour " = = =
Although Harrison had intended the song for inclusion on Somewhere in England , " Flying Hour " dated from the sessions for his previous album , George Harrison ( 1979 ) , and was recorded in March 1978 . He wrote the song with Bad Company guitarist Mick Ralphs , who was among a coterie of local rock musicians , known informally as " the Henley Music Mafia " , with whom Harrison played and socialised from the late 1970s onwards . Among the changes carried out when he revisited " Flying Hour " in 1987 , the track has a longer running time than the 1980 version , partly through the reinstating of a 20 @-@ second guitar solo late in the song , and Harrison 's slide guitar features less prominently in the mix . The track is driven by Weeks ' bassline and includes Polymoog synthesizer soloing from Steve Winwood .
= = Publication = =
Songs by George Harrison was published on 15 February 1988 , with the Genesis Publications catalogue number SGH 777 . The print run was limited to 2500 , with each copy signed by Harrison and West . The book was priced at £ 235 and available via mail order only . Genesis also offered the book as a limited @-@ edition series of enlarged prints .
The release coincided with Harrison 's uncharacteristically high @-@ profile publicity for Cloud Nine , which was a critical and commercial success when issued in November 1987 . In an interview published in Musician magazine that same month , Harrison spoke of a planned second volume with West , and he defended the exclusivity of Songs by George Harrison by saying , " in a world of crass , disposable junk , it 's meant to be a lovely thing . "
Harrison and his wife Olivia returned to England from California for the book 's publication . He subsequently promoted Songs by George Harrison during his Cloud Nine publicity activities in Europe .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Despite its high price , Songs by George Harrison sold well . Typically for a Genesis title , however , the publication 's availability was confined to its initial print run .
In a four @-@ star rating for the EP , J.T. Griffith of AllMusic describes it as " one of the essential additions to any serious Beatles or George Harrison collection " and he concludes : " Songs By George Harrison is remarkable ... the songs are classic Harrison . " Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Greg Kot highlighted " Sat Singing " and " Lay His Head " among the " gems " offered on the disc . That same year , Dave Thompson of Goldmine similarly admired the 1980 @-@ recorded tracks ; he said that their rejection had been " a criminal decision on the label 's part " since otherwise Somewhere in England " could easily have taken its place among the elite of solo Beatledom " .
While lamenting that Songs by George Harrison was " an heirloom @-@ quality item ( with a price to match ) " , and so prohibitive to the majority of Harrison 's audience , author Robert Rodriguez considers that Warner Bros. " displayed appalling judgment " in overlooking " Sat Singing " and particularly " Flying Hour " , which he describes as " a breezy tune filled to the brim with hooks " . Simon Leng admires the reinterpretation of " For You Blue " as a rhythm and blues " jam track " and praises " Sat Singing " for its " melody of some beauty , colored by warm , golden slide guitar " . Leng adds that " As a musical essay on serenity and joy , [ ' Sat Singing ' ] is one of Harrison 's best " , yet he also identifies an isolationist perspective on the three 1980 recordings that reflected the singer 's failure to appreciate the market forces with which Warner 's had to contend .
The 1988 Genesis publication remains the only formal release for " Sat Singing " , " Flying Hour " and the live " For You Blue " , although all four tracks from the EP became available in 1995 on the bootleg compilation Pirate Songs . While a live version of the instrumental " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " from Harrison 's 1974 tour appeared on the Songs by George Harrison 2 EP , " For You Blue " remains the only vocal track from that tour to receive an official release .
In December 2006 , Record Collector magazine ranked Songs by George Harrison 122nd in its list of " The 250 Most Valuable Records of Our Time " , with an estimated value of £ 800 for the book and disc set . Dale Allison describes it as " obscure , hard @-@ to @-@ get , and very expensive " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by George Harrison , except where noted . All track @-@ list information per CD label .
" Sat Singing " – 4 : 30
" Lay His Head " – 3 : 50
" For You Blue " [ live ] – 4 : 08
" Flying Hour " ( Harrison , Mick Ralphs ) – 4 : 32
|
= Paul Tibbets =
Paul Warfield Tibbets Jr . ( 23 February 1915 – 1 November 2007 ) was a brigadier general in the United States Air Force . He is best known as the pilot who flew the Enola Gay ( named after his mother ) when it dropped Little Boy , the first of two atomic bombs used in warfare , on the Japanese city of Hiroshima .
Tibbets enlisted in the United States Army in 1937 and qualified as a pilot in 1938 . After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , he flew anti @-@ submarine patrols over the Atlantic . In February 1942 , he became the commanding officer of the 340th Bombardment Squadron of the 97th Bombardment Group , which was equipped with the Boeing B @-@ 17 . In July 1942 the 97th became the first heavy bombardment group to be deployed as part of the Eighth Air Force , and Tibbets became deputy group commander . He flew the lead plane in the first American daylight heavy bomber mission against Occupied Europe on 17 August 1942 , and the first American raid of more than 100 bombers in Europe on 9 October 1942 . Tibbets was chosen to fly Major General Mark W. Clark and Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower to Gibraltar . After flying 43 combat missions , he became the assistant for bomber operations on the staff of the Twelfth Air Force .
Tibbets returned to the United States in February 1943 to help with the development of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress . In September 1944 , he was appointed the commander of the 509th Composite Group , which would conduct the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . After the war , he participated in the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in mid @-@ 1946 , and was involved in the development of the Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet in the early 1950s . He commanded the 308th Bombardment Wing and 6th Air Division in the late 1950s , and was military attaché in India from 1964 to 1966 . After leaving the Air Force in 1966 , he worked for Executive Jet Aviation , serving as its president from 1976 until his retirement in 1987 .
= = Early life = =
Paul Warfield Tibbets Jr. was born in Quincy , Illinois , on 23 February 1915 , the son of Paul Warfield Tibbets Sr. and his wife , Enola Gay Tibbets . When he was five years old the family moved to Davenport , Iowa , and then to Iowa 's capital , Des Moines , where he was raised , and where his father became a confections wholesaler . When he was eight , his family moved to Miami , Florida , to escape from harsh midwestern winters . As a boy he was very interested in flying . One day his mother agreed to pay one dollar to get him into an airplane at the local carnival . In 1927 , when he was 12 years old , he flew in a plane piloted by barnstormer Doug Davis , dropping candy bars with tiny parachutes to the crowd of people attending the races at the Hialeah Park Race Track .
In the late 1920s , business issues forced Tibbets 's family to return to Alton , Illinois , where he graduated from Western Military Academy in 1933 . He then attended the University of Florida in Gainesville , and became an initiated member of the Epsilon Zeta Chapter of Sigma Nu fraternity in 1934 . During that time , Tibbets took private flying lessons at Miami 's Opa @-@ locka Airport with Rusty Heard , who later became a captain at Eastern Airlines . After his undergraduate work , Tibbets had planned on becoming an abdominal surgeon . He transferred to the University of Cincinnati after his second year to complete his pre @-@ med studies there , because the University of Florida had no medical school at the time . However , he only attended for a year and a half as he changed his mind about wanting to become a doctor . Instead , he decided to enlist in the United States Army and become a pilot in the United States Army Air Corps .
= = Early military career = =
Because he went to a military school , attended some college , and had some flight experience , Tibbets qualified for the Aviation Cadet Training Program . On 25 February 1937 , he enlisted in the army at Fort Thomas , Kentucky , and was sent to Randolph Field in San Antonio , Texas , for primary and basic flight instruction . During his training , he showed himself to be an above @-@ average pilot . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant and received his pilot rating in 1938 at Kelly Field , Texas .
After graduation , Tibbets was assigned to the 16th Observation Squadron , which was based at Lawson Field , Georgia , with a flight supporting the Infantry School at nearby Fort Benning . It was here that he met Lucy Wingate , a clerk at a department store in Columbus , Georgia . The two quietly married in a Catholic seminary in Holy Trinity , Alabama , on 19 June 1938 . Tibbets did not inform his family or his commanding officer , and the couple arranged for the notice to be kept out of the local paper . They had two sons , Paul III and Gene . While stationed at Fort Benning , Tibbets was promoted to first lieutenant , and served as a personal pilot for Brigadier General George S. Patton Jr. in 1940 and 1941 .
In June 1941 , Tibbets transferred to the 9th Bombardment Squadron of the 3d Bombardment Group at Hunter Field , Savannah , Georgia , as the engineering officer , and flew the A @-@ 20 Havoc . While there he was promoted to captain . In December 1941 , he received orders to join the 29th Bombardment Group at MacDill Field , Florida , for training on the Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress . On 7 December 1941 , Tibbets heard about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor while listening to the radio during a routine flight . Due to fears that German U @-@ Boats might enter Tampa Bay and bombard MacDill Field , the 29th Bombardment Group moved to Savannah . Tibbets remained on temporary duty with the 3d Bombardment Group , forming an anti @-@ submarine patrol at Pope Army Airfield , North Carolina , with 21 B @-@ 18 Bolo medium bombers . The B @-@ 18s were used as an intermediate trainer , which pilots flew after basic flight training in a Cessna UC @-@ 78 and before qualifying in the B @-@ 17 . Listen to Paul Tibbets own story of the development of the bomb
= = War against Germany = =
In February 1942 , Tibbets reported for duty with the 29th Bombardment Group as its engineering officer . Three weeks later he was named the commanding officer of the 340th Bombardment Squadron of the 97th Bombardment Group , equipped with the B @-@ 17D . It was initially based at MacDill , and then Sarasota Army Airfield , Florida , before moving to Godfrey Army Airfield in Bangor , Maine .
In July 1942 the 97th became the first heavy bombardment group of the Eighth Air Force to be deployed to England , where it was based at RAF Polebrook . It had been hastily assembled to meet demands for an early deployment , and arrived without any training in the basics of high altitude daylight bombing . In the first weeks of August 1942 , under the tutelage of Royal Air Force veterans , the group received intensive training for its first mission . The group commander , Lieutenant Colonel Cornelius W. Cousland , was replaced by Colonel Frank A. Armstrong Jr . , who appointed Tibbets as his deputy .
Tibbets flew the lead bomber Butcher Shop for the first American daylight heavy bomber mission on 17 August 1942 , a shallow penetration raid against a marshalling yard in Rouen in Occupied France , with Armstrong as his co @-@ pilot . This was not Tibbets 's regular aircraft , Red Gremlin , nor his regular crew , which included bombardier Thomas Ferebee and navigator Theodore Van Kirk , who later flew with him in Enola Gay . On October 9 , Tibbets led the first American raid of more than 100 bombers in Europe , attacking industrial targets in the French city of Lille . Poor bombing accuracy resulted in numerous civilian casualties and less damage to the rail installations than hoped , but the mission was hailed an overall success because it reached its target against heavy and constant fighter attack . Of the 108 aircraft in the raid , 33 were shot down or had to turn back due to mechanical problems .
In the leadup to Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , the commander of the Eighth Air Force , Major General Carl Spaatz was ordered to provide his best two pilots for a secret mission . He chose Tibbets and Major Wayne Connors . Tibbets flew Major General Mark W. Clark from Polebook to Gibraltar while Connors flew Clark 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Lyman Lemnitzer . A few weeks later Tibbets flew the Supreme Allied Commander , Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower , there . " By reputation " , historian Stephen Ambrose wrote , Tibbets was " the best flier in the Army Air Force [ sic ] . "
After Tibbets had flown 25 combat missions against targets in France , the 97th Bomb Group was transferred to North Africa as part of Major General Jimmy Doolittle 's Twelfth Air Force . For Tibbets , the war in North Africa introduced him to the realities of aerial warfare . He claimed that he saw the real effects of bombing civilians and the trauma of losing his brothers in arms . In January 1943 , Tibbets , who had now flown 43 combat missions , was assigned as the assistant for bomber operations to Colonel Lauris Norstad , Assistant Chief of Staff of Operations ( A @-@ 3 ) of the Twelfth Air Force . Tibbets had recently been given a battlefield promotion to colonel , but did not receive it , as such promotions had to be confirmed by a panel of officers . He was told that Norstad had vetoed the promotion , saying " there 's only going to be one colonel in operations . "
Tibbets did not get along well with Norstad , or with Doolittle 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Hoyt Vandenberg . In one planning meeting , Norstad wanted an all @-@ out raid on Bizerte to be flown at 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . Tibbets protested that flak would be most effective at that altitude . When challenged by Norstad , Tibbets said he would lead the mission himself at 6 @,@ 000 feet if Norstad would fly as his co @-@ pilot . Norstad backed down , and the mission was successfully flown at 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) .
= = War against Japan = =
When General Henry H. Arnold , the Chief of United States Army Air Forces , requested an experienced bombardment pilot to help with the development of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bomber , Doolittle recommended Tibbets . Tibbets returned to the United States in February 1943 . At the time , the B @-@ 29 program was beset by a host of technical problems , and the chief test pilot , Edmund T. Allen , had been killed in a crash of the prototype aircraft .
Working with the Boeing plant in Wichita , Kansas , Tibbets test flew the B @-@ 29 , and soon accumulated more flight time in it than any other pilot . He found that without defensive armament and armor plating , the aircraft was 7 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 200 kg ) lighter , and its performance was much improved . In simulated combat engagements against a P @-@ 47 fighter at the B @-@ 29 's cruising altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) , he discovered that the B @-@ 29 had a smaller turning radius than the P @-@ 47 , and could avoid it by turning away .
After a year of developmental testing of the B @-@ 29 , Tibbets was assigned in March 1944 as director of operations of the 17th Bombardment Operational Training Wing ( Very Heavy ) , a B @-@ 29 training unit based at Grand Island Army Air Field , Nebraska , and commanded by Armstrong . Its role was to transition pilots to the B @-@ 29 . Tibbets taught two Women Airforce Service Pilots , Dora Dougherty and Dorothea ( Didi ) Moorman , to fly the B @-@ 29 as demonstration pilots .
On 1 September 1944 , Tibbets reported to Colorado Springs Army Airfield , the headquarters of the Second Air Force , where he met with its commander , Major General Uzal Ent , and three representatives of the Manhattan Project , Lieutenant Colonel John Lansdale Jr . , Captain William S. Parsons , and Norman F. Ramsey Jr . , who briefed him on the project . Tibbets was told that he would be in charge of the 509th Composite Group , a fully self @-@ contained organization of about 1 @,@ 800 men , which would have 15 B @-@ 29s and a high priority for all kinds of military stores . Ent gave Tibbets a choice of three possible bases : Great Bend Army Airfield , Kansas ; Mountain Home Army Airfield , Idaho ; or Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . Tibbets selected Wendover for its remoteness .
When the operation was still in the development stage the leading candidates to command the group designated to drop the atomic bomb had been Armstrong and Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson , the Army Air Force project officer providing liaison support to the Manhattan Project . Although an experienced combat veteran against German targets , Armstrong was in his forties and had been severely injured in a fire in the summer of 1943 , while Wilson had no combat experience and was qualified primarily by his engineering background and association with the project . Tibbets was considerably younger than both and had experience in both staff and command duties in heavy bomber combat operations , and was already an experienced B @-@ 29 pilot , thus making him an ideal candidate .
Tibbets , who received promotion to colonel in January 1945 , brought his wife and family along with him to Wendover . He felt that allowing married men in the group to bring their families would improve morale , although it put a strain on his own marriage . To explain all the civilian engineers on base who were working on the Manhattan Project , he had to lie to his wife , telling her that the engineers were " sanitary workers . " At one point Tibbets found that Lucy had co @-@ opted a scientist to unplug a drain .
On 6 March 1945 , concurrent with the activation of Project Alberta , the 1st Ordnance Squadron , Special ( Aviation ) was activated at Wendover , again using Army Air Forces personnel on hand or already at Los Alamos . Its purpose was to provide " skilled machinists , welders and munitions workers " and special equipment to the group to enable it to assemble atomic weapons at its operating base , thereby allowing the weapons to be transported more safely in their component parts . A rigorous candidate selection process was used to recruit personnel , reportedly with an 80 % rejection rate . The 509th Composite Group reached full strength in May 1945 .
With the addition of the 1st Ordnance Squadron to its roster in March 1945 , the 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1 @,@ 542 enlisted men , almost all of whom deployed to Tinian , an island in the northern Marianas within striking distance of Japan , in May and June 1945 . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron kept its base of operations at Wendover . In addition to its authorized strength , the 509th had attached to it on Tinian all 51 civilian and military personnel of Project Alberta . Furthermore , two representatives from Washington , D.C. were present on the island : the deputy director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee .
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 , to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington . On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas , while the group 's materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . An advance party of the air echelon flew by C @-@ 54 to North Field , Tinian , between May 15 and 22 , where it was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945 . Project Alberta 's " Destination Team " also sent most of its members to Tinian to supervise the assembly , loading , and dropping of the bombs under the administrative title of 1st Technical Services Detachment , Miscellaneous War Department Group .
On 5 August 1945 , Tibbets formally named his B @-@ 29 Enola Gay after his mother . Enola Gay had been personally selected by him while it was still on the assembly line at the Glenn L. Martin Company plant in Bellevue , Nebraska . The regularly assigned aircraft commander , Robert A. Lewis , was unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for this important mission , and became furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of August 6 to see the aircraft he considered his painted with the now @-@ famous nose art . Lewis would fly the mission as Tibbets 's co @-@ pilot .
At 02 : 45 the next day — in accordance with the terms of Operations Order No. 35 — the Enola Gay departed North Field for Hiroshima , Japan , with Tibbets at the controls . Tinian was approximately 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) away from Japan , so it took six hours to reach Hiroshima . The atomic bomb , code @-@ named " Little Boy " , was dropped over Hiroshima at 08 : 15 local time . Tibbets recalled that the city was covered with a tall mushroom cloud after the bomb was dropped .
Tibbets was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by Spaatz immediately after landing on Tinian . He became a celebrity , with pictures and interviews of his wife and children in the major American newspapers . He was seen as a national hero who had ended the war with Japan . Tibbets later received an invitation from President Harry S. Truman to visit the White House . The 509th Composite Group was awarded an Air Force Outstanding Unit Award in 1999 .
Tibbets was interviewed extensively by Mike Harden of the Columbus Dispatch , and profiles appeared in the newspaper on anniversaries of the first dropping of an atomic bomb . In a 1975 interview he said : " I 'm proud that I was able to start with nothing , plan it and have it work as perfectly as it did ... I sleep clearly every night . " " I knew when I got the assignment , " he told a reporter in 2005 , " it was going to be an emotional thing . We had feelings , but we had to put them in the background . We knew it was going to kill people right and left . But my one driving interest was to do the best job I could so that we could end the killing as quickly as possible . "
= = Post @-@ war military career = =
The 509th Composite Group returned to the United States on 6 November 1945 , and was stationed at Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico . Colonel William H. Blanchard replaced Tibbets as group commander on 22 January 1946 , and also became the first commander of the 509th Bombardment Wing , the successor to the 509th Composite Group . Tibbets was a technical advisor to the 1946 Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific , but he and his Enola Gay crew were not chosen to drop another atomic bomb .
Tibbets then attended the Air Command and Staff School at Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama . On graduating in 1947 he was posted to the Directorate of Requirements at Air Force Headquarters at the Pentagon . When the head of the directorate , Brigadier General Thomas S. Power , was posted to London as air attaché , he was replaced by Brigadier General Carl Brandt . Brandt appointed Tibbets as director of Directorate of Requirements 's Strategic Air Division , which was responsible for drawing up requirements for future bombers . Tibbets was convinced that the bombers of the future would be jet aircraft and thus became involved in the Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet program . He subsequently served as B @-@ 47 project officer at Boeing in Wichita from July 1950 until February 1952 . He then became commander of the Proof Test Division at Eglin Air Force Base in Valparaiso , Florida , where flight testing of the B @-@ 47 was conducted .
Tibbets returned to Maxwell Air Force Base , where he attended the Air War College . After he graduated in June 1955 , he became Director of War Plans at the Allied Air Forces in Central Europe Headquarters at Fontainebleau , France . He left Lucy and his sons behind in Alabama , and he and Lucy divorced that year . During his posting to France , he met a French divorcee named Andrea Quattrehomme , who became his second wife . He returned to the United States in February 1956 to command the 308th Bombardment Wing at Hunter Air Force Base , Georgia , and married her in the base chapel on 4 May 1956 . They had a son , James Tibbets .
In January 1958 , Tibbets became commander of the 6th Air Division at MacDill Air Force Base , Florida. and was promoted to brigadier general in 1959 . This was followed by another tour of duty at the Pentagon as director of Management Analysis . In July 1962 , he was assigned to the Joint Chiefs of Staff as deputy director for operations , and then , in June 1963 , as deputy director for the National Military Command System . In 1964 , Tibbets was named military attaché in India . He spent 22 months there on this posting , which ended in June 1966 . He retired from the United States Air Force ( USAF ) on 31 August 1966 .
= = Later life and death = =
After his retirement from the Air Force , Tibbets worked for Executive Jet Aviation ( EJA ) , an air taxi company based in Columbus , Ohio , and now called NetJets . He attempted to extend the company 's operations to Europe , but was unsuccessful . He retired from the company in 1968 , and returned to Miami , Florida , where he had spent part of his childhood . The banks foreclosed on EJA in 1970 , and Bruce Sundlun became president . Sundlun lured Tibbets back to EJA that year . Tibbets succeeded Sundlun as president on 21 April 1976 , and remained in the role until 1986 . He served for a year as a consultant before his second and final retirement from EJA in 1987 .
Barry Nelson played Tibbets in the film The Beginning or the End ( 1947 ) . Above and Beyond ( 1952 ) depicted the World War II events involving Tibbets , with Robert Taylor starring as Tibbets and Eleanor Parker as his first wife Lucy . Tibbets was also the model for screenwriter Sy Bartlett 's fictional character " Major Joe Cobb " in the film Twelve O 'Clock High , and for a brief period in February 1949 was slated to be the film 's technical advisor until his replacement at the last minute by Colonel John H. deRussy . Enola Gay : The Men , the Mission , the Atomic Bomb , a 1980 made @-@ for @-@ television movie , somewhat fictionalized , told the story of Tibbets crew . Patrick Duffy played Tibbets and Kim Darby played Lucy .
In other fictional portrayals , Nicholas Kilbertus was Tibbets in the film Day One , David Gow played him in the 1995 TV movie Hiroshima , and Ian Shaw played the part in the BBC 's 2005 TV docudrama Hiroshima , for which Tibbets was also interviewed on camera . An interview with Tibbets also appeared in the 1982 movie Atomic Cafe , as well as was in the 1970s British documentary series The World at War , and the " Men Who Brought the Dawn " episode of the Smithsonian Networks ' War Stories ( 1995 ) . Tibbets figured largely in the 2000 book Duty : A Father , His Son and the Man Who Won the War by Bob Greene of the Chicago Tribune .
The United States government apologized to Japan in 1976 after Tibbets re @-@ enacted the bombing in a restored B @-@ 29 at an air show in Texas , complete with a mushroom cloud . He said that he had not meant for the re @-@ enactment to have been an insult to the Japanese . In 1995 , he denounced the 50th anniversary exhibition of the Enola Gay at the Smithsonian Institution , which attempted to present the bombing in context with the destruction it caused , as a " damn big insult " , due to its focus on the Japanese casualties rather than the brutality of the Japanese government . He was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1996 .
Tibbets 's grandson Paul W. Tibbets IV graduated from the United States Air Force Academy in 1989 , and in April 2006 became commander of the 393d Bomb Squadron , flying the B @-@ 2 Spirit at Whiteman AFB , Missouri . The squadron was one of the two operational squadrons that had formed part of the 509th Composite Group when Tibbets commanded it . Paul Tibbets IV was promoted to brigadier general in 2014 , and became Deputy Director for Nuclear Operations at the Global Operations Directorate of the United States Strategic Command at Offutt Air Force Base in Nebraska . As such , he was responsible for America 's strategic nuclear forces . On 5 June 2015 , he assumed command of the 509th Bomb Wing .
Tibbets died in his Columbus , Ohio , home on 1 November 2007 , at the age of 92 . He had suffered small strokes and heart failure during his final years and had been in hospice care . He was survived by his French @-@ born wife , Andrea , and two sons from his first marriage , Paul III and Gene as well as his son , James , from his second marriage . Tibbets had asked for no funeral nor headstone as he feared opponents of the bombing might use it as a place of protest . In accordance with his wishes , his body was cremated , and his ashes were scattered over the English Channel , which he had flown over many times during the war .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Command pilot
Source : Ohio History Central .
|
= Barrington Court =
Barrington Court is a Tudor manor house begun around 1538 and completed in the late 1550s , with a vernacular stable court ( 1675 ) , situated in Barrington , near Ilminster , Somerset , England .
The house was owned by several families by 1745 after which it fell into disrepair and was used as a tenant farm . After repair by architect Alfred Hoare Powell ( 1865 – 1960 ) , it was the first house acquired by the National Trust , in 1907 , on the recommendation of the antiquarian Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley ( 1851 – 1920 ) . In the 1920s the house was renovated , the stable block turned into a residence and several outbuildings , gardens and gateways constructed .
The house was originally surrounded by a medieval deer park and in the 17th century a formal garden was constructed . This had largely disappeared until a new garden was laid out by garden designer Gertrude Jekyll ( 1843 — 1932 ) in an Arts and Crafts @-@ style . It now contains walled kitchen gardens , fruit orchards and ornamental gardens .
= = History = =
The estate had been occupied since the 11th century and by the 14th century included a substantial house to the north east of the present building , where traces of a moat can still be seen . In 1446 the owner , Giles Daubeney , 6th Baron Daubeney , died at Barrington and left it to his son , another Giles Daubeney , who was a courtier , diplomat and military commander under Edward IV and Henry VII .
The manor was inherited in 1514 by Henry Daubeney , created Earl of Bridgewater for his services to Henry VIII . He spent much of his time in France and little time in Somerset . He may have begun the new house , but he went bankrupt and was involved in the disgrace of Catherine Howard , Henry VIII 's fifth wife . It is unlikely that much , if any , of the current building was his work . The house was forfeit to the crown and then had various owners including Henry Grey , 1st Duke of Suffolk , who in 1552 sold it to William Clifton , a London merchant who had been assembling a Somerset estate . Clifton or his son John Clifton are thought to be responsible for most of the building at Barrington , possibly modeled on earlier work at Kirby Hall or East Anglian manors close to their roots at Kentwell Hall , Hengrave Hall or Channons Hall at Tibenham .
It passed down in the Clifton family including Gervase Clifton , who in 1605 sold it to his brother @-@ in @-@ law Sir Thomas Phelips of Montacute House . The house was then mortgaged and , in 1625 , sold to Colonel William Strode , Jr . The house and estate were owned by the Strode family from 1625 until 1745 after which it was bought by several different owners but poorly maintained , becoming known as Court Farm .
The interior of the house suffered from its demotion to a tenant farm and from a fire in the early 19th century ; after being almost derelict it was repaired under the supervision of Alfred Hoare Powell . Barrington Court was acquired by the Trust in 1907 and was leased to Col. A. A. Lyle of Tate & Lyle in the 1920s . He and his wife turned the house around and refurbished the court house and renovated Strode House ( built by Colonel Strode 's son , William III , in 1674 ) which was originally a stable and coach block . It was at this time that the Lyles contracted Gertrude Jekyll to design the three formal gardens on the property that are maintained by the head gardener .
The house was one of the first large properties acquired by the National Trust ; it was not anticipated just how expensive repairs and maintenance would be , and even thirty years later it was still used as an example of why the Trust should be wary of taking on other country houses .
Barrington Court was occupied by a tenant , Stuart Interiors , that took the lease in 1986 from Andrew Lyle , grandson of Col. Lyle . The company sold reproduction furniture . Stuart Interiors left Barrington Court in December 2008 , and although the building has no furniture , it is open to visitors .
In 2014 it was the site of filming for the BBC 's Tudor @-@ era historical TV serial Wolf Hall . In May 2015 the house was the venue for the BBC programme Antiques Roadshow .
= = Architecture = =
Like many Elizabethan mansions , Barrington is built in an ' E ' shape with large projecting wings with square projections that contain staircases . The house is not truly symmetrical as the hall has two lights and the buttery one . The south front has seven gables supported by octagonal buttresses and decorated with twisted finials with ogee scale @-@ work caps and English Crockets .
Its central entry porch leads into a screens passage with the hall on the left and , an innovation , a service passage leading to the kitchen wing that occupies the right wing . A long gallery stretches the entire length of the house on the upper floor .
= = = Strode House = = =
The stables — built in 1674 by William Strode III — were converted into a separate house around 1920 , under plans drawn up by the architect J.E. Forbes , when the building was given a new west front . The two @-@ storey brick building has Hamstone dressings and a hipped tile roof . Immediately in front of the building is the " fountain court " .
= = = Outbuildings = = =
In the 1920s a " motorhouse " was constructed in a Tudor style to match the other buildings . It is a single @-@ storey building with an attic . The front of the building is decorate with heraldic lions .
The two @-@ storey agent 's house , known as Beechams , was also built in the 1920s . There are also row of six thatched cottages in Tudor style , a farmhouse and a barn dating from the same period .
= = = Gateways and walls = = =
There are multiple gateways around the estate and entrances to the house . The gateway to the west of the forecourt was rebuilt in the 1920s with tall piers and moulded stepped caps , permitting a full view of the symmetrical facade of the house . The gateways to the east of the forecourt and to the east of the south lawn have wrought iron gates . The wall around the forecourt is of the same vintage and has rectangular lily ponds at the base .
= = Gardens = =
In the 16th century the house was surrounded by a deer park . In the 1550s William Clifton took action , in the Star Chamber court , against local poachers who hunted deer in the park while he was away .
The remains of the original gardens include a rectangular raised area or parterre 70 metres ( 230 ft ) by 50 metres ( 160 ft ) near a liner pond or canal which is 12 metres ( 39 ft ) by 110 metres ( 360 ft ) . There is also geophysical evidence of a further 17th @-@ century formal garden .
Barrington Court is noted for its Arts and Crafts @-@ style gardens for which garden designer Gertrude Jekyll provided planting plans . The gardens were laid out in 1917 by J. E. Forbes , of the partnership Forbes & Tate , for Lieut @-@ Col. A. Arthur Lyle . There are a series of walled areas that include a white garden , a rose and iris garden and a lily garden . The original plans are being used to restore the gardens ; however , the planting scheme has been changed from that designed by Jekyll to that designed by Mrs Lyle in the 1960s .
The walls of the kitchen garden were built in the 1920s and include two gateways with neoclassical architraves . The gravel paths are laid out in a square with a cross at the centre enhanced by a fountain surrounded by fruit trees , vegetable plots and soft fruits . There are carriage openings with wrought @-@ iron gates .
The kitchen garden provides produce for the property 's restaurant located in the adjacent Strode House ; this includes many types of fruit and vegetables . The local St Mary & St Peter 's CE VC Primary School , which has bases at Barrington and Ilton , has a vegetable plot where the children plant , tend and cook the produce ; the walls are also strewn with apple , pear and plum trees . Attached to the garden is a squash court .
About 20 metres ( 66 ft ) south west of the house is an unusual multi @-@ faced sundial . It was built of stone and bronze , on a stone column . It is a dodecahedron surmounted by a heraldic lion . It was imported from California by Colonel Lyle in 1920 .
The gardens are Grade II * listed on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
|
= Joshua King ( footballer ) =
Joshua Christian Kojo " Josh " King ( born 15 January 1992 ) is a Norwegian professional footballer who plays as a striker or a winger for Premier League club Bournemouth and the Norway national team .
King was signed by Manchester United from Vålerenga in 2008 . After loan spells with Preston North End , Borussia Mönchengladbach , Hull City and Blackburn Rovers , he signed permanently with Blackburn in January 2013 . He switched to Bournemouth in May 2015 .
After representing Norway at under @-@ 15 , under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 18 , under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 levels , King made his senior international debut against Iceland in 2012 , and scored his first international goal against Cyprus later that year .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Born in Oslo , to a Gambian father and a Norwegian mother , King grew up in the suburb of Romsås . He began his career with the local club , Romsås IL , before switching to Vålerenga when he was 15 . While at Vålerenga , King trained with English side Manchester United on multiple occasions , but UEFA rules prevented him from signing a contract with the club until he was 16 . He also had trial offers from Chelsea , Sunderland and Ipswich Town , but rejected those in favour of Manchester United .
= = = Manchester United = = =
= = = = Youth teams = = = =
King signed for Manchester United when he turned 16 in January 2008 , and made his debut for the under @-@ 18 side in a 5 – 1 home defeat to Sunderland on 29 March 2008 . He played just once more in the league that season , as well as making five substitute appearances in the Blue Stars Youth Cup in May 2008 . He began the following season by scoring four goals in four matches as the Manchester United Under @-@ 17s won the 2008 Milk Cup . He then played in two matches at the start of the 2008 – 09 Premier Academy League season before an injury in October 2008 kept him out until January 2009 .
Two games after his comeback , King scored twice in a 5 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers on 31 January 2009 . The following week , he was named as an unused substitute for the reserves in a Manchester Senior Cup match against Stockport County , before making his reserve debut as a substitute for Robbie Brady in a Premier Reserve League match against Bolton Wanderers three days later . He then made his first start of the season for the Under @-@ 18s against Manchester City on 14 February , only to miss the next two months of the season . He returned at the start of April 2009 , just in time to play in the run @-@ in to the end of the Under @-@ 18 league season , as United finished in second place , 19 points behind winners Manchester City .
At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , King came on as a substitute for Zoran Tošić in the final of the Lancashire Senior Cup , a 1 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers . He then started the reserves ' first three league games of the season , and was rewarded for his performances by being given a place on the bench for the first team 's League Cup third round match against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 23 September 2009 . He was given the number 41 jersey and came on as an 81st @-@ minute substitute for goalscorer Danny Welbeck . Although King had two opportunities to add to United 's lead , the match finished 1 – 0 and United progressed to the fourth round of the competition . He was again named as a substitute for the fourth round match against Barnsley , but he did not take to the field . King was an integral part of the under @-@ 18s side for the remainder of the season , scoring six goals in 14 appearances as the team won Group C of the 2009 – 10 Premier Academy League ; they were drawn against Arsenal in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals , and although King scored his penalty in the shoot @-@ out after the match finished in a 1 – 1 draw , Arsenal ultimately won 5 – 3 .
= = = = Preston North End loan = = = =
After impressing for Manchester United in the 2010 – 11 pre @-@ season , King joined Football League Championship side Preston North End – managed by Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson 's son , Darren – on a three @-@ month loan deal on 7 August 2010 , becoming Preston 's 1,000th player and linking up with fellow United loanee Matty James . He made his debut the next day , coming on as a 70th @-@ minute substitute for Paul Hayes in Preston 's 2 – 0 defeat by Doncaster Rovers on the opening day of the 2010 – 11 season .
King 's first goal for Preston came in his second match , a League Cup first round tie against Stockport County on 10 August ; after coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute for Chris Brown , he intercepted a goal kick from Andy Lonergan and curled the ball past the Stockport goalkeeper , making the final score 5 – 0 . He had earlier added an assist after running 60 yards down the right wing and crossing for Paul Hayes ' second goal – the fourth of the match . King made his first start for Preston on 21 August , playing the full 90 minutes of the team 's 1 – 0 home win over Portsmouth ; King was named man of the match for his performance , in which he repeatedly threatened the Portsmouth goal .
King played in seven of Preston 's first 12 league games , but suffered an ankle injury at the end of October 2010 that ruled him out for the rest of the loan , and he returned to Manchester United . After his recovery towards the end of November , King returned to Preston on another loan until 4 January 2011 ; however , he made just one more appearance for the club before being recalled by Manchester United a few days early . Some sources suggested that Alex Ferguson recalled King and fellow loanees Matty James and Ritchie De Laet in retaliation for Preston sacking his son , Darren , but Ferguson later indicated that King and De Laet had not enjoyed their time at Preston and did not want to return to the club .
= = = = Return to Manchester United = = = =
After his return to Manchester United , King was a regular in the reserve team , playing in 17 of the last 18 games of the season ; his only absence came against Arsenal on 28 April 2011 . He was also regularly on the scoresheet , particularly in the Manchester Senior Cup , in which he scored twice in an 8 – 0 win over Bury and three times in a 6 – 1 win over Rochdale . He also hit two against Oldham Athletic in the quarter @-@ finals of the Lancashire Senior Cup and against Chelsea in the Premier Reserve League to finish the season with 11 goals as the team won the Manchester Senior Cup and the Premier Reserve League North .
In among these performances , King was also named on the bench for three first @-@ team matches , including Manchester United 's 4 – 0 away league win over Wigan Athletic and their FA Cup wins over Crawley Town and Arsenal , as well as travelling with the team for the first leg of their Champions League round of 16 tie with Marseille . In recognition of his performances in the second half of the season , King was rewarded with a new two @-@ year contract with Manchester United , keeping him at the club until the summer of 2013 .
= = = = Borussia Mönchengladbach loan = = = =
In August 2011 , King joined German club Borussia Mönchengladbach on loan for the duration of the 2011 – 12 season . The loan agreement between Borussia and Manchester United was first announced by Borussia 's director of sport , Max Eberl , at the club 's general meeting on 29 May 2011 , but the move was held up when King suffered a groin injury requiring surgery while on international duty with the Norway Under @-@ 21 side . Borussia confirmed the loan transfer on 22 July 2011 , the terms of which were undisclosed by either club , although it was still subject to King passing a medical examination on 1 August . He began individual training with Borussia on 2 August , before linking up with the rest of the squad shortly afterwards . King made his first appearance for Borussia Mönchengladbach as a substitute on 19 August 2011 , in Borussia 's 4 – 1 win against VfL Wolfsburg . After just one more substitute appearance and a total of 19 minutes on the field , a recurrence of King 's groin injury resulted in his loan spell being terminated early .
= = = = Hull City loan = = = =
Having returned to England , King joined Hull City on loan for the rest of the 2011 – 12 season on 16 January 2012 . He made his debut as an 86th @-@ minute substitute for Liam Rosenior in a 1 – 0 away win at Reading on 21 January . King played in four consecutive matches at the start of his spell at Hull , but on 9 February 2012 , he appeared for the Manchester United reserves in their 4 – 2 Manchester Senior Cup defeat at home to Manchester City ; he played for 61 minutes of the match before being replaced by Reece Brown . It took until 9 April for King to score his first goal for Hull , scoring the equaliser as Hull came from behind to beat Middlesbrough 2 – 1 ; King also provided the assist for Matty Fryatt 's winning goal .
King returned to Manchester United on 1 May and went straight back into the reserve team for their Lancashire Senior Cup semi @-@ final against Blackpool ; Manchester United won 5 – 4 on penalties after neither side could produce a goal in normal time , with King scoring United 's first penalty . Another penalty shoot @-@ out followed in King 's next match for the reserves , the Premier Reserve League play @-@ off match against the winners of the south section , Aston Villa ; after coming on as a substitute for captain Davide Petrucci , King was one of three scorers for Manchester United in the shoot @-@ out as they won 3 – 1 to take the title .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
At the start of the 2012 – 13 season , King found himself a regular in the Manchester United reserve team , and scored the team 's last goal in the 90th minute of their 4 – 0 win over Accrington Stanley in the final of the Lancashire Senior Cup on 8 August 2012 . However , despite playing in seven of the reserves ' first nine games of the season , he was unable to make the step up to the first team – he was an unused substitute in the League Cup third round match against Newcastle United on 26 September , and came on as a substitute for Danny Welbeck in the 85th minute of the dead rubber Champions League group match against Galatasaray on 20 November .
In search of first @-@ team football , King was allowed to join Blackburn Rovers on loan until 31 December 2012 , with a view to eventually making the move permanent . Despite competition up front from Jordan Rhodes , Colin Kazim @-@ Richards , Ruben Rochina and Nuno Gomes , he made his debut two days later , coming on as a 55th @-@ minute substitute for Marcus Olsson in a 2 – 0 defeat at home to Millwall . He scored his first goal for the club at home to Cardiff City on 7 December , an equaliser after Mark Hudson had put Cardiff in front ; however , Cardiff scored a further three goals and won 4 – 1 . After scoring two goals in eight appearances , King 's transfer to Blackburn was made permanent as he signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 2 January 2013 , with the option of extending the deal by a further year . In an FA Cup match against Derby County on 26 January , he was forced to come off with a hamstring injury ; he had also missed the three games prior to that with the same injury . He went on to make a total of 20 appearances for Blackburn that season .
His first goal of the 2013 – 14 season came on 24 August in Blackburn 's 5 – 2 victory over Barnsley , where he converted a Todd Kane pass into a goal from six yards out . On 14 February 2015 , King scored his first Rovers hat trick in a 4 – 1 win against Stoke City in the FA Cup 5th round . He did not net any other goals that season .
= = = Bournemouth = = =
On 28 May 2015 , after turning down a new contract at Blackburn , King switched to Bournemouth ahead of their first @-@ ever season in the Premier League . He credited the ethos of manager Eddie Howe and the opportunity to be a top @-@ flight regular as his reasons to sign . He made his debut for Bournemouth on 8 August as they began the season with a 0 – 1 home defeat against Aston Villa . King 's first goal for the Cherries came on 21 November , when he opened a 2 – 2 draw at Swansea City ; on 12 December he scored the winning goal from a corner kick routine as Bournemouth beat his former club United 2 – 1 at Dean Court . Contrary to the common courtesy , he enthusiastically celebrated his goal against his former employers , and later told the Daily Mail that manager Alex Ferguson refused to speak to him or any of the other young players at the time .
= = International career = =
After representing Norway at youth international level , Egil Olsen called up King to Norway 's squad for two World Cup qualifiers in September 2012 . He made his debut against Iceland on 7 September 2012 , when he replaced Mohammed Abdellaoue after 65 minutes . King had the ball in the back of the net eight minutes later , but the goal was disallowed . Four days later in Norway 's next match , he replaced Abdellaoue at half time against Slovenia . King replaced Alexander Søderlund as a substitute at half time against Cyprus in Larnaca on 16 October 2012 , then won a penalty and scored the last goal in Norway 's 3 – 1 victory .
He was included in the Norwegian squad for the 2013 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship , but as he was a regular member of the senior squad he had to play the World Cup qualifying match against Albania , along with his under @-@ 21 teammates Valon Berisha , Håvard Nordtveit and Markus Henriksen before they traveled to the championship in Israel . King appeared in the under @-@ 21 team 's matches against Italy U @-@ 21 and Spain U @-@ 21 during the championship .
He scored his second full international goal in his next appearance , scoring the second goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Cyprus on 6 September 2013 . On 10 October 2014 , he scored two goals against Malta in a 3 – 0 away win in UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying , but was dropped by manager Per @-@ Mathias Høgmo from their play @-@ off against Hungary in place of Veton Berisha , Marcus Pedersen and Alexander Søderlund .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 16 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played on 5 June 2016
|
= Friends with Benefits ( film ) =
Friends with Benefits is a 2011 American romantic comedy film directed by Will Gluck , and starring Justin Timberlake and Mila Kunis in the lead roles . The film features Patricia Clarkson , Jenna Elfman , Bryan Greenberg , Nolan Gould , Richard Jenkins , and Woody Harrelson in supporting roles . The plot revolves around Dylan Harper ( Timberlake ) and Jamie Rellis ( Kunis ) , who meet in New York City , and naively believe adding sex to their friendship will not lead to complications . Over time , they begin to develop deep mutual feelings for each other , only to deny it each time they are together .
Principal casting for Friends with Benefits took place over a three @-@ month period from April to July 2010 . Gluck reworked the original script and plot shortly after casting Timberlake and Kunis . Filming began in New York City on July 20 , 2010 , and concluded in Los Angeles in September 2010 . The film was distributed by Screen Gems and was released in North America on July 22 , 2011 . Friends with Benefits was generally well received by film critics , most of whom praised the chemistry between the lead actors . The film became a commercial success at the box office , grossing over $ 149 @.@ 5 million worldwide , against a budget of $ 35 million . It was nominated for two People 's Choice Awards — Favorite Comedy Movie , and Favorite Comedic Movie Actress ( Kunis ) — and two Teen Choice Awards for Timberlake and Kunis .
= = Plot = =
Jamie Rellis ( Mila Kunis ) is an executive recruiter for a leading job agency in New York City , and Dylan Harper ( Justin Timberlake ) works as an art director for a small internet company in Los Angeles . Jamie has the task of trying to recruit Dylan to interview for a job with GQ and begin working in New York City . Dylan comes to New York and after interviewing for the position learns from Jamie that he has been given an offer to work for GQ . At first Dylan is hesitant to accept the job and move from Los Angeles to New York . But after a fun night exploring the city with Jamie , Dylan agrees to accept the position .
The following day , Jamie presents Dylan with the contract to sign so she can land her commission for recruiting him . Not knowing anyone else in the city , he and Jamie quickly develop a strong platonic friendship . One night , they get on the topic of sex and relationships . They come to the conclusion that sex should not come with so many emotional attachments . As they both feel the need for a physical connection , they agree to have sex without emotion or commitment . After several trysts together , Jamie comes to the realization that this is not really what she wants and she would like to start dating again . She tells Dylan that they need to stop .
Jamie meets Parker ( Bryan Greenberg ) , an oncologist , and they begin dating . After five dates , they consummate their relationship , only to break up the next morning . Trying to be sympathetic and to console her , Dylan suggests she travels with him to California over the Fourth of July weekend , while he visits his family . Initially hesitant , Jamie agrees after much persistence from Dylan . They fly to Los Angeles , where Jamie meets his sister Annie ( Jenna Elfman ) , nephew Sammy ( Nolan Gould ) , and father ( Richard Jenkins ) , who suffers from the early stages of Alzheimer 's disease . While in California , they begin to develop strong emotional romantic feelings for each other , and share a passionate kiss , which leads to a night of close intimacy unlike any other they had shared before . However , the next day , Jamie overhears a conversation between Annie and Dylan , where Dylan admits to having no real feelings for Jamie . Hurt , she flies back to New York . A few days later , Dylan returns to New York , trying to reconcile his friendship with Jamie and find out why she has been ignoring him . He finally finds Jamie , and she informs him she overheard everything he said and has no interest in maintaining any kind of a friendship with him .
Soon after this , Jamie discovers that Dylan may be leaving the GQ position for another job before the year elapses on his contract , which would affect her commission . She confronts Dylan about this , which leads to another argument . Both begin to do some soul searching trying to come to terms with their feelings about their relationship . Jamie spends time with her mother , Lorna ( Patricia Clarkson ) , while Dylan discusses it with Annie over the phone . His sister informs him that their father will be flying to Newark and he needs to be picked up at the airport . While at the airport , his father , in a moment of Alzheimer 's @-@ induced confusion , incorrectly recognizes a passer @-@ by as a woman from his past . Dylan asks him about the woman , and his father , upon regaining his lucidity , says that she was a woman he met in the Navy , that she was the love of his life , and he regrets decisions he made in his youth to let her go . He tells Dylan not to do the same thing , and to go after the woman he loves , if there is any chance of saving the relationship .
Dylan realizes how he really feels about Jamie after talking with his father , and decides to go after her . He calls Jamie ’ s mother to set up an excuse to get Jamie to go to Grand Central Station thinking she will be picking up her mother . He arranges to have a flash mob dance to " Closing Time " set up to surprise Jamie at the station . When the moment comes , he catches up with Jamie and tells her how he really feels . Surprised and happy by this turn of events , Jamie tells him to kiss her . After sharing a passionate kiss , Dylan suggests it is time they go on their first real date . They go across the street to the Pershing Square café and although they attempt to keep the date casual and relaxed , the film ends with them in a sensual embrace and passionate kiss .
= = Cast = =
Credits adapted from AllMovie and The Guardian .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 2010 , Justin Timberlake became the first to sign on to the project . He was soon followed by Mila Kunis when she landed the female lead opposite him . Approximately two months later , Variety magazine announced that an ensemble cast consisting of Emma Stone , Patricia Clarkson , Richard Jenkins , Woody Harrelson , Andy Samberg and Jenna Elfman were set to join them in the film . Three days after principal filming began , Bryan Greenberg completed the cast . The film features cameo appearances from Shaun White , Jason Segel , and Rashida Jones . Production locations were set up as early as July 13 , and principal filmography commenced on July 20 , 2010 in the Midtown Manhattan section of New York City . Filming continued in Central Park and other sections of New York City from July to early August before the production relocated to Los Angeles , California .
Paramount Pictures dropped its original protest against the film after their director Ivan Reitman , re @-@ titled his film No Strings Attached . Screen Gems then moved forward with the title Friends with Benefits . At the same time , NBC was developing a sitcom with the same title , but the movie production company stated that due to its production schedule , they didn ’ t expect an issue to arise . Screen Gems chose to accelerate production fearing that they would lose their title to the competing Paramount project . Director Will Gluck spoke about the frustration of comparing the two films , stating : " I wish there was more space between them . The thing that 's irking me now is people are saying we 're remaking No Strings Attached . We 're not remaking it . The two movies were being made at the same time . " Gluck , in an interview with The New Zealand Herald , said that both films are different . Similar sentiments were expressed by Kunis , stating , " It 's just two different movies . There 's only [ ... ] so many stories you can tell in the world . This is just one of the many . "
The first theatrical trailer was released on March 16 , 2011 . The trailer had a subsequent release on YouTube and attracted over a million views in 48 hours , becoming the second most watched video of the day and the most viewed video in the film category . Promotion for Friends with Benefits subsequently grew , including promotional videos from Facebook and Twitter . Timberlake and Kunis also landed on the cover of Elle in support of the film .
= = = Writing = = =
Will Gluck stated that the concept of the story began with the idea that he wanted to work with Kunis and Timberlake , explaining that he rewrote the script for the two actors . Following those changes , Gluck expressed that he wanted to attract a more adult audience and that he " wanted to do more of an adult movie about sex , too , and about relationships " . He went on to compare the storyline of Friends with Benefits to the relationship in films between Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy .
In an interview with Movieline , Gluck further discussed the film 's plot saying that Friends with Benefits would relate largely with a younger generation . He added : " They comment about these romantic comedies throughout the movie , and as they go through their storyline , they realize that they ’ re in a romantic comedy story — as two regular people who aren ’ t in a movie would comment on . They ’ re very cognizant that they ’ re in this story [ ... ] but they end up embracing the fact that they ’ re going through a romantic comedy moment . " In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Timberlake explained that he and Gluck held authorship of humor and tone in regards to Friends with Benefits . Timberlake and Kunis workshopped the script for more than a month before the movie went into production . Gluck would meet with the actors with 20 pages of script in front of him and the three would beat it up , changing lines , and defending each character 's perspective .
= = = Music = = =
In June 2011 , it was announced that Madison Gate Records would be distributing the album which featured fifteen songs . The album for Friends with Benefits was released on July 19 , 2011 .
= = Release and reception = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in the United States on December 2 , 2011 and in the United Kingdom on February 6 , 2012 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Friends with Benefits received generally positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 70 % , based on 168 reviews , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Friends with Benefits adds nothing new to its well @-@ worn rom @-@ com formula , but the chemistry between Justin Timberlake and Mila Kunis is almost enough to carry the movie by itself . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score , gave the film a 63 out of 100 , based on 37 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times praised Friends with Benefits for its " breezy , speedy and funny comedy " and complimented the chemistry between the lead actors . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three stars , and remarked about the film , " What not every rom @-@ com has , however , is good dialogue , well @-@ delivered at a fast clip . " He added , " Kunis fast @-@ talks her way through the opening scenes as if she 's channeling Juno , and Timberlake easily keeps up . At some fundamental level , I simply enjoyed watching them . " Peter Debruge of Variety found the plot to be predictable and benign ; however , he complimented the cast , calling Kunis " a natural with comedy " , while Timberlake " exudes the kind of star wattage that put Will Smith on top . " Likewise , Salon 's Andrew O 'Hehir asserted that despite a disappointing conclusion to the film , it was nonetheless a " rewarding summer diversion . " The Guardian writer Peter Bradshaw reacted negatively to the film , expressing that there " was no benefit to watching it . " Bradshaw gave the film a one @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five @-@ star rating .
The Daily Telegraph 's Sukhdev Sandhu felt that Timberlake held his own when working with Mila Kunis . Concluding his review , Sandhu presented Friends with Benefits a three out of five stars . Betsey Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times praised the acting in the film , opining that " it [ brought ] a lot of natural life to the party . " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review , stating that there was " palpable chemistry " between Timberlake and Kunis . Entertainment Weekly writer Owen Gleiberman gave Friends with Benefits a ' B- ' grade , exclaiming that while he enjoyed much of the film , he felt that it was inconsistent .
Mary Pols of Time applauded the film , and wrote that despite the plot being predictable , the film was " elevated by energetic dialogue , the sexual chemistry between the leads and the fact that the miscommunication that keeps bliss at bay [ ... ] is plausible . " Giving Friends with Benefits a three @-@ star rating , The Boston Globe journalist Ty Burr opined that the film " works like a charm . " He added that it mostly keeps its manic energy in check , and that it plays to chick @-@ flick formulas without ever groveling – which is due almost entirely to the leads . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Peter Paras of E ! . Giving it a ' B ' grade , Paras asserted that the film was the best romantic comedy film in a long time . Melissa Leong of the National Post wrote , " While the film takes jabs at the Hollywood fairy tale , [ ... ] Gluck adheres to the formula . "
= = = Themes = = =
According to The New York Times , Friends with Benefits , a film " about love and sex in the age of social networking , gets some of its juice and tang partly by trash @-@ talking its own genre . The setup is familiar , as are the essential elements : a single man and a single woman , two battered hearts yet a pair of resilient , eager , pretty bodies [ ... ] Friends with Benefits starts from the premise that its characters , and you , are sick of the romantic comedy clichés they may secretly , or not so secretly , adore . " Drew Pinsky , an addiction medicine specialist felt that the film 's central characters , both of whom were raised by a single parent in the film , " start looking for ways to solve that problem because they were never given the opportunity to grow an emotional landscape from a nurturing , available parent . They were just quickly parentalized and became a caretaker . And the caretaking is all part of the ' going for a broken person ' and trying to fix them . " He further added that " love addiction ending in ' happily ever after ' is not a great message . "
Timberlake added that Friends with Benefits is a film for " our generation ; people that are between 25 and 30 years of age that are moving into a different part of their life . They are not sure what type of commitment they are comfortable with or what they 're gonna do for the rest of their life " .
= = = Box office = = =
Friends with Benefits was released in North America on July 22 , 2011 , in 2 @,@ 926 theaters . It collected $ 6 @,@ 801 @,@ 594 on its opening day and then grossed a total of $ 18 @,@ 622 @,@ 150 in its opening weekend , finishing third at the box office , behind Captain America : The First Avenger and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . The film grossed $ 55 @.@ 8 million in the United States and Canada .
The film had similar success internationally . In Australia , it premiered on August 18 , 2011 and earned $ 2 @.@ 4 million during its opening weekend , charting above Green Lantern to finish first at the box office . The film expanded into Europe in September 2011 . It grossed $ 10 @.@ 6 million from over 20 territories in its first weekend . Friends with Benefits topped first place in France , where it opened with $ 1 @.@ 8 million . The film performed highest in the United Kingdom and Germany , where it grossed $ 3 @.@ 1 million and $ 2 @.@ 6 million in its first weekend upon release , respectively . By mid @-@ September , the film had grossed over $ 29 @.@ 6 million overseas . It went on to gross over $ 149 @.@ 5 million worldwide , with international grosses standing at $ 93 @.@ 7 million .
= = = Accolades = = =
|
= Seymour H. Knox I =
Seymour Horace Knox I ( April 1861 – May 17 , 1915 ) , was a Buffalo , New York businessman who made his fortune in five @-@ and @-@ dime stores . He merged his more than 100 stores with those of his first cousins , Frank Winfield Woolworth and Charles Woolworth , to form the F. W. Woolworth Company . He went on to hold prominent positions in the merged company as well as Marine Trust Co . He was the father of Seymour H. Knox II and grandfather of Seymour H. Knox III and Northrup Knox , the co @-@ founders of the Buffalo Sabres in the National Hockey League .
= = Biography = =
He was born in April 1861 in Russell , Saint Lawrence County , New York . His father was James Horace Knox , a farmer married to Jane E. McBrier . James ' grandfather had fought in the American Revolution . William Knox , was the first of this line of Knoxes to come to Massachusetts from Belfast , Ireland , in 1737 .
Seymour attended the Russell district school and at fifteen , though he had never gone to high school , began to teach in school himself .
= = Career = =
At seventeen he moved to Hart , Michigan , where for a few years he worked as a salesclerk . Then he left for Reading , Pennsylvania , where he entered into a partnership with his first cousins . He later donated the Knox Memorial Central School Building ( dedicated on July 30 , 1913 ) that served the town until the Knox Memorial School and Edwards Central School merged . He initially became a partner with the Woolworths by jointly opening a Reading , Pennsylvania , Woolworth & Knox store with them on September 20 , 1884 , using his entire life savings . The Reading store 's first several hours had no sales . However , after the partners took a lunchtime walk , they returned at 1 : 30 to find the local factory workers had been let out at 1 : 00 — with their paychecks . Sales were brisk , and the partners never looked back . His second store , in Newark , New Jersey , was short lived , but his partnership thrived nonetheless . The third venture , in Erie , Pennsylvania , enabled them to buy out the Newark lease . He partnered with Frank to open the first Buffalo store , at 409 Main Street , on October 13 , 1888 .
By 1889 , he was able to buy out his cousins . He maintained a collegial business relationship with his cousins after the buyout . In fact , he bought Woolworth merchandise at wholesale and sometimes traded in competition . He formed another brief partnership with another friendly rival , Earle Perry Charlton , from 1889 – 1895 , opening his Buffalo " S.H. Knox Co . " 5 and 10 Cent Store in 1890 . In 1890 , he made established headquarters in the Buffalo store . Sources disagree on the chronology of later stores . One source says that the second Buffalo store was opened at 549 William Street on June 20 , 1891 . Another says Knox opened his second store on December 18 , 1893 , at 519 Main Street four days after the first store at 409 Main Street was destroyed in the Wonderland Building Fire . The 519 Main Street store replaced the 409 Main Street after the December 14 , 1893 fire and moved to 395 Main Street in 1895 . He continued to build his S.H. Knox Co . 5 and 10 Cent Store empire . By the time of the 1911 incorporation of F. W. Woolworth Company , Knox was the second largest of six store operators with 98 U.S. and 13 Canadian locations . In 1912 , he received $ 12 million of the $ 65 million merger proceeds and was appointed Director and Senior Vice @-@ Principal of the Corporation . Knox is remembered as the pioneering city center store operator . His Detroit , Michigan store was the first outside of the agricultural and small @-@ market towns . Many of the Woolworth friendly rivals emulated his plan .
In 1913 , he purchased Stephen Clement 's interests in Marine National . At his death , Seymour was Vice President of the Woolworth Co. and Chairman of the Board of the Marine Trust Co . He was the first of three generations of the family to serve as Chairman .
= = Personal life = =
Seymour married Grace Millard Knox ( 1862 – 1936 ) , in 1890 , and they raised three children :
Seymour H. Knox II ( Seymour , Jr . )
Marjorie Knox
Dorothy Knox
Among his grandchildren were Seymour H. Knox III and Northrup R. Knox , the original principal owners of the Buffalo Sabres . Grace established The University at Buffalo 's first endowment fund in 1916 when she donated $ 250 @,@ 000 . Knox bred champion trotters and pacers and was a polo enthusiast .
Knox died on May 17 , 1915 in Buffalo , New York .
|
= Oregon Theatre =
The Oregon Theatre , or Oregon Theater , is an adult movie theater in the Richmond neighborhood of southeast Portland , Oregon . The theater was completed in 1925 and originally housed a Wurlitzer pipe organ and vaudeville stage . It would later screen Hollywood , art @-@ house , and Spanish @-@ language films . The building was acquired by the Maizels family in 1967 and became an adult cinema in the 1970s . It continues to operate as the city 's longest running pornographic cinema and remains owned by a member of the Maizels family .
The cinema has been described as " less creepy than most of its kind " and " out of place " along the newly developed Southeast Division Street . It has also been called " the last holdout of an era " , referring to both the prominence of adult film screenings in the city during the 1970s and its status as the last property owned by the Maizels family . In 2004 , the building was identified as an " Investment and Identity Site " and commended for having attributes valued by the community , such as quality architecture , local ownership , and orientation to the street .
= = Description and history = =
The two @-@ story , roughly 8 @,@ 700 square foot ( 810 m2 ) Oregon Theatre was designed by Hubert A. Williams . It exhibits Italianate and " Streetcar Era Commercial " architecture , with plans drafted by Universal Plan Service . The brick exterior includes a glass @-@ filled retail base , beltcourses , double @-@ hung windows on the second story , ornamental brickwork on its parapet , and a flat roof . Upon its completion , the interior featured a $ 16 @,@ 000 Wurlitzer pipe organ , ornate lighting fixtures attached to a high @-@ domed ceiling , 750 high @-@ backed chairs , a vaudeville stage , and a screen which measured 16 by 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The theater cost $ 35 @,@ 000 to construct and began operating on September 4 , 1925 , possibly for a showing of Steele of the Royal Mounted .
J. W. McFadden Inc. was the building 's original owner . Subsequent owners have included C. C. and Leedy Maude , J. S. Middleton , Oregon Theatre Co . , Mary Watt , and Ernest Bass . The theater 's front doors and ticket office were altered by J. W. McFadden Inc. in 1930 , along with the construction of a new ticket booth . In 1949 , when the Waverly Heights Congregational United Church of Christ was reconstructing a new church building on its property at Southeast 33rd and Woodward , church services were held at the Oregon Theatre . According to the Puget Sound Theatre Organ Society , the organ was repossessed by the William Wood Organ Co. and re @-@ installed at radio station KXL 's studios in Portland . The theater 's front entrance , including its doors and 1930s ticket booth , were remodeled by Ferguson Cassady Co. in 1954 .
In 1967 , an immigrant family acquired ownership of the theater . The Maizels family also owned other cinemas , including Aladdin Theater , the defunct and demolished Walnut Park , and the Encore , now known as Clinton Street Theater . In addition to Hollywood films , the cinemas screened art @-@ house and Spanish @-@ language movies . Multi @-@ light Broadway Sign Co. installed corrugated aluminum on the bottom of the marquee in 1975 .
= = = Adult cinema = = =
The venue became an adult cinema in the 1970s . The success of Deep Throat in 1972 was a turning point , leading to an increase in the number of adult film screenings at more than a dozen cinemas in Portland . However , the rise of video cassettes and cable television led to a decline in cinema attendance , and by the 2000s , the Maizels family had sold all of their properties except for the Oregon Theatre . Gayne Maizels still owns the theater , which continues to operate as the city 's longest running pornographic cinema .
Since becoming an adult cinema , the theater has featured a single movie screen and sofas . In 2005 , The Portland Mercury said the theater showed heterosexual pornographic films daily except for Wednesdays and Saturdays , when it featured bisexual content . In 2013 , Portland Monthly described the venue 's green entryway , leading to a ramp lined with adult DVDs and an " indifferent doorman who demands $ 8 . Inside , a few dozen men , mostly seniors , occupy a hodgepodge of old couches in near @-@ total darkness . "
= = Reception = =
According to local film archivist and author Gary Lacher , the Oregon Theatre 's record as the longest continuously operating adult cinema in Portland is " not often acknowledged publicly " and represents " the last holdout of an era " , referring to the prominence of adult film screenings in Portland . In an interview , Lacher expressed his wish that the theater would return to a more traditional cinema , but was thankful that the venue has been spared from closure and demolition to date .
In 2004 , GNT Planning included the theater as an " Investment and Identity Site " in their report , which was commissioned by the Division Vision Coalition ( DVC ) , a coalition of community members from the nearby business and neighborhood associations . DVC is invested in the " economy of locally @-@ owned businesses , an attractive streetscape that invites neighbors to linger , and sustainable features that are ecologically sensitive " . The building was identified as having attributes valued by the community , including quality architecture , local ownership , and orientation to the street .
In its 2005 review of the theater , The Portland Mercury said the " glut of cozy sofas make an outing comfortable " , but criticized the venue for having only one screen and for showing predominantly heterosexual films . The publication said that the venue was " [ m ] ore like an actual cinema than a circle jerk ( though chicken @-@ choking is not unheard of ) .... The [ theater ] is much less creepy than most of its kind — there 's even bicycle parking indoors . " In its 2012 Portlandia @-@ related list of " Portland 's Most Ill @-@ Advised Valentine 's Date Spots " , IFC quipped , " Of course , considering the dwindling number of adult theaters across the country , you could make an argument that it 's a piece of Portland history , and that visiting wouldn 't be much different than going to a museum ... on second thought , play it safe and stay away . " In 2013 , Portland Monthly said the venue " seems out of place " , a " dingy brick building " surrounded by the newly developed Southeast Division Street .
After multiple restaurants on Southeast Division were featured in Willamette Week 's annual restaurant guide in 2013 , the newspaper made humorous " predictions " about what might become of some of the street 's existing spaces . It predicted that the Oregon Theatre could become " McMenamins Mophouse & Brewery " , referring to the McMenamins regional chain of breweries , historic hotels , music venues and pubs . Willamette Week wrote , " When one of the nation 's last adult theaters finally succumbs to market pressure , McMenamins rehabs the space while keeping its historic character alive with ' voyeur ' dining booths , a sticky dance floor and VIP dining in the bored projectionist 's perch . " In 2014 , Willamette Week called the theater " seedy " .
|
= Triton ( moon ) =
Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune . It was discovered on October 10 , 1846 , by English astronomer William Lassell . It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit , an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet 's rotation . At 2 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 700 mi ) in diameter , it is the seventh @-@ largest moon in the Solar System . Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto 's , Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt . Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen , a mostly water @-@ ice crust , an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal . The core makes up two @-@ thirds of its total mass . Triton has a mean density of 2 @.@ 061 grams per cubic centimetre ( 0 @.@ 0745 lb / cu in ) and is composed of approximately 15 – 35 % water ice .
Triton is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to be geologically active . As a consequence , its surface is relatively young with sparse impact craters , with a complex geological history revealed in intricate cryovolcanic and tectonic terrains . Part of its surface has geysers erupting sublimated nitrogen gas , contributing to a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere less than 1 / 70 @,@ 000 the pressure of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Triton was discovered by British astronomer William Lassell on October 10 , 1846 , just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune .
A brewer by trade , Lassell began making mirrors for his amateur telescope in 1820 . When John Herschel received news of Neptune 's discovery , he wrote to Lassell suggesting he search for possible moons . Lassell did so and discovered Triton eight days later . Lassell also claimed to have discovered rings . Although Neptune was later confirmed to have rings , they are so faint and dark that it is doubtful that he actually saw them .
Triton is named after the Greek sea god Triton ( Τρίτων ) , the son of Poseidon ( the Greek god comparable to the Roman Neptune ) . The name was first proposed by Camille Flammarion in his 1880 book Astronomie Populaire , and was officially adopted many decades later . Until the discovery of the second moon Nereid in 1949 , Triton was commonly referred to as " the satellite of Neptune " . Lassell did not name his own discovery ; he later successfully suggested the name Hyperion , previously chosen by John Herschel , for the eighth moon of Saturn when he discovered it .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Triton is unique among all large moons in the Solar System for its retrograde orbit around its planet ( i.e. it orbits in a direction opposite to the planet 's rotation ) . Most of the outer irregular moons of Jupiter and Saturn also have retrograde orbits , as do some of Uranus 's outer moons . However , these moons are all much more distant from their primaries , and are small in comparison ; the largest of them ( Phoebe ) has only 8 % of the diameter ( and 0 @.@ 03 % of the mass ) of Triton .
Triton 's orbit is associated with two tilts , the inclination of Neptune 's spin to Neptune 's orbit , 30 ° , and the inclination of Triton 's orbit to Neptune 's spin , 157 ° ( an inclination over 90 ° indicates retrograde motion ) . Triton 's orbit precesses forward relative to Neptune 's spin with a period of about 678 Earth years ( 4 @.@ 1 Neptunian years ) , making its Neptune @-@ orbit @-@ relative inclination vary between 127 ° and 180 ° and in the past , to 173 ° . That inclination is currently 130 ° ; Triton 's orbit is now near its maximum departure from coplanarity with Neptune 's .
Triton 's rotation is tidally locked to be synchronous with its orbit around Neptune : it keeps one face oriented toward the planet at all times . Its equator is almost exactly aligned with its orbital plane . At the present time , Triton 's rotational axis is about 40 ° from Neptune 's orbital plane , and hence at some point during Neptune 's year each pole points fairly close to the Sun , almost like the poles of Uranus . As Neptune orbits the Sun , Triton 's polar regions take turns facing the Sun , resulting in seasonal changes as one pole , then the other , moves into the sunlight . Such changes have recently been observed .
Triton 's revolution around Neptune has become a nearly perfect circle with an eccentricity of almost zero . Viscoelastic damping from tides alone is not thought to be capable of circularizing Triton 's orbit in the time since the origin of the system , and gas drag from a prograde debris disc is likely to have played a substantial role . Tidal interactions also cause Triton 's orbit , which is already closer to Neptune than the Moon 's is to Earth , to gradually decay further ; predictions are that 3 @.@ 6 billion years from now , Triton will pass within Neptune 's Roche limit . This will result in either a collision with Neptune 's atmosphere or the breakup of Triton , forming a ring system similar to that found around Saturn .
= = Capture = =
Moons in retrograde orbits cannot form in the same region of the solar nebula as the planets they orbit , so Triton must have been captured from elsewhere . It might therefore have originated in the Kuiper belt , a ring of small icy objects extending outwards from just inside the orbit of Neptune to about 50 AU from the Sun . Thought to be the point of origin for the majority of short @-@ period comets observed from Earth , the belt is also home to several large , planet @-@ like bodies including Pluto , which is now recognized as the largest in a population of Kuiper belt objects ( the plutinos ) locked in orbital step with Neptune . Triton is only slightly larger than Pluto and nearly identical in composition , which has led to the hypothesis that the two share a common origin .
The proposed capture of Triton may explain several features of the Neptunian system , including the extremely eccentric orbit of Neptune 's moon Nereid and the scarcity of moons as compared to the other giant planets . Triton 's initially eccentric orbit would have intersected orbits of irregular moons and disrupted those of smaller regular moons , dispersing them through gravitational interactions .
Triton 's eccentric post @-@ capture orbit would have also resulted in tidal heating of its interior , which could have kept Triton fluid for a billion years ; this inference is supported by evidence of differentiation in Triton 's interior . This source of internal heat disappeared following tidal locking and circularization of the orbit .
Two types of mechanisms have been proposed for Triton 's capture . To be gravitationally captured by a planet , a passing body must lose sufficient energy to be slowed down to a speed less than that required to escape . An early theory of how Triton may have been slowed was by collision with another object , either one that happened to be passing by Neptune ( which is unlikely ) , or a moon or proto @-@ moon in orbit around Neptune ( which is more likely ) . A more recent hypothesis suggests that , before its capture , Triton was part of a binary system . When this binary encountered Neptune , it interacted in such a way that the binary dissociated , with one portion of the binary expelled , and the other , Triton , becoming bound to Neptune . This event is more likely for more massive companions . Similar mechanisms have been proposed for the capture of Mars 's moons . This hypothesis is supported by several lines of evidence , including binaries being very common among the large Kuiper belt objects . The event was brief but gentle , saving Triton from collisional disruption . Events like this may have been common during the formation of Neptune , or later when it migrated outward .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Triton is the seventh @-@ largest moon and sixteenth @-@ largest object in the Solar System , and is modestly larger than the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris . It comprises more than 99 @.@ 5 % of all the mass known to orbit Neptune , including the planet 's rings and thirteen other known moons , and is also more massive than all known moons in the Solar System smaller than itself combined . It has a radius , density ( 2 @.@ 061 g / cm3 ) , temperature and chemical composition similar to those of Pluto .
Triton 's surface is covered with a transparent layer of annealed frozen nitrogen . Only 40 % of Triton 's surface has been observed and studied , but it is possible that it is entirely covered in such a thin sheet of nitrogen ice . Like Pluto 's , Triton 's crust consists of 55 % nitrogen ice with other ices mixed in . Water ice comprises 15 – 35 % and frozen carbon dioxide ( dry ice ) the remaining 10 – 20 % . Trace ices include 0 @.@ 1 % methane and 0 @.@ 05 % carbon monoxide . There could also be ammonia ice on the surface , as there are indications of ammonia dihydrate in the lithosphere . Triton 's mean density implies that it probably consists of about 30 – 45 % water ice ( including relatively small amounts of volatile ices ) , with the remainder being rocky material . Triton 's surface area is 23 million km2 , which is 4 @.@ 5 % of Earth , or 15 @.@ 5 % of Earth 's land area . Triton has a considerably and unusually high albedo , reflecting 60 – 95 % of the sunlight that reaches it , and it has changed slightly since the first observations . By comparison , the Moon reflects only 11 % . Triton 's reddish colour is thought to be the result of methane ice , which is converted to tholins under bombardment from ultraviolet radiation .
Because Triton 's surface indicates a long history of melting , models of its interior posit that Triton is differentiated , like Earth , into a solid core , a mantle and a crust . Water , the most abundant volatile in the Solar System , comprises Triton 's mantle , enveloping a core of rock and metal . There is enough rock in Triton 's interior for radioactive decay to power convection in the mantle to this day . The heat may even be sufficient to maintain a global subsurface ocean similar to what is hypothesized to exist beneath the surface of Europa . If liquid water is present in Triton , it has been speculated that this could make it habitable for some form of life .
= = Atmosphere = =
Triton has a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere , with trace amounts of carbon monoxide and small amounts of methane near its surface . Like Pluto 's atmosphere , the atmosphere of Triton is thought to have resulted from evaporation of nitrogen from its surface . Its surface temperature is at least 35 @.@ 6 K ( − 237 @.@ 6 ° C ) because Triton 's nitrogen ice is in the warmer , hexagonal crystalline state , and the phase transition between hexagonal and cubic nitrogen ice occurs at that temperature . An upper limit in the low 40s ( K ) can be set from vapor pressure equilibrium with nitrogen gas in Triton 's atmosphere . This is colder than Pluto 's average equilibrium temperature of 44 K ( − 229 ° C ) . Triton 's surface atmospheric pressure is only about 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 9 Pa ( 0 @.@ 014 – 0 @.@ 019 mbar ) .
Turbulence at Triton 's surface creates a troposphere ( a " weather region " ) rising to an altitude of 8 km . Streaks on Triton 's surface left by geyser plumes suggest that the troposphere is driven by seasonal winds capable of moving material of over a micrometre in size . Unlike other atmospheres , Triton 's lacks a stratosphere , and instead has a thermosphere from altitudes of 8 to 950 km , and an exosphere above that . The temperature of Triton 's upper atmosphere , at 95 ± 5 K , is higher than that at its surface , due to heat absorbed from solar radiation and Neptune 's magnetosphere . A haze permeates most of Triton 's troposphere , thought to be composed largely of hydrocarbons and nitriles created by the action of sunlight on methane . Triton 's atmosphere also has clouds of condensed nitrogen that lie between 1 and 3 km from its surface .
In 1997 , observations from Earth were made of Triton 's limb as it passed in front of stars . These observations indicated the presence of a denser atmosphere than was deduced from Voyager 2 data . Other observations have shown an increase in temperature by 5 % from 1989 to 1998 . These observations indicate Triton is approaching an unusually warm summer season that happens only once every few hundred years . Theories for this warming include a change of frost patterns on Triton 's surface and a change in ice albedo , which would allow more heat to be absorbed . Another theory argues the changes in temperature are a result of deposition of dark , red material from geological processes . Because Triton 's Bond albedo is among the highest within the Solar System , it is sensitive to small variations in spectral albedo .
= = Surface features = =
All detailed knowledge of the surface of Triton was acquired from a distance of 40 @,@ 000 km by the Voyager 2 spacecraft during a single encounter in 1989 . The 40 % of Triton 's surface imaged by Voyager 2 revealed blocky outcrops , ridges , troughs , furrows , hollows , plateaus , icy plains and few craters . Triton is relatively flat ; its observed topography never varies beyond a kilometer . There are relatively few impact craters on Triton . Recent analysis of crater density and distribution has suggested that in geological terms , Triton 's surface is extremely young , with regions varying from an estimated 50 million years old to just an estimated 6 million years old .
= = = Cryovolcanism = = =
Triton is geologically active ; its surface is young and has relatively few impact craters . Although Triton 's crust is made of various ices , its subsurface processes are similar to those that produce volcanoes and rift valleys on Earth , but with water and ammonia as opposed to liquid rock . Triton 's entire surface is cut by complex valleys and ridges , probably the result of tectonics and icy volcanism . The vast majority of surface features on Triton are endogenic — the result of internal geological processes rather than external processes such as impacts . Most are volcanic and extrusive in nature , rather than tectonic .
The Voyager 2 probe observed a handful of geyser @-@ like eruptions of invisible nitrogen gas and entrained dust from beneath the surface of Triton in plumes up to 8 km high . Triton is thus , along with Earth , Io , and Enceladus , one of the few bodies in the Solar System on which active eruptions of some sort have been observed . The best @-@ observed examples were named Hili and Mahilani ( after a Zulu water sprite and a Tongan sea spirit , respectively ) .
All the geysers observed were located between 50 ° and 57 ° S , the part of Triton 's surface close to the subsolar point . This indicates that solar heating , although very weak at Triton 's great distance from the Sun , plays a crucial role . It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a translucent layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate , which creates a kind of " solid greenhouse effect " . Solar radiation passes through the thin surface ice sheet , slowly heating and vaporizing subsurface nitrogen until enough gas pressure accumulates for it to erupt through the crust . A temperature increase of just 4 K above the ambient surface temperature of 37 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed . Although commonly termed " cryovolcanic " , this nitrogen plume activity is distinct from Triton 's larger scale cryovolcanic eruptions , as well as volcanic processes on other worlds , which are powered by the internal heat of the body in question . Analogous CO2 geysers on Mars are thought to erupt from its south polar cap each spring .
Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year , driven by the sublimation of about 100 million cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 5 × 10 ^ 9 cu ft ) of nitrogen ice over this interval ; dust entrained may be deposited up to 150 km downwind in visible streaks , and perhaps much farther in more diffuse deposits . Voyager 2 's images of Triton 's southern hemisphere show many such streaks of dark material . Between 1977 and the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989 , Triton shifted from a reddish colour , similar to Pluto , to a far paler hue , suggesting that lighter nitrogen frosts had covered older reddish material . The eruption of volatiles from Triton 's equator and their deposition at the poles may redistribute enough mass over the course of 10 @,@ 000 years to cause polar wander .
= = = Polar cap , plains and ridges = = =
Triton 's south polar region is covered by a highly reflective cap of frozen nitrogen and methane sprinkled by impact craters and openings of geysers . Little is known about the north pole because it was on the night side during the Voyager 2 encounter , but it is thought that Triton must also have a north polar ice cap .
The high plains found on Triton 's eastern hemisphere , such as Cipango Planum , cover over and blot out older features , and are therefore almost certainly the result of icy lava washing over the previous landscape . The plains are dotted with pits , such as Leviathan Patera , which are probably the vents from which this lava emerged . The composition of the lava is unknown , although a mixture of ammonia and water is suspected .
Four roughly circular " walled plains " have been identified on Triton . They are the flattest regions so far discovered , with a variance in altitude of less than 200 m . They are thought to have formed from eruption of icy lava . The plains near Triton 's eastern limb are dotted with black spots , the maculae . Some maculae are simple dark spots with diffuse boundaries , and other comprise a dark central patch surrounded by a white halo with sharp boundaries . Typical diameter of maculae is about 100 km and width of halo is between 20 and 30 km . Some speculate the maculae are outliers of the south polar cap , which retreats in summer .
There are extensive ridges and valleys in complex patterns across Triton 's surface , probably the result of freeze – thaw cycles . Many also appear to be tectonic in nature and may result from extension or strike @-@ slip faulting . There are long double ridges of ice with central troughs bearing a strong resemblance to Europan lineae ( although they have a larger scale ) , and which may have a similar origin , possibly shear heating from strike @-@ slip motion along faults caused by diurnal tidal stresses experienced before Triton 's orbit was fully circularized . These faults with parallel ridges expelled from the interior cross complex terrain with valleys in the equatorial region . The ridges and furrows , or sulci , such as Yasu Sulci , Ho Sulci , and Lo Sulci , are thought to be of intermediate age in Triton 's geological history , and in many cases to have formed concurrently . They tend to be clustered in groups or " packets " .
= = = Cantaloupe terrain = = =
Triton 's western hemisphere consists of a strange series of fissures and depressions known as " cantaloupe terrain " because of its resemblance to the skin of a cantaloupe melon . Although it has few craters , it is thought that this is the oldest terrain on Triton . It probably covers much of Triton 's western half .
Cantaloupe terrain , which is mostly dirty water ice , is known to exist only on Triton . It contains depressions 30 – 40 km in diameter . The depressions ( cavi ) are probably not impact craters because they are all of similar size and have smooth curves . The leading hypothesis for their formation is diapirism , the rising of " lumps " of less dense material through a stratum of denser material . Alternative hypotheses include formation by collapses , or by flooding caused by cryovolcanism .
= = = Impact craters = = =
Due to constant erasure and modification by ongoing geological activity , impact craters on Triton 's surface are relatively rare . A census of Triton 's craters imaged by Voyager 2 found only 179 that were incontestably of impact origin , compared with 835 observed for Uranus 's moon Miranda , which has only three percent of Triton 's surface area . The largest crater observed on Triton thought to have been created by an impact is a 27 km @-@ diameter feature called Mazomba . Although larger craters have been observed , they are generally thought to be volcanic in nature .
The few impact craters on Triton are almost all concentrated in the leading hemisphere — that facing the direction of the orbital motion — with the majority concentrated around the equator between 30 ° and 70 ° longitude , resulting from material swept up from orbit around Neptune . Because it orbits with one side permanently facing the planet , astronomers expect that Triton should have fewer impacts on its trailing hemisphere , due to impacts on the leading hemisphere being more frequent and more violent . Voyager 2 imaged only 40 % of Triton 's surface , so this remains uncertain .
= = Observation and exploration = =
The orbital properties of Triton were already determined with high accuracy in the 19th century . It was found to have a retrograde orbit , at a very high angle of inclination to the plane of Neptune 's orbit . The first detailed observations of Triton were not made until 1930 . Little was known about the satellite until Voyager 2 arrived at the end of the 20th century .
Before the arrival of Voyager 2 , astronomers suspected that Triton might have liquid nitrogen seas and a nitrogen / methane atmosphere with a density as much as 30 % that of Earth . Like the famous overestimates of the atmospheric density of Mars , this proved completely false . As with Mars , a denser atmosphere is postulated for its early history .
The first attempt to measure the diameter of Triton was made by Gerard Kuiper in 1954 . He obtained a value of 3 @,@ 800 km . Subsequent measurement attempts arrived at values ranging from 2 @,@ 500 to 6 @,@ 000 km , or from slightly smaller than the Moon ( 3474 @.@ 2 km ) to nearly half the diameter of Earth . Data from the approach of Voyager 2 to Neptune on August 25 , 1989 , led to a more accurate estimate of Triton 's diameter ( 2 @,@ 706 km ) .
In the 1990s , various observations from Earth were made of the limb of Triton using the occultation of nearby stars , which indicated the presence of an atmosphere and an exotic surface . The observations suggest that the atmosphere is denser than the Voyager 2 measurements had indicated .
New concepts for missions to the Neptune system to be conducted in the 2010s have been brought forward by NASA scientists on numerous occasions over the last decades . All of them identified Triton as being a prime target and a separate Triton lander comparable to the Huygens probe for Titan was frequently included in those plans . No efforts aimed at Neptune and Triton went beyond the proposal phase and NASA 's funding on missions to the outer Solar System is currently focused on the Jupiter and Saturn systems .
A lander mission to Triton has been proposed in which in @-@ situ propellant is used to " hop " across the surface .
= = Maps = =
|
= Malvern water =
Malvern water is a natural spring water from the Malvern Hills on the border of the counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire in England . The Hills consist of very hard granite and limestone rock . Fissures in the rock retain rain water , which slowly permeates through , escaping at the springs . The springs release an average of about 60 litres a minute and the flow has never been known to cease .
Beneficial properties of the water have been reported for over four hundred years , and the reason for such benefits was a topic of scholarly discussion by 1817 . In the 19th century Malvern became famous for the water cure , resulting in its rapid development from a village to a busy town with many large Victorian and Edwardian hotels . The writings of the hydrotherapists James Gully and James Wilson , and well known patients who included Lord Lytton contributed to Malvern 's renown at that time . The water has been bottled on an industrial scale under the Schweppes brand from 1850 until 2010 , and is still bottled by a family @-@ owned company since 2009 as Holywell Malvern Spring Water . In 2012 the Holywell Water Co Ltd was granted permission to use the world famous " Malvern " name in its branding , thus becoming Holywell Malvern Spring Water . It has been drunk by several British monarchs . Elizabeth I drank it in public in the 16th century ; Queen Victoria refused to travel without it .
= = Purity = =
Malvern water has long been acclaimed for its purity . In 1756 Dr John Wall tested the water , found that it contained very few minerals , and said : " The Malvern water is famous for containing just nothing at all ... ! " William Heberden also noted the purity of Malvern water , stating " the Malvern water is purer than that of any other springs in England , which I ever examined or heard of " .
The natural untreated water is generally devoid of all minerals , bacteria , and suspended matter , approaching the purity of distilled water . In 1987 Malvern gained official EU status as a natural mineral water , a mark of purity and quality . However , in spite of regular quality analysis , drought in 2006 dried out the rock that filters the water , allowing the water to flow through it too quickly for the natural filtering process . Due to the slight impurities , the Coca @-@ Cola Company , manufacturer of the Schweppes brand , had to install filtration equipment , which reclassifies the water as spring water under EU law .
= = Springs = =
There are sources in about 70 locations around the Hills , where residents regularly fill containers free of charge , including the St Ann 's Well , which is housed in a building dating from 1815 , in the town of Great Malvern . Major popular water sources are :
Beauchamp Fountain – Cowleigh Road
Enigma Fountain plus Malvhina water feature , Belle Vue Terrace – town centre
Evendine Spring – Jubilee Drive ( west flank of the Hills )
Hayslad Spring – West Malvern Road
Holy Well – Malvern Wells
Jubilee Fountain – Malvern Wells
Morris Well , Wells Common – Lower Wyche
St Ann 's Well – Great Malvern
The Walms Well dating from around 250 BC is one of the earliest to be documented .
= = Medicinal use = =
Local legend has it that the curative benefit of the spring water was known in mediaeval times . The medicinal value and the bottling of Malvern water are praised in verses 15 and 16 of " a poem attributed to the Reverend Edmund Rea , who became Vicar of Great Malvern in 1612 " . These are part of " an old song in praise of Malvern " , that was published with comments on a different and uncertain provenance by Chambers in his history of the town .
In 1622 , Richard Banister , the pioneering oculist , wrote the following verse about the Eye Well , close to the Holy Well in his Breviary of the Eyes .
In 1756 , Dr. John Wall published a 14 @-@ page pamphlet on the benefits of Malvern water , that reached a 158 @-@ page 3rd edition in 1763 . Further praise came from the botanist Benjamin Stillingfleet in 1757 , the poet Thomas Warton in 1790 , quoted in a review by the medical historian W.H. McMenemy . Cure tourism in Malvern got press mention . In a letter dated 18 July 1759 to Mrs Montague , Benjamin Stillingfleet wrote : " I have been at Malvern about twelve days , where , with difficulty , I have got a lodging , the place is so full , nor do I wonder at it , there being some instances of very extraordinary cures , in cases looked on as desperate , even by Dr. Wall , who first brought these waters into vogue ... The road is very fine , and made on purpose for the convenience of the drinkers " . Chambers , in a footnote to the " song " quoted above , wrote " Though modern visitors do not now lie in bushes , yet so crowded was Malvern one season that a lady of rank and fashion , with her equipage and servants were actually obliged to be sent to the Workhouse . It is now the custom , during the season , to let out this house to visitors , and the money gained this way is applied to the funds for maintaining the poor . " Nicholas Vansittart brought his wife Catherine to Malvern for a rest cure in 1809 . In 1828 , William Addison , the physician of The Duchess of Kent ( mother of Queen Victoria ) lectured about Malvern at the Royal Institution commending " its pure and invigorating air , the excellence of its water , and the romantic beauty of its scenery " .
In 1842 Drs James Manby Gully and James Wilson opened water cure clinics at Malvern , thus beginning the town 's prosperity . Based on the therapy offered at Vincent Priessnitz 's clinic in Gräfenberg , Silesia , then part of the Austrian Empire ( now in the Czech Republic ) , the centre was Britain 's first purpose built water cure establishment . As the fame of the establishment grew , Gully and Wilson became well @-@ known national figures . Two more clinics were opened at Malvern . Famous patients included Charles Darwin 's daughter ( who died and is buried in Malvern ) , Thomas Carlyle , Florence Nightingale , Lord Tennyson , Samuel Wilberforce , and Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton , whose writing contributed to the popularity of Malvern water . The fame of Gully and Wilson was not without detractors ; Sir Charles Hastings , the founder of the British Medical Association , was extremely critical of hydropathy , and of Dr Gully in particular . The cure was satirized by " Dr. Oddfish " .
= = Commercialisation = =
Malvern water has been bottled and distributed in the UK and abroad from as early as the reign of James I , with water bottling at the Holy Well being recorded in 1622 . Various local grocers have bottled and distributed Malvern water during the 19th and early 20th centuries , but it was first bottled on a large commercial scale by Schweppes , who opened a bottling plant at Holywell in Malvern Wells in 1850 . As official caterers to the Great Exhibition of 1851 , Schweppes introduced the water as Malvern Soda , later renaming it Malvern Seltzer Water in 1856 . In 1890 Schweppes moved away from Holywell , entered into a contract with a Colwall family , and built a bottling plant in the village in 1892 . The Holywell was subsequently leased to John and Henry Cuff , who bottled there until the 1960s . The Holywell became derelict until 2009 when with the aid of a Lottery Heritage grant , production of 1200 bottles per day of Holywell Spring Water was recommenced by an independent family @-@ owned company . The well is believed to be the oldest bottling plant in the world .
In the 1850s Malvern Water was bottled by John and William Burrow at the Bottling Works Spring in Robson Ward 's yard on Belle Vue Terrace in Great Malvern . Bottling ceased here in the 1950s and the former bottling works are now furniture showrooms . Water for the Bottling Works Spring is piped from St Ann 's Well .
In 1927 , Schweppes acquired from the Burrows family Pewtress Spring , in Colwall , on the western side of the Herefordshire Beacon , approximately two miles from Colwall village . The source here emerges at the fault line between the Silurian thrust and the Precambrian diorite and granite above it . The spring was renamed Primeswell Spring , and in 1929 Schweppes commenced bottling . The factory employed 25 people who filled 26 million bottles annually . It was operated by Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises Ltd . , and the water was sold under the Schweppes brand name . On 20 October 2010 Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises , who owned the Malvern brand , announced that production would be ceasing as of 3 November 2010 . This decision , which was widely criticised both in the town and beyond , was due to the declining market share Malvern has on the overall water market . On 28 October 2011 , it was reported that the bottling plant is being sold to a property company .
= = Interest groups = =
Among the interest groups promoting the legacy of Malvern water , the two primary ones are The Malvern Spa Association , and The Friends of Malvern Springs and Wells .
The Malvern Spa Association ( MSA ) is a non @-@ profit organisation , founded in September 1998 , with two primary aims . " To conserve , protect and restore the Springs , Wells , Spouts and Fountains of the Malvern Hills " , and " to promote the study , conservation , development and awareness " of them , and of " Great Malvern as a Spa Town " . Apart from various fundraising activities and membership fees , the MSA receives funding through the Heritage Lottery Fund , which is managed by the Malvern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Unit ( Malvern Hills AONB ) , under the umbrella of the National Association for Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( NAAONB ) . The Malvern Hills AONB also provides grants via such mechanisms as the Sustainable Development Fund . The MSA was originally founded by the Spa Water Strategy Working Group , comprising Malvern town councillors and artist Rose Garrard . Its patrons are Lord and Lady Sandys , after whose family a spout located in Spring Lane , Malvern Link is named , and which was restored in 2005 as part of the Malvern heritage Project . In 2004 , in order to finance improvements and restoration to 20 historical sites , a grant of £ 270 @,@ 000 was awarded by the Heritage Lottery Fund . The MSA produces a free newsletter available at the Tourist Information Centre in Great Malvern , at St Ann 's Well and for download .
The Friends of Malvern Springs and Wells is an informal group that publishes a newsletter and promotes interest in the wells , including an award scheme for conservation or renovation of springs and wells and their immediate environment . The award scheme is the St Werstan Award for the Enhancement of Water Heritage , given in honour of St. Werstan , one of the earliest saints associated with Malvern . In August 2008 , the group 's St Werstan award for conservation or renovation of the springs and wells and their surroundings was presented to Coca @-@ Cola Great Britain . At the behest of the Friends , the company is also sponsoring a project to transfer an iconic mulberry tree sapling from Melbourne , Australia . The sappling derives from a cutting taken from a mulberry tree originally planted in 1936 by George Bernard Shaw at the Malvern Festival . The tree was destroyed in a storm in 2000 , but research by members of the Friends group revealed that in 1956 , a cutting from the tree was sent to Malvern in Victoria , Australia . The Friends group also assists in the general maintenance of wells and spouts , and in organising events and well dressing ceremonies . According to research made by local historians , a tradition of well dressing in the Malverns dates from the 12th and 13th centuries when around 5 August each year , tribute was paid to St Oswald for water cures . The tradition of well dressing continues , fostered by interest groups and activities such as arts projects .
= = Art projects = =
In 1996 the Malvern Hills District Council appointed a Malvern Spa Water Strategy Working Group . Independently , in June 1996 , sculptor Rose Garrard proposed to the MHDC the creation of a sculpture trail by nationally known sculptors , placed at forgotten springs around the town centre . The council began with the installation of new water features as part of its plan to beautify the town centre . In 1997 the District Council implemented a Spring Water Arts Project to map water sources around the hills . Garrard undertook a two @-@ month artist 's residency and collaborated with the public , who provided locations of over two hundred water sources . Garrard was commissioned to create the drinking spout , Malvhina , which was unveiled on 4 September 1998 .
On 26 May 2000 , the Enigma Fountain , also by Garrard , was unveiled by The Duke of York . Its cost of £ 5 @,@ 000 was funded by the Malvern Hills District Council , public subscription , and support from by Severn Trent Water , West Midlands Arts , and local businesses . Located on the Bellevue Terrace island in the very centre of the town , together with the statue of Edward Elgar , the group of sculptures embodies both music and water , the two major aspects of Malvern 's cultural history .
Art projects continue in various ways . Each year in April a well dressing competition is organised around a theme set by the Malvern Spa Association , with Gold , Silver and Bronze awards presented to adult 's and children 's groups . The well dressing initiative usually takes place over a period of four or five days with the Malvern spouts starting the annual season of well dressing around the country in the Derbyshire tradition . In 2003 , photographer Bob Bilsland gave permission to the BBC to publish 21 of his special panaoramic views of the decorated wells and spouts .
For the 2010 competition based on ' Celebrations ' , a group of pupils of a local primary school decorated the Great Malvern Railway Station Trough with paper figures representing famous people who have visited Malvern , such as Shaw and Elgar , celebrating 150 years of the railway in the town . Also in 2010 , the connection of Florence Nightingale with Malvern water is being celebrated with the help of the Malvern Museum 's school poster competition .
Other art projects encapsulate different connections with Malvern water . In 2002 the Elmley Foundation donated an 8 @-@ foot water clock designed by French sculptor , and horologist Bernard Gitton to the Malvern theatre and the people of Malvern . The clock which is on permanent exhibition in the foyer area of the theatre represents the three main industries of the town : its science , theatre , and water .
|
= Estate houses in Scotland =
Estate houses in Scotland or Scottish country houses , are large houses usually on landed estates in Scotland . They were built from the sixteenth century , after defensive castles began to be replaced by more comfortable residences for royalty , nobility and local lairds . The origins of Scottish estate houses are in aristocratic emulation of the extensive building and rebuilding of royal residences , beginning with Linlithgow , under the influence of Renaissance architecture . In the 1560s the unique Scottish style of the Scots baronial emerged , which combined features from medieval castles , tower houses , and peel towers with Renaissance plans , in houses designed primarily for residence rather than defence .
After the Restoration ( 1660 ) the work of architect Sir William Bruce introduced to Scotland a new phase of classicising architecture , in the shape of royal palaces and estate houses incorporating elements of the Palladian style . In the eighteenth century Scotland produced some of the most important British architects , including the neo @-@ Palladian William Adam and his innovative son Robert Adam , who rejected the Palladian style and was one of the European initiators of neoclassical architecture , embodied in a series of estate houses in Scotland and England . The incorporation of " Gothick " elements of medieval architecture by William Adam helped launch a revival of the Scots baronial in the nineteenth century , given popularity by its use at Walter Scott 's Abbotsford House and Queen Victoria 's retreat at Balmoral Castle . In the twentieth century the building of estate houses declined as the influence of the aristocracy waned , and many were taken over by the National Trust for Scotland and Historic Scotland .
After the Reformation , and the departure of the Scottish court in 1603 , artists and artisans looked to secular patronage and estate houses became repositories of art and of elaborate furnishings . Estate houses were adorned with paintings , wood carvings and plasterwork . The Grand Tour encouraged the collection of classical art and the adoption of classical styles for new works that were incorporated in to the Adam Style . The Baronial revival resulted a synthesised Victorian style that combined elements of the Renaissance , symbols of landed power and national affiliation with modern fittings . From the late sixteenth century , many estate houses were surrounded by gardens influenced by Italian Renaissance gardens . From the late seventeenth century the formal gardens at Versailles and Dutch gardens were important models . In the eighteenth century less formal and symmetrical layouts became common with the development of the jardin anglais . In the nineteenth century there was a return of the formal garden near to the house . The development of the Palladian country house in the seventeenth century separated the family of the householder from the servants . Gentry families spent much of their time visiting family , friends or neighbours and hospitality was an important part of life . Major activities included hunting , cards , chess and music . Large and sumptuous meals were an important part of social life . In the eighteenth century , estate houses were designed as centres of public display , but in the nineteenth century they became increasingly private and developed distinct male areas .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Renaissance = = =
The origins of private estate houses in Scotland are in the extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces that probably began under James III ( r . 1460 – 88 ) , accelerated under James IV ( r . 1488 – 1513 ) , and reached its peak under James V ( r . 1512 – 42 ) . These works have been seen as directly reflecting the influence of Renaissance styles . Linlithgow was first constructed under James I , under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun and was referred to as a palace , apparently the first use of this term in the country , from 1429 . This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular , corner @-@ towered Italian signorial palace of a palatium ad moden castri ( a castle @-@ style palace ) , combining classical symmetry with neo @-@ chivalric imagery . There is evidence of Italian masons working for James IV , in whose reign Linlithgow was completed and other palaces were rebuilt with Italianate proportions . James V encountered the French version of Renaissance building while visiting for his marriage to Madeleine of Valois in 1536 and his second marriage to Mary of Guise may have resulted in longer term connections and influences . Work from his reign largely disregarded the insular style adopted in England under Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European . This was followed by re @-@ buildings at Holyrood , Falkland , Stirling and Edinburgh , described as " some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain " .
Much of this work was planned and financed by James Hamilton of Finnart ( c . 1495 – 1540 ) , in addition to his work at Blackness Castle , Rothesay Castle , the house at Crawfordjohn , the " New Inn " in the St Andrews Cathedral Priory and the lodging at Balmerino Abbey for the ailing Queen Madeleine . Rather than slavishly copying continental forms , most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns , adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials ( particularly stone and harl ) . Work undertaken for James VI demonstrated continued Renaissance influences , with the Chapel Royal at Stirling having a classical entrance built in 1594 and the North Wing of Linlithgow , built in 1618 , using classical pediments . Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats , as in Mar 's Wark , Stirling ( c . 1570 ) and Crichton Castle , built for the Earl of Bothwell in 1580s .
= = = Scots Baronial = = =
The unique style of great private houses in Scotland , later known as Scots baronial , originated in the 1560s . It kept features of the high walled Medieval castles that had been made largely obsolete by gunpowder weapons and may have been influenced by the French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces . It drew on the tower houses and peel towers , hundreds of which had been built by local lords since the fourteenth century , particularly in the borders . These abandoned defensible curtain walls in favour of a fortified refuge , designed to outlast a raid , rather than a sustained siege . They were usually of three stories , typically crowned with a parapet , projecting on corbels , continuing into circular bartizans at each corner . The new houses built from the late sixteenth century by nobles and lairds were primarily built for comfort , not for defence . They retained many of these external features , which had become associated with nobility , but with a larger ground plan . This was classically a " Z @-@ plan " of a rectangular block with towers , as at Colliston Castle ( 1583 ) and Claypotts Castle ( 1569 – 88 ) .
Particularly influential was the work of William Wallace , the king 's master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631 . He worked on the rebuilding of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618 , Winton House for George Seton , 3rd Earl of Winton and began work on Heriot 's Hospital , Edinburgh . He adopted a distinctive style that applied elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences to a Renaissance plan like that used at Château d 'Ancy @-@ le @-@ Franc . This style can be seen in lords houses built at Caerlaverlock ( 1620 ) , Moray House , Edinburgh ( 1628 ) and Drumlanrig Castle ( 1675 – 89 ) , and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with Inigo Jones in the later seventeenth century .
= = = Restoration = = =
During the turbulent era of Civil Wars ( 1639 – 51 ) and the English occupation of Scotland ( 1651 – 60 ) , significant building in Scotland was largely confined to military architecture . After the Restoration in 1660 , large scale building began again , often incorporating more comprehensive ideas of reviving classicism . Sir William Bruce ( 1630 – 1710 ) , considered " the effective founder of classical architecture in Scotland " , was the key figure in introducing the Palladian style into Scotland , following the principles of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio ( 1508 – 80 ) . Palladio 's ideas were strongly based on the symmetry , perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans , and associated in England with the designs of Inigo Jones . Bruce popularised a style of country house amongst the nobility that encouraging the move towards a more continental , leisure @-@ oriented architecture . He built and remodelled country houses , including Thirlestane Castle and Prestonfield House . Among his most significant work was his own Palladian mansion at Kinross , built on the Loch Leven estate which he had purchased in 1675 . As the Surveyor and Overseer of the Royal Works he undertook the rebuilding of the Royal Palace of Holyroodhouse in the 1670s , which gave the palace its present appearance . After the death of Charles II , Bruce lost political favour , and later , following the Glorious Revolution , he was imprisoned more than once as a suspected Jacobite . These houses were predominantly built using well @-@ cut ashlar masonry on the façades , while rubble stonework was used only for internal walls .
James Smith worked as a mason on Bruce 's rebuilding of Holyrood Palace . In 1683 he was appointed to be Surveyor and Overseer of the Royal Works , and was responsible for maintenance of Holyrood Palace . With his father @-@ in @-@ law , the master mason Robert Mylne , Smith worked on Caroline Park in Edinburgh ( 1685 ) , and Drumlanrig Castle ( 1680s ) . Smith 's country houses followed the pattern established by William Bruce , with hipped roofs and pedimented fronts , in a plain but handsome Palladian style . Hamilton Palace ( 1695 ) was fronted by giant Corinthian columns , and a pedimented entrance , although was otherwise restrained . Dalkeith Palace ( 1702 – 10 ) was modelled after William of Orange 's palace at Het Loo in the Netherlands .
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
After the Act of Union of 1707 , growing prosperity in Scotland led to a spate of new building . Scotland produced some of the most significant architects of this era , including : Colen Campbell ( 1676 – 1729 ) , James Gibbs ( 1682 – 1754 ) and William Adam ( 1689 – 1748 ) , who created work that to some degree looked to classical models . Campbell was influenced by the Palladian style and has been credited with founding Georgian architecture . Architectural historian Howard Colvin has speculated that he was associated with James Smith and that Campbell may even have been his pupil . He spent most of his career in Italy and England and developed a rivalry with fellow Scot James Gibbs . Gibbs trained in Rome and also practiced mainly in England . His architectural style did incorporate Palladian elements , as well as forms from Italian baroque and Inigo Jones , but was most strongly influenced by the interpretation of the Baroque by Sir Christopher Wren .
William Adam was the foremost architect of his time in Scotland , designing and building numerous country houses and public buildings . Among his best @-@ known works are Hopetoun House near Edinburgh , and Duff House in Banff . His individual , exuberant , style was built on the Palladian , but with Baroque details inspired by Vanbrugh and Continental architecture . After his death , his sons Robert and John took on the family business , which included lucrative work for the Board of Ordnance . Robert emerged as leader of the first phase of the neo @-@ classical revival in England and Scotland from around 1760 until his death . He rejected the Palladian style as " ponderous " and " disgustful " . However , he continued its tradition of drawing inspiration directly from classical antiquity , influenced by his four @-@ year stay in Europe . He influenced the development of architecture , not just in Britain , but in Western Europe , North America and in Russia , where his patterns were taken by Scottish architect Charles Cameron . Adam 's main rival was William Chambers , another Scot , but born in Sweden . He did most of his work in London , with a small number of houses in Scotland . He was appointed architectural tutor to the Prince of Wales , later George III , and in 1766 , with Robert Adam , as Architect to the King . More international in outlook than Adam , he combined Neoclassicism and Palladian conventions and his influence was mediated through his large number of pupils .
= = = Baronial revival = = =
Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland . Inveraray Castle , constructed from 1746 with design input from William Adam , displays the incorporation of turrets . These early Gothic homes were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some external features of the Scots baronial style . Robert Adam 's houses in this style include Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian , but it is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , remodelled by Adam from 1777 .
Important for the adoption of the style in the early nineteenth century was Abbotsford House , the residence of the novelist and poet , Sir Walter Scott . Re @-@ built for him from 1816 , it became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style . Common features borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth @-@ century houses included battlemented gateways , crow @-@ stepped gables , pointed turrets and machicolations . The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn ( 1789 – 1870 ) , David Bryce ( 1803 – 76 ) , Edward Blore ( 1787 – 1879 ) , Edward Calvert ( c . 1847 – 1914 ) and Robert Stodart Lorimer ( 1864 – 1929 ) . The publication of Robert Billings ' Baronial and Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland ( 1848 – 52 ) provided a handbook for the style and the rebuilding of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace ( and subsequent adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 – 58 ) confirmed its popularity . Estate house building boomed between about 1855 and the agricultural depression and Glasgow Bank crash of 1878 . Construction was now dominated by patronage from nouveau riche industrialists . The decline in numbers of servants , linked to the introduction of electricity , central heating and labour @-@ saving devices such as the vacuum cleaner , also led to changes in the scale of building . Arts and crafts designs first featured in Philip Webb 's ( 1831 – 1915 ) gothic design at Arisaig ( 1863 – 64 ) . It was pursed by William Lethaby at Melsetter House , Hoy ( 1898 ) for a Birmingham industrialist .
= = = Twentieth century to the present = = =
The Baronial style peaked towards the end of the nineteenth century , and the building of large houses declined in importance in the twentieth century . An exception was the work undertaken by John Kinross ( 1855 – 1955 ) . Beginning with the reconstruction of Thurston House , Dunbar , from 1890 he produced a series of major country house designs . The most important was Manderston House ( 1901 – 03 ) , built for James Miller ( 1864 – 1906 ) in the Adam style . The baronial style continued to influence the construction of some estate houses , including Skibo Castle , which was rebuilt for industrialist Andrew Carnegie ( 1899 – 1903 ) by Ross and Macbeth . English architect C. H. B. Quennell ( 1872 – 1935 ) designed a neo @-@ Georgian mansion at Altmore ( 1912 – 14 ) for the owner of a Moscow department store .
There was a lull in building after the First World War and social change undermined the construction of rural estate houses . Isolated examples included the houses designed by Basil Spence and built at Broughton Place ( 1936 ) and Gribloch ( 1937 – 39 ) , which combined modern and traditional elements . The Second World War disrupted the occupation of estate houses , as they were used as wartime schools , barracks , evacuee housing and hospitals . After the war many were outdated , with a lack of electricity and modern plumbing . There was a shortage of live @-@ in servants and the heavily taxed aristocracy were also unable to find the money to modernise and maintain large houses . The shortage of building materials in the post @-@ war period also made estate houses valuable resources of stone . As a result 200 of the 378 architecturally important estate houses have been demolished , were destroyed in the period after 1945 , a higher proportion of the total than in England . Included in the destruction were works by Robert Adam , including Balbardie House and Hamilton Palace . One firm , Charles Brand of Dundee , demolished at least 56 country houses in Scotland in the 20 years between 1945 and 1965 . The shortage of building materials further reduced the number of new large luxury houses . Isolated examples included Logan House , designed by David Style in the 1950s . In the 1960s there was Basil Hughes 's design at Snaigow for the earl of Cadogan and the remodelling of Gask House by Claude Phillimore . This period also saw considerable restoration of existing houses .
= = Interiors = =
The creation of estate houses led to greater privacy , comfort and luxury for the families who lived in them . Interiors were remodelled , with broader staircases , family rooms were added and heating was improved . Oriel windows gave better views , more light and could be opened for fresh air . After the Reformation , which virtually ended religious patronage of art in Scotland , craftsmen and artists turned to secular patrons . With the departure of the Scottish court for England in 1603 , Jenny Wormald argues that there was a shift " from court to castle " in patronage and creativity ; estate houses became repositories of art and elaborate furnishings that illustrated the wealth and taste of their occupants .
One result was a flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls in estate houses . These included detailed coloured patterns and scenes , of which over a hundred examples survive . The designs relied upon continental pattern books that often led to the incorporation of humanist moral and philosophical symbolism , as well as elements that called on heraldry , piety , classical myths and allegory . The earliest example still extant is at the Hamilton palace of Kinneil , West Lothian , decorated in the 1550s for the then regent the James Hamilton , Earl of Arran . Other examples include the ceiling at Prestongrange House , undertaken in 1581 for Mark Kerr , Commendator of Newbattle , and the long gallery at Pinkie House , painted for Alexander Seaton , Earl of Dunfermline in 1621 .
Scottish estate houses were increasingly adorned with paintings , including portraits , landscapes and later classical , genre and historical paintings . Thomas Warrender ( fl . 1673 – 1713 ) made his living as a house decorator , working closely with architects , including William Adam . He may have trained James Norie ( 1684 – 1757 ) , who with his sons James ( 1711 – 36 ) and Robert ( d . 1766 ) also worked with the Adams , painting the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch scenes . They tutored many artists and have been credited with the inception of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting that would come to fruition from the late eighteenth century . The painters Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) , Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 98 ) , the brothers John ( 1744 – 68 / 9 ) and Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) , Jacob More ( 1740 – 93 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) , mostly began in the tradition of the Nories , but were artists of European significance , spending considerable portions of their careers outside Scotland . Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) was the most significant artist of the eighteenth century to pursue his entire career in Scotland , and from this point Scottish painters would be able to be professionals in their homeland , often supplying the nobility and lairds with works to fill the walls of their houses .
Carving and plasterwork also became a feature of estate houses . Some of the finest domestic wood carving is in the Beaton panels made for Arbroath Abbey , which were eventually moved to the dining room of Balfour House in Fife . Carvings at Huntly Castle , rebuilt for George Gordon , 1st Marquess of Huntly in the early seventeenth century , focused on heraldic images . Their " popish " overtones led to them being damaged by an occupying Covenanter army in 1640 . From the seventeenth century there was elaborate use of carving in pediments and fireplaces , with heraldic arms and classical motifs . Plasterwork also began to be used , often depicting flowers and cherubs . William Bruce favoured Dutch carvers for his realisation of Kinross House , where there are festoons , trophies and cornucopia around the doorways and gates . This may have included the work of Jan van Sant Voort , a Dutch carver known to have been living in Leith , who supplied Bruce with a carved heraldic overdoor in 1679 and who worked on Bruce 's rebuilding of Holyrood Palace . From 1674 the London plasterers George Dunsterfield ( fl . 1660 – 76 ) and John Houlbert ( fl . 1674 – 79 ) worked for Bruce at Thirlestane , Berwickshire and at Holyroodhouse . Dunsterfield was also active at Balcaskie , Fife and probably at Kellie Castle .
In the eighteenth century the development of the Grand Tour took young Scottish aristocrats to the continent , particularly Rome , which was home to the exiled Jacobite Stuarts . This in turn fuelled interest in classical and Renaissance styles , and the buying of artistic works , particularly sculptures . However , the only major Scottish collection of marble before the nineteenth century was that of James Johnstone , 2nd Marquess of Annandale . As in England , commissions of new statuary tended to be crafted in relatively cheap lead and even more economical painted or gilded plaster . The plasterwork of John Cheere 's yard in London was particularly in demand . Also important was the work from the yard of John Bacon ( 1740 – 99 ) . Bacon was also a partner in Mrs Eleanor Coade 's Artificial Stone Manufactory at Lambeth in London . This produced a buff coloured ceramic that could be moulded to provide fine detail , and be fired in sections , but was impervious to frost and fire . Much cheaper than carved stone , Coadstone was used for sphinxes , balustrading , capitals , coats of arms , tablets and ornamental vases . It was used extensively by the Adam brothers , particularly in the houses they built in Scotland , such as Cullen , Banff , Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , Dunbar Castle , East Lothian , Gosford House , East Lothian and Wedderburn , Berwickshire . They also supplied sculpture , candelabra and cippi that made up the neo @-@ classical Adam Style .
Nineteenth @-@ century interiors could often be lavish and eclectic . The origins of this style were in Scott 's Abbotsford , where the author began the incorporation of actual old architectural fragments and pieces of furniture on a lavish scale ( the effective beginning of ' antique ' collecting in Scotland ) . He also initiated the treatment of new surfaces so as to resemble old ones , with new wood darkened to resemble old oak . The Adam solution of a castellated exterior with a neo @-@ classical interior was abandoned and in Baronial revival houses this change was extended to create a synthesised Victorian style that combined elements of the Renaissance , such as plastered or rubble walls , unpainted stone fireplaces and pitch pine timberwork , with seventeenth @-@ century style plaster ceilings . To this were added symbols of landed power and national affiliation , including displays of tartan , weaponry and stuffed animals ' heads . Integrated into these traditional materials and styles were modern fittings such as sprung upholstery , gaslighting and water @-@ closets .
= = Gardens = =
Gardens , or yards , around medieval castles , abbeys and houses were formal and in the European tradition of herb garden , kitchen garden and orchard . They were often surrounded by defensive walls and they sometimes adjoined a hunting park . The first Renaissance style gardens in Scotland were built for the Stewart dynasty at their royal palaces . French gardeners were hired by James IV at Stirling in 1501 and James V at Holyrood in 1536 , where archaeological remains indicate there were sophisticated formal gardens . Similar landscaping is also found at Falkland and Linlithgow , including the king 's knot garden at Stirling . From the late sixteenth century , the landscaping of many estate houses was influenced by Italian Renaissance gardens . These were seen as retreats from the troubles of the world and were eulogised in country house poetry like that of William Drummond of Hawthornden ( 1585 – 1649 ) . Extensive gardens were developed at Pinkie House by Alexander Seton , 1st Earl of Dunfermline ( 1555 – 1622 ) , with lawns , fountains , ponds and aviaries for the entertainment of guests . Dunfermline 's nephew , George Seton , 3rd Earl of Winton ( 1584 – 1650 ) , planted a herb garden at Seaton House in 1620 . The Earl of Sutherland 's castle at Dunrobin was surrounded by orchards , herbs and flowers . The best surviving garden from the early seventeenth century is that at Edzell Castle , where , between 1604 and 1610 , David Lindsay ( 1551 ? – 1610 ) created an enclosure adorned with sculptures of the seven Cardinal Virtues , the seven Liberal Arts and the seven Planetary Deities , the expense of which eventually bankrupted him .
The legacy of the Auld Alliance , and the beginnings of the grand tour , meant that French styles were particularly important in Scotland , although adapted for the Scottish climate . From the late seventeenth century the gardens at Versailles , with their formal avenues , parterres and fountains that stressed symmetry and order , were a model . After the Glorious Revolution Dutch influences were also significant , with uniform planting and topiary . Gardening books from the continent and England became widely available in this period and the first gardening book published in Scotland , John Reid 's , Scots Gard 'ner ( 1683 ) , borrowed from John Evelyn 's ( 1658 ) translation of Nicholas de Bonnefon 's Le Jardinair françois ( 1651 ) , adapting its ideas for Scottish conditions . In the late seventeenth century William Bruce put Scotland at the forefront of European garden design , lowering garden walls to incorporate the surrounding countryside into the vista . This allowed a focus on significant landscape features such as Bass rock at Balcaskie and Loch Leven Castle at Kinross . Alexander Edward ( 1651 – 1708 ) continued in the tradition established by Bruce , adding landscapes at houses including Hamilton Palace and Kinnaird castle , Angus . Grand schemes in the French tradition included James Douglas , 2nd Duke of Queensberry ( 1662 – 1711 ) reworking of the terraces at Drumlanrig Castle , which incorporated the Douglas family crest into the parterres design , and the militaristic earthworks undertaken for Field Marshal John Dalrymple , 2nd Earl of Stair ( 1679 – 1747 ) at Castle Kennedy , Wigtownshire . Earl of Mar 's ( 1675 – 1732 ) palace at Alloa was the grandest realisation of the Versailles style gardens in Scotland : it included canals , parterres , statues and ornamental trees .
In the eighteenth century there was a reaction against the " absolutism " and " popery " of the French court and a retreat from the expense of maintaining large formal gardens . Less symmetrical layouts became common with the development of the " natural " style of the jardin anglais , which attempted to create vistas of a rural idyll . The antiquarian John Clerk of Pennycuik ( 1676 – 1755 ) , one of the key figures in defining elite taste in Scotland , eulogising the estate garden in his poem The Country Seat ( 1727 ) , which built on the ideas of Alexander Pope . He created gardens at Mavisbank and Penicuik , Midlothian , with the help of William Adam , which combined formality with undulating ground . The move to a less formal landscape of parklands and irregular clumps of planting , associated in England with Capability Brown ( 1716 – 83 ) , was dominated in Scotland by his followers , Robert Robinson and Thomas White senior and junior . From 1770 and 1809 the Whites were involved in the planning of over 70 estate gardens in Scotland , including those at Glamis Castle and Scone Palace . Important publications included James Justice 's The Scottish Gardiner 's Director ( 1754 ) and the reputation of Scottish gardeners in managing greenhouses , hot walls and the cultivation of fruit trees meant that they began to be in demand in England . At the end of eighteenth century there began to be a reaction to the English style of garden , influenced by Picturesque taste and the spread of Ossianic Romanticism , which encouraged gardens in the wild . This resulted in creation of features like Ossian 's Hall of Mirrors at the Hermitage Dunkeld and the Hermit 's Cave at the Falls of Acharn , which put an emphasis on concealment and the surprise revelation of the natural .
In the nineteenth century the writings of Humphrey Repton ( 1752 – 1818 ) were highly influential in the return of the formal garden near to the house . His sons were directly involved in the restructuring of the landscape at Valleyfield , Fife . Walter Scott 's dislike of the sweeping away of the old formal gardens was also influential in creating an emphasis on preservation and restoration . His ideas were taken up by John Claudius Loudon ( 1783 – 1843 ) , the most prolific gardening author of the century in Britain , and were highly influential throughout the world . By 1850 ambitious formal gardens had been recreated at Drummond Castle , Dunrobin and Drumlandrig . New plants from around the world , often discovered and sampled by Scots , such as the rhododendron and monkey puzzle tree , meant that Victorian and Edwardian gardens were characterised by an eclectic mix of the formal , picturesque and gardenesque . By the end of the century the ideas of William Robinson ( 1838 – 1935 ) , Gertrude Jekyll ( 1843 – 1932 ) and the Edinburgh @-@ based Frances Hope ( d . 1880 ) , arguing for informal flower @-@ based gardens , had begun to dominate . They resulted in a revival of the seventeenth @-@ century mixed flower and kitchen garden , as carried out at Kellie Castle , and Earlshall , Fife by Robert Lorimer .
= = Social life = =
The development of the Palladian country house in the seventeenth century separated the family of the householder from the servants . Previously sharing the hall , and bedding down at a master 's feet , or door , servants were now given separate small chambers . Sometimes these were placed on a mezzanine floor , as at Kinross . Servants were less visible , using backstairs that kept them away from members of the family and guests and they fulfilled necessary and sometimes unpleasant tasks . They were also fewer in number , of lower social status and predominately female . A country house could have 10 to 20 servants and large houses had more . A hierarchy of positions developed from the butler and housekeeper to footmen and maids . The sexes were increasingly segregated into their own quarters .
Relatively isolated , gentry families spent much of their time visiting family , friends or neighbours . As a result hospitality was an important part of life . Leisure activities pursued by the gentry included hunting , cards and chess . Music remained important in noble houses , with accounts listing professional musicians hired to entertain the family and guests . However , professional musicians were expensive to maintain . In the eighteenth century members of the household often provided musical entertainment on the harpsichord , organ and piano . House libraries often contained considerable quantities of music , as at Dalkeith Palace , where the Duke of Buccleuch 's daughter collected vocal music between 1780 and 1800 . In the nineteenth century it was the women of the family who were the chief performers and men were not expected to play the piano in drawing rooms .
The consumption of large and sumptuous meals was an important part of social life . Some were elaborately planned , others the result of unexpected guests . These usually consisted of three or four courses , with a variety of dishes served in each course , from which the diner was expected to select . In the eighteenth century service was service à la française , where all the dishes were impressively displayed on tables at the same time , until the advent of service à la russe in the nineteenth century , when they were served sequentially . Alcohol in various forms and toasts were an important part of formal dining and until the Regency era dessert and drinks were often taken in a separate dessert room .
In the eighteenth century , estate houses were designed as centres of public display , but in the nineteenth century they became increasingly private . The first family wing in Britain was added to Blairquhan Castle in Ayrshire in 1820 by architect William Burn and the style became characteristic of the Victorian country house . From the 1830s distinct male areas of the house began to emerge , to which the men could withdraw and indulge in " masculine " conversation and activities , centred on the smoking and billiard rooms . From the 1870s gun rooms began to be added , mainly to cater for weapons for hunting weekends . The popularity of salmon fishing , deer stalking and grouse shooting , particularly in the Highlands , was confirmed by Queen Victoria 's purchase of the hunting lodge at Balmoral . It rapidly expanded as southern industrialists and businessmen began to see the sports offered by Scottish estates as a status symbol . Large areas of land were designated for hunting and hunting parties became a major part of the life of the Scottish estate house . There were also a wider range of activities that developed in the nineteenth century for members of the leisured classes , such as croquet , lawn tennis , billiards , carriage rides , charades and amateur dramatics .
= = Current ownership = =
In the twentieth century , as the finances and needs of the landed classes changed , many surviving country houses were sold and became boarding schools , hospitals , spa retreats , conference centres and hotels . The National Trust for Scotland ( founded 1931 ) cares for post @-@ Medieval castles and estate houses that were still in occupation until the twentieth century and are open to the public . Historic Scotland ( created as an agency in 1991 ) cares for over 300 properties , which are publicly accessible . The Landmark Trust restores and operates historic buildings as holiday homes .
|
= Equus ( genus ) =
Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae , which includes horses , asses , and zebras . Within Equidae , Equus is the only recognized extant genus , comprising seven living species . The term equine refers to any member of this genus , including horses . Like Equidae more broadly , Equus has numerous extinct species known only from fossils . The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World . Equines are odd @-@ toed ungulates with slender legs , long heads , relatively long necks , manes ( erect in most subspecies ) and long tails . All species are herbivorous , and mostly grazers with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower quality vegetation .
While the domestic horse and donkey ( along with their feral descendants ) exist worldwide , wild equine populations are limited to Africa and Asia . Wild equine social systems come in two forms ; a harem system with tight @-@ knit groups consisting of one adult male or stallion , several females or mares and their young or foals ; and a territorial system where males establish territories with resources that attract females , which associate very fluidly . In both systems , females take care of their offspring but males may play a role as well . Equines communicate with each other both visually and vocally . Human activities have threatened wild equine populations and out of the seven living species , only the plains zebra remains widespread and abundant .
= = Etymology = =
The word equus is Latin for " horse " , and is cognate with the Greek " ἵππος " ( hippos ) , " horse " , and Mycenaean Greek i @-@ qo / ikkʷos / ( cf. the alternative development of the Proto @-@ Greek labiovelar in Ionic " ἴκκος " ikkos ) , the earliest attested variant of the Greek word , written in Linear B syllabic script .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The genus Equus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . It is the only recognized extant genus in the family Equidae . The first equids were small , dog @-@ sized mammals ( e.g. Eohippus ) adapted for browsing on shrubs during the Eocene , around 54 million years ago ( mya ) . These animals had three toes on the hind feet and four on the front feet with small hooves in place of claws but also had soft pads . Equids developed into larger , three @-@ toed animals ( e.g. Mesohippus ) during the Oligocene and Miocene . From there , the tridactyl toes became progressively smaller through the Pleistocene until the emergence of the single @-@ toed Equus .
The genus Equus , which includes all extant equines , is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus , via the intermediate form Plesippus . One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens , described as zebra @-@ like with a donkey @-@ like head shape . The oldest material to date was found in Idaho , USA . The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World , with the similarly aged E. livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia . Molecular phylogenies indicate that the most recent common ancestor of all modern equines ( members of the genus Equus ) lived ~ 5 @.@ 6 ( 3 @.@ 9 @-@ 7 @.@ 8 ) mya . Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4 @.@ 07 mya for the most recent common ancestor within the range of 4 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 5 mya .
Mitochondrial evidence supports the division of Equus species into non @-@ caballoid ( which includes zebras and asses ) and caballoids or " true horses " ( which includes E. ferus and E. przewalskii ) . Of the extant equine species , the lineage of the asses may have diverged first , possibly as soon as Equus reached the Old World . Zebras appear to be monophyletic and differentiated in Africa where they are endemic .
Molecular dating indicates the caballoid lineage diverged from the non @-@ caballoids 4 mya . Genetic results suggest that all North American fossils of caballine equines , as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus E. ( Amerhippus ) , belong to E. ferus . Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped together as New World stilt @-@ legged horses ( including E. francisci , E. tau , and E. quinni ) probably all belong to a second species that was endemic to North America . The possible causes of the extinction of horses in the Americas ( ca . 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) have been a matter of debate . Hypotheses include climate change and overexploitation by newly arrived humans . Horses only returned to the American mainland with the arrival of the conquistadors in 1519 .
= = = All species and subspecies = = =
[ extinct species / subspecies are marked with † ]
Genus Equus
Subgenus Equus
Equus ferus Wild horse
Equus ferus caballus Domestic horse
† Equus ferus ferus Tarpan
Equus ferus przewalskii Przewalski 's horse
† Equus algericus
† North American caballid horses ( Pleistocene ; most likely synonymous with E. ferus ) :
† Equus lambei Yukon wild horse
† Equus niobrarensis
Subgenus † Amerhippus ( this subgenus and its species are possibly synonymous with E. ferus ) † Equus alaskae
† Equus andium
† Equus neogeus
† Equus santaeelenae
† Equus scotti
† Equus niobrarensis
† Equus conversidens Mexican horse
† New World stilt @-@ legged horse ( all following species within the group may be synonyms or ecomorphs of a single species ) † Equus francisci
† Equus semiplicatus
Subgenus Asinus
Equus africanus African wild ass
Equus africanus africanus Nubian wild ass
Equus africanus asinus Domestic donkey
† Equus africanus atlanticus Atlas wild ass
Equus africanus somalicus Somali wild ass
Equus hemionus Onager or Asiatic ass
Equus hemionus hemionus Mongolian wild ass
† Equus hemionus hemippus Syrian wild ass
Equus hemionus khur Indian wild ass
Equus hemionus kulan Turkmenian kulan
Equus hemionus onager Persian onager
Equus kiang Kiang
Equus kiang chu Northern kiang
Equus kiang kiang Western kiang
Equus kiang holdereri Eastern kiang
Equus kiang polyodon Southern kiang
† Equus hydruntinus European ass
† Equus altidens
† Equus tabeti
† Equus melkiensis
† Equus graziosii
Subgenus Dolichohippus
Equus grevyi Grévy 's zebra
† Equus koobiforensis
† Equus oldowayensis
Subgenus HippotigrisEquus quagga Plains zebra
Equus quagga boehmi Grant 's zebra
Equus quagga borensis Maneless zebra
Equus quagga chapmani Chapman 's zebra
Equus quagga crawshayi Crawshay 's zebra
Equus quagga burchellii Burchell 's zebra
† Equus quagga quagga Quagga
Equus quagga selousi Selous ' zebra
Equus zebra Mountain zebra
Equus zebra hartmannae Hartmann 's mountain zebra
Equus zebra zebra Cape mountain zebra
† Equus mauritanicus
Subgenus † Parastylidequus
† Equus parastylidens Mooser 's horse
incertae sedis
† Equus simplicidens Hagerman horse
† Equus cumminsii
† Equus livenzovensis
† Equus sanmeniensis
† Equus teilhardi
† Equus numidicus
† Equus plicidens
† Equus stenonis group
† Equus stenonis
† Equus stenonis guthi
† Equus stenonis senezensis
† Equus stenonis pamirensis ( Hippotigris pamirensis )
† Equus stenonis petraloniensis
† Equus stenonis vireti
† Equus sivalensis
† Equus stehlini
† Equus bressanus
† Equus sussenbornensis
† Equus verae
† Equus namadicus
† subgenus Allozebra & Hesperohippus
† Equus idahoensis
† Equus ( A. ) occidentalis
† Equus A. excelsus
† Equus ( H. ) pacificus
† Equus complicatus
† Equus fraternus
Equus major
† Equus giganteus group
† Equus giganteus
† Equus pectinatus
† Equus crinidens
= = = Hybrids = = =
Equines species can crossbreed with each other . The most common hybrid is the mule , a cross between a male donkey and a female horse . With rare exceptions , these hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce . A related hybrid , a hinny , is a cross between a male horse and a female donkey . Other hybrids include the zorse , a cross between a zebra and a horse and a zonkey or zedonk , a hybrid of a zebra and a donkey . In areas where Grévy 's zebras are sympatric with plains zebras , fertile hybrids do occur .
= = Biology = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
Equines have significant differences in size , though all are characterized by long heads and necks . Their slender legs support their weight on one digit ( which evolved from the middle digits ) . The Grévy 's zebra is the largest wild species , standing up to 13 @.@ 2 hands ( 54 inches , 137 cm ) and weighing up to 405 kg ( 890 lb ) . Domesticated horses have a wider range of sizes . Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) high and can be as tall as 18 hands ( 72 inches , 183 cm ) and weigh from about 700 to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) . Some miniature horses are no taller than 30 inches ( 76 cm ) in adulthood . Sexual dimorphism is limited in equines . The penis of the male is vascular and lacks a bone ( baculum ) . Equines are adapted for running and for traveling over long distances . Their dentition is adapted for grazing ; they have large incisors that clip grass blades and highly crowned , ridged molars well suited for grinding . Males have spade @-@ shaped canines ( " tushes " ) , which can be used as weapons in fighting . Equines have fairly good senses , particularly their eyesight . Their moderately long , erect ears are movable and can locate the source of a sound .
A dun @-@ colored coat with primitive markings that include a dorsal stripe and often leg striping and transverse shoulder stripes reflect the wildtype coat and are observed in most wild extant equine species . Only the mountain zebra lacks a dorsal stripe . In domestic horses , dun color and primitive markings exist in some animals across many breeds . The purpose of the bold black @-@ and @-@ white striping of zebras has been a subject of debate among biologists for over a century , but recent ( 2014 ) evidence supports the theory that they are a form of protection from biting flies . These insects appear to be less attracted to striped coats and , compared to other wild equines , zebras live in areas with the highest fly activity . With the exception of the domestic horses , which have long manes that lay over the neck and long tail hair growing from the top of the tailhead or dock , most equines have erect manes and long tails ending in a tuft of hair . The coats of some equine species undergo shedding in certain parts of their range and are thick in the winter .
= = = Ecology and daily activities = = =
Extant wild equines have scattered ranges across Africa and Asia . The plains zebra lives in lush grasslands and savannas of Eastern and Southern Africa , while the Mountain zebra inhabits mountainous areas of southwest Africa . The other equine species tend to occupy more arid environments with more scattered vegetation . The Grévy 's zebra is found in thorny scrubland of East Africa , while the African wild ass inhabits rocky deserts of North Africa . The two Asian wild ass species live in the dry deserts of the Near East and Central Asia and the Przwelski 's wild horse 's habitat is the deserts of Mongolia . Only the range of the plains and Grévy 's zebras overlap . In addition to wild populations , domesticated horses and donkeys are widespread thanks to humans . In certain parts of the world , populations of feral horses and feral donkeys exist , which are descended from domesticated animals that were released or escaped into the wild .
Equines are monogastric hindgut fermenters . They prefer to eat grasses and sedges , but may also consume bark , leaves , buds , fruits and roots if their favored foods are scarce , particularly asses . Compared to ruminants , equines have a simpler and less efficient digestive system . Nevertheless , they can subsist on lower quality vegetation . After food is passed though the stomach , it enters the sac @-@ like cecum. where cellulose is broken down by micro @-@ organisms . Fermentation is quicker in equines than in ruminants ; 30 – 45 hours for a horse compared to 70 – 100 hours for a cow . Equines may spend 60 @-@ 80 percent of their time feeding , depending on the availability and quality of vegetation . In the African savannas , the plains zebra is a pioneer grazer ; mowing down the upper , less nutritious grass canopy and preparing the way for more specialized grazers like blue wildebeests and Thomson 's gazelles which depend on shorter and more nutritious grasses below .
Wild equines may spend seven hours a day sleeping . During the day , they sleep standing up while at night they lie down . They regularly rub against trees , rocks and other objects and roll in around in dust for protection against flies and irritation . Except the mountain zebra , wild equines can roll over completely .
= = = Social behavior = = =
Equines are social animals with two basic social structures . Horses , plains zebras and mountain zebras live in stable , closed family groups or harems consisting of one adult male , several females and their offspring . These groups have their own home ranges which overlap and they tend to be nomadic . The stability of the group remains even when the family stallion dies or is displaced . Plains zebra groups gather into large herds and may create temporarily stable subgroups within a herd , allowing individuals to interact with those outside their group . Among harem @-@ holding species , this behavior has only otherwise been observed in primates like the gelada and the hamadryas baboon . Females of harem species benefit as males give them more time for feeding , protection for their young , as well as protection from predators and harassment by outside males . Among females in a harem , a linear dominance hierarchy exists based on the time at which they join the group . Harems travel in a consistent filing order with the high @-@ ranking mares and their offspring leading the groups followed by the next highest ranking mare and her offspring and so on . The family stallion takes up the rear . Social grooming ( which involves individuals rubbing their heads against each other and nipping with the incisors and lips ) is important for easing aggression and maintaining social bonds and status . Young of both sexes leave their natal groups as they mature ; females are usually abducted by outside males to be included as permanent members of their harems .
In Grévy 's zebras and the wild ass species , adults have more fluid associations and adult males will establish large territories and monopolize the females that enter them . These species live in habitats with sparser resources and standing water and grazing areas may be separated . Groups of lactating females are able to remain in groups with non @-@ lactating ones and usually gather at foraging areas . The most dominant males establish territories near watering holes , where more sexually receptive females gather . Subdominants have territories farther away , near foraging areas . Mares may wander through several territories but will remain in one when they have young . Staying in a territory offers a female protection from harassment by outside males , as well as access to a renewable resource . Some feral populations of horse exhibit features of both the harem and territorial social systems .
In both equine social systems , excess males gather in bachelor groups . These are typically young males who are not yet ready to establish a harem or territory . With the plains zebra , the males in a bachelor group have strong bonds and have a linear dominance hierarchy . Fights between males usually occur over estrus females and involve biting and kicking .
= = = Communication = = =
When meeting for the first time or after they have separated , individuals may greet each other by rubbing and sniffing their noses followed by rubbing their cheeks , moving their noses along their bodies and sniffing each other 's genitals . They then may rub and press their shoulders against each other and rest their heads on one another . This greeting is usually performed among harem or territorial males or among bachelor males playing .
Equines produce a number of vocalizations and noises . Loud snorting is associated with alarm . Squealing is usually made when in pain , but bachelors will also squeal while play fighting . The contact calls of equines vary from the whinnying and nickering of the horse , the barking of plains zebras , and the braying of asses and Grévy 's zebras . Equines also communicate with visual displays and the flexibility of their lips allows them to make complex facial expressions . Visual displays also incorporate the positions of the head , ears and tail . An equine may signal an intention to kick by laying back its ears and sometimes lashing the tail . Flattened ears , bared teeth and abrupt movement of the heads may be used as threatening gestures , particularly among stallions .
= = = Reproduction and parenting = = =
Among harem @-@ holding species , the adult females mate only with their harem stallion , while in other species , mating is more promiscuous and the males have larger testes for sperm competition . Estrous in female equines lasts 5 – 10 days ; physical signs include frequent urination , flowing muscus , and a swollen , everted labia . In addition , estrous females will stand with their hind legs spread and raise their tails when in the presence of a male . Males assess the female 's reproductive state with the flehmen response and the female will solicit mating by backing in . Length of gestation varies by species , it is roughly 11 to 13 months , and most mares will come into estrus again within a few days after foaling , depending on conditions . Usually , only a single foal is born , which is capable of running within an hour . Within a few weeks , foals will attempt to graze , but may continue to nurse for 8 – 13 months . Species in arid habitats , like the Grévy 's zebra , have longer nursing intervals and do not drink water until they are three months old .
Among harem @-@ holding species , foals are cared for mostly by their mothers , but if threatened by predators , the entire group works together to protect all the young . The group forms a protective front with the foals in the center and the stallion will rush at predators that come too close . In territory @-@ holding species , mothers may gather into small groups and leave their young in " kindergartens " under the guard of a territorial male while searching for water . Grévy 's zebra stallions may look after a foal in his territory to ensure that the mother stays , even though it may not be his .
= = Human relations = =
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan , dating to approximately 4000 @-@ 3500 BC . By 3000 BC , the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe , indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent . The most recent , but most irrefutable , evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c . 2100 BC . Studies of variation in genetic material shows that very few wild stallions , possibly all from a single haplotype , contributed to the domestic horse , while many mares were part of early domesticated herds .
The Przewalski 's horse has been conclusively shown not to be an ancestor of the domestic horse , even though the two can hybridize and produce fertile offspring . The split between Przewalskii 's horse and E. ferus caballus is estimated to have occurred 120 @,@ 000 – 240 @,@ 000 years ago , long before domestication . Of the caballine equines , E. ferus , it is E. ferus ferus , also known as the European wild horse or " tarpan " that shares ancestry with the modern domestic horse . In addition , it has also been hypothesized that tarpans that lived into modern times may have been hybridized with domestic horses .
Archaeological , biogeographical , and linguistic evidence suggest that the donkey was first domesticated by nomadic pastoral people in North Africa over 5 @,@ 000 years ago . The animals were used to help cope with the increased aridity of the Sahara and the Horn of Africa . Genetic evidence finds that the donkey was domesticated twice based on two distinct mitochondrial DNA haplogroups . It also points to a single ancestor , the Nubian wild ass . Attempts to domesticate zebras were largely unsuccessful , though Walter Rothschild trained some to draw a carriage in England .
= = = Conservation issues = = =
Humans have had a great impact on the populations of wild equines . Threats to wild equines include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people and livestock . Since the 20th century , wild equines have been decimated over many of their former ranges and their populations scattered . In recent centuries , two subspecies , the quagga and the tarpan , became extinct . Only the plains zebra remains numerous and widespread . The IUCN lists the African wild ass as critically endangered , the Grévy 's zebra , mountain zebra and Przewalski 's horse as endangered , the Onager as vulnerable , the kiang as lower risk and the plains zebra as least concern . The Przewalski 's horse was considered to be extinct in the wild from the 1960s to 1996 . However , following successful captive breeding , it has been reintroduced in Mongolia .
Feral horses vary in degree of protection and generate considerable controversy . For example , in Australia , they are considered a non @-@ native invasive species , often viewed as pests , though are also considered to have some cultural and economic value . In the United States , feral horses and burros are generally considered an introduced species because descend from domestic horses brought to the Americas from Europe . While they are viewed as pests by many livestock producers , conversely , there is also a view that E. ferus caballus is a reintroduced once @-@ native species returned to the Americas that should be granted endangered species protection . At present , certain free @-@ roaming horses and burros have federal protection as " living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West " under the Wild and Free @-@ Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 , and in Kleppe v. New Mexico , the United States Supreme Court ruled that the animals so designated were , as a matter of law , wildlife .
|
= McDonnell Douglas AV @-@ 8B Harrier II =
The McDonnell Douglas ( now Boeing ) AV @-@ 8B Harrier II is a single @-@ engine ground @-@ attack aircraft that constitutes the second generation of the Harrier Jump Jet family . Capable of vertical or short takeoff and landing ( V / STOL ) , the aircraft was designed in the late 1970s as an Anglo @-@ American development of the British Hawker Siddeley Harrier , the first operational V / STOL aircraft . Named after a bird of prey , it is primarily employed on light attack or multi @-@ role missions , ranging from close air support of ground troops to armed reconnaissance . The AV @-@ 8B is used by the United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) , the Spanish Navy , and the Italian Navy . A variant of the AV @-@ 8B , the British Aerospace Harrier II , was developed for the British military , while another , the TAV @-@ 8B , is a dedicated two @-@ seat trainer .
The project that eventually led to the AV @-@ 8B 's creation started in the early 1970s as a cooperative effort between the United States and United Kingdom ( UK ) , aimed at addressing the operational inadequacies of the first @-@ generation Harrier . Early efforts centered on a larger , more powerful Pegasus engine to dramatically improve the capabilities of the Harrier . Due to budgetary constraints , the UK abandoned the project in 1975 .
Following the withdrawal of the UK , McDonnell Douglas extensively redesigned the earlier AV @-@ 8A Harrier to create the AV @-@ 8B . While retaining the general layout of its predecessor , the aircraft incorporates a new wing , an elevated cockpit , a redesigned fuselage , one extra hardpoint per wing , and other structural and aerodynamic refinements . The aircraft is powered by an upgraded version of the Pegasus , which gives the aircraft its V / STOL ability . The AV @-@ 8B made its maiden flight in November 1981 and entered service with the USMC in January 1985 . Later upgrades added a night @-@ attack capability and radar , resulting in the AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) and AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus , respectively . An enlarged version named Harrier III was also studied , but not pursued . The UK , through British Aerospace , re @-@ joined the improved Harrier project as a partner in 1981 , giving it a significant work @-@ share in the project . After corporate mergers in the 1990s , Boeing and BAE Systems have jointly supported the program . Approximately 340 aircraft were produced in a 22 @-@ year production program that ended in 2003 .
Typically operated from small aircraft carriers , large amphibious assault ships and simple forward operating bases , AV @-@ 8Bs have participated in numerous military and humanitarian operations , proving themselves versatile assets . US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf named the USMC Harrier II as one of the seven most important weapons of the Gulf War . The aircraft took part in combat during the Iraq War beginning in 2003 . The Harrier II has served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan since 2001 , and was used in Operation Odyssey Dawn in Libya in 2011 . Italian and Spanish Harrier IIs have taken part in overseas conflicts in conjunction with NATO coalitions . During its service history , the AV @-@ 8B has had a high accident rate , related to the percentage of time spent in critical take @-@ off and landing phases . USMC and Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs are to be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35B Lightning II , with the former expected to operate its Harriers until 2025 .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the first @-@ generation Harriers entered service with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) , but were handicapped in range and payload . In short takeoff and landing configuration , the AV @-@ 8A ( American designation for the Harrier ) carried less than half the 4 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 800 kg ) payload of the smaller A @-@ 4 Skyhawk , over a more limited radius . To address this issue , in 1973 Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas began joint development of a more capable version of the Harrier . Early efforts concentrated on an improved Pegasus engine , designated the Pegasus 15 , which was being tested by Bristol Siddeley . Although more powerful , the engine 's diameter was too large by 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) to fit into the Harrier easily .
In December 1973 , a joint American and British team completed a project document defining an Advanced Harrier powered by the Pegasus 15 engine . The Advanced Harrier was intended to replace the original RAF and USMC Harriers , as well as the USMC 's A @-@ 4 . The aim of the Advanced Harrier was to double the AV @-@ 8 's payload and range , and was therefore unofficially named AV @-@ 16 . The British government pulled out of the project in March 1975 owing to decreased defense funding , rising costs , and the RAF 's insufficient 60 @-@ aircraft requirement . With development costs estimated to be around £ 180 – 200 million ( 1974 British pounds ) , the United States was unwilling to fund development by itself , and ended the project later that year .
Despite the project 's termination , the two companies continued to take different paths toward an enhanced Harrier . Hawker Siddeley focused on a new larger wing that could be retrofitted to existing operational aircraft , while McDonnell Douglas independently pursued a less ambitious , though still expensive , project catering to the needs of the US military . Using knowledge gleaned from the AV @-@ 16 effort , though dropping some items — such as the larger Pegasus engine — McDonnell Douglas kept the basic structure and engine for an aircraft tailored for the USMC .
= = = Designing and testing = = =
As the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier without the development of a new engine , the plan for Harrier II development was authorized by the United States Department of Defense ( DoD ) in 1976 . The United States Navy ( USN ) , which had traditionally procured military aircraft for the USMC , insisted that the new design be verified with flight testing . McDonnell Douglas modified two AV @-@ 8As with new wings , revised intakes , redesigned exhaust nozzles , and other aerodynamic changes ; the modified forward fuselage and cockpit found on all subsequent aircraft were not incorporated on these prototypes . Designated YAV @-@ 8B , the first converted aircraft flew on 9 November 1978 , at the hands of Charles Plummer . The aircraft performed three vertical take @-@ offs and hovered for seven minutes at Lambert – St. Louis International Airport . The second aircraft followed on 19 February 1979 , but crashed that November due to engine flameout ; the pilot ejected safely . Flight testing of these modified AV @-@ 8s continued into 1979 . The results showed greater than expected drag , hampering the aircraft 's maximum speed . Further refinements to the aerodynamic profile yielded little improvement . Positive test results in other areas , including payload , range , and V / STOL performance , led to the award of a development contract in 1979 . The contract stipulated a procurement of 12 aircraft initially , followed by a further 324 .
Between 1978 and 1980 , the DoD and USN repeatedly attempted to terminate the AV @-@ 8B program . There had previously been conflict between the USMC and USN over budgetary issues . At the time , the USN wanted to procure A @-@ 18s for its ground attack force and , to cut costs , pressured the USMC to adopt the similarly @-@ designed F @-@ 18 fighter instead of the AV @-@ 8B to fulfill the role of close air support ( both designs were eventually amalgamated to create the multirole F / A @-@ 18 Hornet ) . Despite these bureaucratic obstacles , in 1981 , the DoD included the Harrier II in its annual budget and five @-@ year defense plan . The USN declined to participate in the procurement , citing the limited range and payload compared with conventional aircraft .
In August 1981 , the program received a boost when British Aerospace ( BAe ) and McDonnell Douglas signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MoU ) , marking the UK 's re @-@ entry into the program . The British government was enticed by the lower cost of acquiring Harriers promised by a large production run , and the fact that the US was shouldering the expense of development . Under the agreement BAe was relegated to the position of a subcontractor , instead of the full partner status that would have been the case had the UK not left the program . Consequently , the company received , in man @-@ hours , 40 percent of the airframe work @-@ share . Aircraft production took place at McDonnell Douglas ' facilities in suburban St. Louis , Missouri , and manufacturing by BAe at its Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey , England . Meanwhile , 75 percent work @-@ share for the engine went to Rolls @-@ Royce , which had previously absorbed Bristol Siddeley , with the remaining 25 percent assigned to Pratt & Whitney . The two companies planned to manufacture 400 Harrier IIs , with the USMC expected to procure 336 aircraft and the RAF , 60 .
Four full @-@ scale development ( FSD ) aircraft were constructed . The first of these ( BuNo 161396 ) , used mainly for testing performance and handling qualities , made its maiden flight on 5 November 1981 , piloted by Plummer . The second and third FSD aircraft , which introduced wing leading @-@ edge root extensions and revised engine intakes , first flew in April the following year ; the fourth followed in January 1984 . The first production AV @-@ 8B was delivered to the Marine Attack Training Squadron 203 ( VMAT @-@ 203 ) at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point ( MCAS Cherry Point ) on 12 December 1983 , and officially handed over one month later . The last of the initial batch of 12 was delivered in January 1985 to the front @-@ line Marine Attack Squadron 331 ( VMA @-@ 331 ) . The engine used for these aircraft was the F402 @-@ RR @-@ 404A , with 21 @,@ 450 lb ( 95 @.@ 4 kN ) of thrust ; aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines .
= = = Upgrades = = =
During the initial pilot conversion course , it became apparent that the AV @-@ 8B exhibited flight characteristics different from the AV @-@ 8A . These differences , as well as the digital cockpit fitted instead of the analog cockpit of the TAV @-@ 8A , necessitated additional pilot training . In 1984 , funding for eight AV @-@ 8Bs was diverted to the development of a two @-@ seat TAV @-@ 8B trainer . The first of the 28 TAV @-@ 8Bs eventually procured had its maiden flight on 21 October 1986 . This aircraft was delivered to VMAT @-@ 203 on 24 July 1987 ; the TAV @-@ 8B was also ordered by Italy and Spain .
With export interest from Brazil , Japan , and Italy serving as a source of encouragement to continue development of the Harrier II , McDonnell Douglas commenced work on a night @-@ attack variant in 1985 . With the addition of an infrared sensor and cockpit interface enhancements , the 87th production single @-@ seat AV @-@ 8B became the first Harrier II to be modified for night attacks , leaving the McDonnell Douglas production line in June 1987 . Flight tests proved successful and the night attack capability was validated . The first of 66 AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) s was delivered to the USMC in September 1989 . An equivalent version of the AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) also served with the RAF under the designation GR7 ; earlier GR5 aircraft were subsequently upgraded to GR7 standards .
In June 1987 , as a private venture , BAe , McDonnell Douglas , and Smiths Industries signed an MoU for the development of what was to become the AV @-@ 8B Plus , which saw the addition of radar and increased missile compatibility . The agreement was endorsed by the USMC and , after much consideration , the Spanish and Italian navies developed a joint requirement for a fleet of air @-@ defense Harriers . The United States , Spain , and Italy signed an MoU in September 1990 to define the responsibilities of the three countries and establish a Joint Program Office to manage the program . On 30 November 1990 , the USN , acting as an agent for the three participating countries , awarded McDonnell Douglas the contract to develop the improved Harrier . The award was followed by an order from the USMC in December 1990 for 30 new aircraft , and 72 rebuilt from older aircraft . Italy ordered 16 Harrier II Plus and two twin @-@ seat TAV @-@ 8B aircraft , while Spain signed a contract for eight aircraft . Production of the AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus was conducted , in addition to McDonnell Douglas ' plant , at CASA 's facility in Seville , Spain , and Alenia Aeronautica 's facility in Turin , Italy . The UK also participated in the program by manufacturing components for the AV @-@ 8B .
Production was authorized on 3 June 1992 . The maiden flight of the prototype ( BuNo 164129 ) took place on 22 September , marking the start of a successful flight @-@ test program . The first production aircraft was delivered to St. Louis and made its initial flight on 17 March 1993 . Deliveries of new aircraft took place from April 1993 to 1995 . At the same time , the plan to remanufacture existing AV @-@ 8Bs to the Plus standard proceeded . On 11 March 1994 , the Defense Acquisition Board approved the program , which initially involved 70 aircraft , with four converted in financial year 1994 . The program planned to use new and refurbished components to rebuild aircraft at a lower cost than manufacturing new ones . Conversion began in April 1994 , and the first aircraft was delivered to the USMC in January 1996 .
= = = End of production and further improvements = = =
In March 1996 , the US General Accounting Office ( GAO ) stated that it was cheaper to buy Harrier II Plus aircraft outright than to remanufacture existing AV @-@ 8Bs . The USN estimated the cost for remanufacture of each aircraft to be US $ 23 – 30 million , instead of $ 30 million for each new @-@ built aircraft , while the GAO estimated the cost per new aircraft at $ 24 million . Nevertheless , the program continued and , in 2003 , the 72nd and last AV @-@ 8B to be remanufactured for the USMC was delivered . Spain also participated in the program , the delivery of its last refurbished aircraft occurring in December 2003 , which marked the end of the AV @-@ 8B 's production ; the final new AV @-@ 8B had been delivered in 1997 .
In the 1990s , Boeing and BAE Systems assumed management of the Harrier family following corporate mergers that saw Boeing acquire McDonnell Douglas and BAe amalgamate with other defense companies to form BAE Systems . Between 1969 and 2003 , 824 Harriers of all models were delivered . In 2001 , Flight International reported that Taiwan might meet its requirement for a short take off and vertical landing ( STOVL ) aircraft by purchasing AV @-@ 8Bs , outfitted with the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon 's APG @-@ 66 radar . A Taiwanese purchase would have allowed the production line to stay open beyond 2005 . Despite the possibility of leasing AV @-@ 8Bs , interest in the aircraft waned as the country switched its intentions to procuring the F @-@ 35 and upgrading its fleet of F @-@ 16s .
Although there have been no new AV @-@ 8B variants , in 1990 McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace began discussions on an interim aircraft between the AV @-@ 8B and the next generation of advanced STOVL aircraft . The Harrier III would have presented an " evolutionary approach to get the most from the existing aircraft " , as many of the structures employed on the Sea Harrier and AV @-@ 8B would be used . The wing and the torsion box were to be enlarged to accommodate extra fuel and hardpoints to improve the aircraft 's endurance . Due to the increase in size , the wing would have had folding wingtips . To meet the heavier weight of the aircraft , Rolls @-@ Royce was expected to design a Pegasus engine variant that would have produced 4 @,@ 000 lbf ( 18 kN ) more thrust than the latest production variant at the time . The Harrier III would have carried weapons such as AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM and AIM @-@ 132 ASRAAM missiles . Boeing and BAE Systems continued studying the design until the early 2000s , when the project was abandoned .
In 2013 , the USMC was studying potential enhancements to keep the AV @-@ 8B Harrier IIs up to date until its planned retirement , such as a helmet @-@ mounted cueing system . It is also predicted that additional work on the aircraft 's radars and sensor systems may take place . The Marines Corps Harrier II fleet was planned to remain in service until 2030 , owing to delays with the F @-@ 35B and the fact that the Harriers have more service life left than USMC F / A @-@ 18 Hornets . However , by 2014 the USMC had decided to retire the AV @-@ 8B sooner because changing the transition orders of Harrier II and Hornet fleets to the Lightning II would save $ 1 billion . Expected to become operational in 2015 , the F @-@ 35B will start to replace the AV @-@ 8B in 2016 , with the AV @-@ 8B expected to continue service until 2025 . Meanwhile , the AV @-@ 8B will receive revamped defensive measures , updated data @-@ link capability and targeting sensors , and improved missiles and rockets , among other enhancements .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The AV @-@ 8B Harrier II is a subsonic attack aircraft of metal and composite construction that retains the basic layout of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier , with horizontal stabilizers and shoulder @-@ mounted wings featuring prominent anhedral ( downward slope ) . The aircraft is powered by a single Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus turbofan engine , which has two intakes and four synchronized vectorable nozzles close to its turbine . Two of these nozzles are located near the forward , cold end of the engine and two are near the rear , hot end of the engine . This arrangement contrasts with most fixed @-@ wing aircraft , which have engine nozzles only at the rear . The Harrier II also has smaller valve @-@ controlled nozzles in the nose , tail , and wingtips to provide control at low airspeeds .
The AV @-@ 8B is equipped with one centerline fuselage and six wing hardpoints ( compared to four wing hardpoints on the original Harrier ) , along with two fuselage stations for a 25 mm GAU @-@ 12 cannon and ammunition pack . These hardpoints give it the ability to carry a total of 9 @,@ 200 lb ( 4 @,@ 200 kg ) of weapons , including air @-@ to @-@ air , air @-@ to @-@ surface , and anti @-@ ship missiles , as well as unguided and guided bombs . The aircraft 's internal fuel capacity is 7 @,@ 500 lb ( 3 @,@ 400 kg ) , up 50 percent compared to its predecessor . Fuel capacity can be carried in hardpoint @-@ compatible external drop tanks , which give the aircraft a maximum ferry range of 2 @,@ 100 mi ( 3 @,@ 300 km ) and a combat radius of 300 mi ( 556 km ) . The AV @-@ 8B can also receive additional fuel via aerial refueling using the probe @-@ and @-@ drogue system . The British Aerospace Harrier II , a variant tailored to the RAF , uses different avionics , and has one additional missile pylon on each wing .
The Harrier II retains the tandem landing gear layout of the first @-@ generation Harriers , although each outrigger landing gear leg was moved from the wingtip to mid @-@ span for a tighter turning radius when taxiing . The engine intakes are larger than those of the first @-@ generation Harrier , and have a revised inlet . On the underside of the fuselage , McDonnell Douglas added lift @-@ improvement devices , which capture the reflected engine exhaust when close to the ground , giving the equivalent of up to 1 @,@ 200 lb ( 544 kg ) of extra lift .
The technological advances incorporated into the Harrier II , compared with the original Harrier , significantly reduce the workload on the pilot . The supercritical wing , hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) control principle , and increased engineered lateral stability make the aircraft fundamentally easier to fly . Ed Harper , general manager for the McDonnell Douglas Harrier II development program , summarized : " The AV @-@ 8B looks a lot like the original Harrier and it uses the same operating fundamentals . It just uses them a lot better " . A large cathode @-@ ray tube multi @-@ purpose display , taken from the F / A @-@ 18 , makes up much of the instrument panel in the cockpit . It has a wide range of functions , including radar warning information and weapon delivery checklist . The pilots sit on UPC / Stencel 10B zero @-@ zero ejection seats , meaning that they are able to eject from a stationary aircraft at zero altitude .
= = = Airframe = = =
For the AV @-@ 8B , McDonnell Douglas redesigned the entire airframe of the Harrier , incorporating numerous structural and aerodynamic changes . To improve visibility and better accommodate the crew and avionics hardware , McDonnell Douglas elevated the cockpit by 10 @.@ 5 in ( 27 cm ) and redesigned the canopy . This improved the forward ( 17 ° down ) , side ( 60 ° ) , and rear visibility . The front fuselage is composed of a molded skin with an epoxy @-@ based core sandwiched between two carbon @-@ fiber sheets . To compensate for the changes in the front fuselage , the rear fuselage was extended by 18 in ( 46 cm ) , and the taller vertical stabilizer of the Sea Harrier was used . The tail assembly is made up of composites to reduce weight .
Perhaps the most thorough redesign was of the wing , the objective being to match the performance of the cancelled AV @-@ 16 while retaining the Pegasus engine of the AV @-@ 8A . Engineers designed a new , one @-@ piece supercritical wing , which improves cruise performance by delaying the rise in drag and increasing lift @-@ to @-@ drag ratio . Made of composites , the wing is thicker and has a longer span than that of the AV @-@ 8A . Compared to the AV @-@ 8A 's wing , it has a higher aspect ratio , reduced sweep ( from 40 ° to 37 ° ) , and an area increased from 200 sq ft ( 18 @.@ 6 m2 ) to 230 sq ft ( 21 @.@ 4 m2 ) . The wing has a high @-@ lift configuration , employing flaps that deploy automatically when maneuvering , and drooped ailerons . Using the leading edge root extensions , the new wing allows for a 6 @,@ 700 lb ( 3 @,@ 035 kg ) increase in payload compared with the first @-@ generation Harriers after a 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) takeoff roll . Because the wing is almost exclusively composite , it is 330 lb ( 150 kg ) lighter than the AV @-@ 8A 's smaller wing .
The Harrier II was the first combat aircraft to extensively employ carbon @-@ fiber composite materials , exploiting their light weight and high strength ; they are used in the wings , rudder , flaps , nose , forward fuselage , and tail . Twenty @-@ six percent of the aircraft 's structure is made of composites , reducing its weight by 480 lb ( 217 kg ) compared to a conventional metal structure .
= = = Differences between versions = = =
Most of the first " day attack " AV @-@ 8B Harrier IIs were upgraded to Night Attack Harrier or Harrier II Plus standards , with the remainder being withdrawn from service . The AV @-@ 8B cockpit was also used for the early trialing of Direct Voice Input ( DVI ) , which allows the pilot to use voice commands to issue instructions to the aircraft , using a system developed by Smiths Industries . The main attack avionics system in original aircraft was the nose @-@ mounted Hughes AN / ASB @-@ 19 angle @-@ rate bombing system . The system combined a TV imager and laser tracker to provide a highly accurate targeting capability . Defensive equipment include several AN / ALE @-@ 39 chaff @-@ flare dispensers , an AN / ALR @-@ 67 radar warning receiver , and an AN / ALQ @-@ 126C jammer pod .
The trainer version of the AV @-@ 8B is the TAV @-@ 8B , seating two pilots in tandem . Among other changes , the forward fuselage features a 3 ft 11 in ( 1 @.@ 19 m ) extension to accommodate the second cockpit . To compensate for the slight loss of directional stability , the vertical stabilizer 's area was enlarged through increases in chord ( length of the stabilizer 's root ) and height . USMC TAV @-@ 8Bs feature the AV @-@ 8B 's digital cockpit and new systems , but have only two hardpoints and are not combat capable . Initial TAV @-@ 8Bs were powered by a 21 @,@ 450 lbf ( 95 @.@ 4 kN ) F402 @-@ RR @-@ 406A engine , while later examples were fitted with the 23 @,@ 000 lbf ( 105 @.@ 8 kN ) F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408A . In the early 2000s , 17 TAV @-@ 8Bs were upgraded to include a night @-@ attack capability , the F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408 engine , and software and structural changes .
Fielded in 1991 , the Night Attack Harrier was the first upgrade of the AV @-@ 8B . It differed from the original aircraft in having a forward looking infrared ( FLIR ) camera added to the top of the nose cone , a wide Smiths Industries head @-@ up display ( HUD ) , provisions for night vision goggles , and a Honeywell digital moving map system . The FLIR uses thermal imaging to identify objects by their heat signatures . The variant was powered by the F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408 engine , which featured an electronic control system and was more powerful and reliable . The flare and chaff dispensers were moved , and the ram air intake was lengthened at the fin 's base . Initially known as the AV @-@ 8D , the night @-@ attack variant was designated the AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) .
The Harrier II Plus is very similar to the Night Attack variant , with the addition of an APG @-@ 65 multi @-@ mode pulse @-@ Doppler radar in an extended nose , allowing it to launch advanced beyond @-@ visual @-@ range missiles such as the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM . To make additional space for the radar , the angle @-@ rate bombing system was removed . The radars used were taken from early F / A @-@ 18 aircraft , which had been upgraded with the related APG @-@ 73 . In addition to the AIM @-@ 120 , the AV @-@ 8B Plus can also carry AGM @-@ 65 Maverick and AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon missiles . According to aviation author Lon Nordeen , the changes " had a slight increase in drag and a bit of additional weight , but there really was not much difference in performance between the [ – 408 @-@ powered ] Night Attack and radar Harrier II Plus aircraft " .
= = Operational history = =
= = = United States Marine Corps = = =
The AV @-@ 8B underwent standard evaluation to prepare for its USMC service . In the operational evaluation ( OPEVAL ) , lasting from 31 August 1984 to 30 March 1985 , four pilots and a group of maintenance and support personnel tested the aircraft under combat conditions . The aircraft was graded for its ability to meet its mission requirements for navigating , acquiring targets , delivering weapons , and evading and surviving enemy actions , all at the specified range and payload limits . The first phase of OPEVAL , running until 1 February 1985 , required the AV @-@ 8B to fly both deep and close air support missions ( deep air support missions do not require coordination with friendly ground forces ) in concert with other close @-@ support aircraft , as well as flying battlefield interdiction and armed reconnaissance missions . The aircraft flew from military installations at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton and Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in California , Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake in Canada , and MCAS Yuma in Arizona .
The second phase of OPEVAL , which took place at MCAS Yuma from 25 February to 8 March , required the AV @-@ 8B to perform fighter escort , combat air patrol , and deck @-@ launched intercept missions . Although the evaluation identified shortfalls in the design ( subsequently rectified ) , OPEVAL was deemed successful . The AV @-@ 8B Harrier II reached initial operating capability ( IOC ) in January 1985 with USMC squadron VMA @-@ 331 .
The AV @-@ 8B saw extensive action in the Gulf War of 1990 – 91 . Aircraft based on USS Nassau and Tarawa , and at on @-@ shore bases , initially flew training and support sorties , as well as practicing with coalition forces . The AV @-@ 8Bs were to be held in reserve during the initial phase of the preparatory air assault of Operation Desert Storm . The AV @-@ 8B was first used in the war on the morning of 17 January 1991 , when a call for air support from an OV @-@ 10 Bronco forward air controller against Iraqi artillery that was shelling Khafji and an adjacent oil refinery , brought the AV @-@ 8B into combat . The following day , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs attacked Iraqi positions in southern Kuwait . Throughout the war , AV @-@ 8Bs performed armed reconnaissance and worked in concert with coalition forces to destroy targets .
During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , 86 AV @-@ 8Bs amassed 3 @,@ 380 flights and about 4 @,@ 100 flight hours , with a mission availability rate of over 90 percent . Five AV @-@ 8Bs were lost to enemy surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , and two USMC pilots were killed . The AV @-@ 8B had an attrition rate of 1 @.@ 5 aircraft for every 1 @,@ 000 sorties flown . US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf later named the AV @-@ 8B among the seven weapons — along with the F @-@ 117 Nighthawk and AH @-@ 64 Apache — that played a crucial role during the war . In the aftermath of the war , from 27 August 1992 , until 2003 , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs and other aircraft patrolled Iraqi skies in support of Operation Southern Watch . The AV @-@ 8Bs launched from amphibious assault ships in the Persian Gulf , and from forward operating bases such as Ali Al Salem Air Base , Kuwait .
In 1999 , the AV @-@ 8B participated in NATO 's bombing of Yugoslavia during Operation Allied Force . Twelve Harriers were split evenly between the 24th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units ( MEU ) . AV @-@ 8Bs of the 24th MEU were introduced into combat on 14 April , and over the next 14 days flew 34 combat air support missions over Kosovo . During their six @-@ month deployment aboard USS Nassau , 24th MEU Harriers averaged a high mission @-@ capable rate of 91 @.@ 8 percent . On 28 April , the 24th MEU was relieved by the 26th MEU , based on USS Kearsarge . The first combat sorties of the unit 's AV @-@ 8Bs occurred two days later , one aircraft being lost . The 26th MEU remained in the theater of operations until 28 May , when it was relocated to Brindisi , Italy .
USMC AV @-@ 8Bs took part in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan from 2001 . The USMC 15th MEU arrived off the coast of Pakistan in October 2001 . Operating from the unit 's ships , four AV @-@ 8Bs began attack missions into Afghanistan on 3 November 2001 . The 26th MEU and its AV @-@ 8Bs joined 15th MEU later that month . In December 2001 , AV @-@ 8Bs began moving into Afghanistan to a forward base at Kandahar . More AV @-@ 8Bs were deployed with other USMC units to the region in 2002 . The VMA @-@ 513 squadron deployed six Night Attack AV @-@ 8Bs to Bagram in October 2002 . These aircraft each carried a LITENING targeting pod to perform reconnaissance missions along with attack and other missions , primarily at night .
The aircraft participated in Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003 , acting primarily in support of USMC ground units . During the initial action , 60 AV @-@ 8Bs were deployed on ships such as the USS Bonhomme Richard and Bataan , from which over 1 @,@ 000 sorties were flown throughout the war . When possible , land @-@ based forward arming and refuelling points were set up to enable prompt operations . USMC commander Lieutenant General Earl B. Hailston said that the Harriers were able to provide 24 @-@ hour support for ground forces , and noted that " The airplane ... became the envy of pilots even from my background ... there 's an awful lot of things on the Harrier that I 've found the Hornet pilots asking me [ for ] ... We couldn 't have asked for a better record " .
USMC sources documented the Harrier as holding an 85 percent aircraft availability record in the Iraq War ; in just under a month of combat , the aircraft flew over 2 @,@ 000 sorties . When used , the LITENING II targeting pod achieved greater than 75 percent kill effectiveness on targets . In a single sortie from USS Bonhomme Richard , a wave of Harriers inflicted heavy damage on a Republican Guard tank battalion in advance of a major ground assault on Al Kut . Harriers regularly operated in close support roles for friendly tanks , one of the aircraft generally carrying a LITENING pod . Despite the Harrier 's high marks , the limited amount of time that each aircraft could remain on station , around 15 – 20 minutes , led to some calls from within the USMC for the procurement of AC @-@ 130 gunships , which could loiter for six hours and had a heavier close air support capability than the AV @-@ 8B . AV @-@ 8Bs were later used in combination with artillery to provide constant fire support for ground forces during heavy fighting in 2004 around the insurgent stronghold of Fallujah . The urban environment there required extreme precision for airstrikes .
On 20 March 2011 , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs were launched from USS Kearsarge in support of Operation Odyssey Dawn , enforcing the UN no @-@ fly zone over Libya . They carried out airstrikes on Sirte on 5 April 2011 . Multiple AV @-@ 8Bs were involved in the defense of a downed F @-@ 15E pilot , attacking approaching Libyans prior to the pilot 's extraction by a MV @-@ 22 Osprey .
In addition to major conflicts , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs have been deployed in support of contingency and humanitarian operations , providing fixed @-@ wing air cover and armed reconnaissance . The aircraft served in Somalia throughout the 1990s , Liberia ( 1990 , 1996 , and 2003 ) , Rwanda ( 1994 ) , Central African Republic ( 1996 ) , Albania ( 1997 ) , Zaire ( 1997 ) , and Sierra Leone ( 1997 ) .
The AV @-@ 8B is to be replaced by the F @-@ 35B version of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , which had been slated to enter service in 2012 . The USMC had sought a replacement since the 1980s , and has argued strongly in favor of the development of the F @-@ 35B . The Harrier 's performance in Iraq , including its ability to use forward operating bases , reinforced the need for a V / STOL aircraft in the USMC arsenal .
In November 2011 , the USN purchased the UK 's fleet of 72 retired BAe Harrier IIs ( 63 single @-@ seat GR.7 / 9 / 9As plus 9 twin @-@ seat T.12 / 12As ) and replacement engines to provide spares for the existing USMC Harrier II fleet . Although the March 2012 issue of the magazine AirForces Monthly stated that the USMC intended to fly some of the ex @-@ British Harrier IIs , instead of using them just for spare parts , the Naval Air Systems Command ( NAVAIR ) has since stated that the USMC has never had any plans to operate those Harriers .
On 14 September 2012 , a Taliban raid destroyed six AV @-@ 8Bs and severely damaged two others while they were parked on the tarmac at Camp Bastion in Afghanistan 's Helmand Province . All of the aircraft belonged to VMA @-@ 211 . The two damaged AV @-@ 8Bs were flown out of Afghanistan in the hours after the attack . The attack was described as " the worst loss of U.S. airpower in a single incident since the Vietnam War . " The lost aircraft were quickly replaced by those from VMA @-@ 231 .
On 27 July 2014 , the USS Bataan began deploying USMC AV @-@ 8Bs over Iraq to provide surveillance of Islamic State ( IS ) forces . Surveillance operations continued after the start of Operation Inherent Resolve against IS militants . In early September 2014 , a USMC Harrier from the 22nd MEU struck an IS target near the Haditha Dam in Iraq , marking the first time a USMC unit dropped ordnance in the operation .
= = = Italian Navy = = =
In the late 1960s , following a demonstration of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier on the Italian Navy ( Marina Militare ) helicopter carrier Andrea Doria , the country began investigating the possibility of acquiring the Harrier . Early efforts were hindered by a 1937 Italian law that prohibited the navy from operating fixed @-@ wing aircraft because they were the domain of the air force . In early 1989 , the law was changed to allow the navy to operate any fixed @-@ wing aircraft with a maximum weight of over 3 @,@ 300 lb ( 1 @,@ 500 kg ) . Following a lengthy evaluation of the Sea Harrier and AV @-@ 8B , an order was placed for two TAV @-@ 8Bs in May 1989 . Soon , a contract for a further 16 AV @-@ 8B Plus aircraft was signed . After the TAV @-@ 8Bs and the first three AV @-@ 8Bs , all subsequent Italian Navy Harriers were locally assembled by Alenia Aeronautica from kits delivered from the U.S. The two @-@ seaters , the first to be delivered , arrived at Grottaglie in August 1991 . They were used for proving flights with the navy 's helicopter carriers and on the light aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi .
In early 1994 , the initial batch of US @-@ built aircraft arrived at MCAS Cherry Point for pilot conversion training . The first Italian @-@ assembled Harrier was rolled out the following year . In mid @-@ January 1995 , Giuseppe Garibaldi set off from Taranto to Somalia , with three Harriers on board , to maintain stability following the withdrawal of UN forces . The Harriers , flown by five Italian pilots , accumulated more than 100 flight hours and achieved 100 percent availability during the three @-@ month deployment , performing reconnaissance and other missions . The squadron returned to port on 22 March .
In 1999 , Italian AV @-@ 8Bs were used for the first time in combat missions when they were deployed aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi , which was participating in Operation Allied Force in Kosovo . Italian pilots conducted more than 60 sorties alongside other NATO aircraft , attacking the Yugoslav army and paramilitary forces and bombing the country 's infrastructure with conventional and laser @-@ guided bombs ( LGB ) .
In 2000 , the Italian Navy was looking to acquire a further seven remanufactured aircraft to equip Giuseppe Garibaldi and a new carrier , Cavour . Existing aircraft , meanwhile , were updated to allow them to carry AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAMs and JDAM guided bombs . From November 2001 to March 2002 , eight AV @-@ 8Bs were embarked aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi and were deployed to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring Freedom . The aircraft , equipped with LGBs , operated throughout January and February 2002 , during which 131 missions were logged for a total of 647 flight hours .
In 2011 , Italian Harriers , operating from Giuseppe Garibaldi , worked alongside Italian Eurofighters and aircraft of other nations during Operation Unified Protector , as part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya . They conducted airstrikes as well as intelligence and reconnaissance sorties over Libya , using the LITENING targeting pods while armed with AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAMs and AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders . In total , Italian military aircraft delivered 710 guided bombs and missiles during sorties : Italian Air Force Tornados and AMX fighter bombers delivered 550 bombs and missiles , while the eight Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs flying from Giuseppe Garibaldi dropped 160 guided bombs during 1 @,@ 221 flight hours .
Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs are slated to be replaced by 15 ( originally 22 ) F @-@ 35Bs , which will form the air wing of Cavour .
= = = Spanish Navy = = =
Spain , already using the AV @-@ 8S Matador , became the first international operator of the AV @-@ 8B by signing an order for 12 aircraft in March 1983 . Designated VA @-@ 2 Matador II by the Spanish Navy ( Armada Española ) , this variant is known as EAV @-@ 8B by McDonnell Douglas . Pilot conversion took place in the US . On 6 October 1987 , the first three Matador IIs were delivered to Naval Station Rota . The new aircraft were painted in a two @-@ tone matt grey finish , similar to US Navy aircraft , and deliveries were complete by 1988 .
BAe test pilots cleared the aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias ' for Harrier operations in July 1989 . The carrier , which replaced the World War II @-@ era Dédalo , has a 12 ° ski @-@ jump ramp . It was originally planned that the first unit to operate the aircraft would be the 8a Escuadrilla . This unit was disbanded on 24 October 1986 , following the sales of AV @-@ 8S Matadors to Thailand . Instead , 9a Escuadrilla was formed on 29 September 1987 , to become part of the Alpha Carrier Air Group and operate the EAV @-@ 8B .
In March 1993 , under the September 1990 Tripartite MoU between the U.S. , Italy , and Spain , eight EAV @-@ 8B Plus Matadors were ordered , along with a twin @-@ seat TAV @-@ 8B . Deliveries of the Plus @-@ standard aircraft started in 1996 . On 11 May 2000 , Boeing and the NAVAIR finalized a contract to remanufacture Spanish EAV @-@ 8Bs to bring them up to Plus standard . Boeing said the deal required it to remanufacture two EAV @-@ 8Bs , with an option for another seven aircraft ; other sources say the total was 11 aircraft . The remanufacture allowed the aircraft to carry four AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAMs , enhanced the pilot 's situational awareness through the installation of new radar and avionics , and provided a new engine . Eventually , five aircraft were modified , the last having been delivered on 5 December 2003 .
Spanish EAV @-@ 8Bs joined Operation Deny Flight , enforcing the UN 's no @-@ fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina . Spain did not send its aircraft carrier to participate in the Iraq War in 2003 , instead deploying F / A @-@ 18s and other aircraft to Turkey to defend that country against potential Iraqi attacks . Starting in 2007 , Spain was looking to replace its Harrier IIs – with the likely option being the F @-@ 35B . The Spanish government , in May 2014 however , announced that it had decided to extend the aircraft 's service life to beyond 2025 due to a lack of funds for a replacement aircraft .
Following the decommissioning of the Príncipe de Asturias in February 2013 , the sole naval platform from which Spanish Harrier IIs can operate is the Juan Carlos amphibious assault ship .
= = Variants = =
YAV @-@ 8B
Two prototypes converted in 1978 from existing AV @-@ 8A airframes ( BuNos 158394 and 158395 ) .
AV @-@ 8B Harrier II sans suffix
The initial " day attack " variant .
AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Night Attack
Improved version with a forward @-@ looking infrared ( FLIR ) camera , an upgraded cockpit with night @-@ vision goggle compatibility , and the more powerful Rolls Royce Pegasus 11 engine . This variant was originally planned to be designated AV @-@ 8D .
AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus
Similar to the Night Attack variant , with the addition of an APG @-@ 65 radar . It is used by the USMC , Spanish Navy , and Italian Navy . Forty @-@ six new @-@ built aircraft were assembled from 1993 to 1997 .
TAV @-@ 8B Harrier II
Two @-@ seat trainer version .
EAV @-@ 8B Matador II
Company designation for the Spanish Navy version .
EAV @-@ 8B Matador II Plus
The AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus , ordered for the Spanish Navy .
Harrier GR5 , GR7 , GR9
See British Aerospace Harrier II .
= = Operators = =
Italy
Italian Navy
Gruppo Aerei Imbarcati ( 1991 – present )
Spain
Spanish Navy
9a Escuadrilla Aeronaves ( 1987 – present )
United States
United States Marine Corps
VMA @-@ 211 " Wake Island Avengers " ( 1990 – present )
VMA @-@ 214 " The Black Sheep " ( 1989 – present )
VMA @-@ 223 " Bulldogs " ( 1987 – present )
VMA @-@ 231 " Ace of Spades " ( 1985 – present )
VMA @-@ 311 " Tomcats " ( 1988 – present )
VMA @-@ 331 " Bumblebees " ( 1985 – 1992 )
VMA @-@ 513 " Flying Nightmares " ( 1987 – 2013 )
VMA @-@ 542 " Tigers " ( 1986 – present )
VMAT @-@ 203 " Hawks " ( 1983 – present )
United States Navy
VX @-@ 9 " The Vampires " ( unknown )
VX @-@ 31 " Dust Devils " ( unknown – present )
= = Accidents = =
During its service with the USMC , the Harrier has had an accident rate three times that of the Corps ' F / A @-@ 18s . As of July 2013 , approximately 110 aircraft have been damaged beyond repair since the type entered service in 1985 , the first accident occurring in March that year . The AV @-@ 8 was dubbed a " widow maker " by some in the military . The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier family had the highest rate of major accidents among military aircraft in service at that time , with 148 accidents and 45 people killed . However , Lon Nordeen notes that several other USMC single @-@ engine strike aircraft , like the A @-@ 4 Skyhawk and A @-@ 7 Corsair II , had worse accident rates .
Accidents have in particular been connected to the proportionate amount of time the aircraft spends taking off and landing , which are the most critical phases in flight . Further analysis shows that US Marine senior officers never understood the uniqueness of the aircraft , that the Harrier design was more complex , like that of helicopters . Cutbacks in senior maintenance personnel and pilot mistakes had a disastrous effect on the safety of the American @-@ operated AV @-@ 8B , which gained it a negative reputation in the US press that was not deserved .
= = Aircraft on display = =
AV @-@ 8B
BuNo 161396 – National Museum of the Marine Corps , Triangle , Virginia .
BuNo 161397 – Carolinas Aviation Museum , Charlotte , North Carolina .
= = Specifications ( AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus ) = =
Data from Nordeen , Boeing , and Airforce @-@ technology.com
General characteristics
Crew : 1 pilot
Length : 46 ft 4 in ( 14 @.@ 12 m )
Wingspan : 30 ft 4 in ( 9 @.@ 25 m )
Height : 11 ft 8 in ( 3 @.@ 55 m )
Wing area : 243 @.@ 4 sq ft ( 22 @.@ 61 m ² )
Airfoil : supercritical airfoil
Empty weight : 13 @,@ 968 lb ( 6 @,@ 340 kg )
Loaded weight : 22 @,@ 950 lb ( 10 @,@ 410 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : Rolling : 31 @,@ 000 lb ( 14 @,@ 100 kg )
Vertical : 20 @,@ 755 lb ( 9 @,@ 415 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Rolls @-@ Royce F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408 ( Mk 107 ) vectored @-@ thrust turbofan , 23 @,@ 500 lbf ( 105 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 0 @.@ 9 ( 585 knots , 673 mph , 1 @,@ 083 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 1 @,@ 400 mi , 2 @,@ 200 km )
Combat radius : 300 nmi ( 350 mi , 556 km )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 800 nmi ( 2 @,@ 100 mi , 3 @,@ 300 km )
Rate of climb : 14 @,@ 700 ft / min ( 75 m / s )
Wing loading : 94 @.@ 29 lb / ( sq ft ) ( 460 @.@ 4 kg / m ² )
Armament
Guns : 1 × General Dynamics GAU @-@ 12 Equalizer 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 984 in ) 5 @-@ barreled Gatling cannon mounted under @-@ fuselage in the left pod , with 300 rounds of ammunition in the right pod
Hardpoints : 6 × under @-@ wing pylon stations holding up to 9 @,@ 200 lb ( 4 @,@ 200 kg ) of payload :
Rockets : 4 × LAU @-@ 5003 rocket pods ( each with 19 × CRV7 or APKWS 70 mm rockets )
Missiles : Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles :
4 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder or similar @-@ sized infrared @-@ guided missiles
6 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM ( on radar equipped AV @-@ 8B Plus variants )
Air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles :
6 × AGM @-@ 65 Maverick ; or
2 × AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon ; or
2 × AGM @-@ 88 HARM
Bombs : CBU @-@ 100 cluster bombs ( CBUs )
Mark 80 series of unguided bombs ( including 3 kg [ 6 @.@ 6 lb ] and 14 kg [ 31 lb ] practice bombs )
Paveway series of laser @-@ guided bombs ( LGBs )
Joint Direct Attack Munitions ( GBU @-@ 38 , GBU @-@ 32 , and GBU @-@ 54 )
Mark 77 napalm canisters
B61 nuclear bomb
Others :
up to 4 × 300 / 330 / 370 US Gallon drop tanks ( pylon stations No. 2 , 3 , 4 , & 5 are wet plumbed )
Intrepid Tiger II electronic jammer
Avionics
Raytheon APG @-@ 65 radar
AN / AAQ @-@ 28V LITENING targeting pod ( on radar @-@ equipped AV @-@ 8B Plus variants )
= = Popular culture = =
As part of its 1996 Pepsi Stuff marketing campaign , Pepsi ran an advertisement promising a Harrier jet to anyone who collected 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Pepsi Points , a gag that backfired when a participant attempted to take advantage of the ability to buy additional points for 10 cents each to claim a jet for US $ 700 @,@ 000 . When Pepsi turned him down , a lawsuit ensued , in which the judge ruled that any reasonable person would conclude that the advertisement was a joke .
|
= Tiger II =
Tiger II is the common name of a German heavy tank of the Second World War . The final official German designation was Panzerkampfwagen Tiger Ausf . B , often shortened to Tiger B. The ordnance inventory designation was Sd.Kfz. 182 . It is also known under the informal name Königstiger ( the German name for the Bengal tiger ) , often translated literally as Royal Tiger , or somewhat incorrectly as King Tiger by Allied soldiers , especially by American forces .
The Tiger II was the successor to the Tiger I , combining the latter 's thick armour with the armour sloping used on the Panther medium tank . The tank weighed almost 70 tonnes , and was protected by 100 to 185 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 3 in ) of armour to the front . It was armed with the long barrelled 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 L / 71 anti @-@ tank cannon . The chassis was also the basis for the Jagdtiger turretless tank destroyer .
The Tiger II was issued to heavy tank battalions of the Army and the Waffen @-@ SS . It was first used in combat with 503rd Heavy Panzer Battalion during the Allied Invasion of Normandy on 11 July 1944 ; on the Eastern Front , the first unit to be outfitted with Tiger IIs was the 501st Heavy Panzer Battalion , which by 1 September 1944 listed 25 Tiger IIs operational .
= = Development = =
Development of a heavy tank design had been initiated in 1937 ; the initial design contract was awarded to Henschel . Another design contract followed in 1939 , and was given to Porsche . Both prototype series used the same turret design from Krupp ; the main differences were in the hull , transmission , suspension and automotive features .
The Henschel version used a conventional hull design with sloped armour resembling the layout of the Panther tank . It had a rear mounted engine and used nine steel @-@ tired , eighty centimeter diameter overlapping road wheels per side with internal springing , mounted on transverse torsion bars , in a similar manner to the original Henschel @-@ designed Tiger I. To simplify maintenance , however , as when the same steel @-@ tired road wheels were used on later Tiger I hulls , the wheels were only overlapping without being interleaved — the full Schachtellaufwerk rubber @-@ rimmed roadwheel system that had been in use on nearly all German half @-@ tracks used the interleaved design , later inherited by the early production versions of the Tiger I and Panther .
The Porsche hull designs included a rear @-@ mounted turret and a mid @-@ mounted engine . The suspension was the same as on the Elefant tank destroyer . This had six road wheels per side mounted in paired bogies sprung with short longitudinal torsion bars that were integral to the wheel pair ; this saved internal space and facilitated repairs . One Porsche version had a gasoline @-@ electric drive ( fundamentally identical to a Diesel @-@ electric transmission , only using a gasoline @-@ fueled engine as the prime mover ) , similar to a gasoline @-@ electric hybrid but without a storage battery ; two separate drive trains in parallel , one per side of the tank , each consisting of a hybrid drive train ; gasoline engine – electric generator – electric motor – drive sprocket . This method of propulsion had been attempted before on the Tiger ( P ) ( later Elefant prototypes ) and in some US designs , but had never been put into production . The Porsche suspension were later used on a few of the later Jagdtiger tank destroyers . Another proposal was to use hydraulic drives . Dr. Porsche 's unorthodox designs gathered little favour .
= = Design = =
Henschel won the design contract , and all Tiger IIs were produced by the firm . Two turret designs were used in production vehicles . The initial design is often misleadingly called the " Porsche " turret due to the belief that it was designed by Porsche for their prototype ; in fact it was the initial Krupp design for both prototypes . This turret had a rounded front and steeply sloped sides , with a difficult @-@ to @-@ manufacture curved bulge on the turret 's left side to accommodate the commander 's cupola . Fifty early turrets were mounted to Henschel 's hull and used in action . The more common " production " turret , sometimes called the " Henschel " turret , was simplified with a significantly thicker flat face , no shot trap ( created by the curved face of the earlier turret ) , and less @-@ steeply sloped sides , which prevented the need for a bulge for the commander 's cupola , and added additional room for ammunition storage .
The turrets were designed to mount the 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 L / 71 gun . Combined with the Turmzielfernrohr 9d ( German " turret telescopic sight " ) monocular sight by Leitz , which all but a few early Tiger IIs used , it was a very accurate and deadly weapon . During practice , the estimated probability of a first round hit on a 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) high , 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) wide target only dropped below 100 percent at ranges beyond 1 @,@ 000 m ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , to 95 – 97 percent at 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) and 85 – 87 percent at 2 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , depending on ammunition type . Recorded combat performance was lower , but still over 80 percent at 1 @,@ 000 m , in the 60s at 1 @,@ 500 m and the 40s at 2 @,@ 000 m . Penetration of armoured plate inclined at 30 degrees was 202 and 132 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 2 in ) at 100 m ( 110 yd ) and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) respectively for the Panzergranate 39 / 43 projectile ( PzGr — armour @-@ piercing shell ) , and 238 and 153 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 and 6 @.@ 0 in ) for the PzGr . 40 / 43 projectile between the same ranges . The Sprenggranate 43 ( SpGr ) high @-@ explosive round was available for soft targets , or the Hohlgranate or Hohlgeschoss 39 ( HlGr — HEAT or High @-@ explosive anti @-@ tank warhead ) round , which had 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) penetration at any range , could be used as a dual @-@ purpose munition against soft or armoured targets .
Powered turret traverse was provided by the variable speed Boehringer @-@ Sturm L4S hydraulic motor , which was driven from the main engine by a secondary drive shaft . A high and a low speed setting was available to the gunner via a lever on his right . The turret could be rotated 360 degrees in 60 seconds in low gear independent of engine rpm , in 19 seconds with the high speed setting and engine at 2000 rpm , and within 10 seconds at the maximum allowable engine speed of 3000 rpm . The direction and speed of traverse were controlled by the gunner through pedals , or a control lever near his left arm . If power was lost , such as when the tank ran out of fuel , the turret could be slowly traversed by hand , assisted by the loader who had an additional wheel . Two full turns of the wheel were necessary for a one degree turn of the turret , with a total of 720 turns for a full circle . The hydraulic system was not precise and gunners preferred to use the manual system to aim .
Like all German tanks , it had a petrol engine ; in this case the same 700 PS ( 690 hp , 515 kW ) V @-@ 12 Maybach HL 230 P30 which powered the much lighter Panther and Tiger I tanks . The Tiger II was under @-@ powered , like many other heavy tanks of World War II , and consumed a lot of fuel , which was in short supply for the Germans . The transmission was the Maybach OLVAR EG 40 12 16 Model B , giving eight forward gears and four reverse , which drove the steering gear . This was the Henschel L 801 , a double radius design which proved susceptible to failure . Transverse torsion bar suspension supported the hull on nine axles per side . Overlapped 800 mm ( 31 in ) diameter road wheels with rubber cushions and steel tyres rode inside the tracks .
Like the Tiger I , each tank was issued with two sets of tracks : a normal " battle track " and a narrower " transport " version used during rail movement . The transport tracks reduced the overall width of the load and could be used to drive the tank short distances on firm ground . The crew were expected to change to normal battle tracks as soon as the tank was unloaded . Ground pressure was 0 @.@ 76 kg / cm2 ( 10 @.@ 8 psi ) .
= = = Command variant = = =
The command variant of the Tiger II was designated Panzerbefehlswagen Tiger Ausf . B. It had two versions , Sd.Kfz. 267 and Sd.Kfz. 268 . These carried only 63 rounds of 8 @.@ 8 cm ammunition to provide room to accommodate the extra radios and equipment , and had additional armour on the engine compartment . The Sd.Kfz. 267 was to have used FuG 8 and FuG 5 radio sets , with the most notable external changes being a two metre long rod antenna mounted on the turret roof and a Sternantenne D ( " Star antenna D " ) , mounted on an insulated base ( the 105mm Antennenfuß Nr. 1 ) , which was protected by a large armoured cylinder . This equipment was located on the rear decking in a position originally used for deep @-@ wading equipment . The Sd.Kfz. 268 used FuG 7 and FuG 5 radios with a two @-@ metre rod antenna mounted on the turret roof and a 1 @.@ 4 metre rod antenna mounted on the rear deck .
= = Production = =
The Tiger II was developed late in the war and built in relatively small numbers . Orders were placed for 1 @,@ 500 Tiger IIs — slightly more than the 1 @,@ 347 Tiger I tanks produced — but Tiger II production was severely disrupted by Allied bombing . Among others , five raids between 22 September and 7 October 1944 destroyed 95 percent of the floor area of the Henschel plant . It is estimated that this caused the loss in production of some 657 Tiger IIs . Only 492 units were produced : one in 1943 , 379 in 1944 , and 112 in 1945 . Full production ran from mid @-@ 1944 to the end of the war .
The Tiger II served as the basis for one production variant , the Jagdtiger casemated tank destroyer , and a proposed Grille 17 / 21 / 30 / 42 self @-@ propelled mount for heavy guns that never reached production .
= = Proposed upgrades = =
The HL234 , an engine born from the developments initiated by attempting to convert the Maybach HL230 to fuel injection , would have increased the power to about 800 to 900 PS ( hp ) . The Entwicklungskommission Panzer unanimously decided that HL234 be immediately included in the engine design and procurement program . The AK @-@ 7 @-@ 200 was also explored as an alternative to the Olvar @-@ B drive train , but Waffenamt research and development department Wa Prüf 6 found that it offered inferior driving characteristics and so the Olvar @-@ B was retained . Krupp proposed mounting a new main weapon , the 10 @.@ 5 cm KwK L / 68 . Wa Prüf 6 was not supportive of this as the Heer had not accepted the cannon itself . Other suggested improvements included stabilised sights , a stabilised main gun , an automatic ammunition feed , a Zeiss stereoscopic range finder , heated crew compartment , stowage for an additional 12 rounds , and an overpressure and air filtration system to protect against poison gas , but these also never got beyond the proposal stage or did not enter production before the war ended .
= = Specifications = =
Gearbox : Maybach OLVAR EG 40 12 16 B ( eight forward and four reverse )
Radio : FuG 5 , Befehlswagen ( command tank ) version : FuG 8 ( Sd.Kfz. 267 ) , FuG 7 ( Sd.Kfz. 268 )
Ammunition :
8 @.@ 8 cm – 80 rounds ( Porsche turret ) , 86 rounds ( Henschel turret ) , usually 50 % PzGr 39 / 43 and 50 % SprGr 43 , sometimes with a limited number of PzGr 40 / 43 , or with the SprGr replaced by HlGrPzGr 39 / 43 ( Armour @-@ piercing , tungsten core ) ( longer range , lower penetration , explosive filler )
PzGr 40 / 43 ( Armour @-@ piercing , tungsten core ) ( shorter range , higher penetration , inert )
SprGr 43 ( High Explosive )
HlGr 39 ( Hollow charge )
7.92mm – up to 5 @,@ 850 rounds
Gun Sight : Turmzielfernrohr 9b / 1 ( TZF 9b / 1 ) binocular to May 1944 , then the 9d ( TZF 9d ) monocular .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Organisation = = =
Apart from research , training , and a five @-@ tank attachment to the Panzer Lehr , the Tiger II was only issued to heavy tank battalions ( schwere Panzer Abteilung ) of the German Army ( Heer ) , or Waffen @-@ SS .
A standard battalion ( Abteilung ) comprised 45 tanks :
Units that used the Tiger II were as follows :
Heer : ( s.H.Pz.Abt ) 501 , 502 , 503 , 504 , 505 , 506 , 507 , 508 , 509 , 510 , 511
SS : ( s.SS.Pz.Abt ) 501 , 502 , 503
= = = Reliability and mobility = = =
Early Tiger IIs proved unreliable , owing principally to leaking seals and gaskets , and an overburdened drive train originally intended for a lighter vehicle . The double radius steering gear was initially particularly prone to failure . Lack of crew training could amplify this problem ; drivers originally given only limited training on other tanks were often sent directly to operational units already on their way to the front .
The Schwere Heeres Panzer Abteilung 501 ( s.H.Pz.Abt. 501 ) arrived on the Eastern Front with only eight out of 45 tanks operational ; these faults were mostly due to drive @-@ train failures . The first five Tiger IIs delivered to the Panzer Lehr Division broke down before they could be used in combat , and were destroyed to prevent capture .
The introduction of modified seals , gaskets and drive train components , as well as improved driver training and sufficient maintenance improved the tank 's mechanical reliability . Statistics from 15 March 1945 show reliability rates of 59 percent for the Tiger , almost equal to the 62 percent of the Panzer IV and better than the 48 percent of the Panther were operational by this period .
Not withstanding its initial reliability problems , the Tiger II was remarkably agile for such a heavy vehicle . Contemporary German records and testing results indicate that its tactical mobility was as good as or better than most German or Allied tanks .
= = = Combat history = = =
The first combat use of the Tiger II was by the 1st Company of the 503rd Heavy Panzer Battalion ( s.H.Pz.Abt. 503 ) during the Battle of Normandy , opposing Operation Atlantic between Troarn and Demouville on 18 July 1944 . Losses were : two from combat , plus the company commander 's tank , which became irrecoverably trapped after falling into a bomb crater created during Operation Goodwood .
On the Eastern Front , it was first used on 12 August 1944 by the 501st Heavy Panzer Battalion ( s.H.Pz.Abt. 501 ) resisting the Lvov – Sandomierz Offensive . It attacked the Soviet bridgehead over the Vistula River near Baranów Sandomierski . On the road to Oględów , three Tiger IIs were destroyed in an ambush by a few T @-@ 34 @-@ 85s . Because these German tanks suffered ammunition explosions , which caused many crew fatalities , main gun rounds were no longer allowed to be stowed within the turret , reducing capacity to 68 . Up to fourteen Tiger IIs of the 501st were lost in the area between 12 and 13 August to ambushes and flank attacks by Soviet T @-@ 34 @-@ 85 and IS @-@ 2 tanks , and ISU @-@ 122 assault guns in inconvenient sandy terrain .
On 15 October 1944 , Tiger IIs of 503rd Heavy Panzer Battalion played a crucial role during Operation Panzerfaust , supporting Otto Skorzeny 's troops in taking the Hungarian capital of Budapest , which ensured that the country remained with the Axis until the end of the war . The 503rd then took part in the Battle of Debrecen . The 503rd remained in the Hungarian theater of operations for 166 days , during which it accounted for at least 121 Soviet tanks , 244 anti @-@ tank guns and artillery pieces , five aircraft and a train . This was set against the loss of 25 Tiger IIs ; ten were knocked out by Soviet troops and burned out , two were sent back to Vienna for a factory overhaul , while thirteen were blown up by their crews for various reasons , usually to prevent them from falling into enemy hands . Kurt Knispel , the highest scoring tank ace of all time ( 162 enemy AFVs destroyed ) , also served with the 503rd , and was killed in action on 29 April 1945 in his Tiger II .
The Tiger II was also present in the four heavy panzer battalions during the Ardennes Offensive of December 1944 , the Soviet Vistula – Oder and East Prussian Offensives in January 1945 , the German Lake Balaton Offensive in Hungary in March 1945 , the Battle of the Seelow Heights in April 1945 , and the Battle of Berlin at the end of the war .
The 103rd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion ( s.SS Pz.Abt. 503 ) claimed approximately 500 kills in the period from January to April 1945 on the Eastern Front for the loss of 45 Tiger IIs ( most of which were abandoned and destroyed by their own crews after mechanical breakdowns or for lack of fuel ) .
= = = Gun and armour performance = = =
The heavy armour and powerful long @-@ range gun gave the Tiger II an advantage against all opposing Western Allied and Soviet tanks attempting to engage it from head on . This was especially true on the Western Front where , until the arrival of the few M26 Pershings in 1945 , neither the British nor US forces brought heavy tanks into service . A Wa Prüf 1 report estimated that the Tiger II 's frontal aspect was impervious to the 122 mm D @-@ 25T , the heaviest although not the best penetrating tank gun on the Allied side . On the other hand , an R.A.C 3.d. document of February 1945 estimated that the British QF 17 @-@ pounder ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) gun , using armour @-@ piercing discarding sabot shot was theoretically capable of penetrating the front of the Tiger II 's turret and nose ( lower front hull ) at 1 @,@ 100 and 1 @,@ 200 yd ( 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 100 m ) respectively although , given the lack of a stated angle , this is presumably at the ideal 90 degrees angle . As a result of its thick frontal armour , flanking manoeuvres were most often used against the Tiger II to attempt a shot at the thinner side and rear armour , giving a tactical advantage to the Tiger II in most engagements . Moreover , the main armament of the Tiger II was capable of knocking out any Allied tank frontally at ranges exceeding 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) , well beyond the effective range of Allied tank guns .
= = = Soviet wartime testing = = =
During August 1944 , two Tiger Ausf B tanks were captured by the Soviets near Sandomierz , and were soon moved to the testing grounds at Kubinka . During the transfer , the two tanks suffered from various mechanical break downs ; the cooling system was insufficient for the excessively hot climatic conditions , where the engine tended to overheat and cause a consequential failure of the gearbox . The right suspension of one of the tanks had to be completely replaced , and its full functionality could not be re @-@ established . The tank broke down again every 10 – 15 km . The 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 gave positive results in penetration and accuracy , which were on par with the 122 mm D @-@ 25T . It proved capable of passing completely through its " colleague " , a Tiger Ausf B 's turret at a range of 400 m . The armour of one vehicle was tested by firing at it with shells between 100 and 152 mm calibre . The welding was , despite careful workmanship , significantly worse than on similar designs . As a result , even when shells did not penetrate the armour , there was often a large amount of spalling from the inside of the plates , which damaged the transmission and rendered the tank inoperable . Further testing showed that the armour plate itself exhibited deficiencies in quality compared to earlier German tanks , such as the Tiger I and Panther . Analysis of the Tiger Ausf B armour plate showed an absence of molybdenum ( ascribed to a loss of supply , being replaced by vanadium ) , giving the armour low malleability .
The expanded firing test states that the АР projectiles from the 100 mm BS @-@ 3 and 122 mm A @-@ 19 gun penetrated a Tiger Ausf B 's turret at ranges of 1000 – 1500 metres , which suggests a quality factor of 0 @.@ 86 for the Tiger Ausf B 's turret . The firing test against the Tiger B turret front , however , was conducted after removal of the gun and mantlet , and resulted in penetrations close to armour openings , such as vision slits and gun location . The penetrations to the right gun opening were influenced by previous 100 mm projectile penetration hits or armour damage . The tank 's hull and turret side plates were penetrated by АР shot from domestic 85 mm and American 76 mm guns at ranges of 800 – 2 @,@ 000 m ( 2 @,@ 600 – 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . The 100 mm BS @-@ 3 and 122 mm A @-@ 19 could also penetrate the weld joints of the front hull at ranges of 500 – 600 metres after 3 – 4 shots .
Despite the wartime testing , there is no reliable evidence that the front armour of the King Tiger had ever been penetrated in combat .
= = Surviving vehicles = =
The only working example is displayed at the Musée des Blindés , Saumur , France . It has the production turret and is accessible to the public . Other survivors include :
Bovington Tank Museum , Dorset , UK . Tiger II with early production turret is on display . This vehicle was the second soft steel prototype made and did not see active service . This Tiger II 's engine was removed for use in the restoration of Tiger 131 , the only working example of a Tiger I. A production turret Tiger II is on loan from the Defence Academy , Shrivenham , UK . See below .
Defence Academy of the United Kingdom , Shrivenham , UK . Tiger II ( production turret ) . This vehicle was from s.SS Pz.Abt. 501 , with hull number 280093 , turret number 104 , and has a comprehensive coating of Zimmerit . It was claimed by Sergeant Roberts of A Squadron , 23rd Hussars , 11th Armoured Division in a Sherman tank near Beauvais , although it had already been disabled and abandoned by its crew following damage to its tracks and final drive . There is a photograph showing this vehicle after its final action in a beet field with its turret turned 90 ° . This vehicle is currently on display at Bovington Tank Museum , in Dorset , UK .
The Wheatcroft Collection , Leicestershire , UK . A private collector , Kevin Wheatcroft , is about to start a restoration / rebuild of a complete Tiger II . The project will include parts from many individual Tiger IIs , but many parts will be of new manufacture . Wheatcroft has stated that he has 70 – 80 % of the original parts needed for a reconstruction and more parts are sourced continuously . Known and shown parts are a complete front glacis plate , 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 main armament , engine deck plates , approx . 1 / 3 hull ( rear ) in one part , a set of tracks , and approx . 2 / 3 of the left @-@ side hull plate in two parts . The aim of the project is a complete Tiger II in running order .
Mantes @-@ la @-@ Jolie , France . A more or less complete , but wrecked , Tiger II ( production turret ) is buried under regional road 913 . Parts of the turret were recovered in a limited exploratory excavation in 2001 . Further excavation is currently halted for financial reasons . There are plans to fully excavate and restore this Tiger II for a Vexin battle memorial .
Kubinka Tank Museum , Russia . Tiger II ( production turret ) with turret number 002 ( 502 ) captured at Oględów by the Red Army . The museum is open to the public .
December 44 Museum , La Gleize , Belgium . A cosmetically restored Tiger II ( production turret ) Hull number 280273 , built in October 1944 . Turret number 213 from s.SS Pz.Abt 501 . Displayed at the entrance to DECEMBER 44 MUSEUM Collections , a museum devoted entirely to the Battle of the Bulge . This tank was abandoned in La Gleize on 24 December 1944 , where the advance of Kampfgruppe Peiper was halted . The front part , about 1 / 3 , of the gun barrel is restored with a Panther gun barrel and muzzle brake . It also has restored mudguards . It is stripped of exterior and internal fittings and most of the torsion bars are broken , but it still has its gearbox and engine in place .
Deutsches Panzermuseum , Munster , Germany . Tiger II ( production turret ) displayed in interior location accessible to public on payment of entrance fee . Hull number 280101 . Turret number 121 from s.SS.Pz.Abt 501 .
Patton Museum of Cavalry and Armor , Fort Knox , United States . Tiger II ( production turret ) . Hull number 280243 , built in September 1944 . Turret number 332 from s.SS Pz.Abt. 501 . Abandoned near Trois @-@ Ponts , it was captured by the US Army on 24 December 1944 . The left side was cut open for educational purposes at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in the late 1940s . This tank left Fort Knox on 14 December 2010 , en route to the proposed US Army armour museum at Fort Benning , United States .
Schweizerisches Militärmuseum Full , Switzerland . This Tiger II ( production turret ) was previously displayed in the Thun Tank Museum , and is now on loan to the Schweizerisches Militärmuseum Full ( September 2006 ) . It will be completely restored to running condition in a long @-@ term project . This tank was given to Switzerland by France after the war . Hull number 280215 from s.H.Pz.Abt 506 .
= = = Tanks of comparable role , performance and era = = =
|
= Ambrose Dudley , 3rd Earl of Warwick =
Ambrose Dudley , 3rd Earl of Warwick , KG ( c . 1530 – 21 February 1590 ) was an English nobleman and general , and an elder brother of Queen Elizabeth I 's favourite , Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester . Their father was John Dudley , Duke of Northumberland , who led the English government from 1550 – 1553 under Edward VI and unsuccessfully tried to establish Lady Jane Grey on the English throne after the King 's death in July 1553 . For his participation in this venture Ambrose Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London and condemned to death . Reprieved , his rehabilitation came after he fought for Philip II of Spain ( then England 's co @-@ monarch ) in the Battle of St. Quentin .
On Queen Elizabeth 's accession in November 1558 Dudley was appointed Master of the Ordnance , in which capacity he was to unofficially assist William the Silent in his struggle against Spain by delivering English weaponry . As the senior member of his family , Dudley was created Earl of Warwick in December 1561 . In 1562 – 1563 he commanded the army Elizabeth sent to Le Havre to garrison the town and assist the Huguenots in the First French War of Religion . This campaign ended in failure when the French belligerents agreed on a peace and the English surrendered because of the plague which was decimating their ranks . Dudley , who had acted honorably throughout , returned with a severe leg wound which was to hinder his further career and ultimately led to his death 27 years later . His last military engagement was against the Northern rebels in 1569 . From 1573 he served as a privy councillor .
Despite three marriages , Ambrose Dudley remained childless after the death of an infant daughter in 1552 . This had serious repercussions for the survival of his dynasty , since his only surviving brother Robert equally died without legitimate issue . With him , Ambrose Dudley had a very close relationship , and in business and personal life they did many things together . Like Robert Dudley , Ambrose was a major patron of the Elizabethan Puritan movement and supported non @-@ conforming preachers in their struggle with the Church authorities . Due to his homely way of life — and in contrast to the colourful Earl of Leicester — Ambrose Dudley became known to posterity as the " Good Earl of Warwick " .
= = Youth = =
Ambrose Dudley was the fourth son of Sir John Dudley , later Viscount Lisle , Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland , and his wife Jane Guildford . The Dudleys had 13 children in all and were known for their Protestant leanings as well as for their happy family life . Ambrose Dudley and his brothers were trained by , among others , the mathematician John Dee and the rhetorician Thomas Wilson . In August 1549 Dudley went to Norfolk with his father and his younger brother Robert to fight against the rebel peasant army of Robert Kett . Back in London , Dudley was knighted and married Anne Whorwood , daughter of William Whorwood , deceased Attorney @-@ General . In 1552 they had a daughter who died soon . Anne also died in 1552 of the sweating sickness . Dudley soon married for the second time : Elizabeth Lady Tailboys ( or Talboys , 1520 – 1563 ) , who was a baroness in her own right with large possessions in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire .
After the death of King Edward VI on 6 July 1553 , John Dudley , Duke of Northumberland , who had led the young King 's government for the last three and a half years , tried to install his daughter @-@ in @-@ law Lady Jane Grey on the English throne ; she was the King 's Protestant cousin to whom Edward had willed the Crown , bypassing his half @-@ sisters Mary and Elizabeth . When Mary Tudor asserted her right to the throne , an expedition against her base in East Anglia became inevitable . Northumberland marched on 14 July , accompanied by his eldest sons , John and Ambrose . Five days later the Privy Council changed sides ; on hearing this on 20 July , Northumberland , who had been staying at Cambridge , gave up and was arrested with his party the next day .
Ambrose Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London with his father and his four brothers . All were attainted and condemned to death , but only the Duke and Guildford Dudley , the second youngest brother , were executed . After the natural death of John , the eldest brother , in October 1554 , Ambrose Dudley was the family 's heir ; he remained longest in the Tower , being released late in 1554 after a plea by his wife , Lady Tailboys . On the whole , the brothers ' release was brought about by their mother and their brother @-@ in @-@ law Henry Sidney , who successfully lobbied the Spanish nobles around England 's new co @-@ ruler and king consort , Philip of Spain . Out of prison , in December 1554 or January 1555 , Ambrose and Robert Dudley took part in one of several tournaments held by Philip to celebrate Anglo @-@ Spanish friendship .
Also in January 1555 , Dudley 's mother died , leaving him her lands , which Queen Mary allowed him to inherit despite his attainder . However , the Dudley brothers were only welcome at court as long as King Philip was there ; later in 1555 they were even ordered out of London and the next year , in the wake of a conspiracy by their distant cousin Henry Sutton Dudley , the French ambassador Antoine de Noailles reported that the government was seeking to apprehend " the children of the Duke of Northumberland " , who were said to be on the run . By January 1557 , the brothers were raising personal contingents in order to fight for Philip II , now also King of Spain . Ambrose , Robert , and Henry Dudley joined the Spanish forces in France and took part in the Battle of St. Quentin , where Henry Dudley was killed . For these services the two surviving brothers were restored in blood by Act of Parliament in 1558 . The cost of the campaign almost bankrupted Ambrose Dudley and his wife , however , so that they had to reduce their household significantly .
= = Serving Elizabeth I = =
With the accession of Elizabeth I in November 1558 , Robert Dudley came into great favour and was made Master of the Horse . Ambrose Dudley received the post of Master of the Ordnance , though he pressed his influential brother to delay the appointment somewhat , so that he could not be held accountable for his predecessor 's embezzlement of funds . When their attainder had been lifted in 1558 , the Dudley brothers had renounced any rights to their father 's possessions or titles . Yet on 25 and 26 December 1561 Ambrose Dudley was created Baron Lisle and Earl of Warwick , and the next year received a large portion of the lands confiscated from the Duke of Northumberland . Warwick Castle — which the Queen visited on her 1572 summer progress — became his seat , while the neighbouring Kenilworth Castle became that of Robert Dudley . Like their father , Ambrose and Robert Dudley adopted the bear and ragged staff , the heraldic device of the medieval Earls of Warwick .
In 1562 the First War of Religion started in France , and Elizabeth was under pressure from her Protestant councillors to help the Huguenots . These were in possession of Le Havre , which was besieged by the Catholic Duke of Guise , and offered it to the English in return for military help — later , they promised , they would exchange it for Calais , which England had lost to France only in 1558 . Elizabeth agreed to send 6 @,@ 000 men to garrison Le Havre . Ambrose Dudley was chosen to lead the expedition in place of Robert Dudley , whom Elizabeth would not let go despite his strong desire to do so .
Warwick arrived at Le Havre in late October 1562 . He was sceptical from the start as to the chances to hold Le Havre , writing : " I fear [ you ] are too much abused in the good opinion you have in the strength of this town " . Elizabeth soon made it clear that she did not wish his army to engage in any active support for the Huguenot side , the purpose of the English contribution remaining somewhat obscure . In March 1563 the warring French agreed to a peace , while Elizabeth decided to hold on to Le Havre until Calais was returned to the English , as had been agreed with the Huguenot party . The reconciled French , however , turned jointly against the English garrison . Le Havre 's fortifications would have needed major expansion and repair to withstand a prolonged siege . Still , Dudley tried his best until the town 's walls were crumbling under French bombardment and the Queen permitted him to surrender honourably in July 1563 on account of the plague that was decimating his troops . Ambrose Dudley himself had been shot in the leg when parleying with the French and returned to England seriously ill . He wrote to his brother that he was happy " rather to end my life upon the breach than in any sickness . ... Farewell my dear and loving brother , a thousand times . " Robert Dudley went to welcome him at Portsmouth despite the plague and much to Elizabeth 's annoyance .
Politically the expedition had been a disaster , yet Warwick gained recognition for his leadership since morale had been high and the civilian population had been treated with unusual respect . The Earl 's rewards were the Welsh lordship of Ruthin and the Order of the Garter , which was awarded to him while still in France in April 1563 . His war injury — which never properly healed — made him ineligible for posts like Lord President of the Council of the North or Lord Deputy of Ireland when they were suggested for him in the future . Elizabeth Lady Tailboys had also died while her husband was in France , and on 11 November 1565 Ambrose Dudley married for the third time . His bride was the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Anne Russell , daughter of Francis Russell , 2nd Earl of Bedford . Robert Dudley , meanwhile Earl of Leicester , had arranged the match . It was an extraordinary court event . In between tournaments and banquets , the bride was given away by the Earl of Leicester in the presence of the Queen ; she later became one of Elizabeth 's closest friends .
In November 1569 the Northern Rebellion broke out with the aim to install Mary , Queen of Scots ( who was in English captivity ) on the English throne . The Earl of Warwick was one of the commanders appointed to march against the revolt , which was disintegrating rapidly , though . Due to his bad health Warwick was soon allowed to return to his Midlands estates . In January 1570 Robert , Earl of Leicester saw his reconvalescent brother at Kenilworth and reported to Elizabeth : " all this hard weather [ he ] hath every day travelled on horse , Your Majesty 's service hath made him forget his pain ... assuredly he is marvellous weary , though in my judgment it hath done his body much good " .
As Master of the Ordnance Warwick presided over an increasingly important government department , which centrally managed the storage and commissioning of the state 's artillery , munitions , and small arms . Prince William of Orange valued English cannons , and Warwick — who fervently believed in the international Protestant cause — seems willingly to have supplied him with what he wanted . The Spanish ambassador officially protested against this practice in 1576 , since the weapons would have been used against Spanish rule in the Netherlands . In 1573 Warwick was admitted to the Privy Council . His attendance to business was quite regular until it declined sharply due to his deteriorating health in the 1580s . At the 1587 trial of Mary Stuart he acted as a commissioner and was asked by the Scottish Queen to plead for her with his brother , the absent Earl of Leicester . The day sentence was pronounced on her , Warwick did not attend .
= = Private nobleman = =
Ambrose Dudley became one of the leading patrons of moderate Puritanism , the principal concern of which was the furtherance of preaching . Discouraged by the official Church , this was largely dependent on private initiatives by influential noblemen . In 1567 the two Dudley earls , together with local gentry , founded a consortium which provided for " the preachers of the Gospel in the county of Warwick . " Ambrose Dudley also helped the preacher John Field when he got into trouble over a subversive book he had published in 1565 ; and when he was imprisoned in 1572 , Leicester and Warwick worked his transfer into comfortable confinement in a London alderman 's house before he was released altogether by his patrons ' means . Like his brother , Ambrose Dudley invested in exploration and privateering voyages ; in Martin Frobisher 's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage he was the principal patron , although he contributed only the relatively modest sum of £ 50 .
The two Dudley brothers were on the closest personal terms and Ambrose said of Robert : " there is no man [ that ] knoweth his doings better than I myself " , while Robert 's recurrent phrase about Ambrose was : " him I love as myself " . Elizabeth , who liked Warwick , loved to joke that he was neither as graceful nor as handsome as his brother — and stouter as well . Lacking a grand London residence of his own , Warwick had his suite of rooms in the palatial Leicester House : " the Lord of Warwick 's bedchamber , the Lord of Warwick 's closet , the Lord of Warwick 's dining parlour " . In the administration of their lands the brothers shared their estate managers and lawyers , while their local affinities consisted of the same gentry families . Privately , they were " almost inseparable " , passing time together whenever possible . When Robert Dudley had incurred the Queen 's wrath while serving in the Netherlands as Governor @-@ General in 1586 , Ambrose wrote to him : " if I were you ... I would go to the furthest part of Christendom rather than ever come into England again . ... Let me have your best advice what is best for me to do , for that I mean to take such part as you do . "
After his first marriage Ambrose Dudley remained childless . His second wife , Elizabeth Tailboys , suffered a phantom pregnancy in 1555 . Anne Russell , though nearly 20 years her husband 's junior , turned out to be a congenial partner . Through their paternal grandmother the Dudley brothers descended from the famous 15th century earls , John Talbot , 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , and Richard Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick . The Beauchamp descent especially — which was represented by the earldom of Warwick — filled them with pride . Ambrose 's childlessness deeply concerned the widowed Robert Dudley , who for many years dared not to remarry for fear of the Queen 's displeasure , and eventually died without direct heirs himself in September 1588 . Most of Leicester 's estate — and debts — passed on to Warwick and encumbered his remaining lifetime . He also took care of his deceased brother 's illegitimate teenage son Robert , who was his godson and whom Leicester had willed to inherit after Warwick 's death .
From the 1570s the Earl of Warwick often resided at North Hall , his house in Northaw , Hertfordshire . He travelled little as he was often unable to move about , having " no use of his legs " . At the end of January 1590 he finally had his gangrenous leg amputated ; as a consequence he died at Bedford House in the Strand , London , on 21 February . Two days before , the diplomat Sir Edward Stafford visited him and described his spasms and pain " which lasted him unto his death " . He also saw the Countess sitting " by the fire so full of tears that she could not speak " . The Earl of Warwick was buried in the Beauchamp Chapel of Collegiate Church of St Mary , Warwick , in the vicinity of his ancestor Richard Beauchamp , his brother Robert , and his little nephew Robert Dudley , Lord Denbigh , Leicester 's son who during his short life had been heir to both Dudley earldoms . Ambrose Dudley 's widow commissioned his monument , but on her request was buried with her ancestors in Chenies , Buckinghamshire , when she died in 1604 . Ambrose Dudley entered tradition as the " Good Earl of Warwick " ; this probably came about through his quiet life style , which contrasted with the colourful persona of his brother , the Queen 's favourite .
= = Ancestry = =
|
= 2005 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2005 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was destructive and deadly to southern India , although most storms were weak . The basin covers the Indian Ocean north of the equator as well as inland areas , sub @-@ divided by the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Although the season began early with two systems in January , the bulk of activity was confined from September to December . The official India Meteorological Department tracked 12 depressions in the basin , and the unofficial Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) monitored two additional storms . Three systems intensified into a cyclonic storm , which have sustained winds of at least 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) , at which point the IMD named them .
The first official storm of the season was Cyclonic Storm Hibaru , which formed southeast of Sri Lanka in January . After nearly five months of inactivity , two depressions formed toward the end of June on opposite sides of India . The depression in the Arabian Sea was one of only two in that body of water during the year , the other of which formed in September and killed 13 people . The other was a depression that formed over land and killed 26 people in Madhya Pradesh , followed by another depression in July that killed one person . A series of deadly storms affected southeastern India beginning in September ; a depression killed six people in Madhya Pradesh , Cyclonic Storm Pyarr killed 80 people , an unclassified tropical storm killed 16 people in nearby Bangladesh , and a deep depression in October killed 100 people in Andhra Pradesh . December was active , with cyclonic storms Baaz and Fanoos hitting southern India , resulting in 11 fatalities , and a deep depression remaining over waters in the middle of the month .
= = Season summary = =
During the season , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) tracked cyclonic disturbances in the region , as part of them being the designated Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , covering the waters north of the Indian Ocean north of the equator from 45 ° E to 100 ° E. The activity was separated between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea , although there were no cyclonic storms in the latter region . The tropical systems were tracked using satellite imagery and the Dvorak technique , while forecasts were based on cyclone models . There were a total of 12 depressions during the year , three less than normal , although the highest since 1992 . The IMD named four cyclonic storms , a process they initiated in 2004 , which was also below normal . No systems strengthened beyond cyclonic storm status .
The season was the sixth in a row with below normal activity , based on the seasonal accumulated cyclone energy . Storms generally develop when the monsoon trough is located over tropical waters , with a peak from May to June and another peak in November . The monsoon developed 11 distinct low pressure areas by the end of September , including five monsoon depressions , and the monsoon season was more active than usual .
= = Storms = =
= = = Cyclonic Storm Hibaru = = =
An area of convection formed at a low latitude to the southeast of Sri Lanka on January 10 , located within a broad trough and in an area of low wind shear . Over the next few days , the convection consolidated as an elongated circulation became evident . On January 13 , the IMD designated the system as a depression . The system organized further and developed rainbands . A ridge to the north caused the depression to move erratically and remain generally stationary . The IMD upgraded the system to a deep depression on January 14 , the same day that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 02B . On the next day , the IMD upgraded it further to Cyclonic Storm Hibaru , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , marking an unusual occasion for such a low @-@ latitude storm in January . Drifting southward , the circulation gradually became exposed from the convection , indicative of the weakening . Hibaru degenerated into a remnant low on January 17 .
= = = Land Depression 01 = = =
Early on June 27 , a low pressure area formed over the extreme northwestern portion of the Bay of Bengal . Soon after it moved ashore near Kolkata , and the system organized into a depression over West Bengal with winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . For several days the system maintained its intensity while moving northwestward , stalling on July 1 for three days over Madhya Pradesh . It later turned to the northeast and dissipated over Uttar Pradesh on July 6 .
The depression produced widespread rainfall across eastern India . Sagar , Madhya Pradesh recorded 480 mm ( 19 in ) in 24 hours , the highest daily total . The rains helped cut India 's rainfall deficit by enhancing the monsoon . Rains first affected Odisha , where rivers overflowed and inundated adjacent crop fields . As the storm stalled over Madhya Pradesh , it produced widespread flooding that isolated 129 villages , killing 26 people . Over a four @-@ day period , nearly 900 mm ( 35 in ) of rain fell across parts of the Katni district . The floods cut off communications , washed away a bridge , and damaged many roads .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Pyarr = = =
A tropical depression developed in the South China Sea on September 12 and moved westward into central Vietnam on the next day . Continuing through Laos and Thailand , the system emerged into the northern Andaman Sea on September 15 . Tracked continuously as a depression by the Thai Meteorological Department , it was classified as a depression by the IMD on September 17 west of Myanmar . On the next day , the system intensified into a deep depression and later cyclonic storm , whereupon the IMD named it Pyarr . It was the first cyclonic storm in the month in seven years . Attaining peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , the storm took an unusual track to the southwest . On September 19 , Pyarr made landfall just northeast of Kalingapatnam in Andhra Pradesh . It turned westward and weakened over land , deteriorating into a remnant low on September 22 over Madhya Pradesh .
As a depression , the system produced damaging swells along coastal Bangladesh , forcing 12 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Offshore , an estimated 9 @,@ 000 fishermen in roughly 600 vessels were caught in the storm ; 15 – 20 of these ships capsized with 85 people collectively aboard . At least 16 were known to have died . Torrential rainfall affected eastern coastal India , with a daily peak of 490 mm ( 19 in ) in Kunavaram . The rains caused rivers to rise , forcing 36 @,@ 000 people to evacuate after 315 villages were affected . The floods killed 10 @,@ 000 cattle and killed four people in Khammam . Pyarr also wrecked 482 @,@ 188 ha ( 1 @,@ 191 @,@ 510 acres ) of crop fields . In Andhra Pradesh , the storm damaged or destroyed 12 @,@ 041 houses , with overall damage estimated at ₹ 503 million ( 2005 Indian rupees , $ 11 @.@ 4 million United States dollars ) . More than 140 @,@ 000 people were forced to relocate after the Godavari and Krishna rivers burst their banks and caused tremendous flooding . At least 64 people died across Andhra and Odisha Pradeshes .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 04 = = =
A low pressure area formed in the western Bay of Bengal on October 25 . It had a well @-@ defined circulation , helped by low wind shear and good outflow . The IMD classified it as a depression on October 26 , and later that day upgraded it to a deep depression . Moving northwestward , the system moved ashore near Ongole , Andhra Pradesh early on October 28 . The depression rapidly weakened over land , degenerating into a remnant low the next day .
Heavy rainfall affected coastal Andhra Pradesh , with a daily peak of 350 mm ( 14 in ) in Kavali . In Tamil Nadu to the south , Chennai recorded 420 mm ( 17 in ) of rainfall . The storm brought several days of heavy rainfall to southern India , forcing 50 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Low @-@ lying areas of Chennai were inundated , disrupting travel by road , rail , and air , and causing schools to close . A car was washed away , killing three people in the city . Two people in Chennai were electrocuted , and the provincial electric board shut off power in heavily flooded areas . The rains flooded 194 @,@ 423 ha ( 480 @,@ 430 acres ) of crop fields and inundated many rail lines . Across Andhra Pradesh , 1 @,@ 045 houses collapsed , and the rains killed at least 100 people .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Baaz = = =
An area of convection formed on November 26 in the eastern Bay of Bengal within an area of moderate wind shear . As the shear decreased , the convection organized about a developing circulation . On November 27 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 07B , and the next day , the IMD classified it as a depression . That day , the agency quickly upgraded it to Cyclonic Storm Baaz . By that time , the storm was moving steadily westward due to a ridge to the north . On November 29 , the IMD estimated peak 3 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Increasing wind shear weakened Baaz on December 1 , in conjunction with the storm turning to the west @-@ northwest . The storm quickly deteriorated , and the IMD downgraded it to a remnant low on December 2 , the same day that the JTWC issued their final advisory . The remnants continued to the west , eventually crossing the Indian coast north of Pondicherry on December 3 .
The precursor to the storm brought heavy rainfall to southern Thailand , reaching 417 mm ( 16 @.@ 4 in ) in Ko Samui . The rains killed 11 people in the country and caused ฿ 400 million ( Thai baht , $ 10 million USD ) in damage . The remnants also dropped heavy rainfall in southern India , with a daily peak of 310 mm ( 12 in ) in Tambaram . The rains flooded several villages in Tamil Nadu , killing 11 people .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Fanoos = = =
A low pressure area developed on December 4 in the south Andaman Sea . It consisted of a circulation with increasingly organized convection . The system moved west @-@ southwestward through the Bay of Bengal due to a ridge to the north , organizing into a depression two days later . That day , the JTWC also classified it as Tropical Cyclone 06B . Moderate wind shear allowed the system to strengthen further , and the IMD classified it as Cyclonic Storm Fanoos early on December 7 . Later that day , the agency estimated peak 3 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Two days later , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) as the storm bypassed northern Sri Lanka . Wind shear and proximity to land weakened Fanoos into a deep depression on December 10 , and shortly after it made landfall on eastern Tamil Nadu near Vedaranyam . The IMD downgraded the storm to a remnant low pressure area later that day , although the JTWC tracked the storm across southern India into the Arabian Sea ; the agency stopped following Fanoos on December 12 .
The threat of the storm necessitated fishermen to remain at port , while 25 @,@ 000 people evacuated to shelters . The final landfalling storm of the season , Fanoos brought heavy rainfall to Tamil Nadu , with a daily peak of 350 mm ( 14 in ) in Ramanathapuram . The rains heavily damaged crops across Tamil Nadu , although damage was less than expected . It was the fifth storm to affect southern India in six weeks .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 08 = = =
An area of convection formed on December 14 over the Bay of Bengal with a broad circulation . It was in an area of low wind shear , which allowed for slow development , and it became a depression on December 15 . A ridge to the north steered the system to the northwest and later to the west . On December 17 , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 07B , the same day that the IMD upgraded it to a deep depression with peak 3 minute winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . On the next day , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Increasing wind shear prevented further development as the storm turned to the north , keeping it east of Sri Lanka . An approaching trough turned the weakening system to the northeast on December 21 , and the next day the IMD downgraded it to a remnant low in the central Bay of Bengal . The outskirts of the system brushed Chennai , with the city receiving 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of rainfall , although there was no reported damage .
= = = Other storms = = =
The JTWC tracked a short @-@ lived depression in early January . The system formed southeast of Sri Lanka on January 7 , days before Hibaru formed . It remained weak as it drifted northward with peak winds of only 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . The depression dissipated on January 10 . In the middle of June , an area of convection formed along the monsoon offshore the Saurashtra region of western India . On June 21 , a depression developed with winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Moving to the west @-@ northwest , it dissipated on June 22 , bringing light rainfall up to 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in Gujarat . In late July , a low pressure area formed in the northwest Bay of Bengal , organizing into a depression on July 29 . The system remained nearly stationary just offshore West Bengal . On July 30 , the depression intensified into a deep depression . Shortly thereafter , the system moved ashore near Balasore , Odisha . It moved west @-@ northwestward over land , dissipating on July 31 . The depression dropped widespread rainfall , peaking at 490 mm ( 19 in ) in Chandabali . The rains swelled rivers and flooded fields , affecting many roadways . One person died after a wall collapsed .
On September 10 , a low pressure area formed in the northwestern Bay of Bengal . Moving to the northwest , it organized into a depression on September 12 , and soon after made landfall near Paradip , Odisha with winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . It continued through northeastern India , weakening into a remnant low over Uttar Pradesh on September 17 . The depression brought heavy rainfall to eastern India , with a daily peak of 300 mm ( 12 in ) in Nabarangpur . Across Odisha , the rains inundated 75 @,@ 943 ha ( 187 @,@ 660 acres ) of crop fields , and later killed six people after flooding villages in Madhya Pradesh . Another low pressure area formed south of Gujarat on September 13 , developing into a depression the next day . It moved slowly to the northwest at first before turning to the east , never attaining wind speeds higher than 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Late on September 16 , the depression struck Gujarat just north of Porbandar and rapidly weakened over land . The system brought rainfall and gusty winds that killed 13 people .
An area of convection formed on October 1 southeast of India . It was located in an area of moderate wind shear . The system moved to the northeast , developing more convection over the circulation . On October 2 , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 03B , although the IMD never issued warnings on the system . The JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Early on October 3 , the storm moved ashore just south of Kolkata , and dissipated soon after . Heavy rains swamped portions of northern Bangladesh causing tremendous flooding that destroyed more than 100 @,@ 000 mud @-@ built homes . Government officials estimated that 1 @.@ 5 million people were rendered homeless . Floods also damaged 200 @,@ 000 hectares ( 500 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops and 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) of roads . At least 16 people were killed while waterborne diseases in the aftermath threatened to kill dozens more .
A low pressure area formed in the western Bay of Bengal on November 19 . Moving to the west @-@ northwest , it concentrated into a depression on the next day . On November 22 , it crossed over Sri Lanka and later degenerated into a remnant low over the Gulf of Mannar , never reaching winds beyond 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . The remnants brought heavy rainfall to Tamil Nadu , with Panruti reporting 540 mm ( 21 in ) of precipitation over 72 hours .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that have formed during the 2005 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . It includes their names , duration , peak strength , areas affected , damage , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2005 USD .
|
= Murder of Huang Na =
Huang Na ( Chinese : 黄娜 ; pinyin : Huáng Nà , 26 September 1996 – 10 October 2004 ) was an eight @-@ year @-@ old Chinese national living at the Pasir Panjang Wholesale Centre in Singapore , who disappeared on 10 October 2004 . Her mother , the police and the community conducted a three @-@ week @-@ long nationwide search for her . After her body was found , many Singaporeans attended her wake and funeral , giving bai jin ( contributions towards funeral expenses ) and gifts . In a high @-@ profile 14 @-@ day trial , Malaysian @-@ born Took Leng How ( 卓良豪 ; Zhuó Liángháo ) , a vegetable packer at the wholesale centre , was found guilty of murdering her and hanged after an appeal and a request for presidential clemency failed .
= = Background = =
Huang Na 's father , Huang Qinrong , and mother , Huang Shuying ( 黄淑英 ) , were both born in 1973 to farming families in Putian city in Fujian , China . They met in 1995 and married soon after , as Shuying was pregnant with Huang Na . In 1996 , Qinrong left China to seek his fortune in Singapore and worked illegally as a vegetable packer at the Pasir Panjang Wholesale Centre . When Shuying found out that he was having affairs in Singapore , she divorced him and was given custody of Huang Na . She later married Zheng Wenhai ( 郑文海 ) , a Fujian businessman with whom she had lived for four years , and became pregnant with his child in early 2003 .
In May 2003 , Shuying immigrated to Singapore as a peidu mama accompanying Huang Na , who was enrolled in Jin Tai Primary School . They lived at the Pasir Panjang Wholesale Centre , where Shuying worked . People from the wholesale centre and Jin Tai Primary School described Huang Na as an intelligent , independent , sociable and active child . Huang Na became friends with Took Leng How , a vegetable packer at the wholesale centre . Born in Malaysia in 1981 as the second child of a close @-@ knit family of four , Took came to Singapore when he was 18 , seeking better @-@ paying jobs . At the wholesale centre , he often played with Huang Na , bought her food and gave her rides on his motorcycle .
= = Disappearance and reaction = =
Huang Na went missing on 10 October 2004 ; she was last seen at a food court near the wholesale centre , barefoot and wearing a blue denim jacket and bermuda shorts . From 7 a.m. to past midnight every day for three weeks , Shuying looked across the island for her daughter . The police , including a Criminal Investigation Department team , conducted an intensive search for the girl , and police officers carried photographs of her while on their daily rounds . Volunteers formed search parties and Crime Library , a voluntary group dedicated to finding missing persons , distributed over 70 @,@ 000 leaflets appealing for information . Two Singaporeans offered rewards of S $ 10 @,@ 000 and S $ 5 @,@ 000 for finding Huang Na , while the manager of an online design company set up a website to raise awareness and gather tip @-@ offs . The search even extended to Malaysia , with volunteers putting up posters in the nearby cities of Johor Bahru and Kuala Lumpur .
On 19 and 20 October , Singaporean police questioned Took as part of their investigations ; he said that three Chinese men kidnapped the girl . After questioning Took , police accompanied him home and to the police station again for a polygraph test . On the way , they stopped at a restaurant along Pasir Panjang Road for a meal . While eating , Took said he needed to go to the toilet , escaped , took a taxi to Woodlands and sneaked across the Causeway to Malaysia . Singaporean police searched for him until he turned himself in on 30 October , confessing that he had accidentally strangled Huang Na during a game of hide @-@ and @-@ seek in a storeroom . The following day , Huang Na 's body was found at Telok Blangah Hill Park , and Took was charged with her murder . Direct Singapore Funeral Services oversaw her funeral for free . Thousands attended Huang Na 's wake and funeral ; some gave bai jin and gifts , such as sweets , flowers and her favourite Hello Kitty merchandise . However , some Singaporeans tried to make money from the girl 's death by buying 4D numbers associated with her . Others spread rumours that Shuying was having affairs and was greedy for donations .
= = Trial of Took = =
The 14 @-@ day trial of Took began on 11 July 2005 before Justice Lai Kew Chai in the High Court . The prosecution relied on 76 witnesses , a video in which Took re @-@ enacted the murder , forensic evidence and an autopsy that found several bruises on Huang Na 's head . Based on the evidence , the prosecution alleged that Took lured Huang Na to the storeroom , then stripped and sexually assaulted her . After smothering and stomping on her to ensure her death , he stored her body in nine layers of plastic bags stuffed into a sealed cardboard box . The defence relied on the claim of diminished responsibility . Psychiatrist R. Nagulendran argued that Took was schizophrenic , as some of his behaviour , such as frequently smiling to himself and talking of spirits , was inappropriate and he had no motive for the murder – Nagulendran also called Took 's story about the three Chinese men a delusion .
On 27 August 2005 , Justice Lai ruled that Took was guilty of murder and sentenced him to death . In his judgement , Justice Lai noted that Took had no history of mental abnormality , the behaviour the defence cited was " not necessarily abnormal " and the murder was " clearly the product of a cold and calculating mind " . Justice Lai also said it was unnecessary to determine the motive for the murder or whether a sexual assault had taken place . Took appealed the death sentence , but the Court of Appeal of Singapore upheld the decision in January 2006 . His relatives gathered 35 @,@ 000 signatures and submitted a clemency petition to President S. R. Nathan , which was rejected in October 2006 , after which he was hanged .
= = Aftermath = =
Zheng and Shuying returned to Putian where Huang Na was buried in a tomb halfway up a mountain near their house . While alive , Huang Na had asked that her surname be changed to her stepfather 's , so her altar tablet bore the name Zheng Na . The couple decided to focus on raising their remaining child , with Zheng planning to pursue business opportunities in Guangzhou or Shenzhen . In January 2007 , Jack Neo considered making a movie about the murder , but both families objected . A follow @-@ up report in 2009 found that Shuying had given birth to another two children and was running a shoe distribution business in Taiwan .
|
= Martin Bormann =
Martin Bormann ( 17 June 1900 – 2 May 1945 ) was a prominent official in Nazi Germany as head of the Parteikanzlei ( Nazi Party Chancellery ) . He gained immense power within the Third Reich by using his position as Adolf Hitler 's private secretary to control the flow of information and access to Hitler .
Bormann joined a paramilitary Freikorps organisation in 1922 while working as manager of a large estate . He served nearly a year in prison as an accomplice to his friend Rudolf Höss ( later commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp ) in the murder of Walther Kadow . Bormann joined the Nazi Party in 1927 and the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) in 1937 . He initially worked in the party 's insurance service , and transferred in July 1933 to the office of Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess , where he served as chief of staff .
Bormann used his position to create an extensive bureaucracy and involve himself as much as possible in the decision making . He gained acceptance into Hitler 's inner circle , and accompanied him everywhere , providing briefings and summaries of events and requests . He began acting as Hitler 's personal secretary in 1935 , a post to which he was officially appointed in 1943 . After Hess ' solo flight to Britain on 10 May 1941 to seek peace negotiations with the British government , Bormann assumed Hess ' former duties , with the title of Head of the Parteikanzlei ( Party Chancellery ) . He had final approval over civil service appointments , reviewed and approved legislation , and by 1943 had de facto control over all domestic matters . Bormann was one of the leading proponents of the ongoing persecution of the Christian churches and favoured harsh treatment of Jews and Slavs in the areas conquered by Germany during World War II .
Bormann returned with Hitler to the Führerbunker in Berlin on 16 January 1945 as the Red Army approached the city . After Hitler committed suicide , Bormann and others attempted to flee Berlin on 2 May to avoid capture by the Soviets . Bormann probably committed suicide on a bridge near Lehrter station . The body was buried nearby on 8 May 1945 , but was not found and confirmed as genuine until 1972 . Bormann was tried in absentia by the International Military Tribunal in the Nuremberg trials of 1945 and 1946 . He was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced to death by hanging .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in Wegeleben ( now in Saxony @-@ Anhalt ) in the Kingdom of Prussia in the German Empire , Bormann was the son of Theodor Bormann ( 1862 – 1903 ) , a post office employee , and his second wife , Antonie Bernhardine Mennong . The family was Lutheran . He had two half @-@ siblings ( Else and Walter Bormann ) from his father 's earlier marriage to Louise Grobler , who died in 1898 . Antonie Bormann gave birth to three sons , one of whom died in infancy . Martin ( born 1900 ) and Albert ( born 1902 ) survived to adulthood . Theodor died when Bormann was three , and his mother soon remarried .
Bormann 's studies at an agricultural trade high school were interrupted when he joined the 55th Field Artillery Regiment as a gunner in June 1918 , in the last days of World War I. He never saw action , but served garrison duty until February 1919 . After working a short time in a cattle feed mill , Bormann became estate manager of a large farm in Mecklenburg . Shortly after starting work at the estate , Bormann joined an antisemitic landowners association . While hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic meant that money was worthless , foodstuffs stored on farms and estates became ever more valuable . Many estates , including Bormann 's , had Freikorps units stationed on site to guard the crops from pillaging . Bormann joined the Freikorps organisation headed by Gerhard Roßbach in 1922 , acting as section leader and treasurer .
On 17 March 1924 Bormann was sentenced to a year in Elisabethstrasse Prison as an accomplice to his friend Rudolf Höss in the murder of Walther Kadow . The perpetrators believed Kadow had tipped off the French occupation authorities in the Ruhr District that fellow Freikorps member Albert Leo Schlageter was carrying out sabotage operations against French industries . Schlageter was arrested and was executed on 23 May 1923 . On the night of 31 May , Höss , Bormann and several others took Kadow into a meadow out of town , where he was beaten and his throat cut . After one of the perpetrators confessed , police dug up the body and laid charges in July . Bormann was released from prison in February 1925 . He joined the Frontbann , a short @-@ lived NSDAP paramilitary organisation created to replace the Sturmabteilung ( SA ; storm detachment or assault division ) , which had been banned in the aftermath of the failed Munich Putsch . Bormann returned to his job at Mecklenburg and remained there until May 1926 , when he moved in with his mother in Oberweimar .
= = Career in the Nazi Party = =
In 1927 , Bormann joined the National Socialist German Workers Party ( Nazi Party ; NSDAP ) . His membership number was 60 @,@ 508 . He joined the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) on 1 January 1937 with number 278 @,@ 267 . By special order of Heinrich Himmler in 1938 , Bormann was granted SS number 555 to reflect his Alter Kämpfer ( Old Fighter ) status .
= = = Early career = = =
Bormann took a job with Der Nationalsozialist , a weekly paper edited by NSDAP member Hans Severus Ziegler , who was deputy Gauleiter ( party leader ) for Thuringia . After joining the NSDAP in 1927 , Bormann began duties as regional press officer , but his lack of public @-@ speaking skills made him ill @-@ suited to this position . He soon put his organisational skills to use as business manager for the Gau ( region ) . He moved to Munich in October 1928 , where he worked in the SA insurance office . Initially the NSDAP provided coverage through insurance companies for members who were hurt or killed in the frequent violent skirmishes with members of other political parties . As insurance companies were unwilling to pay out claims for such activities , in 1930 Bormann set up the Hilfskasse der NSDAP ( NSDAP Auxiliary Fund ) , a benefits and relief fund directly administered by the party . Each party member was required to pay premiums and might receive compensation for injuries sustained while conducting party business . Payments out of the fund were made solely at Bormann 's discretion . He began to gain a reputation as a financial expert , and many party members felt personally indebted to him after receiving benefits from the fund . In addition to its stated purpose , the fund was used as a last @-@ resort source of funding for the NSDAP , which was chronically short of money at the time . After the NSDAP 's success in the 1930 general election , where they won 107 seats , party membership grew dramatically . By 1932 the fund was collecting 3 million Reichsmarks per year .
Bormann also worked on the staff of the SA from 1928 to 1930 , and while there he founded the National Socialist Automobile Corps , precursor to the National Socialist Motor Corps . The organisation was responsible for co @-@ ordinating the donated use of motor vehicles belonging to party members , and later expanded to training members in automotive skills .
= = = Reichsleiter and head of the party chancellery = = =
After the Machtergreifung ( NSDAP seizure of power ) in January 1933 , the relief fund was repurposed to provide general accident and property insurance , so Bormann resigned from its administration . He applied for a transfer and was accepted as chief of staff in the office of Rudolf Hess , the Deputy Führer , on 1 July 1933 . Bormann also served as personal secretary to Hess from 4 July 1933 until May 1941 . Hess ' department was responsible for settling disputes within the party and acted as an intermediary between the party and the state regarding policy decisions and legislation . Bormann used his position to create an extensive bureaucracy and involve himself in as much of the decision @-@ making as possible . On 10 October 1933 Hitler named Bormann Reichsleiter ( national leader – the highest party rank ) of the NSDAP , and in November he was named Reichstag deputy . By June 1934 , Bormann was gaining acceptance into Hitler 's inner circle and accompanied him everywhere , providing briefings and summaries of events and requests .
In 1935 , Bormann was appointed as overseer of renovations at the Berghof , Hitler 's property at Obersalzberg . In the early 1930s , Hitler bought the property , which he had been renting since 1925 as a vacation retreat . After he became chancellor , Hitler drew up plans for expansion and remodelling of the main house and put Bormann in charge of construction . Bormann also commissioned the construction of barracks for the SS guards , roads and footpaths , garages for motor vehicles , a guesthouse , accommodation for staff , and other amenities . Retaining title in his own name , Bormann bought up adjacent farms until the entire complex covered 10 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) . Members of the inner circle built houses within the perimeter , beginning with Hermann Göring , Albert Speer , and Bormann himself . Bormann commissioned the building of the Kehlsteinhaus ( Eagle 's Nest ) , a tea house high above the Berghof , as a gift to Hitler on his fiftieth birthday ( 20 April 1939 ) . Hitler seldom used the building , but Bormann liked to impress guests by taking them there .
While Hitler was in residence at the Berghof , Bormann was constantly in attendance and acted as Hitler 's personal secretary . In this capacity , he began to control the flow of information and access to Hitler . During this period , Hitler gave Bormann control of his personal finances . In addition to salaries as chancellor and president , Hitler 's income included money raised through royalties collected on his book Mein Kampf and the use of his image on postage stamps . Bormann set up the Adolf Hitler Fund of German Trade and Industry , which collected money from German industrialists on Hitler 's behalf . Some of the funds received through this programme were disbursed to various party leaders , but Bormann retained most of it for Hitler 's personal use . Bormann and others took notes of Hitler 's thoughts expressed over dinner and in monologues late into the night and preserved them . The material was published after the war as Hitler 's Table Talk .
The office of the Deputy Führer had final approval over civil service appointments , and Bormann reviewed the personnel files and made the decisions regarding appointments . This power impinged on the purview of Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick , and was an example of the overlapping responsibilities typical of the Nazi regime . Bormann travelled everywhere with Hitler , including trips to Austria in 1938 after the Anschluss ( the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany ) , and to the Sudetenland after the signing of the Munich Agreement later that year . Bormann was placed in charge of organising the 1938 Nuremberg Rally , a major annual party event .
Hitler intentionally played top party members off against each other and the NSDAP against the civil service . In this way , he fostered distrust , competition , and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power . He typically did not give written orders ; instead he communicated them verbally or had them conveyed through Bormann . Falling out of favour with Bormann meant that access to Hitler was cut off . Bormann proved to be a master of intricate political infighting . Along with his ability to control access to Hitler , this enabled him to curtail the power of Joseph Goebbels , Göring , Himmler , Alfred Rosenberg , Robert Ley , Hans Frank , Speer , and other high @-@ ranking officials , many of whom became his enemies . This ruthless and continuous intriguing for power , influence , and Hitler 's favour came to characterise the inner workings of the Third Reich .
As World War II progressed , Hitler 's attention became focused on foreign affairs and the conduct of the war to the exclusion of all else . Hess , not directly engaged in either of these endeavours , became increasingly sidelined from the affairs of the nation and from Hitler 's attention ; Bormann had successfully supplanted Hess in many of his duties and usurped his position at Hitler 's side . Hess was concerned that Germany would face a war on two fronts as plans progressed for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union scheduled to take place later that year . He flew solo to Britain on 10 May 1941 to seek peace negotiations with the British government . He was arrested on arrival and spent the rest of the war as a British prisoner , eventually receiving a life sentence for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials in 1946 . Speer later said Hitler described Hess ' departure as one of the worst blows of his life , as he considered it a personal betrayal . Hitler ordered Hess to be shot should he return to Germany and abolished the post of Deputy Führer on 12 May 1941 , assigning Hess ' former duties to Bormann , with the title of Head of the Parteikanzlei ( Party Chancellery ) . In this position he was responsible for all NSDAP appointments , and was answerable only to Hitler . Associates began to refer to him as the " Brown Eminence " , but never to his face .
Bormann 's power and effective reach broadened considerably during the war . By early 1943 , the war produced a labour crisis for the regime . Hitler created a three @-@ man committee with representatives of the State , the army , and the Party in an attempt to centralise control of the war economy . The committee members were Hans Lammers ( head of the Reich Chancellery ) , Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel , chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( Armed Forces High Command ; OKW ) , and Bormann , who controlled the Party . The committee was intended to independently propose measures regardless of the wishes of various ministries , with Hitler reserving most final decisions to himself . The committee , soon known as the Dreierausschuß ( Committee of Three ) , met eleven times between January and August 1943 . However , they ran up against resistance from Hitler 's cabinet ministers , who headed deeply entrenched spheres of influence and were excluded from the committee . Seeing it as a threat to their power , Goebbels , Göring , and Speer worked together to bring it down . The result was that nothing changed , and the Committee of Three declined into irrelevance .
= = = Anti @-@ church campaign = = =
While Article 24 of the NSDAP party platform called for conditional toleration of Christian denominations and a Reichskonkordat ( Reich Concordat ) treaty with the Vatican was signed in 1933 , purporting to guarantee religious freedom for Catholics , Hitler believed that religion was fundamentally incompatible with National Socialism . Bormann , who was strongly anti @-@ Christian , agreed ; he stated publicly in 1941 that " National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable . " Out of political expediency , Hitler intended to postpone the elimination of the Christian churches until after the war . However , his repeated hostile statements against the church indicated to his subordinates that a continuation of the Kirchenkampf ( church struggle ) would be tolerated and even encouraged .
Bormann was one of the leading proponents of the ongoing persecution of the Christian churches . In February 1937 he decreed that members of the clergy should not be admitted to the NSDAP . The following year he ruled that any members of the clergy who were holding party offices should be dismissed , and that any party member who was considering entering the clergy had to give up his party membership . While Bormann 's push to force the closure of theological departments at Reich universities was unsuccessful , he was able to reduce the amount of religious instruction provided in public schools to two hours per week and mandated the removal of crucifixes from classrooms . Speer notes in his memoirs that while drafting plans for Welthauptstadt Germania , the planned rebuilding of Berlin , he was told by Bormann that churches were not to be allocated any building sites .
As part of the campaign against the Catholic Church , hundreds of monasteries in Germany and Austria were confiscated by the Gestapo and their occupants were expelled . In 1941 the Catholic Bishop of Münster , August von Galen , publicly protested against this persecution and against Action T4 , the Nazi non @-@ voluntary euthanasia programme under which the mentally ill , physically deformed , and incurably sick were to be killed . In a series of sermons that received international attention , he criticised the programme as illegal and immoral . His sermons led to a widespread protest movement among church leaders , the strongest protest against a Nazi policy up until that point . Bormann and others called for Galen to be hanged , but Hitler and Goebbels concluded that Galen 's death would only be viewed as a martyrdom and lead to further unrest . Hitler decided to deal with the issue when the war was over .
= = = Personal Secretary to the Führer = = =
Preoccupied with military matters and spending most of his time at his military headquarters on the eastern front , Hitler came to rely more and more on Bormann to handle the domestic policies of the country . On 12 April 1943 , Hitler officially appointed Bormann as Personal Secretary to the Führer . By this time Bormann had de facto control over all domestic matters , and this new appointment gave him the power to act in an official capacity in any matter .
Bormann was invariably the advocate of extremely harsh , radical measures when it came to the treatment of Jews , the conquered eastern peoples , and prisoners of war . He signed the decree of 31 May 1941 extending the 1935 Nuremberg Laws to the annexed territories of the East . Thereafter , he signed the decree of 9 October 1942 prescribing that the permanent Final Solution in Greater Germany could no longer be solved by emigration , but only by the use of " ruthless force in the special camps of the East " , that is , extermination in Nazi death camps . A further decree , signed by Bormann on 1 July 1943 , gave Adolf Eichmann absolute powers over Jews , who now came under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Gestapo . Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews , representing two @-@ thirds of the Jewish population of Europe , were exterminated by the Nazi regime .
Knowing Hitler viewed Slavic people as inferior , Bormann opposed the introduction of German criminal law into the conquered eastern territories . He lobbied for and eventually achieved a strict separate penal code that implemented martial law for the Polish and Jewish inhabitants of these areas . The " Edict on Criminal Law Practices against Poles and Jews in the Incorporated Eastern Territories " , promulgated 4 December 1941 , permitted corporal punishment and death sentences for even the most trivial of offences .
Bormann supported the hard @-@ line approach of Erich Koch , Reichskommissar in Reichskommissariat Ukraine , in his brutal treatment of Slavic people . Alfred Rosenberg , serving as head of the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories , favoured a more moderate policy . After touring collective farms around Vinnytsia , Ukraine , Bormann was concerned about the health and good physical constitution of the population , as he was concerned that they could constitute a danger to the regime . After discussion with Hitler , he issued a policy directive to Rosenberg that read in part :
The Slavs are to work for us . In so far as we don 't need them , they may die . The fertility of the Slavs is undesirable . As to food , they are to not get more than necessary . We are the masters ; we come first .
Bormann and Himmler shared responsibility for the Volkssturm ( people 's militia ) , which drafted all remaining able @-@ bodied men aged 16 to 60 into a last @-@ ditch militia founded on 18 October 1944 . Poorly equipped and trained , the men were sent to fight on the eastern front , where nearly 175 @,@ 000 of them were killed without having any discernible impact on the Soviet advance .
= = = Last days in Berlin = = =
Hitler transferred his headquarters to the Führerbunker ( " Führer 's shelter " ) in Berlin on 16 January 1945 , where he ( along with Bormann , his secretary Else Krüger , and others ) remained until the end of April . The Führerbunker was located under the Reich Chancellery garden in the government district in the centre of the city . The Battle of Berlin , the final major Soviet offensive of the war , began on 16 April 1945 . By 19 April the Red Army started to encircle the city . On 20 April , his 56th birthday , Hitler made his last trip to the surface . In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery , he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth . That afternoon , Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time . On 23 April , Albert Bormann left the bunker complex and flew to the Obersalzberg . He and several others had been ordered by Hitler to leave Berlin .
In the early morning hours of 29 April 1945 , Wilhelm Burgdorf , Goebbels , Hans Krebs , and Bormann witnessed and signed Hitler 's last will and testament . Bormann was named executor of the estate . That same night , Hitler married Eva Braun in a civil ceremony .
As Soviet forces continued to fight their way into the centre of Berlin , Hitler and Braun committed suicide on the afternoon of 30 April . Braun took cyanide and Hitler shot himself . As per Hitler 's instructions , their bodies were carried up to the Reich Chancellery garden and burned . In accordance with Hitler 's last wishes , Bormann was named as Party Minister , thus officially confirming his position as de facto General Secretary of the Party . Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz was appointed as the new Reichspräsident ( president of Germany ) and Goebbels became head of government and Chancellor of Germany . Goebbels and his wife Magda committed suicide later that day .
On 2 May , the Battle in Berlin ended when General der Artillerie Helmuth Weidling , the commander of the Berlin Defence Area , unconditionally surrendered the city to General Vasily Chuikov , the commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army .
= = Death , rumours of survival and discovery of remains = =
= = = Axmann 's account of Bormann 's death = = =
At around 11 : 00 pm on 1 May , Bormann left the Führerbunker with SS doctor Ludwig Stumpfegger , Hitler Youth leader Artur Axmann , and Hitler 's pilot Hans Baur as members of one of the groups attempting to break out of the Soviet encirclement . Bormann carried with him a copy of Hitler 's last will and testament . The group left the Führerbunker and travelled on foot via a U @-@ Bahn tunnel to the Friedrichstraße station , where they surfaced . Several members of the party attempted to cross the Spree River at the Weidendammer Bridge while crouching behind a Tiger tank . The tank was hit by Soviet artillery and destroyed , and Bormann and Stumpfegger were knocked to the ground . Bormann , Stumpfegger , and several others eventually crossed the river on their third attempt . Bormann , Stumpfegger , and Axmann walked along the railway tracks to Lehrter station , where Axmann decided to leave the others and go in the opposite direction . When he encountered a Red Army patrol , Axmann doubled back . He saw two bodies , which he later identified as Bormann and Stumpfegger , on a bridge near the railway switching yard . He did not have time to check thoroughly , so he did not know how they died . Since the Soviets never admitted to finding Bormann 's body , his fate remained in doubt for many years .
= = = Tried at Nuremberg in absentia = = =
During the chaotic days after the war , contradictory reports arose as to Bormann 's whereabouts . Sightings were reported in Argentina , Spain , and elsewhere . Bormann 's wife was placed under surveillance in case he tried to contact her . Jakob Glas , Bormann 's long @-@ time chauffeur , insisted that he saw Bormann in Munich in July 1946 . In case Bormann was still alive , multiple public notices about the upcoming Nuremberg trials were placed in newspapers and on the radio in October and November 1945 to notify him of the proceedings against him .
The trial got underway on 20 November 1945 . Lacking evidence confirming Bormann 's death , the International Military Tribunal tried him in absentia , as permitted under article 12 of their charter . He was charged with three counts : conspiracy to wage a war of aggression , war crimes , and crimes against humanity . His prosecution was assigned to Lieutenant Thomas F. Lambert Jr. and his defence to Dr. Friedrich Bergold . The prosecution stated that Bormann participated in planning and co @-@ signed virtually all of the antisemitic legislation put forward by the regime . Bergold unsuccessfully proposed that the court could not convict Bormann because he was already dead . Due to the shadowy nature of Bormann 's activities , Bergold was unable to refute the prosecution 's assertions as to the extent of his involvement in decision making . Bormann was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity and acquitted of conspiracy to wage a war of aggression . On 15 October 1946 he was sentenced to death by hanging , with the provision that if he were later found alive , any new facts brought to light at that time could be taken into consideration to reduce the sentence or overturn it .
= = = Discovery of remains = = =
Over the coming years , several organisations , including the CIA and the West German Government , attempted to locate Bormann without success . The West German government in 1964 offered a reward of 100 @,@ 000 Deutsche Marks for information leading to Bormann 's capture . Sightings were reported at points all over the world , including Australia , Denmark , Italy , and South America . In his autobiography , Nazi intelligence officer Reinhard Gehlen claimed that Bormann had been a Soviet spy , and that he had escaped to Moscow . Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal believed that Bormann was living in South America . The West German government declared that its hunt for Bormann was over in 1971 .
In 1963 , a retired postal worker named Albert Krumnow told police that around 8 May 1945 the Soviets had ordered him and his colleagues to bury two bodies found near the railway bridge near Lehrter station . One was dressed in a Wehrmacht uniform and the other was clad only in his underwear . Krumnow 's colleague Wagenpfohl found an SS doctor 's paybook on the second body identifying him as Dr. Ludwig Stumpfegger . He gave the paybook to his boss , postal chief Berndt , who turned it over to the Soviets . They in turn destroyed it . He wrote to Stumpfegger 's wife on 14 August 1945 and told her that her husband 's body was " ... interred with the bodies of several other dead soldiers in the grounds of the Alpendorf in Berlin NW 40 , Invalidenstrasse 63 . "
Excavations on 20 – 21 July 1965 at the site specified by Axmann and Krumnow failed to locate the bodies . However , on 7 December 1972 , construction workers uncovered human remains near Lehrter station in West Berlin just 12 m ( 39 ft ) from the spot where Krumnow claimed he had buried them . Upon autopsy , fragments of glass were found in the jaws of both skeletons , suggesting that the men had committed suicide by biting cyanide capsules to avoid capture . Dental records — reconstructed from memory in 1945 by Dr. Hugo Blaschke — identified one skeleton as Bormann 's , and damage to the collarbone was consistent with injuries that Bormann 's sons reported he had sustained in a riding accident in 1939 . Forensic examiners determined that the size of the skeleton and the shape of the skull were identical to Bormann 's . Likewise , the second skeleton was deemed to be Stumpfegger 's , since it was of similar height to his last known proportions . Composite photographs , where images of the skulls were overlaid on photographs of the men 's faces , were completely congruent . Facial reconstruction was undertaken in early 1973 on both skulls to confirm the identities of the bodies . Soon afterward , the West German government declared Bormann dead . The family was not permitted to cremate the body , in case further forensic examination later proved necessary .
The remains were conclusively identified as Bormann 's in 1998 when German authorities ordered genetic testing on fragments of the skull . The testing was led by Wolfgang Eisenmenger , Professor of Forensic Science at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich . Tests using DNA from one of his relatives identified the skull as that of Bormann . Bormann 's remains were cremated and the ashes were scattered in the Baltic Sea on 16 August 1999 .
= = Family = =
On 2 September 1929 , Bormann married 19 @-@ year @-@ old Gerda Buch , whose father , Major Walter Buch , served as a chairman of the Untersuchung und Schlichtungs @-@ Ausschuss ( USCHLA ; Investigation and Settlement Committee ) , which was responsible for settling disputes within the party . Hitler was a frequent visitor to the Buch house , and it was here that Bormann met him . Hess and Hitler served as witnesses at the wedding . Bormann also had a series of mistresses , including Manja Behrens , an actress .
The children of Martin and Gerda Bormann were :
Martin Adolf Bormann ( 14 April 1930 – 11 March 2013 ) ; called Krönzi ( " crown prince " ) ; named after Hitler , his godfather .
Ilse Bormann ( born 9 July 1931 ) ; named after her godmother , Ilse Hess . Later called Eike after Hess ' flight to Scotland . She died in 1958 . A twin sister , Ehrengard , died in 1932 .
Irmgard Bormann ( born 25 July 1933 ) .
Rudolf Gerhard Bormann ( born 31 August 1934 ; named after his godfather Rudolf Hess ) . His name was changed to Helmut after Hess ' flight to Scotland .
Heinrich Hugo Bormann ( born 13 June 1936 ; named after his godfather Heinrich Himmler ) .
Eva Ute Bormann ( born 4 May 1938 ) .
Gerda Bormann ( born 4 August 1940 ) .
Fritz Hartmut Bormann ( born 3 April 1942 ) .
Volker Bormann ( born 18 September 1943 , died in 1946 ) .
Gerda Bormann and the children fled Obersalzberg for Italy on 25 April 1945 after an Allied air attack . She died of cancer on 26 April 1946 , in Merano , Italy . Bormann 's children survived the war , and were cared for in foster homes . His eldest son , Martin , was ordained a Roman Catholic priest and worked in Africa as a missionary . He later left the priesthood and married .
= = Nazi awards and decorations = =
Frontbann Badge ( 1932 )
Golden Party Badge ( 1934 )
Olympic Games Decoration First Class ( 1936 )
Honour Chevron for the Old Guard
SS @-@ Honour Ring ( 1937 )
Honour Sword of the Reichsführers @-@ SS ( 1937 )
Blood Order ( 1938 )
Nazi Party Long Service Award in Bronze and Silver
Grand Officer and Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy
= = Explanatory notes = =
|
= James McCudden =
James Thomas Byford McCudden VC , DSO & Bar , MC & Bar , MM ( 28 March 1895 – 9 July 1918 ) was an English flying ace of the First World War and among the most highly decorated airmen in British military history .
Born in 1895 to a middle class family with military traditions , McCudden joined the Royal Engineers in 1910 . Having an interest in mechanics he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) in 1913 at which time he first came into regular contact with aircraft . At the outbreak of war in 1914 he flew as an observer before training as a fighter pilot in 1916 .
McCudden claimed his first victory in September 1916 . He claimed his fifth victory — making him an ace — on 15 February 1917 . For the next six months he served as an instructor and flew defensive patrols over London . He returned to the frontline in summer 1917 . That same year he dispatched a further 31 enemy aircraft while claiming multiple victories in one day on 11 occasions .
With his six British medals and one French , McCudden received more awards for gallantry than any other airman of British nationality serving in the First World War . He was also one of the longest serving . By 1918 , in part due to a campaign by the Daily Mail newspaper , McCudden became one of the most famous airmen in the British Isles .
At his death he had achieved 57 aerial victories , placing him seventh on the list of the war 's most successful aces . Just under two @-@ thirds of his victims can be identified by name . This is possible since , unlike other Allied aces , a substantial proportion of McCudden 's claims were made over Allied @-@ held territory . The majority of his successes were achieved with 56 Squadron RFC and all but five fell while flying the S.E.5a.
On 9 July 1918 McCudden was killed in a flying accident when his aircraft crashed following an engine fault . His rank at the time of his death was major , a significant achievement for a man who had begun his career in the RFC as an air mechanic . McCudden is buried at the British war cemetery at Beauvoir @-@ Wavans .
= = Early life and family = =
James McCudden was born in Gillingham , Kent to Sergeant @-@ Major William H. McCudden and Amelia Byford . His father had been in the military for most of his life . He joined the Royal Engineers as a teenager and served in No. 24 Company . He fought in the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War at the Battle of Tel el @-@ Kebir in 1882 . During combat he rescued a wounded soldier while under fire and was recommended for an award . However , when it emerged he was acting against orders he was denied any honours . Nevertheless , his father had a long career in the Engineers and eventually became an instructor at the School of Military Engineering as a non @-@ commissioned officer . His mother 's family also had a military background ; her grandfather served as a Master @-@ at @-@ arms in the Royal Marines aboard HMS Poictiers .
In 1890 William H. McCudden and Amelia Byford ( 1869 – 1955 ) married . They had six children ; William Thomas James ( 3 April 1891 – 1 May 1915 ) , Mary Amelia ( 23 January 1893 ) , James Thomas Byford ( 28 March 1895 – 9 July 1918 ) , Kathleen Annie ( 1 December 1899 ) , John Anthony ( 14 June 1897 – 18 March 1918 ) and Maurice Vincent ( 31 October 1901 – 13 December 1934 ) . John and William McCudden became fighter pilots but both were killed whilst flying — John would be killed in action during the war .
His father William H. McCudden took a post at the Air Ministry at the rank of warrant officer after the Great War , but would die tragically at Clapham Junction railway station on 7 July 1920 . When he stood up to offer a woman his seat the compartment door flew open , knocking him into the path of an oncoming train . Maurice Vincent became a pilot and served in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) until he retired through illness in 1933 . He died of colitis the following year , leaving a widow and small daughter .
The McCuddens moved to Sheerness in 1909 and James transferred to the garrison school . He learned to shoot at the rifle range , box and was a reasonably intelligent student . His father 's retirement soon placed a heavy strain on the family finances and as a consequence McCudden felt obliged to find a job before he could enlist in 1915 . He filled the time from the age of 14 to the age of enlistment by working as a Post Office messenger boy . It was at this time McCudden 's interest in flying began . In nearby Leysdown , on the Isle of Sheppey , one of the first aviation centres was built . It was here John Moore @-@ Brabazon became the first Englishman to fly . McCudden and his brothers often went to see the pioneer aviators gather . McCudden expressed a desire to become a pilot after spending hours watching these early flying machines .
= = Royal Engineers and RFC = =
Unfortunately his desire to be a pilot was postponed . The family required further income after his father retired . Unable to wait for that opportunity to arise he joined the Royal Engineers on 26 April 1910 , as No. 20083 . On 24 February 1911 he set sail for Gibraltar on the southern tip of Spain . McCudden spent eighteen months in Gibraltar before returning to England in September 1912 . While in Gibraltar he read Flight manual magazine habitually , which explained the theory of flight , aircraft construction and aero engines . He excelled in his service and by 26 April 1913 he had become a qualified Sapper . He also held the grade Air Mechanic 2nd Class , No. 892 , which was awarded to him on 28 April 1913 . Soon afterwards he became a member of the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) . On 9 May he was posted to Farnborough depot as a mechanic .
McCudden 's tenure at the aerodrome began ominously . The same day he was granted a request to travel as an observer in a Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 , disaster struck which could conceivably have ended his career . Instructed to familiarise himself with the aircraft around the airfield he examined a Caudron Type A , and proceeded to turn over the engine . The aircraft was listed as unserviceable and McCudden saw no danger in leaving the throttle fully open . Suddenly the engine started and it accelerated out of the hangar and into a Farman MF.11. McCudden watched as the propeller chewed the wing to pieces and damaged his Commanding Officer 's car which had been parked nearby . He was able to reach the cockpit and switch off the ignition but not before extensive damage had been done . For this misdemeanor he was brought before Colonel Frederick Sykes , commanding the RFC Military Wing . Sykes was pleased with his overall progress , which likely saved him , but sentenced McCudden to seven days detention and a forfeiture of 14 days pay for the incident . Five years later Sykes again met McCudden — then at the height of his fame — and chaffed him on the episode , even jokingly threatening to send him a bill for the car .
On 15 June 1913 he was posted to No. 3 Squadron RFC . He managed a flight in a Blériot aircraft while there and gradually won a reputation as a first @-@ rate mechanic . By Christmas his frequent requests for trips in the aircraft had met with so much success that McCudden had logged nearly 30 hours , mostly in the Blériot monoplanes . On 1 April 1914 he was promoted to Air Mechanic First Class .
= = War service = =
= = = An observer airman = = =
In August 1914 he travelled to France as a mechanic with 3 Squadron after war was declared , which followed the German invasion of Belgium . It operated as a reconnaissance unit and McCudden began to fly as an observer . After stopping at Amiens for several days , the unit began reconnoitering enemy positions . 3 Squadron offered support to the British Army at the Battle of Mons in Belgium . That month McCudden saw his first German aircraft on 22 August . On 25 August the British began their retreat , south @-@ west , toward Paris . 3 Squadron moved to no fewer than nine different landing grounds , often delaying departure until the enemy was only a mile or two behind . Eventually they settled at Melun , south of Paris . In the autumn , McCudden participated in locating German artillery positions at the Allied armies drove back the enemy at the First Battle of the Marne and First Battle of the Aisne . McCudden flew these missions with a rifle since aircraft lacked any fixed armament .
McCudden performed well and took on more administrative responsibilities once he was promoted to Corporal on 20 November 1914 . During this period , the First Battle of Ypres was being fought and the Squadron re @-@ equipped with the higher performing Morane @-@ Saulnier L aircraft . Several months later , on 1 April 1915 , he was promoted to sergeant and made NCO in charge of all engines in his flight . McCudden 's delight at gaining a promotion was cut short by news that his brother William had been killed in an air crash while flying an elderly Blériot . Just a week later , his eldest sister Mary lost her husband in an explosion which destroyed the minelayer HMS Princess Irene on 27 May 1915 .
Undeterred , McCudden made a formal application to become a pilot and fly on operations but it was rejected on the grounds he was too valuable to risk losing . His reputation as a mechanic had spread since his supervision in the unit had led to a record @-@ low number of engine failures . He continued to fly as an observer despite the recommendation of his rejection letter .
On 8 June he made his first official observer qualifying sortie which he passed . At this time the German Luftstreitkräfte ( Air Service ) introduced the Fokker Eindecker fighter equipped with Synchronization gear . Firing through the propeller , the Germans had a machine that soon became a serious threat to McCudden 's unit . The enemy succeeded establishing a period of air superiority at this time . McCudden still flew regularly as an observer with the new commanding Officer , Edgar Ludlow @-@ Hewitt , who had taken over command on 20 November 1915 . He recorded a flight of 2 hours 40 minutes on the 27 November which included an abortive chase after a Albatros C.I reconnaissance aircraft . On 16 December 1915 he acted as aerial gunner , when he drove off an attack on his flight by the German ace Max Immelmann . While firing at the Fokker , McCudden witnessed a piece of paper or fabric fall off the German machine . Although the ground was diligently searched , no trace of it was found . On 19 January 1916 , McCudden exchanged fire with another German observer without result .
At this time , McCudden 's Squadron was also experimenting with wireless technology . Captain D.S Lewis who commanded the headquarters Flight fitted his B.E.2a with a set to help direct artillery fire . In April 1915 he commanded 3 Squadron and became McCudden 's commanding officer . He was killed a year later when he was shot down by ground @-@ fire . It is unknown whether McCudden participated in these pioneering ventures .
On 21 January 1916 McCudden was awarded the Croix de guerre for gallantry . He travelled to Lillers to receive his award from General Joseph Joffre , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the French Army . His award aroused interest in McCudden , for on 23 January he was promoted to flight sergeant and twenty @-@ fours hours later he was ordered home to England to begin pilot training .
= = = Pilot training = = =
McCudden was based at Farnborough and began his training on 22 February 1916 . He started with a 20 @-@ minute flight in a Henry Farman pusher . McCudden had already flown 100 hours as a passenger with 25 different pilots including 46 hours as a regular observer since November 1915 and had much experience with his surroundings . His instructor was impressed with his grasp of the mechanics and theory . He practiced six landings and progressed to the more powerful Avro 504 as the last the Farman had been written off by another student .
On 9 April he was sent to Gosport and assigned to No. 41 Squadron RFC and made his first solo flight on 16 April in a Farman MF.7. Later that day he was awarded his Royal Aero Club certificate after completing four figure @-@ of @-@ eight turns , a glide from 1 @,@ 200 feet and a landing within forty yards of a selected mark . He completed 22 flights at Gosport , the longest a 50 @-@ minute flight to 7 @,@ 000 feet . On 29 April he was posted to the Central Flying School ( CFS ) at Upavon , near Salisbury Plain for advanced training , arriving on 1 May .
On 7 May he became the 107th non @-@ commissioned officer to receive his CFS certificate . He passed as Second Class Flier . He was good enough to be selected as an instructor and took his first pupil after having flown only nine hours of solo flight himself . Two of his pupils included the future ace and 56 Squadron colleague Geoffrey Hilton Bowman and Mick Mannock . Soon afterwards , while teaching a student in the Airco DH.1 in which they were flying , the aircraft entered a dangerous spin . McCudden narrowly avoided a crash , pulling up feet above the ground . An impact would certainly have killed them both .
On 30 May he was graded First Class Flier . The grade was based upon his achievements ; he had achieved a dead @-@ stick landing within a fifty @-@ yard marker , a 15 @-@ minute flight at 6 @,@ 000 feet , a 60 @-@ mile cross @-@ country flight and 15 hours solo flying . On 24 May he passed his final test with a two @-@ hour flight from Salisbury , to Southampton and onto Basingstoke . His 74 hours flying experience was well above the minimum . By the time he left for France in June he had accumulated 121 flying hours , given 177 lessons as instructor , and had personally tutored 40 student pilots .
= = = Back at the frontline = = =
McCudden joined No. 20 Squadron on 8 July 1916 . The unit was equipped with Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and flew from Clairmarais , near Saint @-@ Omer . He flew his first operational sortie two days later and continued as the Battle of the Somme raged . The Squadron was ordered to intercept and shoot down German reconnaissance aircraft . He patrolled the Ypres and Roulers region . He did not spot any enemy reconnaissance machines but did come into contact with a single Fokker near Lille . Flying in formation , the British were well placed to deal with lone German fighters since they could use their gunners to form a formidable defence screen . This particular German would climb above the British , make a diving attack at the rear @-@ most aircraft and dive away if he did not score a decisive hit . Two days later McCudden ran out of fuel in the Lille district . Disorientated because of heavy mist , he force @-@ landed in Allied territory , crashing and coming to halt in the garden of a French farmhouse . Little damage was done to the machine . On 2 August he took part in an operation to bomb the Zeppelin sheds at Brussels . The flight was unmolested , though the familiar lone Fokker made an appearance and then withdrew without attacking .
That same evening McCudden was told to pack his belongings since he was to be reassigned to 29 Squadron RFC flying Airco DH.2 scouts . McCudden was pleased to be flying scouts , finding it " light after flying the F.E. " McCudden soon found from pilots that the machine was not popular and had to be handled with care . Nevertheless , while on patrol between Armentières and Ypres on 6 September 1916 he scored his first victory . He engaged an all @-@ white Albatros B.II , and shot it down . He then chased another but it escaped through superior speed . Confirmation of his victory was given three days later by an I ANZAC Corps unit . It had crashed on the Gheluve @-@ Mennin road at the time and place of his claim . McCudden nearly added to this score the following day . He engaged a Fokker monoplane but his gun jammed . Switching off his engine , he rectified the damage but the Fokker pilot took the opportunity to pursue him . Restarting his engine as the German closed , McCudden outmanoeuvred him and was presented with a close @-@ astern shot , but once again his gun jammed and the battle ended inconclusively when the faster Fokker dived away .
McCudden did not score again during the year but had a remarkable escape on 27 December 1916 . Flying from Arras to Monchy on patrol , his flight of six DH.2s engaged an enemy formation of Albatros D.IIs. McCudden rushed to the aid of Alexander James , a member of his flight , who had been attacked by a German fighter . He attacked the Albatros head @-@ on but his gun jammed after 20 shots . As he fought to clear the jam he found himself amid a number of German fighters .
One soon latched onto him and began firing . McCudden dived steeply but the enemy pilot remained behind him . At 800 feet McCudden began a spinning dive until the German , now some distance behind , abruptly turned away . The enemy aircraft was fired at by British ground forces and McCudden , who by now had unjammed his Lewis machine gun , turned to give pursuit . The enemy pilot , apparently unaware of this , was already too high and McCudden watched as he re @-@ joined his flight and departed the area .
McCudden returned to base ; in spite of his narrow escape his machine had not been hit . His squadron mates were surprised to see him ; they had witnessed his dive , assumed the spin to be terminal , and were in the process of posting him missing in action . It has been suggested that the enemy pilot was none other than Manfred von Richthofen , " The Red Baron " , in which case McCudden had narrowly avoided becoming the rising star 's 15th victim . Richthofen was credited with a " two seat Vickers biplane " that afternoon , which has usually been listed as the F.E.2b of Captain Quested and Lieutenant Dicksee , but recent research indicates that the action with McCudden may fit the time frame .
1916 ended on a personal high for McCudden . He received his commission on 28 December which came into effect on 1 January 1917 . He was granted two weeks leave and returned to England . As a second lieutenant , McCudden returned to France on 21 January . He was determined to build up his personal tally despite the limitations of his DH.2. The very same day he was forced down for the first and only time . He attacked a Albatros D.III and damaged its engine which stopped . Unfortunately another attacked and he was forced to break off a certain kill when one of his propeller blades was partly shot off . Another DH.2 intervened and McCudden landed near Arras , ordered a new propeller , and flew back to base . Since no member witnessed the fate of the Albatros no claim was made .
McCudden 's fortunes changed in the new year . He dispatched a two @-@ seater on 26 January and another on 2 February 1917 . On 5 February he attacked a Albatros C.III returning from a photo @-@ reconnaissance mission . Diving out of the sun to blind the gunner , he shot it down over the frontline where it was shelled by British artillery . Ten days later he engaged an Albatros escorted by a LFG Roland C.II. After a brief dogfight and pursuit , the Albatros escaped but he destroyed the Roland which crashed near Monchy . Twenty @-@ four hours later McCudden was awarded the Military Cross for his fifth victory . His award was eventually Gazetted on 12 March .
= = = Return to England = = =
He returned to England on 23 February and was appointed an instructor once more . He was slightly aggrieved as he felt he was now getting into his stride as a fighter pilot . He had also been hopeful that his squadron was about to receive the French @-@ designed Nieuports , which were a better match for the Albatros and Halberstadt " D " class fighters than the obsolescent DH.2. His posting was not surprising to him . The beginning of 1917 witnessed an enormous expansion of the RFC and experienced tutors were required to train the mass of new students .
McCudden was posted to the 6th Training Wing at Maidstone until transferred to Dover on 15 April where he learned to fly the Bristol Scout . One of his aircraft was adorned with the name " Teddie " , which his fellow officers suspected was the name of a girlfriend — a blonde dancer , Ms Teddie O 'Neil . McCudden was notoriously private about this aspect of his life but it was suspected that he took her on unauthorised flights in the Scout since his log book recorded such escapades in April . He praised the qualities of his Scout even though he managed to survive two accidents in this aircraft on 29 April and 2 June . Concurrent with his tenure at Dover , his brother John also enrolled as a pilot pupil there . To avoid accusations of favouritism , he remained aloof from his brother which amused his senior officers who had guessed his intentions .
In late May and June he collected and experimented on a number of the new Sopwith Pups which began to reach British units in January . He was impressed with the aircraft 's agility and flew it often . During this period he met the now famous ace Albert Ball who advised him attack tactics against reconnaissance and bomber aircraft . Ball advised McCudden to fly underneath his target , in the blind spot of the observer , and angle his guns directly above then fire . McCudden was intrigued at the prospect and believed this offered a much better chance of shooting down an enemy aircraft . It is not clear if , or how often , McCudden implemented Ball 's advice in battle and how many of his victories were claimed that way . McCudden 's principal tactics did stress surprise and minimal risk .
It is known McCudden proved remarkably good at stalking tactics , which enabled him to get up underneath an opponent , pull down the wing gun and fire up into the German machine . The first the recipients would know of the attack was bullets coming up through the bottom of the fuselage of the aircraft , often causing death or injury , holing petrol tanks and crippling engines . The gun , being fed by a drum of ammunition , could also be reloaded in its pulled @-@ down position , the pilot having two or more spare drums located in his cockpit .
This conversation coincided with the Gotha Raids in which German heavy bombers attacked London . He attempted interceptions against the high @-@ flying machines and on 13 June finally got to within range of one . He fired but it swerved and resumed course . He chased the formation 21 miles out to sea but could not get closer than 500 feet . On 7 July he succeeded in hitting the Gotha crewed by Leutnant Erwin Kollberg and Walter Aschoff ( of bomber unit Bogohl 3 ) . He damaged a second and narrowly avoided a collision with the machine as he flew by . On one raid a Gotha gunner 's bullet struck his windshield . The raids continued and British aerial defences did not gain more than a handful of successes against the Gothas .
McCudden 's last activity worthy of note before his return to France was his meeting with Frank Barnwell and Harold Barnwell , chief engineers at Vickers Limited . McCudden and the brothers exchanged information on aircraft design and operations . McCudden understood more of the technique of flying and flight while the brothers gained a greater appreciation of the pilot 's perspective . After watching him fly the F.B.9 , the brothers were convinced of his skill and consequently McCudden was invited to fly a number of their products . Among these machines was the Vickers F.B.16. McCudden claimed to have reached 136 miles per hour ( mph ) in the aircraft describing it as a " nice bus " . Other pilots noted it was faster than the French SPAD and the S.E.5. On the strength of this evaluation Vickers approached the War Office for its use on the frontline . It was not selected for production . McCudden believed the inaccessibility of the engine was a main factor in its rejection .
= = = With 56 Squadron = = =
In June he joined No. 66 Squadron RFC at Aire , equipped with the Sopwith Pup . He undertook a refresher course but his tenure there was unremarkable . He was ordered to fly with the group rather than fly solo patrols . He flew 47 hours in 66 Squadron and 21 patrols . He encountered the enemy six times but could not score . Finally on 21 and 26 July he shot down one Albatros D.V fighter for his 6 – 7th aerial victories .
He flew 13 different Pups while with the unit which meant he returned across the English Channel to collect new aircraft frequently . While collecting one from Rochester , England on 12 August 1917 a Gotha raid occurred and within 30 minutes he was flying at 17 @,@ 000 feet over Herne Bay in an attempt to intercept them . Once more , he returned without success against the high @-@ flying and ever elusive Gothas . After landing from the sortie he was informed he was to be transferred to the recently formed No. 56 Squadron which was winning a reputation as a very successful unit over the Western Front . The unit was equipped with the Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 ( S.E.5a ) fighters which were among the most effective combat aircraft of the war and arguably the best designed British fighter of the conflict . It was heavily armed and very fast for its time .
Along with the new fighter McCudden was eager to fly was the company he would be flying with . Albert Ball ( 44 victories ) , rising star Arthur Rhys @-@ Davids ( 27 ) and McCudden 's former pupil Geoffrey Hilton Bowman ( 32 ) were just some of the fighter aces who flew with the unit . Though Ball was killed in May 1917 , he would fly and fight alongside Rhys @-@ Davids , Bowman , Richard Maybery , Reginald Hoidge and Keith Muspratt .
This competitive group would spur McCudden to increase his score . 56 's commanding officer , Major Richard Bloomfield noticed McCudden 's leadership qualities and had hoped he could help turn the unit into an effective fighting team . At present the pilots , though talented , performed more as individuals . After flying for the first time with them Bloomfield promised to have him allocated to a position of Flight Commander . He formally took command of B flight on 14 August .
McCudden brought his substantial technical knowledge to 56 Squadron . He frequently inspected his flight 's aircraft , expecting a high standard of mechanical refinement . He believed the finer the aircraft could be tuned the less likelihood there would be of losing pilots to structural or mechanical failures , which at that time were the cause of many fatalities among aircrew . Force @-@ landings were rarely fatal owing to the low @-@ landing speeds but the prospect of coming down behind enemy lines — especially since the RFC was adopting an offensive stance — was an undesirable prospect . Alex J. Gray , Air Mechanic First Class , 56 Squadron :
When McCudden came to No. 56 he certainly kept us on our toes to begin with . In the first few weeks he tried out just about every fitter in the flight , and none of them seemed to please him . Finally Corporal Tom Rogers and myself were detailed as his fitters and Corporal Bert Card as the rigger , and from that day on we formed a great friendship with him .
= = = Victories 8 – 57 = = =
On the 31 July the Third Battle of Ypres began and the unit was heavily involved . 56 was tasked with air superiority operations to allow RFC bomber and reconnaissance units to operate with relative freedom . The Germans had adopted a defensive stratagem of massing their aircraft , now increasingly outnumbered , at critical points of the front . Their units were also a collection of highly successful aces . The S.E.5s engaged in battle with the German fighters throughout the summer .
On 18 August 1917 McCudden scored his first victory as an official member of 56 Squadron over an Albatros D.V. Another the following day and two on 20 August raised his tally from 7 to 11 victories . He was pleased with his success but berated the armourers for the frequent gun @-@ stoppages . Over the next four weeks his machine suffered engine difficulties and gun @-@ jams . He could only claim damaged enemy aircraft and once suffered a galling experience when the DFW C.V reconnaissance he was attacking holed his engine while his guns jammed . It had to be sent for major repairs . He received a new fighter , B4863 , which then became his regular mount .
McCudden was determined his machine would remain in first @-@ class fighting order . He spent three days working with his fitters and armourers , stripping down the Vickers gun 's synchronising gear , firing at the butts and making eight test flights shooting at ground targets . His armourers joked that his guns would never work in the air if he wore them out on the ground . He continued to experience jams and his unclaimed victim of 14 September 1917 — Ernst Wiegand — was able to escape and crash @-@ land wounded in German territory thanks to another stoppage . Since his crash was not witnessed his claim went uncredited .
On 19 September he attacked a Rumpler C.IV which he drove down to 1 @,@ 000 feet and saw camera and photographic plates fall from the machine as it took violent evasive action . He abandoned the chase and spotted another . This time he attacked from the sun and from behind and below . His Lewis gun stopped after one round but his Vickers fired 60 rounds and the Rumpler crashed behind enemy lines . Other pilots and gunners on the line confirmed the kill . A DFW C.V followed on 23 September — his 13th victory .
After this victory his flight engaged a Fokker Dr.I flown by the 48 @-@ victory ace Werner Voss and an Albatros piloted by Carl Menckhoff . Voss , aided by the frequent jams of his opponents ' guns , avoided being hit and drove two S.E.5 's out of the fight before being fatally hit by Rhys @-@ Davids . McCudden 's account of this fight has become famous :
He was very low ... still being engaged by an SE ... the pilot being Rhys @-@ Davids . I noticed the triplane 's movements were very erratic ... I saw him go into a steep dive ... and then saw the triplane hit the ground and disappear into a thousand fragments .
As long as I live I shall never forget my admiration for that German pilot , who single @-@ handed fought seven of us for ten minutes and also put some bullets through all our machines . His flying was wonderful , his courage magnificent , and in my opinion he was the bravest German airman whom it has been my privilege to see fight .
Over the course of September and October McCudden added five victories including a LVG C.V on 26 September , raising his tally from 13 to 18 . On 6 October he was awarded the Bar to his Military Cross . Another five in November brought his tally to 23 . His method of diving behind and under the enemy machines before firing was working particularly well .
In December he downed another 14 enemies for victory numbers 24 – 37 including several during the Battle of Cambrai . His successes included four on 23 December , three on 28th and two on the 29th . In December 1917 he received the Distinguished Service Order and a Bar He received two congratulatory messages from AOC RFC Hugh Trenchard on 6 and 12 December :
Well done . You are splendid . Your work lately has been of the finest .
McCudden had hardened to the realities of aerial combat by this time and reveled in his own success . He appeared to have limited empathy for his opponents , most of whom did not survive his attacks . On 24 January , after claiming his 43rd air victory , he remarked :
This D.F.W crew deserved to die , because they had no notion whatever of how to defend themselves , which showed that during their training they must have been slack , and lazy , and probably liked going to Berlin too often instead of sticking to their training and learning as much as they could while they had the opportunity . I had no sympathy for those fellows , and that it the mental estimate which I formed of them while flying back to my aerodrome to report the destruction of my 43rd aerial victory .
McCudden was now closing in on the tally of Albert Ball who was credited with 44 enemy aircraft . A further nine in January 1918 elevated his tally from 37 to 46 . In February , 11 aircraft brought his tally to 57 — four fell on the 16th . After achieving his 57th he probably downed a 58th — a Hannover CL.III — but it went down over enemy lines under control as McCudden 's guns seized having already fired 300 rounds at his first victim .
By this stage McCudden was suffering from combat fatigue . It manifested itself in his decisions , of late , to seek a victory at any price , which was alien to his normal , calculated approach to combat . Knowing he was to soon be sent home , he was obsessed with catching up to von Richthofen 's score . His contribution to 56 Squadron at this time was impressive ; the unit had claimed 175 enemy aircraft while reporting 14 pilots killed and missing and seven captured . As Flight Commander , B Flight , McCudden 's pilots had shot down 77 – 52 of which were his — while losing four pilots . To celebrate his success he dined with Brigadier general John Frederick Andrews Higgins and the following evening was invited to the headquarters of General Julian Byng , commanding officer of the British Third Army to be personally congratulated .
McCudden was soon rotated home on 5 March . Over 50 Officers gathered for a formal farewell dinner and they presented him with a silver model of his S.E.5A on 4 March . McCudden would not see action again . In the remaining eight months of the war , only British pilots Billy Bishop ( 72 ) and Mick Mannock ( 61 ) and Raymond Collishaw ( 60 ) would surpass his total while serving with the RFC ( and later the Royal Air Force — RAF ) . Ernst Udet ( 62 ) René Fonck ( 75 ) and Manfred von Richthofen ( 80 ) were the only foreign pilots to beat McCudden 's total .
= = = Modified S.E.5a = = =
McCudden 's long @-@ term interest in mechanics prompted him to modify his own aircraft to increase combat performance . He made a series of modifications to his aircraft which caused them to excel in performance in comparison to any other S.E.5 at the front and perhaps any other German fighter available at the time . Performance , a generic term , required improvements in all @-@ round capability . McCudden 's changes were made with one main objective in mind : high @-@ altitude performance . He had achieved some success without these personal experiments . On 23 December 1917 , for example , he intercepted an enemy aircraft at 18 @,@ 000 feet and drove it down to 8 @,@ 000 feet before shooting it down for his 30th victory . Incidentally , he was nearly killed in action when one of the wings broke away from his victim and nearly struck his own aircraft .
McCudden had always found it difficult to intercept high @-@ flying German reconnaissance aircraft . The latest Rumpler C.VII which had entered service proved particularly elusive . With a 240 horse power engine , it could reach 24 @,@ 000 feet and was thus beyond the reach of any prospective adversary . The average S.E.5 , at that point , could reach only 17 @,@ 000 feet . While most pilots were prepared to accept this tactical @-@ technological situation , McCudden was not .
Through an as yet unspecified channel , he obtained high compression pistons used in the latest Hispano @-@ Suiza 8 or V8 engine and fitted them to his power plant . It delivered revolutions at a much faster rate on the test bench . He removed any excess weight by shortening the exhaust pipes by several feet . He also added a spinner from a captured enemy aircraft which he believed added an extra 3 mph to his speed while also reducing the wing dihedral to increase agility .
A final alteration was to fit a simpler shutter ( radiator vent ) which had the object of warming the cockpit by directing heat from the engine . For McCudden this aspect was very important . At high altitude McCudden was to spend long periods of time in an extremely chilly environment . Operating the D.H.2 in 1916 , he suffered terrible agonies as adequate blood circulation returned to his muscles once he reached terra firma . McCudden reported few general side @-@ effects from high flight . Dizziness was a feature but he put this down to the cold rather than any form of anoxia . High altitude oxygen was too thin for humans which induced breathlessness . Aviation medicine was still in its infancy meaning pilots were left to solve operational problems themselves . Only the high @-@ altitude bombers were equipped with oxygen equipment to assist with breathing . Despite his circulation difficulties , McCudden proved remarkably resistant to the effects of high altitude flying without oxygen .
The results of these personal modifications mostly went unrecorded . It is believed he achieved a height of 10 @,@ 000 feet in nine minutes , curtailing the standard time by some five minutes . It was perhaps on exaggeration but no record remains to certify what McCudden did . He did note the maximum ground @-@ level speed as 135 mph in his log book . He achieved these feats with the limited resources of a front @-@ line squadron and without any official assistance .
Eager to test the modifications , he began operations on 28 January 1918 . Until the 16 February when 8491 was submitted for repair , he claimed his 45 – 50th aerial victories , the last at 11 : 30 on that date . His last victory that day was scored in another machine .
= = = War hero = = =
Unlike the German and French governments , the War Office had been reluctant to identify individual soldiers and aces for propaganda and public consumption , the most notable exception being Albert Ball . However , from December 1917 Viscount Northcliffe , the proprietor of the Daily Mail newspaper was appointed to the Ministry of Information . Northcliffe had a solid background in aviation . He campaigned for " air mindedness " , when aircraft began to make technological headway and the nation , now facing the existence and efficiency of airships which could circumvent the North Sea and English Channel , was now increasingly concerned about aerial bombardment . Northcliffe supported the creation of the Air League and the Aerial League of the British Empire , a pressure group designed to impress upon a lethargic government the promising and threatening nature of aerial vehicles .
As head of the Ministry and Daily Mail , he felt an opportunity was being missed , and so ran a campaign in his publications to name outstanding individual combatants . On 3 January 1918 he ran a story in the Daily Mail under the headline " Our Unknown Air Heroes " , which focused primarily on McCudden . In the front page segment it read :
What I want to know is why an Englishman whose hobby is bringing down sky Huns in braces and trios between luncheon and tea , who can already claim a bag of 30 enemy aircraft , should have to wait and be killed before a grateful nation waiting to acclaim him could even learn his name ?
I wonder if people in England realize that the German Air Service is the most popular and feted branch of the Kaiser 's war machine because German authorities have imagination enough to exploit its personal side ? How many people in these islands can name as many British airmen there are fingers on one hand ?
The campaign was an instant success . The Daily Chronicle echoed these sentiments with " Young Lionheart of the Air " . On 7 January the Daily Mail ran the story " Our Wonderful Airmen — Their names at Last . " The article was accompanied by a large photograph of McCudden and other pilots . Thereafter exploits of British airmen were routinely published . McCudden loathed the attention . In a letter to his father the following day he believed such " bosh " and hero worship would make him an unpopular figure in the RFC and with his comrades .
He was thankful to be posted to the No. 1 School of Aerial Fighting at Ayr in Scotland , where he flew the excellent performing Sopwith Snipe . It was in Scotland that he learned of the death of his brother , apparently shot down by the German ace Hans Wolff on 19 March . He wrote to his brother 's commanding officer , Sholto Douglas asking for any news but understanding the Major 's attention was now fixed on the German Spring Offensive . His death depressed McCudden greatly .
The same month he returned home , he was awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry . The letter from Trenchard confirming the King had bestowed this honour upon him was dated 30 March 1918 . The award was gazetted on 29 March and the details were published on 2 April 1918 . Shying away from this publicity , McCudden did not even tell his family of his attendance at Buckingham Palace on 6 April to receive his Victoria Cross from King George V and promotion to Major . While on leave in London , he socialised a great deal with his friend Mick Mannock . He met C. G. Grey owner of The Aeroplane weeks later who offered to help McCudden finish his manuscript for his biography , Flying Fury , due for publication that year . McCudden accepted . Now famous , he also had his portrait painted by the known artist William Orpen .
= = Death = =
McCudden remained in England until July 1918 when he was given command of No. 60 Squadron RAF . He flew to Farnborough in a Vickers F.B.16 to collect his new Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a before returning to France to lead his new Squadron . On 3 July he flew back in this fighter and over his home in Kingston upon Thames , taking the aircraft to 17 @,@ 000 feet and circling London for an hour . When he landed he made his last entry into his log book . His total flying time had reached 872 hours and 40 minutes .
On the morning of 9 July 1918 he travelled to the home of his fiancé , Miss Alex @-@ Tweedie in Whitehall Court . Tweedie recalled their conversation revolved around his new posting and his book . He had delivered the manuscript to Mr Grey two days earlier and was expecting its publication . While there , McCudden promised to surpass von Richthofen who had been killed in action on 21 April 1918 . In view of what happened to von Richthofen , and John McCudden , he promised that " I won 't bustle , or do anything foolish like my brother . " He then went next door and had breakfast with his sister Mary . Upon leaving , he fumbled around in his pocket and handed her a bulky envelope containing his Victoria Cross and other decorations . He took his leave of her and drove to Hounslow where he climbed into his S.E.5a ( C1126 ) . He took off shortly after 13 : 00 . McCudden certainly stopped en route , as about six o 'clock that afternoon he called the AOC No. 13 Wing , Patrick Playfair , to announce his imminent arrival at Boffles , where No. 60 Squadron was stationed .
McCudden set out across the English Channel . Unsure of the dispositions on the ground after the German advance he checked the airfield he suspected to be Boffles but found it empty . Flying in heavy mist he decided to head to Auxi @-@ le @-@ Château , France , to get directions from the RAF personnel stationed there . He approached Corporal W.H. Burdett and L. E Vallins of 52 Squadron . Burdett had served with McCudden in 3 Squadron back in 1915 . Burdett did not recognise him in his flying gear . They marked his map and McCudden returned to his machine . Around 90 seconds after takeoff from Auxi @-@ le @-@ Château , the S.E.5a plunged into the ground . 8 Squadron 's Corporal W.H. Howard was on the scene within minutes and fought through the fire to free McCudden who was lying next to one of the wings — he had not worn his safety belt . Burdett followed and recognised the pilot as soon as his headgear had been removed . He was taken to No. 21 Casualty clearing station and diagnosed with a fractured skull . He did not regain consciousness and died at 20 : 00 .
Corporal Burdett later stated , " When McCudden took off he put the machine into a nearly vertical climb , seemed to do a half @-@ roll and then nosed dived into a wood ..... it was usual for scout pilots to perform some little stunt ..... I think that is what he was doing . " Witness Lieutenant L.M Fenton had a different view , " the aircraft took off into wind and at about 100 feet did a vertical turn and flew back across the aerodrome by the side of the wood . The engine appeared to be running badly . The pilot rolled the machine , which failed to straighten out , at approximately 200 feet . It crashed nose down into the wood . " Lieutenant E.M Greenwood stated he thought the crash was the result of a failed aerobatic manoeuvre : " I was watching an S.E.5 flying over the aerodrome at about 200 feet , when it did one complete roll to the right , then dived steeply to the ground behind the trees . " Lieutenant K.V King believed a similar thing : [ It flew ] " ...... very low over the aerodrome , going east towards the wood on the south @-@ east side of the aerodrome . He had apparently been rolling . I saw him nose down and engine off entering the trees and immediately afterwards heard a crash . " Lieutenant T.H Barry , though supports the notion that something was amiss with the engine : " I saw an S.E.5 flying from west to east across the aerodrome at 200 – 300 feet . The engine was firing irregularly . Just after crossing the end of the aerodrome the pilot did a sharp stalling turn . The nose dropped and it dived behind the trees . During this dive the noise of the engine ceased . "
Usually reports were issued on any incident with every aircraft . On the date McCudden died , 29 such returns exist for S.E.5s but the report pertaining to his accident is not among them leaving the official cause of the crash unexplained . It is possible the engine failed due to a wrongly installed carburettor . However , there is some doubt as to whether a mechanical defect was the culprit . The witnesses reported the pilot was attempting low @-@ level stunts , manifesting in several turns and rolls . Many years later other witnesses disputed the aircraft performed a roll , but all agreed the trouble began when the machine entered an attitude resembling a near @-@ vertical turn .
McCudden 's remains were subsequently buried at the nearby Wavans war cemetery in the Pas de Calais . McCudden 's death occurred only two months after the death of German ace Manfred von Richthofen , whom some commented had been honoured with a longer and more elaborate funeral by the British . McCudden 's wartime score was 57 victories included 19 captured , 27 and 1 shared destroyed , 8 and 2 shared " down out of control " — an official classification which still counted the claim as a victory .
= = Relics and Memorial = =
On the morning of 9 July , McCudden had handed his sister an envelope over breakfast , which was subsequently found to contain all of his medals . Today all of McCudden 's medals including his Victoria Cross are displayed at the Royal Engineers Museum in Gillingham , Kent , alongside those of two of his brothers and his father . The original brass engraved grave plaque used , along with a wooden propeller , are also displayed . The shattered windscreen from McCudden 's crashed S.E.5a is preserved in the collection of the Imperial War Museum . The museum 's collections also include McCudden 's uniform ' maternity jacket ' and a half @-@ length portrait of McCudden by William Orpen . In March 2009 , McCudden and his contemporary Edward Mannock , were the subjects of the BBC Timewatch episode , WWI Aces Falling .
= = List of victories = =
A complete list of the 58 claims by McCudden and the 57 credited to him .
|
= Cry ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Cry " is a song recorded by American recording artist Michael Jackson that features on his tenth and final studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . The song was written by R & B singer @-@ songwriter R. Kelly , who had previously written Jackson 's 1995 single " You Are Not Alone " . " Cry " was produced by Jackson and Kelly . It was released in December 2001 under Epic Records as the second single from Invincible . " Cry " is a R & B ballad , with lyrics that highlight problems with the planet . The lyrics also urge people to unite to make the world a better place . The track , thus , recalls previous Jackson songs that promote peace and environmentalism .
The song was released with two B @-@ side tracks ; " Shout " and " Streetwalker " . " Cry " received mixed reviews from music critics . The single had a moderate chart performance internationally , with its highest peak being number sixteen in Denmark , and its least successful charting country being Austria . The track was promoted with a music video , which was filmed by Nicholas Brandt . The video does not feature Jackson but shows people holding hands and standing side by side in a variety of settings , including a beach and a forest .
= = Background = =
" Cry " was recorded by American singer Michael Jackson for his tenth and final studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . The song was written by R & B singer @-@ songwriter R. Kelly , who had previously worked with Jackson on his 1995 single , " You Are Not Alone ; " Jackson and Kelly 's collaboration on " Cry " is the second of what would be three collaborations . The track was produced by Jackson and Kelly . Outside of the United States , the song was released in December 2001 as the second single from Invincible , under Epic Records . The single was released with two B @-@ side tracks , " Shout " and " Streetwalker " . " Shout " was a previously unreleased song that was originally intended for Invincible , but was replaced at the last moment by " You Are My Life " . " Streetwalker " had previously appeared as a track on the 2001 special edition of Jackson 's seventh studio album , Bad .
= = Composition = =
The themes of " Cry " are world issues such as isolation , war , and brotherhood . It also suggests if everyone pulls together as one , then they make a change to the world , with Jackson singing , " You can change the world / I can 't do it by myself " . Music critic Mark Brown of Rocky Mountain News felt that Jackson cries the lyrics " I can 't do it by myself " . The song 's lyrics and themes are similar to the ones in Jackson 's 1988 single " Man in the Mirror " and his 1991 single " Heal the World " . " Cry " is composed in the key of A major and the song 's time signature is common time . " Cry " has a moderate metronome of eighty four beats per minute . The single is built in the chord progression of A – G / A – A – A / G in the verses and A – A / G – D – A in the chorus . The sheet music indicates the vocal range spans A3 to G5 .
= = Critical reception = =
Jason Elias of Allmusic thinks " Cry " is a moody and reflective piece of material reminiscent of Jackson 's Quincy Jones @-@ produced ballads for Bad , and indicates the song 's themes are those of alienation and sorrow rather than love . He believes the strength of the strings , the competent backing vocals , and the keyboard figures prevent the listener from convulsing with laughter at Jackson 's " oh @-@ so @-@ pained delivery " and interjections of " Hold on " or " Oh my ! " Jon Pareles of the New York Times called the track the " change @-@ the @-@ world @-@ song " and wrote that the single " applies its grand buildup to one of pop 's strangest utopian schemes , " which was asking everyone to cry at the same time , at which point Jackson may answer their prayers . Catherine Halaby of Yale Daily News felt that the song is a " less triumphant use of a contemporary 's input " on the album .
NME music critic Mark Beaumont believed that Jackson " starts banging creepily on about " the lyrics which pertain to saving the children . Frank Kogan of the Village Voice noted that while " Cry " and another song from Invincible ( " Speechless " ) are " very pretty " , they give the impression that Jackson 's " standing sideways , so as to let the beauty slide off him . " Los Angeles Times staff writer Robert Hilburn wrote that the track " fills the social commentary role " of Jackson 's " Man in the Mirror " ( 1988 ) , while Hartford Courant rock music critic Roger Catlin believed that the single is a redux to Jackson 's " Heal the World " ( 1991 ) . Newsday staff writer Glenn Gamboa said that the song was " equally average " to other tracks on Invincible . James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that R. Kelly " more or less succeeds with the kind of life affirming number " on the single .
Jim Farber of New York 's Daily News wrote that in " Cry " , Jackson " goes into his healing @-@ the @-@ world shtick , though rarely has he been this condescending about his role as universal savior . " Chicago Tribune rock music critics Greg Kot believed that R. Kelly " reprises the formula of his big gospel @-@ stoked anthem " ( " I Believe I Can Fly " ) on the track . A journalist for The Wichita Eagle wrote that Jackson " shines on the sincere ballads " such as " Cry " , " Heartbreaker " and " Speechless " . Pop music critic Thor Christensen of the Dallas Morning News described the single as being the musician 's " latest batch of inspirational cotton candy . " Francisco Cangiano of University Wire noted that the overall good songs from Invincible are " Heartbreaker , " " Cry " and " Speechless . " Pamela Davis and Gina Vininetto of St. Petersburg Times called the song " hubris- filled " and said that it was full of Jackson 's " freaky messiah @-@ savior complex . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Cry " was released as a single outside of the United States , but it had been charted at the bottom of Billboard music charts for 3 weeks within the country , which peaked at number one at Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles . Unlike previous singles released from Invincible that charted internationally , " Cry " was a moderate commercial success worldwide . " Cry " debuted at number twenty five , its peak position , on December 22 , 2001 , on the UK Singles Chart . The single remained on the country 's chart for four consecutive weeks from December 2001 to January 2002 , before falling out of the top 100 positions . The track debuted at number thirty seven on December 12 , and peaked at number thirty in the succeeding week on the French Singles Chart . The song debuted at its peak position , number forty three , on December 12 , on the Australian Singles Chart . It only remained on the country 's chart for one week . " Cry " did not chart on Belgian Tip Singles Chart , but did chart on the Belgian Wallonia music chart , debuting at number thirty seven on December 15 , and peaking at number thirty one on January 12 , 2002 .
" Cry " charted on the Swedish Singles Chart for five consecutive weeks . Having debuted at number fifty on December 21 , and peaked at number forty eight the following week . The single spent the next four weeks fluctuating down the chart . The track peaked at number forty two on the Swiss Singles Chart , and remained on the country 's chart for six weeks . The single 's most commercially successful charting territory was Denmark . Although the track only remained on the singles chart for one week , it managed to chart within the top 20 , peaking at number sixteen . The single 's least successful chart territory was Austria . Having debuted on the country 's singles chart at its peak position , number sixty five on December 16 , in the succeeding week the track charted at number seventy one and fell out of the top 100 positions the following week . Regarding the song 's chart performance , Halstead and Cadman wrote that it was a " setback for sure , but not a major one " for Jackson .
= = Music video = =
" Cry " was promoted by a music video , or " short film , " as Jackson would refer to it . The video was directed by Nicholas Brandt , who had previously directed " Earth Song " ( 1995 ) , " Childhood " ( 1995 ) and " Stranger in Moscow " ( 1996 ) , all of which were featured on Jackson 's HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I album . The video was filmed in six different locations , five of which were in California and another in Nevada . People featured in the video included members of a real life gospel group . The video begins with dozens of people of different ages , ethnicities and races holding hands . Long lines of people were stretched over mountains , across highways , in a forest and on the beach . Everyone stands in silence for a majority of the video . Following the bridge , everyone begins singing the chorus . Towards the final chorus , the group collectively clap their hands along with the song , taking hands once more as the song ends .
" Cry " is the only Michael Jackson video to be included on an enhanced CD of the single .
" Cry " was issued as a single against Jackson 's original intentions to release " Unbreakable . " ( The same situation applied with the release of " You Rock My World " months prior . ) Due to his dissatisfaction with the way Sony was handling the album 's promotion , he refused to appear in the music video for " Cry " . Craig Halstead and Chris Cadman , authors of the book Michael Jackson : The Solo Years , believe that Jackson 's absence from the video " did little to promote it . "
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Written and composed by R. Kelly
Produced by Michael Jackson and R. Kelly
Lead vocal by Michael Jackson
Percussion by Paulinho Da Costa
Keyboard and drum programming by Michael Jackson and Brad Buxer
Choir arrangement by R. Kelly
Drums by John " JR " Robinson
Guitars by Michael Landau
Recorded by Mike Ging , Bad Gilderman and Humberto Gatica
Mixed by Michael Jackson and Mick Guzauski
= = Charts = =
|
= 1991 FA Charity Shield =
The 1991 FA Charity Shield ( also known as the Tennent 's Charity Shield for sponsorship reasons ) was the 69th FA Charity Shield , the annual football match contested by the reigning champions of the Football League First Division and the holders of the FA Cup . It was held at Wembley Stadium , on 10 August 1991 . The game was played between Arsenal , champions of the 1990 – 91 Football League and Tottenham Hotspur , who beat Nottingham Forest to win the 1991 FA Cup Final . This was Arsenal 's twelfth Charity Shield appearance and Tottenham Hotspur 's sixth .
Arsenal began the match the brighter of the two teams , dominating in possession and the number of chances created . Tottenham created their best chance to score in the first half , but struggled to find a breakthrough in the second half , hardly troubling the Arsenal defence . With neither team able to score after 90 minutes , the match ended in a draw , meaning each team held the trophy for six months each .
= = Background = =
Arsenal qualified for the 1991 FA Charity Shield , by virtue of winning the 1990 – 91 Football League First Division , having lost one match – away to Chelsea – in the entire campaign . This was the club 's eleventh Charity Shield appearance ; Arsenal won seven previous shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 , 1953 ) and lost four ( 1935 , 1936 , 1979 , 1989 ) previously . Tottenham Hotspur qualified as holders of the FA Cup , beating Nottingham Forest 2 – 1 in the 1991 FA Cup Final . They appeared in five previous shields , winning four outright ( 1921 , 1951 , 1961 , 1962 ) , sharing two ( 1967 , 1981 ) and losing two ( 1920 , 1982 ) .
The last meeting between both teams was in the FA Cup ; Tottenham Hotspur won 3 – 1 in the semi @-@ final at Wembley Stadium . Tottenham were the only league opponents to avoid defeat against Arsenal , with neither side scoring in the two matches played . Manager Peter Shreeves noted the importance of the match , given this was a North London derby , but stressed there " will be more important objectives this season . " This was the first all @-@ London encounter in the 83 @-@ year history of the Shield . This would be the last time either team was to share the trophy , as new regulations were brought in a year later that allowed for extra time and subsequently a penalty shootout if a draw occurred in normal time .
= = Match = =
Anders Limpar was the main absentee for Arsenal , having sustained a knee injury , on duty for the Swedish national team . David O 'Leary started in place of the injured Steve Bould ; midfielder David Hillier was selected ahead of Michael Thomas in Limpar 's place on the left wing . Tottenham defender Terry Fenwick , recovered from a double leg break , replaced Justin Edinburgh in the first eleven . Without Paul Gascoigne , injured in the FA Cup final , Tottenham employed a five @-@ man midfield with Gary Lineker as the sole striker .
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal began brightly in front of a crowd of 65 @,@ 483 , creating the first chance of the match in the 17th minute . Paul Davis set up striker Kevin Campbell , who hooked the ball high over goal . Four minutes later , Alan Smith headed the ball into the goal net , meeting a cross from Paul Merson ; it was ruled out by referee Terry Holbrook for offside . Tottenham improved shortly after , with Gary Mabbutt heading the ball directly at Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman to create their first chance of the match . Their best opportunity to score was in the 36th minute . Vinny Samways set up Gary Lineker to break past the Arsenal defence . Having nudged the ball past Tony Adams , Lineker looked up , before making a cross for Nayim to head ; the shot was acrobatically saved by Seaman 's right foot .
Early in the second half , Tottenham 's Pat van den Hauwe was cautioned by Holbrook for getting tangled with Arsenal 's David Rocastle , in spite Rocastle indicating that the player used an elbow – a bookable offence . Moments after , Rocastle was shown a yellow card for attempting to get his own back on Van Den Hauwe , by tackling the player without intent . Van Den Hauwe was later booked for a wild challenge on Lee Dixon . Arsenal dominated possession during the second half , with Tottenham infrequently troubling their opponent 's defence and relying on counterattacks to fashion goal @-@ scoring chances . Smith had a chance saved in the 75th minute by goalkeeper Erik Thorstvedt , when the ball was back @-@ passed across the penalty area by Steve Sedgley . In the final seconds of the match substitute Andrew Cole , who had replaced Campbell , shot from 20 yards and into the side @-@ netting .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Despite the draw , Shreeves was content with his team 's performance . He believed the new 4 – 5 – 1 formation deployed in the match was " the system which suits us best " , but admitted the midfield needed to do more to support Lineker upfront . Arsenal manager George Graham agreed that his team played below their usual standard in the first half , accepting that his team needed " to work on ... finishing " to make use of their territorial advantage .
|
= Mark Kellogg ( reporter ) =
Mark Kellogg ( March 31 , 1831 – June 25 , 1876 ) was a newspaper reporter killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn . Kellogg rode with George Armstrong Custer during the battle and was evidently one of the first men killed by the Sioux and Cheyenne . His dispatches were the only press coverage of Custer and his men in the days leading up to the battle . As a newspaper stringer whose reports were picked up around the country , Kellogg is considered the first Associated Press correspondent to die in the line of duty .
= = Life = =
Born Marcus Henry Kellogg on March 31 , 1831 , in Brighton , Ontario , Canada , Kellogg was the third of ten children . Kellogg 's family moved a number of times in his youth before they eventually settled in La Crosse , Wisconsin . While there Kellogg learned to operate a telegraph and went to work for both the Northwestern Telegraph Company and the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company .
He married Martha J. Robinson in 1861 and they had two daughters . During the years of the American Civil War , Kellogg became the assistant editor for the La Crosse Democrat newspaper . He also unsuccessfully ran for the office of city clerk in 1867 and played shortstop on one of the town 's baseball teams .
In 1867 Kellogg 's wife died . Leaving his daughters to be raised by an aunt , Kellogg began drifting around the upper Midwest , working as a reporter and editorial assistant in places such as Council Bluffs , Iowa , and Brainerd , Minnesota . While living in Brainerd he ran for election to the Minnesota Legislature , but was defeated . He also worked as a string correspondent for the St. Paul Dispatch , with his articles often published under the pen name of " Frontier . "
In the early 1870s , he moved to Bismarck , North Dakota , where in 1873 he helped editor Clement A. Lounsberry found The Bismarck Tribune . Even though Kellogg was only an editorial assistant for the paper , he substituted for Lounsberry as editor of the Tribune 's second , third and fourth issues .
= = Battle of the Little Bighorn = =
When Lounsberry learned that a military column ( including the 7th U.S. Cavalry Regiment commanded by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer ) would soon leave Fort Abraham Lincoln for the Montana Territory , he agreed to accompany Custer and provide news coverage . However , at the last minute Lounsberry 's wife fell ill , so the editor asked Kellogg to take his place . Lounsberry expected Kellogg would cover nothing more than a sensational military victory .
Kellogg sent three dispatches back to Lounsberry , the last one four days before the battle when they were near the mouth of the Rosebud River . His last dispatch read , " By the time this reaches you we would have met and fought the red devils , with what result remains to be seen . I go with Custer and will be at the death . " Kellogg was not predicting his own death or Custer 's defeat ; instead , " at the death " is a phrase borrowed from fox hunting meaning " present at the kill " ( viz . , of the pursued ) .
Four days after that dispatch , the Battle of the Little Bighorn was fought , resulting in the deaths of Custer and the 208 soldiers , scouts , and civilians riding with him , including Kellogg .
= = Aftermath = =
Colonel John Gibbon , whose men arrived at the battle on Tuesday , June 27 , and also helped bury the dead , said he found Kellogg 's body in a ravine where a number of men from Company E died . Kellogg 's body was scalped and missing an ear ; he was identified by the boots he wore .
When Clement Lounsberry learned of the defeat of Custer 's force and Kellogg 's death , he " worked tirelessly throughout the night " to produce a special edition of The Bismarck Tribune . Published on July 6 , 1876 , the article was the battle 's first full account . Lounsberry also telegraphed the news , including Kellogg 's correspondence , to a number of eastern newspapers , including the New York Herald . Two letters written by Kellogg were published posthumously by the Herald on July 11 , 1876 .
As a newspaper stringer whose reports were picked up around the country , Kellogg is considered the first Associated Press correspondent to die in the line of duty .
Some of Kellogg 's diary and notes survived the battle and these , along with his news accounts , are one of the primary historical sources for information on the days preceding the battle . His notes are now in the possession of the State Historical Society of North Dakota . His satchel , pencil , and eyeglasses are on display in the Newseum in Washington , DC .
|
= Robert Abbott ( game designer ) =
Robert Abbott ( born March 2 , 1933 ) is an American game inventor , sometimes referred to by fans as " The Official Grand Old Man of Card Games " . Though early in his life he worked as a computer programmer with the IBM 360 assembly language , he has been designing games since the 1950s .
Two of his more popular creations include the chess variant Baroque chess ( also known as Ultima ) and Crossings , which later became Epaminondas . Eleusis was also successful , appearing in several card game collections , such as Hoyle 's Rules of Games and New Rules for Classic Games , among others . In 1963 , Abbott himself released a publication , Abbott 's New Card Games , which included instructions for all of his card games , in addition to Baroque chess . Abbott also invented logic mazes , the first of which appeared in Martin Gardner 's Mathematical Games column in the October 1962 issue of Scientific American . One of the more prominent of these is Theseus and the Minotaur , which was originally published in the book Mad Mazes . His game Confusion was named " Best New Abstract Strategy Game " for 2012 by GAMES Magazine .
= = Biography = =
Abbott was born in St. Louis , Missouri , and attended St. Louis Country Day School . Abbott went to Yale for two years , then attended the University of Colorado for another two , but never graduated . Soon after , Abbott moved to New York , where he and his games were discovered by Martin Gardner . In 1963 , after Abbott 's book , Abbott 's New Card Games , received only moderate success , he " got tired of being poor " and moved back to St. Louis . There , he became a computer programmer at the Washington University Computer Research Laboratory . In 1965 , he moved back to New York , where he continued to work as a computer programmer , mostly with the IBM 360 assembly language .
Abbott created all of his card games during the 1950s , starting with Babel in 1951 , and ending with Auction in 1956 . Soon after , he moved to New York City , where the rules for his game Eleusis were first published by Martin Gardner in his Mathematical Games column . Motivated by the article , Abbott self @-@ published the rules for four of his card games in the book Four New Card Games in 1962 , which Abbott sold by mail . In 1963 , the book Abbott 's New Card Games was published by Sol Stein of Stein and Day , containing the rules for all eight of his card games and the rules for his chess variant , Baroque chess . In 1968 , the publisher Funk & Wagnalls published a paperback edition of Abbott 's New Card Games , in which Abbott slightly modified the rules of Baroque chess , but these changes never became popular . Around the same time that Abbott 's New Card Games was published , Abbott sent his maze , Traffic Maze in Floyd 's Knob , to Martin Gardner . This was the first logic maze to be published , appearing in Gardner 's Mathematical Games column .
Since then , Abbott has created various mazes , most of which appeared in the books SuperMazes and Mad Mazes . In 2008 , RBA Libros published a Spanish version of his book Abbott 's New Card Games , under the title Diez juegos que no se parecen a nada , which translates to Ten games that do not resemble anything . This version was not just a Spanish translation of the original , however ; the most up @-@ to @-@ date rules for the various games were used ; in addition , the rules for Eleusis Express and Confusion were included . In 2010 , his Where are the Cows ? maze was published by the Oxford University Press in the book Cows in the Maze . In 2011 , his game Confusion was published by Stronghold Games . The game was named " Best New Abstract Strategy Game " for 2012 by GAMES Magazine .
= = Logic mazes = =
Abbott is the inventor of a style of maze called logic mazes . A logic maze has a set of rules , ranging from the basic ( such as " you cannot make left turns " ) to the extremely complicated . These mazes are also called " Multi @-@ State mazes " . The reason for this name is that sometimes you can return to a position you were in before , but be traveling in a different direction . That change in direction can put you in a different state and open up different choices for you . One example , from the book SuperMazes , would be a rolling @-@ die maze . Where you can move from a particular square depends on what number is facing up on the die . If you return to that same square , the die may be in a different state , with a different number on top . Thus , you would have different options than the first time .
= = = Traffic Maze in Floyd 's Knob = = =
The first logic maze ever published , Traffic Maze in Floyd 's Knob , appeared in the October 1962 issue of Scientific American in the Mathematical Games column .
The maze looks like a street grid , with arrows pointing down various roads at each intersection . When one comes to an intersection , only arrows leading from the road you are on to another road can be followed . One must continue in this fashion , following the arrows at the intersection , until the end is reached . When you come to an intersection from one direction , you have different options for which road to take than you would coming into the intersection from another direction ; therefore , this can be defined as a " multi @-@ state " or " logic " maze .
= = = Where Are the Cows ? = = =
Where are the Cows ? is one of Abbott 's most difficult mazes . It first appeared in his book SuperMazes . Abbott warns readers that it " may be too difficult for anyone to solve . " Since then , it has also appeared as the titular maze in the book Cows in the Maze .
The complexity in Where are the Cows ? includes self @-@ reference , changing rules , and flow charts . It is also worded so as to provoke confusion between an object ( such as red text ) , a reference to an object ( such as the word " red " ) , and even more subtle references ( the word " word " ) . The maze ends up being so complicated that it can even be difficult to work out the next move , let alone the end . In this maze , you have to use two hands , each starting at a different place . The instructions in one box might have to do with the box that the other hand is in , boxes you have already left , or complex combinations of the two .
= = = Theseus and the Minotaur = = =
Theseus and the Minotaur is another of Abbott 's better @-@ known mazes . It first appeared in his book Mad Mazes . Like Where are the Cows ? in SuperMazes , Abbott says that this " is the hardest maze in the book ; in fact , it is possible that no one will solve it . " Since then , several different versions of it have appeared , made by others , following the same theme , both on paper and in electronic forms .
= = Games = =
Abbott has created several games , including card games , board games , and one equipment game . As a whole , his games are not of particular fame , although they have some unique elements that set them apart from mainstream games . For instance , the card game Metamorphosis is a complex trick @-@ taking game . As you play the game , the rules change three times , so it is as if you are playing four different games that are threaded together .
= = = Baroque chess = = =
Baroque chess , or Ultima , was the only board game in the book Abbott 's New Card Games . Abbott 's reasoning for including this non @-@ card game in a card game book was that chess pieces are as plentiful as playing cards , and in this book , he wanted to introduce new games that did not require special equipment . Abbott 's friends , once he started teaching it to them , began to call the game " Abbott 's Ultima , " which he did not like at all . However , the publisher , Sol Stein , preferred the name " Ultima , " so that is the title that was used in the book .
= = = Eleusis = = =
Eleusis is probably Abbott 's most prominent game , due to its metaphors and its suitability for use as a teaching tool . He invented it in 1956 , and it appeared in his self @-@ published book Four New Card Games . It was also published in the book Abbott 's New Card Games a year later . Martin Gardner wrote about it in his Mathematical Games column in the June 1959 issue of Scientific American . Basically , the gameplay consists of the dealer choosing a secret rule dictating how cards are to be played , and the players playing cards in an attempt to figure out the rule through inductive reasoning . In 1973 , Abbott decided to improve Eleusis ; the result was considered to be far better than the original , with various improvements to the layouts and gameplay making it work quite a bit better . Martin Gardner wrote about this version in the October 1977 issue of Scientific American . Abbott also self @-@ published a pamphlet in 1977 with the rules for the improved version , titled The New Eleusis . It has appeared in several card game collections , such as Hoyle 's Rules of Games and New Rules for Classic Games , among others .
= = = Confusion = = =
Abbott initially created the game Confusion in the 1970s , and had it in finished form by 1980 . The game was published in Germany by Franjos in 1992 ; Abbott was not satisfied with this version , however , due to several flaws in it . The rules were published in the Spanish translation of his book Abbott 's New Card Games in 2008 , but the game did not get published in North America until 2011 . This Stronghold Games version was named " Best New Abstract Strategy Game " for 2012 by GAMES Magazine . The game is based on the idea of not knowing what your pieces are or what they do at the beginning of the game . His game Eleusis uses a similar idea , in that you do not know how cards are to be played at the beginning ; George Brancaccio , someone Abbott worked with at the Bank of New York , commented on this , saying " In your game Eleusis , you don 't know what cards can be played . Why don 't you make a board game where you don 't know how pieces move ? " This is what gave Abbott the idea , and he began work on it soon after .
= = Published work = =
Four New Card Games ( 1962 )
Abbott 's New Card Games ( 1963 , again in paperback in 1968 )
The New Eleusis ( 1977 )
Mad Mazes ( 1990 )
SuperMazes ( 1997 )
Auction 2002 and Eleusis ( 2001 )
Diez juegos que no se parecen a nada [ Ten games that do not resemble anything ] ( 2008 , translated by Marc Figueras )
|
= Randall Flagg =
Randall Flagg is a fictional character created by Stephen King . Flagg has appeared in at least nine of King 's novels , either as a major or very minor character . He has a variety of names , usually initialed " R.F. " but with occasional exceptions , such as Walter o 'Dim ( originally envisioned by King as a separate character ) in The Dark Tower series . Flagg is described as " an accomplished sorcerer and a devoted servant of the Outer Dark " , with supernatural abilities involving necromancy , prophecy , and influence over animal and human behavior . His goals typically center on bringing down civilizations through destruction and conflict .
Flagg first appeared in The Stand as a demonic figure who wreaks havoc after a plague kills most of the population . He makes his second appearance in The Eyes of the Dragon as an evil wizard trying to plunge the fictional medieval city of Delain into chaos . Flagg was a primary antagonist in King 's epic series , The Dark Tower , who tries to keep protagonist Roland Deschain from reaching the Tower ( the linchpin of existence ) so he can claim it for himself and become a god . The Dark Tower expanded on Flagg 's background and motivation , linking his previous appearances . Aside from King 's novels , Flagg was featured in a television miniseries adaptation of The Stand ( played by Jamey Sheridan ) and appeared in Marvel Comics ' adaptations of The Dark Tower and The Stand .
King initially cited Donald DeFreeze , primary kidnapper of Patty Hearst , as his inspiration for Flagg . Later , he attributed Flagg to an image of a man walking the roads in cowboy boots , denim jeans , and a jacket , a notion which " came out of nowhere " when he was in college . Flagg 's character and the nature of his evil have been the subject of considerable critical attention .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Novels = = =
= = = = The Stand = = = =
Randall Flagg makes his first appearance in King 's 1978 apocalyptic novel , The Stand , where he tries to construct a new civilization in the United States after a plague kills most of the population . Flagg is described as a " tall man of no age " in old blue jeans , denim jacket and old cowboy boots . He wears an old Boy Scout knapsack , and his jacket pockets are stuffed with pamphlets from dozens of fringe splinter groups . Flagg ’ s background is vague , even to him ; he says that at some point he just “ became ” , although he remembers being a Marine , a Klansman , a Viet Cong member and having a hand in the kidnapping of Patty Hearst . In Las Vegas Flagg attracts people drawn to destruction , power and draconian rule , using crucifixion , torture and other punishments on those disloyal to him . His followers reorganize society , rebuilding the city . Flagg plans to attack and destroy a rival emerging civilization ( Mother Abagail 's Free Zone in Boulder , Colorado ) to become the dominant society in the former United States .
After two of Flagg 's followers fail to kill the leaders of the Free Zone , the Boulder community sends a group of men to Las Vegas to stop him . After being taken prisoner , the men are brought before the city for a public execution . Before Flagg can kill them , one of his most loyal and devout followers ( the Trashcan Man ) arrives with a nuclear warhead . As Trash dies of radiation poisoning the Hand of God appears , detonating the warhead ( which annihilates Flagg 's followers and the two remaining prisoners ) . The novel was re @-@ published in 1990 in an expanded edition , with text cut from its original edition . This edition has Flagg reappearing on a beach , with a new group of people to control .
= = = = The Eyes of the Dragon = = = =
Flagg later appears in The Eyes of the Dragon ( 1986 ) as an evil wizard wreaking havoc in the medieval country of Delain . He is described as a " thin and stern faced man of about 50 [ years of age ] " , despite being much older . He hides himself under a dark cloak , and most of his magic comes from spells , potions and poisons . He is described as a " sickness " which seems to reappear in Delain when there is something worth destroying . In this novel , Flagg schemes to throw the kingdom of Delain into chaos by poisoning the king and framing Prince Peter ( legitimate heir to the throne ) for the crime . Thomas ( Peter 's naive , resentful younger brother ) becomes king instead ; Flagg , whom he sees as his only friend , becomes his royal advisor . Due to his youth and inexperience , Thomas allows Flagg great power and is easily manipulated by the wizard . Flagg becomes the de facto ruler of Delain , plunging the kingdom into a dark age . Years later Thomas confronts Flagg about his father 's murder , which he witnessed as a child but suppressed the memory out of fear . Thomas shoots Flagg in the eye with an arrow , and Flagg disappears from the kingdom . Peter is given his rightful throne ; Thomas and his butler , Dennis , leave the kingdom in search of Flagg . In the novel Thomas and Dennis find Flagg , but the nature of their encounter is never revealed and Flagg survives to engender chaos in later stories .
= = = = Hearts in Atlantis = = = =
In Hearts in Atlantis ( 1999 ) , Raymond Fiegler is identified near the novel 's end as leader of an activist group when he prevents Carol Gerber from retrieving an unexploded bomb on a college campus . King never identifies Fiegler as Flagg , but Christopher Golden and Hank Wagner suggest in The Complete Stephen King Universe that there is little doubt Fiegler is Flagg . Golden and Wagner cite evidence such as Fiegler 's ability to make himself appear " dim " ( an ability shared by Flagg in Eyes of the Dragon ) , his manipulation of Carol Gerber and her activist friends and Flagg 's frequent use of aliases ( usually with the initials " R.F. " )
= = = = The Dark Tower series = = = =
Flagg makes his next several appearances in King 's Dark Tower series , which follows gunslinger Roland Deschain as he travels in search of the Dark Tower . Flagg 's presence is felt in the opening sentence of the first book : " The man in black fled across the desert and the gunslinger followed " . In this series , Flagg assumes the guise of several individuals . He first appears as Walter o 'Dim , chased across the desert by Roland . In flashbacks Flagg assumes the identity of Marten Broadcloak , a wizard who conspires with the Crimson King to cause the fall of the Dark Tower . In the original Marten is a separate person from Walter , who is also not known to be Flagg , but Marten and Walter are ret @-@ conned into one character in later editions . In the original edition Walter speaks derisively of Marten , implying Marten would not be able to handle the vision that Walter showed Roland .
When Roland was young , Marten had an affair with Roland 's mother , Gabrielle , using the affair to provoke Roland to take the gunslinger test early . He hoped Roland would fail ( so he would be exiled ) but Roland passed the test . Eventually , Roland catches Walter ; they have a long discussion about Roland 's destiny and the Tower which causes him to slip into delirium . He awakens to find a pile of bones in Walter 's place . In the original edition Walter and Marten are separate characters , with Walter dying at the end of the novel . When King published an expanded edition of the novel Walter and Marten are portrayed as identical , and Walter fakes his own death .
Flagg appears briefly in a flashback in the second installment of the Dark Tower series , The Drawing of the Three . Roland recalls seeing two men named Thomas and Dennis pursuing a man named Flagg , who was almost certainly a demon . These are implied to be the same characters from The Eyes of the Dragon . This is the first example of the Dark Tower series crossing over with one of King 's other novels .
Flagg makes his next full appearance in the series ' third installment , The Waste Lands . In the city of Lud , Flagg saves Tick @-@ Tock Man Andrew Quick ( an enemy of Roland 's ka @-@ tet , left for dead in an earlier confrontation ) . Quick becomes Flagg 's devoted servant , and Flagg assumes the name of Richard Fannin . The character returns in the fourth book , Wizard and Glass , as Marten Broadcloak . Also identifying himself as Flagg , he warns Roland and his ka @-@ tet to abandon their quest for the Dark Tower . In flashbacks the reader learns that Flagg ( as Walter o 'Dim ) was an emissary for John Farson , one of those responsible for the destruction of Roland 's home Gilead .
The " Argument " ( a summary of the series thus far ) beginning Wolves of the Calla — the fifth novel in the series — notes that Flagg is known as Broadcloak , Fannin and John Farson , depending on the world in which he lives . In Wolves of the Calla , Flagg makes a brief appearance ( as Walter o 'Dim ) when Father Callahan arrives in Roland 's world . Flagg gives Callahan Black Thirteen , a dangerous crystal ball , hoping it will kill Roland on his way to the tower . In this encounter , Flagg is described with " the face of a human weasel " , and " the same welling red circle " on his forehead as the Can @-@ toi . His appearance in The Song of Susannah is via a flashback revealing that Flagg bargained with the succubus Mia ; this resulted in the birth of Mordred Deschain , son of both Roland and the Crimson King .
In The Dark Tower , Flagg indicates that he is not John Farson , but served under him until the latter 's downfall . Flagg reveals his plans to climb the Dark Tower , see the room at the top and become the god of all . His ultimate goal is to kill Roland Deschain : " ... most of all for the death of his mother , whom I once loved . " Flagg believes that he can only achieve these goals by killing Mordred and taking his birthmark @-@ stained foot . Although he tries to befriend Mordred and pledge allegiance to him , Mordred telepathically senses Flagg 's true motives and eats him , forcing him to rip out his eyes and tongue first .
The Dark Tower reveals more of Flagg ’ s background , relating that he was born Walter Padick in Delain to Sam the Miller of Eastar ’ d Barony . At age 13 Walter set out for a life on the road , but was raped by a fellow wanderer ( Bev Vincent hypothesized in The Road to the Dark Tower that Flagg 's later actions towards Delain in The Eyes of the Dragon may have been revenge for the abuse he suffered as a child ) . Resisting the temptation to crawl back home , Padick instead moves towards his destiny ; he learns various forms of magic , achieving a quasi @-@ immortality . After centuries of wreaking havoc Flagg attracts the attention of the Crimson King , who adopts him as his emissary .
In 2013 , King published a new story from The Dark Tower entitled The Wind Through the Keyhole . Here Flagg is depicted as the Covenant Man : central villain of the book 's story @-@ within @-@ a @-@ story , " The Wind Through the Keyhole " , a legend from Mid @-@ World set years before the series ' beginning . He is the Barony 's " tax collector " from Gilead , attempting to collect taxes from residents of the small town of Tree . The Covenant Man sends the story 's protagonist ( a young boy named Tim ) on a perilous quest through the Endless Forest to save his mother ; unbeknownst to Tim , the Covenant Man is supplying him with false prophecies and misinformation as part of a cruel practical joke . However , Tim succeeds in his journey ; he saves his mother after encountering the wizard Maerlyn , who has been imprisoned in the form of a " tyger " . While the Covenant Man is not explicitly identified as Flagg , with only the initials " RF / MB " in his signature as identification and at one point being referred to as ' the man in the black cloak ' , Stephen King confirmed in an interview with Bev Vincent for his book The Dark Tower Companion that the two are one and the same .
= = = Film and TV = = =
King was influential in deciding who would play Flagg in the television adaptation of The Stand . He felt Flagg was the best villain he had ever created , and wanted the actor playing him to be right for the part . Director Mick Garris and the studios wanted to give the role to an established star such as Christopher Walken , James Woods , Willem Dafoe or Jeff Goldblum . King himself had suggested Robert Duvall in his introduction to the novel . Miguel Ferrer , who played Flagg 's henchman in the film , was interested in playing the villain .
King 's idea for the role was someone who " would make the ladies ' hearts go pitty pat , that looked like the type of guy you would see on the cover of one of those sweet , savage love paperback romances " . He eventually persuaded the decision @-@ makers to cast a lesser @-@ known actor as Flagg , which turned out to be Jamey Sheridan .
Sheridan 's performance was generally well received . Entertainment Weekly ’ s Ken Tucker wrote that the best acting came from Sheridan , who gave the character a “ grim intensity ” . He commented that Sheridan had “ leading @-@ man looks ” with the hair of a “ dissolute heavy metal star ” , making him “ unsettling ” even when not wearing makeup that makes him look like a devil . Douglas E. Winter of Fangoria magazine believed that Sheridan might have been a bit young and “ zany ” for the part , but gave a credible performance ; he said that Sheridan attacked the role “ with the swagger of Elvis , the sway of David Koresh and as much craziness as your heart desires ( and network TV allows ) " .
In February 2011 , Warner Bros. announced plans to produce a new feature film adaptation of The Stand . King commented that he would like to see Dutch actor Rutger Hauer in the role of Flagg , but said that he may be too old for the part . In August 2014 it was reported that Warner Bros. wanted actor Matthew McConaughey for the role .
It was confirmed in 2016 that Matthew McConaughey would be playing the role of Walter o 'Dim , Flagg 's alter @-@ ego , in the film adaptation of The Dark Tower . Nikolaj Arcel , the film 's director and co @-@ writer , said " Matthew is an incredible actor who can do anything . That ’ s how I feel about [ Walter ] . He could do anything . " Arcel described Walter as having " a very interesting way of seeing the world . He sees it with a sort of delight , even though he is obviously on the wrong side of the light @-@ and @-@ dark spectrum . He ’ s someone I ’ ve been having a lot of fun with . "
The 2016 miniseries 11 @.@ 22 @.@ 63 , based on King 's novel 11 / 22 / 63 , incorporates numerous references to other King stories , including an appearance by Randall Flagg , who is seen cycling through the Dallas throngs just before the assassination of John F. Kennedy in the final episode .
= = = Comics = = =
Beginning in 2007 , Marvel Comics released a series of comics which were a prequel to the Dark Tower novels . Randall Flagg , appearing as Marten Broadcloak and Walter o 'Dim , plays a significant role in the series .
In April 2009 Marvel released a single @-@ issue comic written by Robin Furth and illustrated by Richard Isanove entitled The Dark Tower : Sorcerer , which focused on the character of Marten Broadcloak @-@ Walter o 'Dim . Sorcerer provides an origin for the character different from the one King initially wrote , explaining that Walter was the son of the wizard Maerlyn and Selena ( Goddess of the Black Moon ) . Walter was left at the home of a mill owner , Sam Padick , " to learn the ways of men " . At age 13 , Walter burns down his adoptive father 's mill before running away to find his true father ( Walter 's rape is not mentioned ) . Furth wrote in the afterword that the idea of Maerlyn being Walter 's father came from King . The comic also reveals that Marten had poisoned Roland 's infant brother . Furth introduced the idea that the Bends o ' the Rainbow , 13 magic spheres created by Maerlyn in the distant past , are sentient beings able to project personifications which can interact with other characters . Marten has a sexual relationship with the female personification of Maerlyn 's Grapefruit ( one of the spheres ) . This is described as incestuous , since the beings were given life by Maerlyn ( Walter 's biological father ) ; Marten and the Grapefruit repeatedly call each other as brother and sister . The siblings also refer to the Crimson King as their " cousin " , indicating that Maerlyn is related to him . In her afterword Furth says that although she conceived these ideas , King approved them . According to the comic , Marten 's romantic feelings for Roland 's mother trigger jealousy in the Grapefruit ( who influences Roland to unwittingly kill his mother ) . ( In Wizard and Glass , the witch known as Rhea of the Cöos orchestrate Roland 's matricide as revenge for his killing of her pet snake . ) Enraged , Marten imprisons his " sister " in the Grapefruit and vows revenge on Roland for his involvement in his beloved 's death . Addressing inconsistencies between the novels and the comics , Furth stated that the comics exist on another level of the Tower : " a spinoff world , one which is very similar to , but not exactly the same as the one where [ the Dark Tower novels ] take place " .
On the character of Marten , Furth noted that " [ he ] is one of the scariest characters that Stephen King has ever created . He moves from book to book , bringing chaos and anarchy with him ... He is quite a demonic figure , and as such he is one of the great anti @-@ heroes of contemporary popular fiction " and that " [ j ] ourneying into Walter 's mind is a pretty wild experience and at times a little frightening . You have to travel to very dark places " . To find Walter 's voice , Furth went to John Milton 's Paradise Lost , William Blake 's Proverbs of Hell , the Biblical Song of Solomon and the writings of Aleister Crowley for inspiration .
In his interview with Bev Vincent , Isanove opined that Walter was his favorite character to draw ; " Jae [ Lee , the original artist for the series ] established him as almost androgynous . He 's always got this bare chest , and he 's very feminine in the way he moves , with his hands raised . He 's always moving his hands around . He 's got this weird face , with a broken nose and greasy hair . He 's starting to bald , but he 's always got a very white separation in the middle of it . He 's just so greasy , he 's great to draw . And he still has to be seductive at the same time , so you can 't make him repulsive ... He 's such a great character . "
Marvel later released an comic book adaptation of The Stand , which began in September 2008 and ran for thirty issues . Writer Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa described Flagg as " The man of nightmares . Or , put another way , our nightmares given human ( more or less ) form . The dark side of the American Dream ... King 's ' Walkin ' Dude ' may not be the Devil , himself , as Mother Abagail says , but he comes pretty damn close ... " Initially , artist Mike Perkins said he felt " Flagg needed to be designed less as a man — more as a force of nature . His hair will obscure his features , his face will be almost always in heavy shadow . This is the creature lurking under your bed , in your wardrobe , in your nightmares . Slightly familiar but wholly terrifying " . Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa later commented on the original idea of hiding Flagg 's face : " ... the further into the book and the adaptation you go , the less feasible that becomes . Stephen spends so much time describing [ Flagg ] ' s features and smiles , you need to show those things " .
= = Concept and creation = =
King initially named Donald DeFreeze , lead kidnapper in the Patty Hearst case , as his inspiration for Randall Flagg . According to King , he remembered the Patty Hearst case when he began to write a description of DeFreeze : " Donald DeFreeze is a dark man " . He remembered that in photographs of the bank robbery in which Patty Hearst participated that DeFreeze was only partially visible , hidden under a large hat . What he looked like was based on guesses made by people who only saw a portion of him . This inspired King , who then wrote " A dark man with no face " . After reading " Once in every generation the plague will fall among them " , King began writing The Stand and developing the character of Randall Flagg .
In 2004 , King said that Flagg had been a presence in his writing since the beginning of his career , with the idea coming to him in college . He first wrote a poem , " The Dark Man " , about a man who rides the rails and confesses to murder and rape ; written on the back of a placemat in a college restaurant , the one @-@ page poem was published in 1969 , but the character never left King 's mind . To the author , what made Flagg interesting was " the idea of the villain as somebody who was always on the outside looking in , and hated people who had good fellowship and good conversation and friends " .
= = Characterization = =
Characteristic of Randall Flagg is his embodiment of evil . When King created the character , he based him around what he believed evil represented . To King , Flagg is “ somebody who ’ s very charismatic , laughs a lot , [ is ] tremendously attractive to men and women both , and [ is ] somebody who just appeals to the worst in all of us ” . This idea carries over into The Stand , in which Flagg first appears as the personification of evil opposing Mother Abagail ( the personification of good ) . Character Tom Cullen ascribes to Flagg the ability to kill animals and inflict cancer at will , referring to him as the demon Legion , while character Glen Bateman refers to him as the Lovecraftian entity Nyarlathotep ( among other ancient names ) . King wanted Flagg to embody a " gigantic evil " , although he intended the character to weaken by the end of The Stand . He said , " I think the Devil is probably a pretty funny guy . Flagg is like the archetype of everything that I know about real evil , going back all the way to Charles Starkweather in the ' 50s — he is somebody who is empty and who has to be filled with other people 's hates , fears , resentments , laughs . Flagg , Koresh , Jim Jones , Hitler — they 're all basically the same guy " . Although Flagg was not intended to represent Satan , this did not detract from what King sees as his ultimate goal . He notes that no matter who sees him or how he is seen ( Flagg appears differently to different individuals ) , his message is the same : " I know all the things that you want and I can give them to you and all you have to do is give me your soul " .
Critics also note Flagg ’ s penchant for evil . Tony Magistrale sees Flagg as a Shakespearian villain ( comparing him to Iago , Edmund and Richard III ) , contending that Flagg is an antihero . Magistrale believes that Flagg ’ s evil is based on his ability to replace peace with conflict and unity with destruction ; although he seeks power , it is merely a resource to achieve a greater level of destruction . Heidi Stringell finds Flagg “ an embodiment of pure evil ” , contending that King sees good and evil as “ real forces ” ; Flagg ’ s embodiment of evil is confirmed by the fact that “ he is a killer , a maker of mischief , a liar , and a tempter ” . To Stringell , Flagg ’ s disappearance at the end of The Stand shows that “ evil ultimately leads nowhere ” . The author calls Flagg a “ generic hybrid ” of the archetypical “ Dark Man and the Trickster ” . To her , the combination of these two characteristics ( found in different cultural realms ) forces people to face their “ flawed humanity ” with the “ amorality ” Flagg represents . Jenifer Paquette writes that " Flagg 's horror is that he looks like an ordinary man , and his behavior is a mockery of humanity — a terrible insight into the human psyche . King suggests that the thing to fear the most is inside ourselves . "
Douglas Winter believes that Flagg epitomizes the Gothic villain — an “ atavistic embodiment of evil ” — since his appearance is indistinct , malleable and a “ collection of masks ” . Flagg symbolizes “ the inexplicable fear of the return of bygone powers — both technological and , as his last name intimates , sociopolitical ” . Like other Gothic villains , Flagg ’ s plans seem to fail at every turn as he seems to need to convince others of his importance . Winter asserts that Flagg is a Miltonic superman who receives his strength from a dark , mysterious source . He compares him to J. R. R. Tolkien ’ s Sauron in The Lord of the Rings : both collapse when directly confronted . Alissa Stickler describes Flagg as a “ contemporary medievalist interpretation on the themes of evil , magic and the ( d ) evil figure ” . She likens Flagg to Merlin , whispering in the ear of Arthur . Stickler notes that Flagg is politically powerful in The Stand and The Eyes of the Dragon ; he uses his power differently in each novel , challenging depictions of evil and witchcraft common in medieval times . She explains that there does not appear to be a higher power to which Flagg “ must appeal to his abilities ” ( as there is with traditional evil ) . Flagg is more of a “ humanesque evil ” , which works against him as much as it does for him . His supernatural knowledge is fallible , and the customary black @-@ and @-@ white depiction is replaced with an “ acceptance of a shadowy gray area ” . Stickler says that although Flagg appears “ terrifying and supernatural ” as depicted by King , there are no absolutes . She concludes that Flagg represents the medieval monster both past and future , which challenges ( yet supports ) the literary Middle Ages .
Flagg ’ s character has its detractors . In his essay " The Glass @-@ Eyed Dragon " , author L. Sprague de Camp criticizes Flagg in Eyes of the Dragon , saying that he is one of the least @-@ believable characters in the book and too evil to be credible . According to de Camp , absolute evil is hard to envision ; whereas Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin believed they were improving the world , Flagg only enjoys causing destruction and chaos . De Camp notes that Flagg fails to see that there is no advantage to his actions .
Flagg 's embodiment of evil is not the only characteristic seen by critics . Joseph Reino commented that the character 's presence in The Stand was " Stephen King 's version of a pestilential Big Brother " . Tony Magistrale revisits the character in a second book , this time comparing him to Norman Mailer . Here , Magistrale states that in The Stand Flagg gives the reader an “ illustration of King ’ s jaundiced perspective of modern America ” as he presents the consequences of technology @-@ worship and the sacrifice of “ moral integrity to the quest for synthetic productivity ” .
Flagg 's background as a rape victim and its impact on his character have also been explored . Patrick McAleer argues that Flagg 's situation is the most sympathetic of all of King 's characters , and his evil may be retribution : " [ I ] n suspending any disbelief in the possibility that reprisal is a reaction to rape , the life of Flagg becomes one that looks to strike a balance for the sexual crime committed against him . And although Flagg 's possible search for justice and balance is that which becomes imbalanced and even prejudiced , the mitigating factor here is that Flagg is not an originator of evil - he is just caught up in its web as another wronged individual seeking justice " . McAleer compares Flagg to Satan in Paradise Lost , suggesting that he may be another " fallen angel who has a valid case supporting his devilry " . While agreeing that Flagg can be seen " relishing in evil deeds at almost every juncture " , he contends that no judgement can be made without the full story and context for his actions .
|
= Pteranodon =
Pteranodon ( / tᵻˈrænədɒn / ; from Greek πτερόν ( " wing " ) and ἀνόδων ( " toothless " ) is a genus of pterosaurs which included some of the largest known flying reptiles , with wingspans over 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . It existed during the late Cretaceous geological period of North America in present day Kansas , Alabama , Nebraska , Wyoming , and South Dakota . More fossil specimens of Pteranodon have been found than any other pterosaur , with about 1 @,@ 200 specimens known to science , many of them well preserved with nearly complete skulls and articulated skeletons . It was an important part of the animal community in the Western Interior Seaway .
Pteranodon was not a dinosaur . By definition , all dinosaurs belong to either order within Dinosauria , either Saurischia or Ornithischia . As such , this excludes pterosaurs . Nonetheless , Pteranodon is frequently featured in dinosaur media and is strongly associated with dinosaurs by the general public .
= = Description = =
Pteranodon species are extremely well represented in the fossil record , allowing for detailed descriptions of their anatomy and analysis of their life history . Over 1 @,@ 000 specimens have been identified , though less than half are complete enough to give researchers good information on the anatomy of the animal . Still , this is more fossil material than is known for any other pterosaur , and it includes both male and female specimens of various age groups and , possibly , species .
= = = Size = = =
Adult Pteranodon specimens from the two major species can be divided into two distinct size classes . The smaller class of specimens have small , rounded head crests and very wide pelvic canals , even wider than those of the much larger size class . The size of the pelvic canal probably allowed the laying of eggs , indicating that these smaller adults are females . The larger size class , representing male individuals , have narrow hips and very large crests , which were probably for display .
Adult male Pteranodon were among the largest pterosaurs , and were the largest flying animals known until the late 20th century , when the giant azhdarchid pterosaurs were discovered . The wingspan of an average adult male Pteranodon was 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 18 ft ) . Adult females were much smaller , averaging 3 @.@ 8 metres ( 12 ft ) in wingspan . The largest specimen of Pteranodon longiceps from the Niobrara Formation measured 6 @.@ 25 metres ( 20 @.@ 5 ft ) from wingtip to wingtip . An even larger specimen is known from the Pierre Shale Formation , with a wingspan of 7 @.@ 25 metres ( 23 @.@ 8 ft ) , though this specimen may belong to the distinct genus and species Geosternbergia maysei . While most specimens are found crushed , enough fossils exist to put together a detailed description of the animal .
Methods used to estimate the mass of large male Pteranodon specimens ( those with wingspans of about 7 meters ) have been notoriously unreliable , producing a wide range of estimates from as low as 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) to as high as 93 kilograms ( 205 lb ) . In a review of pterosaur size estimates published in 2010 , researchers Mark Witton and Mike Habib demonstrated that the latter , largest estimates are almost certainly incorrect given the total volume of a Pteranodon body , and could only be correct if the animal " was principally comprised of aluminium . " Witton and Habib considered the methods used by researchers who obtained smaller mass estimates equally flawed . Most have been produced by scaling modern animals such as bats and birds up to Pteranodon size , despite the fact that pterosaurs have vastly different body proportions and soft tissue anatomy from any living animal .
= = = Skull and beak = = =
Unlike earlier pterosaurs such as Rhamphorhynchus and Pterodactylus , Pteranodon had toothless beaks , similar to those of birds . Pteranodon beaks were made of solid , bony margins that projected from the base of the jaws . The beaks were long , slender , and ended in thin , sharp points . The upper jaw was longer than the lower jaw . The upper jaw was curved upward ; while this normally has been attributed only to the upward @-@ curving beak , one specimen ( UALVP 24238 ) has a curvature corresponding with the beak widening towards the tip . While the tip of the beak is not known in this specimen , the level of curvature suggests it would have been extremely long . The unique form of the beak in this specimen led Alexander Kellner to assign it to a distinct genus , Dawndraco , in 2010 .
The most distinctive characteristic of Pteranodon is its cranial crest . These crests consisted of skull bones ( frontals ) projecting upward and backward from the skull . The size and shape of these crests varied due to a number of factors , including age , sex , and species . Male Pteranodon sternbergi , the older species of the two described to date ( and sometimes placed in the distinct genus Geosternbergia ) , had a more vertical crest with a broad forward projection , while their descendants , Pteranodon longiceps , evolved a narrower , more backward @-@ projecting crest . Females of both species were smaller and bore small , rounded crests . The crests were probably mainly display structures , though they may have had other functions as well .
= = = Skeleton = = =
Other distinguishing characteristics that set Pteranodon apart from other pterosaurs include narrow neural spines on the vertebrae , plate @-@ like bony ligaments strengthening the vertebrae above the hip , and a relatively short tail in which the last few vertebrae are fused into a long rod . The entire length of the tail was about 3 @.@ 5 % as long as the wingspan , or up to 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in the largest males .
= = Timespan and evolution = =
Pteranodon fossils are known primarily from the Niobrara Formation of the central United States . Broadly defined , Pteranodon existed for more than four million years , during the late Coniacian to early Campanian stages of the Cretaceous period . The genus is present in most layers of the Niobrara Formation except for the upper two ; in 2003 , Kenneth Carpenter surveyed the distribution and dating of fossils in this formation , demonstrating that Pteranodon sternbergi existed there from 88 to 85 million years ago , while P. longiceps existed between 86 and 84 @.@ 5 million years ago . A possible third species , which Kellner named Geosternbergia maysei in 2010 , is known from the Sharon Springs member of the Pierre Shale Formation in Kansas , Wyoming , and South Dakota , dating to between 81 @.@ 5 and 80 @.@ 5 million years ago .
In the early 1990s , Bennett noted that the two major morphs of pteranodont present in the Niobrara Formation were precisely separated in time with little , if any , overlap . Due to this , and to their gross overall similarity , he suggested that they probably represent chronospecies within a single evolutionary lineage lasting about 4 million years . In other words , only one species of Pteranodon would have been present at any one time , and P. sternbergi ( or Geosternbergia ) in all likelihood was the direct ancestor species of P. longiceps .
= = Biology and ecology = =
= = = Range and environment = = =
Specimens assigned to Pteranodon have been found in both the Smoky Hill Chalk deposits of the Niobrara Formation , and the slightly younger Sharon Springs deposits of the Pierre Shale Formation . When Pteranodon was alive , this area was covered by a large inland sea , known as the Western Interior Seaway . Famous for fossils collected since 1870 , these formations extend from as far south as Kansas in the United States to Manitoba in Canada . However , Pteranodon specimens ( or any pterosaur specimens ) have only been found in the southern half of the formation , in Kansas , Wyoming , and South Dakota . Despite the fact that numerous fossils have been found in the contemporary parts of the formation in Canada , no pterosaur specimens have ever been found there . This strongly suggests that the natural geographic range of Pteranodon covered only the southern part of the Niobrara , and that its habitat did not extend farther north than South Dakota .
Some very fragmentary fossils belonging to pteranodontian pterosaurs , and possibly Pteranodon itself , have also been found on the Gulf Coast and East Coast of the United States . For example , some bone fragments from the Mooreville Formation of Alabama and the Merchantville Formation of Delaware may have come from Pteranodon , though they are too incomplete to make a definite identification . Some remains from Japan have also been tentatively attributed to Pteranodon , but their distance from its known Western Interior Seaway habitat makes this identification unlikely .
Pteranodon longiceps would have shared the sky with the giant @-@ crested pterosaur Nyctosaurus . Compared to P. longiceps , which was a very common species , Nyctosaurus was rare , making up only 3 % of pterosaur fossils from the formation . Also less common was the early toothed bird , Ichthyornis .
It is likely that , as in other polygynous animals ( in which males compete for association with harems of females ) , Pteranodon lived primarily on offshore rookeries , where they could nest away from land @-@ based predators and feed far from shore ; most Pteranodon fossils are found in locations which at the time , were hundreds of kilometres from the coastline .
Below the surface , the sea was populated primarily by invertebrates such as ammonites and squid . Vertebrate life , apart from basal fish , included sea turtles such as Toxochelys , the plesiosaur Styxosaurus , and the flightless diving bird Parahesperornis . Mosasaurs were the most common marine reptiles , with genera including Clidastes and Tylosaurus . At least some of these marine reptiles are known to have fed on Pteranodon . Barnum Brown , in 1904 , reported plesiosaur stomach contents containing " pterodactyl " bones , most likely from Pteranodon .
Fossils from terrestrial dinosaurs also have been found in the Niobrara Chalk , suggesting that animals who died on shore must have been washed out to sea ( one specimen of a hadrosaur appears to have been scavenged by a shark ) .
= = = Flight = = =
The wing shape of Pteranodon suggests that it would have flown rather like a modern @-@ day albatross . This is based on the fact that Pteranodon had a high aspect ratio ( wingspan to chord length ) similar to that of the albatross — 9 : 1 for Pteranodon , compared to 8 : 1 for an albatross . Albatrosses spend long stretches of time at sea fishing , and use a flight pattern called " dynamic soaring " which exploits the vertical gradient of wind speed near the ocean surface to travel long distances without flapping , and without the aid of thermals ( which do not occur over the open ocean the same way they do over land ) . While most of a Pteranodon flight would have depended on soaring , like long @-@ winged seabirds , it probably required an occasional active , rapid burst of flapping , and studies of Pteranodon wing loading ( the strength of the wings vs. the weight of the body ) indicate that they were capable of substantial flapping flight , contrary to some earlier suggestions that they were so big they could only glide .
Like other pterosaurs , Pteranodon probably took off from a standing , quadrupedal position . Using their long forelimbs for leverage , they would have vaulted themselves into the air in a rapid leap . Almost all of the energy would have been generated by the forelimbs . The upstroke of the wings would have occurred when the animal cleared the ground followed by a rapid down @-@ stroke to generate additional lift and complete the launch into the air .
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of Pteranodon is known to have included fish ; fossilized fish bones have been found in the stomach area of one Pteranodon , and a fossilized fish bolus has been found between the jaws of another Pteranodon , specimen AMNH 5098 . Numerous other specimens also preserve fragments of fish scales and vertebrae near the torso , indicating that fish made up a majority of the diet of Pteranodon ( though they may also have taken invertebrates ) .
Traditionally , most researchers have suggested that Pteranodon would have taken fish by dipping their beaks into the water while in low , soaring flight . However , this was probably based on the assumption that the animals could not take off from the water surface . It is more likely that Pteranodon could take off from the water , and would have dipped for fish while swimming rather than while flying . Even a small , female Pteranodon could have reached a depth of at least 80 centimetres ( 31 in ) with its long bill and neck while floating on the surface , and they may have reached even greater depths by plunge @-@ diving into the water from the air like some modern long @-@ winged seabirds . In 1994 , Bennett noted that the head , neck , and shoulders of Pteranodon were as heavily built as diving birds , and suggested that they could dive by folding back their wings like the modern gannet .
= = = Crest function = = =
Pteranodon was notable for its skull crest , though the function of this crest has been a subject of debate . Most explanations have focused on the blade @-@ like , backward pointed crest of male P. longiceps , however , and ignored the wide range of variation across age and sex . The fact that the crests vary so much rules out most practical functions other than for use in mating displays . Therefore , display was probably the main function of the crest , and any other functions were secondary .
Scientific interpretations of the crest 's function began in 1910 , when George Francis Eaton proposed two possibilities : an aerodynamic counterbalance and a muscle attachment point . He suggested that the crest might have anchored large , long jaw muscles , but admitted that this function alone could not explain the large size of some crests . Bennett ( 1992 ) agreed with Eaton 's own assessment that the crest was too large and variable to have been a muscle attachment site . Eaton had suggested that a secondary function of the crest might have been as a counterbalance against the long beak , reducing the need for heavy neck muscles to control the orientation of the head . Wind tunnel tests showed that the crest did function as an effective counterbalance to a degree , but Bennett noted that again , the hypothesis focuses only on the long crests of male P. longiceps , not on the larger crests of P. sternbergi and very small crests that existed among the females . Bennett found that the crests of females had no counterbalancing effect , and that the crests of male P. sternbergi would , by themselves , have a negative effect on the balance of the head . In fact , side to side movement of the crests would have required more , not less , neck musculature to control balance .
In 1943 , Dominik von Kripp suggested that the crest may have served as a rudder , an idea embraced by several later researchers . One researcher , Ross S. Stein , even suggested that the crest may have supported a membrane of skin connecting the backward @-@ pointing crest to the neck and back , increasing its surface area and effectiveness as a rudder . The rudder hypothesis again , does not take into account females nor P. sternbergi , which had an upward @-@ pointing , not backward @-@ pointing crest . Bennett also found that even in its capacity as a rudder , the crest would not provide nearly so much directional force as simply maneuvering the wings . The suggestion that the crest was an air brake , and that the animals would turn their heads to the side in order to slow down , suffers from a similar problem . Additionally , the rudder and air brake hypotheses do not explain why such large variation exists in crest size even among adults .
Alexander Kellner suggested that the large crests of the pterosaur Tapejara , as well as other species , might be used for heat exchange , allowing these pterosaurs to absorb or shed heat and regulate body temperature , which also would account for the correlation between crest size and body size . There is no evidence of extra blood vessels in the crest for this purpose , however , and the large , membranous wings filled with blood vessels would have served that purpose much more effectively .
With these hypotheses ruled out , the best @-@ supported hypothesis for crest function seems to be as a sexual display . This is consistent with the size variation seen in fossil specimens , where females and juveniles have small crests and males large , elaborate , variable crests .
= = = Sexual variation = = =
Adult Pteranodon specimens may be divided into two distinct size classes , small and large , with the large size class being about one and a half times larger than the small class , and the small class being twice as common as the large class . Both size classes lived alongside each other , and while researchers had previously suggested that they represent different species , Christopher Bennett showed that the differences between them are consistent with the concept that they represent females and males , and that Pteranodon species were sexually dimorphic . Skulls from the larger size class preserve large , upward and backward pointing crests , while the crests of the smaller size class are small and triangular . Some larger skulls also show evidence of a second crest that extended long and low , toward the tip of the beak , which is not seen in smaller specimens .
The sex of the different size classes was determined , not from the skulls , but from the pelvic bones . Contrary to what may be expected , the smaller size class had disproportionately large and wide @-@ set pelvic bones . Bennett interpreted this as indicating a more spacious birth canal , through which eggs would pass . He concluded that the small size class with small , triangular crests represent females , and the larger , large @-@ crested specimens represent males .
Note that the overall size and crest size also corresponds to age . Immature specimens are known from both females and males , and immature males often have small crests similar to adult females . Therefore , it seems that the large crests only developed in males when they reached their large , adult size , making the sex of immature specimens difficult to establish from partial remains .
The fact that females appear to have outnumbered males two to one suggests that , as with modern animals with size @-@ related sexual dimorphism , such as sea lions and other pinnipeds , Pteranodon might have been polygynous , with a few males competing for association with groups consisting of large numbers of females . Similar to modern pinnipeds , Pteranodon may have competed to establish territory on rocky , offshore rookeries , with the largest , and largest @-@ crested , males gaining the most territory and having more success mating with females . The crests of male Pteranodon would not have been used in competition , but rather as " visual dominance @-@ rank symbols " , with display rituals taking the place of physical competition with other males . If this hypothesis is correct , it also is likely that male Pteranodon played little to no part in rearing the young ; such a behavior is not found in the males of modern polygynous animals who father many offspring at the same time .
= = = Terrestrial locomotion = = =
Main article : Pterosaur : Ground movement
Historically , the terrestrial locomotion of Pteranodon , especially whether it was bipedal or quadrupedal , has been the subject of debate . Today , most pterosaur researchers agree that pterosaurs were quadrupedal , thanks largely to the discovery of pterosaur trackways .
The possibility of aquatic locomotion via swimming has been discussed briefly in several papers ( Bennett 2001 , 1994 , and Bramwell & Whitfield 1974 ) .
= = Discovery and history = =
Pteranodon was the first pterosaur found outside of Europe . Its fossils first were found by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1870 , in the Late Cretaceous Smoky Hill Chalk deposits of western Kansas . These chalk beds were deposited at the bottom of what was once the Western Interior Seaway , a large shallow sea over what now is the midsection of the North American continent . These first specimens , YPM 1160 and YPM 1161 , consisted of partial wing bones , as well as a tooth from the prehistoric fish Xiphactinus , which Marsh mistakenly believed to belong to this new pterosaur ( all known pterosaurs up to that point had teeth ) . In 1871 , Marsh named the find Pterodactylus Oweni , assigning it to the well @-@ known ( but much smaller ) European genus Pterodactylus . Marsh also collected more wing bones of the large pterosaur in 1871 . Realizing that the name Pterodactylus oweni already had been used in 1864 for a specimen of the European Pterodactylus , Marsh re @-@ named his North American pterosaur Pterodactylus occidentalis , meaning " Western wing finger , " in his 1872 description of the new specimen . He also named two additional species , based on size differences : Pterodactylus ingens ( the largest specimen so far ) , and Pterodactylus velox ( the smallest ) .
Meanwhile , Marsh 's rival Edward Drinker Cope also had unearthed several specimens of the large North American pterosaur . Based on these specimens , Cope named two new species , Ornithochirus umbrosus and Ornithochirus harpyia , in an attempt to assign them to the large European genus Ornithocheirus . As he misspelled the name ( forgetting the ' e ' ) , however , he accidentally created an entirely new genus . Cope 's paper naming his ' ' Ornithochirus species was published in 1872 , just five days after Marsh 's paper . This resulted in a dispute , fought in the published literature , over whose names had priority in what obviously were the same species . Cope conceded in 1875 that Marsh 's names did have priority over his , but maintained that Pterodactylus umbrosus was a distinct species ( but not genus ) from any that Marsh had named previously . Re @-@ evaluation by later scientists has supported Marsh 's case , and found that Cope 's assertion that P. umbrosus was a larger , distinct species were incorrect .
While the first Pteranodon wing bones were collected by Marsh and Cope in the early 1870s , the first Pteranodon skull was found on May 2 , 1876 , along the Smoky Hill River in Wallace County ( now Logan County ) , Kansas , USA , by Samuel Wendell Williston , a fossil collector working for Marsh . A second , smaller skull soon was discovered as well . These skulls showed that the North American pterosaurs were different from any European species , in that they lacked teeth . Marsh recognized this major difference , describing the specimens as " distinguished from all previously known genera of the order Pterosauria by the entire absence of teeth . " Marsh recognized that this characteristic warranted a new genus , and he coined the name Pteranodon ( " wing without tooth " ) in 1876 . Marsh also reclassified all the previously named North American species from Pterodactylus to Pteranodon , with the larger skull , YPM 1117 , referred to the new species Pteranodon longiceps . He also named an additional species , Pteranodon gracilis , based on a wing bone that he mistook for a pelvic bone . He soon realized his mistake , and re @-@ classified that specimen into a separate genus , which he named Nyctosaurus .
Some of the most influential studies of Pteranodon during the 20th century were published by George Francis Eaton , who conducted thorough re @-@ analysis of the known specimens and published some of the first good photographs and illustrations of the best specimens . During the early 1990s , S. Christopher Bennett also published several major papers reviewing the anatomy , taxonomy and life history of Pteranodon .
Fragmentary fossils assigned to Pteranodon have also been discovered in Skåne , Sweden .
= = Classification = =
= = = Valid species = = =
Many researchers consider there to be at least two species of Pteranodon . However , aside from the differences between males and females described above , the post @-@ cranial skeletons of Pteranodon show little to no variation between species or specimens , and the bodies and wings of all pteranodonts were essentially identical .
Two species of Pteranodon are traditionally recognized as valid : Pteranodon longiceps , the type species , and Pteranodon sternbergi . The species differ only in the shape of the crest in adult males ( described above ) , and possibly in the angle of certain skull bones . Because well @-@ preserved Pteranodon skull fossils are extremely rare , researchers use stratigraphy ( i.e. which rock layer of the geologic formation a fossil is found in ) to determine species identity in most cases .
Pteranodon sternbergi is the only known species of Pteranodon with an upright crest . The lower jaw of P. sternbergi was 1 @.@ 25 meters ( 4 @.@ 1 feet ) long . It was collected by George F. Sternberg in 1952 and described by John Christian Harksen in 1966 , from the lower portion of the Niobrara Formation . It was older than P. longiceps and is considered by Bennett to be the direct ancestor of the later species .
Because fossils identifiable as P. sternbergi are found exclusively in the lower layers of the Niobrara Formation , and P. longiceps fossils exclusively in the upper layers , a fossil lacking the skull can be identified based on its position in the geologic column ( though for many early fossil finds , precise data about its location was not recorded , rendering many fossils unidentifiable ) .
Below is a cladogram showing the phylogenetic placement of this genus within Pteranodontia from Andres and Myers ( 2013 ) .
= = = Alternate classifications = = =
Due to the subtle variations between specimens of pteranodontid from the Niobrara Formation , most researchers have assigned all of them to the single genus Pteranodon , in at least two species ( P. longiceps and P. sternbergi ) distinguished mainly by the shape of the crest . However , the classification of these two forms has varied from researcher to researcher . In 1972 , Halsey Wilkinson Miller published a paper arguing that the various forms of Pteranodon were different enough to be placed in distinct subgenera . He named these Pteranodon ( Occidentalia ) occidentalis ( for the now @-@ disused species P. occidentalis ) and Pteranodon ( Sternbergia ) sternbergi . However , the name Sternbergia was preoccupied , and in 1978 Miller re @-@ named the species Pteranodon ( Geosternbergia ) sternbergi , and named a third subgenus / species combination for P. longiceps , as Pteranodon ( Longicepia ) longiceps . Most prominent pterosaur researchers of the late 20th century however , including S. Christopher Bennett and Peter Wellnhofer , did not adopt these subgeneric names , and continued to place all pteranodont species into the single genus Pteranodon .
In 2010 , pterosaur researcher Alexander Kellner revisited H.W. Miller 's classification . Kellner followed Miller 's opinion that the differences between the Pteranodon species were great enough to place them into different genera . He placed P. sternbergi into the genus named by Miller , Geosternbergia , along with the Pierre Shale skull specimen which Bennett had previously considered to be a large male P. longiceps . Kellner argued that this specimen 's crest , though incompletely preserved , was most similar to Geosternbergia . Because the specimen was millions of years younger than any known Geosternbergia , he assigned it to the new species Geosternbergia maysei . Numerous other pteranodont specimens are known from the same formation and time period , and Kellner suggested they may belong to the same species as G. maysei , but because they lack skulls , he could not confidently identify them .
= = = Disused species = = =
A number of additional species of Pteranodon have been named since the 1870s , although most now are considered to be junior synonyms of two or three valid species . The best @-@ supported is the type species , P. longiceps , based on the well @-@ preserved specimen including the first @-@ known skull found by S. W. Williston . This individual had a wingspan of 7 m ( 23 ft ) . Other valid species include the possibly larger P. sternbergi , with a wingspan originally estimated at 9 m ( 30 ft ) . P. occidentalis , P. velox , P. umbrosus , P. harpyia , and P. comptus are considered to be nomina dubia by Bennett ( 1994 ) and others who question their validity . All probably are synonymous with the more well @-@ known species .
Because the key distinguishing characteristic Marsh noted for Pteranodon was its lack of teeth , any toothless pterosaur jaw fragment , wherever it was found in the world , tended to be attributed to Pteranodon during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . This resulted in a plethora of species and a great deal of confusion . The name became a wastebasket taxon , rather like the dinosaur Megalosaurus , to label any pterosaur remains that could not be distinguished other than by the absence of teeth . Species ( often dubious ones now known to be based on sexual variation or juvenile characters ) have been reclassified a number of times , and several subgenera have in the 1970s been erected by Halsey Wilkinson Miller to hold them in various combinations , further confusing the taxonomy ( subgenera include Longicepia , Occidentalia , and Geosternbergia ) . Notable authors who have discussed the various aspects of Pteranodon include Bennett , Padian , Unwin , Kellner , and Wellnhofer . Two species , P. orogensis and P. orientalis , are not pteranodontids and have been renamed Bennettazhia oregonensis and Bogolubovia orientalis respectively .
= = = List of species and synonyms = = =
Status of names listed below follow a survey by Bennett , 1994 unless otherwise noted .
|
= Black Sabbath =
Black Sabbath are an English rock band , formed in Birmingham in 1968 , by guitarist and main songwriter Tony Iommi , bassist and main lyricist Geezer Butler , singer Ozzy Osbourne , and drummer Bill Ward . The band have since experienced multiple line @-@ up changes , with guitarist Iommi being the only constant presence in the band through the years . Originally formed as a blues rock band , the group soon adopted the Black Sabbath moniker and began incorporating occult themes with horror @-@ inspired lyrics and tuned @-@ down guitars . Despite an association with these two themes , Black Sabbath also composed songs dealing with social instability , political corruption , the dangers of drug abuse and apocalyptic prophecies of the horrors of war .
Osbourne 's regular abuse of alcohol and other drugs led to his dismissal from the band in 1979 . He was replaced by former Rainbow vocalist Ronnie James Dio . Following two albums with Dio , Black Sabbath endured countless personnel changes in the 1980s and 1990s that included vocalists Ian Gillan , Glenn Hughes , Ray Gillen and Tony Martin , as well as several drummers and bassists . In 1992 , Iommi and Butler rejoined Dio and drummer Vinny Appice to record Dehumanizer . The original line @-@ up reunited with Osbourne in 1997 and released a live album Reunion . Black Sabbath 's 19th studio album , 13 , which features all of the original members but Ward , was released in June 2013 .
Black Sabbath are often cited as pioneers of heavy metal music . The band helped define the genre with releases such as Black Sabbath ( 1970 ) , Paranoid ( 1970 ) and Master of Reality ( 1971 ) . They were ranked by MTV as the " Greatest Metal Band " of all time , and placed second in VH1 's " 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock " list . Rolling Stone magazine ranked them number 85 in their " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . They have sold over 70 million records worldwide . Black Sabbath were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2006 . They have also won two Grammy Awards for Best Metal Performance .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early days ( 1968 – 69 ) = = =
Following the break @-@ up of their previous band Mythology in 1968 , guitarist Tony Iommi and drummer Bill Ward sought to form a heavy blues rock band in Aston , Birmingham . They enlisted bassist Geezer Butler and vocalist Ozzy Osbourne , who had played together in a band called Rare Breed , Osbourne having placed an advertisement in a local music shop : " Ozzy Zig Needs Gig – has own PA " . The new group was initially named the Polka Tulk Blues Band , the name taken either from a brand of talcum powder or an Indian / Pakistani clothing shop ; the exact origin is confused . The Polka Tulk Blues Band featured slide guitarist Jimmy Phillips , a childhood friend of Osbourne 's , and saxophonist Alan " Aker " Clarke . After shortening the name to Polka Tulk , the band again changed their name to Earth ( which Osbourne hated ) and continued as a four @-@ piece without Phillips and Clarke . Iommi became concerned that Phillips and Clarke lacked the necessary dedication and were not taking the band seriously . Rather than asking them to leave , they instead decided to break up and then quietly reformed the band as a four @-@ piece . While the band was performing under the Earth title , they recorded several demos written by Norman Haines such as " The Rebel " , " Song for Jim " , and " When I Came Down " . The demo titled " Song for Jim " was in reference to Jim Simpson . Jim Simpson was a manager for the bands Bakerloo Blues Line and Tea & Symphony . Simpson was also a trumpet player for the group Locomotive . Simpson had recently opened a new pub named Henry 's Blues House and offered to let Earth play some gigs in his club . The audience response was positive and Simpson agreed to manage Earth .
In December 1968 , Iommi abruptly left Earth to join Jethro Tull . Although his stint with the band would be short @-@ lived , Iommi made an appearance with Jethro Tull on The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus TV show . Unsatisfied with the direction of Jethro Tull , Iommi returned to Earth in January 1969 . " It just wasn 't right , so I left " , Iommi said . " At first I thought Tull were great , but I didn 't much go for having a leader in the band , which was Ian Anderson 's way . When I came back from Tull , I came back with a new attitude altogether . They taught me that to get on , you got to work for it . "
While playing shows in England in 1969 , the band discovered they were being mistaken for another English group named Earth . They decided to change their name again . A cinema across the street from the band 's rehearsal room was showing the 1963 horror film Black Sabbath starring Boris Karloff and directed by Mario Bava . While watching people line up to see the film , Butler noted that it was " strange that people spend so much money to see scary movies . " Following that , Osbourne and Butler wrote the lyrics for a song called " Black Sabbath " , which was inspired by the work of horror and adventure @-@ story writer Dennis Wheatley , along with a vision that Butler had of a black silhouetted figure standing at the foot of his bed . Making use of the musical tritone , also known as " the Devil 's Interval " , the song 's ominous sound and dark lyrics pushed the band in a darker direction , a stark contrast to the popular music of the late 1960s , which was dominated by flower power , folk music , and hippie culture . Judas Priest frontman Rob Halford has called the track " probably the most evil song ever written " . Inspired by the new sound , the band changed their name to Black Sabbath in August 1969 , and made the decision to focus on writing similar material , in an attempt to create the musical equivalent of horror films .
= = = Black Sabbath and Paranoid ( 1970 – 71 ) = = =
The band 's first show as Black Sabbath took place on 30 August 1969 , in Workington . They were signed to Philips Records in November 1969 , and released their first single , " Evil Woman " ( a cover of a song by the band Crow ) , recorded at Trident Studios , through Philips subsidiary Fontana Records in January 1970 . Later releases were handled by Philips ' newly formed progressive rock label , Vertigo Records .
Black Sabbath 's first major exposure came when the band appeared on John Peel 's Top Gear radio show in 1969 , performing " Black Sabbath " , " N.I.B. " , " Behind the Wall of Sleep " , and " Sleeping Village " to a national audience in Great Britain shortly before recording of their first album commenced . Although the " Evil Woman " single failed to chart , the band were afforded two days of studio time in November to record their debut album with producer Rodger Bain . Iommi recalls recording live : " We thought ' We have two days to do it and one of the days is mixing . ' So we played live . Ozzy was singing at the same time , we just put him in a separate booth and off we went . We never had a second run of most of the stuff . "
Black Sabbath was released on Friday the 13th , February 1970 , and reached number 8 in the UK Albums Chart . Following its US and Canadian release in May 1970 by Warner Bros. Records , the album reached number 23 on the Billboard 200 , where it remained for over a year . The album was a commercial success but was widely panned by some critics . Lester Bangs dismissed it in a Rolling Stone review as " discordant jams with bass and guitar reeling like velocitised speedfreaks all over each other 's musical perimeters , yet never quite finding synch " . It sold in substantial numbers despite being panned , giving the band their first mainstream exposure . It has since been certified platinum in both US by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and in the UK by British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) .
To capitalise on their chart success in the US , the band returned to the studio in June 1970 , just four months after Black Sabbath was released . The new album was initially set to be named War Pigs after the song " War Pigs " , which was critical of the Vietnam War ; however , Warner changed the title of the album to Paranoid . The album 's lead @-@ off single , " Paranoid " , was written in the studio at the last minute . Ward explains : " We didn 't have enough songs for the album , and Tony just played the [ Paranoid ] guitar lick and that was it . It took twenty , twenty @-@ five minutes from top to bottom . " The single was released in September 1970 and reached number four on the UK charts , remaining Black Sabbath 's only top ten hit . The album followed in the UK in October 1970 , where , pushed by the success of the " Paranoid " single , it made number one in the charts .
The US release was held off until January 1971 , as the Black Sabbath album was still on the charts at the time of Paranoid 's UK release . Black Sabbath subsequently toured America for the first time and played their first US show at a club called Ungano 's at 210 West 70th Street in New York City . The album reached No. 12 in the US in March 1971 , and would go on to sell four million copies in the US , with virtually no radio airplay . Like Black Sabbath , the album was panned by rock critics of the era , but modern @-@ day reviewers such as AllMusic 's Steve Huey cite Paranoid as " one of the greatest and most influential heavy metal albums of all time " , which " defined the sound and style of heavy metal more than any other record in rock history " . The album was ranked at No. 131 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Paranoid 's chart success allowed the band to tour the US for the first time in October 1970 , which spawned the release of the album 's second single " Iron Man " . Although the single failed to reach the top 40 , " Iron Man " remains one of Black Sabbath 's most popular songs , as well as the band 's highest charting US single until 1998 's " Psycho Man " .
= = = Master of Reality and Volume 4 ( 1971 – 73 ) = = =
In February 1971 , after a one off performance at the Myponga Pop Festival in Australia , Black Sabbath returned to the studio to begin work on their third album . Following the chart success of Paranoid , the band were afforded more studio time , along with a " briefcase full of cash " to buy drugs . " We were getting into coke , big time " , Ward explained . " Uppers , downers , Quaaludes , whatever you like . It got to the stage where you come up with ideas and forget them , because you were just so out of it . "
Production completed in April 1971 , in July the band released Master of Reality , just six months after the US release of Paranoid . The album reached the top ten in both the US and UK , and was certified gold in less than two months , eventually receiving platinum certification in the 1980s and Double Platinum in the early 21st century . Master of Reality contained Black Sabbath 's first acoustic songs , alongside fan favourites such as " Children of the Grave " and " Sweet Leaf " . Critical response of the era was generally unfavourable , with Lester Bangs delivering an ambivalent review of Master of Reality in Rolling Stone , describing the closing song " Children of the Grave " as " naïve , simplistic , repetitive , absolute doggerel – but in the tradition [ of rock 'n'roll ] ... The only criterion is excitement , and Black Sabbath 's got it " . In 2003 , Rolling Stone would place the album at number 300 on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list .
Following the Master of Reality world tour in 1972 , Black Sabbath took its first break in three years . As Ward explained : " The band started to become very fatigued and very tired . We 'd been on the road non @-@ stop , year in and year out , constantly touring and recording . I think Master of Reality was kind of like the end of an era , the first three albums , and we decided to take our time with the next album . "
In June 1972 , the band reconvened in Los Angeles to begin work on their next album at the Record Plant . The recording process was plagued with problems , many as a result of substance abuse issues . While struggling to record the song " Cornucopia " after " sitting in the middle of the room , just doing drugs " , Ward was nearly fired from the band . " I hated the song , there were some patterns that were just ... horrible " Ward said . " I nailed it in the end , but the reaction I got was the cold shoulder from everybody . It was like ' Well , just go home , you 're not being of any use right now . ' I felt like I 'd blown it , I was about to get fired " . The album was originally titled Snowblind after the song of the same name , which deals with cocaine abuse . The record company changed the title at the last minute to Black Sabbath Vol . 4 , with Ward stating " There was no Volume 1 , 2 or 3 , so it 's a pretty stupid title really " .
Black Sabbath Vol . 4 was released in September 1972 , and while critics were dismissive of the album upon release , it achieved gold status in less than a month , and was the band 's fourth consecutive release to sell a million copies in the US . With more time in the studio , the album saw the band starting to experiment with new textures , such as strings , piano , orchestration and multi @-@ part songs . The song " Tomorrow 's Dream " was released as a single – the band 's first since " Paranoid " – but failed to chart . Following an extensive tour of the US , in 1973 the band travelled again to Australia , followed by a tour for the first time to New Zealand , before moving onto mainland Europe .
= = = Sabbath Bloody Sabbath and Sabotage ( 1973 – 76 ) = = =
Following the Volume 4 world tour , Black Sabbath returned to Los Angeles to begin work on their next release . Pleased with the Volume 4 album , the band sought to recreate the recording atmosphere , and returned to the Record Plant studio in Los Angeles . With new musical innovations of the era , the band were surprised to find that the room they had used previously at the Record Plant was replaced by a " giant synthesiser " . The band rented a house in Bel Air and began writing in the summer of 1973 , but in part because of substance issues and fatigue , they were unable to complete any songs . " Ideas weren 't coming out the way they were on Volume 4 and we really got discontent " Iommi said . " Everybody was sitting there waiting for me to come up with something . I just couldn 't think of anything . And if I didn 't come up with anything , nobody would do anything . "
After a month in Los Angeles with no results , the band opted to return to England . They rented Clearwell Castle in The Forest of Dean . " We rehearsed in the dungeons and it was really creepy but it had some atmosphere , it conjured up things , and stuff started coming out again . " While working in the dungeon , Iommi stumbled onto the main riff of " Sabbath Bloody Sabbath " , which set the tone for the new material . Recorded at Morgan Studios in London by Mike Butcher and building off the stylistic changes introduced on Volume 4 , new songs incorporated synthesisers , strings , and complex arrangements . Yes keyboardist Rick Wakeman was brought in as a session player , appearing on " Sabbra Cadabra " .
In November 1973 , Black Sabbath began to receive positive reviews in the mainstream press after the release of Sabbath Bloody Sabbath , with Gordon Fletcher of Rolling Stone calling the album " an extraordinarily gripping affair " , and " nothing less than a complete success . " Later reviewers such as Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia cite the album as a " masterpiece , essential to any heavy metal collection " , while also displaying " a newfound sense of finesse and maturity . " The album marked the band 's fifth consecutive platinum selling album in the US , reaching number four on the UK charts , and number eleven in the US .
The band began a world tour in January 1974 , which culminated at the California Jam festival in Ontario , California on 6 April 1974 . Attracting over 200 @,@ 000 fans , Black Sabbath appeared alongside popular 1970s rock and pop bands Deep Purple , Eagles , Emerson , Lake & Palmer , Rare Earth , Seals & Crofts , Black Oak Arkansas , and Earth , Wind & Fire . Portions of the show were telecast on ABC Television in the US , exposing the band to a wider American audience . In the same year , the band shifted management , signing with notorious English manager Don Arden . The move caused a contractual dispute with Black Sabbath 's former management , and while on stage in the US , Osbourne was handed a subpoena that led to two years of litigation .
Black Sabbath began work on their sixth album in February 1975 , again in England at Morgan Studios in Willesden , this time with a decisive vision to differ the sound from Sabbath , Bloody Sabbath . " We could 've continued and gone on and on , getting more technical , using orchestras and everything else which we didn 't particularly want to . We took a look at ourselves , and we wanted to do a rock album – Sabbath , Bloody Sabbath wasn 't a rock album , really . " Produced by Black Sabbath and Mike Butcher , Sabotage was released in July 1975 . As with its precursor , the album initially saw favourable reviews , with Rolling Stone stating " Sabotage is not only Black Sabbath 's best record since Paranoid , it might be their best ever " , although later reviewers such as AllMusic noted that " the magical chemistry that made such albums as Paranoid and Volume 4 so special was beginning to disintegrate " .
Sabotage reached the top 20 in both the US and the UK , but was the band 's first release not to achieve Platinum status in the US , only achieving Gold certification . Although the album 's only single " Am I Going Insane ( Radio ) " failed to chart , Sabotage features fan favourites such as " Hole in the Sky " , and " Symptom of the Universe " . Black Sabbath toured in support of Sabotage with openers Kiss , but were forced to cut the tour short in November 1975 , following a motorcycle accident in which Osbourne ruptured a muscle in his back . In December 1975 , the band 's record companies released a greatest hits album without input from the band , titled We Sold Our Soul for Rock ' n ' Roll . The album charted throughout 1976 , eventually selling two million copies in the US .
= = = Technical Ecstasy and Never Say Die ! ( 1976 – 79 ) = = =
Black Sabbath began work for their next album at Criteria Studios in Miami , Florida , in June 1976 . To expand their sound , the band added keyboard player Gerry Woodruffe , who also had appeared to a lesser extent on Sabotage . During the recording of Technical Ecstasy , Osbourne admits that he began losing interest in Black Sabbath and began to consider the possibility of working with other musicians . Recording of Technical Ecstasy was difficult ; by the time the album was completed Osbourne was admitted to Stafford County Asylum in Britain . It was released on 25 September 1976 to mixed reviews , and ( for the first time ) later music critics gave the album less favourable retrospective reviews ; two decades after its release AllMusic gave the album two stars , and noted that the band was " unravelling at an alarming rate " . The album featured less of the doomy , ominous sound of previous efforts , and incorporated more synthesisers and uptempo rock songs . Technical Ecstasy failed to reach the top 50 in the US , and was the band 's second consecutive release not to achieve platinum status , although it was later certified gold in 1997 . The album included " Dirty Women " , which remains a live staple , as well as Ward 's first lead vocal on the song " It 's Alright " . Touring in support of Technical Ecstasy began in November 1976 , with openers Boston and Ted Nugent in the US , and completed in Europe with AC / DC in April 1977 .
In late 1977 , while in rehearsal for their next album , and just days before the band was set to enter the studio , Osbourne abruptly quit the band . Iommi called vocalist Dave Walker , a longtime friend of the band , who had previously been a member of Fleetwood Mac and Savoy Brown , and informed him that Osbourne had left the band . Walker , who was at that time fronting a band called Mistress , flew to Birmingham from California in late 1977 to write material and rehearse with Black Sabbath . On 8 January 1978 , Black Sabbath made their only live performance with Walker on vocals , playing an early version of the song " Junior 's Eyes " on the BBC Television program " Look ! Hear ! " . Walker later recalled that while in Birmingham he had bumped into Osbourne in a pub and came to the conclusion that Osbourne wasn 't fully committed to leaving Black Sabbath . " The last Sabbath albums were just very depressing for me " , Osbourne said . " I was doing it for the sake of what we could get out of the record company , just to get fat on beer and put a record out . " Walker has said that he wrote a lot of lyrics during his brief time in the band but none of them were ever used . If any recordings of this version of the band other than the " Look ! Hear ! " footage still exist , Walker says that he is not aware of them .
Osbourne initially set out to form a solo project featuring former Dirty Tricks members John Frazer @-@ Binnie , Terry Horbury , and Andy Bierne . As the new band were in rehearsals in January 1978 , Osbourne had a change of heart and rejoined Black Sabbath . " Three days before we were due to go into the studio , Ozzy wanted to come back to the band " , Iommi explained . " He wouldn 't sing any of the stuff we 'd written with the other guy ( Walker ) , so it made it very difficult . We went into the studio with basically no songs . We 'd write in the morning so we could rehearse and record at night . It was so difficult , like a conveyor belt , because you couldn 't get time to reflect on stuff . ' Is this right ? Is this working properly ? ' It was very difficult for me to come up with the ideas and putting them together that quick . "
The band spent five months at Sounds Interchange Studios in Toronto , Canada , writing and recording what would become Never Say Die ! . " It took quite a long time " , Iommi said . " We were getting really drugged out , doing a lot of dope . We 'd go down to the sessions , and have to pack up because we were too stoned , we 'd have to stop . Nobody could get anything right , we were all over the place , everybody 's playing a different thing . We 'd go back and sleep it off , and try again the next day . " The album was released in September 1978 , reaching number twelve in the UK , and number 69 in the US . Press response was unfavourable and did not improve over time with Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic stating two decades after its release that the album 's " unfocused songs perfectly reflected the band 's tense personnel problems and drug abuse . " The album featured the singles " Never Say Die " and " Hard Road " , both of which cracked the top 40 in the UK . The band also made their second appearance on Top of the Pops , performing " Never Say Die " . It took nearly 20 years for the album to be certified Gold in the US .
Touring in support of Never Say Die ! began in May 1978 with openers Van Halen . Reviewers called Black Sabbath 's performance " tired and uninspired " , a stark contrast to the " youthful " performance of Van Halen , who were touring the world for the first time . The band filmed a performance at the Hammersmith Odeon in June 1978 , which was later released on DVD as Never Say Die . The final show of the tour , and Osbourne 's last appearance with the band ( until later reunions ) was in Albuquerque , New Mexico on 11 December .
Following the tour , Black Sabbath returned to Los Angeles and again rented a house in Bel Air , where they spent nearly a year working on new material for the next album . The entire band were abusing both alcohol and other drugs , but Iommi says Osbourne " was on a totally different level altogether " . The band would come up with new song ideas but Osbourne showed little interest and would refuse to sing them . Pressure from the record label and frustrations with Osbourne 's lack of input coming to a head , Iommi made the decision to fire Osbourne in 1979 . Iommi believed the only options available were to fire Osbourne or break the band up completely . " At that time , Ozzy had come to an end " , Iommi said . " We were all doing a lot of drugs , a lot of coke , a lot of everything , and Ozzy was getting drunk so much at the time . We were supposed to be rehearsing and nothing was happening . It was like ' Rehearse today ? No , we 'll do it tomorrow . ' It really got so bad that we didn 't do anything . It just fizzled out . " Drummer Ward , who was close with Osbourne , was chosen by Tony to break the news to the singer on 27 April 1979 . " I hope I was professional , I might not have been , actually . When I 'm drunk I am horrible , I am horrid " , Ward said . " Alcohol was definitely one of the most damaging things to Black Sabbath . We were destined to destroy each other . The band were toxic , very toxic . "
= = = Heaven and Hell and Mob Rules ( 1979 – 82 ) = = =
Sharon Arden ( later Sharon Osbourne ) , daughter of Black Sabbath manager Don Arden , suggested former Rainbow vocalist Ronnie James Dio to replace Ozzy Osbourne in 1979 . Don Arden was at this point still trying to convince Osbourne to rejoin the band , as he viewed the original line @-@ up as the most profitable . Dio officially joined in June , and the band began writing their next album . With a notably different vocal style from Osbourne 's , Dio 's addition to the band marked a change in Black Sabbath 's sound . " They were totally different altogether " , Iommi explains . " Not only voice @-@ wise , but attitude @-@ wise . Ozzy was a great showman , but when Dio came in , it was a different attitude , a different voice and a different musical approach , as far as vocals . Dio would sing across the riff , whereas Ozzy would follow the riff , like in " Iron Man " . Ronnie came in and gave us another angle on writing . "
Geezer Butler temporarily left the band in September 1979 for personal reasons . According to Dio , the band initially hired Craig Gruber ( with whom Dio had previously played while in Elf ) on bass to assist with writing the new album . Gruber was soon replaced by Geoff Nicholls of Quartz . The new line @-@ up returned to Criteria Studios in November to begin recording work , with Butler returning to the band in January 1980 , and Nicholls moving to keyboards . Produced by Martin Birch , Heaven and Hell was released on 25 April 1980 , to critical acclaim . Over a decade after its release Allmusic said the album was " one of Sabbath 's finest records , the band sounds reborn and re @-@ energised throughout " . Heaven and Hell peaked at number 9 in the UK , and number 28 in the US , the band 's highest charting album since Sabotage . The album eventually sold a million copies in the US , and the band embarked on an extensive world tour , making their first live appearance with Dio in Germany on 17 April 1980 .
Black Sabbath toured the US throughout 1980 with Blue Öyster Cult on the " Black and Blue " tour , with a show at Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale , New York filmed and released theatrically in 1981 as Black and Blue . On 26 July 1980 , the band played to 75 @,@ 000 fans at a sold @-@ out Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum with Journey , Cheap Trick , and Molly Hatchet . The next day , the band appeared at the 1980 Day on the Green at Oakland Coliseum . While on tour , Black Sabbath 's former label in England issued a live album culled from a seven @-@ year @-@ old performance , titled Live at Last without any input from the band . The album reached number five on the British charts , and saw the re @-@ release of " Paranoid " as a single , which reached the top 20 .
On 18 August 1980 , after a show in Minneapolis , Ward quit the band . " It was intolerable for me to get on the stage without Ozzy . And I drank 24 hours a day , my alcoholism accelerated " . Geezer Butler stated that after the show , Ward came in drunk , talking about the things where " He might as well be a Martian " . Ward then got angry , and decided to pack his things , and get on a bus to leave . The group then brought in drummer Vinny Appice to replace Ward .
The band completed the Heaven and Hell world tour in February 1981 , and returned to the studio to begin work on their next album . Black Sabbath 's second studio album produced by Martin Birch and featuring Ronnie James Dio as vocalist Mob Rules was released in October 1981 , to be well received by fans , but less so by the critics . Rolling Stone reviewer J. D. Considine gave the album one star , claiming " Mob Rules finds the band as dull @-@ witted and flatulent as ever " . Like most of the band 's earlier work , time helped to improve the opinions of the music press , a decade after its release , Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia called Mob Rules " a magnificent record " . The album was certified gold , and reached the top 20 on the UK charts . The album 's title track " The Mob Rules " , which was recorded at John Lennon 's old house in England , also featured in the 1981 animated film Heavy Metal , although the film version is an alternate take , and differs from the album version .
Unhappy with the quality of 1980 's Live at Last , the band recorded another live album — titled Live Evil — during the Mob Rules world tour , across the United States in Dallas , San Antonio , and Seattle , in 1982 . During the mixing process for the album , Iommi and Butler had a falling out with Dio . Misinformed by their then @-@ current mixing engineer , Iommi and Butler accused Dio of sneaking into the studio at night to raise the volume of his vocals . In addition , Dio was not satisfied with the pictures of him in the artwork . Butler also accused Dio and Appice of working on a solo album during the album 's mixing without telling the other members of Black Sabbath . " Ronnie wanted more say in things , " Iommi said . " And Geezer would get upset with him and that is where the rot set in . Live Evil is when it all fell apart . Ronnie wanted to do more of his own thing , and the engineer we were using at the time in the studio didn 't know what to do , because Ronnie was telling him one thing and we were telling him another . At the end of the day , we just said , ' That 's it , the band is over ' " . " When it comes time for the vocal , nobody tells me what to do . Nobody ! Because they 're not as good as me , so I do what I want to do , " Dio later said . " I refuse to listen to Live Evil , because there are too many problems . If you look at the credits , the vocals and drums are listed off to the side . Open up the album and see how many pictures there are of Tony , and how many there are of me and Vinny " .
Ronnie James Dio left Black Sabbath in November 1982 to start his own band , and took drummer Vinny Appice with him . Live Evil was released in January 1983 , but was overshadowed by Ozzy Osbourne 's platinum selling album Speak of the Devil .
= = = Born Again ( 1983 – 84 ) = = =
The remaining two original members , Tony Iommi and Geezer Butler , began auditioning new singers for the band 's next release . Samson 's Nicky Moore , and Lone Star 's John Sloman were considered . The band settled on former Deep Purple vocalist Ian Gillan to replace Ronnie James Dio in December 1982 . While the project was not initially set to be called Black Sabbath , pressures from the record label forced the group to retain the name . The band entered The Manor Studios in Shipton @-@ on @-@ Cherwell , Oxfordshire , in June 1983 with a returned and newly sober Bill Ward on drums . Born Again was panned upon release by critics . Despite the negative reception of the album , it reached number four on the UK charts , and number 39 in the US . Even a decade after its release Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia called the album " dreadful " , noting that " Gillan 's bluesy style and humorous lyrics were completely incompatible with the lords of doom and gloom " .
Although he performed on the album , drummer Ward was unable to tour because of the pressures of the road , and quit the band after the commencement of the Born Again album . " I fell apart with the idea of touring " , Ward later said . " I got so much fear behind touring , I didn 't talk about the fear , I drank behind the fear instead and that was a big mistake . " Ward was replaced by former Electric Light Orchestra drummer Bev Bevan for the Born Again ' 83 - ' 84 world tour , ( often unofficially referred to as the ' Feigh Death Sabbath ' 83 – ' 84 ' World Tour ) which began in Europe with Diamond Head , and later in the US with Quiet Riot and Night Ranger . The band headlined the 1983 Reading Festival in England , adding the Deep Purple song " Smoke on the Water " to their set list .
The tour in support of Born Again included a giant set of the Stonehenge monument . In a move that would be later parodied in the mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap , the band made a mistake in ordering the set piece . As Geezer Butler later explained :
We had Sharon Osbourne 's dad , Don Arden , managing us . He came up with the idea of having the stage set be Stonehenge . He wrote the dimensions down and gave it to our tour manager . He wrote it down in metres but he meant to write it down in feet . The people who made it saw fifteen metres instead of fifteen feet . It was 45 feet high and it wouldn 't fit on any stage anywhere so we just had to leave it in the storage area . It cost a fortune to make but there was not a building on earth that you could fit it into .
= = = Hiatus and Seventh Star ( 1984 – 86 ) = = =
Following the completion of the Born Again tour in March 1984 , vocalist Ian Gillan left Black Sabbath to re @-@ join Deep Purple , which was reforming after a long hiatus . Bevan left at the same time , and Gillan remarked that he and Bevan were made to feel like " hired help " by Iommi . The band then recruited an unknown Los Angeles vocalist named David Donato . The new line @-@ up wrote and rehearsed throughout 1984 , and eventually recorded a demo with producer Bob Ezrin in October . Unhappy with the results , the band parted ways with Donato shortly after . Disillusioned with the band 's revolving line @-@ up , bassist Geezer Butler quit Black Sabbath in November 1984 to form a solo band . " When Ian Gillan took over that was the end of it for me " , Butler later said . " I thought it was just a joke and I just totally left . When we got together with Gillan it was not supposed to be a Black Sabbath album . After we had done the album we gave it to Warner Bros. and they said they were going to put it out as a Black Sabbath album and we didn 't have a leg to stand on . I got really disillusioned with it and Gillan was really pissed off about it . That lasted one album and one tour and then that was it . "
Following Butler 's exit , sole remaining original member Tony Iommi put Black Sabbath on hiatus , and began work on a solo album with long @-@ time Sabbath keyboardist Geoff Nicholls . While working on new material , the original Black Sabbath line @-@ up were offered a spot at Bob Geldof 's Live Aid benefit concert ; the band agreed , performing at the Philadelphia show , on 13 July 1985 . The event marked the first time the original line @-@ up appeared on stage since 1978 , and also featured reunions of the Who and Led Zeppelin . Returning to his solo work , Iommi enlisted bassist Dave Spitz , drummer Eric Singer and initially intended to use multiple singers , including Rob Halford of Judas Priest , former Deep Purple and Trapeze vocalist Glenn Hughes , and former Black Sabbath vocalist Ronnie James Dio . This plan didn 't work as he forecasted . " We were going to use different vocalists on the album , guest vocalists , but it was so difficult getting it together and getting releases from their record companies . Glenn Hughes came along to sing on one track and we decided to use him on the whole album . "
The band spent the remainder of the year in the studio , recording what would become Seventh Star . Warner Bros. refused to release the album as a Tony Iommi solo release , instead insisting on using the name Black Sabbath . Pressured by the band 's manager , Don Arden , the two compromised and released the album as " Black Sabbath featuring Tony Iommi " in January 1986 . " It opened up a whole can of worms really " , Iommi explained , " because I think if we could have done it as a solo album , it would have been accepted a lot more . " Seventh Star , which sounded little like a Black Sabbath album , incorporated more hard rock elements popularised by the 1980s Sunset Strip hard rock scene , and was panned by the critics of the era , although later reviewers such as Allmusic gave the album favourable reviews , calling the album " often misunderstood and underrated " .
The new line @-@ up rehearsed for six weeks preparing for a full world tour , although the band were eventually forced to use the Black Sabbath name . " I was into the ' Tony Iommi project ' , but I wasn 't into the Black Sabbath moniker " , Hughes said . " The idea of being in Black Sabbath didn 't appeal to me whatsoever . Glenn Hughes singing in Black Sabbath is like James Brown singing in Metallica . It wasn 't gonna work " . Just four days before the start of the tour , vocalist Glenn Hughes got into a bar fight with the band 's production manager John Downing which splintered the singer 's orbital bone . The injury interfered with Hughes ' ability to sing , and the band brought in vocalist Ray Gillen to continue the tour with W.A.S.P. and Anthrax , although nearly half of the US dates would eventually be cancelled because of poor ticket sales .
One vocalist whose status is disputed , both inside and outside Black Sabbath , is Christian evangelist and former Joshua frontman , Jeff Fenholt . Fenholt has insisted that he was a singer in Black Sabbath between January and May 1985 . Tony Iommi has never confirmed this . Fenholt gives a detailed account of his time with Iommi and Sabbath in Garry Sharpe @-@ Young 's book Sabbath Bloody Sabbath : The Battle for Black Sabbath .
= = = The Eternal Idol , Headless Cross and Tyr ( 1986 – 90 ) = = =
Black Sabbath began work on new material in October 1986 at Air Studios in Montserrat with producer Jeff Glixman . The recording was fraught with problems from the beginning , as Glixman left after the initial sessions to be replaced by producer Vic Coppersmith @-@ Heaven . Bassist Dave Spitz quit over " personal issues " , and former Rainbow and Ozzy Osbourne bassist Bob Daisley was brought in . Daisley re @-@ recorded all of the bass tracks , and wrote the album 's lyrics , but before the album was complete , he left to join Gary Moore 's backing band , taking drummer Eric Singer with him . After problems with second producer Coppersmith @-@ Heaven , the band returned to Morgan Studios in England in January 1987 to work with new producer Chris Tsangarides . While working in the UK , new vocalist Ray Gillen abruptly left Black Sabbath to form Blue Murder with John Sykes . The band enlisted former Alliance vocalist Tony Martin to re @-@ record Gillen 's tracks , and former Electric Light Orchestra drummer Bev Bevan to complete a few percussion overdubs . Before the release of the new album Black Sabbath accepted an offer to play six shows at Sun City , South Africa during the apartheid era . The band drew criticism from activists and artists involved with Artists United Against Apartheid , who had been boycotting South Africa since 1985 . Drummer Bev Bevan refused to play the shows , and was replaced by Terry Chimes , formerly of the Clash .
After nearly a year in production , The Eternal Idol was released on 8 December 1987 and ignored by contemporary reviewers . On @-@ line internet era reviews were mixed . AllMusic said that " Martin 's powerful voice added new fire " to the band , and the album contained " some of Iommi 's heaviest riffs in years . " Blender gave the album two stars , claiming the album was " Black Sabbath in name only " . The album would stall at No. 66 in the UK , while peaking at 168 in the US . The band toured in support of Eternal Idol in Germany , Italy and for the first time , Greece . Unfortunately , in part because of a backlash from promoters over the South Africa incident , other European shows were cancelled . Bassist Dave Spitz left the band shortly before the tour , and was replaced by Jo Burt , formerly of Virginia Wolf .
Following the poor commercial performance of The Eternal Idol , Black Sabbath were dropped by both Vertigo Records and Warner Bros. Records , and signed with I.R.S. Records . The band took time off in 1988 , returning in August to begin work on their next album . As a result of the recording troubles with Eternal Idol , Tony Iommi opted to produce the band 's next album himself . " It was a completely new start " , Iommi said . " I had to rethink the whole thing , and decided that we needed to build up some credibility again " . Iommi enlisted former Rainbow drummer Cozy Powell , long @-@ time keyboardist Nicholls and session bassist Laurence Cottle , and rented a " very cheap studio in England " .
Black Sabbath released Headless Cross in April 1989 , and it was also ignored by contemporary reviewers , although Allmusic contributor Eduardo Rivadavia gave the album four stars and called it " the finest non @-@ Ozzy or Dio Black Sabbath album " . Anchored by the number 62 charting single " Headless Cross " , the album reached number 31 on the UK charts , and number 115 in the US . Queen guitarist Brian May , a good friend of Iommi 's , played a guest solo on the song " When Death Calls " . Following the album 's release the band added touring bassist Neil Murray , formerly of Whitesnake , Gary Moore 's backing band , and Vow Wow .
The unsuccessful Headless Cross US tour began in May 1989 with openers Kingdom Come and Silent Rage , but because of poor ticket sales , the tour was cancelled after just eight shows . The European leg of the tour began in September , where the band were enjoying chart success . After a string of Japanese shows the band embarked on a 23 date Russian tour with Girlschool . Black Sabbath was one of the first bands to tour Russia , after Mikhail Gorbachev opened the country to western acts for the first time in 1989 .
The band returned to the studio in February 1990 to record Tyr , the follow @-@ up to Headless Cross . While not technically a concept album , some of the album 's lyrical themes are loosely based on Norse mythology . Tyr was released on 6 August 1990 , reaching number 24 on the UK albums chart , but was the first Black Sabbath release not to break the Billboard 200 in the US . The album would receive mixed internet @-@ era reviews , with Allmusic noting that the band " mix myth with metal in a crushing display of musical synthesis " , while Blender gave the album just one star , claiming that " Iommi continues to besmirch the Sabbath name with this unremarkable collection " . The band toured in support of Tyr with Circus of Power in Europe , but the final seven UK dates were cancelled because of poor ticket sales . For the first time in their career , the band 's touring cycle did not include US dates .
= = = Dehumanizer ( 1990 – 92 ) = = =
While on his own Lock Up the Wolves US tour in August 1990 , former Black Sabbath vocalist Ronnie James Dio was joined on stage at the Roy Wilkins Auditorium by former Black Sabbath bassist Geezer Butler to perform " Neon Knights " . Following the show , the two expressed interest in rejoining Black Sabbath . Butler convinced Iommi , who in turn broke up the current line @-@ up , dismissing vocalist Tony Martin and bassist Neil Murray . " I do regret that in a lot of ways " , Iommi said . " We were at a good point then . We decided to [ reunite with Dio ] and I don 't even know why , really . There 's the financial aspect , but that wasn 't it . I seemed to think maybe we could recapture something we had " .
Ronnie James Dio and Geezer Butler joined Tony Iommi and Cozy Powell in autumn of 1990 to begin working on the next Black Sabbath release . While rehearsing in November , Powell suffered a broken hip when his horse died , falling on the drummer 's legs . Unable to complete work on the album , Powell was replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice , reuniting the Mob Rules era line @-@ up , and the band entered the studio with producer Reinhold Mack . The year @-@ long recording process was plagued with problems , primarily stemming from writing tension between Iommi and Dio . Some songs were re @-@ written multiple times . " Dehumanizer took a long time , it was just hard work " , Iommi said . " We took too long on it , that album cost us a million dollars , which is bloody ridiculous " . Dio later recalled the album as difficult , but worth the effort . " It was something we had to really wring out of ourselves , but I think that 's why it works " , he said . " Sometimes you need that kind of tension , or else you end up making the Christmas album " .
The resulting album , Dehumanizer was released on 22 June 1992 . In the US , the album was released on 30 June 1992 by Reprise Records , as Ronnie James Dio and his namesake band were still under contract with the label at the time . While the album received mixed reviews , it was the band 's biggest commercial success in a decade . Anchored by the top 40 rock radio single " TV Crimes " , the album peaked at number 44 on the Billboard 200 . The album also featured the song " Time Machine " , a version of which had been recorded for the 1992 film Wayne 's World . Additionally , the perception by many fans of a return of some semblance of the " real " Black Sabbath provided the band with some much needed momentum .
Black Sabbath began touring in support of Dehumanizer in July 1992 with Testament , Danzig , Prong , and Exodus . While on tour , former vocalist Ozzy Osbourne announced his first retirement , and invited Black Sabbath to open for his solo band at the final two shows of his No More Tours tour in Costa Mesa , California . The band agreed , aside from vocalist Ronnie James Dio , who told Iommi in no uncertain terms " I 'm not doing that . I 'm not supporting a clown . " Dio spoke of the situation in an interview years later :
I was told in the middle of the tour that we would be opening for Ozzy in Los Angeles . And I said , " No . Sorry , I have more pride than that . " A lot of bad things were being said from camp to camp , and it created this horrible schism . So by [ the band ] agreeing to play the shows in L.A. with Ozzy , that , to me , spelled out reunion . And that obviously meant the doom of that particular project .
Dio quit Black Sabbath following a show in Oakland , California on 13 November 1992 , one night before the band were set to appear at Osbourne 's retirement show . Judas Priest vocalist Rob Halford stepped in at the last minute , performing two nights with the band . Iommi and Butler also joined Osbourne and former drummer Ward on stage for the first time since 1985 's Live Aid concert , performing a brief set of Black Sabbath songs .
= = = Cross Purposes and Forbidden ( 1993 – 96 ) = = =
Drummer Vinny Appice left the band following the reunion show to join Ronnie James Dio 's solo band , later appearing on Dio 's Strange Highways and Angry Machines . Iommi and Butler enlisted former Rainbow drummer Bobby Rondinelli , and reinstated former vocalist Tony Martin . The band returned to the studio to work on new material , although the project was not originally intended to be released under the Black Sabbath name . As Geezer Butler explains :
It wasn 't even supposed to be a Sabbath album ; I wouldn 't have even done it under the pretence of Sabbath . That was the time when the original band were talking about getting back together for a reunion tour . Tony and myself just went in with a couple of people , did an album just to have , while the reunion tour was ( supposedly ) going on . It was like an Iommi / Butler project album .
Under pressure from their record label , the band released their seventeenth studio album , Cross Purposes , on 8 February 1994 , under the Black Sabbath name . The album received mixed reviews , with Blender giving the album two stars , calling Soundgarden 's 1994 album Superunknown " a far better Sabbath album than this by @-@ the @-@ numbers potboiler " . Allmusic 's Bradley Torreano called Cross Purposes " the first album since Born Again that actually sounds like a real Sabbath record " . The album just missed the Top 40 in the UK reaching number 41 , and also reached 122 on the Billboard 200 in the US . Cross Purposes contained the song " Evil Eye " , which was co @-@ written by Van Halen guitarist Eddie Van Halen , although uncredited because of record label restrictions . Touring in support of Cross Purposes began in February with Morbid Angel and Motörhead in the US . The band filmed a live performance at the Hammersmith Apollo on 13 April 1994 , which was released on VHS accompanied by a CD , titled Cross Purposes Live . After the European tour with Cathedral and Godspeed in June 1994 , drummer Bobby Rondinelli quit the band and was replaced by original Black Sabbath drummer Ward for five shows in South America .
Following the touring cycle for Cross Purposes , bassist Geezer Butler quit the band for the second time . " I finally got totally disillusioned with the last Sabbath album , and I much preferred the stuff I was writing to the stuff Sabbath were doing " . Butler formed a solo project called GZR , and released Plastic Planet in 1995 . The album contained the song " Giving Up the Ghost " , which was critical of Tony Iommi for carrying on with the Black Sabbath name , with the lyrics : You plagiarised and parodied / the magic of our meaning / a legend in your own mind / left all your friends behind / you can 't admit that you 're wrong / the spirit is dead and gone ( " I heard it 's something about me ... " said Iommi . " I had the album given to me a while back . I played it once , then somebody else had it , so I haven 't really paid any attention to the lyrics ... It 's nice to see him doing his own thing – getting things off his chest . I don 't want to get into a rift with Geezer . He 's still a friend . "
Following Butler 's departure , newly returned drummer Ward once again left the band . Iommi reinstated former members Neil Murray on bass and Cozy Powell on drums , effectively reuniting the Tyr line @-@ up . The band enlisted Body Count guitarist Ernie C to produce the new album , which was recorded in London in autumn of 1994 . The album featured a guest vocal on " Illusion of Power " by Body Count vocalist Ice @-@ T. The resulting Forbidden was released on 8 June 1995 , but failed to chart in the US or the UK . The album was widely panned by critics ; Allmusic 's Bradley Torreano said " with boring songs , awful production , and uninspired performances , this is easily avoidable for all but the most enthusiastic fan " ; while Blender magazine called Forbidden " an embarrassment ... the band 's worst album " .
Black Sabbath embarked on a world tour in July 1995 with openers Motörhead and Tiamat , but two months into the tour , drummer Cozy Powell left the band , citing health issues , and was replaced by former drummer Bobby Rondinelli . " The members I had in the last lineup – Bobby Rondinelli , Neil Murray – they 're great , great characters ... " Iommi told Sabbath fanzine Southern Cross . " That , for me , was an ideal lineup . I wasn 't sure vocally what we should do , but Neil Murray and Bobby Rondinelli I really got on well with . "
After completing Asian dates in December 1995 , Tony Iommi put the band on hiatus , and began work on a solo album with former Black Sabbath vocalist Glenn Hughes , and former Judas Priest drummer Dave Holland . The album was not officially released following its completion , although a widely traded bootleg called Eighth Star surfaced soon after . The album was officially released in 2004 as The 1996 DEP Sessions , with Holland 's drums re @-@ recorded by session drummer Jimmy Copley .
In 1997 , Tony Iommi disbanded the current line @-@ up to officially reunite with Ozzy Osbourne and the original Black Sabbath line @-@ up . Vocalist Tony Martin claimed that an original line @-@ up reunion had been in the works since the band 's brief reunion at Ozzy Osbourne 's 1992 Costa Mesa show , and that the band released subsequent albums to fulfill their record contract with I.R.S. Records . Martin later recalled Forbidden as a " filler album that got the band out of the label deal , rid of the singer , and into the reunion . However I wasn 't privy to that information at the time " . I.R.S. Records released a compilation album in 1996 to fulfill the band 's contract , titled The Sabbath Stones , which featured songs from Born Again to Forbidden .
= = = Reunion ( 1997 – 2006 ) = = =
In the summer of 1997 , Tony Iommi , Geezer Butler , and Ozzy Osbourne officially reunited to co @-@ headline the Ozzfest festival tour alongside Osbourne 's solo band . The line @-@ up featured Osbourne 's drummer Mike Bordin filling in for Ward , who was unable to participate because of previous commitments with his solo project , the Bill Ward Band . In December 1997 , the group was joined by Ward , marking the first reunion of the original four members since Osbourne 's 1992 " retirement show " . The original line @-@ up recorded two shows at the Birmingham NEC , which were released as the double live album Reunion on 20 October 1998 . Reunion reached number eleven on the Billboard 200 , and went platinum in the US . The album spawned the single " Iron Man " , which won Black Sabbath their first Grammy Award in 2000 for Best Metal Performance , 30 years after the song was originally released . Reunion also featured two new studio tracks , " Psycho Man " and " Selling My Soul " , both of which cracked the top 20 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart .
Shortly before the band embarked on a European tour in the summer of 1998 , Ward suffered a heart attack and was temporarily replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice . Ward returned in time for the US tour with openers Pantera , which began in January 1999 and continued through the summer , headlining the annual Ozzfest tour . Following the Ozzfest appearances , the band was put on hiatus while members worked on solo material . Tony Iommi released his first official solo album , Iommi , in 2000 , while Osbourne continued work on his next solo release , Down to Earth .
Black Sabbath returned to the studio to work on new material with all four original members and producer Rick Rubin in the spring of 2001 , but the sessions were halted when Osbourne was called away to finish tracks for his solo album in the summer of 2001 . " It just came to an end " , Iommi said . " We didn 't go any further , and it 's a shame because [ the songs ] were really good " . Iommi commented on the difficulty getting all of the band members together to work on material :
It 's quite different recording now . We 've all done so much in between . In [ the early ] days there was no mobile phone ringing every five seconds . When we first started , we had nothing . We all worked for the same thing . Now everybody has done so many other things . It 's great fun and we all have a good chat , but it 's just different , trying to put an album together .
In March 2002 , Ozzy Osbourne 's Emmy winning reality TV show The Osbournes debuted on MTV , and quickly became a worldwide hit . The show introduced Osbourne to a broader audience and to capitalise , the band 's back catalogue label , Sanctuary Records released a double live album Past Lives , which featured concert material recorded in the 1970s , including the previously unofficial Live at Last album . The band remained on hiatus until the summer of 2004 when they returned to headline Ozzfest 2004 and 2005 . In November 2005 , Black Sabbath were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame , and in March 2006 , after eleven years of eligibility , the band were inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . At the awards ceremony Metallica played two Black Sabbath songs , " Hole in the Sky " and " Iron Man " in tribute to the band .
= = = The Dio Years and Heaven and Hell ( 2006 – 10 ) = = =
While Ozzy Osbourne was working on new solo album material in 2006 , Rhino Records released Black Sabbath : The Dio Years , a compilation of songs culled from the four Black Sabbath releases featuring Ronnie James Dio . For the release , Iommi , Butler , Dio and Appice reunited to write and record three new songs as Black Sabbath . The Dio Years was released on 3 April 2007 , reaching number 54 on the Billboard 200 , while the single " The Devil Cried " reached number 37 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . Pleased with the results , Iommi and Dio decided to reunite the Heaven and Hell era line @-@ up for a world tour . While the line @-@ up of Osbourne , Butler , Iommi and Ward were still officially called Black Sabbath , the new line @-@ up opted to call themselves Heaven & Hell , after the album of the same name , to avoid confusion . When asked about the name of the group , Iommi stated " it really is Black Sabbath , whatever we do ... so everyone knows what they 're getting [ and ] so people won 't expect to hear ' Iron Man ' and all those songs . We 've done them for so many years , it 's nice to do just all the stuff we did with Ronnie again . " Ward was initially set to participate , but dropped out before the tour began due to musical differences with " a couple of the band members " . He was replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice , effectively reuniting the line @-@ up that had featured on the Mob Rules and Dehumanizer albums .
Heaven & Hell toured the US with openers Megadeth and Machine Head , and recorded a live album and DVD in New York on 30 March 2007 , titled Live from Radio City Music Hall . In November 2007 , Dio confirmed that the band had plans to record a new studio album , which was recorded in the following year . In April 2008 the band announced the upcoming release of a new box set and their participation in the Metal Masters Tour , alongside Judas Priest , Motörhead and Testament . The box set , The Rules of Hell , featuring remastered versions of all the Dio fronted Black Sabbath albums , was supported by the Metal Masters Tour . In 2009 , the band announced the name of their debut studio album , The Devil You Know , released on 28 April .
On 26 May 2009 Osbourne filed suit in a federal court in New York against Iommi alleging that he illegally claimed the band name . Iommi noted that he has been the only constant band member for its full 41 @-@ year career , and that his bandmates relinquished their rights to the name in the 1980s , therefore claiming more rights to the name of the band . Although , in the suit , Osbourne was seeking 50 % ownership of the trademark , he said that he hoped the proceedings would lead to equal ownership among the four original members .
In March 2010 , Black Sabbath announced that along with Metallica they would be releasing a limited edition single together to celebrate Record Store Day . It was released on 17 April 2010 .
Ronnie James Dio died on 16 May 2010 from stomach cancer . In June 2010 , the legal battle between Ozzy Osbourne and Tony Iommi over the trademarking of the Black Sabbath name ended , but the terms of the settlement have not been disclosed .
= = = Reunion and 13 ( 2010 – 14 ) = = =
In a January 2010 interview while promoting his biography I Am Ozzy , Osbourne stated that although he would not rule it out , he was doubtful there would be a reunion with all four original members of the band . Osbourne stated : " I 'm not gonna say I 've written it out forever , but right now I don 't think there 's any chance . But who knows what the future holds for me ? If it 's my destiny , fine . " In July , Butler said that there would be no reunion in 2011 , as Osbourne was already committed to touring with his solo band . However , by that August they had already met up to rehearse together , and continued to do so through the autumn .
On 11 November 2011 , Iommi , Butler , Osbourne , and Ward announced that they were reuniting to record a new album with a full tour in support beginning in 2012 . Guitarist Iommi was diagnosed with lymphoma on 9 January 2012 , which forced the band to cancel all but two shows ( Download Festival , and Lollapalooza Festival ) of a previously booked European tour . It was later announced that an intimate show would be played in their hometown Birmingham . It was the first concert since the reunion and the only indoors concerts that year . In February 2012 , drummer Ward announced that he would not participate further in the band 's reunion until he was offered a " signable contract " .
On 21 May 2012 , at the O2 Academy in Birmingham , Black Sabbath played their first concert since 2005 , with Tommy Clufetos playing the drums . In June , they performed at Download Festival , followed by the last concert of the short tour at Lollapalooza Festival in Chicago . Later that month , the band started recording an album .
On 13 January 2013 , the band announced that the album would be released in June under the title 13 . Brad Wilk of Rage Against the Machine was chosen as the drummer , and Rick Rubin was chosen as the producer . Mixing of the album commenced in February . On 12 April 2013 , the band released the album 's track listing . The standard version of the album features eight new tracks , and the deluxe version features three bonus tracks .
The band 's first single from 13 , " God Is Dead ? " , was released on 19 April 2013 . On 20 April 2013 , Black Sabbath commenced their first Australia / New Zealand tour in 40 years , to be followed by a major North American Tour in Summer 2013 . The second single of the album , " End of the Beginning " , debuted on 15 May in a CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode , where all three members appeared . In June 2013 , 13 topped both the UK Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200 . " God Is Dead ? " earned Black Sabbath their first Grammy Award in 14 years for Best Metal Performance in 2014 .
In July 2013 , Black Sabbath embarked on a North American Tour ( for the first time since July 2001 ) , followed by a Latin American tour in October 2013 . In November 2013 , the band started their European tour which lasted until December 2013 . In March and April 2014 , they made 12 stops in North America ( mostly in Canada ) as the second leg of their North American Tour before embarking in June 2014 on the second leg of their European tour , which ended with a concert at London 's Hyde Park .
= = = Final tour ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On 29 September 2014 , vocalist Ozzy Osbourne told Metal Hammer that Black Sabbath would begin work on their twentieth studio album in early 2015 with producer Rick Rubin , followed by a final tour in 2016 . In an April 2015 interview , however , Osbourne said that these plans " could change " , and added , " We all live in different countries and some of them want to work and some of them don 't want to , I believe . But we are going to do another tour together . "
On 3 September 2015 , it was announced that Black Sabbath would embark on their final tour , titled The End , from January 2016 to February 2017 . Numerous dates and locations across the US , Canada , Europe , Australia and New Zealand were announced . The final shows of The End tour will take place at the Genting Arena in Birmingham on February 2 and February 4 , 2017 .
On 26 October 2015 , it was announced the band consisting of Osbourne , Iommi and Butler would be returning to the Download Festival on 11 June 2016 . Despite earlier reports that they would enter the studio before their farewell tour , Osbourne stated that there will not be another Black Sabbath studio album . However , an 8 @-@ track CD entitled The End was sold at dates on the tour . Along with some live recordings , the CD includes four unused tracks from the 13 sessions .
On 4 March 2016 , Iommi discussed future re @-@ releases of the Tony Martin @-@ era catalogue . He explained : " We 've held back on the reissues of those albums because of the current Sabbath thing with Ozzy Osbourne , but they will certainly be happening ... I 'd like to do a couple of new tracks for those releases with Tony Martin ... I 'll also be looking at working on Cross Purposes and Forbidden . " Martin has suggested that this could coincide with the 30th anniversary of The Eternal Idol , in 2017 .
= = Musical style = =
Black Sabbath are a heavy metal band , whose music has also been described as psychedelic rock , blues rock , hard rock , progressive rock , proto @-@ progressive metal , and acid rock . The band have also been cited as a key influence on genres including stoner rock , doom metal , and sludge metal .
Early on Black Sabbath were influenced by Cream , the Beatles , Fleetwood Mac , Jimi Hendrix , John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , Led Zeppelin and Jethro Tull .
Although Black Sabbath have gone through many line @-@ ups and stylistic changes , their core sound focuses on ominous lyrics and doomy music , often making use of the musical tritone , also called the " devil 's interval " . While their Ozzy @-@ era albums such as Sabbath Bloody Sabbath had slight compositional similarities to the progressive rock genre that was growing in popularity at the time , standing in stark contrast to popular music of the early 1970s Black Sabbath 's dark sound was dismissed by rock critics of the era . Much like many of their early heavy metal contemporaries , the band received virtually no airplay on rock radio .
As the band 's primary songwriter , Tony Iommi wrote the majority of Black Sabbath 's music , while Osbourne would write vocal melodies , and bassist Geezer Butler would write lyrics . The process was sometimes frustrating for Iommi , who often felt pressured to come up with new material . " If I didn 't come up with anything , nobody would do anything . " On Iommi 's influence , Osbourne later said :
Black Sabbath never used to write a structured song . There 'd be a long intro that would go into a jazz piece , then go all folky ... and it worked . Tony Iommi — and I have said this a zillion times — should be up there with the greats . He can pick up a guitar , play a riff , and you say , ' He 's gotta be out now , he can 't top that . ' Then you come back , and I bet you a billion dollars , he 'd come up with a riff that 'd knock your fucking socks off .
Beginning with their third album , Master of Reality , Black Sabbath began to feature tuned @-@ down guitars . In 1965 , before forming Black Sabbath , guitarist Tony Iommi suffered an accident while working in a sheet metal factory , losing the tips of two fingers on his right hand . Iommi almost gave up music , but was urged by the factory manager to listen to Django Reinhardt , a jazz guitarist who lost the use of two fingers . Inspired by Reinhardt , Iommi created two thimbles made of plastic and leather to cap off his missing fingertips . The guitarist began using lighter strings , and detuning his guitar , to better grip the strings with his prosthesis . Early in the band 's history Iommi experimented with different dropped tunings , including C ♯ tuning , or 3 semitones down , before settling on E ♭ / D ♯ tuning , or a half @-@ step down from standard tuning .
= = Legacy = =
Black Sabbath has sold over 70 million records worldwide , including a RIAA @-@ certified 15 million in the US . They are one of the most influential heavy metal bands of all time . The band helped to create the genre with ground @-@ breaking releases such as Paranoid , an album that Rolling Stone magazine said " changed music forever " , and called the band " the Beatles of heavy metal " . Time Magazine called Paranoid " the birthplace of heavy metal " , placing it in their Top 100 Albums of All Time . Rolling Stone magazine ranked Black Sabbath number 85 in their list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . MTV placed Black Sabbath at number one on their Top Ten Heavy Metal Bands and VH1 placed them at number two on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . VH1 ranked Black Sabbath 's " Iron Man " the number one song on their 40 Greatest Metal Songs countdown . Allmusic 's William Ruhlmann said :
Black Sabbath has been so influential in the development of heavy metal rock music as to be a defining force in the style . The group took the blues @-@ rock sound of late ' 60s acts like Cream , Blue Cheer , and Vanilla Fudge to its logical conclusion , slowing the tempo , accentuating the bass , and emphasising screaming guitar solos and howled vocals full of lyrics expressing mental anguish and macabre fantasies . If their predecessors clearly came out of an electrified blues tradition , Black Sabbath took that tradition in a new direction , and in so doing helped give birth to a musical style that continued to attract millions of fans decades later .
According to Rolling Stone 's Holly George @-@ Warren , " Black Sabbath was the heavy metal king of the 70s . " Although initially " despised by rock critics and ignored by radio programmers " , the group sold more than 8 million albums by the end of that decade .
= = = Influence and innovation = = =
Black Sabbath have influenced many acts including Iron Maiden , Slayer , Metallica , Nirvana , Korn , Mayhem , Venom , Judas Priest , Guns N ' Roses , Soundgarden , Body Count , Alice in Chains , Anthrax , Disturbed , Death , Opeth , Pantera , Megadeth , the Smashing Pumpkins , Slipknot , Foo Fighters , Fear Factory , Candlemass , Godsmack , and Van Halen . Two gold selling tribute albums have been released , Nativity in Black Volume 1 & 2 , including covers by Sepultura , White Zombie , Type O Negative , Faith No More , Machine Head , Primus , System of a Down , and Monster Magnet .
Metallica 's Lars Ulrich , who , along with bandmate James Hetfield inducted Black Sabbath into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2006 , said " Black Sabbath is and always will be synonymous with heavy metal " , while Hetfield said " Sabbath got me started on all that evil @-@ sounding shit , and it 's stuck with me . Tony Iommi is the king of the heavy riff . " former Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash said of the Paranoid album : " There 's just something about that whole record that , when you 're a kid and you 're turned onto it , it 's like a whole different world . It just opens up your mind to another dimension ... Paranoid is the whole Sabbath experience ; very indicative of what Sabbath meant at the time . Tony 's playing style — doesn 't matter whether it 's off Paranoid or if it 's off Heaven and Hell — it 's very distinctive . " Anthrax guitarist Scott Ian said " I always get the question in every interview I do , ' What are your top five metal albums ? ' I make it easy for myself and always say the first five Sabbath albums . "
Lamb of God 's Chris Adler said : " If anybody who plays heavy metal says that they weren 't influenced by Black Sabbath 's music , then I think that they 're lying to you . I think all heavy metal music was , in some way , influenced by what Black Sabbath did . " Judas Priest vocalist Rob Halford commented : " They were and still are a groundbreaking band .. you can put on the first Black Sabbath album and it still sounds as fresh today as it did 30 @-@ odd years ago . And that 's because great music has a timeless ability : To me , Sabbath are in the same league as the Beatles or Mozart . They 're on the leading edge of something extraordinary . " On Black Sabbath 's standing , Rage Against the Machine guitarist Tom Morello states : " The heaviest , scariest , coolest riffs and the apocalyptic Ozzy wail are without peer . You can hear the despair and menace of the working @-@ class Birmingham streets they came from in every kick @-@ ass , evil groove . Their arrival ground hippy , flower @-@ power psychedelia to a pulp and set the standard for all heavy bands to come . " Phil Anselmo of Pantera and Down stated that " Only a fool would leave out what Black Sabbath brought to the heavy metal genre " .
According to Tracii Guns of L.A. Guns and former member of Guns N ' Roses , the main riff of " Paradise City " by Guns N ' Roses , from Appetite for Destruction ( 1987 ) , was influenced by the song " Zero the Hero " from the Born Again album . King Diamond guitarist Andy LaRocque affirmed that the clean guitar part of " Sleepless Nights " from Conspiracy ( 1989 ) is inspired by Tony Iommi 's playing on Never Say Die ! .
In addition to being pioneers of heavy metal , they also have been credited for laying the foundations for heavy metal subgenres stoner rock , sludge metal , thrash metal , black metal and doom metal as well as for alternative rock subgenre grunge . According to the critic Bob Gulla , the band 's sound " shows up in virtually all of grunge 's most popular bands , including Nirvana , Soundgarden , and Alice in Chains " .
Tony Iommi has been credited as the pioneer of lighter gauge guitar strings . The tips of his fingers were severed in a steel factory , and while using thimbles ( artificial finger tips ) he found that standard guitar strings were too difficult to bend and play . He found that there was only one size of strings available , so after years with Sabbath he had strings custom made .
Culturally , Black Sabbath have exerted a huge influence in both television and literature and have in many cases become synonymous with heavy metal . In the film Almost Famous , Lester Bangs gives the protagonist an assignment to cover the band ( plot point one ) with the immortal line : ' Give me 500 words on Black Sabbath ' . Contemporary music and arts publication Trebuchet Magazine has put this to practice by asking all new writers to write a short piece ( 500 words ) on Black Sabbath as a means of proving their creativity and voice on a well documented subject .
= = Members = =
Current line @-@ up
Tony Iommi – lead guitar ( 1968 – present )
Geezer Butler – bass guitar ( 1968 – 1979 , 1980 – 1985 , 1987 , 1990 – 1994 , 1997 – present )
Ozzy Osbourne – lead vocals ( 1968 – 1977 , 1978 – 1979 , 1985 , 1997 – present )
Touring members
Adam Wakeman – keyboards , back @-@ up guitar ( 2004 – 2006 , 2012 – present )
Tommy Clufetos – drums ( 2012 – present )
= = Tours = =
Black Sabbath Tour 1970
Paranoid Tour 1970 – 1971
Master of Reality Tour 1971 – 1972
Vol . 4 Tour 1972 – 1973
Sabbath Bloody Sabbath Tour 1973 – 1974
Sabotage Tour 1974 – 1976
Technical Ecstacy Tour 1976 – 1977
Never Say Die ! Tour 1978
Heaven & Hell Tour 1980 – 1981
Mob Rules Tour 1981 – 1982
Born Again Tour 1983
Seventh Star Tour 1986
Eternal Idol Tour 1987
Headless Cross Tour 1989
Tyr Tour 1990
Dehumanizer Tour 1992
Cross Purposes Tour 1994
Forbidden Tour 1995
Ozzfest Tour 1997
European Tour 1998
Reunion Tour 1999
Ozzfest Tour 1999
US Tour 1999
European Tour 1999
Ozzfest Tour 2001
Ozzfest Tour 2004
European Tour 2005
Ozzfest Tour 2005
Black Sabbath Reunion Tour , 2012 – 2014
The End Tour 2016
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Black Sabbath ( 1970 )
Paranoid ( 1970 )
Master of Reality ( 1971 )
Vol . 4 ( 1972 )
Sabbath Bloody Sabbath ( 1973 )
Sabotage ( 1975 )
Technical Ecstasy ( 1976 )
Never Say Die ! ( 1978 )
Heaven and Hell ( 1980 )
Mob Rules ( 1981 )
Born Again ( 1983 )
Seventh Star ( 1986 )
The Eternal Idol ( 1987 )
Headless Cross ( 1989 )
Tyr ( 1990 )
Dehumanizer ( 1992 )
Cross Purposes ( 1994 )
Forbidden ( 1995 )
13 ( 2013 )
|
= Kevin Martin ( curler ) =
Kevin Martin ( born July 31 , 1966 ) , nicknamed " The Old Bear " and " K @-@ Mart " , is a retired Canadian curler from Edmonton . He is considered by many commentators and former and current curlers to be the greatest curler of all time .
Over his 30 @-@ year curling career , he has won four Briers , a gold medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics , and one world championship . He has been to a total of three Winter Olympics and four World Championships , and has won a total of two Olympic medals and three World Championship medals . He has won 15 Grand Slam titles on the World Curling Tour ( the media count 18 , including three Players ' Championships won prior to its inclusion as a Grand Slam event ) , which includes a record eight Players ' Championship titles . Over the course of his career , his teams have won around $ 2 million . He was the first skip to win a " career Grand Slam , " winning a title in each Grand Slam event , after he won the Players ' Championship Grand Slam event in April 2005 . Martin also holds the record for the most Olympic victories , with 20 total wins at the Olympics .
During his career , Martin has also served as a major influence in the development of the sport of curling , establishing the competitive tier in the sport and setting the groundwork for the management of curling teams and the creation of high @-@ level competitive curling events . He is also known for contributing to the growth of curling , long known as a recreational and participant @-@ based sport , as a spectator sport . Martin retired from competitive curling in 2014 .
= = Career = =
= = = Junior career = = =
Martin began curling when he was six years old . He took up the sport because his father was the vice president of his local curling club . Martin first came on the curling scene in 1985 when his Alberta team of Richard Feeney , Dan Petryk and Michael Berger won the Canadian Junior Championships in their first year together as a team . The rink ( a group of players ) finished the round robin in second place , with a win @-@ loss record of 7 – 4 , behind Prince Edward Island 's Kent Scales . This forced them into a semifinal against the third place Quebec rink , skipped by Steve Gagnon . They beat Quebec 5 – 4 , earning a spot in the final against Prince Edward Island which they won with a score of 6 – 3 . After winning the championship , he accompanied the Canadian team as an alternate at the 1985 World Junior Curling Championships .
By winning the 1985 Canadian junior championship , the team qualified for the following season 's ( 1986 ) World Juniors . The team went undefeated through the round robin and won their semifinal match against Sweden . However , in the final , they came up short , losing 7 – 6 to the Scottish team skipped by David Aitken .
= = = Early career = = =
Five years out of the World Junior Championships , Martin had formed a new team and won his first provincial championship . This qualified him and his team of Kevin Park , Dan Petryk and Don Bartlett for the 1991 Labatt Brier . At the 1991 Brier , Martin finished the round robin with an 8 – 3 win @-@ loss record , tying Saskatchewan for first place . Martin knocked off British Columbia in the semifinal , and then beat Saskatchewan ( skipped by Randy Woytowich ) with a score of 8 – 4 in the final . The rink was then off to the 1991 Canada Safeway World Curling Championships in Winnipeg . Martin turned the tables , going undefeated through the round robin . After beating Norway 's Eigil Ramsfjell in the semifinal , Martin 's team lost in the final , losing to Scotland 's David Smith with a score of 2 – 7 .
His 1991 Brier victory also earned him a spot at the 1992 Winter Olympics , where curling was just a demonstration sport at the time . Martin won all three of his round robin games before losing the semifinal to Switzerland with a score of 4 – 8 and losing to the United States with a score of 2 – 9 in the bronze medal match .
In 1992 , Martin won his second provincial championship . His team went 8 – 3 once again at the 1992 Labatt Brier , tying them in second place with Ontario . However , in the semifinal , the Ontario rink , skipped by Russ Howard , defeated Martin 's team by 7 – 4 .
Martin 's first World Curling Tour event was the 1993 Players ' Championship , then known as the " Seagrams VO Cup " . His first WCT event win came the following season at the 1993 Kelowna Cashspiel . Later that season he won the 1994 Players ' Championship , which has been retroactively considered his first Slam win , even through the event occurred long before the Grand Slam series began .
= = = 1995 – 1999 = = =
After his two Brier seasons , Martin did not win the provincial title again until 1995 . In the meantime , he had made some line @-@ up changes in his team , and by the 1995 Labatt Brier , he had settled on James Pahl as his second , retaining Park and Bartlett as his third and lead , respectively . At the 1995 Brier , he placed in third after the round robin with a 7 – 4 win @-@ loss record , tied with Ontario and Prince Edward Island . Martin knocked off Ontario 's Ed Werenich in the page playoffs 3 vs. 4 match , but lost to Kerry Burtnyk 's Manitoba rink in the semifinal with a score of 9 – 3 .
In 1995 , Martin replaced Park and Pahl with Don Walchuk and Shawn Broda , respectively . Martin won his fourth provincial title , sending him to the 1996 Labatt Brier . The team placed first after the round robin , finishing with a 10 – 1 win @-@ loss record . However , in the page playoff 1 vs. 2 game , he lost to Manitoba 's Jeff Stoughton . In the semifinal , Martin rebounded with a win over Quebec , but the rematch against Stoughton in the final resulted in a loss in an extra end , which Stoughton stole after a light draw by Martin to win the game 8 – 7 .
In 1996 , Broda was replaced by Rudy Ramcharan on the team . With his new team , Martin won another provincial title , and at the 1997 Labatt Brier , he once again finished the round robin with a 10 – 1 win @-@ loss record . His only loss came to the undefeated Vic Peters rink of Manitoba . However , Martin met and defeated Peters twice in the playoffs , including winning the final with a score of 10 – 8 . With this win , Martin won his second Brier and the right to go to the 1997 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship . Martin topped the round robin at the Worlds , with a 7 – 2 win @-@ loss record , but lost to Sweden in the semifinal with a score of 6 – 4 and then to Scotland in the bronze medal match with a score of 8 – 4 .
In 1997 , Martin looked to represent Canada at the Olympics once again . The 1998 Winter Olympics would mark the first time curling would be an official medal sport at the games . At the 1997 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials , Martin 's rink finished with a 6 – 3 win @-@ loss record , tied in second place with Ed Werenich . Martin knocked off Werenich in the semifinal but lost to the then little known Mike Harris in the final with a score of 6 – 5 . For the next few years , Martin would fail to make it back to the Brier . In 1998 , Martin won his second Players ' Championship of his career , then known as the " Apolla World Curling Tour Championship " .
= = = 1999 – 2006 = = =
In 1999 , Martin dropped Ramcharan , who was embroiled by a scandal where he botched organizing a bonspiel , and replaced him with Carter Rycroft , an upstart junior curler . In 2000 , Martin won his sixth provincial title . However , the 2000 Labatt Brier would be a flop for the team , which finished with a 6 – 5 win @-@ loss record out of the playoffs . That season , Martin won his third Players ' Championship .
Following a failed bid to win the 2001 Alberta championship , the team then boycotted the Brier , as prominent curling teams of the day wanted to focus more on the World Curling Tour , while the Canadian Curling Association scheduled events conflicting with major WCT events . In the meantime , however , Martin still had his sights set on an Olympic championship . The team went to the 2001 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials and finished first after the round robin with a 7 – 2 win @-@ loss record . That gave the team a bye to the finals , which Martin won by defeating Kerry Burtnyk with a score of 8 – 7 .
At the 2002 Winter Olympics , Martin lost just one round robin matchup and qualified for the playoffs . In the semifinal , Martin knocked off Sweden by a score of 6 – 4 . In the final , Martin faced Norway , skipped by Pål Trulsen . The two teams kept the game fairly even , but in the final end , Martin had a simple draw against one Norway rock to win , which he missed , giving Trulsen the win with a score of 6 – 5 . As a result , Norway clinched the gold medal , and Martin , representing Canada , won his third international silver .
Due to the boycott , Martin 's rink would not win another provincial title until 2006 . In the meantime , the team had amassed five Grand Slam titles and won the 2005 Canada Cup of Curling .
Martin played in his third Canadian Olympic Trials in 2005 . The event was a disappointment for the team , which finished with a 4 – 5 record . However , later in the season , they made it to the 2006 Tim Hortons Brier , Martin 's first Brier appearance in six years . The team finished the round robin tied in second place with an 8 – 3 record . However , in the page playoff 3 vs. 4 game , Martin 's rink was edged by Nova Scotia 's Mark Dacey 8 – 7 . The team would later win the 2006 Canada Cup of Curling .
= = = 2006 – 2013 = = =
On April 26 , 2006 Martin announced the breakup of his long @-@ time , Olympic silver medalist team of lead Don Bartlett , second Carter Rycroft and third Don Walchuk . The team had disappointed at the 2005 Trials , had not won a single Grand Slam title in the 2005 – 06 season , and topped it off by finishing fourth at the Brier . Martin replaced Walchuk , Rycroft and Bartlett with World Junior Champion skip John Morris at third , Marc Kennedy at second and Ben Hebert at lead . His new team won the 2007 Alberta provincials , and at their first Brier , the team finished the round robin with an 8 – 3 win @-@ loss record in second place , tied with Manitoba and Newfoundland and Labrador . The new team struggled at the 2007 Brier in Hamilton , and lost in the 3 vs. 4 game to Jeff Stoughton , 6 – 3 . Despite their Brier failure , however , the season was a success on the World Curling Tour , where they won three of the four Grand Slams . During the 2006 – 07 and 2007 – 08 curling seasons , Martin and his team won an unprecedented five consecutive Grand Slams , three in the 2006 – 07 season and two in the 2007 – 08 season .
The team won their second straight provincials in 2008 , sending them to the 2008 Tim Hortons Brier . On March 13 , 2008 , Martin 's team from Alberta became the first team since 2003 to go through the round robin at the Tim Hortons Brier undefeated . They finished the round robin with a perfect 11 – 0 win @-@ loss record . They knocked off Saskatchewan 8 – 7 in the 1 vs. 2 game , and then beat rival and defending champion Glenn Howard of Ontario 5 – 4 in the final . With that perfect finish , Martin won his third Brier title . Martin finally won his first World Championship at the 2008 World Men 's Curling Championship in Grand Forks , North Dakota . After finishing the round robin with a 10 – 1 win @-@ loss record , he lost to Scotland , skipped by David Murdoch , in the 1 vs. 2 game , only to beat them in a rematch in the final 6 – 3 . This was the first time Kevin Martin won a gold medal at an international curling event . The Martin rink finished the 2007 – 08 season with two more Grand Slam titles . Due to his Brier and World Championship successes in 2008 , the Canadian Curling Association selected Kevin Martin 's team ( along with Jennifer Jones , Kevin Koe and Stefanie Lawton ) to be Canada 's representatives on " Team North America " at the 2008 Continental Cup of Curling .
The 2008 – 09 season would be almost as successful for Martin . He once again qualified for the Brier , winning the Alberta provincial championship , and then once again went 13 – 0 in the 2009 Tim Hortons Brier . He knocked off Glenn Howard 7 – 6 followed by Jeff Stoughton in the final by a 7 – 4 result . A week later , at the 2009 Canada Cup of Curling , Martin won his third title , defeating fellow Edmonton rink Randy Ferbey in the final . At the 2009 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship , Martin won 10 straight games until he met Scotland in the final round robin game . Martin lost to Scotland and then lost to them again in the 1 – 2 page playoff game . Martin rebounded with a tight semifinal victory over Switzerland , but had to face Scotland in a third matchup in the final . The game was tied going into the last end with Martin having the last rock advantage . Before his first rock , Martin was lying one in a complicated setup . After spending about six minutes trying to decide which shot to try , he went against the wishes of his teammates and threw away his shot , forcing Scotland 's David Murdoch to make a double @-@ tap to sit shot . Murdoch made his shot , leaving Martin with a short @-@ raise double , which he missed , losing the championship to Scotland , 7 – 6 .
Martin 's team directly qualified for the 2009 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials in his hometown of Edmonton . In his fourth Trials , Martin lost just one round robin game . After defeating the previously undefeated Glenn Howard rink in his final round robin game , Martin got a bye to the final , which was against Howard , whom he defeated 7 – 3 . With the win , Martin earned the right to represent Canada for the second time at the Olympics . After the Olympic Trials , Martin 's rink failed to qualify for the playoffs at the 2010 Swiss Chalet National . This would mark the first time Martin failed to make the playoffs at a Grand Slam since 2003 . However , they proved they were worthy to represent Canada at the Olympics by winning the 2010 BDO Classic Canadian Open two weeks later .
At the 2010 Winter Olympics , Martin 's team went undefeated ( 9 – 0 ) during the round @-@ robin phase , becoming the first team to achieve this feat since the British curling team at the 1924 Chamonix Olympics . After winning the semifinal against Sweden 's Niklas Edin , Martin went on to win the gold medal , defeating Norway 's Thomas Ulsrud 6 – 3 , in a rematch of Martin 's only previous Olympic final . Martin wrapped up his Olympic season by winning the 2010 Players ' Championships , his second Grand Slam win of the year . He beat Brad Gushue in the final in an extra end .
It took the Martin rink until December 2010 to win another major bonspiel . Martin claimed another Slam by winning the National again over Jeff Stoughton . However , he was defeated by Stoughton in the quarterfinal of the Canadian Open .
Martin made his eleventh appearance at the Brier playing for Alberta , after defeating Kevin Koe in the final of the provincials . He went through the round robin with a 9 – 2 win @-@ loss record , and had some trouble during the round robin after losing crucial games to Manitoba and Newfoundland / Labrador in less than 10 ends . After a close win over Glenn Howard in the round robin , Martin dropped a 4 – 5 decision to Howard after he missed a crucial shot in the 3 vs. 4 game of the playoffs , and he lost the bronze medal game to Brad Gushue 10 – 5 , playing without second Marc Kennedy , because Kennedy and his wife were expecting a child . Martin finished the 2010 – 11 season by winning his record 7th Players ' Championship .
Martin 's first event of the 2011 – 12 World Curling Tour was the Point Optical Curling Classic , where he finished as a runner @-@ up to Mike McEwen . He then won his first event of the season , the Westcoast Curling Classic , against McEwen . He next participated in the Cactus Pheasant Classic as the defending champion , but lost to Randy Ferbey in the semifinals . At the World Cup of Curling , Martin finished the round robin with a 4 – 1 win @-@ loss record , but missed a chance to win another Grand Slam title after he was edged past by John Epping , 3 – 4 . He failed to make it into the playoffs at his next event , the Sun Life Classic . He and his team then competed in the Canada Cup of Curling , securing close wins over Glenn Howard and Jeff Stoughton in the round robin and finishing the round robin undefeated . He then played Howard in the final , and managed to defeat him with a score of 7 – 4 , winning his record 4th Canada Cup title as skip . He and his team also earned berths into the 2012 Canada Cup , Continental Cup , and , most importantly , the 2013 Olympic Trials .
Martin then went to Dawson Creek , British Columbia for a shot at an eighteenth Grand Slam title at the National . He went undefeated through the round robin and made it to the final , where he lost a close game 6 – 5 to Glenn Howard . In February , Martin and team went to Camrose , Alberta for the 2012 Boston Pizza Cup to play for a chance to represent Alberta at the 2012 Brier . They barely qualified for the playoffs after Martin broke his 22 @-@ game win streak at the provincials in losing their first qualifier game to Kevin Koe and then lost another qualifier game to Brock Virtue . They then defeated Robert Schlender in the bottom page playoff game and advanced to the semifinal against Virtue , where they lost a tight game in the tenth end . Martin 's loss meant that he will not be able to represent Alberta at the Brier for the first time since 2010 . It also marked the first time since 2005 that he has not won a provincial championship in which he participated . Martin then won the 2012 Pomeroy Inn & Suites Prairie Showdown final against Liu Rui , and then won the 2012 Victoria Curling Classic Invitational final against Mike McEwen . Martin wrapped up the season by participating in the 2012 Players ' Championship , finishing the round robin with a 5 – 2 win @-@ loss record . However , he was upset in the semifinals by John Epping , who went on to win the title .
Martin began his 2012 – 13 season with the Point Optical Curling Classic , where he was the runner @-@ up the previous year . He lost a close match in the semifinals to provincial rival Kevin Koe . He next played at the Westcoast Curling Classic , and won his third straight title and his seventh title overall with a win in the final over Andrew Bilesky . Martin participated at the Whites Drug Store Classic , but lost to Randy Bryden in the quarterfinals in an extra end . Martin then competed in the Masters Grand Slam of Curling , where he lost in the semifinals after a close loss to Koe in an extra end . Martin then participated in the Canada Cup of Curling , but was unable to match strong play from his opponents , and finished the event with a 1 – 5 win @-@ loss record , out of the playoffs . Martin was scheduled to play at the Canadian Open of Curling , but had to withdraw due to a hernia . He was replaced by Joe Frans , and the team finished outside of the playoffs . After recovering , Martin participated in the Continental Cup , where he assisted in leading Team North America to a fifth win over Team World . Martin also participated in the All @-@ Star Curling Skins Game , where his all @-@ star team lost in the semifinal against Glenn Howard 's all @-@ star team . Martin then competed in the Alberta provincials , where he clinched the first seed in the playoffs after edging provincial rival Kevin Koe . He defeated Aaron Sluchinski in the page playoff , and edged Koe in an extra end in the final to claim his twelfth provincial title .
At the 2013 Brier , Martin and team began the round @-@ robin with one win and four losses , including losses to Jeff Stoughton , Jean @-@ Michel Ménard , and eventual champion Brad Jacobs , before winning their final six matches . Despite a 7 – 4 win @-@ loss record , they did not qualify for the playoffs , placing fifth and becoming the first Alberta team since Martin 's squad in 2000 to miss the playoffs . At the Players ' Championship , Martin and team finished with a 2 – 2 win @-@ loss record , and they advanced to a tiebreaker , where they lost to John Epping . A few days after the conclusion of the Players ' Championship , Martin 's longtime third , John Morris , announced that he and Martin were parting ways .
= = = 2013 – 2014 = = =
A few weeks after Morris announced his departure from the team , Martin announced that David Nedohin , the fourth player on his former provincial rival Randy Ferbey 's team , would join Martin 's team . Martin and team won their first event of the season at the Shoot @-@ Out . They made the semifinals in their next event at the Point Optical Curling Classic , but Martin injured his back during the semifinal game . Jeff Sharp subbed in at lead , and Martin 's team finished the event as runners @-@ up to Jeff Stoughton . After winning the final of the Direct Horizontal Drilling Fall Classic over Brock Virtue and posting a semifinals finish at the Cactus Pheasant Classic , Martin played in the Masters Grand Slam , finishing the round robin with a 3 – 1 win @-@ loss record . He proceeded to win his games over Kevin Koe and Liu Rui before reaching the final , where he played a close game with Glenn Howard until Howard pulled away with the win .
Martin attempted to qualify for his fourth Olympics appearance through the 2013 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials . In the round robin , he and his team played consistently and posted a 6 – 1 win @-@ loss record , with their only loss coming to eventual champion Brad Jacobs . Their record qualified for the semifinal , where they lost a close game to John Morris 's team . Martin was hired by NBC Sports to work as a curling analyst during the 2014 Winter Olympics .
After starting off the Canadian Open of Curling with a 4 – 1 win @-@ loss record , Martin dropped his quarterfinals game against Brad Gushue in the final end of the game . Martin also posted a strong start at the next Grand Slam , The National , but lost to Glenn Howard in the quarterfinals . On April 18 , 2014 , amidst rumours of his front end , Marc Kennedy and Ben Hebert , joining provincial rival Kevin Koe in the next season , Martin announced his retirement from curling following the conclusion of the 2014 Players ' Championship . At the last tournament of his career , Martin posted a 3 – 2 win @-@ loss record in the round robin , and advanced to the playoffs . He edged John Epping and Mike McEwen en route to the final , where he recorded a 4 – 3 win over Brad Jacobs while curling at 98 % . He capped his career with an eighteenth Grand Slam title , his eighth at the Players ' Championship .
Martin will become a curling analyst for Sportsnet . Following the end of the season , it was announced that Martin had been inducted into the Canadian Curling Hall of Fame .
= = = Legacy = = =
During his playing career , Martin greatly influenced the evolution of the sport of curling into a competitive sport . He was an instrumental part of the group that brought about the Grand Slam of Curling . In the early 2000s , he became the spokesperson for the promotion of the financial growth of curling , represented largely by the World Curling Tour , which was growing in popularity due to the benefits afforded by corporate sponsorship opportunities and cash prizes at tournaments . The Martin @-@ led boycott of the Canadian Curling Association for its refusal to allow the developments in the World Curling Tour to be mirrored in the Brier catalyzed not only the transformation of the Brier , but also the growth of the Grand Slam , and in doing so , ultimately allowed the sport of curling to become a legitimate spectator sport . The development of the competitive tier of the sport also marked a change in both the players of the sport and the sport itself , as evidenced by improvements in the development and training of curlers as athletes and improvements in the quality of curling games due to better ice conditions and precision @-@ based gameplay .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Grand Slam record = = =
= = = Teams = = =
= = = Awards = = =
World Junior Curling Championships All @-@ Star skip : 1986
Hec Gervais Award ( Brier MVP ) : 1997 , 2009
Brier Shot of the Week Award : 1997
Brier first all @-@ star team skip : 1996 , 2008 , 2009
Brier second all @-@ star team skip : 2006 , 2007
World Curling Tour ( WCT ) MVP : 2008 – 09
WCT Team of the Year : 2008 – 09
WCT MVP : 2009 – 10
= = Personal life = =
Martin is married to Shauna Martin and has three children , Karrick , Kalycia , and Mykaela . Karrick has curled competitively , most recently as the lead for Brendan Bottcher and as the alternate for his father at the 2013 Tim Hortons Brier .
Martin is the owner and operator of Kevin 's Rocks @-@ n @-@ Racquets , a curling supply shop located at the Saville Sports Centre . He has owned his own business since 1991 . Prior to that , he was an ice maker .
Martin has a degree in petroleum engineering technology from the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology ( NAIT ) , which he earned upon graduating in 1987 . He also curled at NAIT under the tutelage of coach Jules Owchar , who has coached Martin since they met at NAIT . Martin also received an honorary bachelor 's degree in technology management in 2010 , and received the Alumni Award of Distinction in 2011 for his achievements in curling .
Martin is very invested in building the future of the game of curling . He regularly runs curling academies at the Saville Sports Centre . Each summer he organizes a curling camp for junior players called the " Kevin Martin Summer Curling Academy " . The Academy is targeted at elite junior players looking to take their game to a higher level . Martin has also created a mobile app with purchasable content , which includes drills and tips aimed at helping curlers improve their game .
|
= Asian house martin =
The Asian house martin ( Delichon dasypus ) is a migratory passerine bird of the swallow family Hirundinidae . It has mainly blue @-@ black upperparts , other than its white rump , and has pale grey underparts . Its three subspecies breed in the Himalayas and in central and eastern Asia , and spend the winter lower in the mountains or in Southeast Asia . This species is locally abundant and is expanding northward in Siberia , so there are no concerns about its conservation status .
This martin breeds in colonies , building mud nests under an overhang on a vertical cliff or the wall of a building . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the three or four white eggs and feed the chicks . The Asian house martin feeds on small insects taken in flight , usually caught high in the air . The presence of terrestrial springtails and Lepidoptera larvae in its diet indicates that food is sometime picked from the ground .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Asian house martin was first formally described from a bird collected in Borneo by French naturalist and ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1850 as Chelidon dasypus , shortly before it was moved to the new genus Delichon by British entomologist Frederic Moore and American naturalist Thomas Horsfield in 1854 . Delichon is an anagram of the Ancient Greek term χελιδών ( chelīdōn ) , meaning " swallow " , and dasypus is from Greek δασύπους " rough @-@ legged " . This martin 's closest relatives are the two other members of the Delichon genus , the Nepal house martin and the common house martin . There are three subspecies :
D. d. dasypus , the nominate subspecies described by Bonaparte , which breeds in eastern Russia and nearby islands
D. d. cashmeriensis , the Himalayan and central Asian form described by English ornithologist John Gould in 1858 from a Kashmiri specimen obtained by Andrew Leith Adams
D. d. nigrimentalis , the form which is found in the south east of the breeding range , was described by German ornithologist Ernst Hartert in 1910 from a specimen taken in Fujian , southeast China .
= = Description = =
The adult Asian house martin of the nominate subspecies is 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long , dark steel blue above with a contrasting white rump , grey @-@ washed white underparts , and a slightly forked tail . The tail and upperwings are brownish @-@ black , and the underwings are grey @-@ brown . The legs and feet are brownish @-@ pink and covered with white feathers , the eyes are brown , and the bill is black . There are few differences in appearance between the sexes , although the male is somewhat whiter below than the female , especially in fresh plumage . The juvenile bird is less glossy and has dark brown upperparts , sometimes with a brownish wash to the rump , and grey @-@ white underparts .
D. d. cashmiriensis has brighter blue upperparts and a whiter rump than the slightly larger nominate race . The third , smallest , race is D. d. nigrimentalis . All three subspecies can be distinguished from the similar Nepal house martin by the latter species ' black chin , black undertail coverts and much squarer tail . The Asian house martin is more similar to the common house martin , but is darker underneath and has a less deeply forked tail . Confusion is most likely between adult male Asian house martins , which have paler underparts , and the eastern race of common house martin , D. urbicum lagopodum which has a less forked tail than the western subspecies , although it still shows a more pronounced fork than Asian .
This species ’ song is a rippling metallic trill , and is a sibilant twitter , and call is a dry metallic cheep , often with two or three syllables . It is similar to that of common house martin , but more rasping .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The nominate subspecies of the Asian house martin , D. d. dasypus , breeds in the southeast of Russia , the Kuril Islands , Japan and sometimes Korea . It migrates through eastern China to winter in the Malay Peninsula , Borneo , the Philippines , Java and Sumatra ; a few birds remain around hot springs in Japan . D. d. cashmeriensis breeds in the Himalayas from Afghanistan east to Sikkim and northwards into Tibet and western and central China . It is found between 1 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 900 – 16 @,@ 400 ft ) altitude , although mainly in the 2 @,@ 400 – 4 @,@ 000 m ( 7 @,@ 900 – 13 @,@ 100 ft ) range . This martin is a short @-@ range migrant , mainly wintering at lower altitudes in the foothills of the Himalayas , but with some birds on the plains of northeastern India , and smaller numbers further afield in Burma and northern Thailand . The third race , D. d. nigrimentalis , breeds in southeastern China and southern Siberia . Its wintering grounds are unknown , but birds in Taiwan just move to lower altitudes in winter . Non @-@ breeding Asian house martin have been recorded as far west as the United Arab Emirates . The range of D. d. cashmeriensis overlaps with that of the Nepal house martin , although they breed at somewhat different altitudes . The height separation and the small differences in appearance seem sufficient to prevent interbreeding .
The preferred habitat of the Asian house martin is valleys and gorges in mountainous areas or coastal cliffs , where natural caves or crevices provide nest sites . It will also breed on large man @-@ made sites like temples , hotels or power stations . This martin tends to move to lower altitude open or hilly country in its wintering areas , although it has been recorded at up to 2 @,@ 565 m ( 8 @,@ 415 ft ) in Thailand .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Asian house martin is a cliff nester , breeding in colonies sited under an overhang on a vertical cliff , usually with the nests not touching . It also frequently nests on large buildings such as temples and bridges , but not to the same extent as the common house martin . The nest is a deep mud cone lined with grasses or feathers . Unlike its relatives , the Asian house martin frequently does not complete the enclosure of its nest , leaving it open instead like a deeper version of a barn swallow nest . A Russian study found half the nests in its Baikal research area to be of the open type , and the Himalayan subspecies D. d. cashmiriensis has also been recorded as building a shallow cup nest .
The normal clutch is three or four ( occasionally up to six ) plain white eggs averaging 20 @.@ 2 mm × 14 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 80 in × 0 @.@ 56 in ) and weighing 2 @.@ 1 g ( 0 @.@ 074 oz ) . The incubation and fledging times are unknown , but are probably similar to those of the common house martin , which has an incubation period of 14 to 16 days until the eggs hatch , and a further 22 to 32 days to fledging . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks .
= = = Feeding = = =
This martin feeds on insects taken in flight . As with its relatives it tends to feed high in the air , taking mostly small flies , aphid and Hymenoptera such as winged ants . A wide range of other insects are caught , including Lepidoptera , beetles and lacewings . The presence in the diet of terrestrial springtails and Lepidoptera larvae indicate that food is sometime picked from the ground .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Birds often carry parasites , both external lice and fleas , and internal blood parasites . The Asian house martin is a host of the house martin flea Ceratophyllus hirundinis , and has recently been shown to carry signs of avian malaria . The predators of this martin appear to be little studied , but are presumably similar to those of the common house martin , namely fast flying falcons such as Oriental hobby which can chase down their prey in flight .
= = Conservation status = =
The Asian house martin has a large range that does not appear to be contracting , and its numbers appear to be stable , although the total population is unknown . Since the range is more than 20 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 7 @,@ 700 sq mi ) , and there are more 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , in the absence of any large decline in distribution or numbers the species does not appear to meet the criteria to be considered vulnerable , and is currently evaluated as Least Concern . This species is locally abundant and appears to be expanding its range northwards in southern Siberia .
|
= Street House Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery =
The Street House Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery is an Anglo @-@ Saxon burial ground , dating to the second half of the 7th century AD , that was discovered at Street House Farm near Loftus , in the unitary authority of Redcar and Cleveland , England . Monuments dating back as far as 3300 BC are located in the vicinity of the cemetery , which was discovered after aerial photography revealed the existence of an Iron Age rectangular enclosure . The excavations , carried out between 2005 and 2007 , revealed over a hundred graves dating from the 7th century AD and the remains of several buildings . An array of jewellery and other artefacts was found , including the jewels once worn by a young high @-@ status Anglo @-@ Saxon woman who had been buried on a bed and covered by an earth mound .
The woman 's identity is unknown , but the artefacts and the layout of the cemetery are similar to finds in the east and south @-@ east of England . There are contradictory indications of whether the occupants of the cemetery were Christian or pagan , as there signs of both traditions are present . It perhaps represents a fusion of the two traditions during the " Conversion Period " when Christianity was taking hold among the Anglo @-@ Saxons but pagan rituals had not yet been displaced , even among Christians . Archaeologists have suggested that the woman and at least some of the people buried around her may have migrated from the south , where bed burials were more common . They may all have been buried together within the space of a single generation , after which the cemetery was abandoned . The finds were acquired by Kirkleatham Museum , Redcar , in 2009 and have been on display there since 2011 .
= = Background = =
The vicinity of Street House Farm , located on Upton Hill to the north @-@ east of the town of Loftus , has been known to archaeologists for some decades as an area of interest . An Early Neolithic long cairn and mortuary structure dating to about 3300 BC , on which a round barrow was built in the Early Bronze Age , was excavated over the course of three seasons between 1979 and 1981 . In 1984 , the archaeologist Blaise Vyner discovered the remains of an enigmatic structure that he dubbed the " Street House Wossit " ( a contraction of " what @-@ is @-@ it " ) . This was a segmented circle of 56 wooden posts built around 2200 BC . In the centre of the structure , which was approximately 8 metres ( 26 ft ) wide , were two D @-@ shaped posts encircled by a raised stone bank . After a short period of usage the Wossit was dismantled and the posts burned . Its purpose is unknown but it is likely to have had some kind of religious or cultic significance .
= = Excavations = =
One of those involved in the 1979 – 81 dig , archaeologist Steve Sherlock , decided to return to the site after aerial photographs revealed the presence of a rectangular Iron Age enclosure in the vicinity of the Bronze Age monuments . Initial excavations were carried out during ten days in September 2004 . It was thought initially that the site was purely Iron Age or perhaps Romano @-@ British . A more in @-@ depth excavation was carried out in July 2005 after a geophysical survey revealed the existence of a large roundhouse , dating from the Iron Age , in the centre of the enclosure . The work revealed three roundhouses , several Iron Age ditches and a series of pits that were evidently graves . The latter came as a complete surprise and were found to date from the Anglo @-@ Saxon period . Various artefacts dating to between 650 and 700 AD were excavated but no bones were recovered , as the acidic soil had destroyed any organic material long ago . Thirty graves were found during the initial excavation .
In 2006 , the archaeologists returned to search for the settlement that they believed was associated with the graves . There are examples elsewhere , such as at Garton Green Lane Crossing in the Yorkshire Wolds , of 7th @-@ century graves associated with prehistoric monuments , and it was initially thought that the Street House graves were a similar example . However , the excavation uncovered another twelve graves . It was realised that the cemetery was far larger than first thought , so the following year an archaeological survey of the entire site was attempted . A total of 109 graves was found by the end of the 2007 dig , forming a complex monument laid out in a unique square fashion around a central mound , a bed burial and a building that had possibly served as a mortuary .
Further excavations were carried out in 2010 and 2011 to examine a Neolithic cairn and a Bronze Age mound found near the cemetery , as well as to investigate two areas within the Iron Age enclosure . In 2012 , a new excavation found the ruins of a sizeable Roman villa dating to around 370 AD , which had possibly been used by an important Romano @-@ British chieftain . It was located only about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) south of the Saxon graves and would have been part of an agricultural estate .
= = Layout of the graves = =
The cemetery consists of neat lines of graves arranged on an east – west alignment , covering a nearly square area of about 36 by 34 metres ( 118 ft × 112 ft ) , in a layout not seen in any other known Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery . The enclosure within which the cemetery was laid out was many centuries older , dating to about 200 BC ; the establishment of a cemetery within its boundaries was probably intended to serve as a deliberate link to the past . It would still have been clearly visible in Saxon times . The layout of the cemetery seem to have consciously reflected that of the earlier enclosure , with its apparent main entrance aligned with that of the enclosure .
Most of the graves were laid out in a highly ordered fashion with a double row on the north and south sides . Each grave was set 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) apart on an east – west axis and 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) apart north to south . None were intercut . They were arranged in a pattern that formed a square enclosure , with a gap in the southern side forming a main entrance and another smaller gap on the eastern side forming a secondary entrance or exit . The degree of precision visible in the layout strongly suggests that the cemetery was planned in advance .
There are several groups of graves , numbering around 22 per cent of the total , that do not fit into the overall square plan of the cemetery . A few of these seem to have been older burials , possibly Romano @-@ British , but the others may have been laid out by different groups of people in Saxon times . The most notable of these " non @-@ standard " burials is that of the woman dubbed the " Saxon Princess " near the very centre of the enclosure . Although her burial has attracted the most attention for the quality of its finds , it may not have been the most important grave in the cemetery . A second larger mound stood a short distance away , partly surrounded by a ring ditch . No burial was found within and the mound has been interpreted as a mausoleum or memorial to an important individual . It is noteworthy that the " Saxon Princess " and a number of burials in the cemetery 's north @-@ east quadrant were arranged in an arc around the mound , suggesting that it may have been seen as the focal point of the cemetery .
The discovery of the graves ' east – west alignment has prompted suggestions that the cemetery reflected Christian tradition , although the evidence overall is contradictory about whether the occupants were Christians . The individual graves were fairly uniform in size , usually measuring 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long , 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and in their original form about 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) deep . They had a rectangular plan with rounded corners and a flat base . The bodies were not interred in coffins ; the graves ' occupants were buried in their clothes , accompanied by various items that they owned or were given as tokens by mourners . Although none of the bodies have survived it is thought from their size that most of the graves were intended for women , laid out fully extended . A substantial number are too small for an adult of normal height to have been laid out in such a way and , judging from analogous Saxon graves found elsewhere in England , it is thought that these might have contained crouched burials . The two different methods of burial – crouched versus fully extended – may therefore indicate some difference in ethnic affiliations or political or religious identities .
Some of the graves are marked by plain triangular stones set at one end . These are not carved or inscribed with names as in Christian cemeteries , but are similar to markers found in pagan cemeteries . Some graves are interrupted by stakeholes cut into them , possibly indicating the presence of wooden poles that might have served as markers or supported wooden structures within the graves . This is unusual in the north of England , though comparable examples have been found in Kent in the south @-@ east .
In addition to the graves , several buildings stood within the cemetery . A larger rectangular structure with an east @-@ west alignment , identified from postholes left in the ground , stood on the east side . It has been interpreted as a chapel or shrine . A smaller grubenhaus – a type of sunken building – which is thought to have been used as a mortuary chapel was located close by in the central area of the cemetery . An Iron Age roundhouse had also once been located within the north @-@ west quadrant but was no longer standing at the time the cemetery was laid out . All of these buildings would have stood on the crest of a ridge , and would have been especially prominent to travelers arriving from the south .
The cemetery seems to have been laid out on a single occasion and used for only a short time afterwards . It is thought that the mourners would have entered through the south side and assembled in the empty south @-@ western area of the cemetery before proceeding to the shrine to carry out the burial rites . After interring the deceased in a grave they may have used the eastern entrance to leave the cemetery . Alternatively , different groups of people may have used the two entrances , perhaps reflecting the fact that some of the graves do not fit into the overall square plan and may therefore belong to a different group .
= = Artefacts = =
64 individual graves , comprising 59 per cent of the total in the cemetery , were found to contain artefacts . Certain types of artefact can help to identify the gender of the occupants ; male graves , for instance , tend to contain weapons and tools , while female ones are associated with jewellery , shears and chatelaines ( belt hooks ) which were used to suspend keys or small tools . 34 of the graves contained such gender @-@ specific goods , of which 19 were associated with females and 15 with males . The female graves seem to have been predominantly located in the north and west of the cemetery and the males in the south and east . It is possible that the paired graves may have been those of spouses , a pattern that is apparent from Saxon cemeteries elsewhere in the country .
15 of the graves contained beads and items of ironwork were found in 25 graves . A seax ( a type of short sword with a blade on one edge ) was found in grave 29 and was the only weapon found in the cemetery . The discovery of such weapons as grave goods is extremely rare , as their value meant that they were typically passed on from father to son rather than being buried with a person . It originally measured about 55 centimetres ( 22 in ) long but had broken into four pieces , and part of the pommel and handle also survived . Its blade had been decorated with a punched pattern along the top edge . Smaller domestic knives were found in 19 graves as well as other items made of iron such as belt buckles and sets of keys . In grave 81 , two whetstones for sharpening knives were discovered along with the knives themselves , one resting on top of each whetstone .
A variety of jewellery , beads , and charms was also found . 100 beads in total were recovered from 16 graves , though only two had more than 10 beads . The small number of beads found in the remaining 14 graves is indicative of how styles had changed ; in the 6th century it was customary for women to wear up to 100 relatively plain beads at a time in the form of necklaces , but by the mid @-@ 7th century , the fashion was for a small number of high @-@ quality beads which may have been attached with wire or carried in a bag . A very unusual discovery was made in grave 21 – the remnants of a necklace comprising eight beads and two Iron Age gold coins minted by the Corieltauvi tribe of modern Lincolnshire some time between 15 – 45 AD , before the Roman conquest of Britain . Holes had been drilled in the coins , which were more than 600 years old by the time they were buried , to convert them into items of jewellery . Their excellent condition suggests that they had not been used for long , or at all , as currency ; it is possible that they had been part of a hoard buried shortly after they were minted and were rediscovered during Saxon times . The discovery of Roman coins in a Saxon grave of this period is unique to the Street House cemetery . It is likely that they were valued because of the cross @-@ shaped designs on the coins ' reverse .
Jewellery found in the Street House cemetery
An elaborate gold pendant was found in grave 10 along with three beads ; all four had apparently been worn together on a chain or a thread , which did not survive . Although it is small – only 27 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter – it is intricately decorated with a gold filigree in the shape of figures of eight ( though the similarity in form to the numeral is merely coincidental ) . Its design is typical of jewellery made after 650 AD and comparable examples have been found elsewhere in Yorkshire . In grave 70 , a gold pendant measuring 44 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter was found during the 2007 excavation . It is decorated with elaborate filigrees like the brooch but it also incorporates four circular settings , each of which was inset with a red gemstone , though only two of the stones have survived . Several beads were found alongside the pendant and seem to have been part of the necklace of which it was a part .
= = The " Saxon Princess " bed burial = =
The most important grave , and the most spectacular set of artefacts , was found near the centre of the cemetery . Grave 42 was a deep , wide pit in which a high @-@ status individual was buried on top of a wooden bed with iron fittings . The body lying on the bed was most likely that of a woman of very high @-@ ranking noble descent , possibly royalty , as the quantity and quality of the jewellery found in the grave is indicative of a woman ranking at the top of Anglo @-@ Saxon society . Such burials are highly unusual ; only a dozen are known in the whole of the UK , and the one at Street House is the most northerly known .
Although nothing remains of either the body or the bed , surviving artefacts and the 56 pieces of ironwork that held the bed together have enabled the burial to be reconstructed in considerable detail . The bed was made from ash wood , held together with a variety of iron plates , cleats , staples , nails , stays , and decorative scrolls . It measured 1 @.@ 8 by 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft × 2 @.@ 6 ft ) and may once have been roofed with an ornamental awning or canvas , perhaps made of cloth draped over timber posts . Traces of mineralised cloth and either grass or reed were found still attached to some of the nails , indicating the possible nature of the mattress . Two pieces of ironwork showed signs of repair and reuse , suggesting that the bed had been in use some time before the burial and was not specially made for the interment . This raises the possibility that the bed was either that of the deceased woman or a significant bed of some other person . It may have been dismantled elsewhere , brought to the cemetery and reassembled and repaired so that it could be used for the burial .
The jewellery consists of three gold pendants , two glass beads , one gold wire bead , and a fragment of a jet hair pin . The pendants and beads all seem to have been strung together , probably forming a necklace that was in place around the neck of the body . Two of the pieces consist of gold cabochon pendants inset with jewels , while the third is a very elaborate shield @-@ shaped jewel inlaid with 57 red garnets and a larger scallop @-@ shaped gem in the centre . The garnets rest on a thin layer of gold leaf to reflect the light and increase their luminosity . It may have been created from recycled older pieces of jewellery , as the size , shape and thickness of the individuals garnet are all different .
The quality of the piece is outstanding and comparable to that of the artefacts found at the famous Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk . Its design is unique and has no known parallels elsewhere in Anglo @-@ Saxon jewelcrafting ; its creator must have been one of the best craftworkers in the country at the time . Its shape is a significant link with early Christianity . The scallop had long been associated with love , fertility and birth and was a symbol of the classical goddesses Aphrodite and her Roman counterpart Venus , who was said to have floated ashore on a scallop shell ( as in Sandro Botticelli 's famous depiction of The Birth of Venus ) . By the 4th century , however , Christians had adopted the scallop as a symbol of rebirth through baptism and life as a journey towards a heavenly reunion with God . It came to be particularly associated with pilgrimages and was later adopted as a pilgrim 's badge .
An analysis conducted using X @-@ ray fluorescence has found that the pendant was made from a highly debased gold alloy , with only 37 % of the alloy consisting of gold and the remainder consisting of silver with some copper . It is likely that the gold came from melted @-@ down coins of the Merovingian dynasty of Francia . The Frankish currency underwent a similar debasing at around this time . The link with Francia is illustrative of the trading and cultural links that existed between Anglo @-@ Saxon England and continental Europe at the time .
A grave found a short distance away also contained jewellery , including a gold pendant , silver brooch , and glass beads . It is thought that the occupant may have had a close connection with the woman in the bed burial – perhaps a relative or a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting who was buried with her mistress .
= = Interpretations and historical context = =
At the time of the cemetery 's use in the latter part of the 7th century , Britain was divided into a number of kingdoms ruled by different ethnic groups – the native Picts in the north ( in what is now Scotland ) , the native Britons in the west of what is now England , Wales and south @-@ western Scotland , and the immigrant Angles , Saxons , and Jutes in the east and south of modern England and south @-@ eastern Scotland . Until the early 7th century , the north @-@ east of England and parts of Scotland were ruled by two Saxon kingdoms : Deira in modern Yorkshire , and Bernicia from north of the River Tees to the Firth of Forth . By the time of the burials the two kingdoms had merged to form the powerful kingdom of Northumbria .
There were considerable connections – political , trading , and cultural – between the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms and this is demonstrated in the burial ground found at Street House . The practice of burying people in beds seems to have been very uncommon in the north ; most of the bed burials found so far have been in southern England , in Cambridgeshire , Essex , Suffolk , and Wiltshire . Several of the brooches and beads found in the graves are thought to have come from Kent and some of the jewellery and beadwork has strong parallels with finds from East Anglia . The Iron Age gold coins found in one grave came from a tribe that lived in the East Midlands , which suggests that their owner , likewise , was not local .
The identity of the woman in the bed is not known , but the archaeologists who excavated the site have suggested that she was " a female member of the local aristocracy , probably a princess and an outsider , whose personal status was strong enough to act as a catalyst for the site " and that her companions were similarly " a group of people of high status from outside the region . " Average life expectancy at the time was short – only 32 years for men and 28 years for women – so it is possible that the cemetery was used exclusively by members of the " princess 's " community and ceased to be used when the last member died . This would fit with its short period of usage , perhaps only 30 years or so , judging from the age of the artefacts found during the excavations . Steve Sherlock , the site 's discoverer , believes that she was buried first and that the other graves were dug around hers afterward . Next to her grave is a probable male grave , to which it may be linked . The close proximity of the graves and their offset from the rest of the graves in the cemetery raises questions about whether the occupants were related .
The cemetery provides some hints to the woman 's local connections and religious affiliations . She was buried around or soon after the time when St. Hilda of Whitby was active in the region , first at Hartlepool Abbey , then at Whitby Abbey , which was founded in 657 . The woman may well have known St. Hilda , who came from a similar aristocratic background and had lived for a while in East Anglia , where bed burials were more common . It is unclear , however , whether the woman was also a Christian . Features such as the typically Christian east @-@ west orientation of the graves have been cited in support of a Christian affiliation , but on the other hand the cemetery was built on an ancient pagan site and there is no obvious reason why a Christian princess would not have been buried at Whitby alongside fellow Christians . As Christianity was spreading across the region at this time , the possible Christian features of the cemetery could be due simply to local social convention favouring some Christian styles in burial rituals , even for non @-@ Christians . Steve Sherlock considers the bed burial to be " stridently pagan , a sort of rare , female equivalent of ship burials , as she is laid out on a vehicle to deliver her to the afterworld , " however , and he suggests that she may have been the centre of a pagan cult that was active alongside local Christians .
Others have argued that the cemetery represents a fusion of Christian and pagan Saxon customs . It was not until the end of the 7th century that the practice of burying people in consecrated ground around a church became the norm . There are examples of known Christians being buried in an ostensibly pagan fashion , as was the case for the late 7th century Kentish princess Eormengyth , sister of the abbess of Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet . She was buried in a traditional tumulus a mile east of her sister 's minster . John Blair argues that the Church in early Saxon England may have tolerated Christians being given pagan burial rites due to the ' Christianising ' effect this would have had on a pagan site . This would have been consistent with the advice given by Pope Gregory the Great in 601 that Saxon shrines should be converted to Christian use , rather than being destroyed , and that pagan festivals and rites should be converted into Christian ones . On this interpretation , the cemetery may symbolise the continuity between the pagan past and the increasingly Christianised present .
= = Conservation , acquisition and display = =
The discovery was announced on 20 November 2007 and several of the finds were displayed to the press at Kirkleatham Museum near Redcar . Ashok Kumar , the local Member of Parliament at the time , lent his support to a campaign to keep the artefacts in Redcar and Cleveland , saying : " It 's essential they are kept in this area at Kirkleatham Museum and not merely deposited at a museum in London where there would be no guarantee of permanent display . I ... want to see these treasures kept here so local people and schoolchildren can view them as part of their local heritage and as an aid to their understanding of the past . " The Culture Minister , Margaret Hodge , confirmed in a House of Commons debate that the British Museum would not object to Kirkleatham acquiring the finds .
The Teesside coroner held an inquest on 12 October 2008 that found that the finds were treasure trove under the terms of the Treasure Act 1996 . The rules of treasure trove require that a panel of experts determine the market value of a find , half of which is paid to the finder and the other half to the landowner . However , the landowner at Street House waived his share because he wanted to ensure that a local museum would be able to purchase the artefacts . The Heritage Lottery Fund provided Kirkleatham Museum with a grant of £ 274 @,@ 000 to fund the purchase and create a new Anglo @-@ Saxon gallery to display the artefacts .
The finds were purchased by the museum in April 2009 and underwent conservation by specialists at Durham University and York Archaeological Trust . Using tools of the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , a replica of the bed was created for the exhibition by Richard Darrah , an expert in early woodwork , and blacksmith Hector Cole , a crafter of medieval @-@ style ironwork . A short film about the princess was made at the Anglo @-@ Saxon museum at Bede 's World in Jarrow with a narration by Stephen Tompkinson . Prior to the opening of the exhibition at Kirkleatham , the finds were put on display for five days in May 2011 at Loftus Town Hall , where they attracted nearly 1 @,@ 700 visitors .
The exhibition at Kirkleatham has proved extremely popular ; by October 2011 it had already attracted more than 28 @,@ 000 visitors in only four months . In April 2012 the exhibition attracted further praise when the museum won the prestigious Renaissance Museum title at the annual Journal and Arts Council Awards .
|
= Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden =
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden is a 2011 concert special which documents the February 21 and 22 , 2011 shows of American pop singer Lady Gaga 's worldwide concert , The Monster Ball Tour . Filmed at Madison Square Garden in Gaga 's hometown of New York City , the two @-@ hour special was directed by the singer 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson and produced by HBO . It was first broadcast on the channel on May 7 , 2011 , a day after Gaga 's last date of The Monster Ball Tour . The special was released on November 21 , 2011 , on DVD and Blu @-@ ray by Media Blasters .
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden features concert footage as well as pre @-@ concert and backstage content . The special received critical acclaim ; critics praised Gaga 's performance and the onstage theatrics while expressing doubt in Gaga 's sincerity during her monologues and in pre @-@ concert scenes . When aired , the special was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers and was nominated for five awards at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , winning one for Outstanding Picture Editing for a Special ( Single or Multi @-@ Camera ) .
The video album released for the special includes extra footage like a capella performances and photo gallery . The 5 @.@ 1 surround sound of the release utilized DTS @-@ HD Master Audio and new technology to provide the viewer an optimum experience of watching the live concert . Emphasis was given on the main music and the vocals sung during the concert , while adjusting them against the screaming and the cheering of the crowd . The release was a commercial success , reaching the top of the DVD charts in the United States , France and Italy and the top @-@ ten in other nations . It received double platinum certifications in Australia and France , while in the United Kingdom , it was certified gold .
= = Background = =
The Monster Ball Tour was the second worldwide concert tour by Lady Gaga . Staged in support of her EP The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) and comprising a set list of songs from the EP and her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) , the tour visited arenas and stadiums from 2009 through 2011 . Described as " the first @-@ ever pop electro opera " by Gaga , the tour was announced in October 2009 after an intended joint concert tour with hip @-@ hop artist Kanye West was suddenly canceled . The tour commenced four days after the release of The Fame Monster in November 2009 . A revision of the tour occurred after only a few months of performances , due to Gaga 's concern that the original version was constructed within a very short span of time . The stage of the original show looked like a frame , comparable to that of a hollowed @-@ out television set . Since The Fame Monster dealt with the paranoias Gaga had faced , the main theme of the original shows became human evolution , while elements of the canceled tour with West were still included in some parts . From 2010 onward , the revamped shows had a New York theme and portrayed a story set in the city , where Gaga and her friends got lost and had to find their way to " the Monster Ball " . Both versions of the show were divided into five segments , with the last being the encore . Each of them featured Gaga in new outfits , singing songs related to the concept of the segment , as they were followed by a video interlude .
The tour received general critical acclaim , with critics praising Gaga 's singing abilities , the theatricality of the show , and her sense of style and fashion . The Monster Ball was a commercial success , with sold @-@ out shows and demand for tickets prompting organizers to add more dates to the itinerary . It ultimately grossed an estimated $ 227 @.@ 4 million ( $ 239 million in 2016 dollars ) from 200 reported shows and an audience of 2 @.@ 5 million , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing tours of all time . At the 2010 Billboard Touring Awards , Gaga won the Breakthrough Performer Award , as well as the Concert Marketing and Promotion Award , the latter being an acknowledgment of her partnership with sponsor Virgin Mobile .
= = Content = =
The special opens with a black @-@ and @-@ white introduction that sees Gaga ordering a cup of coffee from a New York convenience store before being escorted by security into a black SUV , where she reminisces about the many times she had been at the arena to watch other acts perform , and realizes that she will now be performing there herself . After being escorted backstage , she removes her makeup and cries as she discusses feeling like a " loser " . She then sings the opening lines of " Marry the Night " while preparing to take the stage . Full @-@ color footage of the concert ( shot on February 21 and 22 , 2011 ) is then seen , interspersed with black @-@ and @-@ white backstage footage . The special ends with another black @-@ and @-@ white backstage scene where Gaga and her backup singers perform " Born This Way " a capella .
= = Release and reception = =
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was filmed at Madison Square Garden in Gaga 's hometown of New York City , the two @-@ hour special was directed by the singer 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson and produced by HBO , with the first broadcast on the channel on May 7 , 2011 , a day after Gaga 's last date of The Monster Ball Tour . The channel had released a trailer for the special in YouTube and a poster in their website , which showed Gaga with her characteristic pyrotechnic bra emitting sparks . According to Billboard , the special was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers . The special received critical acclaim . On review aggregate website Metacritic , the special holds a rating of 81 out of 100 based on four critic reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " . Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald wrote , " [ B ] etween the orgy of visuals — stripper strobes , androgynous dancers and a very loose , X @-@ rated ' Wizard of Oz ' theme — we get some great song and dance numbers : ' Poker Face ' , ' Paparazzi ' and ' Bad Romance ' . These are amazing hits , club @-@ thumping tracks that define joy and sadness for a generation of suburban teens and the urban disenfranchised . " However , he felt that the show 's non @-@ concert content was not genuine , and found the special to be similar to Madonna 's 1991 documentary Madonna : Truth or Dare . The A.V. Club 's Genevieve Koski gave the special a B + rating , claiming that Gaga " proves that she is a performer " and that " she puts on a show " , though she felt that the concert was overly emotional and artistically ambitious , and that Gaga 's on @-@ stage banter was slightly annoying . Koski also compared the special to the Madonna documentary . Linda Stassi from New York Post was also positive in her assessment of the concert special . She complimented the behind the scenes footage , the costumes and the dancing and the pyrotechnics of the show , describing it as " a concert that would make Madonna ’ s shows look like run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill dinner theater . " A review in website Idolator described Gaga as " ringleader of her own circus — in complete control of her little monsters " . It went on to appreciate Gaga 's vocals and the fact that she did not lip @-@ synch , as well as the hurried costume changes , while commending the " raw " nature of the show .
Paul Schrodt of Slant Magazine was more critical in his review , though he gave it a 2 @.@ 5 star ( out of 4 ) rating . While he positively called Gaga 's performances outrageous and " occasionally fierce " , he questioned Gaga 's authenticity , both on stage and in the pre @-@ concert scenes . Ultimately , he wrote , " Unsurprisingly , HBO 's Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden raises more questions about Stefani Germanotta ( Gaga 's birth name ) than it answers , which is probably as it should be . " Radio host Howard Stern also compared the black @-@ and @-@ white scenes of the special to Madonna : Truth or Dare , adding that when he darts a glance at Lady Gaga , she is occasionally registered in his brain as Madonna . On his show , Stern was also critical of inappropriateness and unreasonability of the numerous speeches Gaga gave between the songs in the special , calling them " prattle " , " drivel " , and " condescending " . Dedicating over half an hour of his show on May 9 and 10 , 2011 , to express his criticism of the concert , Stern compared the manner of Gaga 's speaking to professional wrestling due to echoing , Gaga 's gasping between the words , and the audience 's arguable inability to hear the words enough to understand them . In particular , Gaga claimed in the concert that her incentive to work is to " set [ her audience ] free " , not money . Stern attempted to debunk that claim by arguing that Gaga takes potentially psychiatric problems of her audience lightly by urging her fans to " forget all of [ their ] insecurities " overnight .
The special received five nominations at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . It was nominated for Outstanding Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Directing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Technical Direction , Camerawork , Video Control for a Miniseries , Movie or a Special ; Outstanding Picture Editing for a Special ( Single or Multi @-@ Camera ) ; and Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special . It won the picture editing award and lost all of its other bids . The five nominations were among the 104 HBO received for 2011 ; it made up over one @-@ fifth of the total nominations . The special also received a nomination at the 2012 Dorian Awards in the category of " TV Musical Program of the Year " .
= = Video album = =
= = = Development = = =
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 21 , 2011 , and was also released as a digital download to iTunes Store . In addition to the content of the original HBO broadcast , it includes new , previously @-@ unseen footage . The video is also a part of a bundled package — along with the 17 @-@ track special edition of Born This Way and a remix album , Born This Way : The Remix — titled Born This Way , The Collection , which was released the same day . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was captured with a 14 @-@ camera High Definition shoot . The Blu @-@ ray edition of the video album is presented in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 78 : 1 , encoded with MPEG @-@ 4 AVC and grants a 1080i transfer . It contains two audio tracks DTS @-@ HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 and LPCM 2 @.@ 0 . According to Jim Belcher , Vice President for Advanced Technology and Production of Universal Music Group , the advanced technologies associated with Dolby DTS @-@ HD would allow the audience the best experience while viewing the DVD .
Brian Riordan , one of the engineers who worked on mastering the audio for the DVD described in a video interview with Rolling Stone how the mix was achieved . He recalled getting a call from one of the show 's producers who were looking for specialized sound arrangements to acquire an authentic live concert feeling for the release . Riordan remembered that the main difficulty was trying to preserve the " craziness " of the audience and Gaga 's fans , and their screaming during the concert , nevertheless make the music of the show primary . His team used Lossy which did not use compression , instead one @-@ to @-@ one audio mixing giving the whole sound system " much more of an impactful experience " . Riordan decided to engineer the concert sound as " center @-@ channeled " since Gaga did not use backing audio , resulting in the listener getting the whole impact of her vocals , when listened with a headphone . Other difficulty faced by team included converting the heavy production of Gaga 's songs to a live format and utilizing the singer 's bands . " You also have the crowd , the house going nuts and all the reverberations at Madison Square Garden , so it was really difficult for me to figure out globally how real , how dry , how punchy can we get this thing to sound " , he added . Initially Riordan had featured more of the live instrumentation and mixed the songs a number of times , however felt that they needed a dry reverb hence he pondered on the mix along with co @-@ producer coming to a consensus regarding the sound . According to Riordan , the mixing process was approved by Gaga who watched the cuts while travelling on the tour however , she did not ask Riordan to change anything , unlike previous projects the engineer had undertaken . The 5 @.@ 1 mix was further orchestrated by using the sound recordings from the microphones placed around the audience members in Madison Square Garden , giving a new dimension to the surround sound in the Blu @-@ ray .
It has a length of over 114 minutes and contains five subtitles : English , French , Spanish , Portuguese and German . Extra features added to the release included another a cappella version of " Born This Way " which was performed on stage unlike the one in the closing credits . A photo gallery was also included as well as backstage footage showing Gaga meeting with actress Liza Minnelli . According to Jeffrey Kauffman of Blu @-@ ray.com , the audio tracks were commendable for their crisp sound . He stated that " One of the best things about this concert is despite its artifice , even its artificiality , there 's absolutely no question that Lady Gaga is actually singing . What a novel idea for a live concert , and one that seemed especially refreshing after having just sat through the Britney Spears Live : The Femme Fatale Tour concert Blu @-@ ray , where Brit 's live voice was all but buried in the pre @-@ records . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , it entered Billboard 's Top Music Video chart at the top , selling 26 @,@ 000 copies of the DVD — the greatest total for a music video since Beyoncé Knowles ' I Am ... World Tour live CD / DVD sold 37 @,@ 000 and 31 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks in November and December 2010 , and held this title until the release of Adele 's Live at the Royal Albert Hall . Its final appearance on the chart was for the issue dated November 30 , 2013 , where upon it tallied a total of 64 weeks in side the chart . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden became the fourth best @-@ selling music video of 2011 in the United States .
In Australia , the DVD debuted at number two on the ARIA DVD Chart . The next week , it remained in the same position , while being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the DVD . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was certified double platinum in January 2012 , denoting shipments of 30 @,@ 000 copies . It was the fifth and eleventh best selling DVD of 2011 and 2012 in Australia , respectively . The DVD charted on the UK Music Video chart at number four , for the issue dated December 3 , 2011 . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for selling more than 25 @,@ 000 copies . Across Europe , the DVD reached the top of the charts in France and Italy , the former region it was also certified double platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 30 @,@ 000 copies of the release . It reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in other nations .
= = = Track listing = = =
Bonus content
" Born This Way " ( a cappella ) – 3 : 16
" Backstage at the Monster Ball " – 12 : 50
Photo gallery
Track listing adapted from Amazon.com.
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden DVD booklet .
Main personnel
Production crew
Costumes and makeup
Sound Department
Special Effects
Lighting crew
Principal photography
|
= Stargazy pie =
Stargazy pie ( sometimes called starrey gazey pie or other variants ) is a Cornish dish made of baked pilchards , along with eggs and potatoes , covered with a pastry crust . Although there are a few variations with different fish being used , the unique feature of stargazy pie is fish heads ( and sometimes tails ) protruding through the crust , so that they appear to be gazing skyward . This allows the oils released during cooking to flow back into the pie .
The dish is traditionally held to have originated from the village of Mousehole in Cornwall and is traditionally eaten during the festival of Tom Bawcock 's Eve to celebrate his heroic catch during a very stormy winter . According to the modern festival , which is combined with the Mousehole village illuminations , the entire catch was baked into a huge stargazy pie , encompassing seven types of fish and saving the village from starvation . The story of Bawcock was popularised by Antonia Barber 's children 's book The Mousehole Cat , which featured the star @-@ gazy pie . In 2007 contestant Mark Hix won the BBC 's Great British Menu with a variant of the dish .
= = Description = =
Stargazy pie is a pastry @-@ based fish pie which , by tradition , is filled with whole pilchards . Critically , the pilchards must retain their heads , which then poke through the pastry top , appearing to gaze at the stars . The position of the fish allows the oil that is released during cooking to drain into the pie , adding a fuller flavour and ensuring the pie is moist . The celebrity chef Rick Stein suggested also poking the pilchards ' tails through the pie crust to give the effect of leaping through water .
In spite of the fact that the British Food Trust describes the dish as being fun as well as amusing to children , it has been listed in " Yuck ! Disgusting things people eat " , a lifestyle feature by the New York Daily News based upon the book by an American author , Neil Setchfield . On Tom Bawcock 's Eve it is served in The Ship Inn , the only pub in Mousehole , sometimes after a re @-@ enactment of the legend .
= = Origins = =
The pie originates from the fishing village of Mousehole in Cornwall . As with many parts of Cornish heritage , a legend has appeared about its origins . In this case , the pie is served to celebrate the bravery of Tom Bawcock , a local fisherman in the 16th century . The legend explains that one winter had been particularly stormy , meaning that none of the fishing boats had been able to leave the harbour . As Christmas approached , the villagers , who relied on fish as their primary source of food , were facing starvation .
On 23 December , Tom Bawcock decided to brave the storms and went out in his fishing boat . Despite the stormy weather and the difficult seas , he managed to catch enough fish to feed the entire village . The entire catch ( including seven types of fish ) was baked into a pie , which had the fish heads poking through to prove that there were fish inside . Ever since then , the Tom Bawcock 's Eve festival is held on 23 December in Mousehole . The celebration and memorial to the efforts of Tom Bawcock sees the villagers parading a huge stargazy pie during the evening with a procession of handmade lanterns , before eating the pie itself .
An older feast , held by the fishermen towards the end of December , included a pie cooked with different fish to represent the variety of catches the men hoped to achieve in the coming year . There is a possibility that Tom Bawcock 's Eve is an evolution of this festival . Since 1963 , the festival has been run against the backdrop of the Mousehole village illuminations , where the entire harbour is lit up , along with many other displays . One set of lights even represents the pie itself , showing fish heads and tails protruding from a pie dish underneath six stars .
There was a rumour that the entire festival was a fabrication by the landlord of The Ship Inn in the 1950s . However , festivities had been recorded by Morton Nance , an author on the Cornish language , in 1927 in the magazine Old Cornwall . His description was regarding the festivities prior to 1900 , though he doubted the reality of Tom Bawcock , suggesting it was in fact " Beau Coc " . He also went on to confirm that the origins of the festival dated back to pre @-@ Christian times , though it is unclear at what time the stargazy pie became part of the festivities . Morton Nance went on to restore the traditional song sung on Tom Bawcock 's Eve , played to the local tune " wedding March " .
A legend surrounding stargazy pie , along with the other unusual pies of Cornwall , is that they were the reason that the Devil never came to Cornwall . In his book Popular romances of the west of England ; or , The drolls , traditions , and superstitions of old Cornwall , a collection of Cornish traditions , Robert Hunt explains that the Devil crossed the River Tamar to Torpoint . The chapter , entitled " The Devil 's Coits , etc " , reasons that the Devil discovered the Cornish would put anything in a pie and decided to leave before they took a fancy to a " devilly " pie , returning to Devon .
= = Recipes = =
The original pie in the legend included sand eels , horse mackerel , pilchards , herring , dogfish and ling along with a seventh fish . In a traditional pie , the primary ingredient is the pilchard ( sardine ) , although mackerel or herring is used as a substitute . Richard Stevenson , chef at The Ship Inn in Mousehole , suggests that any white fish will work for the filling , with pilchards or herring just added for the presentation . Prior to putting it in the pie the fish should be skinned and boned ( except the head and tail ) , to allow for ease of eating . Along with the fish , the other traditional ingredients are thickened milk , eggs and boiled potatoes .
Many recipe variations around the traditional ingredients exist , some of which include hard @-@ boiled eggs , bacon , onion , mustard or white wine . Other alternatives to the main fish can be crayfish and rabbit or mutton . The recipes for the stargazy pie are all topped with a pastry lid , generally shortcrust but sometimes puff pastry , through which the fish heads and sometimes tails protrude .
For presentation , one suggestion is that the pilchards are arranged with their tails toward the centre of the pie and their heads poking up through the crust around the edge . As it includes potatoes and pastry , the pie can be served on its own or with crusty bread , sometimes with vegetables . Other suggested accompaniments are Cornish Yarg , Rhubarb chutney , poached eggs or a slice of lemon .
= = In popular culture = =
The children 's book The Mousehole Cat by Antonia Barber is inspired by Tom Bawcock 's Eve . It is the story of Tom Bawcock and his loyal black and white cat , Mowzer , setting sail to catch the fish . When the boat hits the storm , it is represented by a giant " Storm @-@ Cat " , allowing Mowzer to eventually save the day by soothing the storm with her purring . This purring becomes a song and while the Storm @-@ Cat is resting Tom is able to haul in his catch and return to the village . When they arrive back at the village , the entire catch is baked into a " Star @-@ Gazy " pie , on which the villagers feast . Notably , Antonia Barber points out that stargazy pie was a staple of Mousehole diet before Tom 's heroic fishing expedition , however , whereas according to tradition it dates from his return and legendary catch .
The main course of the second series of the Great British Menu was won by Mark Hix , head chef at The Ivy in London , with a variation on stargazy pie , which combined rabbit and crayfish for the filling , poking some crayfish through the pie crust . Hix had previously created a mutton and crayfish for a festival aimed at increasing the use of the meat , and it was served at his London restaurants for a time .
In the children 's book , The Lighthouse Keeper 's Cat by Ronda and David Armitage , the protagonist 's favourite dish is stargazy pie , and he is rewarded with one at the end .
The name is used as the title of a 1975 albums by Cornish folk singer Brenda Wootton . American rock band The Silver Seas ( under their previous name The Bees U.S. ) also released an album entitled Starry Gazey Pie in 2004 . The album and title track were based upon a recipe in a cookbook which band member Daniel Tashian remembered from his childhood .
The dish was featured in the 2004 film Ladies in Lavender , which is set in 1930s Cornwall . Characters from the film discuss the recipe used and the option of using coley fish in lieu of pilchards .
The dish has been presented in a parody programme on Chinese English @-@ language radio as a dish that " has come to epitomise British cuisine in Chinese eyes " .
|
= Vietnamese Cambodians =
Vietnamese Cambodians ( Khmer : ខ ្ មែរវៀត , KhmerViet ) refer to ethnic Vietnamese living in Cambodia . They mostly reside in southeastern parts Cambodia bordering Vietnam or on boathouses in the Tonlé Sap lake and Mekong rivers . The first Vietnamese came to settle modern @-@ day Cambodia from the early 19th century during the era of the Nguyễn lords , and most of the Vietnamese came to Cambodia during the periods of French colonial administration and the People 's Republic of Kampuchea administration . During the Khmer Republic and Khmer Rouge governments in the 1970s , the Vietnamese were targets of mass genocides thousands of Vietnamese were killed and many more sought refuge in Vietnam . Ethnic relations between the Khmers and Vietnamese are poor , and the Vietnamese have been the main target of xenophobic attacks by political parties since the 1990s . Most of the Vietnamese are stateless residents of Cambodia , and as a result they face difficulties in getting access to education , employment and housing .
= = History = =
Vietnamese settlers began to settle in modern @-@ day Cochinchina and Ho Chi Minh City from the 1620s onwards . To the Cambodians , these lands were known as Kampuchea Krom and traditionally under the control of the Khmer Empire . From the era of Chey Chettha II onwards , they came under the control of the Nguyễn lords . In 1813 , Emperor Gia Long sent 10 @,@ 000 Vietnamese troops into Phnom Penh and some members of the Cambodian royal family came under the control of the Vietnamese court . The Nguyen court imposed Vietnamese customs upon the Cambodian populace , and names of towns and provinces were changed to Vietnamese ones . Vietnamese settlers were encouraged to settle in Cambodia and official documents from the Vietnamese court recorded an average of 5 @,@ 000 Vietnamese settlers coming into Cambodia in the 1830s . The policies imposed by the Nguyen court stirred resentment among the Cambodian populace and provoked occasional rebellions .
In 1880 , the French colonial administration to provide subject status to Vietnamese residents in Cambodia . Over the next fifty years , large numbers of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia . Population censuses conducted by the French recorded an increase in the Vietnamese population from about 4 @,@ 500 in the 1860s to almost 200 @,@ 000 at the end of the 1930s . When the Japanese invaded Indochina in 1940 , Vietnamese nationalists in Cambodia launched a brief but unsuccessful attempt to attack the French colonial administrators . In 1954 , a citizenship law was passed on the basis of knowledge in the Khmer language and national origin , and effectively excluded most Vietnamese and Chinese Cambodians . At the grassroots level , Vietnamese also faced occasional cases of violent intimidation from the Cambodians . During a Sangkum congress in 1962 , politicians debated on the issue of citizenship on Cambodia 's ethnic minorities and a resolution was passed not to grant naturalization of Vietnamese residents .
When Lon Nol assumed power in 1970 , the Khmer Republic government launched a propaganda campaign to portray the ethnic Vietnamese as agents of the Vietcong . About 30 @,@ 000 Vietnamese were arrested and killed in prison , while an additional 200 @,@ 000 were repatriated to Vietnam . Five years later in 1975 , some 200 @,@ 000 to 250 @,@ 000 Vietnamese remained in Cambodia when the Khmer Rouge seized power . About three quarters of them were expelled to Vietnam , and the remaining 20 @,@ 000 who remained are those who are of mixed @-@ Vietnamese and Khmer descent . Those who remained were either killed or massacred by the regime . By the time Vietnamese troops entered Cambodia in 1979 , virtually all of Cambodia 's Vietnamese population were either displaced or killed . Vietnam established a new regime known as the People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) , and Vietnamese advisers were appointed in the new government administration . In 1983 , the PRK government formulated an official policy to encourage former Vietnamese residents of Cambodia to return and settle down . Vietnamese immigrants who had no family ties to Cambodia also came to settle in the country , as there was little border control to limit Vietnamese migrants from entering the country . The Vietnamese were recognised as an official minority under the PRK regime , and Overseas Vietnamese Associations were established in parts of Cambodia with sizeable Vietnamese populations . The PRK government also identity cards were issued to them until the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops in 1990 .
Vietnamese migrant workers started to arrive from 1992 onwards due to the creation of new job opportunities by the UNTAC administration . At the same time , the UNTAC administration allowed the opening of political offices and political parties such as FUNCINPEC and the BLDP began to propagate anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments among the populace to shore up electorate support in the 1993 general elections . In November 1992 , the Khmer Rouge which controlled northwestern parts of Cambodia , passed a resolution to target systematic killings of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians . The first guerrilla @-@ style attacks by the Khmer Rouge on Vietnamese civilians started in December 1992 , and Khmer Rouge soldiers justified the killings by claiming that some of the civilians were Vietnamese soldiers in disguise . The spate of killings by Khmer Rouge prompted some 21 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese to flee to Vietnam in March 1993 .
In August 1994 , the National Assembly of Cambodia introduced an immigration law which authorises the deportation of illegal immigrants . The UNHCR perceived the law as targeting Vietnamese migrants in Cambodia , and the Cambodian government later stepped in to assure that no mass deportations of Vietnamese refugees would be implemented . The Khmer Rouge continued to carry out sporadic attacks on Vietnamese civilians until they surrendered in 1999 . Ethnic Vietnamese continue to face discrimination from Cambodian society , and encountered physical intimidation from society and government authorities especially during the general elections or when disputes between Cambodia and Vietnam arise .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
The Vietnamese are generally concentrated along the river banks of the Tonlé Sap lake and Mekong river which encompass the provinces of Siem Reap , Kampong Chhnang and Pursat . Smaller populations may be found in Phnom Penh as well as southeastern provinces bordering Vietnam , namely Prey Veng , Svay Rieng , Kampot , Kandal , Kratié and Takeo . The Vietnamese population was at its largest in 1962 when the government census showed that they were the country 's largest minority and reflected 3 @.@ 8 % of the country 's population . Demographic researchers returned higher estimated numbers of Vietnamese than government censuses reflect . For example , in the 1960s , the number of resident Vietnamese may be as high as 400 @,@ 000 , while another Cambodian @-@ based researcher , Michael Vickery had estimated the Vietnamese resident population to be between 200 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 in 1986 . On the other hand , government censuses conducted during the 1980s put the figures to be no more than 60 @,@ 000 . The following population figures shows population figures of ethnic Vietnamese based on figures derived from government censuses :
= = = Religion = = =
The Vietnamese identify themselves as adherents of Mahayana Buddhism , Cao Đài or Roman Catholicism . Vietnamese Buddhists are mainly found among impoverished communities living in the Tonle Sap or the rural parts of Cambodia . As Vietnamese Buddhists derive their religious doctrines and beliefs from Chinese folk religion , they participate in religious rituals organised by Chinese Cambodians during festive seasons . Vietnamese communities that have settled down in Cambodia have adopted Khmer Theravada Buddhist practices to some extent . Vietnamese adherents of Roman Catholicism consist of descendants of refugees that fled the religious persecution during the reign of Tự Đức . They are split between city dwellers based in Phnom Penh and fishing communities that are based in Tonle Sap . Vietnamese Catholics make up about 90 % of Cambodia 's Roman Catholic community , and in the 1960s they had about 65 @,@ 000 adherents in the country . Most of the Vietnamese Catholics were either deported to Vietnam or killed in March 1970 , and it was only in 1990 that the Catholic church was allowed to re @-@ establish itself in Cambodia . In 2005 , there were about 25 @,@ 000 Catholics in the country .
A minority of Vietnamese are also followers of the Cao Đài faith which was introduced in 1927 . The Cao Đài faith attracted both Vietnamese and Cambodian adherents within the first few years of its founding , but a royal decree which outlawed the religion and efforts by Cambodian nationalists to prosecute Khmer adherents led to Cao Dai being observed solely by Vietnamese from the 1930s onwards . A Cao Đài temple was built in Mao Tse Tung Boulevard in 1937 , and in the 1960s there were about 70 @,@ 000 adherents in Cambodia . Cao Đài was outlawed during the Khmer Republic and Khmer Rouge regimes , but regained official recognition in 1985 and has about 2 @,@ 000 adherents in 2000 .
= = = Language = = =
The Vietnamese as a whole exhibit varying levels of fluency in the Khmer and Vietnamese languages . Vietnamese that live in self @-@ contained fishing communities along the Tonle Sap use Vietnamese in their day @-@ to @-@ day conversations and have individuals that have limited Khmer language skills and those that are bilingual in both languages . On the other hand , Vietnamese that live in predominantly Khmer @-@ speaking neighbourhoods send their children to public schools , and as a result the children are able to speak Khmer fluently but show very limited understanding of Vietnamese .
= = = Education = = =
Field research carried out by ethnologists such as Stefan Ehrentraut shows that only a minority of Vietnamese children attend public schools , with figures varying across different provinces . In Kampong Chhnang and Siem Reap where the Vietnamese live along the river banks , enrolment into public schools fare below 10 % , whereas in other provinces such as Kampot and Kratie the proportion are higher . As the majority of Vietnamese do not carry citizenship papers , they were unable to enrol their children into public schools . For those who send their children to schools , most of them only attend school for a few years and seldom complete Grade 12 as Vietnamese parents were unable to afford school fees . Vietnamese students also faced difficulties in academic work , as classes are taught exclusively in the Khmer language , and Vietnamese children that grew up speaking Vietnamese at home have limited competency in Khmer . In some Vietnamese communities based in the Tonle Sap and Mekong rivers , there are private schools that are run by Vietnamese community associations and Christian organisations . The private schools cater the teaching of the Vietnamese language , and are mostly attended by children of impoverished families .
= = Economy = =
During the French colonial administration , educated Vietnamese were employed in the civil service administration as secretaries , clerks and bureaucrats . When Cambodia gained independence in 1953 , the Sihanouk @-@ led government phased out most of the Vietnamese civil servants with Cambodians , and they sought employment in banks and commercial enterprises as secretaries and other office @-@ based positions . In the 1960s , urban @-@ dwelling Vietnamese with lower education backgrounds also worked as mechanics in car repair and machine shops owned by Chinese businessmen . Vietnamese immigrants that settled in the countryside worked as fishermen along the Tonle Sap lake and Mekong river , and also as rubber plantation workers in Kampong Cham and Kratie provinces .
As most Vietnamese are stateless residents , they seek a living through ad @-@ hoc various industries such as the construction , recycling and prostitution industries or as street pedlars . Vietnamese that live along the Tonle Sap lake and Mekong rivers are subsistence fishermen . A sizeable number of these stateless Vietnamese consisted of migrants that came to Cambodia between 1992 and 1993 during the UNTAC administration . The majority of Vietnamese still live below the poverty line , although a very small number of Vietnamese are represented in the Cambodian business sector . One example is Sok Kong , the head of the business conglomerate Sokimex which owns state concessionaires in the country 's petroleum , tourism and entrepot industries .
= = Relations with community and society = =
= = = Government = = =
Almost 90 % of ethnic Vietnamese are stateless residents of Cambodia , and do not carry citizenship papers such as identity cards or birth certificates . The 1996 Cambodian law on nationality technically permits Vietnamese residents born in Cambodia to take up citizenship , but faced resistance from mid @-@ ranking interior ministry officials who generally refrain from registering Vietnamese residents due to concerns of political implications from opposition parties if citizenship were to be granted . A minority of Vietnamese residents were able to obtain citizenship only after paying bribes to interior ministry officials , or were married to Khmer spouses . The minority of Vietnamese residents who hold citizenship reported of interior ministry officials confiscating their citizenship papers . As a result , the Vietnamese faced legal restrictions from getting access to public healthcare , education , employment and buying land for housing as the majority do not carry Cambodian citizenship . Stateless Vietnamese built floating settlements in @-@ lieu of buying land @-@ based dwellings which require citizenship papers . According to field research carried out by Cambodia 's Minority Rights Organisation , interior ministry officials would confront Vietnamese fishermen in the Tonle Sap and demand bribes in order to allow them to carry out fishing .
= = = Inter @-@ ethnic relations = = =
Ethnic Khmers have a poor perception of the Vietnamese community , due to persistent feelings of communal animosity from the past history of Vietnamese rule over Cambodia . In 1958 , a survey conducted by Donald Willmott upon high school students in Phnom Penh showed that relations with Chinese were generally rated as friendly , whereas Khmer students viewed their Vietnamese classmates with suspicion . Relations between the Vietnamese and Chinese are considerably better , as both ethnic groups share a close cultural affinity . Chinese males sometimes take Vietnamese wives , particularly in Phnom Penh and eastern parts of the country where there are large Chinese and Vietnamese communities . In recent years , field research carried out by Ehrentraut in 2013 suggested that ethnic relations between Vietnamese have deteriorated not only with the ethnic Khmer , but also with the Cham and Chinese Cambodians .
Most Vietnamese are unrepresented in the Cambodian commune councils as they lack Cambodian citizenship . According to respondents from Ehrentraut 's field research , the majority of Cambodian commune chiefs and officials express support in excluding Vietnamese representatives from getting citizenship and participating commune elections and meetings due to contempt . The Vietnamese appoint their own village heads , and convey community concerns Vietnamese community associations ( Vietnamese : Tổng hội người Campuchia gốc Việt ) that was first established in 2003 . The community associations own limited assets and obtains funding from membership fees , donations from the Vietnamese embassy in Cambodia and sale of cemetery land from the Vietnamese communities . The funds are subsequently used to address Vietnamese communal concerns which includes supporting religious places of worship and teaching of the Vietnamese language , as well as providing assistance to disadvantaged families . While the community associations have the tacit support of the Vietnamese community , the majority do not accept membership for fear of getting social stigma from mainstream Cambodian society . As of 2013 , branches of these associations are established in 19 out of 23 provinces across Cambodia .
= = = Politics = = =
The issue of Vietnamese presence in Cambodia has been used as a topic by political parties to shore up electorate support since the 1993 general elections . Mainstream political parties that participated in the 1993 election included FUNCINPEC , BLDP and MOLINAKA , and they broached on topics concerning the presence of Cambodia 's Vietnamese population and perceived Vietnamese interference in the government during campaign trails . These political parties also charged that the presence of Vietnamese in the country were the cause of economic failures , and promises were made to expel the Vietnamese in the situation that they win the elections . During this same period of time , the Khmer Rouge which has earlier refused to participate in the elections also espoused similar anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments with mainstream political parties albeit on a more extreme form . The Khmer Rouge would issue statements and radio broadcasts accusing UNTAC of collaborating with Vietnam , and called for expulsion of the Vietnamese population through force . They would follow up with attacks upon Vietnamese civilians , which continued even after the end of the 1993 elections .
When the 1998 general elections were held , FUNCINPEC and the then @-@ newly formed Sam Rainsy Party repeated the use of anti @-@ Vietnamese rhetoric in their campaigns . The leaders of these two parties , Norodom Ranariddh and Sam Rainsy charged that some stateless Vietnamese had bribed state officials to obtain citizenship and the Vietnamese government still maintained political influence over the ruling party , the Cambodian People 's Party . At the same time , number of incidences of violent attacks against Vietnamese civilians rose , which are carried out by both the Khmer Rouge remnants and Cambodian civilians alike . The number of politically motivated acts of violence against Vietnamese civilians reduced after 2000 , and in the subsequent 2003 and 2008 general elections opposition political parties the use of anti @-@ Vietnamese rhetoric was also reduced . In October 2009 , Sam Rainsy charged Vietnam of encroaching into Cambodian territory in their border demarcation exercise , and led a group of activists to uproot Cambodian @-@ Vietnamese border posts in Svay Rieng . Although Sam Rainsy was sentenced to imprisonment in absentia over this incident , the incident became a major focus in electoral campaigns by the Cambodia National Rescue Party ( CNRP ) for the 2013 general elections . CNRP leaders also stoked claims on historical ties of Kampuchea Krom , and led to more anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments among CNRP supporters . When the CNRP narrowly lost the 2013 elections , they launched a series of anti @-@ government protests between 2013 @-@ 2014 which resulted in incidents of Vietnamese shops in Phnom Penh being ransacked .
The vast majority of the Vietnamese support the CPP , and those who carry Cambodian citizenship would vote for the party . Vietnamese support for the CPP has mostly driven by strong anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments from other political parties . Although many members within the rank and file of the CPP share anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments with other political parties , the CPP maintained an openly neutral stance towards the Vietnamese community . According to Ehrentraut , the CPP 's neutral stance was a balance between not providing open support for the Vietnamese community , which would have the potential effect of losing electoral votes to other political parties , while at the same time maintaining close ties with the Vietnamese government which the CPP had historical ties dating back to 1979 . Vietnamese who hold Cambodian citizenship have also expressed fear over physical insecurity during election periods , which is most apparent during the 1993 and 2013 elections when Vietnamese civilians faced physical intimidation from the Khmer Rouge and CNRP supporters respectively and have abstained from participating in elections .
= = = Books = = =
Corfield , Justin ( 2009 ) . The History of Cambodia . ABC @-@ CLIO . ISBN 0313357234 .
Heder , Stepher R. ; et al . ( 1995 ) . Propaganda , Politics and Violence in Cambodia : Democratic Transition Under United Nations Peace @-@ Keeping . M.E. Sharpe . ISBN 0765631741 .
Harris , Ian ( 2008 ) . Cambodian Buddhism : History and Practice . University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 0824832981 .
Kuhnt @-@ Saptodewo , Sri ( 1997 ) . Nationalism and Cultural Revival in Southeast Asia : Perspectives from the Centre and the Region . Otto Harrassowitz Verlag . ISBN 3447039582 .
Schliesinger , Joachim ( 2015 ) . Ethnic Groups of Cambodia Vol 2 : Profile of Austro @-@ Asiatic @-@ Speaking Peoples . Booksmango . ISBN 1633232379 .
Willmott , William E. ( 1967 ) . The Chinese in Cambodia . Publications Centre : University of British Columbia . ISBN 0774844418 .
= = = Reports and journals = = =
Amer , Ramses ( 2013 ) . " Domestic Political Change and Ethnic Minorities - A Case Study of the Ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia " ( PDF ) . Asia @-@ Pacific Social Science Review ( Institute for security and development policy , Sweden ) 3 ( 2 ) : 87 – 101 . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
Ang , Chanrith ( March 2014 ) . " LIMBO ON EARTH : An Investigative Report On the Current Living Conditions and Legal Status of Ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia " ( PDF ) . Minority Rights Organisation . Retrieved 2 March 2015 .
Ehrentraut , Stefan ( 2013 ) . " Challenging Khmer Citizenship : Minorities , the State , and the International Community in Cambodia " ( PDF ) . Asia @-@ Pacific Social Science Review ( Universität Potsdam ) . doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 01419870 @.@ 2010 @.@ 537359 . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
Goscha , Christopher E. ( 2008 ) . " Widening the Colonial Encounter : Asian Connections Inside French Indochina During the Interwar Period " ( PDF ) . Modern Asian Studies ( Cambridge University Press ) : 1 – 40 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0026749X0800351X . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
Pen Socheat and Heng Phally ( July 2014 ) . " Cambodia Socio @-@ Economic Survey 2013 " ( PDF ) . National Institute of Statistics , Ministry of Planning , Government of Cambodia . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 01 @-@ 16 .
Tabeau , Ewa ( 30 September 2009 ) . " Demographic Expert Report - Khmer Rouge Victims in Cambodia , April 1975 - January 1979 - A critical Assessment of Major Estimates " ( PDF ) . Extraordinary Chamber in the Courts of Cambodia . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
|
= Jack Hinton =
John Daniel " Jack " Hinton , VC ( 17 September 1909 – 28 June 1997 ) was a New Zealand soldier who served during the Second World War . He was awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces , for his actions at Kalamata on 29 April 1941 during the Battle of Greece .
Born in 1909 , Hinton was a foreman at the Public Works Department when the Second World War began . He volunteered for service abroad with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force and was posted to the 20th Battalion . Wounded during the fighting at Kalamata , he was made a prisoner of war and made several escape attempts from camps in Germany . He was freed in April 1945 by advancing American forces . After the war , he managed several hotels and was also involved in horse racing industry until his retirement in 1980 . He died in 1997 at the age of 87 .
= = Early life = =
John Hinton , known as Jack , was born in Colac Bay in Southland , New Zealand , on 17 September 1909 , one of seven children of Harry Hinton , a railway man , and Elizabeth Mary . He was educated at local schools and on most days , before starting lessons , would milk a herd of 40 cows . When he was 12 , he ran away from home after an argument with his father . He found a job at a grocer 's in a nearby town but after a year signed on as a galleyhand aboard a Norwegian whaling ship , which spent the 1921 / 1922 whaling season in the Southern Ocean . On his return , and after reconciling with his parents , he started working as a shepherd . He soon tired of this and began the life of a swagman , working from town to town as he travelled around the South Island .
Hinton spent most of the next several years on the West Coast working in railroad construction , mining for gold , picking fruit , hauling coal , and saw milling . Sport was a passion ; he boxed as a lightweight and also ran foot races and played rugby for Hokitika .
In the 1930s , Hinton found regular employment in the Public Works Department , which was building bridges and roads throughout the West Coast . He gained respect for his honesty and hard @-@ working nature and became a foreman in the department . In 1937 , he invested his earnings into a pub for which his future wife , Eunice Henriksen , had the lease .
= = World War II = =
At the outbreak of war , Hinton enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) , which was being raised for service abroad . He was posted to the 20th Battalion , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Howard Kippenberger , and based at Burnham Military Camp . One of the older volunteers of the battalion , he was soon promoted to the rank of corporal , and not long after was made a sergeant . The battalion embarked for the Middle East as part of the 4th Infantry Brigade , 2nd New Zealand Division , in January 1940 .
Hinton was not always respectful of military authority . Shortly after the New Zealanders arrived in Egypt , he was commanding a squad practising on a rifle range when visited by the division 's commander , Major General Bernard Freyberg , who asked him how the men were shooting . " How would you expect them to bloody well shoot ? " , replied Hinton , " not enough bloody rations , stinking heat and sand " . Freyberg asked him to repeat the comment , which he did word for word . Freyberg took note of Hinton 's name and instructed him to carry on . There was a subsequent increase in rations , while Hinton was advised by his company commander on how best to speak to senior officers .
= = = Battle of Greece = = =
In March 1941 , the 2nd New Zealand Division was one of several Allied units deployed to Greece to help prepare for an expected invasion by Italian and German troops . When the invasion began on 6 April 1941 , the 20th Battalion briefly saw action at Thermopylae before being withdrawn , but Hinton missed this fighting as he was with the division 's reinforcement battalion , which was initially based in Athens before it moved to the port of Kalamata . It had been decided that the Allied forces would abandon Greece ; at Kalamata , the reinforcement battalion , along with several thousand other , mainly Australian , troops , was awaiting evacuation . On 28 April , the New Zealanders were waiting for transport when advance units of the German 5th Panzer Division began to attack the town with machine @-@ gun fire and self @-@ propelled 6 @-@ inch guns .
Hearing gunfire in the distance , Hinton , wanting to assist in the defence of the Allied positions , went to the headquarters of Brigadier Leonard Parrington , the officer in command of the evacuation . Hinton vehemently protested , in strong language , an order from Parrington to surrender . On being threatened with a court @-@ martial for speaking to a senior officer in such a manner , he issued his own threat of proceedings against Parrington for defeatist talk and then left to determine for himself the situation . Other men of the reinforcement battalion were making preparations to move into the town and face the Germans . In the meantime , Hinton had collected his own party of 12 soldiers and led them into the town but came under fire . Ignoring an order from a nearby officer to retreat , he rushed forward to the nearest enemy gun and , hurling two grenades , killed the crew . He continued towards the town 's waterfront , clearing out two light machine @-@ gun nests and a mortar with grenades , then dealt with the garrison of a house where some of the enemy were sheltering . He then assisted in the capture of an artillery piece , but shortly after was shot in the stomach , immobilised and captured , one of about 6 @,@ 000 Allied soldiers made a prisoner of war ( POW ) .
Officially listed as missing in action until August 1941 , Hinton spent several weeks in a hospital near Athens until he was well enough to be transferred to a POW camp in Germany . In the meantime , a recommendation for the Victoria Cross ( VC ) for Hinton was dispatched by Major George Thomson , a medical officer who had witnessed his actions in Kalamata . After an investigation , a decision was made to award Hinton the VC , which was duly gazetted on 14 October 1941 . The citation read as follows :
On the night of 28th – 29th April , 1941 , during the fighting in Greece , a column of German armoured forces entered Kalamata ; this column , which contained several armoured cars , 2 " guns , and 3 " mortars , and two 6 " guns , rapidly converged on a large force of British and New Zealand troops awaiting embarkation on the beach . When the order to retreat to cover was given , Serjeant Hinton , shouting " to Hell with this , who 'll come with me , " ran to within several yards of the nearest gun ; the gun fired , missing him , and he hurled two grenades which completely wiped out the crew . He then came on with the bayonet followed by a crowd of New Zealanders . German troops abandoned the first 6 " gun and retreated into two houses . Serjeant Hinton smashed the window and then the door of the first house and dealt with the garrison with the bayonet . He repeated the performance in the second house and as a result , until overwhelming German forces arrived , the New Zealanders held the guns . Serjeant Hinton then fell with a bullet wound through the lower abdomen and was taken prisoner .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
The announcement of Hinton 's VC was made within a week of Lieutenant Charles Upham , another member of the 20th Battalion , being awarded a VC for his actions during the fighting in the Battle of Crete . This prompted a joke that circulated within the battalion : " Join the 20th and get a VC . " While a prisoner of war at Stalag IX @-@ C , Hinton made several escape attempts . He was being punished with solitary confinement for one such attempt when his VC was gazetted . He was paraded before his fellow prisoners and presented with a VC ribbon by the camp 's commandant before being returned to his cell to complete his punishment .
By April 1945 , the Allied advance into Germany threatened Hinton 's POW camp . The Germans evacuated the camp but Hinton , feigning sickness , remained behind . Once the guards had left , he was able to find keys to the gates and let himself out . He soon made contact with soldiers of the United States 6th Armoured Division . Dressed in civilian clothes , he was initially treated with suspicion but soon convinced the Americans of his identity . He borrowed an American uniform and went forward to the frontline with the 44th Infantry Division and assisted in the capture of three villages and rounding up of German POWs . Senior American officers soon found out about Hinton 's presence with their troops and sent him to England , where he arrived on 12 April 1945 .
Hinton remained in England for over three months , awaiting repatriation to New Zealand . During this time , on 11 May 1945 , he received his VC from King George VI at an investiture held at Buckingham Palace . Charles Upham , his comrade from the 20th Battalion , received a bar to his VC at the same ceremony . Transport finally available , Hinton departed for New Zealand in early July and arrived on 4 August 1945 .
= = Later life = =
After returning home , Hinton initially was indecisive about what to do with his life . Like many of his fellow soldiers who had returned home , he struggled to adapt to civilian life . He was also extremely uncomfortable with the public attention he received because of his status as a VC recipient . He eventually found work managing hotels on behalf of Dominion Breweries . He was initially based at the Thistle Hotel , a notorious drinking establishment in Auckland , for three years , during which he received a belated mention in despatches for his escape attempts while a POW . In December 1949 he moved to Hamilton to manage the Hamilton East Hotel . This was the first of many moves up and down the country to manage hotels .
During his time as a hotelier , Hinton made several overseas trips , the first of which was to attend the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . He also regularly attended VC and George Cross celebrations , including the VC centenary in 1956 . In 1963 , Eunice , who Jack had married following the death of her first husband in the 1950s , died from a heart attack . In 1968 , he was married again , to Molly Schumacher , a barmaid at the Onehunga Hotel in Auckland , which Hinton was running at the time . While in Auckland , he was heavily involved in the horse racing industry and acted as a steward at the Auckland Trotting Club .
Hinton retired in 1980 and he and Molly moved to Ashburton in the South Island . He spent much of his retirement fishing and in 1990 shifted to Christchurch to be nearer to Molly 's relatives . He died on 28 June 1997 and was honoured with a military funeral , attended by 800 people . The Chief of General Staff , Major General Piers Reid , delivered a eulogy . The New Zealand Parliament honoured him with a minute 's silence at a sitting on 1 July 1997 . He was survived by his second wife ; he had no children from either of his marriages . He is buried in Christchurch , in the Returned Servicemen 's League Section of the Ruru Lawn Cemetery . He is remembered with a plaque in his birthplace of Colac Bay , and the restaurant at the Christchurch Returned Servicemen 's Association is named for him .
= = Victoria Cross = =
Hinton 's VC was loaned by his family to the Army Museum New Zealand at Waiouru , where it is on display . On Sunday , 2 December 2007 , it was one of nine VCs among a hundred medals stolen from the museum . On 16 February 2008 , New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess .
|
= 1961 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1961 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of major hurricanes – Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale – until being tied by 2005 . The season officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 15 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . It was an above average season in terms of tropical storms , with a total of 11 named storms . The first system , Hurricane Anna , developed in the eastern Caribbean Sea near the Windward Islands on July 20 . It brought minor damage to the islands , as well as wind and flood impacts to Central America after striking Belize as a hurricane . Anna caused one death and about $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 1961 USD ) in damage . Activity went dormant for nearly a month and a half , until Hurricane Betsy developed on September 2 . Betsy peaked as a Category 4 hurricane , but remained at sea and caused no impact .
One of the most significant storms of the season was Hurricane Carla , which peaked as a Category 5 hurricane , before weakening slightly and striking Texas . Carla caused 43 deaths and approximately $ 325 @.@ 74 million in damage . Hurricane Debbie was a Category 3 storm that existed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean . Early in its duration , unsettled weather from Debbie in Cape Verde resulted in a plane crash that killed 60 people . Debbie then brushed Ireland as either a Category 1 hurricane or shortly after becoming extratropical . The next storm , Hurricane Esther , threatened to strike New England as a major hurricane , but rapidly weakened and made landfall in Massachusetts as only a tropical storm . Impact was generally minor , with about $ 6 million in damage and seven deaths , all of which from a United States Navy plane crash . An unnamed tropical storm and Hurricane Frances caused minimal impact on land . In mid @-@ October , Tropical Storm Gerda brought flooding to Jamaica and eastern Cuba , resulting in twelve deaths .
Another significant storm was Hurricane Hattie , a late @-@ season Category 5 hurricane that struck Belize . Hattie caused 319 confirmed fatalities and about $ 60 @.@ 3 million in damage . Destruction was so severe in Belize that the government had to relocate inland to a new city , Belmopan . The remnants of Hattie may have contributed to the development of Tropical Storm Simone in the eastern Pacific Ocean . In early November , the depression that would later strengthen into Hurricane Jenny brought light rainfall to Puerto Rico . The final storm , Tropical Storm Inga , dissipated on November 8 , after causing no impact on land . On September 11 , three hurricanes existed simultaneously – Betsy , Carla , and Debbie – the most on a single day in the Atlantic basin since 1893 and until 1998 . Collectively , the storms of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season caused about $ 391 million in damage and at least 348 fatalities .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 . It was an above average season in which eleven tropical storms formed ; this was above the 1950 – 2000 average of 9 @.@ 6 named storms . Eight of these reached hurricane status , also above of the 1950 – 2000 average of 5 @.@ 9 . Furthermore , seven storms reached major hurricane status ; thus , 1961 had the most major hurricanes , until being tied by 2005 . Of the seven , two became Category 5 hurricanes . Four hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season , causing 348 deaths and $ 391 @.@ 6 million in damage . Hurricane Debbie also caused damage and deaths , despite remaining offshore and then after becoming extratropical .
Although the season officially began on June 15 , the first tropical cyclone , Hurricane Anna , did not develop until July 20 . After Anna dissipated on July 24 , there were no other systems in July or the month of August . Tropical cyclogenesis did not resume until Hurricane Betsy developed on September 2 . During the next four days , two other tropical cyclones formed – Carla and Debbie . On September 11 , the three storms – Betsy , Carla , and Debbie – existed simultaneously the hurricanes , the most in a single day since 1893 and until 1998 . Esther , which developed on September 10 , did not reach hurricane status until September 12 . Later that day , a tropical storm that went unnamed formed over the Bahamas and moved across the East Coast of the United States for its brief duration .
After Debbie became extratropical on September 26 , another tropical cyclone developed four days later , Hurricane Frances . Thereafter , tropical cyclogenesis slowed in October , which featured only two systems , Gerda and Hattie . The latter was the strongest tropical cyclone of the season , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 920 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . After weakening slightly , Hattie struck Belize on October 31 , before dissipating on November 1 . Later that day , Hurricane Jenny developed near Antigua . Jenny remained weak for much of its duration and became extratropical on November 8 . The final system , Tropical Storm Inga , formed in the Gulf of Mexico on November 5 . Three days later , Inga dissipated , one week before the season officially ended .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 205 , one of the highest values recorded . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Anna = = =
An easterly wave developed into Tropical Storm Anna in the vicinity of the Windward Islands on July 20 . The storm moved westward across the Caribbean Sea . Favorable environmental conditions allowed Anna to reach hurricane intensity late on July 20 . Early on the following day , the storm strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane . Intensification continued , and later on July 21 , Anna became a major hurricane . After attaining peak intensity on July 22 , the hurricane slightly weakened while brushing the northern coast of Honduras . Further weakening occurred ; when Anna made landfall in Belize on July 24 , winds decreased to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Anna rapidly weakened over land and dissipated later that day .
As a developing tropical cyclone over the Windward Islands , Anna produced strong winds over Grenada , though damage was limited to some crops , trees , and telephone poles . Other islands experienced gusty winds , but no damage . Passing just north of Venezuela , the hurricane produced strong winds over the country , peaking as high as 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Strong winds caused widespread damage in northern Honduras . Throughout the country , at least 36 homes were destroyed and 228 were damaged . Severe damage in the Gracias a Dios Department left hundreds of people homeless . Additionally , high winds toppled approximately 10 @,@ 000 coconut trees . Overall , Anna caused one fatality and $ 300 @,@ 000 in damage , primarily in Central America .
= = = Hurricane Betsy = = =
In early September , a tropical wave was noted in the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) . On September 2 , the disturbance was analyzed to have attained tropical storm strength , after nearby ship reports indicated strong winds associated with anomalously low barometric pressures . Moving steadily northwestward , Betsy gradually intensified under favorable conditions . By 12 : 00 UTC the following day , the storm had strengthened to Category 1 hurricane intensity . Shortly after , a trough situated along 50 ° W steered Betsy to a more northerly course . Another low @-@ pressure area later formed in the trough , perturbing the ridge to the north of Betsy for much of its initial stages , causing the hurricane 's central pressure to rise , despite an increase in sustained winds . However , on September 5 , a shortwave forced the low northeastward , allowing for Betsy to strengthen further .
Later on September 5 , Betsy attained Category 4 hurricane strength , before subsequently reaching peak intensity the following day with winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a central pressure of 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) , based on reconnaissance flights into the system . However , as a result of missing the short wave itself , the hurricane later weakened and fell to Category 3 intensity while located about 440 miles ( 710 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda . Betsy weakened further to Category 2 hurricane before becoming nearly stationary beginning on September 6 , where it maintained its intensity for several days . A separate , minor trough was later able to move the system northeastwards on September 9 . Moving into highly latitudes , Betsy began to weaken , degenerating back to Category 1 hurricane intensity on September 11 before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone the following day . The extratropical remnants continued northeastward and weakened , before dissipating west of Ireland early on September 12 . Due to its distance from any landmasses , no damage was associated with the tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Carla = = =
A tropical depression developed from an area of squally weather embedded within the ITCZ in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 3 . Initially a tropical depression , it strengthened slowly while heading northwestward , and by September 5 , the system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Carla . About 24 hours later , Carla was upgraded to a hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the storm curved northward while approaching the Yucatán Channel . Late on September 7 , Carla entered the Gulf of Mexico while passing just northeast of the Yucatán Peninsula . By early on the following day , the storm became a major hurricane . Resuming its northwestward course , Carla continued intensification and on September 11 , it was upgraded to a Category 5 hurricane . Later that day , Carla weakened slightly , but was still a large and intense hurricane when the storm made landfall near Port O 'Connor , Texas with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . It weakened quickly inland and was reduced to a tropical storm on September 12 . Heading generally northward , Carla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 13 , while centered over southern Oklahoma . However , the remnants continued generally northeastward and entered Canada on September 14 , before dissipating near Cape Chidley early on September 16 .
While crossing the Yucatán Channel , the outer bands of Carla brought gusty winds and severe local flooding in western Cuba and the Yucatán Peninsula , though no damage or fatalities were reported . Although initially considered a significant threat to Florida , the storm brought only light winds and small amounts of precipitation , reaching no more than 3 @.@ 15 in ( 80 mm ) . In Texas , wind gusts as high as 170 mph ( 270 km / h ) were observed in Port Lavaca . Additionally , several tornadoes spawned in the state caused notable impacts , with the most destructive tornado resulting in 200 buildings severely damaged , of which at least 60 were destroyed , and eight deaths and 55 injuries . Throughout the state , Carla destroyed 1 @,@ 915 homes , 568 farm buildings , and 415 other buildings . Additionally , 50 @,@ 723 homes , 5 @,@ 620 farm buildings , and 10 @,@ 487 other buildings suffered damage . There were 34 fatalities and at least $ 300 million in losses in Texas alone . Several tornadoes also touched down in Louisiana , causing the destruction of 140 homes and 11 farms and other buildings , and major damage to 231 additional homes and 11 farm and other buildings . Minor to moderate damage was also reported to 748 homes and 75 farm and other buildings . Six deaths and $ 25 million in losses in Louisiana were attributed to Carla . Heavy rainfall occurred in several other states , especially in Kansas , where flash flooding severely damaged crops and drowned five people . Overall , Carla resulted in $ 325 @.@ 74 million in losses and 46 fatalities . In Canada , the remnants of Carla brought strong winds to Ontario and New Brunswick , though impact was primarily limited to power outages and falling trees and branches .
= = = Hurricane Debbie = = =
A tropical disturbance was first identified in late August over Central Africa . It was estimated to have become a tropical storm on September 6 . Later that day , Debbie passed through the southern Cape Verde Islands as a strong tropical storm or minimal hurricane , resulting in a plane crash that killed 60 people . Once clear of the islands , data on the storm became sparse , and the status of Debbie was uncertain over the following several days as it tracked west @-@ northwestward and later northward . It was not until a commercial airliner intercepted the storm on September 10 that its location was certain . The following day , Debbie intensified and reached its peak intensity as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . The hurricane gradually slowed its forward motion and weakened . By September 13 , Debbie 's motion became influenced by the westerlies , causing the system to accelerate east @-@ northeastward .
The system passed over the western Azores as a minimal hurricane on September 15 . At this point , there is uncertainty as to the structure of Debbie , whether it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone or maintained identity as a tropical system . Regardless , the system deepened as it neared the British Isles , skirting the coast of Western Ireland on September 16 . Shortly thereafter , the system was confirmed to have become extratropical as it continued towards the northeast . In Ireland , Debbie brought record winds to much of the island , with a peak gust of 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) measured just offshore . Widespread wind damage and disruption occurred , downing tens of thousands of trees and power lines . Countless structures sustained varying degrees of damage , with many smaller buildings destroyed . Agriculture experienced extensive losses to barley , corn and wheat crops . Throughout Ireland , Debbie killed 18 people , with 12 in the Ireland and six in Northern Ireland . It caused $ 40 – 50 million in damage in the Republic and at least £ 1 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 4 million ) in Northern Ireland . The storm also battered parts of Great Britain with winds in excess of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Esther = = =
On September 10 , Television Infrared Observation Satellite ( TIROS ) III observed an area of disturbed weather well southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . Later that day , a tropical depression developed about 540 miles ( 870 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands . Moving northwestward , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Esther on September 11 , before reaching hurricane intensity on the following day . Early on September 13 , Esther curved westward and deepened into a major hurricane . The storm remained a Category 3 hurricane for about four days and gradually moved in west @-@ northwestward direction . Late on September 17 , Esther strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane and peaked with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) on September 18 .
The storm curved north @-@ northeastward on September 19 , while offshore North Carolina . Esther began to weaken while approaching New England and fell to Category 3 intensity on September 21 . Early on September 22 , the storm turned eastward and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm . It then executed a large cyclonic loop , until curving northward on September 25 . Early on the following day , Esther struck Cape Cod , hours before emerging into the Gulf of Maine . Later on September 26 , the storm made landfall in southeastern Maine , before weakening to a tropical depression and becoming extratropical over southeastern Quebec . The remnants persisted for about 12 hours , before dissipating early on September 27 . Between North Carolina and New Jersey effects were primarily limited to strong winds and minor beach erosion and coastal flooding due to storm surge . In New York , strong winds led to severe crop losses and over 300 @,@ 000 power outages . High tides caused coastal flooding and damage a number of pleasure boats . Similar impact was reported in Massachusetts . Additionally , some areas observed more than 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rainfall , flooding basements , low @-@ lying roads , and underpasses . Overall , damage was minor , totaling about $ 6 million . There were also seven deaths reported when United States Navy P5M aircraft crashed about 120 miles ( 190 km ) north of Bermuda .
= = = Unnamed Tropical Storm = = =
TIROS III imagery indicated a vortex east of the Bahamas between September 9 and September 12 . A tropical depression formed at 12 : 00 UTC on September 12 , after TIROS revealed a surface circulation . The depression tracked northward and intensified into a tropical storm while located offshore North Carolina . Early on September 14 , it made landfall in the state near Wilmington , North Carolina with winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The storm curved northeastward and accelerated across the Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England , and New Brunswick . Upon reaching the Gulf of Saint Lawrence on September 15 , it weakened to a tropical depression and subsequently dissipated .
Impact from the storm was generally minor . In North Carolina , 3 @.@ 12 inches ( 79 mm ) of precipitation fell at Williamston . Strong winds lashed Rhode Island , with winds as high as 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Point Judith . About 29 @,@ 000 homes were left without electricity , while 1 @,@ 200 lost telephone service . Hundreds of small crafts and a few ferries and barges were swamped or sank . Hurricane @-@ force wind gusts in Massachusetts felled trees , electrical wires , and TV antennas . Some roads in the southeastern portion of the state were blocked by fallen trees . Similar impact was reported in Maine . Additionally , two homes were damaged by falling trees . One person was injured by a flying wooden plank .
= = = Hurricane Frances = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave organized into a tropical depression on September 30 , east of the northern Lesser Antilles . Six hours later , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Frances . Heading westward , it crossed through the Leeward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea on October 1 . Thereafter , the lack of divergence at high levels prevented significant strengthening for a few days . While situated south of Puerto Rico on October 2 , Frances curved northwestward . The storm brought heavy rainfall to Puerto Rico , peaking at 10 @.@ 15 inches ( 258 mm ) in the Indiera Baja barrio of Maricao . Considerable damage to roads and bridges occurred . However , due to swift evacuations of residents by the Civil Defense and American Red Cross , no fatalities were reported .
Tracking to the northwest , Frances made landfall near Cap Cana , Dominican Republic early on October 3 with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . No impact was reported on the island . Later on October 3 , Frances emerged into the Atlantic Ocean just southeast of the Turks and Caicos Islands . Thereafter , the storm accelerated somewhat and resumed intensification , reaching hurricane status on October 4 . Around that time , it curved northeastward and deepened further . Early on October 7 , Frances attained its peak intensity with winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The storm passed by Bermuda around that time , where it dropped 1 @.@ 35 inches ( 34 mm ) of precipitation . Later on October 7 , Frances re @-@ curved to the north . Early on the following day , it turned northwestward and began to weaken , falling to tropical storm intensity around 06 : 00 UTC on October 9 . Six hours later , Frances became extratropical over the Gulf of Maine . The remnants curved east @-@ northeastward and struck Nova Scotia , before dissipating early on October 10 .
= = = Tropical Storm Gerda = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on October 16 , while located south of Jamaica . Shortly thereafter , the depression made landfall in Clarendon Parish . It continued northward and made another landfall near Santa Cruz del Sur , Cuba on October 17 . The depression brought heavy rainfall to Jamaica and eastern Cuba . In the former , flooding caused damage to roads and forced many to evacuate their homes in western Kingston . Five fatalities were reported in Jamaica . Flooding in eastern Cuba resulted in seven deaths . After striking Cuba , the depression emerged into the Atlantic and then crossed the Bahamas .
The depression accelerated to the north @-@ northeast and finally began to strengthen . Late on October 19 , the depression reached tropical storm intensity and was named Gerda , while located between Bermuda and the East Coast of the United States . The storm curved northeastward on October 20 , while peaking with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . However , a Texas Tower offshore Massachusetts observed hurricane @-@ force winds . At 00 : 00 UTC on October 21 , Gerda transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , while situated about 100 miles ( 160 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barrington , Nova Scotia . Damage from the storm in New England was " about the same as that from a typical wintertime northeaster " . The remnants of Gerda moved northeastward and then to the east , before dissipating between Newfoundland and the Azores late on October 22 .
= = = Hurricane Hattie = = =
In late October , an area of low pressure persisted in the western Caribbean Sea for several days . On October 27 , a ship and the airport on San Andres Island reported a closed center of circulation associated with the low . Thus , the system was classified as Tropical Storm Hattie starting on October 27 . Moving towards the north and north @-@ northeast , the storm quickly gained hurricane status and major hurricane status the following day . Hattie turned towards the west to the east of Jamaica , and strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) before weakening to Category 4 status at landfall south of Belize City . Continuing southwest , the storm rapidly weakened over the mountainous terrain of Central America , dissipating on November 1 . The remnants may have contributed to the development of Tropical Storm Simone in the eastern Pacific Ocean .
Hattie first affected regions in the southwestern Caribbean , producing hurricane @-@ force winds and causing one death on San Andres Island . It was initially forecast to continue north and strike Cuba , which prompted evacuations . Little effects were reported as Hattie turned to the west , although rainfall reached 11 @.@ 5 in ( 290 mm ) on Grand Cayman . The worst damage was in the country of Belize . The former capital , Belize City , was flooded by a powerful storm surge and high waves and affected by strong winds . The territory governor estimated 70 % of the buildings in the city were damaged , which left over 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . The damage was severe enough that it prompted the government to relocate inland to a new city , Belmopan . In the territory , Hattie left about $ 60 million in damage and caused 307 deaths . The government estimated that Hattie was more damaging than a hurricane in 1931 that killed 2 @,@ 000 people ; the lower toll for Hattie was due to advance warning . Elsewhere in Central America , the hurricane killed 11 people in Guatemala and one in Honduras .
= = = Hurricane Jenny = = =
A surface trough of low pressure developed in the eastern Caribbean Sea on October 30 . The trough split , with the northern portion spawning a tropical depression near Antigua at 12 : 00 UTC on November 1 . In the early stages of Jenny , light rainfall was observed in Puerto Rico , peaking at 4 @.@ 97 inches ( 126 mm ) . Moving northeastward ahead of an upper @-@ level trough , the depression remained weak for over four days . On November 3 , it curved eastward , before briefly turning to the southeast on November 4 . The depression tracked in a circular path during the next 24 hours , moving northeastward , north @-@ northwestward , and then west @-@ northward . Finally , the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Jenny early on November 6 .
Jenny intensified further and reached hurricane status at 12 : 00 UTC on November 6 . Later that day , the United States Weather Bureau began advisories and described Jenny as having " characteristic of many storms in the sub @-@ tropics late in the hurricane season . " Around 18 : 00 UTC on November 6 , Jenny attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 974 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Thereafter , the storm briefly decelerated and weakened , falling to tropical storm intensity around midday on November 7 . Jenny curved northeastward and continued to weaken . A reconnaissance flight into the system on November 8 indicated that the storm became extratropical about 895 miles ( 1 @,@ 440 km ) east of Bermuda . The extratropical remnants continued to move northeastward and weakened , dissipating late on November 9 .
= = = Tropical Storm Inga = = =
Early on November 4 , the SS Navigator encountered a weather system in the Gulf of Mexico that produced northwesterly winds of 81 to 92 mph ( 130 to 148 km / h ) . Reconnaissance aircraft data indicated that Tropical Storm Inga developed at 00 : 00 UTC on November 5 , while located about 145 miles ( 233 km ) northeast of Veracruz . A strong high pressure system and a cold front entering the Gulf of Mexico from Texas caused the storm to move southward and then southeastward . Inga slowly strengthened and peaked as a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) tropical storm early on November 7 . Thereafter , the storm became nearly stationary and began weakening . By 12 : 00 UTC on November 8 , Inga dissipated in the Bay of Campeche , as reconnaissance aircraft found no closed circulation .
= = = Other storms = = =
A report from Mexico indicates that a tropical depression off the west coasts of Tabasco and Coatzacoalcos . The depression significantly impacted the northern portions of Veracruz with heavy rainfall on June 30 . However , the Atlantic hurricane best track does not list this system as a tropical depression .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1961 . Storms were named Frances , Hattie , Inga and Jenny for the first time in 1961 . The names Carla and Hattie were later retired . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
|
= ARA Moreno =
ARA Moreno was a dreadnought battleship designed by the American Fore River Shipbuilding Company for the Argentine Navy ( Armada de la República Argentina ) . Named after Mariano Moreno , a key member of the first independent government of Argentina , the First Assembly ( Primera Junta ) , Moreno was the second dreadnought of the Rivadavia class , and the fourth built during the South American dreadnought race .
Argentina placed orders for Moreno and its only sister ship , Rivadavia , in reply to a Brazilian naval building program . During their construction , the two dreadnoughts were subject to numerous rumors involving Argentina selling the two battleships to a country engaged in the First World War , but these proved to be false . After Moreno was completed in March 1915 , a series of engine problems occurred during the sea trials which delayed its delivery to Argentina to May 1915 . The next decade saw the ship based in Puerto Belgrano as part of the Argentine Navy 's First Division before sailing to the United States for an extensive refit in 1924 and 1925 . During the 1930s the ship was occupied with diplomatic cruises to Brazil , Uruguay , and Europe until the Second World War broke out . During this time , Moreno was employed little as Argentina was neutral . Decommissioned in 1949 , Moreno was scrapped in Japan beginning in 1957 .
= = Background = =
Moreno 's genesis can be traced to the numerous naval arms races between Chile and Argentina , which in turn were spawned by territorial disputes over their mutual borders in Patagonia and Puna de Atacama along with control of the Beagle Channel . Naval races flared up in the 1890s and in 1902 ; the latter was eventually settled via British mediation . Provisions in the dispute @-@ ending treaty imposed restrictions on both countries ' navies . The United Kingdom 's Royal Navy bought the two Constitución @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships that were being built for Chile , and Argentina sold its two Rivadavia @-@ class armored cruisers under construction in Italy to Japan .
After HMS Dreadnought was commissioned , Brazil decided in early 1907 to halt three obsolescent pre @-@ dreadnoughts which were under construction in favor of two or three dreadnoughts . These ships , which were designed to carry the heaviest battleship armament in the world at the time , came as an abrupt shock to the navies of South America , and Argentina and Chile quickly canceled the 1902 armament @-@ limiting pact . Argentina in particular was alarmed at the possible power of the ships . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , Manuel Augusto Montes de Oca , remarked that even one Minas Geraes @-@ class ship could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets . While this may have been hyperbole , either one was much more powerful than any single vessel in the Argentine fleet . Although debates raged in Argentina over whether it would be prudent to counter Brazil 's purchase by acquiring their own dreadnoughts , which would cost upwards of two million pounds sterling , further border disputes — particularly near the River Plate with Brazil — decided the matter , and they ordered Rivadavia and Moreno from the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in the United States .
= = Construction and trials = =
After the two new dreadnoughts were awarded to Fore River , Moreno was subcontracted out to the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden , New Jersey as called for in the final contract . Moreno 's keel was laid on 9 July 1910 , and construction was overseen by the Argentine Naval Commission . After the completion of the hull , it was launched on 23 September 1911 . Isabel Betbeder , wife to the chief of the Argentine Naval Commission , sponsored Moreno . The ship was then moored to a dock to commence fitting @-@ out , which was finished on 15 February 1915 . It was commissioned into the Argentine Navy nine days later .
Over the course of their construction , Rivadavia and Moreno were the subject of various rumors insinuating that Argentina would accept the ships and then sell them to a European country or Japan , a fast @-@ growing rival to the United States . The rumors were partially true ; Argentina was looking to get rid of the battleships and devote the proceeds to opening more schools . This angered the American government , which did not want its warship technology offered to the highest bidder — yet they did not want to exercise a contract @-@ specified option that gave the United States first choice if the Argentines decided to sell , as naval technology had already progressed past the Rivadavias , particularly in the adoption of the " all @-@ or @-@ nothing " armor scheme . Instead , the United States and its State Department and Navy Department put diplomatic pressure on the Argentine government .
The Argentine government , bolstered by socialist additions in the legislature , introduced several bills in May 1914 which would have put the battleships up for sale , but the bills were all defeated by late June . Following the commencement of the First World War , the German and British ambassadors to the United States both complained to the US State Department ; the former believed that the British were going to be given the ships as soon as they reached Argentina , and the latter charged the United States with ensuring that the ships fell into Argentina 's possession only . International armament companies attempted to influence Argentina into selling them to one of the smaller Balkan countries , from which they would find their way into the war .
In October 1914 , Moreno sailed the New York Naval Shipyard to be painted , then conducted its sea trials starting on the 25th . Reporters for several newspapers , including The New York Times , and American naval officers were allowed on board during this time ; the Times reporters gave a glowing account of the alcohol @-@ serving café on the ship , calling it " the cutest little bar on any of the seven seas " — alcohol was banned on U.S. Navy ships .
The trials were plagued with serious engine trouble , culminating in the failure of an entire turbine on 2 November . Moreno was forced to put in at Rockland , Maine — where many of the observers on board were left to be brought back by train to Camden — before proceeding for repairs to the Fore River Shipyard , which had built the ship 's engines .
In early 1915 , nearly five years after construction had begun , the shipbuilding contractors demanded payment from the Argentine government for additional work , but the Argentines did not believe this was warranted , as Moreno had been scheduled to be completed more than a year prior . After mediation offered by Franklin D. Roosevelt , the Assistant Secretary of the Navy at the time , Moreno was released on 20 February to Argentine sailors who had been staying in American battleships moored in the Philadelphia Navy Yard .
Even Moreno 's departure was marked by mishaps . On the night of 26 March , Moreno accidentally rammed and sank the barge Enterprise in the Delaware River , 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Philadelphia near the city of New Castle . No one was hurt , but the battleship accidentally ran aground immediately after . Efforts to refloat it succeeded , and Moreno continued on its way at around 7 : 30 the next morning without damage . On the 29th , President Woodrow Wilson was hosted for lunch on board the warship , accompanied by the Argentine ambassador to the United States , Romulo S. Naon . On 15 April , Moreno ran aground in the river again , this time near Reedy Island . Like the previous time , the ship was not damaged and tugs were able to refloat the ship the next day .
= = Service = =
Moreno docked in Argentina for the first time on 26 May 1915 . The ship was immediately assigned to the Argentine Navy 's First Division , based out of the major naval base of Puerto Belgrano , and remained there until 1923 when it was put into the reserve fleet . In 1924 , Moreno was sent to the United States for modernization . The opportunity to show the flag was not missed ; Moreno made stops in Valparaiso and Callao before transiting the Panama Canal and sailing north .
Most of the work was done in Philadelphia , though armament changes were made in Boston . Moreno was converted to use fuel oil instead of coal , was fitted with a new fire @-@ control system , rangefinders were added to the fore and aft superfiring turrets , and the aft mast was replaced by a tripod . To reduce exhaust interference when spotting ships in a battle , a funnel cap was installed . The main armament 's range was increased from 13 @,@ 120 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) to 20 @,@ 800 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) , and the turrets were modified to double the firing rate . The 6 @-@ inch secondary armament was retained , but the smaller 4 @-@ inch guns were taken off in favor of four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 3 @-@ pounders .
When Moreno returned to Argentina in August 1926 , it was initially assigned to the training division of the Navy before being reassigned to the First Division . In 1932 , Moreno was moved into a new Battleship Division with Rivadavia . The remainder of the 1930s was filled with diplomatic cruises . Moreno , escorted by the three Mendoza @-@ class destroyers , brought Argentine president Agustín Pedro Justo to Brazil in 1933 for a major diplomatic visit . Departing in the afternoon of 2 October , he arrived in Rio de Janeiro on the morning of 7 October to huge celebrations . Brazilian ships of the first and second squadrons , along with three squadrons worth of warplanes , met Moreno at sea and escorted it to the harbor . When Justo landed and traveled by car to Guanabra Palace , the road was flanked by a plethora of army and naval forces along with thousands of citizens . Rio was described as " ablaze with light " , and a 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) high imitation of France 's Arc de Triomphe was erected , onto which various colors were projected . Justo then took a royal train , originally designed for Albert I of Belgium 's use during Brazil 's 1922 centennial celebrations , to Sao Paulo . After three days , he traveled to Santos , where he boarded Moreno to travel first to Uruguay , then back to Argentina ; he arrived in the latter on 22 October .
In 1934 , Moreno was sent as one of Argentina 's representatives for the anniversary of Brazil 's independence . In 1937 , Rivadavia and Moreno were sent on a diplomatic cruise to Europe . Departing Argentina on 6 April , they split up when they reached the English Channel . Moreno participated in the British Spithead Naval Review , where The New York Times described it as " a strange vestigial sea monster in this company of more modern fighting ships . " Afterward , Moreno met up with Rivadavia at Brest , France and cruised together to Wilhelmshaven before splitting up again ; Moreno went to Bremen , while Rivadavia put in at Hamburg . They then sailed for home and arrived in Puerto Belgrano on 29 June .
In September 1939 , Moreno and Rivadavia traveled together to Brazil with naval cadets . However , before they could return , four Buenos Aires @-@ class destroyers had to be sent to escort the ships back , as the Second World War had erupted in Europe . Since Argentina remained neutral in the war , Moreno saw little active service . By 1949 , the venerable dreadnought had been decommissioned into reserve and was used as a barracks . In 1955 , Moreno was used as a prison ship during the Liberating Revolution ( Revolución Libertadora ) . The ship was stricken from the navy list on 1 October 1956 ; on 11 January 1957 , Argentina sold Moreno for scrap for $ 2 @,@ 468 @,@ 660 to the Japanese Yawata Iron and Steel Company . On 12 May , the Argentine fleet assembled to salute the battleship one last time as it was towed out by the Dutch @-@ owned ocean tugs Clyde and Ocean . Moreno was taken through the Panama Canal to the scrappers , arriving on 17 August .
= = Endnotes = =
|
= SMS Kronprinz =
SMS Kronprinz was the last battleship of the four @-@ ship König class of the German Imperial Navy . The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 21 February 1914 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 8 November 1914 , just over 4 months after the start of World War I. The name Kronprinz ( Eng : " Crown Prince " ) refers to Crown Prince Wilhelm , and in June 1918 , the ship was renamed Kronprinz Wilhelm in his honor . The battleship was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst and Markgraf , Kronprinz took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . Although near the front of the German line , she emerged from the battle unscathed . She was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS J1 on 5 November 1916 during an operation off the Danish coast . Following repairs , she participated in Operation Albion , an amphibious assault in the Baltic , in October 1917 . During the operation Kronprinz engaged the Tsesarevich and forced her to retreat .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Kronprinz and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike most of the other scuttled ships , Kronprinz was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still on the bottom of the harbour .
= = Construction and design = =
Kronprinz was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Brandenburg and built at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel under construction number 182 . Her keel was laid in May 1912 and she was launched on 21 February 1914 . The ship was scheduled to be completed in early 1915 , but work was expedited after the outbreak of World War I in mid @-@ 1914 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed by 8 November 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks .
Kronprinz displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three Parsons steam turbines and three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 45 @,@ 570 shaft horsepower ( 33 @,@ 980 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam .
= = Service history = =
Kronprinz was completed in November 1914 ; following her commissioning she joined the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . Kronprinz completed her sea trials on 2 January 1915 . The first operation in which she participated was an uneventful sortie by the fleet into the North Sea on 29 – 30 March . Three weeks later , on 17 – 18 April , she and her sisters supported an operation in which the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group laid mines off the Swarte Bank . Another sweep by the fleet occurred on 22 April ; two days later III Squadron returned to the Baltic for another round of exercises . On 8 May an explosion occurred in the center turret 's right gun . The Baltic exercises lasted until 13 May , at which point the III Squadron returned to the North Sea . Another minelaying operation was conducted by the II Scouting Group on 17 May , with the battleship again in support .
Kronprinz participated in a fleet operation into the North Sea which ended without combat from 29 until 31 May 1915 . The ship supported a minelaying operation on 11 – 12 September off Texel . The fleet conducted another sweep into the North Sea on 23 – 24 October . Several uneventful sorties followed on 5 – 7 March 1916 , 31 March and 2 – 3 April . Kronprinz supported a raid on the English coast on 24 April 1916 conducted by the German battlecruiser force of the I Scouting Group . The battlecruisers left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 CET , and the rest of the High Seas Fleet followed at 13 : 40 . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short gun duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Kronprinz was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Kronprinz was the rearmost ship of the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , the vanguard of the fleet . She followed her sisters König , the lead ship , Grosser Kurfürst , and Markgraf . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . Directly astern of the Kaiser @-@ class ships were the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Kronprinz 's sisters opened fire on the British battlecruisers , but Kronprinz was not close enough to engage them . Instead , she and ten other German battleships fired at the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron . Kronprinz fired at HMS Dublin from 17 : 51 to 18 : 00 at ranges of 17 @,@ 000 – 18 @,@ 600 m ( 55 @,@ 800 – 61 @,@ 000 ft ) , then shifted her fire to the fast battleship Malaya at 18 : 08 at a range of 17 @,@ 000 m . Kronprinz fired first with semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing shells to find the range to her target , then with standard armor @-@ piercing shells . By the time Malaya drew out of range 13 minutes later , only one hit had been reported by Kronprinz 's gunners . According to naval historian John Campbell , this hit was more likely " the flash of the Malaya 's guns seen through haze and smoke " . During this period , several salvos fell close to Kronprinz , though none struck her . Kronprinz again reached a firing position against Malaya at 18 : 30 , but was only able to fire for six minutes before the British ship again pulled away .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , several British destroyers attempted a torpedo attack against the leading ships of the German line . The destroyer Onslow fired a pair of torpedoes at Kronprinz at a range of 7 @,@ 300 m ( 24 @,@ 000 ft ) , though both missed . The German cruiser Wiesbaden had been disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible , and Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König ordered his four ships to maneuver to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . Kronprinz and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but failed to drive them off . In the ensuing melee , the British armored cruiser Defence was struck by several heavy caliber shells from the German dreadnoughts . One salvo penetrated the ship 's ammunition magazines and , in a massive explosion , destroyed the cruiser . John Campbell notes that although Defence 's destruction is usually attributed to the battlecruiser Lützow , there is a possibility that it was Kronprinz 's fire that destroyed the ship . After the destruction of Defence , Kronprinz shifted her fire to Warrior ; the British cruiser was badly damaged and forced to withdraw from the battle . She was unable to reach port , and was abandoned the following morning .
By 20 : 00 , the German line was ordered to turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet . Markgraf , directly ahead of Kronprinz , had engine problems and fell out of formation , then fell in behind Kronprinz . Between 20 : 00 and 20 : 30 , Kronprinz and the other III Squadron battleships engaged the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron as well as the battleships of the Grand Fleet . Kronprinz attempted to find the range by observing the British muzzle flashes , but the worsening visibility prevented her gunners from acquiring a target . As a result , she held her fire in this period . Kronprinz was violently shaken by several near misses . At 20 : 18 , Scheer ordered the fleet to turn away a third time to escape from the murderous British gunfire ; this turn reversed the order of the fleet and placed Kronprinz toward the end of the line . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Kronprinz the 14th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships .
Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line ; Kronprinz spotted several unidentified destroyers in the darkness . Kronprinz held her fire , and she and the other battleships turned away to avoid torpedoes . One torpedo , fired by the destroyer Obedient , exploded about 100 yd ( 91 m ) behind Kronprinz , in the battleship 's wake . Both Obedient and Faulknor reported a hit on Kronprinz , though she was undamaged by the near miss . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw . The High Seas Fleet had managed to punch through the British light forces and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June , and Wilhelmshaven a few hours later . The I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead , while Kronprinz , Kaiser , Kaiserin , and Prinzregent Luitpold stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven .
In the course of the battle , Kronprinz had fired 144 armor @-@ piercing and semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing rounds from her main battery guns , though the exact numbers of each are unknown . The ship did not fire her secondary 15 cm or 8 @.@ 8 cm guns during the entire engagement . Of the four König @-@ class ships , only Kronprinz escaped damage during the battle .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
On 18 August 1916 , Kronprinz took part in an operation to bombard Sunderland . Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the original 31 May plan ; the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Kronprinz , would trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just eleven weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Kronprinz participated in two uneventful fleet operations , one a month prior on 16 July to the north of Helgoland , and one into the North Sea on 18 – 20 October . Kronprinz and the rest of III Squadron were sent to the Baltic directly afterward for training , which lasted until 2 November . Upon returning from the Baltic , Kronprinz and the rest of III Squadron were ordered to cover the retrieval of a pair of U @-@ boats that were stranded on the Danish coast . On the return trip , on 5 November 1916 , Kronprinz was torpedoed by the British submarine J1 near Horns Reef . The torpedo struck the ship beneath the forward @-@ most gun turret and allowed approximately 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ; 280 short tons ) of water into the ship . Kronprinz maintained her speed and reached port . The following day she was placed in drydock at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven for repairs , which lasted until 4 December .
After returning to the III Squadron , Kronprinz took part in squadron training in the Baltic before conducting defensive patrols in the German Bight . During training maneuvers on 5 March 1917 , Kronprinz was accidentally rammed by her sister ship Grosser Kurfürst in the Heligoland Bight . The collision caused minor flooding ; Kronprinz shipped some 600 t ( 590 long tons ; 660 short tons ) of water . She again went into the drydock in Wilhelmshaven , from 6 March to 17 May . On 11 September , Kronprinz was detached for training in the Baltic . She then joined the Special Unit for Operation Albion .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . The V Division included the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The VI Division consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
The operation began on 12 October ; at 03 : 00 König anchored off Ösel in Tagga Bay and disembarked soldiers . By 05 : 50 , König opened fire on Russian coastal artillery emplacements , joined by Moltke , Bayern , and the other three König @-@ class ships . Simultaneously , the Kaiser @-@ class ships engaged the batteries on the Sworbe peninsula ; the objective was to secure the channel between Moon and Dagö islands , which would block the only escape route of the Russian ships in the Gulf . Both Grosser Kurfürst and Bayern struck mines while maneuvering into their bombardment positions , with minimal damage to the former . Bayern was severely damaged , and had to be withdrawn to Kiel for repairs . After the bombardment , Kronprinz departed the area for Putziger Wiek , where she refueled . The ship passed through Irben Strait on 16 October .
On 16 October , it was decided to detach a portion of the invasion flotilla to clear the Russian naval forces in Moon Sound ; these included the two Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts . To this end , Kronprinz and König , along with the cruisers Strassburg and Kolberg and a number of smaller vessels , were sent to engage the Russian battleships . They arrived by the morning of 17 October , but a deep Russian minefield thwarted their progress . The Germans were surprised to discover that the 30 @.@ 5 cm guns of the Russian battleships out @-@ ranged their own 30 @.@ 5 cm guns . The Russian ships managed to keep the range long enough to prevent the German battleships from being able to return fire , while still firing effectively on the German ships , and the Germans had to take several evasive maneuvers to avoid the Russian shells . By 10 : 00 , the minesweepers had cleared a path through the minefield , and Kronprinz and König dashed into the bay . At around 10 : 15 , Kronprinz opened fire on Tsarevitch and Bayan , and scored hits on both . König , meanwhile , dispatched Slava . The Russian vessels were hit dozens of times , until at 10 : 30 the Russian naval commander , Admiral Bakhirev , ordered their withdrawal .
On 18 October , Kronprinz was slightly grounded , though the damage was not serious enough to necessitate withdrawal for repairs . By 20 October , the fighting on the islands was winding down ; Moon , Ösel , and Dagö were in German possession . The previous day , the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible . On the 26th , Kronprinz was more seriously grounded on the return trip to Kiel . She managed to reach Kiel on 2 November , and subsequently Wilhelmshaven . Repairs were effected from 24 November to 8 January .
= = = Fate = = =
On 27 January 1918 , the Kaiser directed that the ship be renamed Kronprinz Wilhelm in honor of the Crown Prince . The ship was formally renamed on 15 June 1918 , the 30th anniversary of the Kaiser 's reign . Kronprinz Wilhelm and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . Many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships , including Kronprinz Wilhelm , mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and men .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Kronprinz Wilhelm sank at 13 : 15 ; The British guard detail panicked in their attempted to prevent the Germans from scuttling the ships ; British soldiers aboard a nearby drifter shot and killed a stoker from Kronprinz Wilhelm . In total , the guards killed nine Germans and wounded twenty @-@ one . The remaining crews , totaling some 1 @,@ 860 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned .
Kronprinz Wilhelm was never raised for scrapping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were scuttled . Kronprinz Wilhelm and two of her sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made a salvage attempt more difficult . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that salvaging the deeper wrecks was financially impractical . The rights to future salvage operations on the wreck were sold to Britain in 1962 . The depth in which the three battleships sank insulated them from the radiation released by the use of atomic weapons . As a result , Kronprinz Wilhelm and her sisters are one of the few remaining sources of radiation @-@ free steel . The ships have occasionally had steel removed for use in scientific devices . Kronprinz Wilhelm and the other vessels on the bottom of Scapa Flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barring divers from recovering items from the wrecks .
|
= The Sarah Jane Adventures =
The Sarah Jane Adventures is a British science fiction television programme , that was produced by BBC Cymru Wales for CBBC , created by Russell T Davies starring Elisabeth Sladen . The programme is a spin @-@ off of the long @-@ running BBC science fiction programme Doctor Who and is aimed at a younger audience than Doctor Who . It focuses on the adventures of Sarah Jane Smith , an investigative journalist who , as a young woman , had numerous adventures across time and space .
The series debuted on BBC One with a 60 @-@ minute special , " Invasion of the Bane " , on 1 January 2007 , and broadcast through to 2011 . It was nominated for a British Academy Children 's Award in 2008 in the Drama category , and for a BAFTA Cymru in 2009 in the Children 's Drama category . The programme won a Royal Television Society 2010 award for Best Children 's Drama .
= = Series = =
A full series of ten 25 @-@ minute episodes began on 24 September 2007 . The first series consisted of five two @-@ part stories , and a second series , comprising six two @-@ part stories , began airing on 29 September 2008 . A third series , once again comprising six two @-@ part stories to make a total of twelve episodes , with Russell T Davies serving as executive producer , aired from 15 October 2009 to 20 November 2009 .
The fourth series was aired from 11 October 2010 . An episode of another spin @-@ off series , Sarah Jane 's Alien Files , was shown immediately after each of the first episodes of the stories . Filming for three of six two @-@ part serials planned for the fifth series was completed prior to Elisabeth Sladen 's death on 19 April 2011 . Although some UK media , including the Sun , reported in early May 2011 that production of the series was to continue , the BBC has stated explicitly that no further episodes will be filmed . The fifth series was broadcast starting 3 October 2011 on Mondays and Tuesdays . It finished just two weeks later on 18 October 2011 .
= = Background and development = =
In 2006 , Children 's BBC expressed an interest in producing a Doctor Who spin @-@ off . Their initial idea was " a drama based on the idea of a young Doctor Who " , but Russell T Davies vetoed this . " Somehow , the idea of a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Doctor , on Gallifrey inventing sonic screwdrivers , takes away from the mystery and intrigue of who he is and where he came from , " said Davies . He suggested instead a series based on the Doctor 's former companion Sarah Jane Smith .
The character of Sarah Jane Smith , played by Sladen , appeared in Doctor Who from 1973 to 1976 , alongside Jon Pertwee as the Third Doctor and later Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor . A pilot episode for another Doctor Who spin @-@ off series , K @-@ 9 and Company , made in 1981 , featured Sarah Jane and the robot dog K @-@ 9 ; however , a full series was never commissioned . Sarah Jane and K @-@ 9 returned to Doctor Who in various media many times over the years , most notably in the 20th anniversary special The Five Doctors ( 1983 ) , and in episodes School Reunion ( 2006 ) , The Stolen Earth / Journey 's End ( 2008 ) and The End of Time ( 2010 ) .
Sarah Jane is frequently voted the most popular Doctor Who companion by both Doctor Who fans and members of the general public . The prospect of a new television series focusing on Sarah Jane was first rumoured in The Sun in March 2006 , prior to the airing of " School Reunion " ; the report at that time suggested that Sarah Jane and K @-@ 9 would both appear in the series . The fact that a Sarah Jane series was being developed was first confirmed in the BBC 's in @-@ house newsletter , Ariel , in early August 2006 . These early rumours were associated with the working title Sarah Jane Investigates .
K @-@ 9 's only appearances in the show 's first two series were a cameo in the special and an appearance in the last episode of the first series . This was due to the concurrent development of the independently produced children 's series , K @-@ 9 , which features a remodelled version of K @-@ 9 with only indirect nods to Doctor Who . However , in 2009 the robot appeared with the Sarah Jane Adventures cast in a sketch for Comic Relief , and K @-@ 9 appeared in 6 episodes of the third series , followed by two more appearances in the fourth series . He did not appear at all in Series 5 .
= = = Production = = =
Production on the full series began in April 2007 . Two of the five two @-@ part stories were scripted by the special 's co @-@ writer Gareth Roberts . Bad Girls and New Captain Scarlet writer Phil Ford wrote two stories and Phil Gladwin wrote one . Creator and executive producer Russell T Davies was going to write one story but was forced to drop out due to other work commitments .
= = Cast and crew = =
In addition to Sladen , the first series of the programme stars Yasmin Paige as Maria Jackson , Sarah Jane 's 13 @-@ year @-@ old neighbour in Ealing , west London , and Tommy Knight as a boy named Luke , who is adopted by Sarah Jane at the conclusion of the introductory story . The third member of Sarah Jane 's young entourage is 14 @-@ year @-@ old called Clyde Langer , played by Daniel Anthony , who is introduced in the first episode of the proper series . Actress Porsha Lawrence Mavour briefly played Maria 's friend , Kelsey Harper , in the 2007 New Year 's Day special Invasion of the Bane which was created before the start of the series . Maria and her family are written out of the series in the first story of the second series , The Last Sontaran , but Maria and her father return briefly in the second part of The Mark of the Berserker . In the second story of that series , The Day of the Clown , several new regular cast members are introduced : Rani Chandra and her parents , Haresh , and Gita ( played by Anjli Mohindra , Ace Bhatti , and Mina Anwar , respectively ) .
Joseph Millson appears throughout the first series as Maria 's recently separated father , Alan , with Chrissie Jackson , Maria 's mother , played by Juliet Cowan . One other regular is Alexander Armstrong of comedy duo Armstrong and Miller , who provides the voice of Mr Smith , an extraterrestrial computer in Sarah Jane 's attic.The 2007 special featured Samantha Bond as the scheming villain Mrs Wormwood and Jamie Davis as her PR agent Davey . The first series included among its guest cast Jane Asher as Sarah Jane 's childhood friend Andrea Yates , Floella Benjamin as Professor Rivers , who returned in Series 2 , Series 3 and Series 5 , and Phyllida Law as Bea Nelson @-@ Stanley . The second series guest starred Bradley Walsh as an evil alien clown in the story The Day of the Clown and Russ Abbot as a sinister astrologer in Secrets of the Stars . Also appearing in the second series were Gary Beadle and Jocelyn Jee Esien , who portrayed Clyde 's parents Paul and Carla in The Mark of the Berserker ; Esien reprised her role briefly in Series 4 and more prominently in series 5 . Nicholas Courtney guest starred in Enemy of the Bane as classic Doctor Who character Sir Alistair Lethbridge @-@ Stewart , and Samantha Bond also returned as Wormwood for the episode .
The original executive producers for The Sarah Jane Adventures were Phil Collinson , Russell T Davies and Julie Gardner . Susie Liggat produced the pilot , but Matthew Bouch worked as producer of the series . Co @-@ writer Gareth Roberts , writing in Doctor Who Magazine , said , " We 're all determined that this will be a big , full @-@ blooded drama ; that nobody should ever think of it as ' just ' a children 's programme . " Sue Nott was the executive producer of the second series for CBBC .
In December 2007 , the BBC released a statement that Julie Gardner would be replaced by Piers Wenger as executive producer for Doctor Who in January 2009 , but that she would continue to executive @-@ produce Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures through 2008 .
The fourth series in 2010 was executive produced by Russell T Davies and Nikki Wilson , and the producers were Brian Minchin and frequent writer Phil Ford . During this series , Cyril Nri was introduced as a new recurring character called The Shopkeeper . The production team remained in place for the completed episodes of Series 5 , which were shot concurrently with Series 4 . The show 's abbreviated fifth and final series introduced a new main character named Sky , played by Sinead Michael . The episode that introduced Sky also featured a return appearance by the Shopkeeper , but the fact that the second half of the series was never produced left his story arc , as well as other ongoing plot points , unresolved . A special edition of Doctor Who Magazine , The Sarah Jane Companion Volume 3 , published in August 2012 , detailed the plotlines of the three unfilmed stories .
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = Doctor Who characters = = =
Including K @-@ 9 and Sarah Jane , some characters from the past or current run of Doctor Who have appeared in The Sarah Jane Adventures .
Numerous others have been referenced in dialogue . Several former companions of the Doctor are referenced in the story Death of the Doctor , and the episode also includes brief on @-@ screen flashbacks showing the Third , Fourth and Tenth Doctors . Companion Harry Sullivan is referenced separately in dialogue on several occasions and a photograph of the character is visible in one episode . In an issue of Doctor Who Magazine , Sophie Aldred was read an email from Russell T. Davies , in which he declared his plans to bring Ace into a story had the show continued . The episode Sky was originally to have featured the Eleventh Doctor , but Matt Smith was not available .
= = Episodes = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures was first seen by its original British audience in the form of a 60 @-@ minute New Year 's Day special in 2007 , titled " Invasion of the Bane " , which was co @-@ written by Russell T Davies and Gareth Roberts . " Invasion of the Bane " was not a pilot , although the story does contains many conventional introductory elements common to pilots . Creator Russell T Davies has commented upon the exceptional broadcast situation , saying " Sarah Jane Adventures is slightly unusual in that it was commissioned before we 'd written the script . If we 'd written a load of rubbish , they 'd still have had to make it . " He refers to " Invasion of the Bane " simply as the " first episode " . The story focused on Sarah Jane 's investigation of a popular and addictive soft drink called Bubble Shock ! .
Series one of the show aired in September of that year , consisting of five two @-@ part half @-@ hour stories . Individual half @-@ hour episodes aired once a week on BBC One , with episodes airing a week ahead on children 's digital channel CBBC . The final part aired in November 2007 . The second series started in September 2008 using the same format , with six stories instead of five , ending the series in December . The third series started 15 October 2009 , twice weekly ( Thursdays and Fridays ) on BBC One from 15 October to 20 November . The fourth series aired from 11 October 2010 . The first of each story pair was accompanied by an episode of Sarah Jane 's Alien Files , a set of 25 @-@ minute episodes in which a member of the cast updates Mr. Smith 's database about certain aliens . It accompanied series 4 of the programme .
Due to the illness of Elisabeth Sladen , and her subsequent death on 19 April 2011 , filming for the second half of the fifth series , which was due to air in the autumn of 2011 , was postponed and later cancelled . Filming for three stories of the fifth series had been finished , and thus post @-@ production on these stories was completed . The final series was aired from 3 to 18 October 2011 on CBBC and ended with a tribute to Elisabeth Sladen in the form of a video montage of scenes from the series and Doctor Who .
The script of the unfilmed Sarah Jane Adventures episode The Thirteenth Floor was rewritten and broadcast as an episode of Wizards vs Aliens .
= = Critical response = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures has been generally well received by critics and the viewing public . At the end of the first series , Abi Grant of The Daily Telegraph wrote : " With the debate about the future of children 's TV still rumbling on , this is what the BBC does best , and despite lacking the production values of Doctor Who , it 's still top tea @-@ time programming . " Daniel Martin of The Guardian described the show as looking very promising and more convincing than another Doctor Who spinoff Torchwood . Review website DVD Talk called the series " wonderful " , " thoughtful " and " imaginative children 's entertainment " that was highly recommended . The series also received praise for its willingness to tackle " darker themes [ such as ] Alzheimer 's , homelessness and loss . "
At Metacritic , the first series received an generally favourable score of 66 out of 100 based on five critics . As the series progressed reviews became slightly more positive with DVD Talk reviewer David Cornelius saying that the " second series is even better than the first . " However Eric Profancik from DVD Verdict stated that the second series suffered from " poor scripts and horrible acting " , criticising it for having " simple plots , too many conveniences and having corny humour . " Series three is described by Guy Clapperton of review site ScreenJabber.com as being slightly braver than its predecessors , while Bullz @-@ eye.com described it as " a sweet , fun little show , with some neat ideas " with " its heart very much in the right place . " Reviews for the final series were sympathetic for the series ' end and the unavoidably incomplete nature of the series ( following the death of Elisabeth Sladen ) and its story arcs . Stephen Kelly from The Guardian said that it was " a fitting tribute to Elisabeth Sladen " and has occupied a " unique place in the Whoniverse " .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = International broadcast = =
The BBC 's children 's channel BBC Kids began broadcasting The Sarah Jane Adventures with " Invasion of the Bane " on 13 January 2008 , airing the rest of the series back @-@ to @-@ back on Sundays thereafter . The South African channel SABC 2 started airing the series beginning on 9 February 2008 . The Hong Kong channel ATV World , which has also aired Doctor Who and Torchwood , aired this series starting 17 February 2008 . The first series began airing on Sci Fi in the USA beginning on 11 April 2008 , but this is the only series broadcast on American television as of Summer 2010 , though later series have continued to be released on DVD in America without a prior television broadcast . In Australia , The Sarah Jane Adventures started on 31 October 2008 on Nickelodeon Australia . In Brazil , the show started airing on 19 November 2012 on TV Cultura , right after their broadcast of Doctor Who series 6 ended . It also screens in New Zealand on Nickelodeon New Zealand , and in Belgium on Ketnet . In 2013 the show started airing on JeemTV in Arabic .
= = Merchandising = =
= = = Toys = = =
Character Options have been awarded a licence to produce Sarah Jane Adventure play sets , action figures , and a ' Sonic Lipstick ' toy . Four 2 @-@ figure sets have been released : Sarah Jane and Star Poet ; Sarah Jane and General Kudlak ; Sarah Jane and Child Slitheen and Sarah Jane and Graske . Also released are Sarah Jane 's Sonic Lipstick with Watch Scanner and Alien Communicator . Character Options have now discontinued the range due to lack of customer interest .
= = = Audio adventures = = =
Ten audiobooks have been released on CD , all but the last two read by the series lead , Elisabeth Sladen , who read them in the first person in character as Sarah Jane Smith . The final two books , released in November 2011 after Sladen 's death , were read by Daniel Anthony and Anjili Mohindra , respectively , though not as their characters .
The first two were the first time that BBC Audiobooks had commissioned new content for exclusive release on audio .
A 20 minute mini @-@ episode in two parts called " The Monster Hunt " written by Trevor Baxendale and read by Anjli Mohindra was made especially for the Monster Hunt game on the Sarah Jane Adventures website . Two more comics were released " Return of the Krulius " and " Defending Bannerman Road " . All comics were available as a pdf and a free mp3 download on the official Sarah Jane Adventures website .
= = = Comics = = =
Five The Sarah Jane Adventures comics were released on the official Sarah Jane Adventures website . Four of them were audio and comic adventures read by Anjili Mohindra . A pdf doctument and a mp3 audio track was available to download of all of the comics . Next to the Krulius stories the comic The Silver Bullet was published on the website . It is the comic that Clyde Langer wrote in the Sarah Jane Adventures episode The Curse of Clyde Langer .
= = = Novelisations = = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures merchandising revived the concept of the novelisation , which had been part of the Doctor Who franchise from the 1970s to the 1990s ( principally under the editorship of author and former Who script editor Terrance Dicks ) . The first series and most of the second were adapted in this way , but later series saw only a few releases and a transition from print to e @-@ books .
In September 2010 , Pearson Education published four " photo @-@ novelisations " based on stories from the third series :
= = = Magazines and Books = = =
Although there has never been a Sarah Jane Adventures magazine there have been three special editions of the Doctor Who Magazine , focused on the Sarah Jane Adventures , as well as regular mentions in the standard editions of Doctor Who Magazine .
= = = Home media = = =
= = = = DVD = = = =
= = = = Blu @-@ ray = = = =
= = = Past official BBC websites = = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures Series 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 via Internet Archive
The Sarah Jane Adventures Series 1 Internet Archive
|
= Auschwitz concentration camp =
Auschwitz concentration camp ( German : Konzentrationslager Auschwitz , also KZ Auschwitz [ kɔntsɛntʁaˈtsi ̯ oːnsˌlaːɡɐ ˈʔaʊʃvɪts ] ) was a network of German Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany during World War II . It consisted of Auschwitz I ( the original camp ) , Auschwitz II – Birkenau ( a combination concentration / extermination camp ) , Auschwitz III – Monowitz ( a labor camp to staff an IG Farben factory ) , and 45 satellite camps .
Auschwitz I was first constructed to hold Polish political prisoners , who began to arrive in May 1940 . The first extermination of prisoners took place in September 1941 , and Auschwitz II – Birkenau went on to become a major site of the Nazi Final Solution to the Jewish Question . From early 1942 until late 1944 , transport trains delivered Jews to the camp 's gas chambers from all over German @-@ occupied Europe , where they were killed with the pesticide Zyklon B. At least 1 @.@ 1 million prisoners died at Auschwitz , around 90 percent of them Jewish ; approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp . Others deported to Auschwitz included 150 @,@ 000 Poles , 23 @,@ 000 Romani and Sinti , 15 @,@ 000 Soviet prisoners of war , 400 Jehovah 's Witnesses , and tens of thousands of others of diverse nationalities , including an unknown number of homosexuals . Many of those not killed in the gas chambers died of starvation , forced labor , infectious diseases , individual executions , and medical experiments .
In the course of the war , the camp was staffed by 7 @,@ 000 members of the German Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , approximately 12 percent of whom were later convicted of war crimes . Some , including camp commandant Rudolf Höss , were executed . The Allied Powers refused to believe early reports of the atrocities at the camp , and their failure to bomb the camp or its railways remains controversial . One hundred forty @-@ four prisoners are known to have escaped from Auschwitz successfully , and on October 7 , 1944 , two Sonderkommando units — prisoners assigned to staff the gas chambers — launched a brief , unsuccessful uprising .
As Soviet troops approached Auschwitz in January 1945 , most of its population was evacuated and sent on a death march . The prisoners remaining at the camp were liberated on January 27 , 1945 , a day now commemorated as International Holocaust Remembrance Day . In the following decades , survivors , such as Primo Levi , Viktor Frankl , and Elie Wiesel , wrote memoirs of their experiences in Auschwitz , and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust . In 1947 , Poland founded a museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II , and in 1979 , it was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Discrimination against Jews began immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany on January 30 , 1933 . The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on April 7 that year , excluded most Jews from the legal profession and the civil service . Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of the right to practise . Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to leave the country voluntarily . Jewish businesses were denied access to markets , forbidden to advertise in newspapers , and deprived of access to government contracts . Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks and boycotts of their businesses .
In September 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were enacted . These laws prohibited marriages between Jews and people of Germanic extraction , extramarital relations between Jews and Germans , and the employment of German women under the age of 45 as domestic servants in Jewish households . The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of Germanic or related blood were defined as citizens . Thus Jews and other minority groups were stripped of their German citizenship . By the start of World War II in 1939 , around 250 @,@ 000 of Germany 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated to the United States , Palestine , the United Kingdom , and other countries .
The ideology of Nazism brought together elements of antisemitism , racial hygiene , and eugenics , and combined them with pan @-@ Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum ( living space ) for the Germanic people . Nazi Germany attempted to obtain this new territory by invading Poland and the Soviet Union , intending to deport or kill the Jews and Slavs living there , who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race . After the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , German dictator Adolf Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia should be destroyed . Approximately 65 @,@ 000 civilians were killed by the end of 1939 . In addition to leaders of Polish society , the Nazis killed Jews , prostitutes , Romani , and the mentally ill . SS @-@ Obergruppenführer ( Senior Group Leader ) Reinhard Heydrich , then head of the Gestapo , ordered on September 21 that Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links . Initially the intention was to deport the Jews to points further east , or possibly to Madagascar .
= = = Auschwitz I = = =
After this part of Poland was annexed by Nazi Germany , Oświęcim ( Auschwitz ) was located administratively in Germany , Province of Upper Silesia , Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz , Landkreis Bielitz . It was first suggested as a site for a concentration camp for Polish prisoners by SS @-@ Oberführer Arpad Wigand , an aide to Higher SS and Police Leader for Silesia , Erich von dem Bach @-@ Zelewski . Bach @-@ Zelewski had been searching for a site to house prisoners in the Silesia region , as the local prisons were filled to capacity . Richard Glücks , head of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate , sent former Sachsenhausen concentration camp commandant Walter Eisfeld to inspect the site , which already held sixteen dilapidated one @-@ story buildings that had once served as an Austrian and later Polish Army barracks and a camp for transient workers . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , head of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , approved the site in April 1940 , intending to use the facility to house political prisoners . SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) Rudolf Höss oversaw the development of the camp and served as the first commandant . SS @-@ Obersturmführer ( senior lieutenant ) Josef Kramer was appointed Höss 's deputy . Auschwitz I , the original camp , became the administrative center for the whole complex .
Local residents were evicted , including 1 @,@ 200 people who lived in shacks around the barracks . Around 300 Jewish residents of Oświęcim were brought in to lay foundations . From 1940 to 1941 , 17 @,@ 000 Polish and Jewish residents of the western districts of Oświęcim were expelled from places adjacent to the camp . The Germans also ordered expulsions of Poles from the villages of Broszkowice , Babice , Brzezinka , Rajsko , Pławy , Harmęże , Bór , and Budy to the General Government . German citizens were offered tax concessions and other benefits if they would relocate to the area . By October 1943 , more than 6 @,@ 000 Reich Germans had arrived . The Nazis planned to build a model modern residential area for incoming Germans , including schools , playing fields , and other amenities . Some of the plans went forward , including the construction of several hundred apartments , but many were never fully implemented . Basic amenities such as water and sewage disposal were inadequate , and water @-@ borne illnesses were commonplace .
The first prisoners ( 30 German criminal prisoners from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp ) arrived in May 1940 , intended to act as functionaries within the prison system . The first mass transport to Auschwitz concentration camp , which included Catholic prisoners , suspected members of the resistance , and 20 Jews , arrived from the prison in Tarnów , Poland , on June 14 , 1940 . They were interned in the former building of the Polish Tobacco Monopoly , adjacent to the site , until the camp was ready .
The inmate population grew quickly as the camp absorbed Poland 's intelligentsia and dissidents , including the Polish underground resistance . By March 1941 , 10 @,@ 900 were imprisoned there , most of them Poles . By the end of 1940 , the SS had confiscated land in the surrounding area to create a 40 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 15 sq mi ) " zone of interest " surrounded by a double ring of electrified barbed wire fences and watchtowers . Like other Nazi concentration camps , the gates to Auschwitz I displayed the motto Arbeit macht frei ( " Work brings freedom " ) .
= = = Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau = = =
The initial victories of Operation Barbarossa in the summer and fall of 1941 against Hitler 's new enemy , the Soviet Union , led to dramatic changes in Nazi anti @-@ Jewish ideology and the profile of prisoners brought to Auschwitz . Construction on Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau began in October 1941 to ease congestion at the main camp . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , head of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , intended the camp to house 50 @,@ 000 prisoners of war , who would be interned as forced laborers . Plans called for the expansion of the camp first to house 150 @,@ 000 and eventually as many as 200 @,@ 000 inmates . An initial contingent of 10 @,@ 000 Soviet prisoners of war arrived at Auschwitz I in October 1941 , but by March 1942 only 945 were still alive , and these were transferred to Birkenau , where most of them died from disease or starvation by May . By this time Hitler had decided to annihilate the Jewish people , so Birkenau was repurposed as a combination labor camp / extermination camp .
The chief of construction of Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau was Karl Bischoff . Unlike his predecessor , he was a competent and dynamic bureaucrat who , in spite of the ongoing war , carried out the construction deemed necessary . The Birkenau camp , the four crematoria , a new reception building , and hundreds of other buildings were planned and realized . Bischoff 's plans initially called for each barrack to have an occupancy of 550 prisoners ( one @-@ third of the space allotted in other Nazi concentration camps ) . He later changed this to 744 prisoners per barrack . The SS designed the barracks not so much to house people as to destroy them .
The first gas chamber at Birkenau was the " red house " ( called Bunker 1 by SS staff ) , a brick cottage converted into a gassing facility by tearing out the inside and bricking up the windows . It was operational by March 1942 . A second brick cottage , the " white house " or Bunker 2 , was converted some weeks later . These structures were in use for mass killings until early 1943 . Himmler visited the camp in person on July 17 and 18 , 1942 . He was given a demonstration of a mass killing using the gas chamber in Bunker 2 and toured the building site of the new IG Farben plant being constructed at the nearby town of Monowitz .
In early 1943 , the Nazis decided to increase greatly the gassing capacity of Birkenau . Crematorium II , originally designed as a mortuary , with morgues in the basement and ground @-@ level incinerators , was converted into a killing factory by installing gas @-@ tight doors , vents for the Zyklon B ( a highly lethal cyanide @-@ based pesticide ) to be dropped into the chamber , and ventilation equipment to remove the gas thereafter . It went into operation in March . Crematorium III was built using the same design . Crematoria IV and V , designed from the start as gassing centers , were also constructed that spring . By June 1943 , all four crematoria were operational . Most of the victims were killed using these four structures .
= = = = The Gypsy camp = = = =
On December 10 , 1942 , Himmler issued an order to send all Sinti and Roma ( Gypsies ) to concentration camps , including Auschwitz . A separate camp for Roma was set up at Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau known as the Zigeunerfamilienlager ( Gypsy Family Camp ) . The first transport of German Gypsies arrived on February 26 , 1943 , and was housed in Section B @-@ IIe of Auschwitz II . Approximately 23 @,@ 000 Gypsies had been brought to Auschwitz by 1944 , 20 @,@ 000 of whom died there . One transport of 1 @,@ 700 Polish Sinti and Roma was killed upon arrival , as they were suspected to be ill with spotted fever .
Gypsy prisoners were used primarily for construction work . Thousands died of typhus and noma due to overcrowding , poor sanitary conditions , and malnutrition . Anywhere from 1 @,@ 400 to 3 @,@ 000 prisoners were transferred to other concentration camps before the murder of the remaining population .
On August 2 , 1944 , the SS cleared the Gypsy camp . A witness in another part of the camp later told of the Gypsies unsuccessfully battling the SS with improvised weapons before being loaded into trucks . The surviving population of 2 @,@ 897 was then killed en masse in the gas chambers . The murder of the Romani people by the Nazis during World War II is known in the Romani language as the Porajmos ( devouring ) .
= = = Auschwitz III = = =
After examining several sites for a new plant to manufacture buna , a type of synthetic rubber essential to the war effort , chemicals manufacturer IG Farben chose a site near the towns of Dwory and Monowice ( Monowitz in German ) , about 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Auschwitz I and 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of the town of Oświęcim . Financial support in the form of tax exemptions was available to corporations prepared to develop industries in the frontier regions under the Eastern Fiscal Assistance Law , passed in December 1940 . In addition to its proximity to the concentration camp , which could be used as a source of cheap labor , the site had good railway connections and access to raw materials . In February 1941 , Himmler ordered that the Jewish population of Oświęcim should be expelled to make way for skilled laborers that would be brought in to work at the plant . All Poles able to work were to remain in the town and were forced to work building the factory . Himmler visited in person in March and decreed an immediate expansion of the parent camp to house 30 @,@ 000 persons . Development of the camp at Birkenau began about six months later . Construction of IG Auschwitz began in April , with an initial force of 1 @,@ 000 workers from Auschwitz I assigned to work on the construction . This number increased to 7 @,@ 000 in 1943 and 11 @,@ 000 in 1944 . Over the course of its history , about 35 @,@ 000 inmates in total worked at the plant ; 25 @,@ 000 died as a result of malnutrition , disease , and the physically impossible workload . In addition to the concentration camp inmates , who comprised a third of the work force , IG Auschwitz employed slave laborers from all over Europe .
Initially the laborers walked the seven kilometers from Auschwitz I to the plant each day , but as this meant they had to rise at 3 : 00 am , many arrived exhausted and unable to work . The camp at Monowitz ( also called Monowitz @-@ Buna or Auschwitz III ) was constructed and began housing inmates on October 30 , 1942 , the first concentration camp to be financed and built by private industry . In January 1943 the ArbeitsausbildungLager ( labor education camp ) was moved from the parent camp to Monowitz . These prisoners were also forced to work on the building site . The SS charged IG Farben three Reichsmarks per hour for unskilled workers , four for skilled workers . Although the camp administrators expected the prisoners to work at 75 percent of the capacity of a free worker , the inmates were only able to perform 20 to 50 percent as well . Site managers constantly threatened inmates with transportation to Birkenau for death in the gas chambers as a way to try to increase productivity . Deaths and transfers to the gas chambers at Birkenau reduced the prisoner population of Monowitz by nearly a fifth each month ; numbers were made up with new arrivals . Life expectancy of inmates at Monowitz averaged about three months . Though the factory was initially expected to begin production in 1943 , shortages of labor and raw materials meant start @-@ up had to be postponed repeatedly . The plant was almost ready to commence production when it was overrun by Soviet troops in 1945 .
= = = Subcamps = = =
Various other German industrial enterprises , such as Krupp and Siemens @-@ Schuckert , built factories with their own subcamps . There were 45 such satellite camps , 28 of which served corporations involved in the armaments industry . Prisoner populations ranged from several dozen to several thousand . Subcamps were built at Blechhammer , Jawiszowice , Jaworzno , Lagisze , Mysłowice , Trzebinia , and other centers as far afield as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . Satellite camps were designated as Aussenlager ( external camp ) , Nebenlager ( extension or subcamp ) , or Arbeitslager ( labor camp ) . Industries with satellite camps included coal mines , foundries and other metal works , chemical plants , and other industries . Prisoners were also made to work in forestry and farming .
= = = Evacuation , death marches , and liberation = = =
In November 1944 , with the Soviet Red Army approaching through Poland , Himmler ordered gassing operations to cease across the Reich . Crematoria II , III , and IV were dismantled , while Crematorium I was transformed into an air raid shelter . The Sonderkommando were ordered to remove other evidence of the killings , including the mass graves . The SS destroyed written records , and in the final week before the camp 's liberation , burned or demolished many of its buildings .
Himmler ordered the evacuation of all camps in January 1945 , charging camp commanders with " making sure that not a single prisoner from the concentration camps falls alive into the hands of the enemy . " On January 17 , 58 @,@ 000 Auschwitz detainees were evacuated under guard , largely on foot ; thousands of them died in the subsequent death march west towards Wodzisław Śląski . Approximately 20 @,@ 000 Auschwitz prisoners made it to Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp in Germany , where they were liberated by the British in April 1945 .
Those too weak or sick to walk were left behind . When the 322nd Rifle Division of the Red Army arrived at the camp on January 27 they found around 7 @,@ 500 prisoners and about 600 corpses had been left behind . Among the items found by the Soviet soldiers were 370 @,@ 000 men 's suits , 837 @,@ 000 women 's garments , and 7 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 8 @.@ 5 short tons ) of human hair .
The camp 's liberation received little press attention at the time . Rees attributes this to three factors : the previous discovery of similar crimes at Majdanek concentration camp , competing news from the Allied summit at Yalta , and the Soviet Union 's interest , for propaganda purposes , in minimizing attention to Jewish suffering . Due to the vast extent of the camp area , at least four divisions took part in liberating the camp : 100th Rifle Division ( established in Vologda , Russia ) , 322nd Rifle Division ( Gorky , Russia ) , 286th Rifle Division ( Leningrad ) , and 107th Motor Rifle Division ( Tambov , Russia ) .
= = = After the war = = =
After liberation , parts of Auschwitz I served first as a hospital for liberated prisoners . Soviet and Polish investigators worked in the initial months to document the war crimes of the SS . In the two years that followed , the Soviets dismantled and exported the IG Farben factories , and the Birkenau barracks were looted by Polish civilians . Area residents sifted the mass graves and ashes for gold . Until 1947 , some of the facilities were used as a prison camp of the Soviet NKVD .
After the site became a museum in 1947 , exhumation work lasted for more than a decade . Antoni Dobrowolski , the oldest known survivor of Auschwitz , died aged 108 on October 21 , 2012 , in Dębno , Poland .
Camp commandant Rudolf Höss was pursued by the British Intelligence Corps , who arrested him at a farm near Flensburg , Germany , on March 11 , 1946 . Höss confessed to his role in the mass killings at Auschwitz in his memoirs and in his trial before the Supreme National Tribunal in Warsaw , Poland . He was convicted of murder and hanged at the camp on April 16 , 1947 .
Around 12 percent of Auschwitz 's 6 @,@ 500 staff who survived the war were eventually brought to trial . Poland was more active than other nations in investigating war crimes , prosecuting 673 of the total 789 Auschwitz staff brought to trial . On November 25 , 1947 , the Auschwitz Trial began in Kraków , when Poland 's Supreme National Tribunal brought to court 40 former Auschwitz staff . The trial 's defendants included commandant Arthur Liebehenschel , women 's camp leader Maria Mandel , and camp leader Hans Aumeier . The trials ended on December 22 , 1947 , with 23 death sentences , 7 life sentences , and 9 prison sentences ranging from three to fifteen years . Hans Münch , an SS doctor who had several former prisoners testify on his behalf , was the only person to be acquitted .
Other former staff were hanged for war crimes in the Dachau Trials and the Belsen Trial , including camp leaders Josef Kramer , Franz Hössler , and Vinzenz Schöttl ; doctor Friedrich Entress ; and guards Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath . The Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials , held in West Germany from December 20 , 1963 to August 20 , 1965 , convicted 17 of 22 defendants , giving them prison sentences ranging from life to three years and three months . Bruno Tesch and Karl Weinbacher , the owner and the chief executive officer of the firm Tesch & Stabenow , one of the suppliers of Zyklon B , were executed for knowingly supplying the chemical for use on humans .
= = Command and control = =
Camp guards were members of the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( Death 's Head Units ) . Around 7 @,@ 000 SS personnel in total were posted to Auschwitz during the war . Of these , 4 percent of SS personnel were officers and 26 percent were non @-@ commissioned officers , while the remainder were rank @-@ and @-@ file members . Approximately three in four SS personnel worked in security . Others worked in the medical or political departments , in the camp headquarters , or in the economic administration , which was responsible for the property of dead prisoners . SS personnel at the camp included 200 women , who worked as guards , nurses , or messengers . The overall command authority for the entire camp was Department D ( the Concentration Camps Inspectorate ) of the SS @-@ Wirtschafts @-@ Verwaltungshauptamt ( SS Economics Main Office ; SS @-@ WVHA ) .
Auschwitz was considered a comfortable posting by many SS members , due to many amenities and the abundance of slave labor . Of the various prisoner groups , SS officers preferred Jehovah 's Witnesses for household slaves because of their nonviolent behavior . Höss lived with his wife and children in a villa just outside the camp grounds . Other SS personnel were also initially allowed to bring fiancees , wives , and children to live at the camp , but when the SS camp grew more crowded , Höss restricted further arrivals . Facilities for the SS personnel and their families included a library , swimming pool , coffee house , and a theater that hosted regular performances .
One prisoner in each work detail or prisoner block — usually an Aryan — was appointed as a Kapo ( " head " or " overseer " ) . The Kapos received better rations and lodging and wielded tremendous power over other prisoners , whom they often abused . Very few Kapos were prosecuted after the war , due to the difficulty in determining which Kapo atrocities had been performed under SS orders and which had been individual actions .
About 120 SS personnel were assigned to the gas chambers and lived on site at the crematoria . Several SS personnel oversaw the killings at each gas chamber , while the bulk of the work was done by the mostly Jewish prisoners known as Sonderkommando ( special squad ) . Sonderkommando responsibilities included guiding victims to the gas chambers and removing , looting , and cremating the corpses .
The Sonderkommado were housed separately from other prisoners , in somewhat better conditions . Their quality of life was further improved by access to the goods taken from murdered prisoners , which Sonderkommando were sometimes able to steal for themselves and to trade on Auschwitz 's black market . Hungarian doctor Miklós Nyiszli reported that the Sonderkommando numbered around 860 prisoners when the Hungarian Jews were being killed in 1944 . Many Sonderkommando committed suicide due to the horrors of their work ; those who did not generally were shot by the SS in a matter of weeks , and new Sonderkommando units were then formed from incoming transports . Almost none of the 2 @,@ 000 prisoners placed in these units survived to the camp 's liberation .
= = Life in the camps = =
The prisoners ' day began at 4 : 30 am ( an hour later in winter ) with morning roll call . Dr. Miklós Nyiszli describes roll call as beginning 3 : 00 am and lasting four hours . The weather was cold in Auschwitz at that time of day , even in summer . The prisoners were ordered to line up outdoors in rows of five and had to stay there until 7 : 00 am , when the SS officers arrived . Meanwhile , the guards would force the prisoners to squat for an hour with their hands above their heads or levy punishments such as beatings or detention for infractions such as having a missing button or an improperly cleaned food bowl . The inmates were counted and re @-@ counted . Nyiszli describes how even the dead had to be present at roll call , standing supported by their fellow inmates until the ordeal was over . When he was a prisoner in 1944 – 45 , five to ten men were found dead in the barracks each night . The prisoners assigned to Mengele 's staff slept in a separate barracks and were awoken at 7 : 00 am for a roll call that only took a few minutes .
After roll call , the Kommando , or work details , walked to their place of work , five abreast , wearing striped camp fatigues , no underwear , and ill @-@ fitting wooden shoes without socks . A prisoner 's orchestra ( such as the Women 's Orchestra of Auschwitz ) was forced to play cheerful music as the workers left the camp . Kapos were responsible for the prisoners ' behavior while they worked , as was an SS escort . The working day lasted 12 hours during the summer and a little less in the winter . Much of the work took place outdoors at construction sites , gravel pits , and lumber yards . No rest periods were allowed . One prisoner was assigned to the latrines to measure the time the workers took to empty their bladders and bowels . Sunday was not a work day , but the prisoners did not rest ; they were required to clean the barracks and take their weekly shower . Prisoners were allowed to write ( in German ) to their families on Sundays . Inmates who did not speak German would trade some of their bread to another inmate for help composing their letters . Members of the SS censored the outgoing mail .
A second mandatory roll call took place in the evening . If a prisoner was missing , the others had to remain standing in place until he was either found or the reason for his absence discovered , regardless of the weather conditions , even if it took hours . After roll call , individual and collective punishments were meted out , depending on what had happened during the day , before the prisoners were allowed to retire to their blocks for the night and receive their bread rations and water . Curfew was two or three hours later . The prisoners slept in long rows of wooden bunks , lying in and on their clothes and shoes to prevent them from being stolen .
According to Nyiszli , " Eight hundred to a thousand people were crammed into the superimposed compartments of each barracks . Unable to stretch out completely , they slept there both lengthwise and crosswise , with one man 's feet on another 's head , neck , or chest . Stripped of all human dignity , they pushed and shoved and bit and kicked each other in an effort to get a few more inches ' space on which to sleep a little more comfortably . For they did not have long to sleep " .
The types of prisoners were distinguishable by triangular pieces of cloth , called Winkel , sewn onto on their jackets below their prisoner number . Political prisoners had a red triangle , Jehovah 's Witnesses had purple , criminals had green , and so on . The nationality of the inmate was indicated by a letter stitched onto the Winkel . Jews had a yellow triangle , overlaid by a second Winkel if they also fit into a second category . Uniquely at Auschwitz , prisoners were tattooed with their prisoner number , on the chest for Soviet prisoners of war and on the left arm for civilians .
Prisoners received a hot drink in the morning , but no breakfast , and a thin meatless vegetable soup at noon . In the evening they received a small ration of moldy bread . Most prisoners saved some of the bread for the following morning . Nyiszli notes the daily intake did not exceed 700 calories , except for prisoners being subjected to live medical experimentation , who were better fed and clothed . Sanitary arrangements were poor , with inadequate latrines and a lack of fresh water . In Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau , latrines were not installed until 1943 , two years after camp construction began . The camps were infested with vermin such as disease @-@ carrying lice , and the inmates suffered and died in epidemics of typhus and other diseases . Noma , a bacterial infection occurring among the malnourished , was a common cause of death among children in the Gypsy camp .
Block 11 of Auschwitz I was the prison within the prison , where violators of the numerous rules were punished . Some prisoners were made to spend the nights in standing cells . These cells were about 1 @.@ 5 m2 ( 16 sq ft ) , and held four men ; they could do nothing but stand , and were forced during the day to work with the other prisoners . Prisoners sentenced to death for attempting to escape were confined in a dark cell and given neither food nor water while being left to die .
In the basement were the " dark cells " , which had only a very tiny window and a solid door . Prisoners placed in these cells gradually suffocated as they used up all the oxygen in the cell ; sometimes the SS lit a candle in the cell to use up the oxygen more quickly . Many were subjected to hanging with their hands behind their backs for hours , even days , thus dislocating their shoulder joints .
= = Selection and extermination process = =
On July 31 , 1941 , Hermann Göring gave written authorization to Heydrich , Chief of the Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) , to prepare and submit a plan for Die Endlösung der Judenfrage ( the Final Solution of the Jewish question ) in territories under German control and to coordinate the participation of all involved government organizations . The resulting Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , for use as slave labor or to be murdered . In addition to eliminating Jews , the Nazis also planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan . Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians . Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists .
Plans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe — eleven million people — were formalized at the Wannsee Conference on January 20 , 1942 . Some would be worked to death and the rest would be killed . Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or by Einsatzgruppen firing squads , but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of this scale . By 1942 , killing centers at Auschwitz , Sobibór , Treblinka , and other Nazi extermination camps replaced Einsatzgruppen as the primary method of mass killing .
The first mass exterminations at Auschwitz took place in early September 1941 , when 900 inmates were killed by gathering them in the basement of Block 11 and gassing them with Zyklon B. This building proved unsuitable for mass gassings , so the site of the killings was moved to the crematorium at Auschwitz I ( Crematorium I , which operated until July 1942 ) . There , more than 700 victims could be killed at once . In order to keep the victims calm , they were told they were to undergo disinfection and de @-@ lousing . They were ordered to undress outside and then were locked in the building and gassed . After its decommissioning as a gas chamber , the building was converted to a storage facility and later served as an air raid shelter for the SS . The gas chamber and crematorium were reconstructed after the war using the original components , which remained on site . Some 60 @,@ 000 people were killed at Crematorium I.
Mass exterminations were moved to two provisional gas chambers ( Bunkers 1 and 2 ) , where the killings continued while the larger Crematoria II , III , IV , and V were under construction . Bunker 2 was temporarily reactivated from May to November 1944 , when large numbers of Hungarian Jews were exterminated . In summer 1944 the capacity of the crematoria and outdoor incineration pits was 20 @,@ 000 bodies per day . A planned sixth facility — Crematorium VI — was never built .
Prisoners were transported from all over German @-@ occupied Europe by rail , arriving in daily convoys . By July 1942 , the SS were conducting " selections " . Incoming Jews were segregated ; those deemed able to work were sent to the selection officer 's right and admitted into the camp , and those deemed unfit for labor were sent to the selection officer 's left and immediately gassed . The group selected to die , about three @-@ quarters of the total , included almost all children , women with small children , all the elderly , and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit . After the selection process was complete , those too ill or too young to walk to the crematoria were transported there on trucks or killed on the spot with a bullet to the head . The belongings of the arrivals were seized by the SS and sorted in an area of the camp called " Canada " , so called because Canada was seen as a land of plenty . Many of the SS at the camp enriched themselves by pilfering the confiscated property .
SS officers told the victims they were to take a shower and undergo delousing . The victims undressed in an outer chamber and walked into the gas chamber , which was disguised as a shower facility . Some were even issued soap and a towel . The Zyklon B was delivered by ambulance to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygienic Institute . The actual delivery of the gas to the victims was always handled by the SS , on the order of the supervising SS doctor . After the doors were shut , SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber . The victims were dead within 20 minutes . Despite the thick concrete walls , screaming and moaning from within could be heard outside . In one failed attempt to muffle the noise , two motorcycle engines were revved up to full throttle nearby , but the sound of yelling could still be heard over the engines .
Sonderkommando wearing gas masks then dragged the bodies from the chamber . The victims ' glasses , artificial limbs , jewelry , and hair were removed , and any dental work was extracted so the gold could be melted down . The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators , and the ashes were buried , thrown in the river , or used as fertilizer .
The gas chambers worked to their fullest capacity from April – July 1944 , during the massacre of Hungary 's Jews . Hungary was an ally of Germany during the war , but it had resisted turning over its Jews until Germany invaded that March . A rail spur leading directly into Birkenau was completed that May to deliver the victims closer to the gas chambers . From 14 May until early July 1944 , 437 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews , half of the pre @-@ war population , were deported to Auschwitz , at a rate of 12 @,@ 000 a day for a considerable part of that period . The incoming volume was so great that the SS resorted to burning corpses in open @-@ air pits as well as in the crematoria . The last selection took place on October 30 , 1944 .
= = = Medical experiments = = =
German doctors performed a wide variety of experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz . SS doctors tested the efficacy of X @-@ rays as a sterilization device by administering large doses to female prisoners . Prof. Dr. Carl Clauberg injected chemicals into women 's uteruses in an effort to glue them shut . Bayer , then a subsidiary of IG Farben , bought prisoners to use as research subjects for testing new drugs . Prisoners were also deliberately infected with spotted fever for vaccination research and exposed to toxic substances to study the effects .
The most infamous doctor at Auschwitz was Josef Mengele , known as the " Angel of Death " . Particularly interested in research on identical twins , Mengele performed cruel experiments on them , such as inducing diseases in one twin and killing the other when the first died to perform comparative autopsies . He also took a special interest in dwarfs , and he deliberately induced noma in twins , dwarfs , and other prisoners to study the effects .
Kurt Heissmeyer took twenty Jewish children from Auschwitz to use in pseudoscientific medical experiments at the Neuengamme concentration camp . In April 1945 , the children were killed by hanging to conceal the project .
A skeleton collection was obtained from among a pool of 115 Jewish Auschwitz inmates , chosen for their perceived stereotypical racial characteristics . Rudolf Brandt and Wolfram Sievers , general manager of the Ahnenerbe ( a Nazi research institute ) , were responsible for delivering the skeletons to the collection of the Anatomy Institute at the Reich University of Strasbourg in the Alsace region of Occupied France . The collection was sanctioned by Himmler and under the direction of August Hirt . Ultimately 87 of the inmates were shipped to Natzweiler @-@ Struthof and killed in August 1943 . Brandt and Sievers were later convicted in the Doctors ' Trial in Nuremberg .
= = = Death toll = = =
The exact number of victims at Auschwitz is difficult to fix with certainty , because many prisoners were never registered and much evidence was destroyed by the SS in the final days of the war . As early as 1942 , Himmler visited the camp and ordered that " all mass graves were to be opened and the corpses burned . In addition the ashes were to be disposed of in such a way that it would be impossible at some future time to calculate the number of corpses burned . "
Shortly following the camp 's liberation , the Soviet government stated that four million people had been killed on the site , a figure now regarded as greatly exaggerated . While under interrogation , Höss said that Adolf Eichmann told him that two and a half million Jews had been killed in gas chambers and about half a million more had died of other causes . Later he wrote , " I regard the figure of two and a half million as far too high . Even Auschwitz had limits to its destructive possibilities " . Gerald Reitlinger 's 1953 book The Final Solution estimated the number killed to be 800 @,@ 000 to 900 @,@ 000 , and Raul Hilberg 's 1961 work The Destruction of the European Jews estimated the number killed to be a maximum of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Jewish victims .
In 1983 , French scholar George Wellers was one of the first to use German data on deportations to estimate the number killed at Auschwitz , arriving at a figure of 1 @,@ 471 @,@ 595 deaths , including 1 @.@ 35 million Jews and 86 @,@ 675 Poles . A larger study started by Franciszek Piper used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate at least 960 @,@ 000 Jewish deaths and at least 1 @.@ 1 million total deaths , a figure adopted as official by the Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau State Museum in the 1990s . Piper also stated that a figure of as many as 1 @.@ 5 million total deaths was possible .
By nation , the greatest number of Auschwitz 's Jewish victims were from Hungary , accounting for 438 @,@ 000 deaths , followed by Polish Jews ( 300 @,@ 000 deaths ) , French ( 69 @,@ 000 ) , Dutch ( 60 @,@ 000 ) , and Greek ( 55 @,@ 000 ) . Fewer than one percent of Soviet Jews murdered in the Holocaust were killed in Auschwitz , as German forces had already been driven from Russia when the killing at Auschwitz reached its peak in 1944 . Approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp .
The next largest group of victims were non @-@ Jewish Poles , who accounted for 70 @,@ 000 to 75 @,@ 000 deaths . Twenty @-@ one thousand Roma and Sinti were killed , along with 15 @,@ 000 Soviet POWs and 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 peoples of other nations . Around 400 Jehovah 's Witnesses were imprisoned at Auschwitz , at least 152 of whom died . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 gay men prosecuted under German Penal Code Section 175 ( proscribing sexual acts between men ) were detained in concentration camps of which an unknown number were sent to Auschwitz ; of those sent to Auschwitz 80 percent died .
= = Escapes , resistance , and the Allies ' knowledge of the camps = =
Inmates were at times able to distribute information from the camp via messages and shortwave radio transmissions . The Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London first reported the gassing of prisoners on July 21 , 1942 . However , these reports were for a long time discarded as exaggerated or unreliable by the Allied Powers , Germany 's opponents .
Information regarding Auschwitz was also available to the Allies during the years 1940 – 43 by the accurate and frequent reports of Polish Home Army ( Armia Krajowa ) Captain Witold Pilecki . Pilecki was the only known person to volunteer to be imprisoned at Auschwitz concentration camp , spending 945 days there . He gathered evidence of genocide and organized resistance structures known as Związek Organizacji Wojskowej ( ZOW ) at the camp . His first report was smuggled to the outside world in November 1940 , through an inmate who was released from the camp . He eventually escaped on April 27 , 1943 , but his personal report of mass killings was dismissed as exaggeration by the Allies , as were his previous reports .
The first information about Auschwitz concentration camp was published in winter 1940 – 41 in the Polish underground newspapers Polska żyje ( " Poland lives " ) and Biuletyn Informacyjny ( " Newsletter " ) . From 1942 members of the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Warsaw area Home Army published in occupied Poland a few brochures based on the accounts of escapees . The first of these was a fictional memoir " Oświęcim . Pamiętnik więźnia " ( " Auschwitz : Diary of a prisoner " ) , written by Halina Krahelska and published in April 1942 in Warsaw . Also published in 1942 were the books Auschwitz : obóz śmierci ( " Auschwitz : camp of death " ) written by Natalia Zarembina , and W piekle ( " In Hell " ) by Zofia Kossak @-@ Szczucka , the Polish writer , social activist , and founder of Żegota .
In 1943 , the Kampfgruppe Auschwitz ( Combat Group Auschwitz ) was organized with the aim of sending out information about what was happening . Sonderkommandos buried notes in the ground , hoping they would be found by the camp 's liberators . The group also took and smuggled out photographs of corpses and preparations for mass killings in mid @-@ 1944 .
The attitude of the Allies changed with receipt of the detailed , 32 @-@ page Vrba – Wetzler report , compiled by two Jewish prisoners , Rudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler , who escaped on April 7 , 1944 . This report finally convinced Allied leaders that mass killings were taking place in Auschwitz . Details from the Vrba @-@ Wetzler report were released to the Swiss press by diplomat George Mantello and printed on June 6 by The New York Times . Auschwitz Plans originating with the Polish government were provided to the U.K foreign ministry in August 1944 .
Starting with a plea from the Slovakian rabbi Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl in May 1944 , there was a growing campaign by Jewish organizations to persuade the Allies to bomb Auschwitz or the railway lines leading to it . At one point British Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered that such a plan be prepared , but he was told that precision bombing the camp to free the prisoners or disrupt the railway was not technically feasible .
In 1978 , historian David S. Wyman published an essay titled " Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed " , arguing that the US Air Force had the capability to attack Auschwitz and should have done so ; books by Bernard Wasserstein and Martin Gilbert raised similar questions about British inaction . Since the 1990s , other historians have argued that Allied bombing accuracy was not sufficient for Wyman 's proposed attack , and that counterfactual history is an inherently problematic endeavor . The controversy over this decision has lasted to the present day in both countries .
= = = Individual escape attempts = = =
At least 802 prisoners attempted to escape from the Auschwitz camps , mostly Polish or Soviet prisoners fleeing from work sites outside the camp . 144 were successful . The fates of 331 of the escapees are unknown . A common punishment for escape attempts was death by starvation ; the families of successful escapees were sometimes arrested and interned in Auschwitz and prominently displayed to deter others . If someone did manage to escape , the SS picked ten people at random from the prisoner 's block and starved them to death .
A daring escape from Auschwitz was staged on June 20 , 1942 by four Polish prisoners : Eugeniusz Bendera ( auto mechanic at the camp ) , Kazimierz Piechowski , Stanisław Gustaw Jaster , and Józef Lempart . After breaking into a warehouse , the four dressed as members of the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( the SS units responsible for concentration camps ) , armed themselves , and stole an SS staff car , which they then drove unchallenged through the main gate .
On June 24 , 1944 , a Belgian @-@ Polish Jew , Mala Zimetbaum , escaped with her Polish boyfriend , Edek Galiński dressed in a stolen prisoner @-@ guard uniform . They were later recaptured , tortured , and executed by the SS . On July 21 , 1944 , inmate Jerzy Bielecki , dressed in an SS uniform and using a faked pass , managed to cross the camp 's gate together with his Jewish girlfriend , Cyla . Both survived the war .
= = = Birkenau revolt = = =
The Sonderkommando units were aware that as witnesses to the killings , they themselves would eventually be killed to hide Nazi crimes . Though they knew that it would mean their deaths , the Sonderkommando of Birkenau Kommando III staged an uprising on October 7 , 1944 , following an announcement that some of them would be selected to be " transferred to another camp " — a common Nazi ruse for the murder of prisoners . The Sonderkommando attacked the SS guards with stones , axes , and makeshift hand grenades . As the SS set up machine guns to attack the prisoners in Crematorium IV , the Sonderkommando in Crematorium II also revolted , some of them managing to escape the compound . The rebellion was suppressed by nightfall .
Ultimately , three SS guards were killed — one of whom was burned alive by the prisoners in the oven of Crematorium II — and 250 Sonderkommando were killed . Hundreds of prisoners escaped , but were all soon captured and executed , along with an additional group who participated in the revolt . Crematorium IV was destroyed in the fighting , and a group of prisoners in the gas chamber of Crematorium V was spared in the chaos .
= = Legacy = =
In the decades since its liberation , Auschwitz has become a primary symbol of the Holocaust . Historian Timothy D. Snyder attributes this to the camp 's high death toll as well as to its " unusual combination of an industrial camp complex and a killing facility " , which left behind far more witnesses than single @-@ purpose killing facilities such as Chełmno or Treblinka . The United Nations General Assembly has designated January 27 , the date of the camp 's liberation , as International Holocaust Remembrance Day . In a speech on the fiftieth anniversary of the liberation , German chancellor Helmut Kohl described Auschwitz as the " darkest and most horrific chapter of German history " .
Notable memoirists of the camp include Primo Levi , Elie Wiesel , and Tadeusz Borowski . In If This Is a Man , Levi wrote that the concentration camps represented the epitome of the totalitarian system :
[ N ] ever has there existed a state that was really " totalitarian . " ... Never has some form of reaction , a corrective of the total tyranny , been lacking , not even in the Third Reich or Stalin 's Soviet Union : in both cases , public opinion , the magistrature , the foreign press , the churches , the feeling for justice and humanity that ten or twenty years of tyranny were not enough to eradicate , have to a greater or lesser extent acted as a brake . Only in the Lager [ camp ] was the restraint from below non @-@ existent , and the power of these small satraps absolute .
Psychiatrist Viktor Frankl drew on his imprisonment at Auschwitz in composing Man 's Search for Meaning ( 1946 ) , one of the most widely read works about the camp . An existentialist work , the book argues that individuals can find purpose even among great suffering , and that this sense of purpose sustains them . Wiesel wrote about his own imprisonment at Auschwitz in Night ( 1960 ) and other works , and became a prominent spokesman against ethnic violence . In 1986 , he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize .
Camp survivor Simone Veil was later elected President of the European Parliament , serving from 1979 – 82 . Two Auschwitz victims — Maximilian Kolbe , a priest who volunteered to die by starvation in place of a stranger , and Edith Stein , a Jewish convert to Catholicism — were later named saints of the Roman Catholic Church .
= = = Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau State Museum = = =
On July 2 , 1947 , the Polish government passed a law establishing a state memorial to the victims of Nazism on the site of the camp . In 1955 , an exhibition opened displaying prisoner mug shots ; hair , suitcases , and shoes taken from murdered prisoners ; canisters of Zyklon B pellets ; and other objects related to the killings . UNESCO added the camp to its list of World Heritage Sites in 1979 . In 2011 , the museum drew 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 visitors .
Pope John Paul II performed mass over the train tracks leading to the camp on June 7 , 1979 . In the decades following his visit , controversies erupted over a group of Carmelite nuns founding a convent on the site and erecting a large cross originally used in the pope 's mass . Protesters objected to what they saw as Christianization of the site , while others argued that the cross 's presence effectively recognized the camp 's Catholic victims .
On September 4 , 2003 , three Israeli Air Force F @-@ 15 Eagles performed a fly @-@ over of Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau during a ceremony at the camp below . The flight was led by Major @-@ General Amir Eshel , the son of Holocaust survivors . On January 27 , 2015 , some 300 Auschwitz survivors and other guests gathered under a giant tent at the entrance to Auschwitz II Birkenau to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the camp 's liberation . Attendees included president of the World Jewish Congress Ronald Lauder , film director Steven Spielberg , and world leaders such as Polish president Bronisław Komorowski and King Willem @-@ Alexander of the Netherlands . As the number of remaining survivors decreases each year , the attendance at the event is unlikely to be surpassed at future major anniversaries . Commemorations also took place at Yad Vashem in Israel , Theresienstadt concentration camp , and in Berlin and Moscow .
Museum curators note that some visitors try to take artefacts as souvenirs , which is strictly prohibited and usually leads to criminal charges . For example , on June 22 , 2015 , two British men were convicted of theft for stealing apparel buttons and shards of decorative glass they found on the ground near the area where camp victims ' confiscated personal effects were stored . The men , both 17 years old , received probation and were fined £ 170 . Curators said that similar thefts happen once or twice a year .
|
= History of Poland ( 1945 – 89 ) =
The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet communist dominance imposed after the end of World War II over what had become the Polish People 's Republic . These years , while featuring general industrialization and urbanization and many improvements in the standard of living in Poland , were marred by social unrest and severe economic difficulties .
Near the end of World War II , the advancing Soviet Red Army pushed out the Nazi German forces from occupied Poland . In February 1945 , the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a provisional government of Poland from a compromise coalition , until postwar elections . Joseph Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , manipulated the implementation of that ruling . A practically communist @-@ controlled Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in Warsaw by ignoring the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile based in London since 1940 .
During the subsequent Potsdam Conference in July – August 1945 , the three major allied powers ratified the colossal westerly shift of Polish borders and approved its new territory between the Oder – Neisse line and Curzon Line . Caused by the events of World War II , for the first time in its history Poland became an ethnically homogeneous nation @-@ state without prominent minorities . The new population pattern was a result of the destruction of indigenous Polish @-@ Jewish population in the Holocaust , the flight and expulsion of Germans in the west , resettlement of Ukrainians in the east , and the repatriation of Poles from Kresy . The new government solidified its political power over the next two years , while the communist Polish United Workers ' Party ( PZPR ) under Bolesław Bierut gained firm control over the country , which would become part of the postwar Soviet sphere of influence in Central and Eastern Europe .
Following Stalin 's death in 1953 , a political " thaw " in the Soviet sphere allowed a more liberal faction of the Polish communists , led by Władysław Gomułka , to gain power . By the mid @-@ 1960s , Poland began experiencing increasing economic , as well as political , difficulties . They culminated in the March 1968 political crisis and in December 1970 , when a consumer price hike led to a wave of strikes . The government introduced a new economic program based on large @-@ scale borrowing from the West , which resulted in a rise in living standards and expectations , but the program meant growing integration of Poland 's economy with the world economy and it faltered after the 1973 oil crisis . In 1976 , the government of Edward Gierek was forced to raise prices again , and this led to another wave of public protests .
This vicious cycle of repression and reform and the economic @-@ political struggle acquired new characteristics with the 1978 election of Karol Wojtyła as Pope John Paul II . Wojtyła 's unexpected elevation strengthened the opposition to the authoritarian and ineffective system of nomenklatura @-@ run state socialism , especially with the pope 's first visit to Poland in 1979 . In early August 1980 , a new wave of strikes resulted in the founding of the independent trade union " Solidarity " ( Polish Solidarność ) led by electrician Lech Wałęsa . The growing strength and activity of the opposition caused the government of Wojciech Jaruzelski to declare martial law in December 1981 . However , with the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union , increasing pressure from the West , and dysfunctional economy , the regime was forced to negotiate with its opponents . The 1989 Round Table Talks led to Solidarity 's participation in the 1989 election ; its candidates ' striking victory gave rise to the first of the succession of transitions from communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe . In 1990 , Jaruzelski resigned from the presidency of the Republic of Poland and , after the December 1990 elections , was succeeded by Wałęsa .
= = Creation of the Polish People 's Republic ( 1944 – 48 ) = =
= = = Wartime devastation , border and population shifts = = =
Before World War II , a third of Poland 's population was composed of ethnic minorities . Poland had about 35 million inhabitants in 1939 , but fewer than 24 million in 1946 , within the respective borders . Of the remaining population over three million were ethnic minorities , such as Germans , Ukrainians and Jews , most of whom would soon leave Poland . Poland suffered the heaviest proportionate human losses during World War II , amounting to 16 – 17 percent of its population . It is estimated that up to 6 million Polish citizens died from war @-@ related causes between 1939 and 1945 . The approximate figure includes 3 million Jewish @-@ Polish victims as part of the above total . The number of ethnically Polish victims was perhaps 2 million .
The historical minorities in Poland were most significantly affected , whereas Poland 's multiethnic diversity reflected in prior national censuses was all but gone within several years after the war . The Polish educated class suffered greatly . A large proportion of the country 's pre @-@ war social and political elite perished and a large proportion were dispersed .
Poland suffered catastrophic damage to its infrastructure during the war , which caused it to lag even further behind the West in its industrial output . The losses in national resources and infrastructure amounted to over 30 % of the pre @-@ war potential . Poland 's capital of Warsaw was among the most devastated cities – over 80 percent destroyed in the aftermath of the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 . Nonetheless , resulting from forced migration , there was a rapid increase in population to 23 @.@ 9 million shown in the first post @-@ war census of 14 February 1946 . The Polish state acquired more highly developed western territories and lost the more economically backward eastern regions . Already in 1948 the prewar level of industrial production was exceeded in global and per capita terms during the first Three @-@ Year Plan ( Plan Trzyletni ) fueled by the collective desire to rebuild shattered lives .
The implementation of the immense task of reconstructing the country was accompanied by the struggle of the new government to acquire centralized authority , further complicated by the mistrust a considerable part of society held for the new regime and by disputes over Poland 's postwar borders , which were not firmly established until mid @-@ 1945 . In 1947 Soviet pressure caused the Polish government to reject the American @-@ sponsored Marshall Plan , and to join the Soviet Union @-@ dominated Comecon in 1949 . The Soviet forces present engaged in plunder of the former eastern territories of Germany which were being transferred to Poland , stripping it of valuable industrial equipment , infrastructure and factories and sending them to the Soviet Union .
After the Soviet annexation of the Kresy territories east of the Curzon line , about 2 million Poles were " repatriated " ( moved or were transferred or expelled ) from these areas into the new western and northern territories east of the Oder @-@ Neisse line , which were transferred from Germany to Poland under the Potsdam Agreement . Others stayed in what had become the Soviet Union and more went to Poland after 1956 . Additional settlement with people from central parts of Poland brought the number of Poles in what the government called the Recovered Territories up to 5 million by 1950 . The former German population of 10 million had fled or was expelled to post @-@ war Germany by 1950 , of which 5 million were involved in involuntary transfers in the " Polish part of the operation " . The expulsion of the Germans was the result of the Allied decisions finalized in Potsdam .
With the repatriation of Ukrainians from Poland to the Soviet Union and the 1947 Operation Vistula dispersing the remaining Ukrainian minority , and with most of the former Jewish minority exterminated by Nazi Germany during the Holocaust and many of the survivors emigrating to the West and to newly created Israel , Poland for the first time became an ethnically homogeneous nation state . The government @-@ imposed and spontaneous movements of people amounted to one of the greatest demographic upheavals in European history .
Warsaw and other ruined cities were cleared of rubble — mainly by hand — and rebuilt with great speed ( one of the successes of the Three @-@ Year Plan ) at the expense of former German cities like Wrocław , which often provided the needed construction material . Wrocław , Gdańsk , Szczecin and other formerly German cities were also completely rebuilt .
Historian Norman Davies found the new Polish frontiers , from the Polish interests point of view , entirely advantageous , but realized at the cost of enormous suffering and specious justifications . The radically new Eastern European borders constituted a " colossal feat of political engineering " , but could not be derived from immemorial historical determinations , as claimed by the communist propaganda .
The Regained Territories Exhibition ( Polish : Wystawa Ziem Odzyskanych ) , a propaganda exhibition celebrating " the restoration of the Recovered Territories to Poland " after the end of Second World War , was opened on 21 July 1948 by Bolesław Bierut and lasted for 100 days . About 2 million people visited the exhibition and the Iglica monument was built in front of the Centennial Hall in Wrocław .
= = = Consolidation of communist power = = =
Even before the Red Army entered Poland , the Soviet Union was pursuing a deliberate strategy to eliminate anti @-@ communist resistance forces to ensure that Poland would fall under its sphere of influence . In 1943 , following the revelation of the Katyn massacre , Stalin severed relations with the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London . However , to appease the United States and the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union agreed at the February 1945 Yalta Conference to allow the formation of a coalition government composed of the communists , including the Polish Workers ' Party ( Polska Partia Robotnicza ; PPR ) , as well as pro @-@ Western elements in exile and in Poland , and subsequently to arrange for free elections to be held .
After the prewar Communist Party of Poland was eliminated in Stalin 's purges in 1938 ( some five thousand Polish communists were brought to Russia and killed ) , a group of survivors , led by Marceli Nowotko , Bolesław Mołojec and Paweł Finder , convinced in 1941 the Soviets in Moscow of the need to reestablish a Polish party . The conspiratorial core of the new Polish Workers ' Party was assembled in Warsaw in January 1942 , and after the deaths or arrests of the above leaders there , Władysław Gomułka emerged as the PPR 's First Secretary by the end of 1943 . Gomułka was a dedicated communist in the national tradition of the Polish leftist movement , who loathed the Soviet practices he experienced while being trained in Russia and Ukraine in the 1930s , but was convinced of the historic necessity of alliance with the Soviet Union . He may have survived the purges because of being imprisoned in Poland for illegal labor @-@ organizing activities in 1938 – 39 . Throughout the German occupation , Gomułka remained in Poland and was not a part of the Moscow @-@ reared Stalin 's Polish circle . In Polish society of 1945 , Gomułka 's party was marginally small in comparison to other political groups .
With the beginning of the liberation of Polish territories and the failure of the Armia Krajowa 's Operation Tempest in 1944 , control over Polish territories passed from the occupying forces of Nazi Germany to the Red Army , and from the Red Army to the Polish communists , formally led by their Polish Committee of National Liberation ( Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego ; PKWN ) , an early government , from late July 1944 in existence in Lublin . The Polish communists became the most influential Polish factor in the politics of emerging Poland , despite having minuscule popular support . PKWN recognized the legal continuity of the March Constitution of Poland , as opposed to the April Constitution . On September 6 , PKWN issued its momentous land reform decree , the consequences of which would fundamentally alter the antiquated social and economic structure of the country . Over one million peasant families benefited from the parceling of the larger estates .
Thus from its outset , the Yalta decision favored the communists , who enjoyed the advantages of Soviet support within the Soviet plan of bringing Eastern Europe securely under the influence of the Soviet Union , as well as control over crucial government departments such as the security services ( this activity was initially dominated by Lavrentiy Beria 's Soviet NKVD ) . Beginning in the later part of 1944 , following the defeat of the Warsaw Uprising and the promotion of the populist program of the PKWN , the London exiled government 's delegation was increasingly seen by the majority of Poles as a failed enterprise , its political @-@ military organizations became isolated , and the resistance against the new communist political and administrative forces decisively weakened . The population was tired of the years of oppression and conflict and the ideas expressed in the PKWN Manifesto and their progressive implementation attracted widening social support . From 1944 in liberated areas , responding to promulgated slogans , workers spontaneously took over existing factory installations , established workers ' councils , undertook reconstruction , activation and production . A considerable labor struggle and compulsion were necessary for the PPR to claim the factories and enforce its own rules .
The PKWN was reshaped into the Provisional Government ( Rząd Tymczasowy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ; RTRP ) , which functioned from January 1945 . This government was headed by Edward Osóbka @-@ Morawski , a socialist , but the communists , mostly non @-@ PPR Soviet employees , such as Michał Rola @-@ Żymierski , held a majority of key posts . In April 1945 , a Polish @-@ Soviet treaty of friendship and cooperation was signed ; it severely limited the possibilities of future Western or émigré impact or internal cooperation with non @-@ communist political forces in Poland . The consecutive early Soviet @-@ influenced governments were subordinate to the unelected , communist @-@ controlled parliament , the State National Council ( Krajowa Rada Narodowa ; KRN ) , formed by Gomułka and his PPR in occupied Warsaw in January 1944 . The communist governmental structures were not recognized by the increasingly isolated Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , which had formed its own quasi @-@ parliament , the Council of National Unity ( Rada Jedności Narodowej ; RJN ) .
The Yalta agreement stipulated a governmental union in Poland of " all democratic and anti @-@ Nazi elements " . The prime minister of the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , Stanisław Mikołajczyk , resigned his post in 1944 , and having accepted the Yalta terms went to Moscow , where he negotiated with Bierut the shape of a " national unity " government " . Mikołajczyk , along with several other exiled Polish leaders , returned to Poland in July 1945 .
The new Polish Provisional Government of National Unity ( Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej ; TRJN ) — as the Polish government was called until the elections of 1947 — was established on 28 June 1945 . Osóbka @-@ Morawski was kept as prime minister , Gomułka became first deputy prime minister and Mikołajczyk second deputy and minister of agriculture . The government was " provisional " and the Potsdam Conference soon declared that before a regular government is created , free elections must be held and a permanent constitutional system established .
The communists ' principal rivals were the veterans of the Armia Krajowa movement , Mikołajczyk 's Polish People 's ( Peasant ) Party ( Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe ; PSL ) , and the veterans of the Polish armies which had fought in the West . Of particular practical importance was Mikołajczyk 's People 's Party , because it was legally recognized by the communists and thus able to function within the political arena . The People 's Party wanted to prevent the communists from monopolizing power and eventually establish a parliamentary polity with a market economy by winning the promised elections . Mikołajczyk hoped that an independent Polish state , friendly with the Soviet Union , would be allowed to act as a bridge between the east and the west .
Soviet @-@ oriented parties , backed by the Soviet Red Army and in control of the security forces , held most of the power , concentrated especially in the Polish Workers ' Party under Władysław Gomułka and Bolesław Bierut . Bierut represented the influx of appointees to the Polish party coming ( during and after the war ) from the Soviet Union and imposed by the Soviets , a process accelerated at the time of the PPR Congress of December 1945 . The Party 's membership dramatically increased from perhaps a few thousand in early 1945 to over one million in 1948 .
As a show of communist rule and Soviet domination , sixteen prominent leaders of the Polish anti @-@ Nazi underground were brought to trial in Moscow in June 1945 . Their removal from the political scene precluded the possibility of a democratic transition called for by the Yalta agreements . The trial of the defendants , falsely and absurdly accused of collaboration with the Nazis , was watched by British and American diplomats without protest . The absence of the expected death sentences was their relief . The exiled government in London , after Mikołajczyk 's resignation led by Tomasz Arciszewski , ceased to be officially recognized by Great Britain and the United States on 5 July 1945 .
In the years 1945 – 47 , about 500 @,@ 000 Soviet soldiers were stationed in Poland . Between 1945 and 1948 , some 150 @,@ 000 Poles were imprisoned by the Soviet authorities . Many former Home Army members were apprehended and executed . During the PPR Central Committee Plenum of May 1945 , Gomułka complained that the Polish masses regard the Polish communists as the " NKVD 's worst agency " and Edward Ochab declared the withdrawal of the Soviet Army from Poland a high priority . But in the meantime tens of thousands of Poles died in the postwar struggle and persecution and tens of thousands were sentenced by courts on fabricated and arbitrary charges or deported to the Soviet Union . The status of Soviet troops in Poland was not legalized until late 1956 , when the Polish @-@ Soviet declaration " On the legal status of Soviet forces temporarily stationed in Poland " was signed . The Soviet Northern Group of Forces would be permanently stationed in Poland .
= = = Rigged elections , defeat of Mikołajczyk = = =
Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland . However , the Polish communists , led by Gomułka and Bierut , while having no intention of giving up power , were also aware of the limited support they enjoyed among the general population . To circumvent this difficulty , in 1946 a national plebiscite , known as the " 3 times YES " referendum ( 3 razy TAK ; 3 × TAK ) , was held first , before the parliamentary elections . The referendum comprised three fairly general , but politically charged questions about the Senate , national industries and western borders . It was meant to check and promote the popularity of communist initiatives in Poland . Since most of the important parties at the time were leftist or centrist – and could have easily approved all three options – Mikołajczyk 's Polish People 's Party ( PSL ) decided , not to be seen as merging into the " Government Bloc " , to ask its supporters to oppose one of them : the abolition of the Senate . The communists voted " 3 times YES " . The partial results , reconstructed by the PSL , showed that the communist side was met with little support ; in Kraków where the actual ballots were counted , only 16 % of the population voted in favor of their proposed Option One . However , the large @-@ scale electoral fraud and intimidation won the communists a claimed majority of 68 % in the carefully controlled poll , which led to the nationalization of industry and state control of economic activity in general , land reform , and a unicameral national parliament ( Sejm ) .
The communists consolidated power by gradually whittling away the rights of their non @-@ communist foes , particularly by suppressing the leading opposition party – Mikołajczyk 's PSL . In some widely publicized cases , the perceived enemies were being sentenced to death on trumped up charges — among them Witold Pilecki , the organizer of the Auschwitz resistance , and numerous leaders of Armia Krajowa and the Council of National Unity . Many resistance fighters were murdered extrajudicially , or forced to exile . The opposition members were also persecuted by administrative means . Although the ongoing persecution of the former anti @-@ Nazi and right @-@ wing organizations by state security kept some partisans in the forests , the actions of the Ministry of Public Security of Poland ( UB , Polish secret police ) , NKVD and the Red Army steadily diminished their numbers . The right @-@ wing insurgency radically decreased after the amnesty of July 1945 and faded after the amnesty of February 1947 .
By 1946 , all rightist parties had been outlawed , and a new pro @-@ government Democratic Bloc was formed in 1947 which included only the Polish Workers ' Party and its leftist allies . On 19 January 1947 , the first parliamentary elections took place featuring primarily PPR and allied candidates and a potentially politically potent opposition from the Polish People 's Party , whose strength and role had already been seriously compromised due to government control and persecution . Results were adjusted by Stalin himself to suit the communists , whose bloc claimed 80 % of the votes . The British and American governments protested the poll for its blatant violations of the Yalta and Potsdam accords . The rigged elections effectively ended the multiparty system in Poland 's politics . After the referendum dress rehearsal , the vote fraud was much better concealed and spread into various forms and stages and its actual scale is not known . With all the pressure and manipulations , a NKVD colonel charged with the election supervision reported to Stalin that about 50 % of the vote was cast for the regime 's Democratic Bloc nationwide . In the new Sejm , out of 444 seats , 27 were given to Mikołajczyk 's party . Stanisław Mikołajczyk , who declared the results to be falsified and was threatened with arrest or worse , fled the country and other opposition leaders also left . Western governments did not act further and the Poles felt abandoned again . In the same year , the new Sejm created the Small Constitution of 1947 . Over the next two years , the communists monopolized their political power in Poland .
= = = Polish United Workers ' Party and its rule = = =
Additional force in Polish politics , the long @-@ established Polish Socialist Party ( Polska Partia Socjalistyczna , PPS ) , suffered a fatal split at this time , as the ruling Stalinists applied the salami tactics to dismember the opposition . Communist politicians cooperated with the left @-@ wing PPS faction led by Józef Cyrankiewicz , prime minister under new president Bierut from February 1947 . The socialists ' originally tactical decision to collaborate with the communists resulted in their institutional demise . Cyrankiewicz visited Stalin in Moscow in March 1948 to discuss the idea of a party merger . The Kremlin , increasingly uncomfortable with Gomułka 's communist party leadership , concurred , and Cyrankiewicz secured his own political place for the future ( until 1972 ) . In December 1948 , after the removal of Gomułka and imposition of Bierut as the communist Polish Workers ' Party chief , the PPR and Cyrankiewicz 's rump PPS joined ranks to form the Polish United Workers ' Party ( Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza ; PZPR ) , in power for the next four decades . Poland became a de facto one @-@ party state and a satellite state of the Soviet Union . Only two other parties were allowed to exist legally : United People 's Party , a small farmers ' party , and the Democratic Party , a token intelligentsia party ( see also : political organization in Poland 1945 – 1989 ) .
As the period of Sovietization and Stalinism began , the PZPR was anything but united . The most important split among the communists occurred before the union with PPS , when the Stalinists forced Gomułka out of the PPR 's top office and suppressed his native communist faction . The PZPR had become divided into several factions , which espoused different views and methods and sought different degrees of the Polish state 's distinction and independence from the Soviet Union . While the official ideology , the Russian version of Marxism , was new to Poland , the communist regime continued , in many psychologically and practically important ways , the precepts , methods and manners of past Polish ruling circles , including those of the Sanation , the National Democracy , and the 19th century traditions of cooperation with the partitioning powers .
With Poland being a member of the Soviet Bloc , the Party 's pursuits of power and reform were permanently hindered by the restrictions and limits imposed by the rulers of the Soviet Union , by the resentful attitude of Polish society , acutely conscious of its lack of national independence and freedoms , and by the understanding of the Party managers that their positions would terminate once they stop conforming to the requirements of the Soviet alliance ( because of both the lack of public support and Soviet reaction ) . Poland 's political history was governed by the mutual dependence of the Soviets and the Polish communists .
The nomenklatura political elite developed . It comprised leaders , administrators and managers within the ruling party structure , in all branches of central and local government and in institutions of all kinds . The nomenklatura members were appointed by the Party and exercised political control in all spheres of public life , for example economic development , industry management or education . For the Party , the privileged nomenklatura layer was maintained to assure the proper placement of people who were ideologically reliable and otherwise qualified , but the revisionist dissidents Jacek Kuroń and Karol Modzelewski later described this system as a class dictatorship of central political bureaucracy for its own sake . The Polish public widely approved the many social undertakings of the communist government , including family apartment construction , child care , worker vacation and resorts , health care and full employment policies , but the special privileges granted nomenklatura and the security services were resented .
= = Stalinist era ( 1948 – 56 ) = =
= = = Removal of Gomułka , Stalinist repressions = = =
As in other Eastern Bloc countries , there was a Soviet @-@ style political purge of communist officials in Poland after 1948 , accused of " nationalist " or other " deviationist " tendencies . In September , Władysław Gomułka who opposed Stalin 's direct control of the Polish PPR party , was charged , together with a group of communist leaders who like Gomułka spent the war in Poland , with ideological departure from Leninism , and dismissed from the post of the Party 's first secretary . Gomułka , accused of " right @-@ wing nationalist deviations " , had indeed emphasized the Polish socialist traditions and severely criticized Rosa Luxemburg 's SDKPiL party for belittling Polish national aspirations . More insidiously , the Soviets claimed Gomułka 's participation in an anti @-@ Soviet international conspiracy . Following Bolesław Bierut 's order , he was arrested by the Ministry of Public Security ( MBP ) in early August 1951 and interrogated by Romkowski and Fejgin , as demanded by the Soviets . Gomułka was not subjected to physical torture unlike other communists persecuted under the regime of Bierut , Jakub Berman and other Stalin 's associates . Under interrogation he defiantly conducted his defense , threatened to reveal " the whole truth " if put on a trial , and remained unbroken . Gomułka was thus placed in prison without a typical show trial until released in December 1954 . Bierut , heading the victorious PPR faction whose members spent the war in the Soviet Union , replaced Gomułka as the PPR ( and then the PZPR ) leader . Gomułka remained protected by his Polish comrades to the best of their ability and the record of his sometime defiance came in handy when in 1956 there was an opportunity for the Polish party to reassert itself .
The Stalinist government was controlled by Polish communists originating from wartime factions and organizations operating in the Soviet Union under Stalin , such as the Union of Polish Patriots . Their leaders at that time included Wanda Wasilewska and Zygmunt Berling . Now in Poland , those who remained politically active and in favor ruled the country , aided by the MBP and Soviet " advisers " , who were placed in every arm of the government and state security as a guarantee of the pro @-@ Soviet policy of the state . The most important of them was Konstantin Rokossovsky ( Konstanty Rokossowski in Polish ) , defense minister of Poland from 1949 to 1956 , former marshal and war hero in the Soviet Armed Forces . Military conscription was introduced following a postwar hiatus and , under the careful tutelage of the Soviet advisers , the army soon reached its permanent size of 400 @,@ 000 men .
The Soviet @-@ style secret police and the central security office Urząd Bezpieczeństwa ( UB ) grew to around 32 @,@ 000 agents as of 1953 . At its Stalinist peak , there was one UB agent for every 800 Polish citizens . The MBP was also in charge of the Internal Security Corps , the Civil Militia ( MO ) , border guard , prison staff and paramilitary police ORMO used for special actions ( with over 100 @,@ 000 members ) . The ORMO originated from popular self @-@ defense efforts , a spontaneous reaction to the explosion of crime in the power vacuum of 1944 – 45 . In February 1946 the PPR channeled and formalized this citizen militia movement , creating its ostensibly crime control voluntary ORMO structure .
Primarily in Stalin 's lifetime , the public prosecutors and judges as well as functionaries of the MBP , Służba Bezpieczeństwa and the GZI WP military police engaged in acts recognized by international law as crimes against humanity and crimes against peace . One example was the torture and execution of seven members of the 4th Headquarters of the combatant post @-@ Home Army Freedom and Independence ( WiN ) organization in the Mokotów Prison in Warsaw , after the official amnesty and their voluntary disclosure . All executed members of the WiN took active part in anti @-@ Nazi resistance during World War II . The postwar Polish Army , intelligence and police were full of Soviet NKVD officers who stationed in Poland with the Northern Group of Forces until 1956 .
Mass arrests continued during the early 1950s . In October 1950 , 5 @,@ 000 people were arrested in one night , in the so @-@ called " Operation K " . It was during these suppressions that the new constitution of July 1952 was promulgated and the state officially became the Polish People 's Republic . In 1952 over 21 @,@ 000 people were arrested , and according to official data , by the second half of 1952 there were 49 @,@ 500 political prisoners being held . In one very shocking case , the former Home Army commander Emil Fieldorf was subjected to several years of brutal persecution in the Soviet Union and Poland before being executed in February 1953 , just before Stalin 's death .
Resistance to the Soviet and native Stalinists was widespread among not only the general population but also the PZPR ranks , which limited the oppressive system 's damage in Poland to well below that of other European communist @-@ ruled countries . Political violence after 1947 was not widespread . The Church , subjected to partial property confiscations , remained largely intact , the marginalized to a considerable degree intelligentsia retained its potential to affect future reforms , the peasantry avoided wholesale collectivization and remnants of private enterprise survived . Gradual liberalizing changes took place between Stalin 's death in 1953 and the Polish October of 1956 .
= = = Nationalization and centrally planned economy = = =
In February 1948 , Minister of Industry Hilary Minc attacked the Central Planning Office of Poland as a " bourgeois " remnant , the Office was abolished and the Polish Stalinist economy was born . The government , headed by President Bierut , Prime Minister Cyrankiewicz and Marxist economist Minc , embarked on a sweeping program of economic reform and national reconstruction . Poland was brought into line with the Soviet model of a " people 's republic " and centrally planned socialist economy , in place of the façade of democracy and partial market economy which the regime had maintained until 1948 .
The relationships of ownership of the industry , the banking sector and rural property after the nationalization and the land reform were fundamentally altered . The changes , implemented in the name of egalitarianism , enjoyed broad societal approval and support .
The structure of the Polish economy was established in the late 1940s and the early 1950s . Soviet @-@ style planning begun in 1950 with the Six @-@ Year Plan . The plan focused on rapid development of heavy industry ( " accelerated industrialization " driven by Soviet military demands ) and ( eventually futile ) collectivization of agriculture . Among the main projects was the Lenin Steelworks and its supporting " socialist city " of Nowa Huta ( New Steel Mill ) , both built from the scratch in the early 1950s near Kraków , of which Nowa Huta soon became a part . The land seized from prewar large landowners was redistributed to the poorer peasants , but subsequent attempts at taking the land from farmers for collectivization met wide resentment . In what became known as the battle for trade , the private trade and industry were nationalized . Within few years most private shops disappeared from Poland . The regime embarked on the campaign of collectivization ( State Agricultural Farms were created ) , although the pace of this change was slower than in other Soviet satellites . Poland remained the only Eastern Bloc country where individual peasants would continue to dominate agriculture . A Soviet @-@ Polish trade treaty , initiated in January 1948 , dictated the dominant direction of Poland 's future foreign trade and economic cooperation .
In 1948 the United States announced the Marshall Plan initiative to help rebuild postwar Europe and thus gain more political power there . After initially welcoming the idea of Poland 's participation in the plan , the Polish government declined the American offer under pressure from Moscow . Also , following the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany , Poland was forced by the Soviet Union to give up its claims to compensation from Germany , which as a result paid no significant compensation for war damages , either to the Polish state or to Polish citizens . Poland received compensation in the form of land and property left behind by the German population of the annexed western territories .
Despite the lack of American aid , the East European " command economies " , including Poland , made some progress in bridging the historically existing wealth gap with the market economy driven Western Europe . Because of the capital accumulation the Polish national income grew in real terms by over 76 % and the agricultural and industrial production more than doubled between 1947 and 1950 . The economic transition and industrialization were accompanied and made possible by massive social transformations , as peasants migrated and were converted into city dwelling working class ( 1 @.@ 8 million between 1946 and 1955 ) and the country went through a period of rapid urbanization . The influx of cheap labor and the availability of the Soviet market facilitated an accumulation of resources , despite low productivity and insufficient investment in new technologies . The centrally planned socialist economies of Eastern Europe did relatively better than the West in terms of the post @-@ war years growth , only to sustain economic damage later , especially after the 1973 oil crisis . However , the rise in living standards caused by the earlier industrial dynamics was not comparable to that in the West .
= = = Reforms , resistance and beginning of de @-@ Stalinization = = =
The last Polish – Soviet territorial exchange took place in 1951 . Some 480 km2 ( 185 sq mi ) of land along the border were swapped between Poland and the Soviet Union . The adjustment was made to the decisive economic benefit of the Soviet side due to rich deposits of coal given up by Poland . Within eight years following the exchange , the Soviets built four large coal mines there , producing 15 million tons of coal annually . Poland increased its area of scenic wooded ecosystems in the western part of the Eastern Carpathian Mountains and its territory became even more compact .
The constitution of 1952 guaranteed universal free health care . The large state @-@ owned enterprises provided to employees an extensive range of welfare and leisure activities , including housing , sports facilities and hospitals , which started to diminish in the 1970s . In the early 1950s , the Stalinist regime also carried out major changes to the education system . The communist program of free and compulsory school education for all , and the establishment of new free universities , received much support . The communists screened out what facts and interpretations were to be taught ; history and other sciences had to follow Marxist views approved by ideological censorship . During 1951 – 53 , a large number of prewar professors who were perceived as " reactionary " by the new regime was dismissed from universities . The government control over art and artists deepened . The Soviet @-@ style socialist realism became the only formula accepted by the authorities after 1949 . Most works of art and literature presented to the public had to be in line with the views of the Party and thus present its propaganda ( see also : Socialist realism in Poland ) .
The reforms often brought relief for a significant part of the population . After the Second World War many people were willing to accept communist rule in exchange for the restoration of relatively normal life ; hundreds of thousands joined the communist party and actively supported the regime . Nonetheless , a latent popular discontent remained present . Many Poles adopted an attitude that might be called " resigned cooperation " . Others , like some of the remnants of the Home Army , the Freedom and Independence organization that originated from it and especially the National Armed Forces , actively opposed the communists , hoping for a World War III that would liberate Poland . Those who took up arms against the communist regime are collectively known as the cursed soldiers . Most had surrendered during the amnesty of 1947 , but brutal repressions by the secret police continued and some fought well into the 1950s .
The communists further alienated many Poles by persecuting the Catholic Church . The PAX Association created in 1947 and led by the former prewar far @-@ right activist Bolesław Piasecki , attempted to divide the Catholic movement and promote a communist rule @-@ friendly , collaborationist church . The PAX did not get very far in molding the Catholic public opinion , but published numerous books and officially approved daily Catholic press . In 1953 the Primate of Poland , Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński was placed under house arrest , even though before he had been willing to make compromises with the government . In the early 1950s , the war against religion by the secret police led to the arrest and torture of hundreds of Polish religious personalities , culminating in the Stalinist show trial of the Kraków Curia . The Office of the Council of Ministers ( government ) produced a list of regime @-@ approved bishops . See also : Polish anti @-@ religious campaign .
The constitution of 1952 on paper guaranteed all sorts of democratic rights and freedoms . In reality , the country was controlled extra @-@ constitutionally by the Polish United Workers ' Party , which used its own rules and practices to supervise all governmental institutions specified in the constitution . The post of President of Poland was replaced with the collective Council of State , but Bierut , the Party 's first secretary , remained the effective leader of Poland . In the future , the existence of a constitution with democratic provisions would give the opposition a legal tool and a way to pressure the regime .
Stalin died in 1953 , which was followed by a partial thaw in Poland . Nikita Khrushchev became first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . The PZPR 's Second Congress deliberated in March 1954 . Cyrankiewicz , previously replaced by Bierut , was returned to the post of prime minister ( to remain in this capacity until December 1970 ) . The Six @-@ Year Plan was adjusted to increase production of items for popular consumption . Khrushchev , present at the Congress , asked Bierut for the reasons of the continuing detention of Gomułka , " a good communist " ; Bierut denied having specific knowledge of Gomułka 's imprisonment .
Following the defection to the West and revelations of its official Józef Światło , the Ministry of Public Security was abolished in December 1954 . Gomułka and his associates were freed from confinement and censorship was slightly relaxed . The two notable periodicals braving the prohibitions were Po prostu [ Simply ] and Nowa Kultura [ The New Culture ] ( Po prostu was closed down and its defenders brutally pacified in October 1957 , just one year after Gomułka 's rise to power ) . From early 1955 , the Polish press engaged in criticizing the Stalinist recent past and praising the older Polish socialist traditions ( social democratic Marxism and national independence ) . Political discussion clubs were on the rise throughout the country . The Party itself appeared to be moving in the social democratic direction . Leftist intellectuals , who had joined the Party because of their commitment to social justice , were heading in that direction more decisively and they soon gave rise to the Polish revisionism movement .
In February 1956 Khrushchev denounced Stalin 's cult of personality at the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party and embarked on a reform course . The de @-@ Stalinization of official Soviet ideology left Poland 's Stalinist hardliners in a difficult position . While unrest and desire for reform and change among both intellectuals and workers was beginning to surface throughout the Eastern Bloc , the death of Stalin 's ally Bierut in March 1956 in Moscow ( the veteran hardliner chief was attending the Soviet party 's congress ) exacerbated an existing split in the Polish party . In March Bierut was succeeded by Edward Ochab as first secretary . As the 20th Congress launched also a process of partial democratisation of Polish political and economic life , Ochab engaged in reforms intended to promote industrial decentralization and improve living standards .
The number of security agents was cut by 22 % and , by a widespread amnesty , 35 @,@ 000 detainees across the entire country were released . 9 @,@ 000 imprisoned for political reasons were freed in all . Hardline Stalinists , such as Jakub Berman , Roman Romkowski and Anatol Fejgin , were removed from power , some arrested . Berman , dismissed in May , by Gomułka 's decision was never prosecuted . Under Gomułka , a few perpetrators of Stalinist crimes were prosecuted and sentenced to prison terms . A much broader plan to charge the responsible and verify all of the security apparatus was formally presented by the prosecutors , but the action was not approved by Gomułka , who counted among the Stalinist persecution victims , as did his wife . Gomułka conducted some purges and reforms but did not want to destabilize the security system , now under his control , by wide @-@ ranging formal prosecutions .
= = Gomułka 's road to socialism ( 1956 – 70 ) = =
= = = Polish October = = =
Beginning on 28 June 1956 , workers in the industrial city of Poznań , who had repeatedly , but in vain petitioned the authorities to intervene and improve their deteriorating situation , went on strike and rioted in response to a cut in wages and changed working conditions . Demonstrations by factory workers turned into a huge city @-@ wide protest . 16 tanks , 2 armoured personnel carriers and 30 vehicles were brought to bear by a local military commander . Some of them were seized by the protesters , who also broke into the local government buildings . 57 people were killed and several hundred injured in two days of fighting . Several major military formations entered the scene , but the army 's role was mainly that of support of the police and the security forces action . At the Poznań radio station , Prime Minister Cyrankiewicz in his widely publicized speech warned and threatened the rioters : he " … who will dare raise his hand against the people 's rule may be sure that … the authorities will chop off his hand " . Of the 746 people officially detained during and in the aftermath of the disturbances , almost 80 % were workers . The authorities launched an investigation , attempting to uncover a claimed premeditated instigation and involvement by Western or anticommunist underground centers . Such efforts were unsuccessful and the events were found to have been spontaneous and locally supported . The Poznań revolt 's lasting impact was that it caused a deeper and more liberal realignment within the Polish communist party and its relationship to Moscow .
Deeply shaken by the protests and violence , the 7th Plenum of the Central Committee , held in July 1956 , split into two groups , the " ethno @-@ nationalist " Natolin and the " reformist " Puławy factions , named after the locations where they held their meetings . Natolin consisted largely of communist officials from the army and state security , including Mieczysław Moczar , Zenon Kliszko and Zenon Nowak , who advocated the removal of " Stalin 's Jewish protégés " , but were themselves of Stalinist sympathies . Puławy faction included communists of Jewish origin from the security apparatus , many of whom spent the war in the Soviet Union , disillusioned opportunists , and members of the old communist intelligentsia . Many were former Stalinist fanatics , past Gomułka 's enemies , now turned liberal reformers , supporters of Gomułka 's return to power . Both factions supported the Sovietization of Poland with somewhat different aims , but the staunch Stalinists lacked the support of Khrushchev . The regime turned to conciliation : wage rises and other reforms for the Poznań workers were announced . In the Party and among the intellectuals demands calling for wider reforms of the Stalinist system were becoming more widespread and intense .
Realizing the need for new leadership , in what became known as the Polish October , the Politburo chose Gomułka , who had been released from prison and reinstated in the Party , and the Central Committee 's 8th Plenum elected him without a Soviet approval the new first secretary of the PZPR . Subsequently Gomułka convinced the Soviet leaders that he would preserve the Soviet influence in Poland . Gomułka 's elevation was preceded by ominous Soviet military moves and an arrival of Soviet high @-@ level delegation led by Khrushchev , which flew into Warsaw to witness and influence the upheaval in the Polish party . After the sometimes confrontational encounters and negotiations , they soon returned to Moscow , where the Soviet leader announced on 21 October that the idea of an armed intervention in Poland should be abandoned . This position was soon reinforced by the pressure from communist China , which expressed its great power aspirations and demanded that the Soviets leave the new Polish leadership alone . On 21 October in Warsaw Gomułka 's return to power was accomplished , giving rise to the era of national communism in Poland . Gomułka pledged to dismantle Stalinism and in his acceptance speech raised numerous social democratic @-@ sounding reformist ideas , giving hope to the left @-@ wing revisionists and others in Polish society that the communist state was , after all , reformable . The revisionists replaced and claimed to represent the worker movement , recently defeated in Poznań . The main goals in pursuit of which they engaged were political freedom and self @-@ management in state enterprises . However , the end of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe was nowhere in sight . On 14 May 1955 , the Warsaw Pact was signed in the Polish capital , to counteract the earlier establishment of NATO .
Many Soviet officers serving in the Polish Armed Forces were dismissed , but very few Stalinist officials were put on trial for the repressions of the Bierut period . The Puławy faction argued that mass trials of Stalinist officials , many of them Jewish , would incite animosity toward the Jews . Konstantin Rokossovsky and other Soviet advisers were sent home , and the Polish communist establishment and system took on a more independent orientation . Gomułka realized that the Soviets would never allow Poland to leave the Warsaw Pact because of Poland 's strategic position between the Soviet Union and Germany . He agreed that Soviet troops could remain in Poland and that no overt anti @-@ Soviet outbursts would be allowed . However , Gomułka formalized the Polish @-@ Soviet relations and the unprecedented , in the Soviet @-@ allied state relations , military cooperation treaty signed in December 1956 stated that the stationing of the Soviet forces in Poland " can in no way violate the sovereignty of the Polish state and cannot lead to their interference in internal matters of the Polish People 's Republic " . Poland avoided the risk of a Soviet armed intervention of the kind that crushed the 1956 Hungarian Revolution in October . Gomułka had a pragmatic awareness of political realities and for the duration of his career he rewarded the Soviets for his internal leeway with loyal support . In one act of defiance , the Polish delegation at the United Nations abstained in November 1956 from the vote condemning the Soviet intervention in Hungary .
There were repeated attempts by some Polish academics and philosophers , many related to the prewar Lwów – Warsaw school – such as Leszek Kołakowski , Stanisław Ossowski and Adam Schaff – to develop a specific form of Polish Marxism . Their attempts to create a bridge between Poland 's history and Marxist ideology were mildly successful , although stifled due to the regime 's unwillingness to risk the wrath of the Soviet Union for deviating too far from the Soviet party line . Kołakowski , a leading revisionist , was verbally attacked by Gomułka in 1957 , expelled from the Party in 1966 and in 1968 had to emigrate .
= = = Scaling back of campaign promises = = =
Poland welcomed Gomułka 's rise to power with relief . Many Poles still rejected communism , but the realities of Soviet dominance dictated that Poland could not shake @-@ off communist rule . Gomułka promised an end to police terror , greater intellectual and religious freedom , higher wages , and the reversal of collectivization ; and to some degree he fulfilled these promises . Although little changed socioeconomically , the intelligentsia experienced significant gains felt as " a certain diversity and revitalization of elite public life " . The dissident Club of the Crooked Circle , a discussion group considered a precursor of the KOR , survived until 1962 . Other forms of collective community expression and a legally guaranteed academic autonomy lasted until the 1968 Polish political crisis . The academic discourse was in marked contrast to the treatment afforded to workers , whose self @-@ management councils that had spontaneously formed in 1956 were neutralized and brought under control of the Party by 1958 . In the communist era , because of their class role in the official ideology and leadership 's sensibilities , workers enjoyed some clout and a degree of protection of their economic interests , on the condition that they refrained from engaging in independent politics or publicly exerting pressure .
In October 1957 , Poland 's foreign minister Adam Rapacki proposed a European nuclear @-@ free zone that would include the territories of Poland , West Germany , East Germany and Czechoslovakia . In August 1961 the new Berlin Wall cemented the division of Europe .
After the first wave of reform , Gomułka 's regime started to move back on their promises . The communist control over the mass media and universities was gradually tightened , and many of the younger and more reformist members of the Party were forced out . The reform @-@ promising Gomułka of 1956 turned into the authoritarian Gomułka of the 1960s . Although Poland enjoyed a period of relative stability in that decade , the idealism of the " Polish October " faded away . The decisions made at the XIII Plenum of the Central Committee ( 1963 ) meant a definite end of the post @-@ October liberalization period . The demise of Gomułka 's tactical allies , the Puławy faction , gradually replaced by Gomułka 's own people , was marked by the removal from the Politburo of Roman Zambrowski , the leading Jewish politician .
Poland under Gomułka 's rule was generally described as one of the more " liberal " communist regimes . However , Poles could still go to prison for writing political satire about the Party leader , as Janusz Szpotański did , or for publishing a book abroad . A March 1964 " Letter of the 34 " , signed by leading intellectuals and delivered to the office of Prime Minister Cyrankiewicz , criticized the worsening censorship and demanded a more open cultural policy , as guaranteed by the Constitution . Jacek Kuroń and Karol Modzelewski were expelled from the Party and from 1965 imprisoned for written criticism ( the Open Letter to the Party ) of the Party rule and pointing out the contradictory nature of the supposedly workers ' state . Kuroń and Modzelewski accused the regime of betraying the revolutionary cause ; like many younger Polish reformers , they spoke from leftist positions and were ideologically closely aligned with Western radicals of the 1960s .
In the following years , the regime became steadily less liberal and more repressive . Gomułka 's popularity declined as his initial vision lost its impetus . He reacted to increasing criticism by refusing to budge and insulating himself with the help of cronies , of whom Zenon Kliszko was the most influential . Kliszko 's advice in the long run turned out not to be constructive . Intellectuals , students and other Poles became disillusioned and frustrated with Gomułka regime 's record and his own self @-@ righteous style . Within the Party , the Minister of the Interior Mieczysław Moczar and his nationalist @-@ communist faction , " the Partisans " ( and the much broader system of political clientele known as Moczarowcy ) , were looking for an opportunity to assert their dominance .
By the mid @-@ 1960s , Poland was starting to experience also economic difficulties and the appreciable thus far standard of living improvements were showing signs of stagnation ( during 1960 – 70 real wages for workers grew only by an average of 1 @.@ 8 % per year ) . The postwar economic boom was ending and the increasingly globalized and integrated world economy was becoming inhospitable to national development operating behind trade barriers . Similar to other communist regimes , Poland was spending too much on heavy industry , armaments and prestige projects , and too little on consumer production . The failure of Soviet @-@ style collectivization returned the collectivized land to the peasants , but most of their farms were too small to be prosperous and productivity in agriculture remained low . Economic relations with West Germany were frozen due to East German interference and resistance to economic integration . Gomułka attributed the signs of economic decline to the faulty implementation of the fundamentally correct directions issued by the central organs of the Party . He failed to appreciate the corrective role of the market , whose feedback could not be replaced by theoretical computations , planning and administrative decisions . On the other hand , pursuing conservative investment rather than consumption oriented economic policies , his regime generated no foreign debt .
From 1960 , the regime increasingly implemented anti @-@ Catholic policies , including harassment , atheistic propaganda , and measures that made carrying out religious practices more difficult . In 1965 , the Conference of Polish Bishops issued the Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops . In 1966 , the celebrations of the 1,000th anniversary of the Baptism of Poland led by the Primate , Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński and other bishops , who toured the country , turned into a huge demonstration of the power and popularity of the Catholic Church in Poland . In fierce competition , the state authorities conducted their own national celebrations , stressing the origin of the Polish statehood , but the display of the Polish Church hierarchy 's command of enormous crowds in a land ruled by the communists must have impressed the Catholic prelates in the Vatican and elsewhere . The state @-@ church dialogue , symbolized by the presence of the few Znak independent Catholic deputies in parliament , was rapidly deteriorating .
= = = 1968 events = = =
By the 1960s , rival regime officials and their followers , generally people of a younger generation , had begun to plot against the rule of Gomułka and his associates . Poland 's security chief Mieczysław Moczar , a wartime communist partisan commander , based his appeal on nationalistic rhetoric combined with anti @-@ intelligentsia and anti @-@ Jewish sentiments and became the chief challenger . The party leader in Upper Silesia , Edward Gierek , who had become involved with the communist movement as a teenage mining industry laborer in France , also emerged as a possible alternative leader . Gierek was favored by the more pragmatic and technocratic members of the nomenklatura . From January 1968 , Polish revisionist opposition and other circles were strongly influenced by the developing movement of the Prague Spring .
In March 1968 , student demonstrations at Warsaw University broke out in the wake of the government 's banning of the performance of a play by Adam Mickiewicz ( Dziady , written in 1824 ) at the National Theatre in Warsaw earlier that year , because of its alleged " anti @-@ Soviet references " . Subsequently state security and ORMO units attacked protesting university students in several major cities .
In what became known as the March 1968 events , Moczar used the spontaneous and informal celebrations of the outcome of the 1967 Arab – Israeli war and the Warsaw theatre affair as pretexts to launch an anti @-@ intellectual and anti @-@ Semitic ( officially designated as " anti @-@ Zionist " ) press campaign , whose real goal was to weaken the pro @-@ reform liberal party faction and attack other circles . Thousands of generally secular and integrated people of Jewish origin lost their employment and some 15 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated between 1967 and 1971 . Of prewar Europe 's largest Jewish community , only several thousand people remained in Poland .
Other victims were college students , many of whom were expelled from their institutions and had their careers destroyed , academic teachers who tried to defend the students and the academic institutions themselves : Warsaw University had several departments administratively dissolved . Liberal intelligentsia members , Jewish or not , were removed from the government and other places of employment . Leftist intellectuals and student leaders lost what was left of their faith in the ostensibly socialist government . Finally the Party itself was purged of many thousand suspect members , people who somehow did not fit the new environment of intolerance and hatred . The 1968 purges meant also the beginning of a large scale generational replacement of the Party executive membership , a process that continued into the early 1970s , after Gomułka 's departure . The prewar communist cadres were removed and people whose careers were formed in People 's Poland took their place , which , early in his term , gave Gomułka 's successor Edward Gierek one of the youngest in Europe elites of power .
The revisionist dissident prominence in the 1968 events overshadowed the equally significant awakening taking place among the working class of Poland . Gdańsk , where thousands of students and workers fought the police on March 15 , had the highest in the country rate of administrative detentions and court cases . The greatest proportion of people arrested and imprisoned in March and April 1968 in Poland were classified by the authorities as " workers " .
An internal attempt was made to discredit Gomułka 's leadership , but there were aspects of the ongoing witch hunt which he found to be to his advantage and he tolerated it until the societal damage wrecked by the Moczar movement had become irreversible . Gomułka 's regime reasserted itself and was saved by a combination of international and domestic factors , including the Moczar faction 's inability to take over the party and state apparatus . The Soviet Union , now led by Leonid Brezhnev , was preoccupied with the crisis in Czechoslovakia and not inclined to support personal changes in the Polish leadership .
In August 1968 , the Polish People 's Army took part in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . Some Polish intellectuals protested , and Ryszard Siwiec burned himself alive during the official national holiday celebrations . The Polish participation in the crushing of the Czech liberal communism ( called socialism with a human face , and , according to David Ost , constituting the crowning achievement of Marxist revisionism ) further alienated Gomułka from his former liberal supporters . But within the Party , the opposition to Gomułka faded and the 5th Congress of the PZPR in November reconfirmed his rule . Brezhnev , who attended the gathering , used the occasion to expound his Brezhnev Doctrine , a self @-@ granted Soviet right to forcefully intervene if an allied state strays too far from the fraternal course .
= = = Treaty with West Germany , food riots and the ousting of Gomułka = = =
In December 1970 Gomułka scored a major political victory when Poland obtained a West German recognition of the post @-@ World War II borders . The German side secured the right to emigrate to West Germany for the residents of Poland of German identity and to help financially those who stayed by granting pensions : hundreds of thousands eventually became affected . German Chancellor Willy Brandt , who signed the agreement , also asked on his knees for forgiveness for the crimes of the Nazis ( Warschauer Kniefall ) . His gesture was understood in Poland as being addressed to all Poles , although it was actually made at the site of the Warsaw Ghetto and was thus directed primarily toward the Jews . The notable reconciliation process between the Polish and German nations was initiated five years earlier , when the Polish Church issued its famous Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops , criticized then by the Polish government .
Gomułka felt proud and secure after the new treaty with West Germany , his milestone political achievement . It signified a lasting trend in Poland 's international policy : extricating the country from the disproportional dependence on Russia , and compensating the security vulnerability by building good relations with Germany .
But the event could not mask the economic crisis into which Poland was drifting , exacerbated by Soviet demands for more military spending . Although the system of fixed , artificially low food prices kept urban discontent under control , it caused further economic strain . In the long run the situation was unsustainable , and on 12 December 1970 ( just before Christmas ) , the regime suddenly announced massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs , the government 's main source of hard currency when exported . The new measures were incomprehensible to many urban workers , and their provocative timing ( the most intense food purchase period for most Polish families ) led to strong social reaction and ultimately Gomułka 's fall from power .
On 14 – 19 December 1970 mass demonstrations against the price rises broke out in the northern coastal cities of Gdańsk , Gdynia , Elbląg and Szczecin . In violent confrontations at those and other locations 19 public buildings were destroyed or damaged , including the Party headquarters in Gdańsk and Szczecin . The PZPR Central Committee was deliberating in Warsaw , but a smaller conference , led by Gomułka , issued an authorization for a limited use of lethal force to defend lives and property . Nevertheless , Gomułka remained determined to impose a forceful resolution of the conflict . Among the leaders of the Party who arrived on the coast and directed the local enforcement actions , initially in Gdańsk , were Zenon Kliszko and Stanisław Kociołek . In Gdynia , the soldiers were instructed to prevent protesters from returning to factory buildings ; they fired into a crowd of workers emerging from commuter trains . Fatal confrontations took place also in Szczecin . The exact number of people killed in the region in December is not known , but is believed to be higher than the officially given figure of 44 .
The protest movement spread to other cities , leading to more strikes and causing angry workers to occupy many factories . The general strike across Poland was scheduled for December 21 , 1970 .
The Party leadership meeting in Warsaw on 20 December recognized the danger that the working class revolt presented to their system , and , in consultations with the disturbed Soviet leaders , proceeded with arranging the resignation of Gomułka , who was by then stressed out and ill . Several of his collaborators were also removed . Edward Gierek was drafted as the new first secretary . Mieczysław Moczar , another strong contender , was not trusted ( or was even blamed for the current debacle ) by the Soviets .
Another strike in Szczecin broke out on 22 January 1971 . In a risky move , Gierek went to Szczecin on 24 January and to Gdańsk the next day . He met the workers personally , apologizing for the mistakes of the past and saying that as a former worker himself he understood their plight and would now govern Poland for the people . Workers striking in Szczecin formulated demands in the area of freely elected worker councils and union representatives . Gierek agreed , but the authorities soon marginalized and eliminated the worker leaders from the legally existing structures and their places of employment . The February 1971 Łódź strikes followed and concentrated on economic demands . Afterwards prices were lowered , wage increases were announced , and sweeping economic and political changes were promised .
The Polish opposition movement , traditionally led by the intelligentsia , after the two heavy blows of 1968 and 1970 was in disarray and silent . Its tenuous connection with the " communist " party was permanently broken , but a new strategy had yet to emerge . However , already in 1971 Leszek Kołakowski published in the émigré Kultura journal a seminal article entitled Theses on Hope and Hopelessness . It attempted to theoretically necessitate and practically justify a civil democratizing resistance movement , valid even in the repressed and seemingly deadlocked society of state socialism .
= = Gierek decade ( 1970 – 80 ) = =
= = = Catching up with the West = = =
Gierek , like Gomułka in 1956 , came to power on a raft of promises that everything would be different from now on : wages would rise , prices would remain stable , there would be freedom of speech , and those responsible for the violence at Gdynia and elsewhere would be punished . Although Poles were much more skeptical than they had been in 1956 , Gierek was believed to be an honest and well @-@ intentioned man , and his promises bought him some time . He used this time to create a new economic program , one based on large @-@ scale borrowing from banks in the West — mainly from the United States and West Germany — to buy technology that would upgrade Poland 's production of export goods . This massive borrowing , estimated to have totaled over 24 billion US ( 1970s ) dollars during Gierek 's years , was used to re @-@ equip and modernize Polish industry , and to import consumer goods to give the workers more incentive to work .
For the next few years , the new regime optimistically engaged in reform and experimentation and for the first time many Poles could afford to buy cars , televisions and other consumer goods . The authorities made sure that the workers received proper wages . The peasants had their compulsory deliveries abolished , were paid higher prices for their products and free health service was finally extended to rural , self @-@ employed Poland . The intellectuals had censorship eased and Poles were able to travel to the West and maintain foreign contacts with little difficulty . Relations with the Polish emigrant communities were strengthened . There was some cultural and political relaxation and an improved freedom of speech environment , exercised for example by the respected weekly Polityka of the Polish Party . Massive investments were made , expected to both improve the standard of living of the various segments of society and establish an internationally competitive Polish industry and agriculture , based on purchases of Western technology . The modernized manufacturing would result in a vastly expanded export of Polish @-@ made products to the West , which in turn would generate hard currency to pay @-@ off the debts .
This " New Development Strategy " , based on import @-@ led growth , depended on the present global economic conditions and the program faltered suddenly because of worldwide recession and increased oil prices . The effects of the 1973 – 74 oil crisis produced an inflationary surge followed by a recession in the West , which resulted in a sharp increase in the price of imported consumer goods in Poland , coupled with a decline in demand for Polish exports , particularly coal . Poland 's foreign debt , absent at the time of Gomułka 's departure , rose rapidly under Gierek to reach a multibillion @-@ dollar figure . Continuing borrowing from the West had become increasingly difficult . Consumer goods began to disappear from Polish shops . The new factories built by Gierek 's regime also proved to be largely ineffective and mismanaged , as the basics of market demand and cost effectiveness were often ignored . The significant internal economic reform , promised by the Gierek team , had not materialized .
The Western credits thus helped spur industrial growth and helped Gierek 's policy of consumerism , but just for a few years . The industrial production grew by an average of 10 % per year between 1971 and 1975 ( the years remembered later by many older Poles as most prosperous , considering not only the communist period in Poland ) , only to dwindle to less than 2 % in 1979 . Debt servicing that took 12 % of export earnings in 1971 , rose to 75 % in 1979 .
In 1975 , Poland and almost all other European countries became signatories of the Helsinki Accords and a member of Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) , the creation of which marked the high point of the period of " détente " between the Soviet Union and the United States . Despite the regime 's promises that the freedoms listed in the agreement would be implemented in Poland , there was little change . However , the Poles were gradually becoming more aware of the rights they were being denied and emboldened by the knowledge of their government 's treaty obligations .
Gierek government 's growing difficulties led also to increased dependence on the Soviet Union , including tight economic cooperation and displays of submissiveness not seen under Gomułka 's rule . The constitution , amended in February 1976 , formalized the alliance with the Soviet Union and the leading role of the communist party . The language of the proposed changes was softened after protests by intellectuals and the Church , but the regime felt it needed additional authority given the indebtedness to the West and the deepening economic crisis . The divisive issues raised helped to coalesce the emerging circles of active political opposition .
Nevertheless , the regime of Gierek deemphasized the Marxist ideology and from his time the " communist " governments of Poland concentrated on pragmatic issues and current concerns . In Polish economic politics new lasting trends were initiated , such as the emphasis on individual initiative , personal aspirations and competition , which some interpreted as an attack on egalitarianism ( social inequalities were indeed increasing ) . Sections of the intelligentsia , nomenklatura and small business gave rise to the emerging middle class . The new " socialist " ways were less totalitarian , stressed innovation , modern management methods and engaged workers , all seen as necessary to push the outdated economy past the constant crisis stage . Poland of the 1970s became more open to the world and entered the global economy , which permanently changed society , creating at the same time a new type of crisis vulnerability . The opposition thinking , its promotion of society formed by active individuals , developed along complementary concepts .
= = = Renewal of social unrest and the rise of organized opposition = = =
As a result of the 1970 worker rebellion food prices remained frozen and were artificially low . The demand for food products exceeded the supply also because of the higher real wages , which already in the first two years of Gierek 's government increased more than during the entire decade of the 1960s . In June 1976 , in an attempt to reduce consumption , the government introduced a long @-@ announced and several times delayed , but radical price increase : basic foodstuffs had their prices raised by an average of 60 % , three times the rate of Gomułka 'a increases from six years before . The associated wage rises were skewed toward the better @-@ off part of the population . The result was an immediate nationwide wave of strikes , with violent demonstrations , looting and labor unrest at the Ursus Factory near Warsaw , in Radom , Płock and other places . The government quickly backed down and repealed the price rises , but the strike leaders were arrested and put on trial . A series of " spontaneous " large scale public gatherings , intended to convey the " anger of the people " at the " trouble @-@ makers " was staged by the Party leadership in a number of cities , but the Soviet pressure prevented further attempts at raising prices . Gierek 's cordial in the past relations with Leonid Brezhnev were now seriously damaged . Food ration cards , introduced because of the destabilized market in August 1976 , were to remain a feature of life in Poland for the duration of the People 's Republic . The regime 's retreat , having occurred for the second time in several years , amounted to an unprecedented defeat . Within the rigid political system , the government was neither able to reform ( it would lose control and power ) , nor to satisfy society 's staple needs , because it had to sell abroad all it could to make foreign debt and interests payments . This quandary , combined with the daily reality of the lack of necessities , facilitated the consolidation of organized opposition .
Because of the 1976 disturbances and the subsequent arrests , mistreatment and dismissals of worker militants , a group of intellectuals led by Jacek Kuroń , Antoni Macierewicz , Jan Józef Lipski and Adam Michnik founded and operated the Workers ' Defence Committee ( Komitet Obrony Robotników ; KOR ) . The aim of the KOR was to assist the worker victims of the 1976 repression . Working to support the spontaneous workers ' movements , the dissidents recognized the necessarily predominant role of the working class in resisting the abuses of the regime and the newly formed opposition increasingly became characterized by an alliance of intelligentsia with workers . The KOR , according to Modzelewski , constituted the core of organized opposition and a seed of political alternative ; clearing the way for other opposition formations , it engendered political pluralism . More opposition groups indeed soon followed , including the Movement for Defense of Human and Civic Rights ( ROPCiO ) , Free Trade Unions of the Coast ( WZW ) and the Confederation of Independent Poland ( KPN ) . The periodical Robotnik ( " The Worker " ) was distributed in factories from September 1977 . The idea of independent trade unions was first raised by the Gdańsk and Szczecin workers striking in 1970 – 71 , but was later developed and promoted by the KOR and its leftist collaborators , which led to the establishment in 1978 of Free Trade Unions , the precursor of Solidarity . The KPN represented the minority at that time right @-@ wing of the Polish opposition scene . The opposition members tried to resist the regime by denouncing it for violating the Polish constitution , Polish laws and Poland 's international obligations . They fit within the post @-@ Helsinki Soviet Bloc human rights movements and for the most part had not yet developed more radical , anti @-@ system orientations .
For the rest of the 1970s , resistance to the regime grew , assuming also the forms of student groups , clandestine newspapers and publishers , importing books and newspapers , and even a " Flying University " . The regime practiced various forms of repression against the budding reform movements .
= = = Polish Pope John Paul II = = =
On 16 October 1978 , Poland experienced what many Poles literally believed to be a miracle . Cardinal Karol Wojtyła , the archbishop of Kraków , was elected pope at the Vatican , taking the name John Paul II . The election of a Polish pope had an electrifying effect on what was at that time one of the last idiosyncratically Catholic countries in Europe . When John Paul toured Poland in June 1979 , half a million people came to welcome him in Warsaw , and in the next eight days , about ten million Poles attended at least one of his numerous outdoor masses . Overnight , John Paul became the most important person in Poland , leaving the regime not so much opposed as ignored . However , John Paul did not call for rebellion ; instead , he encouraged the creation of an " alternative Poland " of social institutions independent of the government , so that when the next crisis came , the nation would present a united front .
= = = Polish emigration = = =
The government in exile in London , unrecognized since the end of World War II , ridiculed by the communists , to many Poles was of great symbolic importance . Under President Edward Raczyński it overcame years of internal squabbles , and , after the election of the Polish pope and at the time of the increasingly assertive Polish opposition , improved its image and standing .
The large Polish emigrant communities in North America , Western Europe , and elsewhere , were politically active and lent significant support to those struggling in the country . The staunchly anti @-@ communist American Polonia and other Poles felt grateful for the leadership of President Ronald Reagan . Of the Polish institutions in the West the most important were the Radio Free Europe , whose Polish section was run by Jan Nowak @-@ Jeziorański , and the monthly literary Kultura magazine in Paris , led by Jerzy Giedroyc and Juliusz Mieroszewski .
= = Final decade of the Polish People 's Republic ( 1980 – 90 ) = =
= = = Failing economy and labor unrest of 1980 = = =
By 1980 , the authorities had no choice but to make another attempt to raise consumer prices to realistic levels , but they knew that doing so would likely spark another worker rebellion . Western bankers providing loans to the Polish government at a meeting at the Bank Handlowy in Warsaw on 1 July 1980 made it clear that low prices of consumer goods could no longer be subsidized by the state . The government gave in and on 1 July announced a system of gradual but continuous price rises , particularly for meat . A wave of strikes and factory occupations began at once , with the biggest ones taking place in Lublin in July 1980 .
The strikes reached the politically sensitive Baltic Sea coast , with a sit @-@ down strike at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk beginning on 14 August . Among the leaders of this strike were Anna Walentynowicz and Lech Wałęsa , a long @-@ fired shipyard electrician who headed the strike committee . A list of 21 demands was formulated by the Inter @-@ Enterprise Strike Committee on 17 August . The strike wave spread along the coast , closing the ports and bringing the economy to a halt . With the assistance of the activists from the KOR , and the support of many intellectuals ( an Expert Commission was established to aid with the negotiations ) , the workers occupying the various factories , mines and shipyards across Poland organized as a united front . They were not limiting their efforts to seeking economic improvements , but made and stuck to the crucial demand , an establishment of trade unions independent of government control . Among other issues raised were rights for the Church , the freeing of political prisoners and an improved health service .
The Party leadership was faced with a choice between repressions on a massive scale and an amicable agreement that would give the workers what they wanted , and thus quieten the aroused population . They chose the latter . On 31 August Wałęsa signed the Gdańsk Agreement with Mieczysław Jagielski , a member of the Party Politburo . The Agreement acknowledged the right of employees to associate in free trade unions , obliged the government to take steps to eliminate censorship , abolished weekend work , increased the minimum wage , improved and extended welfare and pensions , and increased autonomy of industrial enterprises , where a meaningful role was to be played by workers ' self @-@ management councils . The rule of the Party was significantly weakened ( to a " leading role in the state " , not society ) but nonetheless explicitly recognized , together with Poland 's international alliances . It was seen as necessary to prevent Soviet intervention by more moderate forces , including leading intelligentsia advisers and the Catholic hierarchy . The fact that all these economic concessions were completely unaffordable escaped attention in the wave of national euphoria that swept the country . In addition to the Gdańsk Agreement , similar documents were signed at other centers of strike activity , in Szczecin ( Szczecin Agreement ) , Jastrzębie @-@ Zdrój , and at Katowice Steelworks . The period that started afterwards is often called the first part of the " Polish carnival " – with the second one taking place in the late 1980s .
= = = Solidarity = = =
The Gdańsk Agreement , an aftermath of the August 1980 labor strike , was an important milestone . It led to a national gathering of independent union representatives ( Interfactory Organizing Committees , MKZ ) on 17 September 1980 in Gdańsk and the formation of the trade union " Solidarity " ( Polish Solidarność ) , founded on that day and led by Lech Wałęsa . The ideas of the independent union movement spread rapidly throughout Poland ; Solidarity structures were formed in most places of employment and in all regions . Having been able to overcome the regime 's efforts to thwart or derail its activities and status , Solidarity was finally registered in court as a national labor union in November 1980 . Early in 1981 , a network of union organizations at the enterprise @-@ level was established ; it included the country 's main industrial complexes such as the Lenin Steelworks in Kraków and the Silesian mines .
Initially , in the KOR 's tradition , Solidarity was an ostensibly non @-@ political movement aiming at reconstruction of civil society . Suddenly thrust into legal existence and prominence in 1980 , Solidarity and the Polish opposition in general lacked a constructive program or consensus regarding further developments . In 1981 , Solidarity accepted the necessity of a political role and helped form a broad anti @-@ ruling system social movement , dominated by the working class and with members ranging from people associated with the Catholic Church to non @-@ communist leftists . The union was backed by intellectual dissidents , including the KOR , and adhered to a policy of nonviolent resistance . According to Karol Modzelewski , the Solidarity of 1980 – 81 was permeated by the idea of brotherhood between intelligentsia and workers . In the areas of ideology and politics , Solidarity followed the lead of its associated opposition intellectuals .
The activity of Solidarity , although concerned with trade union matters ( such as replacing the nomenklatura @-@ run system with worker self @-@ management in enterprise @-@ level decision making ) , was widely regarded as the first step towards dismantling the regime 's dominance over social institutions , professional organizations and community associations . Because of conditions specific to state socialist society , Solidarity soon lost its labor focus and became a universalist movement that emphasized civic rights and open society . Removing the ruling formation or breaking the dependence on the Soviet Union was not on the agenda . Using strikes and other tactics , the union sought to block government policies . The aims of the original , so @-@ called First Solidarity ( 1980 – 81 ) , were to reform socialism , not to introduce industrial private ownership or promote capitalism in general . Solidarity was an egalitarian and collectivist movement . It did not postulate any re @-@ privatization of state @-@ owned or small rural property , as such concepts were beyond the axiological horizon of Polish society . Solidarity was socialist and social justice was its goal . The First Solidarity upheaval could be viewed also as working people revolting against the emerging capitalist features of the economic order that diminished their role in Gierek @-@ led society , combined with the " anti @-@ politics " approach ( building civil society " without reference to both state and market " ) embraced at that time by their allied intellectual leaders . People of decidedly anticommunist or anti @-@ PZPR orientations constituted a relatively small minority within the First Solidarity organization , which accommodated one million communist party members among its ranks . Apart from workers , both individual farmers and students created their own independent organizations : Rural Solidarity and Independent Students ' Union . They were formally recognized by the authorities only after strike actions conducted by activists of both movements in January 1981 .
In September 1980 , in the aftermath of the labor agreements , First Secretary Gierek was removed from office and replaced as Party leader by Stanisław Kania . Kania made promises of the sort that Gomułka and Gierek had made when each came power . But whatever goodwill the new leader gained , it lasted for an even shorter period than it had been the case in 1956 and 1971 , because there was no way that the regime could have kept the promises it had made at Gdańsk , even if it wanted to . The authorities were still trapped by the contradiction : if they followed economic necessity , they would generate political instability . GNP fell in 1979 by 2 % , in 1980 by 8 % and in 1981 by 15 – 20 % .
At the communist summit in December 1980 in Moscow Kania argued with Leonid Brezhnev and other Warsaw Pact leaders , who pressed for an immediate military intervention in Poland . Kania and Minister of Defense Wojciech Jaruzelski declared their determination to fight the " counterrevolution " in Poland on their own . In regard to Solidarity , they felt , there was still a chance for its healthy , working class current to prevail , not the KOR @-@ instigated anti @-@ socialist , troublemaking elements . President Jimmy Carter and President @-@ elect Ronald Reagan made urgent phone calls to Brezhnev and the intervention was postponed . In the meantime Solidarity , not quite aware of the looming danger , did its revolutionary work , practicing democracy in the union movement and pushing for sovereign society in a number of ways . The autonomous labor unions , united under the Solidarity banner , strove to " recapture public life from the monopoly control of the Party " . On 16 December 1980 , a monument dedicated to the memory of the victims of the 1970 protests on the coast was officially unveiled in Gdańsk in a ceremony that marked the high point in the ascent of Solidarity .
Among the mass protests that occurred at that time were the winter 1981 general strike in Bielsko @-@ Biała , the nationwide warning strike in the spring of that year and hunger demonstrations in summer . The warning strike took place in the aftermath of the Bydgoszcz events ( March 1981 ) , during which the authorities resorted to violence to suppress Solidarity activists . The planned general strike was called off after Solidarity 's questionable deal with the government , but the negotiators worked under a threat of Soviet intervention . Wałęsa 's compromise prevented a confrontation with the regime or its foreign allies , at the price of the protest movement 's loss of some of its dynamics . During the months that followed Solidarity kept getting weaker and its popular support was no longer capable of mass determined action .
Minister Jaruzelski became also prime minister in February 1981 . In June , the Soviet Central Committee pressured the Polish Party for a leadership change , but Jaruzelski received strong support from the military members of the Polish Central Committee . The extraordinary IX Congress of the PZPR took place in July . Kania was reelected the Party 's first secretary , while the organization 's internal reformers suffered a defeat .
As the economic situation kept deteriorating and the regime avoided implementation of the agreed reforms , the government and Solidarity representatives met in early August to discuss the outstanding issues . The talks ended in disagreement . During a conference of Solidarity 's National Commission ( a central representative policy making body ) that followed , Modzelewski , Kuroń and others proposed a democratic transformation and practical arrangements by which the Union would take upon itself a major political role , participating in governing the country , accepting responsibility for the outcome and keeping social peace , thus relieving the ( still ) ruling Party of some of its burdens . Such a deal was seen as the only constructive way forward , but it would require government partners interested in a negotiated solution .
The existence of Solidarity and the political liberties that the movement brought paralyzed the authoritarian state and the state @-@ controlled economy . Everyday life was becoming increasingly unbearable and the public displayed sentiments of extreme volatility . The hostility of the nomenklatura toward Solidarity was rapidly increasing .
At the State Defense Committee meeting on September 13 ( the time of the Soviet Exercise Zapad @-@ 81 maneuvers and of renewed pressure on the Polish leadership ) , Kania was warned by the uniformed cadres that the progressing counterrevolution must be terminated by an imposition of martial law . The PZPR regional secretaries soon issued the same demands . Under the circumstances , in October First Secretary Kania stepped down and Prime Minister Jaruzelski became also the Party chief .
In September and October , the First Congress of Solidarity deliberated in Gdańsk . Wałęsa faced activist opposition and was barely elected chairman of the organization . The delegates passed a radical reform program in which the world " social " or " socialized " was repeated 150 times . The Congress issued a provocative call for workers in other East European countries to follow in Solidarity 's footsteps . Locally authorized , increasingly " political " strikes continued . They were characterized as " wildcats " by Wałęsa , who desperately tried to impose discipline from the center and reach an accord with the state , meeting General Jaruzelski and Catholic Primate Józef Glemp on 4 November . At the time of the regime 's re @-@ energized efforts to reduce Solidarity 's role , the Union had nearly ten million members — almost four times as many as the ruling Party . Militant mood was displayed and unrealistic demands made at the meeting of the partially represented National Commission on 3 December , but the proceedings were wiretapped by the authorities , who broadcast the recordings previously manipulated to their advantage .
For its part the government , not consulting Solidarity , adopted a plan of economic measures that could only be implemented by force and asked parliament for extraordinary authority . In early December , Jaruzelski was pressured by his generals and colonels for an immediate forceful action and their demands were repeated at the Politburo meeting on 10 December . On 11 and 12 December Solidarity 's National Commission declared 17 December the day of countrywide protest . Neither the exhausted but radicalized Solidarity nor the ruling establishment was willing or able to back down and , in the era of Brezhnev , there could be no peaceful resolution to the situation that developed . The Soviets now expressed a preference for the conflict to be resolved by the Polish authorities , but Poland , according to Karol Modzelewski , was lucky to avoid a carnage of foreign intervention . Others , including the historian Antoni Dudek , feel that there was no sufficient justification for the imposition of martial law that followed .
= = = Imposition of martial law = = =
On 13 December 1981 , claiming that the country was on the verge of economic and civil breakdown , and alleging a danger of Soviet intervention , General Wojciech Jaruzelski began a crack @-@ down on Solidarity . Martial law was declared , the free labor union was suspended and most of its leaders detained . Several thousand citizens were interned or imprisoned and much larger numbers were subjected to various forms of harassment . Polish state militia ( Milicja Obywatelska , the police ) and paramilitary riot police ZOMO suppressed the strike action and demonstrations . Military forces entered industrial enterprises to clamp down on the independent union movement . A series of violent attacks included the pacification of Wujek Coal Mine during which 9 people were killed . The martial law offensive was directed primarily against workers and their Union ; they , rather than intelligentsia activists , were the object of the most brutal treatment . The authorities succeeded in imposing on members of Solidarity an individual and collective trauma , from which the broken mass movement would not be able to recover . The Catholic Church strove to exert on Solidarity a moderating influence both before and after the martial law .
Initially , the regime leadership intended to remold Solidarity into a compliant union , stripped of its intelligentsia advisers and compatible with the state socialist system . The failure to incite most ranking Solidarity leaders to collaborate , especially Wałęsa 's refusal to extend any cooperation along this course of action , resulted in the government adopting the goal of total liquidation of the union movement .
Strikes and protests followed , but were not nearly as widespread as those of August 1980 . The last mass street demonstrations that Solidarity was able to muster occurred on 31 August 1982 , the second anniversary of the Gdańsk agreements . The " Military Council of National Salvation " banned Solidarity officially on 8 October . Martial law was formally lifted in July 1983 , though many heightened controls on civil liberties and political life , as well as food rationing , remained in place throughout the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1980s . With all the restrictions , however , " the official cultural realm remained far more open than it was prior to 1980 " and " cultural policy continued to be the most open in all of Eastern Europe " . Among the concessions in the civil and political rights area granted by the troubled regime were the establishment of the Constitutional Tribunal in 1982 and of the Polish Ombudsman office in 1987 .
In the mid @-@ 1980s and even as late as 1987 , Solidarity was seen by many , including most of its activists , as likely a thing of the past . It persisted solely as a rather small underground organization , supported by various international institutions , from the Catholic Church to the Central Intelligence Agency . When most senior Solidarity figures were interned or otherwise neutralized by the authorities , Zbigniew Bujak , head of the Union 's Warsaw branch , remained in hiding and was the leader of the clandestine organization until his arrest in 1986 . But the post @-@ martial law general public showed signs of tiredness and disappointment , as it had become apparent that Solidarity was not a united front .
= = = " Market socialism " and systemic implosion = = =
During the chaotic years of Solidarity and martial law , Poland entered a decade of economic crisis more pronounced than in Gierek 's years . Work on the major unfinished projects that had begun in the 1970s drained the available investment outlays , little money was left for replacing obsolete production equipment and the manufactured goods were not competitive on the world market . Managerial ineffectiveness , bad organization of production and shortages of inputs and raw materials were among the factors that contributed to further deterioration of workers ' morale . 640 @,@ 000 people of productive age left the country between 1981 and 1988 .
The regime of General Jaruzelski unsuccessfully tried various expedients to improve the performance of the economy . To gather foreign currency , the government established in all Polish cities a chain of state @-@ run Pewex stores , where goods could only be bought with Western currency , as well as issued its own ersatz U.S. currency ( bony ) . The government allowed more small @-@ scale private enterprises to function , departing further from the ' socialist ' model of economy . Ideological considerations were abandoned and priority was given to pragmatic issues and moves . Searching for ways to improve the economy and conscious of its alienation from the industrial working class , the regime turned toward market reforms with an increasingly significant elite @-@ oriented liberal ( from the mid @-@ 1980s ) component . Marketization , formalized by a 1988 statute on economic activity , was a process that would continue past the mid @-@ 1990s . Neoliberal processes may have been initiated by Deputy Prime Minister Zdzisław Sadowski and the government of Zbigniew Messner , then developed further under Minister Mieczysław Wilczek ( author of the statute ) and Mieczysław Rakowski 's government . " Market socialism " was introduced , as the regime leaders actually lost their faith in the socialist system and even the nomenklatura managers were threatened by the declining economy . The enterprises were to be made independent , self @-@ financing and self @-@ managed , which included workers ' councils that were resistant to restructuring . Owners of private businesses did well in the final years of the People 's Republic and the number of such entities increased . Foreign investment was also encouraged , but limited marketization failed to deliver an economic turnaround . The practice of centralized economic decision making had not been overcome , while the newly autonomous enterprises moved toward a rather spontaneous , chaotic partial privatization of dubious legality that included elements of kleptocracy and had a significant middle @-@ level nomenklatura component . On a more basic level , countless ordinary Poles took advantage of the changing attitudes and became involved in a great variety of income @-@ producing activities .
The deepening economic crisis caused a marked deterioration in quality of life of ordinary citizens and resulted in increasing political instability . Rationing and queuing became a way of life , with ration cards ( kartki ) necessary to buy basic consumer staples such as milk and sugar . As Western institutions were no longer willing to extend credit policies to the de facto bankrupt Polish government , access to goods the Poles needed became even more restricted . Most of the available scarce resources of Western currency had to be used to pay the crushing rates on Poland 's foreign debt , which reached US $ 23 billion by 1980 and increased to US $ 40 billion under General Jaruzelski . The government , which controlled all official foreign trade , responded by continuing to maintain a highly artificial exchange rate with Western currencies . The exchange rate worsened distortions in the economy at all levels , resulting in a growing black market and the development of a shortage economy . The omnipresent and destructive underground economy was characterized by phenomena such as bribery , waiting lists , speculation , direct exchanges between enterprises and large percentages of personal incomes deriving from secondary activities . Societal degradation was accompanied by unprecedented deterioration in the areas of biological environment and physical and mental health , which included steadily increasing mortality rates . In the late 1980s , the PZPR feared another social explosion because of high inflation , depressed living standards and deepening public anger and frustration . The authorities themselves , facing an increasingly disorderly and unmanageable system , felt perplexed and powerless .
= = = Politics of the People 's Republic 's last years and the transition period = = =
= = = = Toward Round Table and semi @-@ free elections = = = =
In September 1986 , the government declared a general amnesty and began work on a number of meaningful reforms . Given the liberalized political environment , Wałęsa was urged to reconvene the National Commission from the time of First Solidarity , but he refused , preferring to deal with the circle of Solidarity 's Expert Commission advisers . A National Executive Commission , led by Wałęsa , was openly established in October 1987 . Other opposition structures such as the Fighting Solidarity , the Federation of Fighting Youth , the Freedom and Peace Movement ( Ruch Wolność i Pokój ) and the Orange Alternative " dwarf " movement founded by " Major " Waldemar Fydrych began organizing street protests in form of colorful happenings that assembled thousands of participants . The liberal periodical Res Publica negotiated with the authorities its officially published release . In a political and economic referendum held in November 1987 , 67 % of the eligible voters participated and most of them approved the government @-@ proposed reforms , but a popular mandate was formally missed because of the unrealistically stringent passage requirements self @-@ imposed by the regime .
The ruling communist / military establishment slowly and gradually came to realize that a deal of some sort with the opposition would eventually be necessary and would have to include the leading Solidarity figures . Solidarity as such , a labor union representing workers ' interests , was unable to reassert itself after the martial law and later in the 1980s was practically destroyed , but preserved in the national consciousness as a myth that facilitated social acceptance of systemic changes previously deemed unthinkable . The Solidarity organization as a mass movement , and with it its dominant social democratic element ( supporters of democratic socialism ) , had been defeated . Solidarity 's name had continuously been used , but the opposition movement split to form rival groups of different political orientations . According to a new intellectual consensus , " democracy was grounded not in an active citizenry , as had been argued from the mid @-@ 1970s through 1981 , but in private property and a free market " . The current view no longer entailed broad political participation , emphasizing instead elite leadership and a capitalist economy . Solidarity became a symbolic entity , its activists openly assumed ideological " anti @-@ communist " positions and its leadership moved to the right . Solidarity was now represented by a small number of individuals , of whom Lech Wałęsa , Tadeusz Mazowiecki and Leszek Balcerowicz were about to assume particularly decisive roles . They were proponents of unfettered free market , strongly influenced by the American and West European financial and other interests .
Jaruzelski 's Poland depended on low @-@ cost deliveries of industrial staple commodities from the Soviet Union and meaningful Polish reforms , economic or political , were not feasible during the rule of the last three conservative Soviet general secretaries . The perestroika and glasnost policies of the Soviet Union 's new leader , Mikhail Gorbachev , were therefore a crucial factor in stimulating reform in Poland . Gorbachev essentially repudiated the Brezhnev Doctrine , which had stipulated that attempts by its Eastern European satellite states to abandon the communist bloc would be countered by the Soviet Union with force . The developments in the Soviet Union altered the international situation and provided a historical opportunity for independent reforms in Poland . The hardline stance of US President Ronald Reagan was also helpful . David Ost stressed the constructive influence of Gorbachev . With his support for Polish and Hungarian membership in the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund and for the East European pluralistic evolution in general , the Soviet leader effectively pushed East Europe toward the West .
Nationwide strikes broke out in the spring and summer of 1988 . They were much weaker than the strikes of 1980 and were discontinued after the intervention by Wałęsa , who secured the regime 's commitment to begin negotiations with the opposition . The strikes were the last act of active political involvement of the working class in the history of People 's Poland and were led by young workers , not connected to Solidarity veterans and opposed to socially harmful consequences of the economic restructuring in progress at that time . According to the researcher Maciej Gdula , the political activity that followed was conducted exclusively by the elites . It was neither inspired by nor consulted with any mass social organization or movement , as the opposition leading circles freed themselves from their strong in the past commitment to the welfare of working people . No longer secure as undisputed leaders , Polish dissidents of the KOR @-@ Solidarity generations were eager to bargain with the weakened regime whose economic goals they now shared .
Both sides having been prompted by the new international situation and the recent strike wave in Poland , in September 1988 preliminary talks between government representatives and Solidarity leaders ensued in Magdalenka . Numerous meetings took place involving Wałęsa and the minister of internal affairs , General Czesław Kiszczak among others , at that time and in the following year , behind the scenes of the official negotiations conducted then . In November , Wałęsa debated on national TV Alfred Miodowicz , chief of the official trade unions . The encounter enhanced Wałęsa 's image .
During the PZPR 's plenary session of 16 – 18 January 1989 , General Jaruzelski and his ruling formation overcame the Central Committee 's resistance by threatening to resign and the communist party decided to allow re @-@ legalization of Solidarity and to approach its leaders for formal talks . From 6 February to 4 April , 94 sessions of talks between 13 working groups , which became known as the " Round Table Talks " ( Polish : Rozmowy Okrągłego Stołu ) , resulted in political and economic compromise reforms . Jaruzelski , Prime Minister Mieczysław Rakowski and Wałęsa did not directly participate in the negotiations . The government side was represented by Czesław Kiszczak , Aleksander Kwaśniewski , Janusz Reykowski and Stanisław Ciosek , the Solidarity opposition by Tadeusz Mazowiecki , Bronisław Geremek , Jacek Kuroń , Zbigniew Bujak , Władysław Frasyniuk and Jarosław Kaczyński , among others . The talks resulted in the Round Table Agreement , by which political power was to be vested in a newly created bicameral legislature , and in a president who would be the chief executive .
By 4 April 1989 , numerous reforms and freedoms for the opposition were agreed . Solidarity , now in existence as the Solidarity Citizens ' Committee , was again to be legalized as a trade union and allowed to participate in semi @-@ free elections . This election had restrictions imposed , designed to keep the communists in power , since only 35 % of the seats in the Sejm , the key lower chamber of parliament , would be open to Solidarity candidates . The remaining 65 % were to be reserved for candidates from the PZPR and its allies ( the United People 's Party , the Alliance of Democrats and the PAX Association ) . Since the Round Table Agreement mandated only reform ( not replacement ) of " real socialism " in Poland , the communist party thought of the election as a way of neutralizing political conflict and staying in power , while gaining some legitimacy to carry out economic reforms . However , the negotiated social policy determinations , arrived at by economists and trade unionists during the Round Table talks , were quickly tossed out by both the Party and the opposition .
A systemic transformation happening sooner rather than later was made possible by the Polish legislative elections of 4 June 1989 , which coincided with the bloody crackdown on the Tiananmen Square protesters in China . When the results of the voting were released , a political earthquake followed . The victory of Solidarity surpassed all predictions . Solidarity candidates captured all the seats they were allowed to compete for in the Sejm , while in the newly established Senate they captured 99 out of the 100 available seats ( the other seat went to an independent , who later switched to Solidarity ) . At the same time , many prominent PZPR candidates failed to gain even the minimum number of votes required to capture the seats that were reserved for them . The communists suffered a catastrophic blow to their legitimacy .
= = = = Political transformation = = = =
The next few months were spent on political maneuvering . The increasingly insecure communists , who still had military and administrative control over the country , were appeased by a compromise in which Solidarity allowed General Jaruzelski to remain head of state . Jaruzelski barely won the vote in the National Assembly presidential election of 19 July 1989 , even though his name was the only one on the ballot . He won through an informally arranged abstention by a sufficient number of Solidarity MPs and his position was not strong . Jaruzelski resigned as first secretary of the PZPR on 29 July .
The Round Table deal basically allowed the PZPR to remain in power regardless of the election results , and the Party 's reshuffled leadership continued to rule . On 1 August , prices were freed because of the ongoing market reforms and hyperinflation resulted . The instantly increased economic hardship caused a new wave of strikes . The strikes were spontaneous , but the Solidarity leaders , no longer in agreement with the strikers ' economic demands , were able to emphasize the secondary political aspect of the strikes ( anger at the Party 's obstinacy ) and use them to pressure the regime for an expedited transfer of power . The new prime minister , General Kiszczak , who was appointed on 2 August 1989 , failed to gain enough support in the Sejm to form a government and resigned on 19 August . He was the last communist head of government in Poland . Although Jaruzelski tried to persuade Solidarity to join the PZPR in a " grand coalition " , Wałęsa refused . The two formerly subservient parties allied with the PZPR , prompted by the current strike pressure , were moving toward adopting independent courses and their added votes would give the opposition control of parliament . Under the circumstances , Jaruzelski had to come to terms with the prospect of new government being formed by political opposition . Solidarity elected representative Tadeusz Mazowiecki was appointed prime minister and confirmed by the Assembly on 24 August 1989 . The new government led by a non @-@ communist , the first of its kind in the Soviet Bloc , was sworn into office on 13 September . The communist party did not immediately relinquish all power , remaining in the coalition and retaining control of the ministries of foreign trade , defense , interior and transport .
Mazowiecki 's government , forced to deal quickly with galloping hyperinflation , soon adopted radical economic policies , proposed by Leszek Balcerowicz , which transformed Poland into a functioning market economy under an accelerated schedule . Many Polish state owned enterprises , undergoing privatization , turned out to be woefully unprepared for capitalist competition and the pace of their accommodation ( or attrition ) was rapid . The economic reform , a shock therapy accompanied by comprehensive neoliberal restructuring , was in reality an extension of the previous incremental " communist " policies of the 1970s and 1980s , which were now followed by a leap to greatly expanded integration with the global economy with little protection . Among the reform 's negative immediate effects were the economic recession and near @-@ paralysis of foreign trade . On longer @-@ term bases , the country experienced quickly rising unemployment and social inequities , as enterprises were liquidated and income was redistributed away from workers and farmers , in favor of the establishment and the entrepreneurial class . A collapse of Polish industry was among the detrimental consequences of fundamental and lasting importance . Labor unions underwent further marginalization ; Solidarity activity as a labor union , prioritized in the past , was now suppressed . On the positive side , inflation was brought under control , the currency stabilized , shortages were eliminated and significant foreign investment began . The shock therapy solutions were often dictated by Western consultants , of whom Jeffrey Sachs was best known but also most criticized .
The striking electoral victory of Solidarity candidates in the limited elections , and the subsequent formation of the first non @-@ communist government in the region in decades , encouraged many similar peaceful transitions from communist party rule in Central and Eastern Europe in the second half of 1989 .
In December 1989 , changes to the Polish constitution were made , officially eliminating the " socialist " order : Marxist references were removed and the name of the country was changed back to the Polish Republic .
Wałęsa , president of the Solidarity trade union , demanded early presidential elections acting against the advice of his traditional Solidarity allies , intellectuals who were now running the government . Under pressure from the continuing worker unrest Wałęsa declared himself a supporter of workers ' interests , allegedly threatened by those whom he identified as communists ( such as President Jaruzelski ) or elitist political liberals ( such as Prime Minister Mazowiecki ) . Wałęsa presented himself as a person of good conservative , Christian and nationalist credentials .
In 1990 , Jaruzelski resigned as Poland 's president and was succeeded by Wałęsa , who won the 1990 presidential elections . Lech Wałęsa 's inauguration as president took place on 22 December 1990 ; he accepted the prewar presidential insignia from the stepping down President @-@ in @-@ Exile Ryszard Kaczorowski , distancing himself from Wojciech Jaruzelski . Wałęsa defeated Mazowiecki and in the second round Stanisław Tymiński , but under his presidency economic policy remained unchanged .
The communist Polish United Workers ' Party dissolved itself in 1990 and transformed into the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland . The Warsaw Pact was formally dissolved on 1 July 1991 ; the Soviet Union ceased to exist in December 1991 and the last post @-@ Soviet troops left Poland in September 1993 . On 27 October 1991 , the first entirely free Polish parliamentary elections since the 1920s took place . This completed Poland 's transition from a communist party rule to a Western @-@ style liberal democratic political system .
|
= Ridgedale Center =
Ridgedale Center , colloquially known as Ridgedale , is an enclosed shopping mall in Minnetonka , Minnesota , a western suburb of the Twin Cities . It is directly located off I @-@ 394 / US 12 between Ridgedale Drive and Plymouth Road ( Hennepin CSAH 61 ) . Ridgedale Center comprises 1 @,@ 105 @,@ 337 square feet ( 100 @,@ 000 m2 ) of leaseable retail space , and contains approximately 140 retail tenants . It is currently owned and operated by General Growth Properties and anchored by JCPenney , Macy 's , Nordstrom and Sears .
Built in 1974 , it was originally anchored by Dayton 's , Donaldson 's , JCPenney , and Sears , before the first two anchors merged with other companies . The mall has undergone several expansions and renovations throughout the years , including the recent addition of a Nordstrom department store in 2015 . Considered an " upscale shopping center " , Ridgedale includes various luxury brands such as Michael Kors , Swarovski , and Tumi Inc ..
= = History = =
= = = 1974 – 86 : Grand opening = = =
Ridgedale Center was constructed on 81 @.@ 3 acres of land in 1974 by the Dayton – Hudson Corporation , becoming the Twin Cities ' fourth ' dale ' shopping center , following Southdale , Brookdale , and Rosedale . The original center comprised 1 @,@ 040 @,@ 000 square feet ( 97 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , and was anchored by Dayton 's , Donaldson 's , JCPenney , and Sears , the former of which also developed the center .
Dayton 's announced plans in the early 1990 's to tear down their current location at Ridgedale , and replace it with a much larger location in the same mall ; these plans were also made at the other ' dale ' centers , like Southdale and Rosedale . However , these plans were eventually scrapped and never occurred . In 1996 , Dayton 's opened up a second anchor store at the center ; this new store focused on men 's clothing and furniture , while the original location changed focus and became centered on women 's and children 's clothing ; the two stores were differentiated by their new titles , " Men 's & Home Store " and " Women 's and Children 's Store " .
= = = 1987 – 2006 : Dayton 's , Marshall Field 's , and Macy 's = = =
In 1987 , Donaldson 's announced the discontinuation of their chain of stores , which would shut one of the mall 's original anchors . Instead , Donaldson 's merged with local department chain Carson Pirie Scott . The 128 @,@ 395 square feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) Carson Pirie Scott store would also eventually leave Ridgedale Center , in 1995 . Mervyn 's , a California @-@ based department store , announced interest in the former building , but never opened , despite opening locations at Pirie Scott 's former locations at Brookdale Center , Eden Prairie Center , and Rosedale Center . In 2001 , Dayton 's merged with Chicago @-@ based Marshall Field 's , which merged with Macy 's in 2006 .
= = = 2007 – present : Renovations and Nordstrom = = =
In early 2007 , Ridgedale underwent a multimillion @-@ dollar renovation to " freshen and brighten " the mall , with the use of " all @-@ new lighting , flooring , and paint . " The renovation also included the addition of new restrooms and seating areas . Completion of the renovation process occurred later that same year . The center was also briefly mentioned in the commercially successful 2007 film Juno .
In 2009 , Nordstrom announced plans to open a location at Ridgedale in 2011 ; however , these plans were later cancelled due to General Growth Properties , the mall 's owner , filing for bankruptcy . This announcement came with the closure of the Macy 's Men 's & Home Store . Later in 2013 , Nordstrom confirmed plans to open up a 140 @,@ 000 square feet ( 13 @,@ 000 m2 ) department store at Ridgedale by 2015 ; these plans allowed Macy 's current anchor of 202 @,@ 000 square feet ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) to grow into a larger , 286 @,@ 000 square feet ( 27 @,@ 000 m2 ) location . The current Macy 's Women 's & Children 's Store was expanded to provide additional space for the combination ; during this process , a major fire occurred at the construction site , delaying the construction by several weeks .
On June 4 , 2015 , deconstruction of the Men 's & Home Store occurred , to make way for the new Nordstrom store , plus an additional 85 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 900 m2 ) of leaseable space , presumably for upscale retail and dining options . This expansion was evaluated at $ 50 million , according to General Growth Properties . The Nordstrom location officially opened on October 2 , 2015 , followed by a grand opening ceremony .
|
= French battleship Paris =
Paris was the third ship of the Courbet @-@ class battleships , the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy . She was completed before World War I as part of the 1911 naval building programme . She spent the war in the Mediterranean , spending most of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until her sister ship Jean Bart was torpedoed by the submarine U @-@ 12 on 21 December . She spent the rest of the war providing cover for the Otranto Barrage that blockaded the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea .
Paris supported French and Spanish troops in 1925 during the Third Rif War before becoming a school ship in 1931 . She was modernized in three separate refits between the wars even though she was not deemed to be a first @-@ class battleship . She remained in that role until the Battle of France , which began on 10 May 1940 , after which she was hastily rearmed . She supported Allied troops in the defence of Le Havre during June until she was damaged by a German bomb , but she took refuge later that month in England . As part of Operation Catapult , she was seized in Plymouth by British forces on 3 July . She was used as a depot ship and barracks ship there by the Royal and Polish Navies for the rest of the war . Returned to the French in July 1945 she was towed to Brest the following month and used as a depot ship until she was stricken on 21 December 1955 .
= = Description = =
Paris was 166 metres ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 27 metres ( 88 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 04 metres ( 29 ft 8 in ) at the bow . She displaced 23 @,@ 475 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 100 long tons ) at standard load and 25 @,@ 579 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 180 long tons ) at full load . She proved to be rather wet in service as she was bow @-@ heavy because her superimposed turrets were close to the bow .
Paris had four propellers powered by four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines which were rated at 28 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her turbines . These boilers were coal @-@ burning with auxiliary oil sprayers . She had a designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She carried up to 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) of coal and 906 long tons ( 921 t ) of oil and could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Paris 's main armament consisted of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) Mle 1910 45 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in six twin gun turrets , with two turrets superimposed fore and aft , and one on each flank of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried twenty @-@ two 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) Mle 1910 guns , which were mounted in casemates . Four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted , two on each beam . She was also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) submerged Modèle 1909 torpedo tubes with twelve torpedoes .
Paris 's waterline armoured belt extended well below the waterline as the French were concerned about protection from underwater hits . Her main armour was also thinner than that of her British or German counterparts , but covered more area . It was 270 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick between the fore and aft turrets and tapered to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . It extended 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) below the normal waterline . Above the main belt was another belt , 180 mm thick , that covered the sides , and the secondary armament , up to the forecastle deck , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 ft 9 in ) deep , between the fore and aft turrets . The conning tower had armour 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main gun turrets had 290 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) of armour on their faces , 250 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on their sides and roofs 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Their barbettes had 280 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) of armour . There was no anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead although there was a longitudinal bulkhead abreast the machinery spaces that was used either as a coal bunker or left as a void .
= = Career = =
Paris was built by the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne . Her keel was laid down on 10 November 1911 and she was launched on 28 September 1912 . She was completed on 1 August 1914 , just in time for World War I.
After working up she was sent , along with her sisters , to the Mediterranean Sea . She spent most of the rest of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until U @-@ 12 hit Jean Bart on 21 December with a torpedo . This forced the battleships to fall back to either Malta or Bizerte to cover the Otranto Barrage . After the French occupied the neutral Greek island of Corfu in 1916 she moved forward to Corfu and Argostoli , but her activities were very limited as much of her crew was used to man anti @-@ submarine ships . Before the end of the war she was fitted with seven 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) Mle 1897 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . These guns were adaptions of the famous French Mle 97 75 @-@ mm field gun .
= = = Interwar years = = =
Paris was sent to Pula on 12 December 1918 to supervise the surrendered Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , where she remained until 25 March 1919 . She provided cover for Greek troops during the Occupation of İzmir ( Smyrna ) from May 1919 before returning to Toulon on 30 June . She received the first of her upgrades at Brest between 25 October 1922 and 25 November 1923 . This included replacing one set of boilers with oil @-@ fired boilers , increasing the maximum elevation of the main armament from 12 ° to 23 ° , removal of her bow armour to make her less bow @-@ heavy , the installation of a fire @-@ control director , with a 4 @.@ 57 metres ( 15 @.@ 0 ft ) rangefinder , and the exchange of her Mle 1897 AA guns for Mle 1918 guns . After her return to service she supported an amphibious landing at Al Hoceima by Spanish troops during the summer of 1925 after the Rifs attacked French Morocco during the Third Rif War . She destroyed coastal defence batteries there despite taking light damage from six hits and remained there until October as the flagship of the French forces . She was refitted again from 16 August 1927 to 15 January 1929 at Toulon and her fire @-@ control systems were comprehensively upgraded . A large cruiser @-@ type fire @-@ control director was added atop the foremast with a 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m coincidence rangefinder and a 3 @-@ metre ( 9 ft 10 in ) stereo rangefinder . The rangefinder above the conning tower was replaced by a duplex unit carrying two 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinders and another 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinder was added in an armoured hood next to the main mast . Two directors for the secondary guns were added on the navigation bridge , each with a 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) coincidence rangefinder . A 8 @.@ 2 metres ( 26 ft 11 in ) rangefinder was added to the roof of ' B ' turret , the second one from the bow . Three 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders were provided for her anti @-@ aircraft guns , one on top of the duplex unit on the conning tower , one on ' B ' turret and one in the aft superstructure . She resumed her role as flagship of the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Mediterranean Squadron until 1 October 1931 when she became a training ship .
Paris was overhauled again between 1 July 1934 and 21 May 1935 . Her boilers were overhauled , her main guns replaced and her Mle 1918 AA guns were exchanged for more modern Mle 1922 guns . They had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 5 @.@ 93 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 1 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) at a rate of fire of 8 – 18 rounds per minute and had a maximum effective ceiling of 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) .
= = = World War II = = =
Paris and Courbet formed a Fifth Squadron at the beginning of the war . They were transferred to the Atlantic to continue their training duties without interference . Both ships were ordered restored to operational status on 21 May 1940 by Amiral Mord and they were given six Hotchkiss 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) twin machine gun mounts and two single 13 @.@ 2 @-@ mm Browning machine guns at Cherbourg . Paris was ordered to Le Havre on 6 June to provide gunfire support on the Somme front and covered the evacuation of the town by the Allies , although the lack of spotting aircraft meant that she was not particularly effective in that role . Instead she helped to defend the harbour of Le Havre against German aircraft until she was hit by a bomb on 11 June . She sailed for Cherbourg that night for temporary repairs despite taking on 300 long tons ( 305 t ) of water per hour . She was transferred to Brest on 14 June and carried 2 @,@ 800 men when that port was evacuated on 18 June .
In the wake of the Armistice , Paris was docked at Plymouth , England . On 3 July 1940 , as part of Operation Catapult , British forces forcibly boarded her and she was used by the British as a depot ship and as a barracks ship by the Polish Navy for the rest of the war . On 21 August 1945 , after the war had ended , Paris was towed to Brest where she continued in her role as a depot ship . She was sold for scrap on 21 December 1955 and broken up at La Seyne from June 1956 .
|
= Amelia Bence =
Amelia Bence ( née María Amelia Batvinik ; 13 November 1914 – 8 February 2016 ) was an Argentine film actress and one of the divas of the Golden Age of Argentine Cinema ( 1940 – 60 ) .
Born to Belarusian Jewish immigrants , Bence began her career at a young age , studying with Alfonsina Storni at the Lavardén Children 's Theater and with Mecha Quintana at the Conservatorio Nacional de Música y Declamación ( National Conservatory of Music and Speech ) . She made her film debut in 1933 , in only the second sound film of Argentina , Dancing , by Luis Moglia Barth . Bence 's acting in La guerra gaucha ( 1942 ) , one of the most important films in the history of Argentine cinema , gave her recognition and earned her leading role offers . She starred in films such as Los ojos más lindos del mundo ( 1943 ) , Todo un hombre , Camino del infierno ( 1946 ) , A sangre fría ( 1947 ) , La otra y yo ( 1949 ) and Danza del fuego ( 1949 ) , garnering the Best Actress award from the Argentine Academy of Cinematography Arts and Sciences for Todo un hombre , A sangre fría and Danza del fuego . Bence also won the Silver Condor Award for Best Actress for Lauracha ( 1946 ) , and her work was acknowledged with awards in Spain , Cuba , and the US throughout the 1940s and 1950s .
Bence married Spanish actor Alberto Closas in 1950 , and after their divorce was in a relationship with Osvaldo Cattone in the 1960s . Between 1952 and 1954 , Bence was contracted by Reforma Films to film two movies in Mexico and earned high praise for her starring role in Alfonsina ( 1957 ) , which was selected as the Argentine entry for the Berlin International Film Festival and won her an award from the Argentina Film Academy . She developed an extensive theater career in the 1960s , starring in works like " La dama del trébol " , " Así es la vida " , " Maribel y la extraña familia " and " El proceso de Mary Duggan " . From 1973 to 1976 , she completed a long tour of Latin America and featured in " La valija " ( " The Suitcase " ) at the Gramercy Arts Theater in New York City , which earned her an Association of Latin Entertainment Critics ( ACE ) Award for Best Foreign Actress . Bence 's characterizations in " Doña Rosita , la soltera " ( 1975 ) and " La loba " ( 1982 ) in the United States and Peru were very successful . During the last stage of her career , she acted in several television productions , including series such as Romina , Bianca and Las 24 horas . In 1989 , she received the Silver Condor for Lifetime Achievement Award , and later won awards in the same category at the Podesta Awards in 1992 and by the National Endowment for the Arts in 1997 . Between 1996 and 2010 , she appeared in several theaters with her show " Alfonsina " , which combined music and poetry . After a career spanning eight decades in entertainment , she retired in 2010 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
María Amelia Batvinik was born on 13 November 1914 in Buenos Aires , the youngest of seven children to Belarusian Jewish immigrants , Jaime Batvinik from Minsk , and Ana Zaguer from Pinsk . From an early age , she was drawn to acting and began performing alongside other neighborhood children in the courtyards of their homes . That was how she met Paulina Singerman , a neighbor , who suggested to Bence 's mother that the child be enrolled in the Lavardén Children 's Theater , operating in the Teatro Colón . At the age of five , she officially debuted , encouraged by the sisters Paulina and Berta Singerman , in poet Alfonsina Storni 's work , " Juanita " . Bence recalled that the performance was not without mishap , as she accidentally swallowed a postage stamp she was to place on an envelope ; she was distraught , but Storni praised the way she handled the situation . She completed her primary school studies at the Escuela General Roca , while simultaneously studying piano with her sister Esther at the Fontova Conservatory . From the age of ten , she worked as an elevator operator at Gath & Chaves . In her free time , she worked in an acting group led by Pedro Aleandro , the brother of Ben Molar , where she participated in the play Las campanas by Julio Sánchez Gardel .
Despite the opposition of her family to acting , Bence convinced her mother to let her continue studying . Because there was no vacancy in the National Conservatory of Performing Arts , she decided to learn classical dance with Mecha Quintana at the National Conservatory of Music and Speech , where she briefly attended classes . Quintana assigned her a part in a ballet at the Opera Theatre of Musical Comedy " Wunder Bar " ( 1933 ) , starring Armando and Enrique Discépolo . On one occasion , she filled @-@ in for the star when the performer had an illness during the performance run .
= = = Film and theater debuts = = =
Bence 's first film role was as an extra in a scene with Pedro Quartucci in Argentina 's second sound film , Dancing ( 1933 ) , under the direction of Luis José Moglia Barth , who bestowed the stage name " Amelia Bence " on her . The film was a failure and did not have the same success as the first sound film ¡ Tango ! . The production had poor sound quality , audiences did not receive it well , and Bence was reluctant to include it in her filmography . She went back to the theater and began working under the direction of Enrique Susini in his company at the Odéon Theater , performing in such works as " Tu boca , Superficies " , " Los malos tiempos " and " Baile en el Savoy " , which were musical comedies and vaudeville shows . In " Baile en el Savoy " , Bence replaced the star , Amanda Varela , who became ill and shared the stage with Florencio Parravicini . The play was one of her first successes , having over 100 performances . When its run ended at the Odéon , it was transferred to the Cine Monumental and re @-@ released for several more weeks . She and Parravicini also starred in " Ocho en línea " at the Corrientes Theater , but the reviews were scathing . El Mundo reported that " the show seemed unrehearsed " but praised Bence saying , " Newcomer ... , managing with grace and efficiency " . In " Conde de Chantenay " , which had a short run due to Parravicini 's health , Bence was rated by the press as " demure , competent and pleasant " and in " De mí no se ríe nadie " , which was directed by León Zárate , she appeared in 200 performances .
In 1937 , Bence took a more serious role in Luis Saslavsky 's drama La fuga , in which she supported Tita Merello and Santiago Arrieta . The performance earned Bence a contract with Olegario Ferrando at Pampa Film and three other film roles . After a long theatrical season with Luis Arata and inconsequential participation in El forastero , she filmed La vuelta al nido with José Gola . Bence defined the film as " one of the best of our cinema ... A simple and profound story ... very intimate , full of sensitive details ... it was not understood by critics or the public at the time " .
In 1938 , Leopoldo Torres Ríos gave Bence her first starring role in film in Adiós Buenos Aires , where she played a showgirl " Luisita " living a bohemian life . In November 1938 , she attracted the attention of the public and press when she starred in the play Mujeres at the Smart Theatre , ( currently Multiteatro ) located on Avenida Corrientes . The play was written by American writer and actress Clare Boothe Luce and also starred Mecha Ortiz . In one of the scenes , Bence appeared bathing in a tub full of foam . She said : " I wore nylon mesh , it was very modest but , as was logical , it did not go unnoticed . I had a very big impact as a result of that scene ... so much so that , the Teatro Maipo ... made a parody of it " . The work was described as " original , fresh , and modern " , reaching 250 performances . It was revived at the Teatro Fénix de Flores .
= = = Recognition and " The Gaucho War " = = =
In the wake of her successful theatrical season , Bence filmed El matrero ( 1939 ) in Tucumán Province , in which she played " Pontezuela " , a girl who falls in love with the character of Agustín Irusta , is accused of a crime and is rejected by her father . She won praise for her performance , and was hired to an exclusive three @-@ year contract by Miguel Machinandiarena , who had just formed San Miguel Studios , which would soon become the largest studio in Argentina . Bence was hired to star opposite Tito Lusiardo in Antonio Momplet 's Novios para las muchachas ( 1941 ) , a comedy adapted from the play " Las de Caín " . That same year she starred in Carlos F. Borcosque 's La casa de los cuervos , based on a novel by Hugo Wast , which won her the Premios Sur for Best Actress from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences of Argentina .
In early 1942 , Bence filmed El tercer beso , directed by Luis César Amadori and co @-@ starring Pedro López Lagar and Silvia Legrand . Though Bence was concerned about playing the mother of Legrand , who was only 13 years younger than she was , the film was a success and she won her the Silver Condor Award for Best Actress from the Argentine Film Critics Association for the performance . The recognition led to her appearance frequently on the covers of magazines , and to an offer to appear in what would become one of the most important films in the history of Argentine cinema , La guerra gaucha . The film starred Bence and Sebastián Chiola , Ángel Magaña , Enrique Muiño , and Francisco Petrone and is set at the turn of the nineteenth century in northern Argentina . It was shot on location in Salta Province and was based on the novel of the same name by writer Leopoldo Lugones . Scriptwriters Hómero Manzi and Ulises Petit de Murat , wove the disparate stories of the characters into an overview of the gauchos ' revolt against Spanish rule . The film , unlike Hollywood Westerns , neither portrayed colonization as progress , nor focused the action on the indigenous people , instead focusing on the patriotic pride of the gauchos . The film won seven awards and Bence won an award as best actress of the year from the City of Buenos Aires . It also earned her an offer from Paramount Pictures to come to the US and work in Hollywood , but she declined the offer .
= = = A successful film star = = =
After the success of La guerra gaucha , Bence received only starring roles . In 1943 , she agreed to work with Pedro López Lagar on Son cartas de amor , a romantic story set at the time of the Spanish Civil War , in which she received an award for Best Actress from the Cuban Federation of Film and Theater Editors . In 1982 she donated the medal to a program raising funds to help the soldiers of the Falklands War . Later in 1943 , she starred in Los ojos más lindos del mundo , ( The Most Beautiful Eyes in the World ) . The title was a reference to the purplish green hue of Bence 's eyes and the title became associated with her , to the point that when she toured Chile in 1955 and 1964 , the press headlines read , " The most beautiful eyes in the world came here " . Her next film , Todo un hombre ( 1943 ) , was directed by Frenchman Pierre Chenal . In the final scene , Bence was replaced by a double because of the impossibility of postponing a trip to Brazil . She won the award for Best Actress from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for the film . The cover of the magazine Antena for December 1943 announced the upcoming release of Julio Saraceni 's Nuestra Natacha , based on a play by Alejandro Casona . The film was released in September 1944 , shortly after the presentation of her film 24 horas de la vida de una mujer , in which she played the role of " Cecilia " , receiving good reviews in La Nación and Antena .
In 1946 , Bence starred with Mecha Ortiz in Camino del infierno , a melodramatic , psychological thriller involving a love triangle . Despite their performances , the film was poorly received by the critics . San Miguel Studios next put all three of its stars , Mecha Ortiz , María Duval and Bence in one film , Las tres ratas ( 1946 ) , under the direction of Carlos Schlieper , which fared much better with the public and critics . In the summer of 1944 , Bence met the actor Alberto Closas in Chile while filming María Rosa , who would become her husband . Both María Rosa and the other film made in Chile , Lauracha ( 1946 ) ended up being delayed for release due to a dispute between Pampa Film , Lumiton and San Miguel Studios . The legal dispute between the director Ernesto Arancibia and the film companies took nearly two years to resolve . Despite the delay in release , the Association of Film Critics awarded Bence the Silver Condor Award for Best Actress , for a role which Hal Erickson in The New York Times describes as a " fiercely independent young woman " , comparing the film to a " Joan Crawfordesque drama " . Her next film , El pecado de Julia , featured Alberto Closas , with whom she had begun a relationship , and received mixed reviews .
In 1947 , Bence won the Writers Association award for Best Actress and the inaugural prize for the Hispanoamericano de Cinematografía in Madrid for her role as a wealthy but weak and vulnerable lady , mistreated by an evil nephew in Daniel Tinayre 's murder drama , A sangre fría . For her role in Momplet ' s La otra y yo ( 1949 ) , which co @-@ starred Enrique Álvarez Diosdado and Fernando Lamas , she dyed her hair blond to play two different characters — the film star " Dora Nelson " and the clothing designer " Matilde García " . It amused and surprised the public , as there is a scene where the two characters talk to each other in the same frame . La Opinión praised her acting and the magazine El Hogar reported that she " soared beyond the script and the director " . Bence again starred opposite Diosdado in Danza del fuego , in which played Elena Valdez , a successful concert pianist who died on her wedding night after falling out the window of her home , tortured and believing herself guilty of a crime . Her performance earned her the award for Best Actress in 1949 from both Writers Association and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences of Argentina .
After marrying Closas in 1950 , they formed a theater company and dedicated themselves more frequently to theater performance . The premiere of " La estrella cayó en el mar " , though marred by politics , was a success and continued playing to sold @-@ out houses . After the first presentation , a reporter from the magazine El Hogar gave rave reviews on the play and marriage of Bence to Closas . The reporter was contacted by first lady Eva Peron , who also demanded that the editor print a retraction and a public denial of what had been written . Bence stated in her autobiography , that from that moment she was " black listed " by the regime , although she was apolitical . In July , after the play reached 150 performances at the Odéon Theatre , the cast began a tour that started in the Coliseo Podestá of La Plata , where they played to sold @-@ out houses for ten days . As they continued with the tour , Bence and Closas worked on the play " Mi marido y su complejo " , which they opened for the first time in Rosario and then took it to Buenos Aires , Rio Cuarto , Mendoza , San Juan and Córdoba . The tour was cut short by the production of Mi mujer está loca ( 1952 ) , an adaptation of the play " Florence est folle " . The screenplay was written by Carlos Schlieper and Ariel Cortazzo and starred both Bence and Closas .
= = = Mid @-@ century = = =
Contracted to work for Reforma Films in Mexico , Bence 's first Mexican film was Siete Mujeres ( 1953 ) . She recalled that the filming was completely different than anything she had worked on before , as there was no possibility of retakes or selective editing to provide the best footage for the film . Siete mujeres , like Las tres Elenas ( 1954 ) , was never released in Argentina . After ten months , Bence returned to Argentina and ended her marriage to Closas . She attended the first Mar del Plata International Film Festival in 1954 , and then went with Mario Soffici and his production team to La Rioja , Spain to film El hombre que debía una muerte with Carlos Cores .
The play " Pesadilla " premiered in 1955 and involved a tour of Uruguay , Cordoba , Mendoza , Buenos Aires and Rosario , where they remained playing to a full house for two weeks . In the play , Bence played the character " Mary " and her performance received high praise in La Capital . Encouraged by Cecilio Madanes , she also opened " La dama del trébol " , a play that had been successful in Paris . However , soon after its premiere , the Revolución Libertadora or the 1955 coup d 'état that overthrew Juan Domingo Perón , occurred . Bence 's new partner , José María Fernández Unsáin , had served as Eva Perón 's secretary and as Chairman of the Committee on Culture , director of the Teatro Nacional Cervantes , and director general of the Ministry of Culture , under the Perón regime . Fernández 's past led to threats at the theaters and demonstrations outside Bence 's hotel , which in turn led to cancellations by the Theater of the Chilean Society of Authors for " Pesadilla " , " La dama del trébol " , " Eran tres " ... and " la noche " . They also suspended the series " Mis protagonistas " which Bence was performing on Radio Minería with Luis Prendes . In 1956 , she filmed Dos basuras under director Kurt Land , based on the play " Pesadilla " , in which she portrayed a prostitute . It was not released until 1958 during the government of Arturo Frondizi .
In 1957 , she opened the play Testigo para la horca at the Ateneo Theater and began filming her favorite film : Alfonsina ( 1957 ) by Kurt Land , based on the life of poetess Alfonsina Storni . Despite makeup tests , Bence decided to recreate it bare @-@ faced , without any alterations , depending only on her acting abilities . She won the award for Best Actress from the Argentina Film Academy and the film was chosen as the Argentine entry for the 1957 Berlin International Film Festival . Foreign press reviews praised her " interpretative restraint " and compared Bence to Austrian actress Paula Wessely . In the same year she had her first appearance on television playing in Teatro del sábado on Canal 7 , in an episode which recreated Testigo para la horca based on the play by Agatha Christie . In 1957 , Bence became one of the pioneers of the café cantante after the basement of the Santa Fe Galleries was remodeled to turn it into a theater . The presentation of the play " Asamblea de mujeres " , based on a piece by Aristophanes , generated a variety of controversial criticism .
Bence 's meeting in Europe with director José María Forqué led to her being cast in De espaldas a la puerta ( 1959 ) , a crime drama which premiered at the Coliseum in Madrid , shortly before Bence returned to Buenos Aires . She won the Quixote prize for Best Foreign Actress for the role . Returning to Argentina , Bence was persuaded by Cecilio Madanes to perform in " Así es la vida " with the company of Luis Arata and Eva Franco . The newspaper La Prensa gave her good reviews and that led to its being brought by Canal 7 to television on the insistence of Mariano Perla . Simultaneously with her performance for Madanes , she opened the play Maribel y la extraña familia in the Odeón Theater , whose success led to performances in other cities such as Mar del Plata . The box office grossed 2 million pesos in the third month and 400 @,@ 000 in the fourth .
= = = Working abroad = = =
In 1962 , Bence joined an entourage including César Tiempo , Máximo Berrondo , and Enrique Serrano and appeared at the International Film Festival of India , where she met Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru at an official reception for foreign artists . Back in Argentina , she accepted an offer to star in the Uruguayan television production of Maribel y la extraña familia and on Canal 9 in Buenos Aires , a production of Nuestra Natacha . Under the direction of Daniel Tinayre , she participated in the low @-@ budget film La cigarra no es un bicho , intended to revive the national film industry . The film featured performances by Homero Cárpena , Bárbara Mujica and Luis Sandrini and others . In the first week , viewings exceeded 3 @,@ 000 spectators per day and the film spent seven weeks at the Cine Opera and eleven at the Trocadero Theater . In the film , Bence played a prostitute and La Nación reported that she and Luis Sandrini 's performances shone . Shortly after , both were honored as the best Argentine artists of the year by Chilean journalists .
From October to December 1963 , she made a tour of Tucumán , Bahía Blanca , Córdoba , Mendoza , Rosario and Montevideo . By June 1964 , she had started a theatrical season in Chile with " Los millones de Orofino " , to critical acclaim . Directed by Enrique Carreras , Luis Saslavsky and Fernando Ayala , she starred with Tita Merello and Ángel Magaña in La industria del matrimonio , a film shot in episodes , where she played a wealthy spinster . Bence next received an offer to star in " El proceso de Mary Duggan " under the direction of Tinayre ; however , she rejected the offer and was replaced by Malvina Pastorino . In the second season Pastorino quit the production and Bence finished the run . The actor Francisco Petrone , a member of the cast , died of cancer during the season . In 1968 , as part of the cast of Comedy of the Province of Buenos Aires , she debuted in La Plata and simultaneously , in Mar del Plata in the George Bernard Shaw classic , " Cándida " , directed by Milagros de la Vega .
At the end of 1968 , Bence decided to undertake a six @-@ month tour for the following year through Santiago , Bogotá , Cali , Medellín and Manizales . From Colombia , she went to Venezuela and debuted at the Municipal Theater of Caracas with four works : " Cándida " , " Un inocente adulterio " , " Un dios durmió en casa " and " Los amantes " . Then she went on tour through the Dominican Republic , Puerto Rico and Miami , where she earned good reviews . When she returned from this long tour , she took a hiatus for several months and then agreed to do " Flor de cactus " with Juan Carlos Thorry at the Comedy Theater in Rosario . After its opening run , the project continued on tour through the countryside , in Paraná , Cordoba , Santa Fe and Tucumán .
In mid @-@ 1972 , she was invited by the Spanish Repertory Theater Company in New York to participate in a theater season at the Gramercy Arts Theater with " La valija " ( The Suitcase ) . Upon its release , The New York Post wrote : " Play with a hopeless character goes to the heart " . Bence performed on tour at Rosary College Theater at the University of Connecticut , Boston , Chicago and at the headquarters of the Organization of American States in Washington , DC , where her audience was 1 @,@ 200 spectators . When she performed through Florida and in Miami , Howard Thompson of The New York Times , titled his article , " Spanish Impact on Off Broadway " and continued , " Amelia Bence , an artist of strong mercurial quality and wonderfully expressive eyes , illuminates the scene and work ... She makes the role come alive , with eyes that tell the story of a tender woman , slightly naive and carefree . For her work , she won the Association of Latin Entertainment Critics ( ACE ) award for Best Foreign Actress during a dinner held at the Commodore Hotel in New York . Back in Argentina , she did " La valija " with Justo José Rojas and Aldo Cura in Santiago del Estero , Salta , Jujuy and Córdoba , touring for four months . In 1973 , she made her first color film , Adiós , Alejandra , after nearly four decades of making movies . Upon returning to the United States in September 1975 , she opened " Doña Rosita , la soltera " by Federico Garcia Lorca and personally met four @-@ time Oscar @-@ winning actress , Katharine Hepburn . At the request of the director , she took the show to Miami in September 1976 and stayed until early 1977 , when she went to Peru to open " La esposa constante " at the Marsano Theater .
In the early 1980s , Bence participated frequently on television , part of the main casts of Dulce fugitiva , Romina , Bianca and Las 24 horas . " La loba " , which she performed in 1982 in Peru was one of her most famous theatrical successes and also aired on Peruvian television , under the same name coordinated by her former partner Osvaldo Cattone . In 1985 , she starred in a Peruvian soap opera entitled La casa de enfrente , which increased her popularity and the audiences of " La loba " .
= = = Later career = = =
Bence 's career began to decline around 1986 , and she stopped receiving work proposals . The Argentina Actors Association said at the time that 86 % of their members were unemployed ; however , she was hired for one of the two lead roles in the 1987 production of " Solo 80 " . The play , by Colin Higgins was presented at the Blanca Podestá Theater on Corrientes Avenue , with Bence playing the character of Harold 's mother . The play received good reviews , but failed to attract an audience , and ended in February 1988 . Bence spent almost two years out of work and in 1989 traveled to Cuba to attend the International Festival of New Latin American Cinema , where she met Fidel Castro at a reception . Later that year , she was honored with the Silver Condor Award for Lifetime Achievement at the same ceremony where Sabina Olmos was honored . In 1992 , she also won the Pablo Podestá Prize for Lifetime achievement , along with Niní Marshall and Margarita Padín .
In 1990 , Bence was reunited with Closas to act in " Cartas de amor " . She then embarked on the longest road tour of her life and spent the next 21 months ( until November , 1992 ) touring " Esta noche hablamos de amor " in Buenos Aires , Rosario , Córdoba , Mendoza and Mar del Plata . In 1993 , she worked in television on a telenovela Esos que dicen amarse , which starred Carolina Papaleo and Raúl Taibo . She had a supporting role in the series Con alma de tango ( 1995 ) alongside Luisa Kuliok and Gerardo Romano , which had an international run throughout Latin America and in some European countries such as Italy , Israel and Turkey .
In 1998 , Bence and Libertad Lamarque received a Golden Ángel " Cholo " Peco award from the Society of Distributors of Newspapers and Magazines . She was part of the cast of the Teatro de la Ribera in 1998 , playing in " Hoy ensayo Hoy " , which brought together veteran actors Elena Lucena and María Aurelia Bisutti . After participating in " Sin condena " and " Alta comedia " in the mid @-@ 1990s , she was hired in 1999 to do a play at the XIV International Festival of Hispanic Theater , but due to technical problems it was canceled . She persuaded Osvaldo Cattone to direct the play " Venecia " , in which she starred in 2002 in Lima . In 2003 , Bence ventured into children 's theater with the work " Amor invisible " with Gustavo Monje . The play combined magic , dance , music and theater , recreating a fairyland . She returned to television in 2004 joining Pablo Granados and Pachu Peña in the comic series No hay dos sin tres , for which she was nominated in 2005 for the category of " Special Participation in Fiction " for the Martín Fierro Awards .
In recent years , Bence has received many awards acknowledging her long career . In 2006 , she was honored by the Actors Social Work ( OSA ) and in 2007 , she received the inaugural Javolandia Award for lifetime achievement from the Javo Rocha Academy of Theater . She was given a certificate of recognition during the María Guerrero Awards ceremony in 2007 and in 2008 she received the Trinidad Guevara Achievement Award with Jorge Rivera López . In late 2009 , a tribute in her honor was held by the Northern Region of the Argentine Society of Writers , in which the Mayor of San Isidro presented a poetry anthology and designated the hall with Bence 's name .
For 14 years , before a fall which caused a hip fracture , Bence put on her one @-@ man @-@ show , " Alfonsina " . In April 2010 she fell and underwent surgery . In June 2011 , Bence was declared Outstanding Personality of Argentine Culture under an initiative of Deputy Juan Pablo Arenaza . Soon after , with the help of Raul Etchelet , she published her memoirs , La niña del umbral : Amelia Bence : memorias ( Corregidor 2011 ) . In 2012 , El día que cambió la historia , a documentary filmed in 2010 , was released . It was her first film in 40 years and was a film about the labor movement under the Perón regime .
= = Personal life = =
Her first partner was Roberto Fernández Beyró , with whom she had a relationship from 1941 to 1944 : The relationship ended when Fernandez Beyró asked her to give up her career . Two years later , during the filming of Maria Rosa ( 1946 ) , she met the Spanish actor Alberto Closas , whom she married in 1950 . They formed an artistic partnership as well as being a married couple and worked on films and plays together . In 1953 , Bence returned from working abroad to discover Closas was having an affair , and decided to end the marriage . Bence maintained a good relationship with Closas for the rest of his life ; they even worked together again and she mourned his death in 1994 .
In the mid @-@ 1950s she had a brief romance with the writer José María Fernández Unsáin , until his exile to Mexico in 1958 . From 1964 to 1970 , she remained in a relationship with Osvaldo Cattone , who was 19 years her junior . He directed her in " Doña Rosita , la soltera " and she worked with him in Peru on several occasions . Her last husband was " Charlie " Ortiz Basualdo , whom she lived with from 1980 to 1982 . Up until suffering a serious hip fracture she exercised regularly , performing yoga , and maintained a very active life combined with a healthy diet .
Bence died on 8 February 2016 in Buenos Aires at the age of 101 .
= = Legacy = =
Bence has left a film legacy stretching through eight decades . In 1973 , she was awarded the keys to the city of Miami during her season of " La valija " . In 1981 , the Pablo C. Ducrós Hicken Museum of the Cinema designated the Pathé Chamber to her in recognition of her stature as " a first figure of national cinema " . In 1995 , the Senate of the Nation of Argentina awarded a cultural diploma for her contributions to the culture of Argentina and two years later , the National Endowment for the Arts granted her a lifetime achievement award . She was also made an honorary member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences of Argentina in 2007 .
During her career , she was described as " the face of Argentine film " , and through the years , many hailed her as having " the most beautiful eyes in the world . " Bence liked to tell a story that Paul Newman once recounted that he wore sunglasses to hide his eyes so he would be known for his acting . She agreed that the work was the more important legacy . In November 2010 , the journalist Daniel Gómez Rinaldi published a book entitled Amelia Bence : Los ojos más lindos del mundo , a biography of the actress .
I think I caught my dream . I wanted to be an actress and I was . And this dream will never end ... I am of a generation of actresses and actors who made themselves in an adventure of cinema and theater , that dreamt and created poets , madmen and bohemians .
= = Autobiography = =
Bence , Amelia ; Etchelet , Raúl . La niña del umbral : Amelia Bence : memorias Buenos Aires , Argentina : Corregidor ( 2011 ) ( in Spanish )
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
|
= Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar =
The Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar or Cincinnati Music Center half dollar was a commemorative coin struck by the United States Bureau of the Mint in 1936 . Produced with the stated purpose of commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of Cincinnati , Ohio , as a center of music , it was conceived by Thomas G. Melish , a coin enthusiast who controlled the group allowed to buy the entire issue from the government , and who resold the pieces at high prices .
Congress approved legislation for the coin on March 31 , 1936 , authorizing 15 @,@ 000 pieces to be struck at the three mints then in operation . Melish had hired sculptor Constance Ortmayer to design the coin , but the Commission of Fine Arts refused to recommend the designs . Members objected to the depiction of Stephen Foster on the obverse , finding no connection between Foster , who died in 1864 , and the supposed anniversary . Nevertheless , the designs were approved by the Bureau of the Mint , and 5 @,@ 000 sets from the three mints were issued and sold to Melish 's group , the only authorized purchaser .
Melish likely held back much of the issue for later resale , and with few pieces available , prices for the set spiked , rising to over five times the issue price . The value dropped somewhat when the boom in commemorative coins burst in late 1936 , but quickly recovered and the coins are valuable today . Melish has been assailed by numismatic writers for greed .
= = Inception = =
Sparked by low @-@ mintage issues which appreciated in value , the market for United States commemorative coins spiked in 1936 . Until 1954 , the entire mintage of such issues was sold by the government at face value to a group authorized by Congress , who then tried to sell the coins at a profit to the public . The new pieces then came on to the secondary market , and in early 1936 , all earlier commemoratives sold at a premium to their issue prices . The apparent easy profits to be made by purchasing and holding commemoratives attracted many to the coin collecting hobby , where they sought to purchase the new issues . Among the pieces , which had recently been struck and had appreciated in value was the 1935 Old Spanish Trail half dollar . This piece had been issued at the behest of L. W. Hoffecker , a Texas entrepreneur and coin dealer , who put aside a fifth of the 10 @,@ 000 mintage for himself , and sold them well into the 1940s , by which time he had served as president of the American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) . Congress authorized an explosion of commemorative coins in 1936 ; no fewer than 15 were issued for the first time . At the request of the groups authorized to purchase them , several coins minted in prior years were produced again , dated 1936 , senior among them the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar , first struck in 1926 .
Thomas G. Melish , a coin collector and entrepreneur from Cincinnati , came up with an idea for a commemorative coin that he would control and profit from . Melish was a prominent businessman , who had inherited the Bromwell Wire Company . He formed the Cincinnati Musical Center Commemorative Coin Association , and secured the introduction of House of Representatives Resolution ( H.R. ) 10264 on January 31 , 1936 . This bill would have provided for 10 @,@ 000 coins from the Philadelphia Mint , 2 @,@ 000 coins from Denver , and 3 @,@ 000 from the San Francisco Mint . Such a low mintage would have made the Denver coin a significant rarity , increasing Melish 's profit . On February 17 , the House Committee on Coinage , Weights and Measures recommended that it be amended to provide for a total of 15 @,@ 000 coins without dictating at what mint or mints they should be struck . That committee , in its report accompanying the bill , noted that the piece was " in commemoration of the fiftieth ( golden ) anniversary of Cincinnati , Ohio , as a center of music , and its contribution of the annual May festival to the art of music for the past 50 years . " Melish , through political influence , was able to retain the provision that they should be struck " at the mints " , allowing coinage at all three mints . This marked the last time that a coinage bill would pass Congress in the 1930s with that phrasing — later issues were limited to a single mint .
The bill passed Congress , and was signed by President Franklin Roosevelt on March 31 , 1936 . The pieces were to honor " the 50th anniversary of Cincinnati , Ohio , as a center of music , and its contribution to the art of music for the past 50 years " . Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen , in their volume on commemorative coins , concluded that " pressure from the above @-@ named Association on Congress induced passage of the Act " .
= = Preparation and controversy = =
Melish engaged Constance Ortmayer to design the coin . Ortmayer later remembered , " I was recommended by them , someone came through Cincinnati ... they were just looking for somebody so they recommended me " . Ortmayer apparently prepared a design before the bill passed Congress , for Melish wrote to Assistant Director of the Mint Mary Margaret O 'Reilly on April 4 , 1936 , that the original " lacked distinction and artistic merit " and that Ortmayer would redesign the coin . He wrote again on May 7 , asking if Ortmayer 's new design was satisfactory . The models were submitted to the Commission of Fine Arts , charged since 1921 with advising on coin design , though the government was not bound to follow its recommendations . On May 13 , the chairman , Charles Moore , wrote to Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross , withholding approval .
Moore recited the stated purpose of the coin , to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Cincinnati as a center of music , then noted that the obverse depicted Stephen Foster , the composer and songwriter — who died in 1864 , whereas Cincinnati was not notable as a center of music until at least 1873 . " The Commission is at a loss to connect a fiftieth anniversary in 1936 with a movement that began in 1873 . " Foster did live in Cincinnati , Moore admitted , but only for a brief period while working as a bookkeeper , and his main contributions to American music came later , when he lived in Pittsburgh and in New York City . Further , the coin was to commemorate Cincinnati 's contributions to the art of music , and Foster " was an American troubadour , but to music as an art he made no contribution " . Moore felt that if anyone should be depicted , it should be Theodore Thomas , who conducted the Cincinnati May Festival from its beginning in 1873 and in 1878 became director of the Cincinnati College of Music . He stated that " Theodore Thomas was , artistically , the founder of Cincinnati as a musical center . His portrait should appear on any coin commemorative of Cincinnati ' as a center of music ' " .
On May 16 , The Cincinnati Enquirer reported that Thomas would appear on the coin , not Foster . The paper also reported the controversy before the Commission of Fine Arts , that Melish had travelled to Washington the previous day , and had announced he had no objection to the change . Also on May 16 , Melish telephoned Lee Lawrie , sculptor member of the Commission . Melish 's notes indicate that Moore 's objection was on behalf of Alice Roosevelt Longworth and the Longworth family , who had employed Thomas to lead the May Festival , and who wanted Thomas on the coin , although , as ( per Melish ) Lawrie put it , " Thomas looks like a walrus and would be a very hard head to make " . Melish was defiant , stating that he also knew Alice Longworth well , and Foster remained on the coin . Ortmayer remembered that the " boss " of the Bureau of the Mint ( presumably Ross ) objected to the reverse design , not liking the position of the goddess ' legs . Swiatek , in his later volume , averred that Melish 's association put pressure on the Department of the Treasury to approve Ortmayer 's design .
The Philadelphia Mint received the models from Ortmayer . On May 23 its superintendent , Edwin Dressel , sent O 'Reilly a memorandum from Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock , stating that the sculptor 's models were in too high relief , and suggesting that Ortmayer come to the mint to discuss the matter . A letter from O 'Reilly to Melish on June 18 reports that after some modification , Sinnock wrote that the coin was at the very limit of high relief that the mint could coin , and that dies for the Cincinnati piece were expected to be tested by coining trial strikes in early July .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar displays a bust of Stephen Foster , facing to the viewer 's right , and below it , the words " STEPHEN FOSTER AMERICA 'S TROUBADOUR " . This phrase was taken from a biography of Foster published earlier in the 1930s . The artist 's initials , " CO " , are to the left of Foster . The name of the country , and the denomination , appear near the rim . The reverse shows a kneeling figure , intended to be the goddess of music . In the upper left portion of the field , or background , is the date 1886 , in the lower right 1936 , and beneath the latter the mint mark ( unless struck at Philadelphia , which did not then use one ) . The goddess kneels on the mottos required by law to appear , and near the edge is " CINCINNATI A MUSIC CENTER OF AMERICA " .
The design attracted comments from those interested in coins . Frank Duffield , editor of the ANA 's journal The Numismatist , noted in the October 1936 issue that the coin had been awaited with anticipation by hobbyists because of an announcement that it would bear the likeness of Foster , but " when it finally appeared many expressions of approval of the designs were heard and a few criticisms ... Foster deserved a better bust than the one the artist has given us ... the toy four @-@ string lyre [ the goddess ] holds in her hand is not in keeping with the times or the occasion ... After all these years , Music deserved something better . " Coin dealer B. Max Mehl , in his monograph on commemorative coins published in 1937 , agreed with the criticism of the reverse , " apparently this lyre must have been bought at a 5 ¢ and 10 ¢ Store as it seems to be only a toy " .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his 1971 volume on American coins and medals , Numismatic Art in America , criticized Ortmayer 's design :
The details and style of this coin perpetuate the slender lettering and weak surfaces of the John Sinnock school , as exemplified in the Philadelphia Sesquicentennial half dollar of 1926 . Surfaces are glazed or rubbed over , and the coin has a worn look ... Stephen Foster 's bust on the obverse is a distorted or compressed lump , and the " goddess of music " has much the same appeal of a dancer with cramps .
= = Release , distribution , and collecting = =
The mintage of 15 @,@ 000 was struck in July 1936 . At the Philadelphia and Denver mints , 5 @,@ 005 pieces were produced , and 5 @,@ 006 at San Francisco , with the excess from the even thousands held for inspection and testing at the 1937 meeting of the United States Assay Commission . The first 200 pieces from each mint were collected in sets of three , with a notarized letter from Melish testifying to what number coins they were . Several of these special sets were sent by Melish to government officials .
Melish had been fielding inquiries from collectors since Roosevelt signed the legislation , but from mid @-@ May , those who wrote received back only postcards stating the new issue was oversubscribed . The summer of 1936 was the peak of the commemorative coin boom , and Melish announced the new pieces would be sold in sets of three by mint mark for $ 7 @.@ 75 ( a high price at that time ) . Order blanks were sent to those who had written early , and soon these blanks were selling for $ 10 . Yet few collectors were successful in having their orders filled , with most having their payment returned as the coins had supposedly sold out . The sets quickly jumped in price to $ 40 . At this high level , many coins proved available . Numismatist Q. David Bowers stated that these were most likely surreptitiously sold by Melish and other insiders . Melish also allowed the issuers of the York County Tercentenary half dollar to purchase , at the original issue price , several sets — members of the public could order at most one set at that price . In return , he sought to purchase the other commemorative in quantities beyond the order limit . Nevertheless , when the Oregon Trail Memorial Association , issuer of the long @-@ lived half dollar honoring the trail , tried to purchase a set , Melish replied that they were sold out .
By December , the bottom had dropped out of the commemorative coin market , and dealers who had purchased quantities found themselves unable to dispose of them at a profit . By 1940 the coin sets were selling for $ 15 per set . They thereafter recovered , and by the early 1960s had reached $ 100 a set , and by 1975 $ 550 per set of three . At the height of the second commemorative coin boom in 1980 , they sold for $ 2 @,@ 250 a set . R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins , published in 2015 , lists the sets at between $ 875 and $ 2 @,@ 700 depending on condition . Individual coins are cataloged at about a third of the set prices .
The circumstances of the issuance were not clear at first : Mehl wrote that the coin was to honor the 50th anniversary of the " Cincinnati Musical Center " which was " founded in 1886 " and that " either through good distribution or a great demand , the sets did not go around to all those who wanted them " . Later numismatic writers have been harsh to Melish ; Swiatek deemed the coin issued because of " false claims " on its behalf . Kevin Flynn , in his volume on commemoratives , stated that the Cincinnati piece " was made for pure profit and greed " . Swiatek and Breen , in their 1988 book , suggest that Melish 's group " had only one idea in mind : enriching themselves by publicizing and distributing a limited issue which could be priced into orbit by speculators " .
With the success of the issue , Melish tried to get Congress to authorize 1937 @-@ dated pieces ; he was not successful . He had managed to get Congress to allow another commemorative under his control , the 1936 Cleveland Centennial half dollar . In 1942 , when the ANA held its annual convention in Cincinnati , Melish hosted a hospitality suite . Dubbed the " Pirate 's Den " , it featured paintings he had commissioned , depicting coin dealers and other numismatic personalities in piratical clothes . According to Bowers , " Overlooked was the fact that the greatest pirate of all was surely Melish himself , who undoubtedly treated many of his guests with money taken from them a few years earlier in the sale of Cincinnati sets ! "
|
= Kurt Welter =
Kurt Welter ( 25 February 1916 – 7 March 1949 ) was a German Luftwaffe fighter ace and the most successful Jet Expert of World War II . A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat . He claimed a total of 63 aerial victories — that is , 63 aerial combat encounters resulting in the destruction of the enemy aircraft — achieved in 93 combat missions . He recorded 56 victories at night , including 33 Mosquitos , and scored more aerial victories from a jet fighter aircraft than anyone else in World War II and possibly in aviation history . However this score is a matter of controversy ; research of Royal Air Force losses suggests Welter may have overclaimed .
Welter was born in Cologne @-@ Lindenthal ( Köln @-@ Lindenthal ) on 25 February 1916 . He joined the military service of the Luftwaffe in 1934 and was trained as a pilot . He showed a strong natural ability as a pilot and was subsequently selected for flight instructor training and served many years as a flight instructor . In 1943 Welter transferred to an operational night fighter unit flying contemporary piston engine fighter aircraft . On 18 October 1944 , after 40 combat missions , Welter was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . In early 1945 , Welter transferred to an experimental jet night fighter unit flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 . On 11 March 1945 he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves for 48 aerial victories . Welter survived the war and was killed in an accident at a railroad crossing on 7 March 1949 .
= = Biography = =
Welter was born on 25 February 1916 in Cologne @-@ Lindenthal . Following schooling and completing a merchant apprenticeship , he joined the Luftwaffe on 1 October 1934 and was trained as a pilot . Because of his skill as a pilot he was trained as a flight instructor . During World War II , Welter was promoted to Feldwebel on 1 August 1940 and transferred to flight training school Flieger @-@ Ausbildungs @-@ Regiment 63 and later on to the flight instructor school at Quedlinburg . Here Welter served as a flight instructor until 10 August 1943 when he was transferred to Blindflugschule 10 ( school for instrument flight training ) in Altenburg with the rank of Oberfeldwebel as a night fighter instructor .
On 2 September 1943 , Welter was transferred to 5 . Staffel / Jagdgeschwader 301 ( JG 301 ) , a night fighter squadron that experimented with the use of largely radar @-@ less single @-@ seat Fw 190A @-@ 5 and Fw 190A @-@ 6 fighter aircraft by night , often equipped with the FuG 350 Naxos device , used in the form of German night @-@ fighter operations without AI radar — due to Düppel interference from RAF Bomber Command aircraft — dubbed Wilde Sau ( wild boar ) . On his first Wilde Sau intercept mission against Allied bombers on the night of 22 September 1943 , Welter shot down two Allied four @-@ engine bombers . He shot down a further two on his third mission on the night of 3 October 1943 . By the beginning of April , he had accumulated 17 victories in only 15 missions . Subsequently on 10 May 1944 Welter was awarded the German Cross in Gold . Leutnant Welter was transferred to 5 . Staffel / Jagdgeschwader 300 ( JG 300 ) on 7 July 1944 .
In July , Welter claimed two United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) B @-@ 17 four @-@ engined bombers and three P @-@ 51 fighters , two of which claimed on 19 July between Munich and Memmingen , shot down by day . From 25 July 1944 , Welter served with 1 . Staffel / Nachtjagdgruppe 10 ( NJGr 10 ) performing further Wilde Sau missions . He claimed four Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Lancaster four @-@ engine bombers shot down on the night of 29 August 1944 to record his 24th through 27th victories .
Welter transferred to 10 . / JG 300 on 4 September 1944 . 10 . Staffel / JG 300 was established to counter intrusions by RAF Mosquito twin @-@ engined bombers , flying specially optimized for speed Bf 109G @-@ 6 / AS fighters . In September , Welter claimed seven Mosquitos downed , including one by ramming . It is thought that during his service with 1 . / NJG 10 and 10 . / JG 300 , Welter recorded 12 victories in only 18 missions . On the night of 19 September 1944 , according to Hinchliffe , Welter may have shot down Wing Commander Guy Gibson who was leading a 300 @-@ bomber attack on Mönchengladbach and Rheydt . Gibson 's Mosquito crashed near Steenbergen in the Netherlands . Welter was the only German pilot to have claimed a Mosquito . The claim is unlikely . Welter submitted his victory claim north of Wittenberg in eastern Germany , some hundreds of miles away from the place Gibson 's Mosquito was found . Recent research suggests that his victim was Mosquito VI " PZ177 " of No. 23 Squadron RAF which was shot down by Welter at 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) west of Bad Münder , Holzminden . The crew , F / O. K. Eastwood and Navigator F / L. G.G. Rogers were both killed . Welter was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 October 1944 for 33 victories in just 40 missions .
= = = Flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 = = =
On 2 November 1944 , Welter was transferred to II . Gruppe / Nachtjagdgeschwader 11 ( NJG 11 ) , a reformation of his former unit . Here he was given command of a special Kommando subordinate to II . / NJG 11 , set up on 11 November 1944 at Erprobungsstelle Rechlin 's southern Lärz airbase ( 2 November 1944 – 28 January 1945 ) , and dedicated to performing nocturnal interception with the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter of RAF Mosquitos attacking the Berlin area . According to some sources , Oberleutnant Welter added a Lancaster to his growing list of Mosquitos on the night of 12 December 1944 , the first night victory by a jet fighter . Other sources state that his first aerial victory flying the Me 262 was claimed either on the night of 2 January 1945 or 5 January 1945 . On 28 January 1945 , the unit initially known as Sonderkommando Stamp , named after its founder Major Gerhard Stamp and then Sonderkommando Welter , was re @-@ designated 10 . Staffel / NJG 11 and transferred to the airfield at Burg near Magdeburg ( 28 January 1945 – 12 April 1945 ) . The unit was equipped with radar @-@ less Me 262 jet fighters , and tasked with intercepting Mosquito bomber aircraft of No.8 Group RAF in the Berlin area , with the aid of ground control and the searchlight defences , partially a Wilde Sau form of night combat . Welter had claimed three aerial victories while flying the Me 262 by early February 1945 .
Thereafter , Welter made a string of questionable air combat claims against Mosquito aircraft in the Berlin area – three on the night of 21 February 1945 ( no Mosquitoes lost ) , and another three on the night of 2 March 1945 ( one Mosquito damaged in aerial combat ) . 10 . / NJG 11 made further claims against Mosquito aircraft attacking Berlin on the nights of 21 March 1945 ( three claims ; one Mosquito lost ) , 23 March 1945 ( three claims ; one Mosquito lost , another damaged in aerial combat ) , 24 March 1945 ( two claims ; one Mosquito damaged in aerial combat ) , 27 March 1945 ( two claims ; two Mosquitos lost ) , 30 March 1945 ( four claims ; one Mosquito lost and another damaged in aerial combat ) , 2 April 1945 ( one claim ; one Mosquito lost ) , 3 April 1945 ( two claims ; one Mosquito lost and another damaged in aerial combat ) , and 19 April 1945 ( two claims , no Mosquitos lost ) . The last known aerial combat claim by Welter occurred on the night of 3 April 1945 , when a Mosquito of 139 Squadron , RAF , was shot down over Berlin . Welter was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 11 March 1945 for 48 victories .
= = = Controversy over aerial victories = = =
Much of the controversy surrounding Welter 's claims for success in nocturnal aerial combat with the Me 262 stems from a memorandum written by Welter on 29 May 1945 for his British captors . In this memorandum Welter stated that between December 1944 and the end of January 1945 , as the sole pilot of Kommando Welter , he flew seven Me 262 sorties and achieved three victories against Mosquito aircraft and two victories against Lancaster aircraft . Welter further stated that from the formation of 10 . / NJG 11 on 28 January 1945 to the end of the war , 10 . / NJG 11 flew around another 63 operational sorties and claimed a further 38 victories against Mosquito aircraft at night and five victories against Mosquito aircraft by day ; his share being 20 Mosquitos at night and two during the day . Thus , according to the memo , a total of 25 Mosquitoes and two Lancasters were claimed in aerial combat by Welter , flying the Me 262 with the Kommando / Staffel , while other pilots of the Staffel claimed a further 21 kills ( of which three were achieved with the two @-@ seater Me 262 ) . Official Luftwaffe documents show that by 4 April 1945 , 10 . / NJG 11 had claimed 34 aerial victories , of which only one was claimed in a two @-@ seater Me262 . Research of RAF records show that only a maximum of 15 Mosquitoes could have been possibly destroyed by Kommando Welter — 10 . / NJG 11 .
Officially Kurt Welter was credited with 63 victories in 93 missions , of which 56 victories were achieved at night and seven by day . Among his claimed 63 victories are up to 33 Mosquitos . Thus , there remains some controversy about the exact number of victories achieved while flying the Me 262 , with only three of the Mosquito kills coinciding with RAF records : Welter may have been guilty of overclaiming Welter survived the war and was employed at a sugar factory . He was killed on 7 March 1949 in Leck in Schleswig @-@ Holstein waiting at a level crossing , when logs falling from an improperly loaded passing train crushed his car .
= = Awards = =
Dienstauszeichnung 4th Class ( 1938 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 20 March 1944 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for night fighter pilots in Gold
German Cross in Gold on 10 May 1944 as Fahnenjunker @-@ Oberfeldwebel in the 5 . / JG 301
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 5 October 1943 )
1st Class ( 28 October 1943 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 18 October 1944 as Leutnant and pilot in the 10 . / JG 300
769th Oak Leaves on 11 March 1945 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 10 . / NJG 10
|
= Indianapolis Museum of Art =
The Indianapolis Museum of Art ( known colloquially as the IMA ) is an encyclopedic art museum located in Indianapolis , Indiana , United States . The museum , which underwent a $ 74 million expansion in 2005 , is located on a 152 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) campus on the near northwest area outside downtown Indianapolis , northwest of Crown Hill Cemetery .
The Indianapolis Museum of Art is the ninth oldest and eighth largest encyclopedic art museum in the United States . The permanent collection comprises over 54 @,@ 000 works , including African , American , Asian , and European pieces . Significant areas of the collection include : Neo @-@ Impressionist paintings ; Japanese paintings of the Edo period ; Chinese ceramics and bronzes ; paintings , sculptures , and prints by Paul Gauguin and the Pont @-@ Aven School ; a large number of works by J. M. W. Turner ; and a growing contemporary art collection . Other areas of emphasis include textiles and fashion arts as well as a recent focus on modern design .
In addition to its collections , the museum consists of 100 Acres : The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art and Nature Park ; Oldfields , a restored American Country Place era estate once owned by Josiah K. Lilly , Jr . ; and restored gardens and grounds originally designed by Percival Gallagher of the Olmsted Brothers firm . The IMA also owns the Miller House , a Mid @-@ Century modern home designed by Eero Saarinen and located in Columbus , Indiana . The museum 's holdings demonstrate the institution 's emphasis on the connections among art , design , and the natural environment .
Founded in 1883 by the Art Association of Indianapolis , the first permanent museum was opened in 1906 as part of the John Herron Art Institute . In 1969 , the Art Association of Indianapolis changed its name to the Indianapolis Museum of Art , and in 1970 the museum moved to its current location at Michigan Road and 38th Street north of downtown Indianapolis . Among the Art Association 's founders was May Wright Sewall ( 1844 – 1920 ) , known for her work in the women 's suffrage movement . Other supporters have included Booth Tarkington ( 1869 – 1946 ) , Eli Lilly ( 1885 – 1977 ) , Herman C. Krannert ( 1887 – 1972 ) , and Caroline Marmon Fesler ( 1878 – 1960 ) . The associated John Herron Art Institute was established with the help of notable Hoosier Group artists T. C. Steele and William Forsyth .
Dr. Charles L. Venable is the current Melvin and Bren Simon Director and CEO . The museum is widely recognized as innovative in its development of open source technologies , institutional transparency , and collaboration between museums . In 2008 , the IMA became the first fine art museum to be named an Energy Star partner due to its greening initiative and efforts to reduce energy consumption . In 2009 , the IMA was awarded the National Medal for Museum and Library Service for public service , specifically the museum 's free admission policy and educational programming .
= = History = =
The Indianapolis Museum of Art was founded as the Art Association of Indianapolis , an open @-@ membership group led by the suffragist May Wright Sewall . Formed in 1883 , the organization aimed to inform the public about visual art and provide art education . The Art Association 's first exhibition , which opened November 7 , 1883 , contained 453 artworks from 137 artists . The death of wealthy Indianapolis resident John Herron in 1895 left a substantial bequest with the stipulation that the money be used for a gallery and a school with his name . The John Herron Art Institute opened in 1902 at the corner of 16th and Pennsylvania street . Emphasis on the Arts and Crafts movement grew throughout the early years of the school , with a focus on applied art . William Henry Fox was hired in 1905 as the Art Institute 's first director . From 1905 to 1910 , Fox managed both the museum and the school while constructing two new buildings on the 16th street site .
From the 1930s until the 1950s , the John Herron Art Institute placed an emphasis on professionalism and growth in collections . Wilbur Peat , director of the museum from 1929 until 1965 , acquired significant portions of the collection . Peat also made connections with benefactors such as Dr. George H. A. Clowes , Booth Tarkington , and Eli Lilly . Caroline Marmon Fesler , president of the Art Association of Indianapolis , gave a number of artworks in the 1940s , including 20th @-@ century modern artworks and Post @-@ Impressionist works by Cézanne , Van Gogh , and Seurat . After years of debate surrounding expansion and relocation of the museum and school , the great grandchildren of Eli Lilly , J.K. Lilly III and Ruth Lilly , donated the family estate , Oldfields , to the Art Association of Indianapolis in 1966 . One year later it was decided that the school would become a part of Indiana University 's Indianapolis campus in an effort to assist with accreditation . That same year it was confirmed that the museum would relocate to Oldfields , with the new Krannert Pavilion opening to the public in October 1970 . In 1969 , prior to moving to the new site , the Art Association of Indianapolis officially changed its name to the Indianapolis Museum of Art .
In 2008 , the museum changed its main entrance and address from 1200 West 38th Street to 4000 North Michigan Road .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Construction and renovation = = =
In 1960 , Art Association of Indianapolis board members began discussing the idea of placing the museum at the center of a new cultural campus . Inspired by University Circle in Cleveland , Ohio , board chairman Herman Krannert proposed building an " Acropolitan Area " that would combine a number of cultural institutions in a natural setting . The museum 's location on the grounds of Oldfields allowed architect Ambrose Madison Richardson to build on the idea of an acropolis while also utilizing the natural features of the site . Krannert Pavilion opened in 1970 as the first of four buildings located on the museum 's grounds . Following the opening of Krannert , the expansion continued with the Clowes Pavilion in 1972 , which housed the Clowes ' collection of Old Masters ' . Construction on the Showalter Pavilion and Sutphin Fountain was completed in 1973 . In 1986 Edward Larrabee Barnes was chosen to design the Hulman Pavilion , a new wing of the museum which housed the Eiteljorg collection of African and South Pacific art . The pavilion opened in 1990 and increased the exhibition space to more than 80 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 400 m2 ) . The expansion aimed to provide clearer chronological continuity and a more coherent flow as visitors moved from one gallery to the next .
From the mid @-@ 1990s until 2005 the IMA focused on the next phase of development , the " New Vision " , or what became known as the " New IMA . " After four years of restoration , the Oldfields mansion reopened to the public in June 2002 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2003 . In 2005 the museum completed a three @-@ year , $ 74 million renovation and expansion project that added three new wings and 50 percent more gallery space to the building . In all , the construction added 164 @,@ 000 square feet ( 15 @,@ 200 m2 ) to the museum , in addition to the renovation of 90 @,@ 000 square feet ( 8 @,@ 400 m2 ) of existing space . Renovations included the Hulman and Clowes Pavilions , which house the museum 's European collection , as well as the addition of the Allen Whitehill Clowes Gallery . The expansion aimed to unify the building and campus while creating a more welcoming atmosphere for visitors . As one of three new wings and as a new entry to the building , the Efroymson Pavilion helped to transition visitors between the museum and the surrounding grounds . The Wood Gallery Pavilion added three levels of gallery space as well as a dining area and education suite , while the Deer Zink Pavilion added additional space for private and public events . The architectural focus on welcoming visitors coincided with a new advertising campaign that reached out to a broader , more diverse audience .
= = = Museum grounds = = =
The 152 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) grounds of the IMA contain distinctive features that have been modified over time to create a greater connection between the museum building and its surroundings . The Oldfields estate has been described as a Gesamtkunstwerk , a unified work of art that combines the arts of landscape design , gardening , architecture , interior design , and decorative arts . In addition to the restored gardens and grounds of Oldfields , other notable areas of the grounds include the Sutphin Mall and Fountain , the wheelchair accessible Garden for Everyone , and a working greenhouse and shop . The IMA grounds are also home to 100 Acres : The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art and Nature Park , located behind the museum proper . Garden areas make use of existing features in the natural landscape and incorporate examples of public art , both historical and contemporary .
= = = 100 Acres : The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art and Nature Park = = =
June 20 , 2010 marked the official opening of a large @-@ scale outdoor project undertaken by the IMA . Formerly a gravel pit , 100 Acres : The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art and Nature Park now encompasses a diverse landscape , including wooded areas , wetlands , open fields , a lake and a series of hiking trails that guide visitors past site @-@ specific works of contemporary art . 100 Acres is one of the largest art parks in the country and is the only park to feature an ongoing commission of temporary works . The first eight artists selected to create site @-@ responsive pieces were Atelier Van Lieshout , Kendall Buster , Alfredo Jaar , Jeppe Hein , Los Carpinteros , TTea Mäkipää , Type A , and Andrea Zittel . These works , along with an LEED certified visitor center , are linked by a variety of walking trails .
= = = Historic properties = = =
= = = = Oldfields : Lilly House and gardens = = = =
Oldfields is a 26 @-@ acre ( 110 @,@ 000 m2 ) historic estate and house museum on the grounds of the Indianapolis Museum of Art . The gardens and grounds were restored by the museum in the 1990s . Together with the restoration of the mansion in 2002 , Oldfields is now a rare example of a surviving American Country Place Era estate . The estate was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 2003 . Oldfields was built between 1910 and 1913 by architect Lewis Ketcham Davis for the family of Hugh McKennan Landon , who occupied the home from 1913 until 1932 when it was sold to J. K. Lilly , Jr . Lilly , the late Indianapolis businessman , collector , and philanthropist , renovated and expanded the estate throughout the 1930s and 1940s , updating interiors as well as adding a number of new buildings to the grounds . The 22 @-@ room mansion has undergone historic restoration and is currently interpreted to reflect the 1930s era when the Lilly family occupied the residence . In addition to the home 's significance as a representation of the American country house movement , Oldfields ' gardens and grounds are a rare example of a preserved estate landscape designed by Percival Gallagher of the Olmsted Brothers firm .
= = = = Miller House and gardens = = = =
The Miller House is a Mid @-@ Century modern home designed by Eero Saarinen and located in Columbus , Indiana . The residence was commissioned by American industrialist , philanthropist , and architecture patron J. Irwin Miller and his wife Xenia Simons Miller in 1953 . Design and construction on the Miller House took four years and was completed in 1957 . The home was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2000 . In 2009 , the home and gardens , along with many of the original furnishings , were donated to the Indianapolis Museum of Art by the Miller family . In addition to Eero Saarinen , the house and gardens showcases the work of leading 20th @-@ century figures such as interior designer Alexander Girard , landscape architect Dan Kiley , and principal design associate at the Saarinen office , Kevin Roche .
= = = = Westerley House and gardens = = = =
Located just south of the museum in the Golden Hill neighborhood , Westerley House is the former home of Dr. George H. A. Clowes and wife Edith , and their son , Allen Clowes . Designed by architect Frederick Wallick and built in 1922 , the four @-@ story home consists of 20 rooms as well as a carriage house , a greenhouse , and the surrounding grounds . Allen Clowes died in 2000 and bequeathed the estate to the museum , intending it to serve as an event space and the home for the IMA director . In 2006 the estate underwent a $ 2 @-@ million renovation , with a major gift of $ 800 @,@ 000 by the Allen Whitehill Clowes Foundation and an anonymous donor . Westerley House historically served as a venue for the Clowes family to showcase their fine art collection , which eventually became the foundation for the IMA 's early European collection .
= = Collections = =
The Indianapolis Museum of Art has a permanent collection of over 54 @,@ 000 works that represent cultures from around the world and span over 5 @,@ 000 years . Areas of the collection include : European painting and sculpture ; American painting and sculpture ; prints , drawings , and photographs ; Asian art ; art of Africa , the South Pacific , and the Americas ; ancient art of the Mediterranean ; Design Arts ; textile and fashion arts ; and contemporary art . The museum holds a significant collection of Neo @-@ Impressionist paintings and prints , many of which were given in 1977 by local industrialist W. J. Holliday . Combined with the Neo @-@ Impressionist collection is the Samuel Josefowitz Collection of Gauguin and the School of Pont @-@ Aven , which includes highlights such as Bretons in a Ferryboat by Émile Bernard . The IMA also holds a large collection of works by J.M.W. Turner , containing highlights such as the 1820 watercolor , Rosslyn Castle . The collection , which was formed by a substantial donation by philanthropist Kurt Pantzer in 1979 , includes over fifty watercolors , as well as oil paintings , prints , and etchings .
The European collection , which is organized into works before 1800 and works from 1800 – 1945 , includes highlights such as Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera and The Flageolet Player on the Cliff by Paul Gauguin . Rembrandt 's Self @-@ Portrait is part of the Clowes Fund Collection , which comprises a number of significant Old Masters pieces . Part of the Neo @-@ Impressionist collection , The Channel of Gravelines , Petit Fort Philippe by Georges Seurat was one of the first works to be donated by Caroline Marmon Fesler in the 1940s . Fesler would go on to donate a number of important works , including her bequest in 1961 of notable 20th @-@ century modernism pieces that included Pablo Picasso , Chagall , and Matisse . Pieces in the American collection represent American Impressionism and Modernism , including works by Georgia O 'Keeffe and George Inness . Significant pieces include Hotel Lobby ( 1943 ) by Edward Hopper and Boat Builders by Winslow Homer .
The museum has a substantial Asian art collection , with more than 5 @,@ 000 pieces spanning 4 @,@ 000 years . Most notable is the IMA 's acclaimed collection of Japanese Edo Period paintings , scrolls , and screens . Highlights include A Thousand Peaks and Myriad Ravines , a Ming Dynasty work by Wu Bin , and Buddhist , Daoist , and Confucian Patriarchs , an Edo period panel by Kano Sanraku , in addition to a number of Chinese ceramics and bronzes that were donated by Eli Lilly in 1961 , such as a fine Shang bronze guang . The IMA 's collection is also made up of more than 2 @,@ 000 pieces of African art and artifacts , 1 @,@ 200 of which were donated by Harrison Eiteljorg in 1989 . The IMA has expanded the collection to include both historical and contemporary objects from every major region of Africa , including Egypt . The museum is unique in its inclusive display of Islamic and ancient Egyptian works within the African gallery , rather than with Greek or Roman antiquities . Significant pieces include a female ancestor figure of the Senufo people and Magbo helmet mask for Oro association by master carver Onabanjo of Itu Meko .
The museum 's textile and fashion art collection is made up of 7 @,@ 000 items , including 20th @-@ century , custom @-@ designed costumes by Givenchy , Chanel , and Balmain . The collection includes a number of the world 's fabric traditions , including African textiles donated by sisters Eliza and Sarah Niblack between 1916 and 1933 and a significant collection of Baluchi rugs . Based on the museum 's early history of collecting textiles , items range from couture to silks and antique laces spanning 500 years . Some notable pieces include an Imperial Russian court dress by designer Charles Frederick Worth and Bodhisattva of Wisdom ( Mañjusri ) , a Ming Dynasty silk panel . The museum 's Design Arts collection is made up of European and American pieces from the Renaissance to the present . The collection includes Eliel Saarinen 's sideboard designed in 1929 for The Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition The Architect and the Industrial Arts : An Exhibition of Contemporary American Design and the Bubbles chaise longue designed by Frank Gehry in 1979 for the Experimental Edges Series .
In recent years the IMA has begun to focus on developing its contemporary art collection , which includes works such as Two White Dots in the Air by Alexander Calder and Light and Space III , a permanent installation by Robert Irwin located in the Pulliam Great Hall . Since 2007 the museum has featured site @-@ specific contemporary installations in the Efroymson Pavilion , rotating the temporary works every six months . The Efroymson Pavilion has featured works by artists such as William Lamson , Ball @-@ Nogues Studio , Orly Genger , and Heather Rowe to name a few . Contemporary art is also featured in 100 Acres : The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art and Nature Park , which is unique in its inclusion of commissioned works by emerging mid @-@ career artists . Since 2007 , the IMA has committed to building a modern design collection that illustrates the artistic merits of utilitarian objects . The focus on international contemporary design , combined with the opening of the Miller House in 2011 , is expected to reposition the museum as an authority on design .
= = = Transparency = = =
The IMA 's collecting and deaccessioning practices have utilized technology to provide public access , openness , and transparency in museum operations . Unveiled in March 2009 , the museum 's online deaccession database lists every object being deaccessioned and links new acquisitions to the sold objects that provided funds for their purchase . The IMA has been praised for being the first among museums to openly share their deaccessioning practices and for including the ability to post public comments on entries in the searchable database . The IMA also developed the Association of Art Museum Director 's ( AAMD ) Object Registry , a database that helps museums more easily abide by the 1970 UNESCO ruling that prevents illicit trafficking of antiquities . Since 2003 , the IMA has systematically researched the provenance of artworks created before 1946 and acquired after 1932 .
= = Conservation = =
The IMA 's conservation department was established in 1970 by the museum 's first full @-@ time conservator , Paul Spheeris , and quickly became known as a regional center for conservation . In 1978 the department began providing consulting services to regional institutions , taking on contracts from across the Midwest . An early high profile contract involved the preservation of 45 governors ' portraits over the course of 15 months . The 1979 exhibit , Portraits and Painters of the Governors of Indiana , was held at the IMA from January to March before the portraits were placed on permanent display at the Indiana Statehouse . Other major regional projects have included the conservation and restoration of the Thomas Hart Benton murals , first created for the Indiana Hall at the 1933 Chicago World 's Fair and now located at Indiana University , the Wishard Memorial Hospital murals , the Otto Stark and Clifton Wheeler murals in Indianapolis Public School 54 , and most recently the restoration of the May Wright Sewall Memorial Torches at Herron High School , the former site of the John Herron Art Institute .
Currently , the conservation department serves the needs of the museum through the expertise of specialists in paintings , textiles , works on paper , frames , and objects conservation . The department has grown in both size and staff throughout the years , with the most recent expansion occurring in 2007 . As of 2007 , the IMA owned one of the few computer @-@ based X @-@ ray units in the United States , continuing a trend in X @-@ ray technology that the department began in the 1970s . In 1980 , the department helped organize and establish the Midwest Regional Conservation Guild , which includes conservators and conservation scientists from Indiana , Ohio , Illinois , and Michigan . In the mid @-@ 1980s , the department received attention when head conservator Martin Radecki assisted local authorities in uncovering over two dozen forged T.C. Steele and William Forsythe paintings worth more than $ 200 @,@ 000 . The high profile forgery case led Radecki to organize an exhibit in 1989 , Is it Genuine ? Steele , Forsythe and Forgery in Indiana . The exhibit highlighted conservation techniques and examined how forgeries can be discovered . Another public presentation of conservation took place in 2007 with Sebastiano Mainardi : The Science of Art , a Star Studio exhibit that allowed visitors to watch conservators as they worked on the 16th @-@ century altarpiece . The IMA 's Star Studio is an interactive gallery that enables visitors to learn , through the process of art @-@ making and observation , about the museum 's collections .
In February 2010 , the IMA shifted from current environmental control standards within their exhibition spaces , allowing temperature and humidity fluctuation of a few degrees on either side of the suggested standard . The IMA relinquished the standard after concluding that the majority of artworks could sustain a greater range of humidity , so permitting the museum to save on the cost of energy bills and reduce its carbon footprint .
= = = Conservation Science = = =
In October 2008 , the IMA announced a $ 2 @.@ 6 million grant from the Lilly Endowment to be used toward the creation of a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art conservation science lab . Through a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation , Dr. Gregory Dale Smith , was hired in October 2009 to lead the lab as its senior conservation scientist . A main focus of the lab is researching the IMA 's collection , including couture fashion in the textile collection and objects made of synthetic materials in the design collection . Another focus is scientific research on materials found in the collections , such as resins and dyes on African art pieces and glazes on Asian ceramics . Through the addition of the lab , the IMA aims to establish itself as an internationally recognized conservation center and to increase its potential as a training and professional development resource in conservation science .
= = Exhibitions = =
In 1909 the Art Association campaigned for a major retrospective , the Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens Memorial Exhibition , to be brought to Indianapolis . The exhibition , also referred to as the Saint @-@ Gaudens Memorial Exhibition of Statuary , attracted 56 @,@ 000 visitors during its three @-@ month run , well beyond the board 's goal of attracting 50 @,@ 000 visitors . A 1937 exhibition , Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century , included loans from the Cincinnati Art Museum , the Metropolitan Museum of Art , and the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam . The six @-@ week exhibition presented 65 pieces , including several Rembrandts , and was considered the beginning of the museum 's rise to connoisseurship .
In 1977 , the IMA acquired a collection of Neo @-@ Impressionist paintings from Indianapolis industrialist W.J. Holliday , which was presented in an exhibition in 1983 titled The Aura of Neo @-@ Impressionism : The W.J. Holliday Collection . From 1986 to 1988 , the exhibit traveled to seven cities in the United States and made one stop in Europe at the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam . Opening in the summer of 1987 to coincide with the Pan American Games , Art of the Fantastic : Latin America , 1920 – 1987 presented 125 works by artists from a variety of nations . Well @-@ known artists such as Frida Kahlo and Roberto Matta were featured , as well as artists who had never exhibited outside their native country . The show was the first large @-@ scale presentation of 20th @-@ century Latin American art in the United States in over 20 years and was the museum 's first contemporary exhibition to travel .
In 1992 , the IMA hosted the The William S. Paley Collection , a traveling exhibition organized by the Museum of Modern Art that included Impressionist , Post @-@ Impressionist , and modern pieces collected by the late CBS news chairman William S. Paley . The exhibit helped establish the IMA as a prominent museum venue in the Midwest and brought in a record @-@ setting 60 @,@ 837 visitors . In 2001 , the IMA collaborated with the Armory Museum in Moscow to organize Gifts to the Tsars , 1500 – 1700 : Treasures from the Kremlin . The show helped the IMA form partnerships with local arts organizations , gain international exposure , and attracted a record 70 @,@ 704 visitors . Another important exhibit to travel to the IMA was Roman Art from the Louvre , which attracted 106 @,@ 002 visitors during its 2008 run . The exhibition featured 184 mosaics , frescoes , statues , marble reliefs , and vessels loaned from the permanent collection of the Louvre in Paris , France . It was the largest collection ever loaned from the Louvre to date , and only stopped in three U.S. cities before returning to France .
In 2009 , Sacred Spain : Art and Belief in the Spanish World brought together 71 works of art from a wide variety of lenders , including Peru , Mexico , and the Prado in Spain . The exhibit was composed of a rare collection of pieces , many of which had never been on view in the United States . It featured paintings , sculpture , metalwork , and books by artists such as El Greco , Diego Velázquez , and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo . Andy Warhol Enterprises was displayed at the IMA from October , 2010 to January , 2011 and featured more than 150 works of art by Andy Warhol , as well as archival materials . The exhibition was the largest to illustrate Warhol 's fascination with money and feature consumerism as a central theme . Visitors were able to view the progression of Warhol 's career , from his beginnings as a commercial artist to his multimillion @-@ dollar empire .
= = = Traveling exhibitions = = =
European Design since 1985 : Shaping the New Century was displayed from March 8 to June 21 , 2009 and was the first major survey of contemporary European Design . The exhibition contained a collection of nearly 250 pieces by Western European industrial and decorative designers such as Philippe Starck , Marc Newson and Mathias Bengtsson . Three prominent modes of design emerged from 1985 – 2005 and could be seen in the exhibition : Geometric Minimal design , Biomorphic design and Neo @-@ Pop design . Among the themes addressed throughout the exhibition was the question of what makes something " art " and how to distinguish a museum quality piece in a world full of mass @-@ produced products . Rather than organizing the exhibition by designer or country , the pieces were organized based on the intellectual or philosophical precept under which they fell . After leaving the IMA , the exhibition traveled to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta and the Milwaukee Art Museum in Milwaukee .
Hard Truths : The Art of Thornton Dial , on display from February to September 2011 , includes over 70 large @-@ scale artworks and is the largest assemblage of Thornton Dial 's work ever mounted . The exhibition contextualizes Dial as a relevant , contemporary artist rather than a folk artist or outsider artist as many have portrayed him in the past . The pieces on view in Hard Truths cover a range of social and political themes , many of which address rural life in the south and the treatment of African Americans . After departing Indianapolis , the exhibition is scheduled to travel to New Orleans , Charlotte , North Carolina and Atlanta .
= = = Venice Biennale = = =
In 2010 , the IMA was selected to be the commissioning organization for the United States pavilion at the Venice Biennale ( Biennale di Venezia ) . The IMA 's proposal to create an exhibition featuring the work of Puerto Rican artists Jennifer Allora and Guillermo Calzadilla was accepted by the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs at the U.S. State Department . Allora and Calzadilla were the first collaborative team to be exhibited at the Venice Biennale , and 2011 was the first time American artists from a Spanish @-@ speaking community were selected . Six new works of art will be developed by the pair , who often explore geopolitical themes through their work . The pieces they created for the 2011 U.S. Pavilion will formed an exhibition entitled Gloria and highlighted competitive institutions such as the Olympic Games , the military , and international commerce . Allora and Calzadilla also brought bring elements of performance into their multimedia pieces through the participation of Olympic athletes . Three of the six pieces , entitled Body in Flight ( Delta ) , Body in Flight ( American ) , and Track and Field , featured Olympians Dan O 'Brien , Chellsie Memmel , and David Durante .
= = Administration = =
The Indianapolis Museum of Art is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) corporation which is governed by director and CEO Charles Venable , three vice chairmen , a treasurer , secretary , and 21 additional board members . The museums endowment consists of approximately 120 individual funds devoted to building operations , bond costs , personnel expenses , legal fees and other purposes .
= = = Mission = = =
The Indianapolis Museum of Art serves the creative interests of its communities by fostering exploration of art , design , and the natural environment . The IMA promotes these interests through the collection , presentation , interpretation and conservation of its artistic , historic , and environmental assets .
= = = Affiliates = = =
The IMA has relied on affiliates to support and raise awareness about the museum 's collections since the early 20th century . In 1919 the Friends of American Art was founded to support purchases for the Art Association of Indianapolis and Herron Museum . For two decades the Friends purchased 22 works of art for the collection , funded by members ' annual donations . The Alliance of the Indianapolis Museum of Art was founded in 1958 and planned lectures , black tie balls , and related activities in order to raise funds for the museum . Major gifts included a $ 350 @,@ 000 contribution in 1979 toward the $ 40 million centennial endowment campaign and a $ 500 @,@ 000 contribution toward the IMA 's 1990 expansion . By 2007 the Alliance had provided purchase funds for over 300 works of art . The Contemporary Art Society was formed in 1962 to acquire contemporary art for the museum 's permanent collection . In 1963 , the first major acquisition consisted of 65 works . The Horticultural Society was founded in 1972 to contribute to the care and education of the museum 's gardens and grounds , raising $ 65 @,@ 000 in 1989 toward the restoration of Oldfields ' gardens . In the late 1970s the Second Century Society and the Print and Drawing Society were both formed . The Second Century Society , later known as the IMA Council , was founded to celebrate donations of $ 1 @,@ 000 or more to the museum 's annual operating fund , attracting more than 200 contributors during its inaugural year . In 1979 , the Print and Drawing Society exhibited 70 artworks spanning 500 years in their first exhibit , The Print and Drawing Society Collections . By the late 1980s the museum had expanded its affiliate program to include the Decorative Arts Society , the Asian Arts Society , the Ethnographic Arts Society , and the Fashion Arts Society .
= = = Awards = = =
After undergoing a sustainability initiative that reduced natural gas consumption by 48 percent and electricity consumption by 19 percent , the IMA became the first fine art museum to be named an Energy Star partner in 2008 . As of 2010 , the IMA was one of only 11 museums to receive this recognition by the Environmental Protection Agency . The museum instituted a " greening committee " to organize a variety of efforts to maintain environmental stewardship , a primary component of the institution 's mission .
In 2009 the IMA was awarded the National Medal for Museum and Library Service , one of 10 institutions to receive this annual distinction by the Institute of Museum and Library Services ( IMLS ) . The IMA was recognized for serving its community through a number of programs , including Viewfinders , a school program that serves 9 @,@ 000 local students a year . IMLS also cited the IMA 's free admission , greening and sustainability initiatives , efforts to reach virtual audiences , and improvements in accessibility throughout the museum .
= = Outreach = =
= = = Education = = =
The IMA 's educational initiatives include programming for the local community as well as online audiences . Viewfinders , an art @-@ viewing program that serves 9 @,@ 000 local students a year , uses Visual Thinking Strategy , an arts @-@ based curriculum that teaches critical thinking , communication skills , and visual literacy . The museum 's emphasis on online engagement has led to educational tools such as ArtBabble , a video portal for art museum content . Davis Lab , located within the museum next to the Pulliam Great Hall , is a space where visitors can virtually browse the museum 's collection and experiment with new technology . In addition to its focus on technology and school outreach , the museum provides classes , lectures , and film series , as well as ongoing tours of the collections , historic properties , and grounds . Other programming includes the Star Studio , a space for drop @-@ in art making where visitors , along with museum staff , carry out projects inspired by museum exhibitions .
From 1946 until 1981 , the Indianapolis Junior League provided volunteers and monetary support for the museum 's docent program . In 1981 , the museum began its own docent training program , which continues to serve a large number of volunteer docents through classes and training . As of 2009 over 500 individuals volunteer at the IMA .
= = = Accessibility = = =
Since the 1990s the IMA has continually improved accessibility for visitors ; the initiative was a contributing factor to the museum receiving the National Medal for Museum and Library Service in 2009 . The IMA provides captioning on videos produced by the museum , large print binders for exhibits , accessible seating and sign language interpretation in Tobias Theater , and wheelchair @-@ accessible trails in 100 Acres . The museum also maintains partnerships with the Indiana School for the Deaf and the Indiana School for the Blind . In 1993 the IMA opened the Garden for Everyone , a wheelchair @-@ accessible garden designed to emphasize multiple senses . The garden includes varieties of fragrant and textured plants as well as a number of sculptures , including La Hermana del Hombre Boveda by Pablo Serrano .
= = Initiatives = =
= = = IMA Lab = = =
In February 2010 , the IMA announced the launch of IMA Lab , a consulting service within the museum 's technology department . IMA Lab was designed to address museum @-@ specific technology needs not currently met by software vendors and to provide consulting services to museums and nonprofit organizations that want to use technology to help solve problems and meet objectives . IMA Lab projects include TAP , steve.museum , and the IMA Dashboard . TAP is a mobile tour application for iPod Touch that presents visitors with content related to the IMA 's collection , such as artist interviews , text and audio files , and pictures . Steve.museum , for which IMA Lab is the technical lead , is a project that explores social tagging as a new way to describe collections and make them more accessible .
= = = ArtBabble = = =
In 2009 the IMA launched ArtBabble , an online art themed video website that features interviews and full @-@ length documentaries . ArtBabble serves as a repository for art related media content created by not only the IMA but other institutions . The Smithsonian American Art Museum , San Francisco Museum of Modern Art , Los Angeles County Museum of Art , San Diego Museum of Contemporary Art , and the New York Public Library are some of the 30 worldwide partners who contribute content . ArtBabble was a showcase project for the National Summit on Arts Journalism and was chosen " Best Overall " Best of the Web winner at Museums and the Web 2010 .
= = = IMA Art Services = = =
IMA Art Services is a consulting service focused around public art and modeled after the museum 's other consulting arm , IMA Lab . In January 2011 , IMA Art Services signed its first contract with the Indianapolis Airport Authority . With the $ 100 @,@ 000 , one @-@ year contract , the museum will manage the Indianapolis Airport Authority 's art collection , which includes 40 works currently on display in the passenger terminal of the Indianapolis International Airport .
|
= Typhoon Mary ( 1960 ) =
Typhoon Mary , also nicknamed " Bloody Mary " by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , was an extremely damaging storm that was part of the 1960 Pacific typhoon season . It began as a circulation in a trough in the South China Sea . A tropical depression formed on June 2 , as it was traveling clockwise . It became a tropical storm on the next day , and received the name Mary . It slowly moved across the sea , strengthening to a typhoon . Mary made landfall in Hong Kong on June 8 , and moved through Guangdong and Fujian . It reemerged back to the Pacific Ocean , and restrengthened into a typhoon temporarily . It then traveled east , weakening and becoming extratropical on June 12 .
Mary caused a significant amount of damage in Hong Kong and China . It was considered the worst storm to hit Hong Kong since the typhoon in 1937 . The storm destroyed weak shacks made by refugees from the mainland , leaving thousands homeless . There were multiple landslides , and most of the infrastructure were damaged . More than 400 small watercraft were either damaged or destroyed . In China , dikes and dams were damaged severely , multiple public buildings collapsed , and destroyed large swaths of farmland . Significant wind and rain was also reported in Taiwan . More than 1 @,@ 600 people died during the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early June , a trough extended from Taiwan to the South China Sea , and a small circulation was found at the southwestern part of it . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) designated the system as a tropical depression on June 2 , with a pressure reading of 1 @,@ 000 hectopascals ( 30 inHg ) . JTWC reported it had winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) during that time . On the next day at 1200 UTC , JTWC began tracking the storm as a tropical depression . The system was upgraded to a tropical storm at 1800 UTC , with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , and was given the name Mary by the warning center . By 1800 UTC of June 4 , Mary slowly began turning northward near the Paracel Islands , and had intensified slightly to 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) .
On June 5 , JMA recorded Mary 's lowest pressure reading at 980 hPa ( 29 inHg ) . Two days later , the storm had intensified to 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , and was traveling faster towards Hong Kong . On June 7 , at 0600 UTC , Mary quickly strengthened to a typhoon , with winds up to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Mary peaked at 0600 UTC on June 8 , just offshore of Hong Kong , with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , and JTWC estimated the pressure was 975 hPa ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Twelve hours later , the storm made landfall on Hong Kong northwest of Kowloon . Inland , the typhoon slowly weakened to 90 km / h ( 55 mph ) by June 10 , back to a tropical storm . The system gained speed as it traveled through Guangdong and Fujian provinces . Mary soon reemerged back to the ocean later than day , began restrengthening , and was found to have 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) winds , recorded by the U.S. Navy . The storm briefly became a typhoon at 1800 UTC , and reconnaissance aircraft recorded winds just above typhoon strength , although the circulation did not have eyewalls . It was downgraded to a tropical storm on June 11 at 1200 UTC .
Another reconnaissance aircraft flew into Mary again at 2330 UTC , reporting that there was no eyewall in the storm and recorded winds up to 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Mary continued to weaken until June 12 , when JTWC and JMA declared the storm had become extratropical southeast of Tokyo . JMA continued to track the extratropical cyclone until it reached the International Date Line on June 18 .
= = Preparations , impact and aftermath = =
Before Mary made landfall , 80 freighters and liners arrived in Hong Kong to ride out the storm . In Okinawa , military personnel were evacuated to safe areas , and planes were all protected . Meanwhile , a joint military exercise by the South Korean and American Marines were delayed by one day due to the storm .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
Typhoon Mary was considered the worst storm to hit Hong Kong in 23 years . The typhoon arrived at the colony on June 8 , dropping 35 @.@ 9 centimetres ( 14 @.@ 12 in ) of rain in 24 hours . Average gusts were reported at 119 kilometres per hour ( 64 kn ) on Waglan Island , with 194 kilometres per hour ( 105 kn ) at times . At the Royal Observatory , the storm dropped 42 @.@ 7 cm ( 16 @.@ 83 in ) of rain . The mean winds blew southwesterly at 87 km / h ( 47 kn ) , exposing many small boats and villages . The No. 10 warning signal was issued by the Royal Observatory . However , according to the report written by the Observatory , the use of No. 10 warning signal was not strictly justified according to international procedures , since sustained surface winds of 119 km / h ( 64 kn ) were not observed . Across the colony , damage to roads , buildings , and communication were significant . Landslides , and other fallen debris blocked roads , and weak refugee shacks in the hills , made out of tin and tar paper , quickly collapsed . All stores and public transportation were shut down inside the city . The Customs reported that more than 50 fishing vessels capsized and sank in the anchorages during the typhoon . Two ocean freighters , the Malaya Fir and the Wan Fu , ran aground onto the Kai Tak Airstrip . Although the floods have caused extreme damage , it helped with the local shortage of water , with reservoirs gaining eleven million kilolitres ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) of water .
After the storm , 18 @,@ 000 refugees from Mainland China became homeless . The official count was 45 casualties , 11 missing , and 127 injured , with most casualties coming from refugees . Overall , 462 small watercraft were damaged or destroyed .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In Mainland China , the typhoon brought heavy rain and wind into the provinces of Guangdong and Fujian . Dikes and dams were severely damaged by the storm , leading to severe flooding . Thousands of people were trying to reinforce these as the floodwaters continued to rise . Manpower was also used to gather ripened crops before the storm destroyed them . More than 4 @,@ 800 buildings were damaged , and over 540 @,@ 000 hectares ( 1 @,@ 330 @,@ 000 acres ) of land was affected by the storm . The total number of casualties was reportedly 1 @,@ 600 ; and 180 @,@ 000 cattle were reported killed .
Macau received a similar amount of rain as Hong Kong , which caused local flooding . The winds uprooted trees , blocking local streets .
About 260 kilometres ( 160 mi ) southeast of Hong Kong , the cargo ship Sheng Lee sank during the typhoon . Fifty @-@ four survivors were rescued and safely transported to the British colony by the Royal Navy frigate HMS Torquay , with help from Dutch ships , and the Republic of China Navy and Air Force .
Off the coast of Mainland China , in the Matsu Islands , many fishing boats were damaged by the heavy seas and the torrential rainfall . Three people were injured in the islands . In Taiwan , downtown Taipei received significant flooding , and some rice crops on the south part of the island were damaged . Although there were no reported deaths on the island , four fisherman offshore died . The nearby Okinawa Islands received winds around 105 kilometres per hour ( 65 mph ) .
|
= Neighborhoods ( Blink @-@ 182 album ) =
Neighborhoods is the sixth studio album by the American rock band Blink @-@ 182 , released September 27 , 2011 through DGC Records and Interscope Records . Their first album of new material in eight years ( the longest gap between albums to date ) , its recording followed the band 's breakup and later reconciliation . Due to conflicts within the trio , the band entered an " indefinite hiatus " in 2005 and the members explored various side @-@ projects . After two separate tragedies regarding the band and their entourage , the members of the band decided to reunite in late 2008 , with plans for a new album and tour . It is the first Blink @-@ 182 album produced by the band members without the help of an outside record producer , as well as the final album with Tom DeLonge before his departure in 2015 .
The band 's studio autonomy , tours , managers and personal projects stalled the recording process , which lasted from shortly after the band 's February 2009 reunion to July 2011 . The band developed Neighborhoods in separate studios and regrouped at various periods to record . The band 's numerous delays in the recording process resulted in the band canceling a European tour and the label setting a deadline for the album to be due . The trio wrote lyrics regarding such subjects as isolation , confusion and death . The band infused inspiration from each member 's various musical tastes to form a unique sound that recalled their separate upbringings , leading the trio to compare the album to separate neighborhoods .
Neighborhoods was released to mixed reviews from critics ; some felt it was a natural evolution from the band 's previous releases , while others found it stale and disjointed . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 and " Up All Night " and " After Midnight " were released as singles , with both attracting modest success on Billboard 's Alternative Songs chart . Despite this , Neighborhoods did not sell as well as earlier releases and the band would depart from Interscope the following fall . The group would later look back on their comeback album with divided feelings ; DeLonge would admit that the recording methods perhaps created less unity within the group .
= = Background = =
Blink @-@ 182 announced on February 22 , 2005 that they would be going on an " indefinite hiatus " . The decision , in reality a break @-@ up of the group , stemmed from internal band tension , which had arisen in late 2004 during the band 's European tour . Guitarist and vocalist Tom DeLonge expressed his desire to take a half @-@ year respite from touring in order to spend more time with family . Bassist and vocalist Mark Hoppus and drummer Travis Barker were dismayed by his decision , which they felt was an overly long break . Following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake , DeLonge agreed to perform at Music for Relief 's Concert for South Asia , a benefit show to aid victims . Further arguments ensued during rehearsals , rooted in the band members ' increasing paranoia and bitterness toward one another . DeLonge felt his priorities were " mad different , " and the breakdown in communication led to heated exchanges , resulting in his exit from the group . During the hiatus , DeLonge formed space rock band Angels & Airwaves while Barker and Hoppus continued playing together in + 44 . Two events in late 2008 would lead to the band 's eventual reformation : the death of longtime producer Jerry Finn ( who suffered a cerebral hemorrhage ) and a near @-@ fatal plane crash involving Barker and collaborator DJ AM .
Immediately the two incidents raised rumors of a possible Blink @-@ 182 reunion . Hoppus was alerted about Barker 's accident by a phone call in the middle of the night and jumped on the next flight to the burn center . DeLonge learned of the crash via the TV news at an airport while waiting to board a flight . He landed and mailed a letter and two photographs to Barker : a photo of Blink aboard a submarine in the Middle East and another of himself and his two kids . " One was ' Do you remember who we were ? ' and the other was ' This is who I am now , ' " DeLonge said DeLonge also commented that , no matter what happened between himself and Barker in the past , " none of it matters when it comes down to somebody getting hurt . " Hoppus first spoke on the matter in a blog post in November 2008 , writing that he " hadn 't had it in him " to post , adding that " these past two months have been the hardest times I can remember . " He also revealed that he , DeLonge , and Barker had all spoken in the aftermath . Barker quashed reunion rumors in December , but noted that they had been getting along .
Talk of a reunion commenced weeks after the trio began speaking again . After a two @-@ hour phone conversation between DeLonge and Hoppus , an arrangement was made for the trio to meet up at Hoppus and Barker 's Los Angeles studio in October 2008 . DeLonge was the first to approach the subject of reuniting . The trio had , in Hoppus 's words , " two gnarly heart @-@ to @-@ hearts , " during which the three opened up . " Tom had just kind of come out to Los Angeles for the day , " recalled Hoppus , " I remember he said , ' So , what do you guys think ? Where are your heads at ? ' And I said , ' I think we should continue with what we 've been doing for the past 17 years . I think we should get back on the road and back in the studio and do what we love doing . ' " Eventually , the band appeared for the first time on stage together in nearly five years as presenters at the 51st Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2009 . The band 's official website was updated with a statement : " To put it simply , We 're back . We mean , really back . Picking up where we left off and then some . In the studio writing and recording a new album . Preparing to tour the world yet again . Friendships reformed . 17 years deep in our legacy . "
= = Recording and production = =
The band began recording demos of new material in 2009 . All three members brought song ideas that they worked on for years . As the band got back together , Barker said that the trio immediately " got inspired " by practicing their old songs and listening to them again , and they decided to record demos . There were four demos done , and only one was near completion , " Up All Night " . The trio wanted to release it as a single then , but quickly they realized that it was too ambitious to complete it before their reunion tour began in July . Sessions were stalled by the summer 2009 reunion tour , during which the band reconnected musically and emotionally . During the tour , Barker got the phone call that DJ AM had overdosed and died in New York , which heavily affected him . In addition to the tragedy regarding DJ AM , DeLonge was diagnosed with skin cancer the following year , but it eventually was cleared . The band did a large amount of writing before leaving on tour , but upon completion of the tour , they took time off to " take a couple of months and chill and do other stuff , " with intentions to regroup in 2010 . In June and July 2010 , the band spent time at their rehearsal spot , and their intention was to wrap up touring by September , and stay in the studio for the rest of the year until the album was finished . The album sessions were to be partially documented in The Blinkumentary , which was scrapped in 2012 .
The recording and release of Neighborhoods was delayed multiple times . The recording 's delay was due to the way the band chose to work — in bits and pieces , alone and together , in a pair of California studios — in addition to each member 's busy schedules . The album was recorded at both DeLonge 's studio in San Diego and in Los Angeles by Hoppus and Barker . Recording in separate studios was DeLonge 's idea , and ideas were exchanged via e @-@ mail . Various engineers met up in person to trade files on hard drives . Although the three musicians were rarely in the same room while recording , opting to work on their parts individually , DeLonge asserted that the method of recording was a more efficient way of working considering the schedules , not due to a lack of unity within the band . In addition , Barker was releasing a solo record , DeLonge was involved in Angels & Airwaves , and Hoppus had to fly to New York City once a week to film his television show , Hoppus on Music . The record was the band 's first to be self @-@ produced , due to the death of long @-@ time producer Jerry Finn in 2008 . Not only did Finn helm their last three studio albums , but he served as an invaluable member of the band : part adviser , part impartial observer , he helped smooth out tensions and hone their sound . " I honestly still feel like he ’ s in the studio with us , because for me , personally , everything that was about recording and being in a studio , I learned from Jerry , " said Hoppus . Instead of a producer , each band member had their own dedicated sound engineer . DeLonge , who was against using a producer after self @-@ producing most of his Angels & Airwaves records , described the band situation as " very democratic , " noting that he learned during the recording process to " let go and be okay with not being able to control everything . "
Hoppus attributed the album 's delay to the band learning to work by themselves without Finn , and both DeLonge and Hoppus expressed frustration during the sessions at the band 's cabal of publicists , managers and attorneys ( which DeLonge described as " the absolute diarrhea of bureaucracy " ) . A result of the band 's split was each members hiring his own attorney , and , during the sessions of Neighborhoods , the band had four managers . Later , it was revealed that DeLonge and Hoppus would go months without direct communication , only speaking through their managers . Hoppus moved to London with his family late in the recording process , also complicating matters . Under pressure , the band released a statement in April that effectively rescheduled all European tour dates due to the album 's prolonged recording . The decision — a " hugely expensive " one — was protested by DeLonge but pushed forward by Barker , who felt the trio had made commitments to only tour with new material . The biggest argument of the recording process ensued , which resulted in Geffen Records setting a July 31 deadline for the record amid concerns about the volatility of the band , explaining there would be penalties if the album was not turned in on time . DeLonge joked that , " We 'll probably actually drive it to the ( Geffen ) president 's house at two in the morning and hand it through his bedroom window at the last possible minute . " The band , as a whole , only entered the studio for " one or two weeks " following the release of the statement in the spring , with only three days dedicated to writing . Recording lasted through May and into the summer , and by the time of the July 31 deadline , the record was near completion and finally completed over August .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and lyrics = = =
Stylistically , Neighborhoods has been described as alternative rock and pop punk . Pre @-@ release , the album was described by the band as ambitious , weird , and expansive . The music of the album was inspired by each musician 's tastes : DeLonge 's contributions bear hints of arena and stadium rock , Barker infuses hip hop into his drum tracks , and Hoppus felt compelled by " weird indie rock . " Hoppus stated early on that a goal for the album was to try many new things , but to remain a catchy and " poppy " sensibility . The lyricism of the album was influenced by heavy events in each member 's lives during the latter part of the decade , elements considered dark by Hoppus . The band made sure to produce a few throwback songs recalling their sound in the " mid @-@ 90 's . "
Though DeLonge hoped to retain the angst present in the band 's past work , he wanted to " deliver it in a package that 's very modern , using instrumentations and formulas to launch you into different places with music that is not just three @-@ chord pop @-@ punk with riffs . " He later felt the album was not progressive as he had wished : " I 'm thinking , ' Why don 't we do this ? Why don 't we create these landscapes ? ' I think we should have been pushing ourselves , and trying to push the genre forward . " Likewise , Barker felt DeLonge wanted their music to be derivative of groups such as U2 or Coldplay , commenting , " For us , we were always like ' Blink is Blink , man . We want to sound like fucking Blink @-@ 182 . ' "
Hoppus wrote lyrics dealing with breakdowns in communication and trust and tackled with themes of isolation and confusion , but these lyrics were not specific to any of the band 's history . Hoppus struggled with writing upbeat , happy songs for the album and attributed to dark lyricism to the heavy events occurring shortly before the reunion . MTV News called Neighborhoods the " bleakest thing Blink have ever done , haunted by specters both real — depression , addiction , loss — and imagined , " noting the constant lyrical mention of death in many tracks . The album mixes the electronic flourishes of + 44 and the " laser @-@ light grandeur " of Angels & Airwaves into what MTV News called " a sound that recalls nothing so much as dark streets and black expanses , mostly of the suburban variety . "
= = = Packaging and title = = =
The title Neighborhoods evolved out of the trio discovering that each bring a very different aesthetic to the band , each like different neighborhoods in a city . " Everybody in the world thinks of something unique unto themselves when they hear the word ' Neighborhoods ' , " said Hoppus . " To some it is a big city , others a small town , others suburbia , everything . The world is wide , exciting and very different . That 's what Neighborhoods means to me . " The album artwork for the record was revealed on August 4 , 2011 , featuring the band name written atop a city skyline . The Neighborhoods sleeve contains many names close to the band , including Chloe ( DeLonge 's pet Labrador Retriever ) , Ava and Jon ( DeLonge 's daughter Ava Elizabeth and son Jonas Rocket ) , Jack ( Hoppus ' son ) , Landon , Alabama and Ati ( Barker 's son , daughter and step @-@ daughter , Atiana ) , G ! ( Mike Giant , designer of the cover ) , and lastly , a memorial to DJ AM .
= = Songs = =
" Ghost on the Dance Floor " opens the album , and is specifically about " hearing a song you shared with someone that 's passed . " The track resonated with Barker , who called DeLonge one night because the song affected him while listening to it , because of the death of DJ AM . " Natives " first arose from a tribal beat Barker created in the studio , and the songs title changed multiple times before settling on simplicity . " Up All Night " is the album 's oldest song , and dates to just after the band 's 2009 reunion , when they grouped together and produced demos . The band returned to it multiple times over the recording process , each time making it heavier than before . " After Midnight " was one of four new songs birthed from a last @-@ minute writing session after the band canceled their European tour . Barker 's favorite track ( and originally titled " Travis Beat " ) was written in separate studios but composed and recorded together .
" Snake Charmer " , initially titled " Genesis , " as a reference to the Book of Genesis , is based on the Biblical story of Adam and Eve . It pre @-@ dates the band ’ s reunion , and was a guitar riff DeLonge kept around to expand upon in the future . The song 's coda was composed by Barker and engineer Chris Holmes . Hoppus composed two versions of " Heart 's All Gone " , one fast and one slow , and ended up liking both , so the slower version serves as an interlude on the album 's deluxe edition . " Wishing Well " was solely created by DeLonge , and is what Hoppus describes as the epitome of the album : " It 's very catchy , but the lyrics are really , really dark and a little depressing . " " Kaleidoscope " arose when Hoppus woke up with the song 's opening lyrics in his head , which he expanded into a Descendents @-@ ish classic punk song . " The mentality behind it is being a slacker in 2011 , " Hoppus said . " The 20s and 30s malaise that is America right now . " It was also inspired by the album 's lengthy recording process and the transformation of the band . " This Is Home " was originally titled " Scars to Blame " , but changed considerably when Hoppus took the chorus and bridge and combined it with new lyrics written by DeLonge , morphing it into what he described as " an anthem for youthful abandon . "
" MH 4 @.@ 18 @.@ 2011 " was a working title for a song that was to be named " Hold On " , and represents a combination of Hoppus ' initials and the date he wrote the song . However , DeLonge convinced Hoppus to keep the original title because he thought it sounded cool , likening it to a virus . The song was inspired by one occasion in which Hoppus was idle at a stoplight when a helicopter flew over ahead , casting a large shadow . He began to think of war @-@ torn countries and impoverished areas in which circling helicopters are a " way of life , " and wrote the song to capture that mentality . " Love Is Dangerous " arose from a minimalist , electronic ballad , but gradually took on a heavier sound when combined with guitars . Hoppus described " Fighting the Gravity " as a " very strange song , " and highlighted its production : he ran a drum machine through his bass amp , and when the volume was turned up , it shook the entire building , causing a light fixture in the control room to start shaking . Hoppus and Holmes mic @-@ ed up the fixture , creating the rattling heard near the beginning . " Even If She Falls " is an upbeat , " catchy love song , " that Hoppus viewed as a positive note to end the record on .
= = Release and promotion = =
Expectations for Neighborhoods were described by Alternative Press as " truly gigantic , both within the music industry and the record @-@ buying mainstream . " MTV News called Neighborhoods one of the most anticipated albums of 2010 when the album was scheduled for that year , and then again as one of the most anticipated rock albums of 2011 . Kerrang ! also called it one of the most anticipated releases of 2011 , and it was also featured on a list of Spin 's " 26 Fall Albums That Matter Most " . The album title and release date were officially announced in July 2011 . In preparation of the deluxe edition , the band compiled ten tracks as well as three extras . The deluxe edition tracks are sequenced differently from the standard version . " Up All Night " was released as the album 's lead single on July 14 , and the band began streaming another new song , " Heart 's All Gone " , through a dedicated website on August 4 . The second single from Neighborhoods , titled " After Midnight " premiered on BBC Radio 1 on September 6 , 2011 . The album leaked two weeks before its release , despite being under a very high level of security . Hoppus commented to NME that he was surprised it took so long to leak and was relieved rather than annoyed that it had , reading warm comments about the album online .
Blink @-@ 182 returned to Interscope Records to distribute the album , but found the music industry landscape dramatically different since the band 's last effort . " The label itself has no resources or capital to do what they used to , " DeLonge said in an interview with Billboard , " They just have you locked up on a contract . " Interscope , since the band 's break @-@ up , had greatly pared down its rock department , in contrast to other labels . Blink @-@ 182 broke up at a heightened popularity period for pop punk , but Neighborhoods was released in an era for the genre in which Billboard described as " lacking exciting mainstream representation , " in addition to falling sales for peer bands . The band approached sponsorships , song releases and social media incorporation during the rollout of Neighborhoods . Social media such as Facebook and Twitter were present throughout each stage of the album , which Hoppus believed allowed more direct access and control over the band 's music . Although Modlife , DeLonge 's revenue @-@ sharing online service , was not involved in the promotion of the record , the band 's personal business projects were integrated , such as Macbeth Footwear and Famous Stars and Straps . Retailers such as Hot Topic and Interpunk.com carried different @-@ colored vinyl editions of Neighborhoods that included MP3 download cards . The band partnered with AT & T in order to promote the album , appearing in a national spot for the HTC Status ; the band also partnered with Best Buy , which sold a uniquely colored HTC Status preloaded with the band 's music . Television ads through networks such as ESPN were explored the week of release . In addition , Hoppus and DeLonge appeared in a " film festival " for the fan montage video of " Up All Night " , honoring various Internet fans through tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek categories . " Wishing Well " was released November 21 , 2011 , as a promotional single to alternative radio .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Neighborhoods debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with 151 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . The album dropped to position 10 in its second week , and fell out of the top 20 soon afterward . The album also debuted at number one on both the magazine 's Alternative Albums and Top Rock Albums charts , number two on the Digital Albums chart , and number four on Tastemaker Albums . Internationally , the album performed best in Canada and Australia , where the album also debuted in the number two position . In New Zealand , the album peaked at number three , and the album debuted at number six on the UK Albums Chart and in Germany .
Despite this , sales were not as smooth as the group 's label , Interscope , had hoped , according to Billboard : " Despite the extended hiatus between albums , Neighborhoods failed to connect on the same scale as earlier releases . " As of May 2016 , it had sold 353 @,@ 000 units in the US . In the United Kingdom , the album went silver , certifying sales of 60 @,@ 000 units , and it was certified gold in Australia for sales of 35 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Critical response = = =
Neighborhoods received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 69 , based on 18 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews . " A pre @-@ release review from NME regarded Neighborhoods the band 's best album , calling it " bravely progressive " and noting the dark lyricism and random experimentation . Mike Diver of BBC Music described the album as " unexpectedly great , " and while agreeing the recording process gave some tracks a " dislocated feel , " he concluded that " Neighborhoods could easily have been a disaster – that it ’ s not , and actually a very successful endeavour , is worthy of substantial praise . " Chad Grischow of IGN called Neighborhoods a " startlingly great rock album " in which the band " hits an artistic growth spurt " , summarizing it as " the most mature , rewarding , and best album of their career . " James Montgomery of MTV News called the " long @-@ awaited , decidedly dark comeback album " a new transition for the band , calling Neighborhoods a " deep , dark , downright auto @-@ biographical effort . " AbsolutePunk staff writer Thomas Nassiff called Neighborhoods a " great record " while awarding a score of nine out of ten . He noted the album 's " bleak and dark " lyricism , while describing the album 's sound as containing elements of the trio 's various side @-@ projects , as well as a natural progression from their 2003 album . Nitsuh Abebe of New York Magazine deemed the record " one of those albums on which a group reunites as professionals and equals , each having gone off and collected his own interests via side projects , and then negotiates a sound that brings it all to bear : no @-@ nonsense modern rock , serious but unpretentious , ambitious but full of the same easy hooks as ever . "
Writing for AllMusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine remarked that Neighborhoods is " a different beast than any of the cheerfully snotty early Blink @-@ 182 albums , as the band picks up the gloomy thread left hanging on its eponymous 2003 album ... yet it 's far better to hear Blink @-@ 182 grapple with adolescent angst via the perspective of middle age than vainly attempting to re @-@ create their youth . Perhaps Blink could stand to sharpen their words but it 's better that they concentrated on their music , creating a fairly ridiculous yet mildly compelling prog @-@ punk spin on the suburbs here . " Tom Goodwyn of NME remarked that it finds the band " completely at ease with its past and confident enough to acknowledge their early work , with nods on the album to moments from their whole back catalogue . " British rock magazine Kerrang awarded Neighborhoods a " good " three out of five score in their review . Critic Mark Sutherland noted that while " the finished product is inevitably disjointed , Blink emerge as a surprisingly serious rock proposition . " He went on to add that , " While it occasionally sounds like Mark , Tom , and Travis are playing three different songs at once ( ' Kaleidoscope ' , ' After Midnight ' ) , the band are still capable of producing genuine moments of magnificence . " Scott Heisel of Alternative Press attributed the album 's flaws to the lack of an outside producer and the fact that only a few tracks were written and recorded as a group : " Blink @-@ 182 's members are still capable of writing good songs , but without a strong outside influence ( i.e. , a producer ) and no real desire or effort to consistently work in the same room with one another , the amount of truly transcendent , classic material is minimal . Ultimately , Neighborhoods is a slightly awkward entry in the band 's catalog that shows as much potential as it does flaws . "
Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly awarded the album a " B- " grade , opining that , " the peaks on Neighborhoods — their first disc in eight years — do little more than recall past triumphs . Outside of some latent goth leanings ( ' This Is Home ' ) and a gauzy detour ( ' Ghost on the Dance Floor ' ) , it 's mostly twitch @-@ crunch @-@ whine @-@ repeat . " Michael Brown of Drowned in Sound gave a mixed review , awarding the album a lukewarm five out of ten . He critiqued that , " Blink have the potential for much more than their past reputation may convey , but Neighborhoods is reminiscent of that first awkward conversation after a heated argument , as no @-@ one 's quite sure where to go next . " Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone gave the album three stars out of five , noting elements of sophistication , introspection , and darkness in the music and lyrics and commenting that " Some Clinton @-@ era pants @-@ dropping might 've been a fun nostalgia move . But those days are gone ; it 's their early @-@ 2010s nightmare as much as anyone else 's . " Kyle Ryan of The A.V. Club was critical of DeLonge 's vocals , saying that he " sounds flat as ever , and has a fondness for clunky lyrics " , concluding that " Although Blink @-@ 182 has long since left its past as a bare @-@ bones punk band behind , overwrought rock isn 't its forte , either . Neighborhoods finds a nice balance between the two , but it could still use a little less fussiness . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine considered it uninspired : " When they try to add relatively ambitious elements to the things they actually do well , Blink @-@ 182 is more successful . [ ... ] It 's admirable that Blink @-@ 182 tries to challenge themselves over the course of Neighborhoods , but their growing pains don 't make for a particularly good album or a welcome comeback . " Scott McLennan of The Boston Globe considered the album a step forward , summarizing , " Blink @-@ 182 again delivers a record with nothing outright awful and enough dynamite songs to pack a punch at future tours . " Mikael Wood of Spin called the album " surprisingly and refreshingly low @-@ key , " but its self @-@ examination " comparatively adrift " with the sound of their past .
= = Touring and aftermath = =
Blink @-@ 182 first began touring in support of Neighborhoods with the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour in August 2011 . The 2011 tour marked the tenth anniversary of the tour , which Blink @-@ 182 headlined in its first incarnation . The trio headlined the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour with My Chemical Romance , which ran from August to October 2011 , with additional dates scheduled in Canada with Rancid and Against Me ! . In 2012 the band embarked on a worldwide 20th Anniversary Tour . The band continued touring in 2012 with their 20th Anniversary Tour , where they performed the rescheduled European dates originally canceled in order to continue recording . They were scheduled to headline the Bamboozle 2012 Music Festival but cancelled when Barker had to undergo an operation for tonsilitis . The 20th Anniversary Tour extended into Australia for in 2013 as part of the Soundwave festival , as well as 4 sideshows along the east coast with punk acts The Vandals and Sharks . Barker , who still suffers a fear of flying , did not attend ; Brooks Wackerman , drummer of Bad Religion at the time , filled @-@ in for Barker 's position for the Australian tour .
The band has looked back on Neighborhoods more recently with a divided reaction . In 2012 , DeLonge would concede that the recording method , originally his idea , led to a loss of unity , noting that e @-@ mails dictated the majority of recording of the record , due to the hectic schedules of the band . " There 's some songs on there that I love , but for the most part it was disconnected , " Barker recalled . " It was like , ' You do this part in your studio , and then you 're gonna play on it and send it back to me . ' When we 're not in the studio together , you don 't have the opportunity to gel off each other . " In addition , Barker was still recovering from his 2008 plane crash , which made things difficult in the studio . " Dude , I was still healing , " he told Rolling Stone . " I had scabs all over my body and was , like , a bloody mess . It was just way too soon . "
In 2015 , following DeLonge 's departure , Barker claimed DeLonge " didn 't even care about [ Neighborhoods ] . He didn 't even listen to mixes or masterings from that record . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Mark Hoppus , Tom DeLonge , and Travis Barker .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
|
= Charles Read ( RAAF officer ) =
Air Marshal Sir Charles Frederick Read , KBE , CB , DFC , AFC ( 9 October 1918 – 17 September 2014 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) from 1972 to 1975 . Born in Sydney , Read joined the RAAF in 1937 , and began his career flying biplane fighters . As a Beaufighter pilot , he led No. 31 Squadron and No. 77 Wing in the South West Pacific during World War II . His achievements earned him the Distinguished Flying Cross and a mention in despatches , and he finished the war an acting group captain .
Read 's post @-@ war commands included the Australian First Tactical Air Force , No. 24 ( Commonwealth ) Squadron RAF , Central Flying School and No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing . He was awarded the Air Force Cross in 1960 . Following staff roles , Read took charge of RAAF Base Point Cook and the RAAF Academy in the mid @-@ 1960s , and later RAAF Base Richmond . In 1970 he was promoted to air vice marshal and became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . He succeeded Air Marshal Sir Colin Hannah as CAS in March 1972 , when the latter cut short his term as head of the Air Force to become Governor of Queensland . Air Marshal Read retired from the military in March 1975 and was knighted the following year .
= = Early career = =
Born in Sydney on 9 October 1918 , Read was the son of an immigrant from Bristol , England . He was educated at Sydney Grammar School , where he completed his Leaving Certificate . After working as a clerk in a motoring firm , Read joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 21 July 1937 . He underwent instruction at No. 1 Flying Training School in Point Cook , Victoria , and gained his commission as a pilot officer in June 1938 . Over the next two years he flew with No. 3 Squadron and No. 22 Squadron , which were based at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , and operated Hawker Demon biplanes . He was involved in experimental parachute drops with dummies near Menangle ; on one such test a fundamental flaw in the harness revealed itself when the dummy slipped clean from the chute , necessitating a redesign . By the time Australia declared war on 3 September 1939 , Read had been promoted to flying officer . He later recalled a flurry of activity on the day , but with little real purpose : " After all , we were pretty remote from Europe " .
= = World War II = =
Read was assigned to No. 30 Squadron flying Bristol Beaufighters after the unit was formed in March 1942 ; during this posting he reportedly flew a Beaufighter under the Sydney Harbour Bridge . Squadron Leader Read was subsequently given responsibility for raising No. 31 Squadron , also equipped with Beaufighters . After completing its initial training , the unit was deployed to Coomalie , Northern Territory , in October . Coming under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command , it went into action over Portuguese Timor the following month . By April 1943 , Read had been promoted wing commander . On 2 May , he led a low @-@ level sortie against Penfui airfield , a key base for Japanese raids on Darwin , during which he destroyed two enemy Mitsubishi Zero fighters on the ground with cannon . Read was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for the " courage and skill " he displayed during assaults on Japanese installations , pressed home in the face of severe anti @-@ aircraft fire . The citation was promulgated in the London Gazette on 2 July 1943 .
Returning to Australia , Read held command of No. 1 Service Flying Training School at Point Cook from October 1943 until the unit 's disbandment in September 1944 . He transferred back to the South West Pacific theatre later that year as Officer Commanding No. 77 Wing , which controlled three squadrons of Beaufighters . Read led Beaufighters of No. 31 Squadron into action during the Operation Oboe Six landings at Labuan on 10 June 1945 , and was the first RAAF pilot to land at the newly opened Tarakan airfield on 28 June . He was mentioned in despatches for the operational and administrative efficiency achieved by No. 77 Wing , and by the end of the war was an acting group captain on the headquarters staff of the Australian First Tactical Air Force at Morotai . He took over command of the formation following the end of hostilities , leading it into 1946 as its units were steadily disbanded . Read returned to Australia in early 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Read married Betty Bradshaw on 1 June 1946 ; the couple had three sons . He was the inaugural commanding officer ( CO ) of the re @-@ formed No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook from November 1947 to September 1949 . During this time he was offered a permanent commission in the post @-@ war Air Force , with the provisional rank of squadron leader . Read was then promoted to substantive wing commander , and posted to England where he led No. 24 ( Commonwealth ) Squadron RAF from March to December 1950 . Returning from England in 1952 , he was made CO of Central Flying School at RAAF Base East Sale , Victoria , and went on to hold staff appointments at Headquarters Training Command from 1953 to 1957 .
As group captain , Read commanded No. 82 Wing at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , from February 1957 to July 1960 , flying English Electric Canberra jet bombers . He was awarded the Air Force Cross in the 1960 New Year Honours . Read then served as Director of Operational Requirements at the Department of Air in Canberra . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1964 New Year Honours for his work introducing aircraft and weapons systems into the Air Force , including two overseas missions for aircraft and equipment selection . In December 1964 he was promoted to air commodore , and the following year attended the Imperial Defence College in London . Read was made Officer Commanding RAAF Base Point Cook in January 1966 , simultaneously holding the appointment of Commandant of RAAF Academy . He then served as Officer Commanding RAAF Base Richmond from March 1968 to July 1969 .
Read was promoted air vice marshal and made Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( DCAS ) in January 1970 . In 1962 , while Director of Operational Requirements , he had recommended the Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopter for Australian service . As DCAS , after plans to acquire such a heavy @-@ lift capability had languished for eight years , Read was able to finally give the go @-@ ahead for their purchase . He led a team to the United States in May 1970 to review a proposal to lease two squadrons of McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms to provide an interim strike force for the RAAF , pending delivery of the long @-@ delayed General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber . According to the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , Read 's decision to take up the F @-@ 4E offer , over competing Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer and Grumman A @-@ 6 Intruder options , " delighted RAAF senior officers and aircrews " .
In March 1972 , Air Marshal Sir Colin Hannah resigned as CAS one year short of his planned three @-@ year term , to become Governor of Queensland . Read had not been consulted by Hannah prior to the latter 's departure , and was reputed to be somewhat reluctant to take over the CAS role . Nevertheless , he was promoted to air marshal and served a full three @-@ year tour as the Air Force 's senior officer . Read was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1972 Queen 's Birthday Honours . A highlight of his tenure as CAS was the belated entry into RAAF service of the F @-@ 111C with No. 82 Wing in June 1973 ; as well as being an advocate for building up Australia 's offensive strike capability , he had been a member of the 1963 mission led by Air Marshal Val Hancock to examine replacements for the Canberra , which led to the F @-@ 111 's acquisition . Read ordered the Officer Commanding No. 82 Wing , Group Captain Jake Newham , to operate the F @-@ 111 with great caution initially , well within limits , lest the controversial aircraft suffer greater damage to its reputation through early attrition . Read felt that " the nature of the office of CAS changed for the worse " towards the end of his term as the RAAF 's senior officer , as a plethora of committees sprang up in the wake of the Tange report on the defence force . In the words of historian Alan Stephens , " The seemingly interminable round of committee meetings which followed the Tange reorganisation made management very difficult , to the extent that Air Marshal Read often felt he was fighting against the system rather than working with it " .
= = Retirement = =
Read retired from military life on 20 March 1975 and was succeeded by Air Marshal James Rowland , who later became Governor of New South Wales . Considered disdainful of bureaucracy and some of the trappings of high office , Read refused to sit for the traditional portrait painted of former Chiefs of the Air Staff . As CAS during the Whitlam Labor government , which was generally antipathetic to imperial knighthoods , he was not raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) until the 1976 Queen 's Birthday Honours , after the Liberal Party under Malcolm Fraser had been returned to power . Originally from Vaucluse , in Sydney 's east , by 2010 Read was living in Safety Beach , on the New South Wales Mid North Coast . He died at Woolgoolga and District Retirement Village on 17 September 2014 .
|
= German cruiser Karlsruhe =
Karlsruhe was a light cruiser , the second member of the Königsberg class , and was operated between 1929 and April 1940 , including service in World War II . She was operated by two German navies , the Reichsmarine and the Kriegsmarine . She had two sister ships , Königsberg and Köln . Karlsruhe was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel ; she was laid down in July 1926 , launched in August 1927 , and commissioned into the Reichsmarine in November 1929 . She was armed with a main battery of nine 15 cm SK C / 25 guns in three triple turrets and had a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) .
Like her sisters , Karlsruhe served as a training cruiser for naval cadets throughout the 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War , she joined the non @-@ intervention patrols off the Spanish coast . She was in the process of being modernized at the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , and so she was not ready for action until April 1940 , when she participated in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway . She landed troops at Kristiansand , and while returning to Germany , she was attacked by the British submarine HMS Truant ; two torpedoes hit the ship and caused significant damage . Unable to return to port , Karlsruhe was scuttled by one of the escorting torpedo boats .
= = Characteristics = =
Karlsruhe was 174 meters ( 571 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 15 @.@ 2 m ( 50 ft ) and a maximum draft of 6 @.@ 28 m ( 20 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 700 long tons ( 7 @,@ 800 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of four steam turbines and a pair of 10 @-@ cylinder four @-@ stroke diesel engines . Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine @-@ type double @-@ ended oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 600 km ; 6 @,@ 600 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Karlsruhe had a crew of 21 officers and 493 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with nine 15 cm SK C / 25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets . One was located forward , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . The rear gun turrets were offset to increase their arc of fire . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 080 rounds of ammunition , for 120 shells per gun . The ship was also equipped with two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in single mounts ; they had 400 rounds of ammunition each . Karlsruhe also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships ; they were supplied with twenty @-@ four 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedoes . She was also capable of carrying 120 naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships and an armored belt that was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
The new cruiser was ordered as " Cruiser C " and given the temporary name Ersatz Medusa as a replacement for the old cruiser Medusa . Construction of Karlsruhe began on 27 July 1926 with her keel laying at the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel . She was launched on 20 August 1927 , and she was commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 6 November 1929 . Karlsruhe completed sea trials in the Baltic Sea after entering service , after which she was assigned to training ship duty . In May 1930 , she departed on her first overseas training cruise , to Africa and South America . After returning to Germany , she was modernized late in the year ; her foremast was shortened , and her rear superstructure was slightly enlarged . Over the next five years , she embarked on four more world cruises for naval cadets , traveling as far as Japan . Between each cruise , she conducted exercises with the rest of the fleet in German waters . Günther Lütjens served as the ship 's commander from September 1934 to September 1935 . In 1935 , she had more modifications made , including the installation of a pole mast aft of the funnels , along with an aircraft catapult amidships with a crane to handle floatplanes .
On her last training cruise in 1936 , Karlsruhe was badly damaged by a tropical storm in the Pacific Ocean . Structural weaknesses in her mostly @-@ welded hull plating caused significant damage , and the cruiser was forced to put in to San Diego in April for repairs . There , her hull was repaired and strengthened , which increased her displacement and beam slightly . She returned to Germany in June 1936 , and immediately went into drydock for more permanent repairs and a major overhaul . During this period in dockyard hands , she had her two single @-@ mount 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns replaced with three twin @-@ mounts . Fire control directors were also installed for these guns . After emerging from this refit , she conducted sea trials and then joined the non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War , though she only remained off Spain for a few months .
= = = World War II = = =
After returning to Germany , she resumed training duties in the Baltic . She was withdrawn from service in May 1938 for a major modernization . The funnels were modified with raked caps and searchlight platforms on their sides . The ship 's 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were replaced with more powerful 10 @.@ 5 cm guns . Work lasted until November 1939 , shortly after the outbreak of World War II . She spent the next several months on trials and training maneuvers . On 4 January , Karlsruhe and the minelayer Schiff 23 were sent to intercept the Swedish steamer Konung Oscar , which was transporting Polish refugees from Riga to Sweden . Karlsruhe caught the Swedish vessel , declared it a prize , and sent it and the 41 Poles aboard to Memel . She was not ready for combat operations by the start of Operation Weserübung , so she was used as a troop transport for the attack on Kristiansand . The attack force also included an E @-@ boat tender , four large torpedo boats , and several E @-@ boats .
The invasion force left Bremerhaven early on 8 April 1940 , bound for Kristiansand . When they arrived , a heavy fog obscured the city , making the passage of the fjord outside the harbor very dangerous . As a result , they had to wait until the following morning to begin the attack . As Karlsruhe entered the fjord , she came under heavy fire from the Norwegian coastal guns . The cruiser turned in the fjord to bring her full broadside into action ; the artillery duel lasted for about two hours before heavy fog again covered the port , forcing both sides to cease fire . The Norwegians surrendered an hour later , and the German ships landed their soldiers .
Karlsruhe then left Kristiansand with three of the torpedo boats as escorts . The British submarine HMS Truant was positioned outside the fjord , and when her crew spotted the German ships , she fired a spread of torpedoes . Karlsruhe zig @-@ zagged to evade the torpedoes , but two still hit the ship ; one struck her bow and the other hit amidships . They blasted large holes in the hull and allowed thousands of tons of water to flood the ship . The flooding disabled her engines and electricity generators , which cut off power to the pumps that were trying to keep pace with the progressively worsening flooding . With the pumps shut off , there was no hope to save Karlsruhe , and so her commander , Friedrich Rieve issued the order to abandon her two hours after the attack . The torpedo boat Greif took off her crew and fired two more torpedoes into the ship to ensure that she sank .
Rieve and his executive officer were both severely criticized for failing to take all possible steps to save Karlsruhe in a later investigation into the sinking . The report concluded that since the ship was still afloat after two hours , and two torpedoes were required to sink her , it might have been possible to take her under tow back to Kristiansand or another port . In addition , the forward pumps still had power , and so the flooding could have been slowed enough to permit a return to a safe harbor .
|
= South Africa at the 2012 Summer Paralympics =
South Africa competed at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London with a team of 62 athletes .
The South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee ( SASCOC ) , which is the National Paralympic Committee of South Africa , announced a team of 62 competitors for the 2012 Paralympics on 20 June 2012 . The team of 45 men and 17 women were accompanied by 45 managers , coaches and other support staff . SASCOC released the team 's schedule on 17 August 2012 .
In a surprise announcement in London on 8 September the South African Minister of Sport and Recreation Fikile Mbalula said that Paralympic medal winners and their coaches would receive the same performance bonuses that their Olympic counterparts were promised . The amounts initially promised were significantly lower . The minister said the original plan was discriminatory .
= = Medallists = =
The following South African competitors won medals at the games .
= = Athletics = =
South African track and field athletes won a combined 17 medals at the Games , four gold , seven silver and six bronze . Sprinter Oscar Pistorius , who carried the nation 's flag at the opening ceremony , was the most successful South African athlete winning individual gold in the T44 400 metres , gold in the 4 × 100 metres relay T42 @-@ 46 , setting world records in both , and individual silver in the T44 200 metres . In the 200 metres event Pistorius set a new world record in his heat , but he was defeated in the final by Brazilian Alan Oliveira . After the race Pistorius raised an issue about the length of Oliveira 's blades , he later apologised for the timing of his remarks , but not the content of his complaint . The IPC confirmed the length of Oliveira ’ s blades were proportional to his body and legal , but expressed willingness to engage with Pistorius about the issue .
Key
Note – Ranks given for preliminary rounds are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or by position without achieving the qualifying target
AF
= African record
NR =
National record
SB
= Seasonal Best
PB =
Personal Best
N / A
= Round not applicable for the event
Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
DNS = Did not start / Withdrawn
Men — track
Men — field
Women — track
Women — field
Management Team
Manager : Dion Bishop
Coaches : Suzanne Ferreira , Zelda Hansen , Hennie Koekemoer , Karin le Roux , Ampie Louw
Team assistant : Neels Matthyser
Helper : Illse du Preez .
= = Cycling = =
Key
DNF
= Did not finish
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
= = = Road = = =
= = = Track = = =
Management team
Manager : Mike Burns
Coach : Ricky Kulsen
Mechanic : Pieter Jansen .
= = Equestrian = =
A team of four represented South Africa in the equestrian competition , one man and three women , although Paralympic equestrian competition is not divided by gender . The competition consists of three dressage events , a championship test , a freestyle test and a team test . There are five competitor classes : Ia , Ib , II , III and IV , with Ia being the most and IV the least impaired .
Individual
Team
* Indicates the three best individual scores that count towards the team total .
Management team
Manager : Tracey Cumming
Coach : Chris Haazen
Vet : Sheelagh Higgerty
Grooms : Enoch Cele , Anton Chimbuanda , Elizabeth Newsome , Teri Smith
= = Rowing = =
Qualification Key : FA = Final A ( medal ) ; FB = Final B ( non @-@ medal ) ; R = Repechage
Management
Manager / coach : Marco Galeone
= = Swimming = =
Natalie du Toit , a veteran of three Paralympics and one Olympics , announced her retirement from competitive swimming after this event . South Africa 's first gold medal came from du Toit winning gold in the women 's 100 m butterfly S9 .
Key
Note – Ranks given for preliminary rounds are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or by position without achieving the qualifying target
AF
= African record
NR =
National record
N / A
= Round not applicable for the event
Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
DNS = Did not start / Withdrawn
Men
Women
Management team
Manager : Queeneth Ndlovu
Coach : Karoly Toros
Coach / tapper : Karin Hugo
Tapper / helper : Eeden Meyer
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
South Africa 's men 's wheelchair basketball team were in Group A with Australia , Italy , Spain , Turkey and the United States . Competing athletes are given an eight @-@ level @-@ score specific to wheelchair basketball , ranging from 0 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 with lower scores representing a higher degree of disability . The sum score of all players on the court cannot exceed 14 .
= = = Men 's tournament = = =
Group stage
11th / 12th place match
Management team
Manager : Willie Riechert
Coach : Patrick Fick
Assistant coach : Shadrack Moepeng
Technical coach : Franck Belen
= = Wheelchair tennis = =
Management team
Manager / coach : Holger Losch
Assistant coach : Khotso Matshego .
= = General team management = =
The following people made @-@ up the team 's senior management :
Chef de Mission : Pieter Badenhorst
Project manager : Vinesh Maharaj
Manager ( logistics ) : Clifford Cobers
Logistics : Madira Sehlapelo
Manager ( athletes services ) : Chantelle Jardim
Athlete services : Dumisani Mtwa
Chief medical officer : Wayne Derman
Chief physiotherapist : Grace Hughes
Doctor : Paul Maphoto
Physiotherapists : Given Baloyi , Edwin Bodha , Greshne Davids , Shantal Edwards , Dan Ntseke , Evah Ramashala
Classifier : Tarina van der Stockt
|
= The Nightmare =
The Nightmare is a 1781 oil painting by Anglo @-@ Swiss artist Henry Fuseli ( 1741 – 1825 ) . Since its creation , it has remained Fuseli 's best @-@ known work . With its first exhibition in 1782 at the Royal Academy of London , the image became famous ; an engraved version was widely distributed and the painting was parodied in political satire . Due to its fame , Fuseli painted at least three other versions of the painting .
Interpretations of The Nightmare have varied widely . The canvas seems to portray simultaneously a dreaming woman and the content of her nightmare . The incubus and the horse 's head refer to contemporary belief and folklore about nightmares , but have been ascribed more specific meanings by some theorists . Contemporary critics were taken aback by the overt sexuality of the painting , which has since been interpreted by some scholars as anticipating Jungian ideas about the unconscious .
= = Description and history = =
The Nightmare simultaneously offers both the image of a dream — by indicating the effect of the nightmare on the woman — and a dream image — in symbolically portraying the sleeping vision . It depicts a sleeping woman draped over the end of a bed with her head hanging down , exposing her long neck . She is surmounted by an incubus that peers out at the viewer . The sleeper seems lifeless , and , lying on her back , she takes a position believed to encourage nightmares . Her brilliant coloration is set against the darker reds , yellows , and ochres of the background ; Fuseli used a chiaroscuro effect to create strong contrasts between light and shade . The interior is contemporary and fashionable , and contains a small table on which rests a mirror , phial , and book . The room is hung with red velvet curtains which drape behind the bed . Emerging from a parting in the curtain is the head of a horse with bold , featureless eyes .
For contemporary viewers , The Nightmare invoked the relationship of the incubus and the horse ( mare ) to nightmares . The work was likely inspired by the waking dreams experienced by Fuseli and his contemporaries , who found that these experiences related to folkloric beliefs like the Germanic tales about demons and witches that possessed people who slept alone . In these stories , men were visited by horses or hags , giving rise to the terms " hag @-@ riding " and " mare @-@ riding " , and women were believed to engage in sex with the devil . The etymology of the word " nightmare " , however , does not relate to horses . Rather , the word is derived from mara , a Scandinavian mythological term referring to a spirit sent to torment or suffocate sleepers . The early meaning of " nightmare " included the sleeper 's experience of weight on the chest combined with sleep paralysis , dyspnea , or a feeling of dread . The painting incorporates a variety of imagery associated with these ideas , depicting a mare 's head and a demon crouched atop the woman .
Sleep and dreams were common subjects for the Zürich @-@ born Henry Fuseli , though The Nightmare is unique among his paintings for its lack of reference to literary or religious themes ( Fuseli was an ordained minister ) . His first known painting is Joseph Interpreting the Dreams of the Butler and Baker of Pharaoh ( 1768 ) , and later he produced The Shepherd 's Dream ( 1798 ) inspired by John Milton 's Paradise Lost , and Richard III Visited by Ghosts ( 1798 ) based on Shakespeare 's play .
Fuseli 's knowledge of art history was broad , allowing critics to propose sources for the painting 's elements in antique , classical , and Renaissance art . According to art critic Nicholas Powell , the woman 's pose may derive from the Vatican Ariadne , and the style of the incubus from figures at Selinunte , an archaeological site in Sicily . A source for the woman in Giulio Romano 's The Dream of Hecuba at the Palazzo del Te has also been proposed . Powell links the horse to a woodcut by the German Renaissance artist Hans Baldung or to the marble Horse Tamers on Quirinal Hill , Rome . Fuseli may have added the horse as an afterthought , since a preliminary chalk sketch owned by his biographer did not include it . Its presence in the painting has been viewed as a visual pun on the word " nightmare " and a self @-@ conscious reference to folklore — the horse destabilises the painting 's conceit and contributes to its Gothic tone .
= = = Exhibition = = =
The painting was first shown at the Royal Academy of London in 1782 , where it " excited … an uncommon degree of interest " , according to Fuseli 's early biographer and friend John Knowles .
The painting is owned and currently on display at the Detroit Institute of Arts .
It remained well @-@ known decades later , and Fuseli painted other versions on the same theme . Fuseli sold the original for twenty guineas , and an inexpensive engraving by Thomas Burke circulated widely beginning in January 1783 , earning publisher John Raphael Smith more than 500 pounds . The engraving was underscored by a short poem by Erasmus Darwin , " Night @-@ Mare " :
Darwin included these lines and expanded upon them in his long poem The Loves of the Plants ( 1789 ) , for which Fuseli provided the frontispiece :
= = Interpretation and legacy = =
Contemporary critics often found the work scandalous due to its sexual themes . A few years before he painted The Nightmare , Fuseli had fallen passionately in love with a woman named Anna Landholdt in Zürich , while he was travelling from Rome to London . Landholdt was the niece of his friend , the Swiss physiognomist Johann Kaspar Lavater . Fuseli wrote of his fantasies to Lavater in 1779 :
Last night I had her in bed with me — tossed my bedclothes hugger @-@ mugger — wound my hot and tight @-@ clasped hands about her — fused her body and soul together with my own — poured into her my spirit , breath and strength . Anyone who touches her now commits adultery and incest ! She is mine , and I am hers . And have her I will . …
Fuseli 's marriage proposal met with disapproval from the woman 's father , and in any case Fuseli 's love seems to have been unrequited — Landholdt married a family friend soon after . The Nightmare , then , can be seen as a personal portrayal of the erotic aspects of love lost . Art historian H. W. Janson suggests that the sleeping woman represents Landholdt and that the demon is Fuseli himself . Bolstering this claim is an unfinished portrait of a girl on the back of the painting 's canvas , which may portray Landholdt . Anthropologist Charles Stewart , in his study of erotic dreams and nightmares , characterises the sleeping woman as " voluptuous , " and one scholar of the Gothic describes her as lying in a " sexually receptive position . " In Woman as Sex Object ( 1972 ) , Marcia Allentuck similarly argues that the painting 's intent is to show female orgasm . This is supported by Fuseli 's sexually overt and even pornographic private drawings ( e.g. , Symplegma of Man with Two Women , 1770 – 78 ) . Fuseli 's painting has been considered representative of sublimated sexual instincts . Related interpretations of the painting view the incubus as a dream symbol of male libido , with the sexual act represented by the horse 's intrusion through the curtain . Fuseli himself provided no commentary on his painting .
The Royal Academy exhibition brought Fuseli and his painting enduring fame . The exhibition included Shakespeare @-@ themed works by Fuseli , which won him a commission to produce eight paintings for publisher John Boydell 's Shakespeare Gallery . One version of The Nightmare hung in the home of Fuseli 's close friend and publisher Joseph Johnson , gracing his weekly dinners for London thinkers and writers . The Nightmare was widely plagiarised , and parodies of it were commonly used for political caricature , by George Cruikshank , Thomas Rowlandson , and others . In these satirical scenes , the incubus afflicts subjects such as Napoleon Bonaparte , Louis XVIII , British politician Charles James Fox , and Prime Minister William Pitt . In another example , admiral Lord Nelson is the demon , and his mistress Emma , Lady Hamilton , the sleeper . While some observers have viewed the parodies as mocking Fuseli , it is more likely that The Nightmare was simply a vehicle for ridicule of the caricatured subject . The Danish painter , Nicolai Abraham Abildgaard , whom Fuseli had met in Rome , produced his own version of The Nightmare ( Danish : Mareridt ) which develops on the eroticism of Fuseli 's work . Abildgaard 's painting shows two naked women asleep in the bed ; it is the woman in the foreground who is experiencing the nightmare and the incubus — which is crouched on the woman 's stomach , facing her parted legs — has its tail nestling between her exposed breasts .
Fuseli painted other versions of The Nightmare following the success of the first ; at least three other versions survive . The other important canvas was painted between 1790 and 1791 and is held at the Goethe Museum in Frankfurt . It is smaller than the original , and the woman 's head lies to the left ; a mirror opposes her on the right . The demon is looking at the woman rather than out of the picture , and it has pointed , catlike ears . The most significant difference in the remaining two versions is an erotic statuette of a couple on the table .
= = = Influence on literature = = =
The Nightmare likely influenced Mary Shelley in a scene from her famous Gothic novel Frankenstein , or , The Modern Prometheus ( 1818 ) . Shelley would have been familiar with the painting ; her parents , Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin , knew Fuseli . The iconic imagery associated with the Creature 's murder of the protagonist Victor 's wife seems to draw from the canvas : " She was there , lifeless and inanimate , thrown across the bed , her head hanging down , and her pale and distorted features half covered by hair . " The novel and Fuseli 's biography share a parallel theme : just as Fuseli 's incubus is infused with the artist 's emotions in seeing Landholdt marry another man , Shelley 's monster promises to get revenge on Victor on the night of his wedding . Like Frankenstein 's monster , Fuseli 's demon symbolically seeks to forestall a marriage .
Edgar Allan Poe may have evoked The Nightmare in his short story " The Fall of the House of Usher " ( 1839 ) . His narrator compares a painting hanging in Usher 's house to a Fuseli work , and reveals that an " irrepressible tremor gradually pervaded my frame ; and , at length , there sat upon my heart an incubus of utterly causeless alarm " . Poe and Fuseli shared an interest in the subconscious ; Fuseli is often quoted as saying , " One of the most unexplored regions of art are dreams " .
Armin Greder references " The Nightmare " in his children 's book " The Island " ( 2007 ) in the second panel of the double page spread across pages 17 and 18 .
= = = In the twentieth and twenty @-@ first centuries = = =
Fuseli 's Nightmare reverberated with twentieth @-@ century psychological theorists . In 1926 , American writer Max Eastman paid a visit to Sigmund Freud and claimed to have seen a print of The Nightmare displayed next to Rembrandt 's The Anatomy Lesson in Freud 's Vienna apartment . Psychoanalyst and Freud biographer Ernest Jones chose another version of Fuseli 's painting as the frontispiece of his book On the Nightmare ( 1931 ) ; however , neither Freud nor Jones mentioned these paintings in their writings about dreams . Carl Jung included The Nightmare and other Fuseli works in his Man and His Symbols ( 1964 ) .
Tate Britain held an exhibition titled Gothic Nightmares : Fuseli , Blake and the Romantic Imagination between 15 February and 1 May 2006 , with Fuseli 's Nightmare as the central exhibit . The catalogue indicated the painting 's influence on films such as the original Frankenstein ( 1931 ) and The Marquise of O ( 1976 ) . Among modern artists , Balthus appears to have incorporated elements of The Nightmare in his work ( e.g. , The Room , 1952 – 54 ) .
Ken Russell 's Gothic ( film ) - 1986 features various interpretations of Nightmare as a central theme .
The 1993 Computer Game The 7th Guest features this painting in an animated form where the succubus repeatedly stabs the woman with a dagger while crouched on her stomach .
On 7 November 2011 Steve Bell produced a cartoon with Angela Merkel as the sleeper and Silvio Berlusconi as the monster .
The 2011 film The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn - Part 1 displays the painting in a sequence where Edward Cullen researches demon children on the Internet .
In Season 2 , episode 3 of the BBC television show The Fall ( aired November 27 , 2014 on BBC Two ) , Paul Spector sets a digital image of the painting as the wallpaper for DSI Stella Gibson 's laptop when he breaks into her room . A printed copy of the painting also appears in season 2 episode 4 ( aired December 4 , 2014 , on BBC Two ) , as evidence under investigation .
In season 7 , episode 35 of Carton Network 's " Adventure Time " ( aired May 26 , 2016 ) , the character Prince Gumball is portrayed as the woman in this painting . It is shown as imagery during a personal conversation with Butterscotch Butler .
|
= Symphony No. 8 ( Mahler ) =
The Symphony No. 8 in E @-@ flat major by Gustav Mahler is one of the largest @-@ scale choral works in the classical concert repertoire . Because it requires huge instrumental and vocal forces it is frequently called the " Symphony of a Thousand " , although the work is normally presented with far fewer than a thousand performers and the composer did not sanction that name . The work was composed in a single inspired burst , at Maiernigg in southern Austria in the summer of 1906 . The last of Mahler 's works that was premiered in his lifetime , the symphony was a critical and popular success when he conducted its first performance in Munich on 12 September 1910 .
The fusion of song and symphony had been a characteristic of Mahler 's early works . In his " middle " compositional period after 1901 , a change of direction led him to produce three purely instrumental symphonies . The Eighth , marking the end of the middle period , returns to a combination of orchestra and voice in a symphonic context . The structure of the work is unconventional ; instead of the normal framework of several movements , the piece is in two parts . Part I is based on the Latin text of a 9th @-@ century Christian hymn for Pentecost , Veni creator spiritus ( " Come , Creator Spirit " ) , and Part II is a setting of the words from the closing scene of Goethe 's Faust . The two parts are unified by a common idea , that of redemption through the power of love , a unity conveyed through shared musical themes .
Mahler had been convinced from the start of the work 's significance ; in renouncing the pessimism that had marked much of his music , he offered the Eighth as an expression of confidence in the eternal human spirit . In the period following the composer 's death , performances were comparatively rare . However , from the mid @-@ 20th century onwards the symphony has been heard regularly in concert halls all over the world , and has been recorded many times . While recognising its wide popularity , modern critics have divided opinions on the work ; Theodor W. Adorno , Robert Simpson and Jonathan Carr found its optimism unconvincing , and considered it artistically and musically inferior to Mahler 's other symphonies . Conversely , it has also been compared — by Deryck Cooke — to Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony as a defining human statement for its century .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
By the summer of 1906 , Mahler had been director of the Vienna Hofoper for nine years . Throughout this time his practice was to leave Vienna at the close of the Hofoper season for a summer retreat , where he could devote himself to composition . Since 1899 this haven had been at Maiernigg , near the resort town of Maria Wörth in Carinthia , southern Austria , where Mahler built a villa overlooking the Wörthersee . In these restful surroundings Mahler completed his Fourth , Fifth , Sixth and Seventh symphonies , his Rückert songs and his song cycle Kindertotenlieder ( " Songs on the Death of Children " ) .
Until 1901 , Mahler 's compositions had been heavily influenced by the German folk @-@ poem collection Des Knaben Wunderhorn ( " The Youth 's Magic Horn " ) , which he had first encountered around 1887 . The music of Mahler 's many Wunderhorn settings is reflected in his Second , Third and Fourth symphonies , which all employ vocal as well as instrumental forces . From about 1901 , however , Mahler 's music underwent a change in character as he moved into the middle period of his compositional life . Here , the more austere poems of Friedrich Rückert replace the Wunderhorn collection as the primary influence ; the songs are less folk @-@ related , and no longer infiltrate the symphonies as extensively as before . During this period the Fifth , Sixth and Seventh Symphonies were written , all as purely instrumental works , portrayed by Mahler scholar Deryck Cooke as " more stern and forthright ... , more tautly symphonic , with a new granite @-@ like hardness of orchestration " .
Mahler arrived at Maiernigg in June 1906 with the draft manuscript of his Seventh Symphony ; he intended to spend time revising the orchestration until an idea for a new work should strike . The composer 's wife Alma Mahler , in her memoirs , says that for a fortnight Mahler was " haunted by the spectre of failing inspiration " ; Mahler 's recollection , however , is that on the first day of the vacation he was seized by the creative spirit , and plunged immediately into composition of the work that would become his Eighth Symphony .
= = = Composition = = =
Two notes in Mahler 's handwriting dating from June 1906 show that early schemes for the work , which he may not at first have intended as a fully choral symphony , were based on a four @-@ movement structure in which two " hymns " surround an instrumental core . These outlines show that Mahler had fixed on the idea of opening with the Latin hymn , but had not yet settled on the precise form of the rest . The first note is as follows :
Hymn : Veni Creator
Scherzo
Adagio : Caritas ( " Christian love " )
Hymn : Die Geburt des Eros ( " The birth of Eros " )
The second note includes musical sketches for the Veni creator movement , and two bars in B minor which are thought to relate to the Caritas . The four @-@ movement plan is retained in a slightly different form , still without specific indication of the extent of the choral element :
Veni creator
Caritas
Weihnachtsspiele mit dem Kindlein ( " Christmas games with the child " )
Schöpfung durch Eros . Hymne ( " Creation through Eros . Hymn " )
From Mahler 's later comments on the symphony 's gestation , it is evident that the four @-@ movement plan was relatively short @-@ lived . He soon replaced the last three movements with a single section , essentially a dramatic cantata , based on the closing scenes of Goethe 's Faust , the depiction of an ideal of redemption through eternal womanhood ( das Ewige @-@ Weibliche ) . Mahler had long nurtured an ambition to set the end of the Faust epic to music , " and to set it quite differently from other composers who have made it saccharine and feeble . " In comments recorded by his biographer Richard Specht , Mahler makes no mention of the original four @-@ movement plans . He told Specht that having chanced on the Veni creator hymn , he had a sudden vision of the complete work : " I saw the whole piece immediately before my eyes , and only needed to write it down as though it were being dictated to me . "
The work was written at a frantic pace — " in record time " , according to the musicologist Henry @-@ Louis de La Grange . It was completed in all its essentials by mid @-@ August , even though Mahler had to absent himself for a week to attend the Salzburg Festival . Mahler began composing the Veni creator hymn without waiting for the text to arrive from Vienna . When it did , according to Alma Mahler , " the complete text fitted the music exactly . Intuitively he had composed the music for the full strophes [ verses ] . " Although amendments and alterations were subsequently carried out to the score , there is very little manuscript evidence of the sweeping changes and rewriting that occurred with his earlier symphonies as they were prepared for performance .
With its use of vocal elements throughout , rather than in episodes at or near the end , the work was the first completely choral symphony to be written . Mahler had no doubts about the ground @-@ breaking nature of the symphony , calling it the grandest thing he had ever done , and maintaining that all his previous symphonies were merely preludes to it . " Try to imagine the whole universe beginning to ring and resound . There are no longer human voices , but planets and suns revolving . " It was his " gift to the nation ... a great joy @-@ bringer . "
= = = Instrumental and vocal forces = = =
= = = = Orchestra = = = =
The symphony is scored for a very large orchestra , in keeping with Mahler 's conception of the work as a " new symphonic universe " , a synthesis of symphony , cantata , oratorio , motet , and lied in a combination of styles . La Grange comments : " To give expression to his cosmic vision , it was ... necessary to go beyond all previously known limits and dimensions . " The orchestral forces required are , however , not as large as those deployed in Arnold Schoenberg 's oratorio Gurre @-@ Lieder , completed in 1911 . The string section is conventional in that it contains violins divided , violas , cellos , and double basses . The woodwind section for the Eighth includes two piccolos ( one doubling 5th flute ) , four flutes , four oboes , a cor anglais , three B @-@ flat clarinets , at least two E @-@ flat clarinets , a B @-@ flat bass clarinet , four bassoons and a contrabassoon . The brass section requires eight horns , four trumpets , four trombones , tuba and a " separately placed " ensemble of four trumpets ( the first of which may be doubled ) and three trombones . The percussion forces consist of timpani , cymbals , bass drum , tamtam , triangle and low @-@ pitched bells . Mahler also added a glockenspiel during the final rehearsals . Other instruments include an organ , a harmonium , a piano ( also added during the rehearsals ) , two harps ( although at least four are preferred ) , a celesta , and at least one mandolin ( but preferably several ) . Mahler recommended that in very large halls , the first player in each of the woodwind sections should be doubled and that numbers in the strings should also be augmented .
= = = = Choral and vocal forces = = = =
The choral and vocal forces consist of two SATB choirs , a children 's choir , and eight soloists : three soprano , two alto , tenor , baritone , and bass . In Part II the soloists are assigned to dramatic roles represented in Goethe 's text , as illustrated in the following table .
La Grange draws attention to the notably high tessitura for the sopranos , for soloists and for choral singers . He characterises the alto solos as brief and unremarkable ; however , the tenor solo role in Part II is both extensive and demanding , requiring on several occasions to be heard over the choruses . The wide melodic leaps in the Pater Profundus role present particular challenges to the bass soloist .
= = = Reception and performance history = = =
= = = = Premiere = = = =
Mahler made arrangements with the impresario Emil Gutmann for the symphony to be premiered in Munich in the autumn of 1910 . He soon regretted this involvement , writing of his fears that Gutmann would turn the performance into " a catastrophic Barnum and Bailey show " . Preparations began early in the year , with the selection of choirs from the choral societies of Munich , Leipzig and Vienna . The Munich Zentral @-@ Singschule provided 350 students for the children 's choir . Meanwhile , Bruno Walter , Mahler 's assistant at the Vienna Hofoper , was responsible for the recruitment and preparation of the eight soloists . Through the spring and summer these forces prepared in their home towns , before assembling in Munich early in September for three full days of final rehearsals under Mahler . His youthful assistant Otto Klemperer remarked later on the many small changes that Mahler made to the score during rehearsal : " He always wanted more clarity , more sound , more dynamic contrast . At one point during rehearsals he turned to us and said , ' If , after my death , something doesn 't sound right , then change it . You have not only a right but a duty to do so . ' "
For the premiere , fixed for 12 September , Gutmann had hired the newly built Neue Musik @-@ Festhalle , in the Munich International Exhibition grounds near Theresienhöhe ( now a branch of the Deutsches Museum ) . This vast hall had a capacity of 3 @,@ 200 ; to assist ticket sales and raise publicity , Gutmann devised the nickname " Symphony of a Thousand " , which has remained the symphony 's popular subtitle despite Mahler 's disapproval . Among the many distinguished figures present at the sold @-@ out premiere were the composers Richard Strauss , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns and Anton Webern ; the writers Thomas Mann and Arthur Schnitzler ; and the leading theatre director of the day , Max Reinhardt . Also in the audience was the 28 @-@ year @-@ old British conductor Leopold Stokowski , who six years later would lead the first United States performance of the symphony .
Up to this time , receptions of Mahler 's new symphonies had usually been disappointing . However , the Munich premiere of the Eighth Symphony was an unqualified triumph ; as the final chords died away there was a short pause before a huge outbreak of applause which lasted for twenty minutes . Back at his hotel Mahler received a letter from Thomas Mann , which referred to the composer as " the man who , as I believe , expresses the art of our time in its profoundest and most sacred form " .
The symphony 's duration at its first performance was recorded by the critic @-@ composer Julius Korngold as 85 minutes . This performance was the last time that Mahler conducted a premiere of one of his own works . Eight months after his Munich triumph , he died at the age of 50 . His remaining works — Das Lied von der Erde ( " The Song of the Earth " ) , his Ninth Symphony and the unfinished Tenth — were all premiered after his death .
= = = = Subsequent performances = = = =
On the day following the Munich premiere Mahler led the orchestra and choruses in a repeat performance . During the next three years , according to the calculations of Mahler 's friend Guido Adler the Eighth Symphony received a further 20 performances across Europe . These included the Dutch premiere , in Amsterdam under Willem Mengelberg on 12 March 1912 , and the first Prague performance , given on 20 March 1912 under Mahler 's former Vienna Hofoper colleague , Alexander von Zemlinsky . Vienna itself had to wait until 1918 before the symphony was heard there . In the US , Leopold Stokowski persuaded an initially reluctant board of the Philadelphia Orchestra to finance the American premiere , which took place on 2 March 1916 . The occasion was a great success ; the symphony was played several more times in Philadelphia before the orchestra and choruses travelled to New York , for a series of equally well @-@ received performances at the Metropolitan Opera House .
At the Amsterdam Mahler Festival in May 1920 , Mahler 's completed symphonies and his major song cycles were presented over nine concerts given by the Concertgebouw Orchestra and choruses , under Mengelberg 's direction . The music critic Samuel Langford , who attended the occasion , commented that " we do not leave Amsterdam greatly envying the diet of Mahler first and every other composer afterward , to which Mengelberg is training the music @-@ lovers of that city . " The Austrian music historian Oscar Bie , while impressed with the festival as a whole , wrote subsequently that the Eighth was " stronger in effect than in significance , and purer in its voices than in emotion " . Langford had commented on the British " not being very eager about Mahler " , and the Eighth Symphony was not performed in Britain until 15 April 1930 , when Sir Henry Wood presented it with the BBC Symphony Orchestra . The work was played again eight years later by the same forces ; among those present in the audience was the youthful composer Benjamin Britten . Impressed by the music , he nevertheless found the performance itself " execrable " .
The years after World War II saw a number of notable performances of the Eighth Symphony , including Sir Adrian Boult 's broadcast from the Royal Albert Hall on 10 February 1948 , the Japanese premiere under Kazuo Yamada in Tokyo in December 1949 , and the Australian premiere under Sir Eugene Goossens in 1951 . A Carnegie Hall performance under Stokowski in 1950 became the first complete recording of the symphony to be issued . After 1950 the increasing numbers of performances and recordings of the work signified its growing popularity , but not all critics were won over . Theodor W. Adorno found the piece weak , " a giant symbolic shell " ; this most affirmative work of Mahler 's is , in Adorno 's view , his least successful , musically and artistically inferior to his other symphonies . The composer @-@ critic Robert Simpson , usually a champion of Mahler , referred to Part II as " an ocean of shameless kitsch . " Mahler biographer Jonathan Carr finds much of the symphony " bland " , lacking the tension and resolution present in the composer 's other symphonies . Deryck Cooke , on the other hand , compares Mahler 's Eighth to Beethoven 's Choral ( Ninth ) Symphony . To Cooke , Mahler 's is " the Choral Symphony of the twentieth century : like Beethoven 's , but in a different way , it sets before us an ideal [ of redemption ] which we are as yet far from realising — even perhaps moving away from — but which we can hardly abandon without perishing " .
In the late 20th century and into the 21st , the Eighth was performed in all parts of the world . A succession of premieres in the Far East culminated in October 2002 in Beijing , when Long Yu led the China Philharmonic Orchestra in the first performance of the work in the People 's Republic of China . The Sydney Olympic Arts Festival in August 2000 opened with a performance of the Eighth by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra under its chief conductor Edo de Waart . The popularity of the work , and its heroic scale , meant that it was often used as a set piece on celebratory occasions ; on 15 March 2008 , Yoav Talmi led 200 instrumentalists and a choir of 800 in a performance in Quebec City , to mark the 400th anniversary of the city 's foundation . In London on 16 July 2010 the opening concert of the BBC Proms celebrated the 150th anniversary of Mahler 's birth with a performance of the Eighth , with Jiří Bělohlávek conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra . This performance was its eighth in the history of the Proms .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Structure and form = = =
The Eighth Symphony 's two parts combine the sacred text of the 9th @-@ century Latin hymn Veni creator spiritus with the secular text from the closing passages from Goethe 's 19th @-@ century dramatic poem Faust . Despite the evident disparities within this juxtaposition , the work as a whole expresses a single idea , that of redemption through the power of love . The choice of these two texts was not arbitrary ; Goethe , a poet whom Mahler revered , believed that Veni creator embodied aspects of his own philosophy , and had translated it into German in 1820 . Once inspired by the Veni creator idea , Mahler soon saw the Faust poem as an ideal counterpart to the Latin hymn . The unity between the two parts of the symphony is established , musically , by the extent to which they share thematic material . In particular , the first notes of the Veni creator theme — E @-@ flat → B @-@ flat → A @-@ flat — dominate the climaxes to each part ; at the symphony 's culmination , Goethe 's glorification of " Eternal Womanhood " is set in the form of a religious chorale . The Veni creator theme is believed to be based on Maos Tzur , a Jewish song sung at Hanukkah .
In composing his score , Mahler temporarily abandoned the more progressive tonal elements which had appeared in his most recent works . The symphony 's key is , for Mahler , unusually stable ; despite frequent diversions into other keys the music always returns to its central E @-@ flat major . This is the first of his works in which familiar fingerprints — birdsong , military marches , Austrian dances — are almost entirely absent . Although the vast choral and orchestral forces employed suggest a work of monumental sound , according to critic Michael Kennedy " the predominant expression is not of torrents of sound but of the contrasts of subtle tone @-@ colours and the luminous quality of the scoring " .
For Part I , most modern commentators accept the sonata @-@ form outline that was discerned by early analysts . The structure of Part II is more difficult to summarise , being an amalgam of many genres . Analysts , including Specht , Cooke and Paul Bekker , have identified Adagio , Scherzo and Finale " movements " within the overall scheme of Part II , though others , including La Grange and Donald Mitchell , find little to sustain this division . Musicologist Ortrun Landmann has suggested that the formal scheme for Part II , after the orchestral introduction , is a sonata plan without the recapitulation , consisting of exposition , development and conclusion .
= = = Part I : Veni creator spiritus = = =
Mitchell describes Part I as resembling a giant motet , and argues that a key to its understanding is to read it as Mahler 's attempt to emulate the polyphony of Bach 's great motets , specifically Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied ( " Sing to the Lord a new song " ) . The symphony begins with a single tonic chord in E @-@ flat , sounded on the organ , before the entry of the massed choirs in a fortissimo invocation : " Veni , veni creator spiritus " .
The three note " creator " motif is immediately taken up by the trombones and then the trumpets in a marching theme that will be used as a unifying factor throughout the work .
After their first declamatory statement the two choirs engage in a sung dialogue , which ends with a short transition to an extended lyrical passage , " Imple superna gratia " , a plea for divine grace .
Here , what Kennedy calls " the unmistakable presence of twentieth @-@ century Mahler " is felt as a solo soprano introduces a meditative theme . She is soon joined by other solo voices as the new theme is explored before the choirs return exuberantly , in an A @-@ flat episode in which the soloists compete with the choral masses . In the next section , " Infirma nostri corporis / virtute firmans perpeti " ( " Our weak frames fortify with thine eternal strength " ) , the tonic key of E @-@ flat returns with a variation of the opening theme . The section is interrupted by a short orchestral interlude in which the low bells are sounded , adding a sombre touch to the music . This new , less secure mood is carried through when " Infirma nostri corporis " resumes , this time without the choruses , in a subdued D minor echo of the initial invocation .
At the end of this episode another transition precedes the " unforgettable surge in E major " , in which the entire body of choral forces declaims " Accende lumen sensibus " ( " Illuminate our senses " ) .
The first children 's chorus follows , in a joyful mood , as the music gathers force and pace . This is a passage of great complexity , in the form of a double fugue involving development of many of the preceding themes , with constant changes to the key signature . All forces combine again in the recapitulation of the " Veni creator " section in shortened form . A quieter passage of recapitulation leads to an orchestral coda before the children 's chorus announces the doxology " Gloria sit Patri Domino " ( " Glory be to God the Father " ) .
Thereafter the music moves swiftly and powerfully to its climax , in which an offstage brass ensemble bursts forth with the " Accende " theme while the main orchestra and choruses end on a triumphant rising scale .
= = = Part II : Closing scene from Goethe 's Faust = = =
The second part of the symphony follows the narrative of the final stages in Goethe 's poem — the journey of Faust 's soul , rescued from the clutches of Mephistopheles , on to its final ascent into heaven . Landmann 's proposed sonata structure for the movement is based on a division , after an orchestral prelude , into five sections which he identifies musically as an exposition , three development episodes , and a finale . The long orchestral prelude ( 166 bars ) is in E @-@ flat minor and , in the manner of an operatic overture , anticipates several of the themes which will be heard later in the movement . The exposition begins in near @-@ silence ; the scene depicted is that of a rocky , wooded mountainside , the dwelling place of anchorites whose utterances are heard in an atmospheric chorus complete with whispers and echoes .
A solemn baritone solo , the voice of Pater Ecstaticus , ends warmly as the key changes to the major when the trumpets sound the " Accende " theme from Part I. This is followed by a demanding and dramatic aria for bass , the voice of Pater Profundus , who ends his tortured meditation by asking for God 's mercy on his thoughts and for enlightenment . The repeated chords in this section are reminiscent of Richard Wagner 's Parsifal . The mood lightens with the entry of the angels and blessed boys ( women 's and children 's choruses ) bearing the soul of Faust ; the music here is perhaps a relic of the " Christmas Games " scherzo envisioned in the abortive four @-@ movement draft plan .
The atmosphere is festive , with triumphant shouts of " Jauchzet auf ! " ( " Rejoice ! " ) before the exposition ends in a postlude which refers to the " Infirma nostri corporis " music from Part I.
The first phase of development begins as a women 's chorus of the younger angels invoke a " happy company of blessed children " who must bear Faust 's soul heavenwards . The blessed boys receive the soul gladly ; their voices are joined by Doctor Marianus ( tenor ) , who accompanies their chorus before breaking into a rapturous E major paean to the Mater Gloriosa , " Queen and ruler of the world ! " . As the aria ends , the male voices in the chorus echo the soloist 's words to an orchestral background of viola tremolos , in a passage described by La Grange as " emotionally irresistible " .
In the second part of the development , the entry of the Mater Gloriosa is signalled in E major by a sustained harmonium chord , with harp arpeggios played over a pianissimo violin melody which La Grange labels the " love " theme .
Thereafter the key changes frequently as a chorus of penitent women petition the Mater for a hearing ; this is followed by the solo entreaties of Magna Peccatrix , Mulier Samaritana and Maria Aegyptiaca . In these arias the " love " theme is further explored , and the " scherzo " theme associated with the first appearance of the angels returns . These two motifs predominate in the trio which follows , a request to the Mater on behalf of a fourth penitent , Faust 's lover once known as Gretchen , who has come to make her plea for the soul of Faust . After Gretchen 's entreaty , a solo of " limpid beauty " in Kennedy 's words , an atmosphere of hushed reverence descends . The Mater Gloriosa then sings her only two lines , in the symphony 's opening key of E @-@ flat major , permitting Gretchen to lead the soul of Faust into heaven . The final development episode is a hymn @-@ like tenor solo and chorus , in which Doctor Marianus calls on the penitents to " Gaze aloft " .
A short orchestral passage follows , scored for an eccentric chamber group consisting of piccolo , flute , harmonium , celesta , piano , harps and a string quartet . This acts as a transition to the finale , the Chorus Mysticus , which begins in E @-@ flat major almost imperceptibly — Mahler 's notation here is Wie ein Hauch , " like a breath " .
The sound rises in a gradual crescendo , as the solo voices alternately join or contrast with the chorus . As the climax approaches , many themes are reprised : the love theme , Gretchen 's song , the Accende from Part I. Finally , as the chorus concludes with " The eternal feminine draws us on high " , the off @-@ stage brass re @-@ enters with a final salute on the Veni creator motif , to end the symphony with a triumphant flourish .
= = Publication = =
Only one autograph score of the Eighth Symphony is known to exist . Once the property of Alma Mahler , it is held by the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich . In 1906 Mahler signed a contract with the Viennese publishing firm Universal Edition ( UE ) , which thus became the main publisher of all his works . The full orchestral score of the Eighth Symphony was published by UE in 1912 . A Russian version , published in Moscow by Izdatel 'stvo Muzyka in 1976 , was republished in the United States by Dover Publications in 1989 , with an English text and notes . The International Gustav Mahler Society , founded in 1955 , has as its main objective the production of a complete critical edition of all of Mahler 's works . As of 2016 its critical edition of the Eighth remains a project for the future .
= = Recordings = =
Sir Adrian Boult 's 1948 broadcast performance with the BBC Symphony Orchestra was recorded by the BBC , but not issued until 2009 when it was made available in MP3 form . The first issued recording of the complete symphony was Stokowski 's Carnegie Hall performance with the New York Philharmonic and combined New York choirs on 9 April 1950 . Nearly two years before , in July 1948 , the Hungarian @-@ born conductor Eugene Ormandy had recorded the " Veni creator spiritus " movement at the Hollywood Bowl . Since Stokowski 's version , at least 70 recordings of the symphony have been made by many of the world 's leading orchestras and singers , mostly during live performances .
|
= The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati =
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " is the second episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was directed by Michael Watkins and written by lead actor David Duchovny and series creator Chris Carter . The installment explores the series ' overarching mythology and concludes a trilogy of episodes revolving around Fox Mulder 's ( Duchovny ) severe reaction to an alien artifact . Originally aired by the Fox network on November 14 , 1999 , " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " received a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 and was seen by 16 @.@ 15 million viewers . Initial reviews were mixed and the plot and dialogue attracted criticism . Later critics viewed the episode in a more positive light and several writers named it among the best in the series .
The X @-@ Files centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Mulder and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , and the skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , Scully returns from Africa to discover Mulder in a coma induced by exposure to shards from an alien spaceship wreck . After Mulder disappears from the hospital , Scully joins former government employee Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) and her boss Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) to search for him . Meanwhile , in a dream , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) offers Mulder a new life and a fresh start . After conferring with a vision of Scully , Mulder awakens from his coma and realizes his duty to prevent alien colonization .
Carter was interested in the possibility that extraterrestrials were involved in ancient mass extinctions on Earth and used these themes in the episode . Much of the episode was also inspired by Nikos Kazantzakis 's novel The Last Temptation of Christ , and a scene showing an operation on Mulder has been thematically compared to the Crucifixion of Jesus . For the dream sequences , casting director Rick Millikan brought back many actors and actresses who had been absent from the show for several years , including Jerry Hardin as Deep Throat , Rebecca Toolan as Teena Mulder , and Megan Leitch as Samantha Mulder .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Background = = =
In the sixth season finale " Biogenesis " , FBI agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate a rock inscribed with Navajo writing found in Côte d 'Ivoire . While examining it in Washington , D.C. , Mulder hears ringing sounds and suffers several headaches . He turns to Agent Diana Fowley ( Mimi Rogers ) , his former love interest , for help before his mental health rapidly deteriorates and he is transferred to a psychiatric hospital . Meanwhile , Scully heads to New Mexico to ask a dying Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) to translate what is on the rock : he discovers that the item includes passages from the Bible , and a map of the human genome .
In the seventh season premiere " The Sixth Extinction " , Scully journeys to Côte d 'Ivoire and discovers an alien spaceship wreck . After Scully examines the shards , she begins to believe that they hold the key to all of life 's mysteries . Meanwhile , Mulder slips into a coma and Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) enlists the help of former Department of Defense agent Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) to determine what is wrong with Mulder . The two discover that while Mulder 's condition has made him unresponsive , it has given him telepathic powers . Scully , working in Africa , witnesses several strange events relating to the wreck before returning to Washington .
= = = Plot = = =
Teena Mulder ( Rebecca Toolan ) and The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) visit Mulder , who is paralyzed in a hospital . After administering a drug that cures his paralysis , The Smoking Man reveals himself to be Mulder 's father and takes him from the hospital . Meanwhile Kritschgau visits Scully and claims that Mulder 's contact with the shard of an alien spaceship has reawakened the extraterrestrial black oil with which he was infected three years previously ; because he is infected with the virus , Mulder is proof of alien life . Skinner , who has been looking for Mulder , tells Scully that Mulder 's mother signed him out of the hospital . The Smoking Man takes Mulder to an unfamiliar neighborhood ; inside a new home , he finds his former informant Deep Throat ( Jerry Hardin ) . Deep Throat claims to have faked his own death to escape the burden he was under by being a part of the Syndicate , and he suggests Mulder can now do the same . Mulder meets Fowley , and the two become intimate .
On the hospital security tapes , Scully sees Mulder 's mother talking to The Smoking Man but is unable to contact her . Scully receives a package containing a book on Native American beliefs , which describes how one man will prevent the impending apocalypse . Again visiting Kritschgau , she notices he has a stolen copy of her information on the alien spaceship . After he admits hacking her computer , she deletes the files from his laptop .
Mulder is reunited with his sister Samantha ( Megan Leitch ) in his new life . He marries Fowley and they have children . The years pass quickly ; he grows older and Fowley dies . Mulder is revealed to be dreaming everything : in reality he is in a government facility being tended to by doctors while The Smoking Man and Fowley watch . The Smoking Man is preparing to have portions of Mulder 's cranial tissue — which have been infected and activated because of the alien virus — implanted into himself . During the operation , The Smoking Man admits that he believes that Mulder has become an alien @-@ human hybrid , and that by taking Mulder 's genetic material he alone will survive the coming alien onslaught .
Mulder becomes an old man in his dream , accompanied by an ageless Smoking Man who tells him that Fowley , Deep Throat , Samantha and Scully have all died . The Smoking Man looks out the window , revealing an alien holocaust . Back in reality , Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) kills Kritschgau , burns his papers , and steals his laptop . Scully , having earlier been visited by the spirit of Albert Hosteen who convinces her to pray , awakens in her apartment to discover that someone has slipped a security card under her door . Using it , she enters the facility where Mulder is being held . In Mulder 's dream , Scully meets him at his bedside and convinces him to break with his imaginary life . In reality , Scully finds Mulder and the two escape the facility . A week later Scully meets Mulder at his apartment and tells him that Fowley was found murdered . Mulder confides that , during his ordeal , Scully served as his " touchstone " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " was written by Duchovny and The X @-@ Files ' creator , Chris Carter . This was Duchovny 's second on @-@ screen writing credit , after the sixth season episode " The Unnatural " . He had previously helped to plot stories ; he co @-@ developed the second season finale " Anasazi " with Carter , and received teleplay credits for the third season episodes " Avatar " and " Talitha Cumi " . Duchovny worked on the script for " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " while Carter wrote the season premiere , " The Sixth Extinction " . Carter added his remaining portions to Duchovny 's script after finishing his work on the previous episode . The tagline that appears in the opening credits for this episode is " Amor fati " . This is a Latin phrase referring to the " love of fate " , which is an important phrase and concept in the work of the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche . In the context of the episode , the subtitle has been interpreted by writer Charlton McIlwain in his book When Death Goes Pop : Death , Media & the Remaking of Community as a reference to the love of a predestined life , in this case , Mulder 's dream . In her book We Want to Believe , Amy Donaldson suggests the phrase means that Mulder must " love his suffering and passively accept it [ and ] actively embrace his journey ... and release his spirit to find new vigor . "
Mulder 's dream and decisions in " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " heavily allude to the actions of Jesus in Nikos Kazantzakis 's novel The Last Temptation of Christ . Duchovny , a fan of the book , found parallels between its central story and Mulder 's ordeal and incorporated many of the novel 's concepts into the episode . In The Last Temptation of Christ , Jesus is torn between his higher calling as the son of God and his desire towards his own humanity . Duchovny was drawn to the fact that Christ 's struggle in the novel was " not only godlike , but also profoundly human " and used this template for Mulder ; in the series , Mulder is destined towards greater things — in this case , stopping the on @-@ coming alien invasion — but he also desires to have a personal life . Duchovny noted that " Mulder is a guy who 's been given the same problem [ as Jesus ] . What I 'm doing is using the very human model of Christ " . Duchovny cautioned that he was not trying to make Mulder into a Christ @-@ like savior figure but rather " an everyman " . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz described the concept as a risk , but Duchovny felt this exploration of Mulder 's character was important to the series .
Several of the lines in the episode proved difficult for both fans and cast members to embrace . Fans did not readily accept that The Smoking Man was Mulder 's father . Davis , who portrayed The Smoking Man , noted that fans did not believe the revelation because " part of the mystique of it was that everybody had their own idea of what was going on . " The dialogue in the episode proved difficult for Anderson to present believably . She was troubled that her character was arguing against the existence of extraterrestrials , when in the previous episode her character had encountered an alien shipwreck . When she talked to Carter , she said that she did not " know if [ she could ] do this anymore " because her character was arguing against information that had been confirmed in the first two parts of the episode . Carter explained that there must be conflict between Mulder and Scully for the show 's " believer versus skeptic " dynamic to work properly .
The portions of the episode about the alien shard and Mulder 's telepathic abilities allude to the ancient astronaut theory , which proposes that intelligent extraterrestrial beings visited Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity or prehistory . Spotnitz was surprised that the show received few complaints , even though the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " story arc heavily suggested that aliens developed the notions of God and religion . He praised the manner in which the show handled this subject , saying , " Often in the past , we 've done stuff where I was sure we would get angry letters . But we rarely do . And the reason is because of the way we handle things . In ' Amor Fati ' we treated the religious side [ of the story ] with respect . " Spotnitz later identified the combination of science and religion as " a conjunction of science and mysticism , of aliens and religion , that we 're starting to develop . It 's deliberate on our part , to help bring all the mythologies together into one story line . " The ancient astronaut themes were revisited in two season nine episodes : " Provenance " and " Providence " .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
When picking actors and actresses for the episode , casting director Rick Millikan interpreted the script as a flashback . Consequently , he brought back actors and actresses who had not appeared on the show for two or three years , including Hardin as Deep Throat , Rebecca Toolan as Teena Mulder , and Megan Leitch as Samantha Mulder . Hardin had last appeared in the fourth season episode " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " during a flashback sequence , and Toolan 's most recent role was in the second installment of the sixth season episode " Dreamland " . Likewise , Leitch — who portrayed Samantha as an adult — had acted in the second part of the fifth season opener " Redux " . Milikan and the producers encountered difficulties in casting the boy whom Mulder meets on the beach . Originally , they cast the son of series producer Paul Rabwin , but child labor laws dictated a limit on his daily working hours , so twin boys were cast to allow the scenes to be shot in a single day .
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " is the series ' last episode to feature Mimi Rogers as Agent Fowley . After reading a copy of the script , Rogers realized her character was going to die before she reached the ending . The script included a large part for Fowley , which Rogers described as " by far the most [ she ] had to do in an episode . " She later explained , " It occurred to me [ while I was reading the script ] , uh oh , this is way too good . I have too much to do . They 're going to kill me . "
Davis was pleased with the episode ; he stated " For me the episode was terrific to play because they ended up making the Cigarette Smoking Man somewhat tougher . We have seen so much softness in him ; it was great to play that tough side . " He described the scene in which he was strapped to an operating table with Mulder as " totally uncomfortable " . He joked that " the only upside of that was that the author [ Duchovny ] was lying right beside me , feeling equally uncomfortable . I wonder if David would have written it that way if he had known what he would have to go through . "
The majority of the episode — like the rest of seasons six , seven , eight and nine — was filmed in Los Angeles , California . The housing community in Mulder 's dream was filmed in an " affluent section " between Malibu and Pacific Palisades , California . The scene in which The Smoking Man opens a window , revealing an alien armageddon , used a special set and a matte painting background . Various special effects , such as explosions , were filmed separately . The pieces were digitally combined to create the final scene . A scene in which Mulder watched himself age was filmed but cut for unknown reasons .
= = Themes = =
The episode portrays Mulder as a Christ @-@ like figure . As scientists experiment on him , he is placed on a cross @-@ like table , which has been interpreted to be symbolic of the cross to which Jesus was nailed . Mulder wears a metal ring around his head , similar to the biblical crown of thorns . Donaldson notes that The Smoking Man 's advice to Mulder to save himself echoes the bystanders who told Jesus to save himself from the cross . She draws parallels between Mulder 's status as the " savior " of the human race — because of his immunity from the alien infection — and Jesus , whom Christians venerate as humanity 's savior .
Donaldson , in her essay " The Last Temptation of Mulder " , writes that in Kazantzakis ' novel Jesus " represents what is the utmost human challenge , that of releasing the divinity within from its earthly confines . " In this way , the Jesus of The Last Temptation of Christ represents " utter humanity " and the " struggle between the spirit and the flesh " . Mulder is similarly challenged when he is enticed by The Smoking Man and overcomes temptation by giving up his dream life and embracing his destiny to stop the alien invasion . Several characters in the episode resemble those in the novel . For instance , Fowley is similar to Kazantzakis ' version of Mary Magdalene — both characters " thwart the mission " of the hero . Scully parallels Kazantzakis ' version of Judas Iscariot , as they both call the heroes out of their respective trances .
According to McIlwain , the episode represents the series ' ultimate " coalescence of science , religion , and metaphysics " . It is one of the few episodes in which Scully sets aside her empirical reasoning to save Mulder 's life . Scully , representing the more rational one " who must anchor herself in the certainty of scientific facts " , discovers the aliens shards and deduces that they hold the key to " every question that has ever been asked " . Mulder , on the other hand , represents the one who " seeks the truth among a realm of possibilities too fantastic and beyond the realm of scientific validity " and possesses the needed tool — his immunity — to solve the puzzle . The episode also explores the moral side of The Smoking Man and his affinity for evil . Kenneth Silber of Space.com notes that The Smoking Man 's " enticing blandishments confirm he is a highly dangerous foe , one whose Machiavellian creativity borders on the Satanic . " Timothy Dunn and Joseph J. Foy note in " Moral Musings on a Cigarette Smoking Man " that The Smoking Man 's evil deeds have little to do with his mission in the Syndicate , instead reflecting his desire for " completely gratuitous " evil . The two cite his line " Aren 't you expecting me to sprout vampire fangs ? " as evidence that The Smoking Man is aware of his crimes but casually shrugs them off .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on November 14 , 1999 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on March 26 , 2000 . In the U.S. , the episode was watched by 16 @.@ 15 million viewers and ranked as the 27th most @-@ watched episode of any series on network TV for the week ending November 14 . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with a 14 share . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were watching the episode . In the U.K. , " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " was seen by 840 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the channel 's third @-@ most watched program for that week after episodes of The Simpsons and Friends . On May 13 , 2003 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh season . Two years later the episode was included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involving the alien colonists .
Initial reviews of the episode were mixed . After the episode aired , Silber was disappointed in its resolution , writing , " This episode adeptly combines surrealism and a sense of impending climax — only to sputter out in disappointment when nothing much gets resolved at the end . " He dismissed " Mulder 's one @-@ week recovery from his horrifying ordeal " as " facile and unconvincing " . He did write that Mulder 's dream provided " credible insight into the recesses of his troubled personality " . The X @-@ Files researcher and independent reviewer Sarah Stegall awarded the episode a three out of five score after the episode aired . She argued that , in the episode , Mulder " is not a martyr but a victim " which makes him " pitiable , not heroic " . Tom Kessenich , in his 2002 book Examinations : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , gave the episode a positive review , noting that the " Duchovny @-@ penned final scene is exquisite in showcasing the beauty and power of Mulder and Scully 's evolving relationship . " He deemed Mulder 's dream sequences " inspired television " and felt the episode left itself open to interpretation . In the October 2000 issue of Cinefantastique , writer Paula Vitaris gave the episode a mixed review , awarding it two stars out of four . She criticized the recycling of the " one partner lies comatose while the other runs around trying to find a cure " storyline , but she was more positive towards Mulder 's reverie , calling it visually " beautiful " .
Later reviews of the episode tended to see the installment in a more positive light . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their 2009 book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . They stated that the installment " kicks off the seventh season with great style " , becoming a " rallying cry for the last leg of the race " . The two enjoyed its " real passion " , which they felt mythology @-@ heavy episodes usually lacked . In 2012 , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated the episode a " B " , but criticized the writing , calling it " very purple prose " and Carter 's most " overwrought script since the glory days of ' The Blessing Way ' . " He was also critical of the " absolutely atrocious " make @-@ up used to transform Duchovny into an old man . Notwithstanding his negativity towards the writing , plot , and make @-@ up , VanDerWerff said that he truly " enjoy [ ed ] both halves of ' The Sixth Extinction ' all the same " despite calling it " entertainingly bad [ and ] ludicrously over @-@ the @-@ top " . He complimented the scene in which The Smoking Man looked out onto the alien apocalypse , deeming it a " pretty impressive TV effects accomplishment " .
Since its original airing , critics have listed " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " among the best X @-@ Files episodes . Kessenich named the entry thirteenth in his list of the top 25 The X @-@ Files episodes . Den of Geek writer Nina Sordi named the installment — as a trilogy with " Biogenesis " and " The Sixth Extinction " — the fifth best episode of the series , writing that , " it is evident that as [ The X @-@ Files ] progressed , the episodes surrounding those storylines and the breaking points Mulder and Scully endured push them further and further towards total , irreversible defeat . This is especially poignant when viewing this anxiety inducing trio of episodes . " Matt Champlin of The Post @-@ Standard named the episode the ninth best of the series . Monica S. Kuebler of Exclaim called " The Sixth Extinction " , along with " Biogenesis " and " Amor Fati " , one of the best episodes of the show 's " colonization " phase . Michael Liedtke and George Avalos , writing for the Contra Costa Times , stated that the final scene with Mulder and Scully was one of the most " tender moments " in which they did not kiss . Entertainment Weekly named the same scene one of 25 " Great TV ' I Love You 's ' " [ sic ] , declaring that it " left [ viewers ] with goosebumps " .
|
= St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio =
St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio is a rural 19th @-@ century church near Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , in Anglesey , north Wales . It was built using materials from the 14th @-@ century church that previously stood on the site , which has been used for Christian worship since some time in the 7th century . The present building , which contains an east window dating from the 14th century and a 15th @-@ century font , is no longer used for services , but has been looked after by local people .
It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is " unusual in being built closely to the form and detail of its Medieval predecessor . " Two 19th @-@ century writers thought that the church was in a " dreary spot " , but a 2006 guide to Anglesey churches describes it as being in a pleasant location with good views .
= = History and location = =
The church is dedicated to St Ceidio , a 6th @-@ century British saint who established a number of churches in Wales . Geraint Jones , writing a guide to Anglesey churches in 2006 , said that the site of the church dates from the 7th century , and the 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd wrote in her history of Anglesey that a church was thought to have been at this location since 630 . A 14th @-@ century church here was rebuilt in 1845 under the supervision of the then rector , Hugh Wynne Jones . The 19th @-@ century church reuses the foundations and materials of its predecessor .
At one time , the church on this site was used as a chapel of ease to Llantrisant church . In the 15th century , St Mary 's Church , Rhodogeidio , was built to serve as a chapel of ease for St Ceidio 's . In 2006 , one author noted that St Ceidio 's had not been regularly used for some years , but restoration work had been carried out by local people . St Mary 's , which is about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 25 km ) to the west , is no longer used for services either , but is in ruins .
St Ceidio 's is by the side of a road in the countryside about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the northwest of Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , and is set within a raised circular churchyard , known in Welsh as a llan . The area takes its name from the church : " Rhod- " is thought to be an abbreviation of Rhodwydd ( " defended mound " ) and " -geidio " is a modified form of the saint 's name ; i.e. , " the defended mound of Ceidio " .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Ceidio 's is constructed of rubble masonry , dressed with freestone . The roof is made of slate , and there is a stone 19th @-@ century bellcote at the west end . The roof trusses can be seen from the inside . Entrance is through a round @-@ headed doorway in the north wall at the west end . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) says that this doorway is from the 14th century , but a 2009 guide to the buildings of north @-@ west Wales says that it may date from the 17th century . Inside , there is no internal structural division between the nave and the chancel apart from a single step . There are four windows , all with clear leaded glass : the east window is the oldest , dating from the 14th century . It has a single light ( section of window ) with some tracery at the top and an external hoodmould . The two windows in the south wall and the window in the north wall date from the 19th century , and are set in rectangular frames ; the windows are topped with trefoils .
The pews and the elevated pulpit date from the 19th century . The church has some marble memorials on the walls , dating from the 18th century , and a 15th @-@ century octagonal font . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a bier from 1746 , an oak communion table from about 1700 , and an inscribed Elizabethan silver cup . Paraffin lamps are used to light the church , since there is no electricity connection .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , and has been listed because it is a " simple mid @-@ 19th century church , unusual in being built closely to the form and detail of its Medieval predecessor . " Cadw , which is responsible for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists , says that this means that St Ceidio 's retains " strong vernacular character . "
Angharad Llwyd , writing before St Ceidio 's was rebuilt , referred to it as a " small edifice " in a " dreary spot " . The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis , describing the rebuilt church , was more complimentary : " The expense of the re @-@ edification was very moderate ; the ancient foundations were preserved , the same stones were used , and though the present building is a much better one than the former , its style is strictly the same . " However , he too thought that the church was in a " dreary spot " . The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in 1851 . He said that the rebuilding of the church had been done " on the whole in a neat style " , with the inside " very fairly arranged " .
A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region says that it is a " tiny church in a raised llan in a hilltop circle of trees " , and calls this " the epitome of ancient siting " . The authors note that the east window is comparable to that in another Anglesey church , St Caean 's Church , Tregaean ( a comparison also made in the Royal Commission 's 1937 report ) . A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes St Ceidio 's as standing " in a pleasant , quiet rural location " , with " good views in all directions " .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.