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= Walter O 'Malley =
Walter Francis O 'Malley ( October 9 , 1903 – August 9 , 1979 ) was an American sports executive who owned the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers team in Major League Baseball from 1950 to 1979 . In 1958 , as owner of the Dodgers , he brought major league baseball to the West Coast , moving the Dodgers from Brooklyn to Los Angeles despite the Dodgers being the 2nd most profitable team in baseball from 1946 – 1956 , and coordinating the move of the New York Giants to San Francisco at a time when there were no teams west of Kansas City , Missouri . For this , he was long vilified by Brooklyn Dodgers fans . However , Pro @-@ O 'Malley parties describe him as a visionary for the same business action , and many authorities cite him as one of the most influential sportsmen of the 20th century . Other observers say that he was not a visionary , but instead a man who was in the right place at the right time , and regard him as the most powerful and influential owner in baseball after moving the team . He was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame for his contributions to and influence on the game of baseball amidst allegations that his family donated money to get him into the Hall of Fame .
O 'Malley 's Irish father , Edwin Joseph O 'Malley , was politically connected . Walter , a University of Pennsylvania salutatorian , went on to obtain a Juris Doctor , and he used the combination of his family connections , his personal contacts , and both his educational and vocational skills to rise to prominence . First , he became an entrepreneur involved in public works contracting , and then he became an executive with the Dodgers . He progressed from being a team lawyer to being both the Dodgers ' owner and president , and he eventually made the business decision to relocate the Dodgers franchise . Although he moved the franchise , O 'Malley is known as a businessman whose major philosophy was stability through loyalty to and from his employees .
O 'Malley ceded the team presidency to his son , Peter , in 1970 but retained the titles of owner and chairman of the Dodgers until his death in 1979 . During the 1975 season , the Dodgers ' inability to negotiate a contract with Andy Messersmith led to the Seitz decision , which limited the baseball reserve clause and paved the way for modern free agency . He bequeathed the team to his children Peter O 'Malley and Therese O 'Malley Seidler upon his death in 1979 .
= = Early years = =
Walter O 'Malley was the only child of Edwin Joseph O 'Malley ( 1883 – 1955 ) , who worked as a cotton goods salesman in the Bronx in 1903 . Edwin O 'Malley later became the Commissioner of Public Markets for New York City . Walter 's mother was Alma Feltner ( 1882 – 1940 ) . O 'Malley grew up as a Bronx @-@ born New York Giants fan . He frequently attended Giants games at the Polo Grounds with his uncle Clarence . O 'Malley was a Boy Scout who rose to the rank of Star .
O 'Malley attended Jamaica High School in Queens from 1918 to 1920 and then the Culver Academy ( the eventual high school alma mater of future New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner ) in Indiana . He managed both the baseball and tennis teams , served on the executive staff of the student newspaper , was a member of the Hospital Visitation Committee as well as the debate team , Bible Discipline Committee and the YMCA . At Culver , his baseball career was ended with a baseball that hit him on the nose .
Later , he attended the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) and graduated in 1926 as the senior class Salutatorian . At Penn , he was initiated into Theta Delta Chi , and he also served as president of the Phi Deuteron Charge . Upon his graduation from the University of Pennsylvania School of Engineering and Applied Science his father gave him a cabin cruiser that slept eight . He was also Junior and Senior class president . O ’ Malley originally enrolled at Columbia University in New York City for law school , but after his family lost their money in the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , he switched from Columbia Law School to night school at Fordham University . Edwin O 'Malley 's dry goods business was failing and Walter had to help run the business .
= = Personal = =
On September 5 , 1931 , he married Katherine Elizabeth " Kay " Hanson ( 1907 – 79 ) , whom he had dated since high school , at Saint Malachy 's Roman Catholic Church in Manhattan . They had two children : Therese O 'Malley Seidler ( born in 1933 ) and Peter O 'Malley ( born in 1937 ) . Kay had been diagnosed with laryngeal cancer in 1927 before the engagement and had to have her larynx removed . She was unable to speak above a whisper the rest of her life . Edwin O 'Malley encouraged Walter to break off his engagement , and after Walter refused his parents did not attend the wedding . O 'Malley was a smoker , who golfed occasionally , but more commonly gardened for recreation . In 1944 , he remodelled his parents ' summer house in Amityville , New York and relocated his family there from Brooklyn . The house was next door to the house Kay had grown up and her parents lived next door .
As a family man , he attended church regularly , attended Peter 's football games at LaSalle Academy , chaperoned his daughter 's dances . On summer weekends he took the family sailing on his boat , which was named Dodger .
= = Pre @-@ baseball career = =
After he completed his law degree in 1930 at Fordham Law , he worked as an assistant engineer for the New York City Subway . After earning his law degree he needed to obtain a clerkship , but it was during the depression and no one could afford to hire him . He allowed a struggling lawyer to use space in his office and paid for his own clerkship . After working for the Subway , he worked for Thomas F. Riley , who owned the Riley Drilling Company , and they formed the partnership of Riley and O 'Malley . With the help of Edwin O 'Malley 's political connections , Walter 's company received contracts from the New York Telephone Company and the New York City Board of Education to perform geological surveys . Subsequently , Walter started the Walter F. O 'Malley Engineering Company and published the Subcontractors Register with his uncle , Joseph O 'Malley ( 1893 – 1985 ) .
Walter eventually concentrated on the field of law , starting with work on wills and deeds . By 1933 , he was senior partner in a 20 @-@ man Midtown Manhattan law firm . He developed the business habits of smoking cigars and of answering questions only after taking two puffs . During the Great Depression , O 'Malley represented bankrupt companies and enriched himself , while building his thriving law practice . He invested wisely in firms such as the Long Island Rail Road , Brooklyn Borough Gas Company , the New York Subways Advertising Company , a building materials firm , a beer firm and some hotels . His success begot both influence and attention . The Brooklyn Democratic Machine powers such as judge Henry Ughetta and Brooklyn Trust Company president George Vincent McLaughlin were among those who noticed the rising O 'Malley .
= = Dodgers = =
McLaughlin had been New York City Police Commissioner in 1926 , knew O 'Malley 's father , and had attended Philadelphia Athletics games with O 'Malley when O 'Malley was still at the University of Pennsylvania . McLaughlin hired O 'Malley to administer mortgage foreclosures against failing businesses for the Trust Company . O 'Malley earned McLaughlin 's confidence by acting in numerous capacities including bodyguard , valet , chauffeur , adopted son , confidant and right @-@ hand man . The trust company owned the estate of Charles Ebbets , who had died in 1925 and owned half of the Brooklyn Dodgers . It was 1933 when Walter again met George V. McLaughlin , president of the Brooklyn Trust Company . O 'Malley was chosen to protect the company 's financial interests in the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1933 . O 'Malley also served as designated driver for the hard drinking McLaughlin . It was through McLaughlin that Walter was brought into the financial arrangements for Ebbets Field in 1940 . In 1942 , when Larry MacPhail resigned as general manager to serve in the United States Army as a Lieutenant colonel , O 'Malley was appointed the attorney for the Dodgers , and he obtained a minority ownership interest on November 1 , 1944 . He purchased 25 % as did Branch Rickey and John L. Smith ( president of Pfizer Chemical ) , while the heirs of Stephen McKeever retained the final quarter . In 1943 , he replaced Wendell Willkie as chief legal counsel . Branch Rickey , who had built the St. Louis Cardinals into champions , replaced MacPhail , and O 'Malley began to accumulate stock in the Dodgers .
Rickey was a conservative teetotaler , while O 'Malley freely enjoyed vices such as alcoholic beverages and tobacco . As O 'Malley became more involved in affairs , he became critical of Rickey , the highest @-@ paid individual in baseball , counting salary , attendance bonuses , and player contract sales commissions . O 'Malley and Rickey had very different backgrounds and philosophies . It was O 'Malley who put pressure on Rickey to fire manager Leo Durocher , who O 'Malley felt was a drain on attendance . In board of directors meetings , O 'Malley also opposed Rickey 's extravagances . When he was with his political friends , he made fun of Rickey at every chance . Daily News columnist Jimmy Powers would deride Rickey for selling off players and for general miserliness . When Rickey asked O 'Malley , the team lawyer , if he should sue , O 'Malley said no . Powers ' campaign became so public that after the 1946 season Rickey gave each player a new Studebaker , which gave O 'Malley , a Dodgers shareholder , reason to speak ill of Rickey in the press . It got to the point where everything Rickey did was something O 'Malley derided : O 'Malley thought Rickey 's construction of the state of the art Vero Beach spring training facility , known as Dodgertown , was extravagant ; he thought Rickey 's investment in the Brooklyn Dodgers of the All @-@ America Football Conference was questionable ; he fought Rickey on the team 's beer sponsor ; and he demanded that players return their 1947 World Series rings before receiving the new ones Rickey ordered . As team lawyer , O 'Malley had a role in breaking the racial barrier as well . In particular , he had a significant role in Rickey 's top @-@ secret search for suitable ballplayers to break the color barrier and then later he had a role in assessing the ongoing legal risks to the franchise .
= = = Control = = =
When co @-@ owner Smith died in July 1950 , O 'Malley convinced his widow to turn over control of the shares to the Brooklyn Trust Company , which O 'Malley controlled as chief legal counsel . Rickey 's contract as general manager was set to expire on October 28 , 1950 . Rickey 's Dodgers stock was held on margin and he had fully levered life insurance policy . O 'Malley lowballed Rickey with an offer of $ 346 @,@ 000 ( the purchase price ) . Rickey demanded $ 1 million ( $ 9 @,@ 835 @,@ 408 today ) . O 'Malley eventually pursued a complicated buyout of Rickey , who had received an outside offer from William Zeckendorf of $ 1 million for his interests . There were varying accounts about the sincerity of the offer because Zeckendorf and Pittsburgh Pirates owner John Galbreath were fraternity brothers , but there is a lot of evidence that he had a sincere interest in acquiring the team . The outside offer triggered a clause in the partnership agreement whereby the asking price of a third party had to be matched if a current owner wanted to retain control and the third party would be compensated $ 50 @,@ 000 . The canceled $ 50 @,@ 000 check would later include Rickey 's signature showing that Zeckendorf turned over the $ 50 @,@ 000 to Rickey .
O 'Malley replaced Rickey with Buzzie Bavasi . O 'Malley became the president and chief stockholder ( owner ) on October 26 , 1950 . O 'Malley assumed the title of president from Rickey , who was a trailblazer in baseball both for instituting the farm system and for breaking the racial barrier with Jackie Robinson . According to pitcher Clem Labine and noted author Roger Kahn , the first thing O 'Malley did when he took over was assign Bavasi to enamor himself to Dick Young of the Daily News so that O 'Malley would not have to worry about ever getting bad press from the Daily News .
After the ownership transfer , O 'Malley 's rivalry with Rickey became very public . O 'Malley forbade the speaking of Rickey 's name in Dodgers offices with transgressors being subjected to a fine . He abolished Rickey 's title of General Manager so that no front office person could perpetuate Rickey 's role . In addition , when Rickey assumed the title with the Pittsburgh Pirates , O 'Malley arranged for the Dodgers to omit the Pirates from their spring training schedule . Nonetheless , after the transfer , the Dodgers remained successful under O 'Malley : they won the National League pennants in 1952 , 1953 , 1955 , and 1956 . Under O 'Malley , the Dodgers were the most overtly political post World War II franchise . In 1951 , Brooklyn native and United States Congressman Emanuel Celler 's Judiciary Committee investigated whether the reserve clause was in violation of federal anti @-@ trust laws . Celler represented half of Brooklyn in Congress and O 'Malley used the local press such as the Brooklyn Eagle to pressure Celler into backing off of the issue . During the 1951 season , the Dodgers engaged former West Point varsity baseball player and U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur to lure war veterans . O 'Malley attempted to entice him to take the post of Commissioner of Baseball . After the 1956 season , O 'Malley sold Ebbets Field to Marvin Kratter and agreed to lease the stadium for three years .
Robinson had been a Rickey protege , and O 'Malley did not have the same respect for Robinson that Rickey did . O 'Malley referred to him as " Rickey 's prima donna " . Robinson did not like O 'Malley 's choice for manager , Walter Alston . Robinson liked to argue with umpires , and Alston rarely did so . Robinson derided Alston in the press . In 1955 , Alston played Don Hoak at third base during the exhibition season . Robinson voiced his complaints to the press . Robinson did not get along with Bavasi either , and the three seasons under Alston were uncomfortable for Robinson . Robinson announced his retirement in Look magazine after the 1956 season .
The signing of Robinson brought the team international fame , making O 'Malley an international baseball ambassador to celebrities such as Iraq 's King Faisal II . In 1954 , Dodgers scout Al Campanis signed Sandy Koufax in large part for two reasons , according to a memo to O 'Malley that said " No. 1 , he 's a Brooklyn boy . No. 2 , he 's Jewish . " Bavasi noted that " there were many people of the Jewish faith in Brooklyn . " During the 1955 season , Dodgers catcher Roy Campanella had a medical billing controversy regarding neurosurgery services by Manhattan doctor Dr. Samuel Shenkman . Shenkman billed $ 9 @,@ 500 , an amount which Campanella forwarded to the Dodgers and the Dodgers refused to pay . O 'Malley felt the doctor was overcharging : " It appears that [ Dr. Shenkman ] thought he was operating on Roy 's bankroll ... " The Dodgers had convinced Campanella to have the surgery after enduring a slump in 1954 following MVP seasons in 1951 and 1953 . The surgery was intended to restore complete use of his hand .
Despite having won the National League pennants in 1947 , 1949 , 1952 and 1953 , they lost to the New York Yankees in the World Series each time , which frustrated O 'Malley and all Dodgers fans . In 1955 , the team won the World Series for the first time in their history . However , attendance declined from a peak of 1 @.@ 7 million in 1946 and 1947 to just over one million per year in the mid @-@ 1950s . With the advent of the affordable automobile and post @-@ war prosperity , Brooklyn 's formerly heterogeneous , middle @-@ class fan base for the Dodgers began to splinter . A large white flight took place , and Ebbets Field 's shabby condition and lack of parking spaces led to the loss of fans who relocated to Long Island . O 'Malley tried to raise money and get the political backing to build a new ballpark elsewhere in Brooklyn . The one person whose backing he needed was Robert Moses , a powerful figure who influenced development in New York through the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority . O 'Malley envisioned a domed stadium near the Long Island Rail Road station on Brooklyn 's west end , and even invited R. Buckminster Fuller to design the structure ; Fuller , in conjunction with graduate students from Princeton University , constructed a model of the " Dodgers ' Dome " . Moses did not like O 'Malley and derided O 'Malley 's pro @-@ Brooklyn and pro @-@ Irish sentiments in the press . O 'Malley wanted to build a new Brooklyn Dodgers stadium at Flatbush and Atlantic Avenue , but Moses wanted the Dodgers to move to Queens and play in Flushing Meadows Park ( the location where the New York Mets play today ) . Although O 'Malley lined up bipartisan political support including New York Governor W. Averell Harriman , Moses blocked the sale of the land necessary for the planned new Brooklyn stadium . O 'Malley bought the Chicago Cubs minor league baseball team , the Los Angeles Angels , as well as their stadium , Wrigley Field , from Philip Wrigley in 1956 at the winter baseball meetings , and during spring training , Los Angeles Mayor Norris Poulson traveled to the Dodgers ' training camp at Vero Beach , Florida in an attempt to lure the franchise . O 'Malley met with Moses at Moses ' home after purchasing the Angels to discuss final offers from New York to no avail . O 'Malley noticed the great success of the Milwaukee Braves after their move from Boston in 1953 . They had a 43 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium , parking for 10 @,@ 000 cars and an arrangement for no city or real estate taxes . He also felt the limitations of the small landlocked Ebbets Field , which held less than 32 @,@ 111 fans and accommodated only 700 parking spaces . Attendance between 1950 and 1957 was between 1 @,@ 020 @,@ 000 in 1954 and 1 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 in 1951 . Ultimately , O 'Malley decided to leave Brooklyn for Los Angeles in 1957 . Robert Moses authority Robert Caro and other contemporaneous sports historians felt that Moses was more to blame for the Dodgers ' leaving . The 1956 season had marked the end of the Jackie Robinson era in which the Dodgers won six pennants , lost two pennant series and finished as low as third only once in ten years , and the new era would begin in a new home . During the 1957 season , he negotiated a deal for the Dodgers to be viewed on an early pay TV network by the Skiatron Corporation subject to the approval of other teams and owners . The rest of baseball was not ready for the risks of such a venture and it did not pan out at the time .
= = = Move to Los Angeles = = =
O 'Malley is considered by baseball experts to be " perhaps the most influential owner of baseball 's early expansion era . " Following the 1957 Major League Baseball season , he moved the Dodgers to Los Angeles , and New York 's Dodgers fans felt betrayed . O 'Malley was also influential in getting the rival New York Giants to move west to become the San Francisco Giants , thus preserving the two teams ' longstanding rivalry . He needed another team to go with him , for had he moved out west alone , the St. Louis Cardinals — 1 @,@ 600 mi ( 2 @,@ 575 @.@ 0 km ) away — would have been the closest National League team . The joint move would make West Coast road trips more economical for visiting teams . O 'Malley invited San Francisco Mayor George Christopher to New York to meet with Giants owner Horace Stoneham . Stoneham was considering moving the Giants to Minnesota , but he was convinced to join O 'Malley on the West Coast at the end of the 1957 campaign . Since the meetings occurred during the 1957 season and against the wishes of Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick , there was media gamesmanship . On April 15 , 1958 , the Dodgers and Giants ushered in West Coast baseball at Seals Stadium . When O 'Malley moved the Dodgers from Brooklyn the story transcended the world of sport and he found himself on the cover of Time . The cover art for the issue was created by sports cartoonist Willard Mullin , long noted for his caricature of the " Brooklyn Bum " that personified the team . The dual moves broke the hearts of New York 's National League fans but ultimately were successful for both franchises – and for Major League Baseball as a whole . In fact , the move was an immediate success as well since the Dodgers set a major league single @-@ game attendance record in their first home appearance with 78 @,@ 672 fans . During the first year after the move , the Dodgers made $ 500 @,@ 000 more profit than any other Major League Baseball team and paid off all of their debts . In the years following the move of the New York clubs , Major League Baseball added two completely new teams in California , as well as two in Texas , one each in the Twin Cities , Denver , and Phoenix , and two teams at separate times in Seattle . In addition , the Athletics , who had already moved to Kansas City , Missouri , moved to Oakland , California ; Kansas City would get a new team the year after the A 's moved to Oakland . Most importantly , though , the National League returned to New York with the introduction of the New York Mets four years after the Dodgers and Giants had departed for California .
The dealings with the city of Los Angeles after the Vero Beach meeting were controversial . The initial offer of 500 acres ( 2 @.@ 02 km2 ) and tax exemptions was determined to be illegal and improper . The minor league San Diego Padres owners led an opposition effort to stop the transfer of 352 acres ( 1 @.@ 42 km2 ) in Chavez Ravine via a referendum . O 'Malley engaged in an extensive marketing and media campaign that helped the referendum pass , but there were extensive subsequent taxpayer lawsuits . The plaintiffs initially prevailed in some of these suits . Finally , during the middle of the 1959 season , the Los Angeles City Council was able to approve the final parcel for the stadium . One legendary negotiation with the city over concession revenue is that in O 'Malley 's move to the Coliseum he agreed to accept concession revenues from only half the team 's games — the home half . The land was eventually transferred by the Los Angeles city government to O 'Malley by an agreement which required O 'Malley and the Dodgers to design , build , privately finance and maintain a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium ; develop a youth recreation center on the land . O 'Malley was to pay $ 500 @,@ 000 initially , plus annual payments of $ 60 @,@ 000 for 20 years ; and pay $ 345 @,@ 000 in property taxes starting in 1962 , putting the land on the tax rolls . Also , the Dodgers would transfer team @-@ owned Wrigley Field , then appraised at $ 2 @.@ 2 million , to the city . The city exchanged " 300 acres , more or less , in the Chavez Ravine area " , while L.A. County Supervisors unanimously agreed to provide $ 2 @.@ 74 million for access roads . In addition , the Dodgers also had to pay $ 450 @,@ 000 for territorial rights to the Pacific Coast League , whose Los Angeles Angels and Hollywood Stars suspended play .
When he made the decision to relocate in October 1957 to Los Angeles , O 'Malley did not have an established location for where the Dodgers would play in 1958 . O 'Malley worked out a deal with Los Angeles County and the state of California to rent the Los Angeles Coliseum for $ 200 @,@ 000 per year for 1958 and 1959 , plus 10 % of the ticket revenue , and all concession profits for the first nine games of each season following an opening series with the San Francisco Giants . The Dodgers temporarily took up residence while they awaited the completion of 56 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity Dodger Stadium , built for $ 23 million . The Dodgers were soon drawing more than two million fans a year . They remained successful on the field as well , winning the World Series in 1959 , 1963 , and 1965 . The Los Angeles Angels also played in Dodger Stadium from 1962 to 1965 . In the 1960s , O 'Malley attempted to buy out the contract of Shigeo Nagashima of the Tokyo Yomiuri Giants from Matsutaro Shoriki . In 1960 , O 'Malley refused to pay right fielder Carl Furillo for the 1960 season after he was released early due to injury . This forced Furillo to sue the team . Because of this , O 'Malley allegedly blacklisted Furillo from any job in baseball .
His son , Peter O 'Malley , described his management style as follows : " As president , the way he ran the business , he believed in stability and very little turnover . It was the strength of the organization . The management team worked as well as the team on the field . " This is evidenced in many ways , including the long tenure of both Walter Alston and Tommy Lasorda as Dodgers managers and Vin Scully , the broadcast voice of the Dodgers . Alston was repeatedly rehired to consecutive one @-@ year contracts from 1954 – 1976 until he retired . Then Lasorda , who had been a long @-@ time employee in as a coach and minor league baseball manager , took over as manager for another 20 years . Scully has been the voice of the Dodgers since the O 'Malley family acquired the team . In addition , the infield of first baseman Steve Garvey , second baseman Davey Lopes , shortstop Bill Russell and third baseman Ron Cey was the longest @-@ running intact infield in major league history . Furthermore , O 'Malley is said to have kept Bowie Kuhn in office as the Commissioner of Baseball until O 'Malley 's death . O 'Malley rewarded loyal employee Bavasi by allowing the San Diego Padres franchise to establish an expansion team with Bavasi as President in Southern California . Alston said O 'Malley convinced him that when he signed his first one @-@ year contract it could be a lifetime job by pointing out that " signing one @-@ year contracts can mean a lifetime job , if you keep signing enough of them . " Although O 'Malley had good stories of loyalty with some employees , there were several stories of O 'Malley 's frugality .
Although O 'Malley was loyal to his employees , he did not take kindly to demands from employees such as manager Charlie Dressen 's request for a three @-@ year contract . When Dressen requested a multi @-@ year contract after losing a second consecutive World Series to the Yankees , he was released . Then when he hired Walter Alston as a replacement , he made it clear to the press that Alston would only receive one @-@ year contracts and would not attempt to show up the management in the national media . There were rumors that Alston even signed blank contracts in the fall and showed up in the spring to find out his salary . O 'Malley also did not support those who remained friends with Rickey , which was a large factor in Red Barber quitting as Dodgers announcer .
O 'Malley believed that employees should accept whatever salaries they were offered . In 1966 , this led to the contract holdouts of Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale , who employed the same lawyer . The duo of pitching aces decided to strike together until they were both satisfied . They had earned $ 70 @,@ 000 and $ 75 @,@ 000 respectively during the 1965 season , during which the Dodgers won the World Series , and O 'Malley offered $ 105 @,@ 000 and $ 95 @,@ 000 for the 1966 season . At the time , Willie Mays was Major League Baseball 's highest paid player at $ 125 @,@ 000 per year and multi @-@ year contracts were very unusual . They demanded three @-@ year $ 167 @,@ 000 per year contracts and after holding out until less than two weeks before Opening Day , they received one @-@ year $ 130 @,@ 000 and $ 115 @,@ 000 contracts respectively .
O 'Malley liked clubhouse turmoil only slightly less than free agent disloyalty . When he traded Maury Wills to the Pittsburgh Pirates following consecutive National League pennants , it was attributed to Wills having quit during the middle of the Dodgers ' post @-@ season tour of Japan .
= = = Retirement from presidency = = =
On March 17 , 1970 , Walter turned over the presidency of the team to his son Peter , remaining as Chairman until his death in 1979 . Peter O 'Malley held the position until 1998 when the team was sold to Rupert Murdoch . The team remained successful on the field under Peter and won the World Series in both 1981 and 1988 . They remained successful at the box office as well : by the end of the 1980s , they had not only became the first franchise to draw three million fans , but also they had done it more times than all other franchises combined . During the 1970s , O 'Malley was credited for stagemanaging Lasorda 's career . Lasorda become known for his die @-@ hard Dodgers clichés , such as describing the color of his blood by saying " Cut me , I bleed Dodger blue . " It was even said that the reciprocal loyalty and respect between Lasorda and O 'Malley was so high that O 'Malley gave Lasorda a tombstone as a gift that had an inscription that read " TOMMY LASORDA , A DODGER " .
The McKeevers held their 25 % interest in the Dodgers until 1975 when Dearie McKeever died . They sold out to O 'Malley making him the sole owner of the Dodgers . Also during 1975 , the Dodgers franchise was embroiled in the Andy Messersmith controversy that led to the Seitz decision , which struck down baseball 's reserve clause and opened up the sport to modern free agency . Messersmith and the Dodgers were unable to come to contract terms in part because of a then unheard of no @-@ trade clause demand , and Messersmith pitched the entire season without a contract under the reserve clause , which stated that team has the right to extend the prior years contract one year if a player does not agree to terms . Teams had previously had the right to continue such re @-@ signings year after year . This gave owners the right to issue " take it or leave it " offers to the players . Although the Dodgers and Messersmith nearly hammered out a deal monetarily , they could not come to terms on the no @-@ trade clause . Supposedly Major League Baseball instructed the Dodgers not to surrender such a clause for the good of the game . The Seitz decision limited the re @-@ signings to one year , and since Messersmith performed quite well in 1975 , winning a Gold Glove Award and leading the National League in complete games and shutouts , while finishing second in earned run average , he was a valuable talent . He earned offers from six different teams . Messersmith became the first free agent , except for Catfish Hunter who had been declared a 1974 free agent by breach of contract . O 'Malley felt the price wars would be the downfall of baseball because the fans only have so much money . The scenario led to an eighteen @-@ day lockout during spring training in 1976 over the prospect of dozens of players playing becoming free agents and the inability to redesign the reserve clause .
= = Death and legacy = =
O 'Malley was diagnosed with cancer , and he sought treatment at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester , Minnesota . He died of congestive heart failure on August 9 , 1979 at the Methodist Hospital in Rochester , and was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City , California . His wife Kay had died a few weeks earlier .
At one time , Brooklyn Dodgers fans hated O 'Malley so much for moving their beloved team that he was routinely mentioned along with Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin as the most villainous 20th @-@ century men ; one version of a joke went , " If a Brooklyn man finds himself in a room with Hitler , Stalin , and O 'Malley , but has only two bullets , what does he do ? Shoot O 'Malley twice . " Some still consider him among the worst three men of the 20th century . Much of the animosity was not just for moving the team , but robbing Brooklyn of the sense of a cohesive cultural and social identity that a major sports franchise provides . Despite the long @-@ standing animosity of Brooklyn fans and their supporters in baseball , O 'Malley was posthumously inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2008 after having been elected by the Veterans Committee with the minimal number of votes necessary for acceptance .
His legacy is that of changing the mindset of a league that for a long time had had the St. Louis Cardinals as its southernmost and westernmost team ( American League Kansas City Athletics had moved west 3 years earlier from Philadelphia ) . Tommy Lasorda said upon hearing of his election to the Hall , " He 's a pioneer . He made a tremendous change in the game , opening up the West Coast to Major League Baseball . " When asked how he wanted to be remembered , O 'Malley said , " for planting a tree . " The tree provided the branches to open up the West Coast to baseball , but O 'Malley 's son remembers his father 's 28 years on Major League Baseball 's executive council as service that " was instrumental in the early stages of the game 's international growth . " His contributions to baseball were widely recognized even before his Hall of Fame election : he was ranked 8th and 11th respectively by ABC Sports and The Sporting News in their lists of the most influential sports figures of the 20th century .
On July 7 , 2009 , Walter O 'Malley was inducted into the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame along with two other Dodger icons : slugger Steve Garvey and announcer Vin Scully . " Over the years , we have learned more of his decade @-@ long quest to build a new stadium in Brooklyn and about how those efforts were thwarted by city officials . Perhaps this induction will inspire fans who themselves started new lives outside the borough to reconsider their thoughts about Walter O ’ Malley " , said John Mooney , curator of the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame . " He privately built one of baseball 's more beautiful ballparks , Dodger Stadium , and set attendance records annually . While New York is the home of the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame , it seeks to honor inductees whose impact was and is national . "
O 'Malley 's detractors say that he was not a visionary for taking baseball west . They say the game was naturally heading toward geographical expansion and O 'Malley just an opportunist . Rather than truly being a leader these detractors say his leadership was a manifestation of making the most money .
= = Popular culture = =
O 'Malley was mentioned several times in Danny Kaye 's 1962 song tribute The D @-@ O @-@ D @-@ G @-@ E @-@ R @-@ S Song ( Oh , Really ? No , O 'Malley ! ) , which spins a tale of a fantasy game between the Dodgers and the Giants . At one point , the umpire 's call goes against the home team :
Down in the dugout , Alston glowers
Up in the booth , Vin Scully frowns ;
Out in the stands , O 'Malley grins ...
Attendance 50 @,@ 000 !
So .... what does O 'Malley do ? CHARGE ! !
Just before the St. Louis Cardinals began a series of games against the Dodgers at Dodger Stadium , in 1963 , the Los Angeles Times published a large cartoon , drawn by artist Pete Bentovoja , modeled on the movies about the German submarine captain . The captain is Cards ' manager Johnny Keane ; his " lieutenant " is Stan Musial . They wear Cardinal uniforms with naval officers ' caps bearing the " St.L " emblem . While Keane and Musial are speaking , other crew members load bats , like torpedoes , into torpedo tubes ; the bats have players ' faces ( and names and batting averages ) drawn on them . Keane looks through the periscope ; the inset shows a battleship with a large head of O 'Malley , wearing a naval officers cap bearing the " LA " emblem and puffing a cigar . Keane : " Achtung Shtan [ Stan ] ! I zought ve sunk sem last year ? " Musial : " Yavohl , Mein Kommander , Ve vill blast zem vit bigger und better torpedoes zis zeazon ! " ( The Cards made a terrific drive for the pennant but finished the season six games back of the Dodgers . )
O 'Malley was featured prominently in the HBO documentary film Brooklyn Dodgers : Ghosts of Flatbush , which chronicled his executive management of the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers . The documentary focuses on the post World War II glory years of the franchise and presents a compelling case that O 'Malley truly wanted to keep the Dodgers in Brooklyn in a stadium near a railroad station , but he was unable to get the proper support from Moses .
= = Timeline = =
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= 1989 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1989 Pacific hurricane season was a really active Pacific hurricane season that produced a lot of tropical cyclones near Mexico and Baja California . It officially started on May 15 , 1989 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1989 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1989 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . A total of 17 storms and 9 hurricanes formed , which was near long @-@ term averages . Four hurricanes reached major hurricane status ( Category 3 or higher ) on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Notable storms include Hurricanes Cosme , Kiko , and Raymond . Cosme crossed over Mexico and killed 30 people . Hurricane Kiko made landfall on the Gulf of California side of the Baja California Peninsula . Hurricane Raymond was the strongest storm of the season , but weakened significantly before landfall .
= = Seasonal summary = =
Overall , the season continued the general trend in the 1980s of near to above @-@ average seasons in the East Pacific . Seventeen cyclones formed . Eight peaked at tropical storm strength . Nine systems became hurricanes , of which four were major hurricanes at Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . On August 28 , three systems were active , one of a few times when there has been three tropical cyclones active simultaneously ( Kiko , Lorena , and Manuel ) in the east Pacific ( west of 140 ° W ) . Despite the activity this season , no named storms formed in October . This was the second consecutive season this happened .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Winona = = =
During the second week of January , an upper @-@ level trough located east of Hawaii created an area of divergence to its southeast , allowing an area of low pressure to develop alongside deep convection . Initially , the system was hampered by wind shear as it moved west @-@ northwestward to the south of Hawaii ; however , by January 11 , the system was able to maintain convection over its center and was classified as a tropical depression . On January 13 , it was estimated in post @-@ storm analysis to have become a tropical storm at an unprecedented 20 @.@ 7 ° N 170 @.@ 5 ° W / 20 @.@ 7 ; -170.5 . Meteorologists at the time struggled to forecast the storm as climatological forecast guidance ( modeling based off previous cyclones ) , was not available due to the uniqueness of Winona . On January 15 , the system crossed the International Dateline and entered the Western Pacific basin .
As a tropical depression , Winona brought heavy rains to portions of Hawaii , triggering flash flooding on a few islands . No damage resulted from the floods . After becoming a tropical storm , the system brushed Wake Island , bringing gusty winds and moderate rainfall . Several days later , the storm passed near the Mariana Islands and Guam , bringing tropical storm @-@ force wind gusts and heavy rainfall . Minor damage resulted from Winona but there was no loss of life . Operationally , this system was not classified a tropical storm until January 16 , thus it was not warned upon by the Central Pacific Hurricane Center during its early stages .
= = = Tropical Storm Adolph = = =
The first storm of the season developed out of a weak area of low pressure situated about 570 mi ( 925 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . Tracking towards the west , the circulation briefly dissipated on May 30 , before redeveloping the following day into Tropical Depression One @-@ E. A ridge of high pressure north of the system steered it towards the west @-@ northwest . By 0600 UTC on June 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Adolph . Adolph continued to strengthen until early on June 2 , at which time it reached its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ) . Shortly after peaking , cool , dry air became entrained in the circulation , preventing further intensification . Early on June 3 , Adolph weakened slightly due to unfavorable conditions . Later that day , Adolph briefly re @-@ intensified . On June 4 , strong wind shear displaced convection associated with the storm to the west of the center of circulation ; this resulted in Adolph weakening to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC that day , and Adolph persisted until June 5 at which time it dissipated .
= = = Hurricane Barbara = = =
On June 10 , an area of disturbed weather was located several hundred miles southwest of Acapulco , Mexico , and the system slowed to a westward drift . After gradually becoming better organized , the NHC estimated that the wave spawned Tropical Depression Two @-@ E around 1800 UTC on June 15 . Initially , the depression towards the northwest before a ridge of high pressure situated over Mexico caused the storm to turn towards the west @-@ northwest . Based on improving satellite presentation , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Barbara . With favorable conditions , Barbara continued to intensify , attaining hurricane @-@ status roughly 24 hours after being named . Six hours later , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) Satellite images early on June 18 showed that cool , dry air was becoming entrained into the northern inflow of the storm and Barbara was nearing cooler waters . These factors led to the storm weakening below hurricane intensity by 0000 UTC on June 19 . Wind shear at this time also began to increase , displacing all convection associated with the storm to the northeast of the center . By June 20 , the former hurricane was further downgraded to a tropical depression . The NHC issued their final advisory on the system early on June 21 ; however , the remnants of the storm persisted until June 27 .
= = = Hurricane Cosme = = =
On June 18 a tropical disturbance formed several hundred miles off the coast of Mexico . Ships in the vicinity of the storm , in addition to satellite images , indicated that the disturbance had developed into Tropical Depression Three @-@ E around 1800 UTC . Remaining nearly stationary , the depression gradually strengthened into a tropical storm by June 20 , receiving the name Cosme at that time . Early on June 21 , Cosme began to track towards the north and intensify . Around 1200 UTC , Cosme strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Several hours later , Cosme reached its peak intensity . Late on June 21 , the center of the hurricane made landfall on the Mexican coast , just east of Acapulco with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The low associated with the former hurricane was last identified near Brownsville , Texas .
Cosme brought heavy rains , which killed at least 30 people due to drowning . Many adobe homes were destroyed , but a specific cost of damage is not known . The highest rainfall recorded in relation to Cosme was 16 @.@ 1 in ( 410 mm ) in Yautepec San Bartolo , Mexico .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
The fourth tropical cyclone of the season formed as a well @-@ organized depression on July 9 . Deep convection associated with the system indicated that intensification into a tropical storm was possible . The system track generally westward in response to high pressure system to the north . On July 10 , the depression quickly became disorganized , with only a small area of convection around the center remaining by midday . Although the depression was nearly at tropical storm intensity , the NHC held off on upgrading it due to its proximity to Tropical Depression Five @-@ E. However , the system failed to intensify . By July 11 , the depression entered the Central Pacific hurricane center 's area of responsibility . Tracking generally northwest , the system slowly weakened before dissipating on July 14 to the south of Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E = = =
On July 10 , a tropical depression formed far from land . Upon formation , there was uncertainty of the location of center . Shortly thereafter , the system became sheared and further intensification was no longer anticipated . On July 11 , the low @-@ level center became displaced form the deep convection. the next day , the center was relocated , and moved to the west . While the NHC noted the possibility of intensification , the depression was forecasted to dissipate in 36 hours . It failed to intensify , and moved into the Central Pacific on July 14 . The fast @-@ moving tropical depression dissipated two days later . The remnants of the depression passed far to the south of Hawaii , thus there was no damage .
= = = Hurricane Dalilia = = =
On July 9 , a defined low pressure system formed south of Baja California and increased convective activity led to the NHC classifying it Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on July 11 . About 24 hours later , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Dalilia . By July 13 , Dalilia had intensified into a minimal hurricane as it tracked generally toward the northwest . Two days later , the storm took a nearly due west track , which it maintained until July 19 . Although the storm tracked near cool waters , a well @-@ developed outflow allowed it to maintain hurricane @-@ intensity . Shortly before crossing into the Central Pacific basin , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a central pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . After crossing 140 ° W , Dalilia weakened to a minimal hurricane . The storm maintained this intensity until July 19 , at which time the system slowed and turned northwest . The following day , the weakening tropical storm brushed the Hawaiian Islands to the south , eventually curving away from the island chain on July 21 . Later that day , Dalilia further weakened to a tropical depression , with the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issuing their final advisory at that time . The remnants of the former hurricane continued to track northwest .
While tracking near the Hawaiian islands , Dalilia produced waves up to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) along south @-@ facing coastlines . Along the coasts of Ka 'u and South Kona , winds gusted up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) ; the winds caused minor damage Along the southeast slopes of Mauna Loa , heavy rains caused minor flooding which forced transit officials to shut down several roads . Localized areas received rainfall in excess of 10 in ( 250 mm ) .
= = = Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E = = =
On July 16 , an area of disturbed weather located 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) organized into a tropical depression . Upon formation , the NHC did not anticipate significant intensification due to it close distance to both cooler waters and Hurricane Dalilia . The next day , however , the center became difficult to locate and the system was no longer forecast to intensity . By the night , only minimal deep convection remained . The depression soon moved into cold water and as such the system was expected to dissipate within 24 hours . It dissipated the next day . The remnants of this system contributed to a surge in the monsoon trough that led to the formation of Tropical Storm Erick . This system never impacted land , and thus no damage or deaths were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Erick = = =
On July 16 , there was a surge in convection in the monsoon trough . The most concentrated area soon separated for the trough and by July 19 , satellite imagery indicated an area of deep convection that was located nearly 1 @,@ 237 mi ( 1 @,@ 991 km ) away from Mexico . Early that day , the system was upgraded to a tropical depression . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , only slight intensification was anticipated . The system intensified to a tropical storm 24 hours after forming . Erick soon moved into cooler waters . This quickly weakened the cyclone and was downgraded to a tropical depression on July 20 . It dissipated the next day , without ever impacting any land masses .
= = = Tropical Storm Flossie = = =
Flossie originated form a tropical wave that entered the Pacific Ocean on July 20 . The system began to show sings of organization two days later . Continuing to organize , the system was upgraded Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E on July 23 . Despite being located over warm waters , only gradual intensification was anticipated . It strengthened into Tropical Storm Flossie the next day . Shortly thereafter the upgraded , convection began to diminish . The cyclone then drifted northwest . The upper @-@ level environment rapidly changed , and the cyclones convection became disorganized . The convection separated from the center of circulation . The cluster of convection developed a new center of circulation on July 24 . The original center drifted away from Flossie for 12 hours before dissipating . The new center , which was still a tropical storm , drifted northwest . Flossie then encountered an unfavorable environment , and weakened into a depression on July 25 . Flossie continued drifting to the northwest until dissipating July 28 , while just off the coast of the Baja California Peninsula . Despite its close distance to Mexico , no damage or deaths was reported .
= = = Hurricane Gil = = =
Gil formed from an area of disturbed weather located near the Mexico – Guatemala border developed a circulation in the Gulf of Tehuantepec and then dissipated . On July 30 , the disturbance redeveloped a circulation and then convection . It paralleled the coast of Mexico and headed in a northwesterly direction . The low continued to organize , and was upgraded into a tropical depression . Initially , there was some uncertain in the storms future path , and there was a possibility of the system recurving towards the coast . It strengthened into a tropical storm on July 31 . The system continued to become better organized , with further intensification foretasted because the low was located over very warm waters ; and was upgraded into a hurricane that same day . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone developed an eye . Gil was a hurricane for only about 30 hours , and it began to encounter dry air . By the August 1 , Gill had lost hurricane intensity . It was downgraded to a tropical depression the next day . The cyclone dissipated on August 5 .
The outer bands of Gil produced significant amounts of rainfall over coastal areas of Mexico , with satellites estimating areas of rainfall in excess of 5 in ( 130 mm ) . The heavy rains may have triggered deadly flooding and landslides ; however , no reports from Mexican officials have been received to confirm this . However , officials reported 4 @.@ 8 in ( 120 mm ) of rain in a 12 @-@ hour period .
= = = Hurricane Ismael = = =
A tropical wave crossed Central America on July 11 , and then became an area of low pressure . While located of the coast of Mexico it became better organized on August 14 . This was enough to warrant an upgrade to Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E. This system slowly became better organized , but northerly wind shear prevent rapid intensification . Initially , this system was slow to intensify . After strengthening into Tropical Storm Ismael , it closely paralleled the coast of Mexico , Ismael turned to the west . It would maintain that generally westerly direction for the rest of its long path across the Pacific Ocean . The system steadily intensified , and by August 16 , Ismael had developed a fair outflow . It reached hurricane strength later that day . Continuing to intensify , the hurricane reached Category 2 intensity . However , the system was not expect to intensify further due to cool sea surface temperatures . However , Ismael managed reached Category 3 status . It then reached a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a peak pressure of 955 millibars . Shortly after its peak , Ismael underwent fluctuations in strength . On August 21 , Ismael passed over cooler waters . In addition , the storm encountered strong wind shear . The hostile environment continued to take its toll on Ismael , and it weakened to a tropical storm on August 23 . Ismael dissipated not long after weakening to a depression on August 25 . The remains of Ismael , which was only a swirl of clouds , dissipated near Hawaii .
Between August 15 and 17 , the outer bands of Ismael produced heavy rains along coastal areas of Mexico between Acapulco and Manzanillo , Colima . At least three people were killed by flooding triggered by the storm ; however , no structural damage was reported . Despite the rainfall , there were no reports of flooding . The remnants of the hurricane passed near , but did not pose a threat Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Storm Henriette = = =
On August 12 , a tropical wave formed in the Pacific Ocean. it steadily organized into the twelfth tropical depression of the season early on August 14 . It slowly strengthened and was named Henriette after strengthening into a tropical storm . After peaking with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a peak pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) on August 15 , wind shear immediately began to weaken the tropical cyclone . On August 16 , after becoming devoid of any convection , it was downgraded into tropical depression status on August 16 . Henriette degenerated into a remnant low on August 17 . The low persisted for a few more days until completely dissipating .
= = = Tropical Storm Juliette = = =
A surge in convection in the monsoon trough caused by nearby Hurricane Ismael interacted with a tropical wave to form the thirteenth tropical depression of the season on August 21 . Due to the small distance of 621 miles ( 999 km ) between the cyclones , the depression followed Ismael . Despite strong wind shear caused by Ismael , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Juliette on August 22 as a strong burst of convection occurred . After Ismael dissipated , steering currents collapsed , and Juliette moved over cool waters in the open ocean for several days . In addition , strong wind shear took toll on the system . The low had completely dissipated during the evening of August 25 . Juliette never impacted land .
= = = Hurricane Kiko = = =
On August 25 , the seasons fourteenth tropical depression formed off the coast of Sonora , Mexico from a Mesoscale Convective System . A small cyclone , the system rapidly intensified over the warm waters of the Gulf of California , becoming Tropical Storm Kiko hours after forming and a hurricane 12 hours later . The fast rate of strengthening continued until August 27 , at which time Kiko peaked in intensity as a strong Category 3 hurricane with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 955 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Slight weakening occurred before the storm made landfall near Punta Arena , Mexico , becoming one of the strongest storms to make landfall in Mexico since reliable records began in 1949 . The hurricane quickly weakened as it moved over the Baja Peninsula , being downgraded to a tropical depression before emerging into the Pacific Ocean on August 28 . The following day , the remnants of Kiko were absorbed by the nearby Hurricane Lorena .
Although Kiko was a major hurricane upon landfall , little damage resulted from the storm . However , 20 homes were destroyed and numerous highways were flooded by torrential rains .
= = = Hurricane Lorena = = =
In the Atlantic , a tropical wave spawned Tropical Depression Six . Twenty four hours later , wind shear degenerated the depression back into a wave . The wave continued westward , and in the southern Caribbean Sea , split in two on August 21 . The southern part crossed Central America and emerged into the Pacific Ocean . Banding and convection steadily organized , and Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E formed on August 27 . It strengthened into Tropical Storm Lorena the next day . At this time , three systems were active and in close proximity . Lorena and a weakening Kiko started a Fujiwhara interaction . Lorena eventually became the dominate system , and absorbed the remnants of Kiko on August 29 . Moving slowly out to sea , Lorena reached minimal hurricane strength on the September 1 as the convection became more concentrated . Lorena was a hurricane for less than a day . It weakened quickly to a depression on September 3 . The cyclone was devoid of convection by September 7 , and was thus declared a remnant low . The system never affected land .
= = = Tropical Storm Manuel = = =
An area of thunderstorms organized into a tropical depression on August 28 . The next day , convection increased near the center , and was respectively upgraded into a tropical storm . Manuel gradually strengthened , reaching a peak of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Manuel approached to within 578 mi ( 930 km ) of Lorena . Due to its proximity to the storm , Manuel lost its center circulation on August 31 . The storms only impact on land was light rainfall near Manzanillo , Colima . No reports of death or damage were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Narda = = =
On September 2 , a tropical wave began showing sings of organization , and on September 3 , it organized into a tropical depression . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , Narda was located over warm sea surface temperatures . Moving rapidly , to the west @-@ northwest , Narda strengthened into a tropical storm . Strong wind shear prevented significant intensification beyond minimal tropical storm strength , with winds peaking at 50 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Initially , Narda managed to produce brief burst of convection . By September 7 , however , Narda was devoid of convection , and was respectively downgraded to a tropical depression . It never impacted land .
= = = Hurricane Octave = = =
At low latitude in the Atlantic , Tropical Depression Nine formed from a tropical wave on August 28 . The depression degenerated the next day due to strong wind shear . The wave continued drifting westward , and entered the Pacific Ocean on the September 2 . It slowly developed , and organized into Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on September 8 . The cyclone turned northwestward , and strengthened into Tropical Storm Octave on September 10 . After strengthening into a hurricane the next day , Octave started deepening . After peaking as a Category 4 on September 13 with 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) winds , Octave moved into a region of cooler waters and strong shear . Octave weakened to a storm at midday on September 14 and a depression 32 hours later . The depression hooked to the east , and dissipated on September 18 near Guadalupe Island . The remnants eventually turned to the north before dissipating .
While Octave had no significant effects on land as a hurricane , its remnants did move into California . In the Sacramento Valley , the town of Redding recorded 2 @.@ 21 in ( 56 mm ) of rain in a 12 hour span .
= = = Tropical Storm Priscilla = = =
Tropical Depression Nineteen @-@ E organized from an area of low pressure on September 21 . Upon being upgraded , the depression was anticipated to slowly strengthen , becoming a strong tropical storm in three days . Moving northwestward , it was named Priscilla the next day . Continuing to intensify , it reached its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Due to its close proximity to the cooler waters , Priscilla began weakening almost immediately thereafter . The cyclone weakened into a tropical depression on September 24 and dissipated the next day .
Although Priscilla did not directly impact land as a tropical cyclone , the remnant moisture enhanced a non @-@ tropical low off the California coastline , resulting in heavy rainfall along the Pacific coast of the United States . In southern California , the system also resulted in hot and humid weather , with some areas reaching up to 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E = = =
On September 24 , Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E formed southwest of Guatemala . Although convection increased , significant development was not anticipated due to its promoxity to land . It was also forecasted to make landfall in 36 hours . A small cyclone , its close distance to Hurricane Raymond hindered development . Moving very little , the winds soon diminished . The depression dissipated on September 27 . When the depression was anticipated to make landfall in Mexico . As such , the NHC noted the possibility of heavy rains especially over the higher elevations . However , no impact was reported from the tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Raymond = = =
Tropical Depression Twenty One @-@ E formed from part of the same tropical wave that had earlier spawned Hurricane Hugo . Moving slowly to the west @-@ northwest , it accelerated to the northwest in response to a trough and strengthened into the seventeenth named storm of the season on September 26 . Raymond turned to the west again and entered a favourable environment . Raymond eventually peaked as a Category 4 hurricane and the strongest storm of the season on October 1 . A trough over Mexico destroyed the ridge that was steering Raymond and recurved the cyclone to the northeast . The hurricane accelerated into a less favorable environment , and slowly weakened as its forward speed increased to 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) . Raymond made landfall as a tropical storm on October 4 . Northern Mexico 's mountains disrupted Raymond 's circulation , and dissipated over New Mexico on October 5 after passing over that state and Arizona as a depression .
Since Raymond had significantly weakened prior to its first landfall , only minor impacts were recorded in Mexico . The highest rainfall was recorded in Nogales at 4 @.@ 72 in ( 120 mm ) . In the city , the swollen Santa Cruz River destroyed a heavily traveled bridge , known as the Calle Obregon , and destroyed a store which was situated on the banks of the river . Mexican officials estimated damages at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1989 USD , $ 477 thousand 2016 USD ) . The remnants of the storm tracked into the Southwest United States and further into the Central United States before dissipating . Rainfall in excess of 3 in ( 76 mm ) fell in parts of southern Arizona ; the highest total was recorded in Independence , Kansas at 3 @.@ 91 in ( 99 mm ) . One person was killed in a mobile home which was destroyed by high winds . Flash flooding triggered by Raymond caused an estimated $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1989 USD , $ 2 @.@ 86 million 2016 USD ) in damages in Arizona .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty Two @-@ E = = =
On October 3 , a tropical depression formed 475 mi ( 764 km ) south of Mexico from an area of disturbed weather that had become better organized . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the cyclone was located in a favorable environment . As such , it was forecasted to reach a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) to be named " Sonia " . Later that day , convection increased , but the NHC did not upgrade the system into a tropical storm . However , increased wind shear quickly caused the system to become exposed . After drifting westbound , it did not become a tropical storm and dissipated on October 4 . However , it regenerated on October 7 as deep convection had developed near the center for about 12 hours . Upon regenerating , it was forecasted to intensify into a strong tropical storm as it was expected to turn to the north . Shortly thereafter , the system became less organized ; it dissipated again the next day . The depression never threatened land .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty Three @-@ E = = =
On October 15 , Tropical Depression 23E developed about 550 mi ( 890 km ) to the southwest of Mexico City , within an area of warm water and diminishing wind shear and as a result was expected to slowly intensify further . However , during October 16 , all of the deep convection associated with 23E dissipated , before the National Hurricane Center issued its final advisory during the next day .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E = = =
On October 18 , the NHC began issuing advisories on Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E. Although the depression was located within an area of high wind shear , convection had managed to partially develop around the center of circulation . A ship nearby the system reported sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) ; however , the winds were not considered to be representative of the actual intensity of the depression . Further intensification was not expected as the depression tracked in a northward direction Shortly after the first advisory was issued , convection rapidly dissipated , leaving an exposed low pressure area , devoid of shower and thunderstorm activity . The system was forecast to dissipate within 36 hours due to high shear . Late on October 18 , the forward motion of the depression abruptly changed towards the west . The final advisory on Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E was issued during the afternoon of October 19 as the system remained devoid of convection ; redevelopment of the system was not anticipated due to unfavorable conditions .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1989 . Since no names were retired , no new names were replaced for the 1995 season . However , the name Dalilia was later changed to Dalila through a misspelling of the name . The changed spelling has remained in use since 1995 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Central Pacific = = =
Starting in the early 1980s , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center assigned names to tropical storms that formed between the 180 ° to 140 ° W. Names for the basin are taken off a single list due to the low frequency of storms in the area . Had a tropical storm formed in the Central Pacific during 1989 , it would have received the name Aka . The first six names on the list that could have been used are listed below .
= = Seasonal effects = =
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= Phallic architecture =
Phallic architecture consciously or unconsciously creates a symbolic representation of the phallus . Buildings intentionally or unintentionally resembling the human penis are a source of amusement to locals and tourists in various places around the world . Deliberate phallic imagery is found in ancient cultures and in the links to ancient cultures found in traditional artifacts .
The ancient Greeks and Romans celebrated phallic festivals and built a shrine with an erect phallus to honor Hermes , messenger of the gods . Those figures may be related to the Egyptian god Min who was depicted holding his erect phallus . Figures of women with a phallus for a head have been found across Greece and Yugoslavia . Phallic symbolism was prevalent in the architecture of ancient Babylon , and the Romans , who were deeply superstitious , often used phallic imagery in their architecture and domestic items . The ancient culture of many parts of Far East Asia including Indonesia , Mali , and the Buddhist parts of Korea and Japan , also used the phallus as a symbol of fertility in motifs on their temples and in other areas of everyday life .
Scholars of anthropology , sociology , and feminism have pointed out the symbolic nature of phallic architecture , especially large skyscrapers which dominate the landscape as symbols of male domination , power and political authority . Towers and other vertical structures may unintentionally or perhaps subconsciously have those connotations . There are many examples of modern architecture that can be interpreted as phallic , but very few for which the architect has specifically cited or admitted that meaning as an intentional aspect of the design .
= = History and background = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
The worship of the phallus has existed since the Stone Age , and was particularly prevalent during the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age . Phallic architecture became prominent in ancient Egypt and Greece , where genitalia and human sexuality received a high degree of attention . The ancient Greeks honored the phallus and celebrated phallic festivals . The Greco @-@ Roman deity Priapus was worshiped as a god of fertility , depicted with a giant phallus in numerous public architectural pieces .
The Greeks regularly built a shrine which they called " Herm " at the entrance of major public buildings , homes and along roads to honor Hermes , messenger of the gods . The shrines typically " took the form of a vertical pillar topped by the bearded head of a man and from the surface of the pillar below the head , an erect phallus protruded " . It is believed that they sought their inspiration from the ancient Egyptians and their phallic image of Min , the valley god , who was similarly " depicted as a standing bearded king with simplified body , one arm raised , the other hand holding his erect phallus . "
Herodotus , the ancient Greek historian , documented women carrying large phallic shaped monuments and ornaments the size of a human body in villages in ancient Dionysia . On the island of Delos a pillar supports a colossal phallus , the symbol of Dionysus . Phallus reliefs on buildings on such sites are also believed to have been apotropaic devices to ward off evil . The elaborate use of phallic architecture and sculpture in ancient Greek society can also be seen in sites such as Nea Nikomedeia in northern Greece . Archaeologists excavating the ancient town discovered clay sculptures of plump women with phallic heads and folded arms .
Similar figurines of women with phallus heads from the Neolithic period have been found across Greece , Macedonia and parts of old Yugoslavia . The vast majority of the figurines of the Hamangia culture have cylindrical phallus @-@ shaped heads without facial features , although some , particularly of the Aegean culture , had phallic sculptural pieces with phallic heads with a pinched nose and slitty eyes . In these parts of the ancient world , obelisk like structures resembling the human penis were built , often with phallic symbols , representing human fertility and asserting male sexuality and orgasm . Phallic symbolism was prevalent in the architecture of ancient Babylonia , and in Khametian iconography , the obelisk was considered to be symbolic of the phallus of the masculine earth . The obelisks of ancient Egypt themselves had several functions , existing both as a reference to the cultus of the sun and of the phallus , representing fertility and power .
Although phallic architecture as individual pieces was not prevalent in ancient Rome as it was in ancient Greece or Egypt , the Romans were deeply superstitious and often introduced phallus @-@ related components as architectural pieces and domestic items . Archaeologists unearthing a site in Pompei discovered many vases , ornaments and sculptures unearthed revealing the preoccupation with the phallus , also unearthing an 18 @-@ inch terracotta phallus protruding from what was believed to have been a bakery with the inscription , " Hie habitat felicitas " ( here dwells happiness ) , and many Romans wore phallus amulets to ward off the evil @-@ eye .
Priapic worship amongst the women of Sicily continued into the 18th century ; worshiping phallic votive objects and kissing such offerings before placing them upon the altar in the churches . Fetishism with the phallus architecturally and in smaller implements was also exhibited by certain Christian sects in medieval times , such as the Manichaeans , and was connected with masochism and sadism , a form of religious flagellantism . Smaller phallic shaped monuments in the form of idols , even vases , rings , drinking vessels and jewellery have been well @-@ documented and could be found within medieval churches of Ireland .
In Hinduism , the Hindu trimurthi represents Brahma , the creator , Vishnu , the preserver and Shiva , the destroyer . Shiva , the main deity in India , is both destroyer and is stated to also include his role of creation ; this creation role is represented by the phallic symbol , known as lingam in which form he is worshiped or in the form of male trinity of penis and two testicles . The linga , or phallus , is a common feature of Hindu temples across India , engrained as reliefs or other forms . The Brihadeeswarar Temple of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu , built during the Chola Dynasty , is dedicated to Shiva , and features lingam between the cells ; it is especially renowned for its " Hall of One Thousand Lingas " .
In Indonesia , the phallic lingga and feminine yoni , remain common symbols of harmony . The Sultan 's Palace of Kasepuhan , in West Java , has a number of lingga @-@ yoni carvings along its walls . According to the Indonesian chronicles of the Babad Tanah Jawi , Prince Puger gained the kingly power from God , by ingesting sperm from the phallus of the already @-@ dead Sultan Amangkurat II of Mataram .
Candi Sukuh temple of Ngancar , East Java , was built in the 10th century and is dedicated to Shiva and is evidence of Tantric ritual in Hinduism and the fertility cult practiced at the time and preoccupation with the lingga . The temple has numerous reliefs graphically depicting sexuality and fertility including several stone depictions of a copulating penis and vagina . It consists of a pyramid with reliefs and statues at the front . Among them is a male statue clutching his penis , with three tortoises with flattened shells . The temple once had a striking 1 @.@ 82 metre ( 5 ' 11 @.@ 5 ft ) representation of lingga with four testicles ; this is now housed in the National Museum of Indonesia . Phallic references were also made in Khmer architecture in Cambodia , and several Khmer temples depict the phallus in reliefs .
In Africa , Ancient Malians , particularly the royals of Djenne , decorated their palaces with phallus like piers and columns at the entrance of their palaces and decorated the walls with phallus motifs . Similar features can be seen on the pillars of many temples across Africa , often interpreted by western scholars to be phallic symbols , but may often be more subtle and subject to varying interpretations . Like the ancient Egyptian pharaohs , Aksumite kings built temples with phallic pillars in ancient Ethiopian cities such as Konsu , and monolithic pillars with phallic representation have also been discovered in Madagascar . In ancient Maya , phallic architecture was rare but Uxmal in particular has a considerable number of phallus @-@ like architectural pieces . It contains a temple known as the Temple of the Phallis and phallic sculptures and motifs .
= = = Modern = = =
Claude Nicholas Ledoux was a major exponent of architectural development in the 17th century which " articulated across the tensions of form and ornament , symbol , and allegory , dogma , and fantasy " , at a time when western society was oppressive and particularly sensitive to public displays of sexuality ; blatant and graphic phallic architecture would have been considered an embarrassment and a shameful act . In his initial draft for the House of Pleasure in Chaux ( a proposed ideal city , near the Forest of Chaux ) , Ledoux drew upon allegorical ideas in his design with the union of man and woman , a physiological interpretation of intercourse and penetration . Private bedrooms were designed to " thrust out from the circular ring of the building , metaphorically representing penetration , the circular ring representing the vaginal passage and womb of the female .
The second revised design is said to " subliminate both elevated site and female gender " with a " lonely phallus " , without the original planned animated circular ring representing the female reproductive organs . Ledoux drew upon phallic and sexually charged inspiration in other buildings which he designed . His design of Besançon Theatre for instance was fueled by the exigencies of prostitution and ancient sexual ritual . However , in comparison to the likes of Jean @-@ Jacques Lequeu , who gained notoriety for his pornographic architectural concoctions , Ledoux 's architectural inspiration was relatively mild , and he is said to have omitted towers from his designs on occasion as he was aware that they would be frowned upon shamefully by general society as a too obvious representation of the phallus ; Ledoux 's " missing erection " is explained to this effect in Jacques Lecan 's Significance of the Missing Phalus .
According to Oscar Reutersvärd , the interest in neoclassical architecture in the 18th century was synonymous with and motivated by a similar interest in masculine virility . Works such as Francesco Colonna 's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili ( 1467 ) and Giovanni Battista Piranesi 's Campo Marzio ( 1762 ) show profoundly the ancient influence of phallic architecture in design and worship , and contain numerous illustrations of Priapic temples and architecture . Piranesi in particular is said to have offered a " prototype for the mysterious architecture of phallic worship that more closely resembles the houses of pleasure " in his etchings .
He located two designs for the Bustum Caesaris Augusti , concluding that they were based upon sexual ritual , with " two phallic plans penetrating the semicircular cubicula " . Piranesi believed that the purpose of the phallic designs were to celebrate virility and male regenerative power . Other commentators such as Carl August Ehrensvärd also provided illustrations and analysis of Priapic temples and the meaning of phallic architecture . A work of note to this effect is Neoclassical Temple of Virility and the Buildings with a Phallic Shaped Plan ( 1977 ) of the Institute for Art History of the University of Lund , Sweden .
In America , especially in Chicago and New York , and numerous other global cities , high rise skyscrapers of phallic shape grew up in the 20th century . Le Corbusier , the famous architect , propagated it in Europe in place of traditional decorative architecture . Similar futuristic developments took place in Italy with the initiative of Sant ’ Elia , symbolizing the triumph of man . Yet unlike those of ancient times which were blatant architectural representations of the phallus , in the West in modern times " shrines to the phallus " are more subtle , and may often be subject to interpretation as such ; very few architects have specifically admitted the human phallus as a source for their architectural creation . The Italian Fascists were cited as having an obsession with phallic architecture which was rigid and impermeable . In the last few decades the high @-@ rise phallic skyscraper has been a symbol of government quest for economic power in China , Hong Kong and South Korea and the other ASEAN / Pacific Rim nations . China fuels billions of dollars annually into high @-@ rise office and residential buildings with the aim of increasing GDP , at a rate far greater than they can be occupied .
= = Symbolism = =
In art and architecture , acutely vertical buildings are often seen as a symbol of masculinity and horizontal buildings are seen as more feminine . The terms " phallic verticality " , " phallic erectility " and " phallic brutality " have been referred to by architectural theorists , including the likes of French sociologist Henri Lefebvre , who argued that buildings of phallic architectural type metaphorically symbolize " force , male fertility , masculine violence " . Phallic erectility " bestows a special status on the perpendicular , proclaiming phallocracy as the orientation of space " while phallic brutality " does not remain abstract , for it is the brutality of political power . "
Lefebvre conducted considerable research into the meaning of high @-@ rise buildings . He said " The arrogant verticality of skyscrapers , and especially of public and state buildings , introduces a phallic or more precisely a phallocratic element into the visual realm ; the purpose of this display , of this need to impress , is to convey an impression of authority to each spectator . Verticality and great height have ever been the spatial expression of potentially violent power . " Sigmund Freud metaphorically drew a comparison between " high achievement and the acquisition of wealth as building monuments to our penises . "
In the 19th century , Thomas Mical argues that surrealists " capitalized on the phallic symbolism of monuments such as the ancient Egyptian obelisk from Luxor in the Place de la Concorde or the Vendome Column " by " supplementing these phallic structures with female counterparts " . Jules Breton for example suggested moving the obelisk to La Villette abattoir and designing a large gloved hand of a woman holding the obelisk in a suggestive manner , and adapting the Vendome into a factory chimney with a nude woman climbing it . Auguste Bartholdi 's 1870 monument Defense of Paris for instance , a commemoration of Leon Gambetta 's escape from Paris in balloon during the Franco @-@ Prussian War , was also subject to debate amongst Parisian artists of the late 19th century as they believed it resembled a testicle . Arthur Harfaux proposed turning the monument into " an enormous sex , the balloon forming a testicle and the phallus being horizontal " , while Breton proposed turning it into copulating genitals , adding a twin balloon to form two testicles .
Contemporary scholars in architectural criticism have investigated the relationship between architecture and the body , sexuality , sex , power , and place . Feminists in particular , such as Margrit Kennedy , perceive high @-@ rise phallic @-@ like buildings on the urban landscape as " phallic symbols of male domination , power and rational instrumentality . " Esther M. K. Cheung believes the form of monumental high @-@ rise building which grew up in 20th century America can " be read as a phallic symbol of power " . The present trend symbolises " Science and technology over nature , incorporating all the maleness which that with sci @-@ fi utopias . " Elizabeth Grosz , however , offers a counter argument to phallocentrism in urban design theories , saying " not so much the dominance of the phallus as the pervasive unacknowledged use of the male or masculine to represent the human . The problem , then , is not so much to eliminate as to reveal the masculinity inherent in the notion of the universal , the generic human , or the unspecified subject . " Marc C. Taylor discusses phallic architecture and what makes a building masculine or feminine in his book Disfiguring : Art , Architecture , Religion .
= = = Symbols and shrines = = =
During the modern era , many sculptors have created some public phallic works of art , with varying degrees of subtlety . One of these examples may be the statue in honor to the Carnation Revolution on the top of a hill in Lisbon , Portugal by the sculptor João Cutileiro . Perhaps the greatest example of a phallic cemetery is the Khalid Nabi Cemetery in hills of northeastern Iran near the border with Turkmenistan , roughly 40 miles ( 64 km ) northeast of Gonbad @-@ e Kavous . According to a popular belief , the cemetery house the tomb of a pre @-@ Islamic prophet , Khalid Nabi , who was born 40 years prior to the birth of Muhammad , in c . 530 . The ancient graveyard contains some 600 tombstones of unknown origin , many of which are clear representations of the phallus ; from a distance they resemble stone pegs .
Phallic shrines are common in Far East Asia , especially in Buddhist parts of Korea and Japan where they are seen as symbols of fertility or prowess . In Dragon Pool Temple in Jeju City , there is a phallic shrine which is visited by female pilgrims who come to worship it for its perceived fertility blessings . The phallic stone is made from granite , quite small in size and white and was reportedly found in a field nearby by a farmer .
In Thailand , the phallus is also considered to be a symbol of good luck and representative of fertility . There are numerous shrines in the country featuring phallic architecture . Chao Mae Tuptim shrine in Bangkok , behind the Swissôtel Bangkok hotel has over a hundred colored circumcised wooden penis statues of all shapes and sizes which are said to possess special cosmic powers and endow good fortune and fertility on anybody coming into contact with them .
Near Erdene Zuu Monastery in Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia is Kharkhorin Rock which contains a massive statue of a penis raised on a platform on the steppe . The statue has dual functions ; primarily it is a reminder to the monks to remain celibate , but it is also a symbol of fertility and human life . A smaller statue of a phallus is nearer the monastery . Haesindang Park ( also known as " Penis Park " ) in Gangwon Province of South Korea , located about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of Samcheok , is a nature park which contains a number of erect statues . A tragic legend shrouds them in that a virgin was once swept out to sea and drowned , unable to be saved by her lover . The townspeople were devastated and helpless , and a curse appeared to have been cast over them , ruining the local fishing industry . One day , a local fisherman relieved himself in the sea and miraculously the fishing industry revived . He discovered that her restless spirit could be appeased in such a manner , so the townsfolk compensated for the woman 's inability to consummate beyond the grave by placing sexually potent phallic statues in view of the shore . The statues range in size and styles ; some have faces on them and are more animated in appearance and more colorful , but others are exact depictions of the human penis .
In some Asian countries such as Bhutan , many have a belief that a phallus brings good luck and drives away evil spirits . Phallus symbols are routinely painted outside walls of the new houses and carved wooden phalluses are hung ( sometimes crossed by a design of sword or dagger ) outside , on the eves of the new homes , at the four corners . On a road drive from Paro airport to Thimphu explicit paintings of phalluses are a common sight on the white @-@ washed walls of homes , shops and eateries . In the Chimi Lhakhang monastery , the shrine dedicated to Drupka Kinley , several wooden penises are used to bless people who visit the monastery on pilgrimage seeking blessings to bear a child or for welfare of their children . The glaringly displayed phallus in the monastery is a brown wooden piece with a silver handle , a religious relic considered to possess divine powers and hence used for blessing the spiritually oriented people . It is also said to prevent quarrels among family members in the houses which are painted with these symbols .
= = Buildings and structures = =
= = = Empire State Building = = =
The 102 @-@ story Empire State Building , located in Midtown Manhattan , New York City , at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and West 34th Street , is one of the world 's most famous landmarks , and is generally thought of as an American cultural icon . Cited by Valerie Briginshaw as a symbol of American pride and " the ultimate sign of American phallic power " , it was inaugurated on 31 May 1931 .
Designed in the Art Deco style , it has a roof height of 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 381 meters ) , and with its antenna spire included , it stands a total of 1 @,@ 454 ft ( 443 @.@ 2 m ) high . It stood as the world 's tallest building for 40 years , from its completion in 1931 until construction of the World Trade Center 's North Tower was completed in 1972 . Numerous people have mentioned its similarities in appearance to the phallus , with its " tall and glinting " towers .
= = = Leaning Tower of Pisa = = =
The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa , Italy , dating from around 1173 , has long suffered from structural problems . The tower is eight stories high at 55 @.@ 86 metres ( 183 @.@ 3 ft ) and before restoration work from 1990 leaned 5 @.@ 5 degrees . It currently leans about 4 degrees but due to foundation problems it continues to sink about 1mm annually . The resemblance of the tower to a penis has seen the " Leaning Tower of Pisa " became a sexual slang term for a half erect penis . Local retailers have attempted to capitalize on the tower as a phallic architectural piece by making souvenirs featuring underwear with the tower resembling a penis . The Catholic Church denounced the promotion of the tower in such a manner as showing " a complete lack of respect and a " disgrace " and retailers can now be fined up to € 500 for selling items promoting the tower as a penis .
= = = Nelson 's Column = = =
Nelson 's Column , a monument to Admiral Horatio Nelson , was erected by a grateful nation between 1840 and 1843 to commemorate Nelson 's victory at the Battle of Trafalgar . However the Nelson Memorial Committee ran out of money , having only raised £ 20 @,@ 485 in public subscriptions . The column is Corinthian with a granite shaft . In his poem A Ballad of the Good Lord Nelson , Lawrence Durrell included the multiply allusive lines " Now stiff on a pillar with a phallic air / Nelson stylites in Trafalgar Square / Reminds the British what once they were . "
= = = Colonna Mediterranea = = =
Colonna Mediterranea is a monumental column in Luqa , Malta . It has been described by its artist Paul Vella Critien as an " Egyptian symbol " . However at a glance it could be observed to look similar to a large penile , and therefor was largely described to be a " phallic monument " . The monument has managed to attract several international media coverage in specific before and during the visit of Pope Benedict XVI to Malta as the pope mobile , carrying the papacy , had been planned and passed by it . Similarly the same artist has created another monumental column , the Kolonna Eterna , which was also described as being phallic by critics .
= = = Obelisk of Luxor = = =
The Obelisk of Luxor , which stands in the Place de la Concorde of Paris , France , was given to the French by the Egyptians in the 1800s . The 23 @-@ meter ( 75 @-@ foot ) obelisk originally stood at the front of Luxor Temple , honoring Ramses II , pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt . According to Michael D. Garval , the French perceived the obelisk as " prodigiously phallic " from the moment it arrived .
= = = Oriental Pearl TV Tower = = =
The Oriental Pearl TV Tower , located in Pudong Park in Lujiazui , Shanghai , China , is the world ’ s third tallest TV and radio tower at 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) , the tallest such building in Asia . The tower houses restaurants , theaters , a conference hall , and a hotel and is a significant tourist attraction in the city . The tower has been met a mixed reception , however . The New York Times described it as a " great phallic monster of truly monumental ugliness , a bit like an enormous asparagus with a silver ball on top . " The long steel column tower is considered by some to be proof of the city 's phallic worship , and that such skyscrapers indicative of wealth are an increasing aphrodisiac of the materialist in Chinese cities .
= = = Burj Qatar = = =
The Burj Qatar was designed by French architect Jean Nouvel . In 2004 , the project was first called the " High Rise Office Building " . Following completion in 2012 , it was originally called the " Burj Doha " by its owner , H. E. Sheikh Saud bin Muhammed Al Thani . The public has noted the building 's " phallic form " , suggestive of what Nouvel calls a “ fully assumed virility . ”
= = = State Capitol , Lincoln = = =
The State Capitol building of Lincoln , Nebraska has been cited as the " apex " of phallic architecture . At 15 stories and 400 feet ( 121 m ) tall , it is the second @-@ tallest U.S. statehouse , surpassed only by the 34 @-@ story Louisiana State Capitol . It is the tallest building in Lincoln , the third @-@ tallest in the state , and also the heaviest Capitol building in North America . The building was designed by Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue , who drew upon Classical and Gothic architectural traditions . It was constructed between 1922 and 1932 , of Indiana limestone , with a golden dome . The building is nicknamed " The Phallus of the Plains " for its phallus @-@ like appearance .
= = = 30 St Mary Axe = = =
30 St Mary Axe opened in London in April 2004 . Designed by Norman Foster , the 180 metres ( 590 ft ) structure , London ’ s first environmentally sustainable tall building using recycled and recyclable materials , has been compared to the phallus and a gherkin ; its nicknames include Gherkin , the Erotic Gherkin , Towering Innuendo and the Crystal Phallus . Also likened to a " phallic fat cigar " , the building has been cited as a " crude anatomical metaphor " , yet has become one of the London 's most iconic buildings . Cabinet voted it the " Best Uncircumcised Building in the World " .
= = = Torre Agbar = = =
The Torre Agbar is a 38 @-@ story skyscraper located in the Plaça de les Glòries Catalanes of the Poblenou neighborhood of Barcelona , Spain . Designed by Jean Nouvel , it is named after its owners , the Agbar Group , a holding company whose interests include the Barcelona water company Aigües de Barcelona . An example of high @-@ tech architecture in the city , its design combines a number of different architectural concepts , resulting in a striking structure built with reinforced concrete , covered with a facade of glass , and over 4 @,@ 500 window openings cut out of the structural concrete . The building stands out on the skyline of Barcelona ; it is the third tallest building in the city , standing at 144 @.@ 44 m ( 473 @.@ 88 ft ) , with an area of over 50 @,@ 000 square metres , of which 30 @,@ 000 are offices . 2 @,@ 500 LED bulbs cause the tower to change color at night . It was officially opened by the King of Spain on 16 September 2005 . Nouvel claims it to be inspired by a geyser and the nearby mountain of Montserrat , although he does note its phallic appearance . Although many draw comparisons with the phallus , locals refer to the structure as el supositorio ( the suppository ) , a drug delivery system that is inserted into the rectum or vagina .
= = = Washington Monument = = =
The Washington Monument in Washington D.C. is often seen as a prime example of phallic architecture and American masculinity . The towering monument , made of marble , granite , and bluestone gneiss , it is both the world 's tallest stone structure and the world 's tallest obelisk , standing 555 feet 5 1 ⁄ 8 inches ( 169 @.@ 294 m ) according to the National Park Service . Construction of the monument began in 1848 , was halted from 1854 to 1877 , and was completed in 1884 . In a Journal review , dated 17 October 1911 , Arnold Bennett said of the monument , " Saw Washington monument . Phallic . Appalling . A national catastrophe – only equalled by the Albert Memorial . Tiny doll @-@ like people waiting to go into it . " Dan Burstein says of it , " Speaking of sex symbols , there is no more phallic symbol in existence than the Washington Monument , and the Capitol dome can be viewed as breastlike . " James Webb used a metaphor to praise the " uplift [ ing ] " power of the Washington Monument as a white phallus , " piercing the air like a bayonet " . In the futuristic film Hardwired , set in the United States where everything noteworthy is commercialized , the Washington Monument is used as a giant Trojan condoms billboard .
= = = Ypsilanti Water Tower = = =
Ypsilanti Water Tower is a historic water tower in Ypsilanti , Michigan , United States , listed as a National Register of Historic Places building in 1981 . The tower was designed by William R. Coats and constructed as part of an elaborate city waterworks project that began in 1889 . Located on the highest point in Ypsilanti , the tower was completed in 1890 at a cost of $ 21 @,@ 435 @.@ 63 . Today the tower is frequently joked about for its phallic shape and has earned the nickname " Brick Dick " .
It has become a well @-@ known landmark in Ypsilanti , and due to the building 's shape and location , the tower is frequently used by residents as a point for providing directions for visitors and residents . Iggy Pop said of it in a 1996 interview , " The most famous thing in Ypsilanti is this water tower made out of brick , about 175 years old . It looks like this big penis . "
The World 's Most Phallic Building contest was a contest held in 2003 by Cabinet magazine to find the building which most resembled a human phallus . The contest originated when writer Jonathan Ames drew the ire of Slate readers by claiming , in a diary that was later published in his book I Love You More Than You Know , that the Williamsburg Bank Building in Brooklyn , New York City , New York , was the world 's most phallic . This led Cabinet magazine to initiate a search of its own to find which building was truly the " world 's most phallic " . Cities and readers subsequently poured in their views and staked their claims to the magazine 's editors . After months of entries and discussion , the Ypsilanti Water Tower was announced as the winner , although the winner of a readers ' poll was the Florida State Capitol building in Tallahassee . Another notable nominee was the Torre Agbar of Barcelona .
= = = Christian Science Church , Dixon , Illinois = = =
The Christian Science Dixon church in Dixon , Illinois strongly resembles a penis when viewed from the air.The church , however , claims it was tastefully designed around an old oak tree and declared that " We didn ’ t design it to be seen as what they ’ re seeing . And we didn ’ t design it to be seen from above . "
= = = Hyde Park , Hyde , Greater Manchester = = =
In 2012 , a beehive metal sculpture by Thompson Dagnall in Hyde , Greater Manchester , was criticized by the council for installment adjacent to the children ’ s play area in Hyde park for looking too rude and phallic . Although Dagnall was paid £ 3 @,@ 500 a week for his efforts , council workers modified the structure by stumping it and moved it to another part of the park .
= = = People 's Daily Tower = = =
A new headquarters for the People 's Daily newspaper has been under construction since 2013 and is slated for completion in 2014 . In May 2013 , China attempted to censor jokes about its phallic shape .
= = = Hyde Park Obelisk , Sydney = = =
The 22 @-@ metre high Hyde Park Obelisk , located in Hyde Park , Sydney Australia at the intersection of Elizabeth Street and Bathurst Street , is both a former sewer ventshaft and a notable landmark in the Sydney CBD . Its phallic appearance was emphasised on 7 November 2014 , when the AIDS Council of NSW ( ACON ) temporarily installed a giant condom over the Obelisk as part of a HIV awareness campaign . The installation generated a lot of media interest - including many phallic innuendos - and drew the ire of the Australian Christian Lobby .
= = = Church Office Building , Salt Lake City , Utah = = =
Completed in 1972 , the Church Office Building stands toward the eastern end of Temple Square in Salt Lake City , Utah . The building currently houses the administrative support staff and lay ministry of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . The building 's form , when viewed from the North or South faces , resembles a large phallus . The building 's first four floors extend outward , and are adorned with images of the world rendered in bas relief . These large ovular images are regarded by many locals to resemble testes , reinforcing the building 's overall phallic appearance .
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= Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? =
" Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 47th episode overall . The first half of the third season alternated entire episodes between the parallel universe ( the " Other Side " ) and the prime universe ( " Our Side " ) . " Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " took place in the prime universe , and involved several shapeshifters , including Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) , who is eventually captured . Meanwhile , Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) attempts to maintain her cover and minimize the damage .
The episode was written by David Wilcox and Matthew Pitts , while Kenneth Fink served as director for the hour . It first aired on October 14 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 5 @.@ 22 million viewers . It received mostly positive reviews , as many critics praised the plot 's focus on the shapeshifters .
= = Plot = =
In the prime universe , U.S. senator James Van Horn ( Gerard Plunkett ) , who has been reviewing the Fringe division 's activities , is hospitalized following a car accident . While in the hospital , Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) arrives and shoots him in the face , then escapes . The Fringe team discover that Van Horn was a shapeshifter . Walter ( John Noble ) finds that the body is still alive to some degree through a second " brain " on his back , and hopes to use Van Horn 's wife Patricia ( Shannon Cochran ) to try to awaken it and study the shapeshifter more .
Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) , still posing as the prime universe 's Olivia ( Torv ) , informs Newton of this development . Newton contacts a second shapeshifter , Ray ( Marcus Giamatti ) , to infiltrate the secured location where Van Horn 's body is being held to remove the data disc that Walter will ultimately find . Ray regrets the possibility of having to leave his current identity , a police officer with a wife and son . Meanwhile , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Fauxlivia discover that Van Horn has acquired a number of records on the personnel of the Fringe team , and likely has used the information to aid the parallel universe 's Walternate ( Noble ) .
At the secured facility , Fauxlivia is able to clear Peter , Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) and Walter from the lab in order to allow Ray access to the lab . Ray continues to avoid shifting to a new body . Walter returns to the lab to confirm a theory and is interrupted by Ray . Ray successfully removes the data device , knocks out Walter , and flees to give it to Newton . When Ray requests to be able to return to his family , Newton kills him near his home , but by this time , the Fringe division has identified Ray and have converged on his address . On spotting Newton , they engage in a car chase , eventually damaging Newton 's car . Fauxlivia recovers Van Horn 's data disc from Newton and hides it before taking Newton into custody .
Sometime later , Fauxlivia visits Newton in a high @-@ security prison , and passes him the equivalent of a suicide pill that causes him to self @-@ destruct and bleed out mercury . Fauxlivia realizes Peter has become suspicious of her actions , and sleeps with him to draw away his attention .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producer David Wilcox and J.J. Abrams ' assistant , Matthew Pitts . CSI : Crime Scene Investigation veteran Kenneth Fink served as director , his only Fringe credit to date . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , executive producer Jeff Pinkner explained the role of the shapeshifters in the two universes , " The shapeshifters are Walternate 's ' soldiers . ' Part organic , part mechanical — they ' bleed ' mercury — and are able to take the shape of any human that they kill . Walternate sent them here years ago ( they were able to cross universes safely because they 're not human ) to act as sleeper agents " .
" Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " featured the second appearance of guest actor Gerard Plunkett as Senator Van Horn , as well as the first appearance of Marcus Giamatti as a shapeshifter . It was the last episode with guest star Sebastian Roché ( who played the villain Thomas Jerome Newton ) . Despite his character 's death , executive producer J. H. Wyman hinted in a later Twitter post that Roché may return .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " , with the intention of having " students learn about memory , which is the ability to store , retain , and recall information and experiences . "
= = Cultural references = =
The episode title " Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep " refers to the Philip K. Dick science fiction novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? , which was later adapted into the film Blade Runner . The novel dealt with what it means to be human , exploring how faking an emotion long enough can actually develop into real feelings , much like in the episode where two shapeshifters first pretended but then developed feelings for their victims ' families . While Peter is drinking in a bar , science fiction movie The Invisible Boy is playing on a television in the background , with the character Robby the Robot visible . During the episode , Walter makes two requests in order to provide " brain stimulation " to the deceased Senator Van Horn : a portrait of former president George W. Bush , and a copy of Hump Magazine .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " was watched by 5 @.@ 22 million viewers in the United States , with 3 @.@ 2 / 5 share among all households and a 2 / 5 share for viewers aged 18 – 49 . SFScope reviewer Sarah Stegall commented that because of the show 's low ratings " it is almost at the point where it would be a top @-@ rated show on cable ; but these are not good numbers for broadcast TV . " Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings by 45 percent among adults , resulting in a rise from 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 9 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought the episode continued the series ' season three " hot streak " , but wished the promo had not spoiled Senator Van Horn being a shapeshifter . Hanson also did not fully buy into the Peter @-@ Fauxlivia relationship , as he expected Peter to realize something different about her . Noel Murray from A.V. Club loved the shapeshifter focus of the episode and graded it an A- , explaining it was a " very strong episode " that " brings back one of my favorite Fringe concepts : those crazy super @-@ powered shapeshifters " . MTV 's Josh Wigler also enjoyed the shapeshifter plot , and wrote that " the latest episode of Fringe marks four fantastic installments in a row , instantly establishing season three as having the strongest opening act of any other previous year in the science fiction series . Fringe has reinvented itself by drastically altering just one ingredient in the show 's successful format — namely , the true identity of Olivia Dunham — to create something wholly new and amazing " . Television Without Pity gave the episode an A- .
Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker enjoyed the episode , writing that " this week 's Fringe contained everything I love about the show , from LSD to the great villain Thomas Jerome Newton . [ The episode ] didn 't use its Philip K. Dick @-@ shifted title as a coy joke — it really was about the dreams of shapeshifters , dreams and hopes which took a variety of forms " . Open Salon praised Torv 's performance this season , and thought it was a " very thought @-@ provoking episode , with some major implications for Peter and Olivia 's relationship moving forward " . Alex Zalben of UGO Networks , however , called the episode the " first clunker of the season " because despite approving of the plot and the acting , the " writing was uniformly obvious , stilted and kind of terrible ... there were more head @-@ slappingly stupid moments than I could count " . SFScope 's Sarah Stegall noted similarities to the film Blade Runner , and predicted that the consummation of their relationship would cause Peter to discover Fauxlivia 's true identity .
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= Lactarius rufulus =
Lactarius rufulus , commonly known as the rufous candy cap , is a species of fungus in the Russulaceae family . The fruit bodies have fleshy brownish @-@ red caps up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide , and closely spaced pinkish @-@ yellow gills . The stem is up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long and 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and colored similarly to the cap . The species , known only from California , Arizona , and Mexico , grows on the ground in leaf litter near oak trees . The fruit bodies resembles those of L. rufus , but L. rufulus tends to grow in clusters at a common base , rather than solitarily or in groups . A distinguishing microscopic characteristic is the near absence of large , spherical cells called sphaerocysts that are otherwise common in Lactarius species . Lactarius rufulus mushrooms are edible , and have an odor resembling maple syrup . They have been used to flavor confections and desserts .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1907 , based on specimens collected at Stanford University in California . The type collections were made by A.M. Patterson and S. Nohara , botany students at the Leland Stanford Junior University who made a number of collections during the winter of 1906 – 07 .
Lactarius rufulus is classified in the section Thejogali of the subgenus Russularia of the genus Lactarius . The surface characteristics of many species in section Thejogali ( as defined by Hesler and Smith in 1979 ) are called rimulose @-@ areolate ( irregularly cracked , with the cracks crossing one another ) based on a surface with " numerous mounds of inflated cells " paired together with crevices .
The mushroom is commonly known as the " rufous candy cap " .
= = Description = =
The cap of L. rufulus is 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide , broadly convex , becoming flattened and eventually shallowly funnel @-@ shaped , sometimes with a slight umbo . The cap margin ( edge ) is initially curved inwards but becomes curved upward in maturity . The surface is usually uneven or wrinkled . It is brownish @-@ red at first , but fades to orange @-@ brown with age . The attachment of the gills to the stem is adnate ( squarely attached ) to subdecurrent ( running slightly down the length of the stem ) . They are packed close together , at first pinkish @-@ yellow , but with age become a darker red or reddish @-@ brown . The gills are not forked , nor do they stain a different color when bruised . The stem is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long , about 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , nearly equal or slightly enlarged downward , dry , smooth , and reddish @-@ brown . It may be solid or stuffed ( filled with cotton @-@ like mycelia ) , but may become partially hollow with age . The flesh is firm , white to pinkish @-@ orange , and does not stain when cut . The latex is scant , yellowish @-@ white on exposure , unchanging , and does not stain tissues . Its taste is acrid . The spore print is white to creamy yellow .
The mushroom is edible , with a mild taste and a slight odor of maple syrup . American author David Arora suggests that the fruit bodies may be used in a manner similar to the candy cap mushrooms , despite being not as fragrant . Chefs in the San Francisco Bay Area have been known to use it for desserts such as ice creams , cakes and caramels .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are 7 – 9 by 7 – 9 µm , spherical or nearly so , ornamented with a partial to complete reticulum ( a system of raised , net @-@ like ridges ) , with prominences up to 0 @.@ 5 µm high . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are both two- and four @-@ spored , and measure 45 – 52 by 9 – 11 µm . The cap cuticle is a poorly formed layer of inflated cells with scattered filamentous pileocystidia ( cystidia on the cap ) . Somewhat unusual for a Lactarius , L. rufulus lacks or has few swollen cells ( sphaerocysts ) in the cap and stem .
= = = Similar species = = =
Lactarius rubidus is similar in appearance to L. rufulus , but it has watery to whey @-@ like latex and develops a strong odor of maple syrup or butterscotch when dried . Another lookalike is Lactarius thiersii , but it has a smaller cap and stem and has mild @-@ tasting flesh and latex . The flesh and latex of Lactarius rufus have a strongly acrid taste , and its fruit bodies are stouter and lack an umbo . Additionally , L. rufus typically grows in a caespitose manner — with the fruit bodies clustered at a common base , and has more pallid colors and a more intense odor than L. rufulus . L. vinaceorufescens has a yellowing latex .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Lactarius rufulus is a mycorrhizal species , and lives in a mutualistic association with oak species . The fungus forms an ectomycorrhizae — characterized by an external sheath that surround the rootlets of the oak . The fungus receives soluble carbohydrates that are byproducts of the plant 's photosynthesis , while affording the plant greater access to soil nutrients needed for growth . The fruit bodies of L. rufulus grow scattered or in groups on the ground under oak , usually from January to March ; their appearance is uncommon . Once thought to be only in California ( where they are most prevalent in the southern part of the state ) , they were reported from Mexico in 1998 , and from Arizona in 2006 .
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= Sustainable biofuel =
Biofuels , in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials , are entering the market , driven by factors such as oil price spikes and the need for increased energy security . However , many of the biofuels that are currently being supplied have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment , food security , and land use .
The challenge is to support biofuel development , including the development of new cellulosic technologies , with responsible policies and economic instruments to help ensure that biofuel commercialization is sustainable . Responsible commercialization of biofuels represents an opportunity to enhance sustainable economic prospects in Africa , Latin America and Asia .
Biofuels have a limited ability to replace fossil fuels and should not be regarded as a ‘ silver bullet ’ to deal with transport emissions . However , they offer the prospect of increased market competition and oil price moderation . A healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes and reduce dependency on fossil fuels , especially in the transport sector . Using transportation fuels more efficiently is also an integral part of a sustainable transport strategy .
= = Biofuel options = =
Biofuel development and use is a complex issue because there are many biofuel options which are available . Biofuels , such as ethanol and biodiesel , are currently produced from the products of conventional food crops such as the starch , sugar and oil feedstocks from crops that include wheat , maize , sugar cane , palm oil and oilseed rape . Some researchers fear that a major switch to biofuels from such crops would create a direct competition with their use for food and animal feed , and claim that in some parts of the world the economic consequences are already visible , other researchers look at the land available and the enormous areas of idle and abandoned land and claim that there is room for a large proportion of biofuel also from conventional crops .
Second generation biofuels are now being produced from a much broader range of feedstocks including the cellulose in dedicated energy crops ( perennial grasses such as switchgrass and Miscanthus giganteus ) , forestry materials , the co @-@ products from food production , and domestic vegetable waste . Advances in the conversion processes will improve the sustainability of biofuels , through better efficiencies and reduced environmental impact of producing biofuels , from both existing food crops and from cellulosic sources .
In 2007 , Ronald Oxburgh suggested in The Courier @-@ Mail that production of biofuels could be either responsible or irresponsible and had several trade @-@ offs : " Produced responsibly they are a sustainable energy source that need not divert any land from growing food nor damage the environment ; they can also help solve the problems of the waste generated by Western society ; and they can create jobs for the poor where previously were none . Produced irresponsibly , they at best offer no climate benefit and , at worst , have detrimental social and environmental consequences . In other words , biofuels are pretty much like any other product . In 2008 the Nobel prize @-@ winning chemist Paul J. Crutzen published findings that the release of nitrous oxide ( N2O ) emissions in the production of biofuels means that they contribute more to global warming than the fossil fuels they replace .
According to the Rocky Mountain Institute , sound biofuel production practices would not hamper food and fibre production , nor cause water or environmental problems , and would enhance soil fertility . The selection of land on which to grow the feedstocks is a critical component of the ability of biofuels to deliver sustainable solutions . A key consideration is the minimisation of biofuel competition for prime cropland .
= = Plants used as sustainable biofuel = =
= = = Sugarcane in Brazil = = =
Brazil ’ s production of ethanol fuel from sugarcane dates back to the 1970s , as a governmental response to the 1973 oil crisis . Brazil is considered the biofuel industry leader and the world 's first sustainable biofuels economy . In 2010 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency designated Brazilian sugarcane ethanol as an advanced biofuel due to EPA 's estimated 61 % reduction of total life cycle greenhouse gas emissions , including direct indirect land use change emissions . Brazil sugarcane ethanol fuel program success and sustainability is based on the most efficient agricultural technology for sugarcane cultivation in the world , uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock , the residual cane @-@ waste ( bagasse ) is used to process heat and power , which results in a very competitive price and also in a high energy balance ( output energy / input energy ) , which varies from 8 @.@ 3 for average conditions to 10 @.@ 2 for best practice production .
A report commissioned by the United Nations , based on a detailed review of published research up to mid @-@ 2009 as well as the input of independent experts world @-@ wide , found that ethanol from sugar cane as produced in Brazil " in some circumstances does better than just “ zero emission ” . If grown and processed correctly , it has negative emission , pulling CO2 out of the atmosphere , rather than adding it . In contrast , the report found that U.S. use of maize for biofuel is less efficient , as sugarcane can lead to emissions reductions of between 70 % and well over 100 % when substituted for gasoline . Several other studies have shown that sugarcane @-@ based ethanol reduces greenhouse gases by 86 to 90 % if there is no significant land use change .
In another study commissioned by the Dutch government in 2006 to evaluate the sustainability of Brazilian bioethanol concluded that there is sufficient water to supply all foreseeable long @-@ term water requirements for sugarcane and ethanol production . This evaluation also found that consumption of agrochemicals for sugar cane production is lower than in citric , corn , coffee and soybean cropping . The study found that development of resistant sugar cane varieties is a crucial aspect of disease and pest control and is one of the primary objectives of Brazil ’ s cane genetic improvement programs . Disease control is one of the main reasons for the replacement of a commercial variety of sugar cane .
Another concern is the fact that sugarcane fields are traditionally burned just before harvest to avoid harm to the workers , by removing the sharp leaves and killing snakes and other harmful animals , and also to fertilize the fields with ash . Mechanization will reduce pollution from burning fields and has higher productivity than people , and due to mechanization the number of temporary workers in the sugarcane plantations has already declined . By the 2008 harvest season , around 47 % of the cane was collected with harvesting machines .
Regarding the negative impacts of the potential direct and indirect effect of land use changes on carbon emissions , the study commissioned by the Dutch government concluded that " it is very difficult to determine the indirect effects of further land use for sugar cane production ( i.e. sugar cane replacing another crop like soy or citrus crops , which in turn causes additional soy plantations replacing pastures , which in turn may cause deforestation ) , and also not logical to attribute all these soil carbon losses to sugar cane " . The Brazilian agency Embrapa estimates that there is enough agricultural land available to increase at least 30 times the existing sugarcane plantation without endangering sensible ecosystems or taking land destined for food crops . Most future growth is expected to take place on abandoned pasture lands , as it has been the historical trend in São Paulo state . Also , productivity is expected to improve even further based on current biotechnology research , genetic improvement , and better agronomic practices , thus contributing to reduce land demand for future sugarcane cultures .
Another concern is the risk of clearing rain forests and other environmentally valuable land for sugarcane production , such as the Amazonia , the Pantanal or the Cerrado . Embrapa has rebutted this concern explaining that 99 @.@ 7 % of sugarcane plantations are located at least 2 @,@ 000 km from the Amazonia , and expansion during the last 25 years took place in the Center @-@ South region , also far away from the Amazonia , the Pantanal or the Atlantic forest . In São Paulo state growth took place in abandoned pasture lands . The impact assessment commissioned by the Dutch government supported this argument .
In order to guarantee a sustainable development of ethanol production , in September 2009 the government issued by decree a countrywide agroecological land use zoning to restrict sugarcane growth in or near environmentally sensitive areas . According to the new criteria , 92 @.@ 5 % of the Brazilian territory is not suitable for sugarcane plantation . The government considers that the suitable areas are more than enough to meet the future demand for ethanol and sugar in the domestic and international markets foreseen for the next decades .
Regarding the food vs fuel issue , a World Bank research report published on July 2008 found that " Brazil 's sugar @-@ based ethanol did not push food prices appreciably higher " . This research paper also concluded that Brazil 's sugar cane – based ethanol has not raised sugar prices significantly . An economic assessment report also published in July 2008 by the OECD agrees with the World Bank report regarding the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions , but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller . A study by the Brazilian research unit of the Fundação Getúlio Vargas regarding the effects of biofuels on grain prices concluded that the major driver behind the 2007 @-@ 2008 rise in food prices was speculative activity on futures markets under conditions of increased demand in a market with low grain stocks . The study also concluded that there is no correlation between Brazilian sugarcane cultivated area and average grain prices , as on the contrary , the spread of sugarcane was accompanied by rapid growth of grain crops in the country .
= = = Jatropha = = =
= = = = India and Africa = = = =
Crops like Jatropha , used for biodiesel , can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees and crops won 't grow , or would produce only slow growth yields . Jatropha cultivation provides benefits for local communities :
Cultivation and fruit picking by hand is labour @-@ intensive and needs around one person per hectare . In parts of rural India and Africa this provides much @-@ needed jobs - about 200 @,@ 000 people worldwide now find employment through jatropha . Moreover , villagers often find that they can grow other crops in the shade of the trees . Their communities will avoid importing expensive diesel and there will be some for export too .
= = = = Cambodia = = = =
Cambodia has no proven fossil fuel reserves , and is almost completely dependent on imported diesel fuel for electricity production . Consequently , Cambodians face an insecure supply and pay some of the highest energy prices in the world . The impacts of this are widespread and may hinder economic development .
Biofuels may provide a substitute for diesel fuel that can be manufactured locally for a lower price , independent of the international oil price . The local production and use of biofuel also offers other benefits such as improved energy security , rural development opportunities and environmental benefits . The Jatropha curcas species appears to be a particularly suitable source of biofuel as it already grows commonly in Cambodia . Local sustainable production of biofuel in Cambodia , based on the Jatropha or other sources , offers good potential benefits for the investors , the economy , rural communities and the environment .
= = = = Mexico = = = =
Jatropha is native to Mexico and Central America and was likely transported to India and Africa in the 1500s by Portuguese sailors convinced it had medicinal uses . In 2008 , recognizing the need to diversify its sources of energy and reduce emissions , Mexico passed a law to push developing biofuels that don 't threaten food security and the agriculture ministry has since identified some 2 @.@ 6 million hectares ( 6 @.@ 4 million acres ) of land with a high potential to produce jatropha . The Yucatán Peninsula , for instance , in addition to being a corn producing region , also contains abandoned sisal plantations , where the growing of Jatropha for biodiesel production would not displace food .
On April 1 , 2011 Interjet completed the first Mexican aviation biofuels test flight on an Airbus A320 . The fuel was a 70 : 30 traditional jet fuel biojet blend produced from Jatropha oil provided by three Mexican producers , Global Energías Renovables ( a wholly owned subsidiary of U.S.-based Global Clean Energy Holdings , Bencafser S.A. and Energy JH S.A. Honeywell 's UOP processed the oil into Bio @-@ SPK ( Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene ) . Global Energías Renovables operates the largest Jatropha farm in the Americas .
On August 1 , 2011 Aeromexico , Boeing , and the Mexican Government participated in the first biojet powered transcontinental flight in aviation history . The flight from Mexico City to Madrid used a blend of 70 percent traditional fuel and 30 percent biofuel ( aviation biofuel ) . The biojet was produced entirely from Jatropha oil .
= = = Pongamia Pinnata in Australia and India = = =
Pongamia pinnata is a legume native to Australia , India , Florida ( USA ) and most tropical regions , and is now being invested in as an alternative to Jatropha for areas such as Northern Australia , where Jatropha is classed as a noxious weed . Commonly known as simply ' Pongamia ' , this tree is currently being commercialised in Australia by Pacific Renewable Energy , for use as a Diesel replacement for running in modified Diesel engines or for conversion to Biodiesel using 1st or 2nd Generation Biodiesel techniques , for running in unmodified Diesel engines .
= = = Sweet sorghum in India = = =
Sweet sorghum overcomes many of the shortcomings of other biofuel crops . With sweet sorghum , only the stalks are used for biofuel production , while the grain is saved for food or livestock feed . It is not in high demand in the global food market , and thus has little impact on food prices and food security . Sweet sorghum is grown on already @-@ farmed drylands that are low in carbon storage capacity , so concerns about the clearing of rainforest do not apply . Sweet sorghum is easier and cheaper to grow than other biofuel crops in India and does not require irrigation , an important consideration in dry areas . Some of the Indian sweet sorghum varieties are now grown in Uganda for ethanol production .
A study by researchers at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi @-@ Arid Tropics ( ICRISAT ) found that growing sweet sorghum instead of grain sorghum could increase farmers incomes by US $ 40 per hectare per crop because it can provide food , feed and fuel . With grain sorghum currently grown on over 11 million hectares ( ha ) in Asia and on 23 @.@ 4 million ha in Africa , a switch to sweet sorghum could have a considerable economic impact .
= = International collaboration on sustainable biofuels = =
= = = Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels = = =
Public attitudes and the actions of key stakeholders can play a crucial role in realising the potential of sustainable biofuels . Informed discussion and dialogue , based both on scientific research and an understanding of public and stakeholder views , is important .
The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels is an international initiative which brings together farmers , companies , governments , non @-@ governmental organizations , and scientists who are interested in the sustainability of biofuels production and distribution . During 2008 , the Roundtable used meetings , teleconferences , and online discussions to develop a series of principles and criteria for sustainable biofuels production .
In 2008 , the Roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels released its proposed standards for sustainable biofuels . This includes 12 principles :
" Biofuel production shall follow international treaties and national laws regarding such things as air quality , water resources , agricultural practices , labor conditions , and more .
Biofuels projects shall be designed and operated in participatory processes that involve all relevant stakeholders in planning and monitoring .
Biofuels shall significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions as compared to fossil fuels . The principle seeks to establish a standard methodology for comparing greenhouse gases ( GHG ) benefits .
Biofuel production shall not violate human rights or labor rights , and shall ensure decent work and the well @-@ being of workers .
Biofuel production shall contribute to the social and economic development of local , rural and indigenous peoples and communities .
Biofuel production shall not impair food security .
Biofuel production shall avoid negative impacts on biodiversity , ecosystems and areas of high conservation value .
Biofuel production shall promote practices that improve soil health and minimize degradation .
Surface and groundwater use will be optimized and contamination or depletion of water resources minimized .
Air pollution shall be minimized along the supply chain .
Biofuels shall be produced in the most cost @-@ effective way , with a commitment to improve production efficiency and social and environmental performance in all stages of the biofuel value chain .
Biofuel production shall not violate land rights " .
In April 2011 , the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels launched a set of comprehensive sustainability criteria - the “ RSB Certification System . ” Biofuels producers that meet to these criteria are able to show buyers and regulators that their product has been obtained without harming the environment or violating human rights .
= = = Sustainable Biofuels Consensus = = =
The Sustainable Biofuels Consensus is an international initiative which calls upon governments , the private sector , and other stakeholders to take decisive action to ensure the sustainable trade , production , and use of biofuels . In this way biofuels may play a key role in energy sector transformation , climate stabilization , and resulting worldwide revitalisation of rural areas .
The Sustainable Biofuels Consensus envisions a " landscape that provides food , fodder , fiber , and energy , which offers opportunities for rural development ; that diversifies energy supply , restores ecosystems , protects biodiversity , and sequesters carbon " .
= = = Better Sugarcane Initiative / Bonsucro = = =
In 2008 , a multi @-@ stakeholder process was initiated by the World Wildlife Fund and the International Finance Corporation , the private development arm of the World Bank , bringing together industry , supply chain intermediaries , end @-@ users , farmers and civil society organisations to develop standards for certifying the derivative products of sugar cane , one of which is ethanol fuel .
The Bonsucro standard is based around a definition of sustainability which is founded on five principles :
Obey the law
Respect human rights and labour standards
Manage input , production and processing efficiencies to enhance sustainability
Actively manage biodiversity and ecosystem services
Continuously improve key areas of the business
Biofuel producers that wish to sell products marked with the Bonsucro standard must both ensure that they product to the Production Standard , and that their downstream buyers meet the Chain of Custody Standard . In addition , if they wish to sell to the European market and count against the EU Renewable Energy Directive , then they must adhere to the Bonsucro EU standard , which includes specific greenhouse gas calculations following European Commission calculation guidelines .
= = Sustainability standards = =
Several countries and regions have introduced policies or adopted standards to promote sustainable biofuels production and use , most prominently the European Union and the United States . The 2009 EU Renewable Energy Directive , which requires 10 percent of transportation energy from renewable energy by 2020 , is the most comprehensive mandatory sustainability standard in place as of 2010 . The Directive requires that the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of biofuels consumed be at least 50 percent less than the equivalent emissions from gasoline or diesel by 2017 ( and 35 percent less starting in 2011 ) . Also , the feedstocks for biofuels " should not be harvested from lands with high biodiversity value , from carbon @-@ rich or forested land , or from wetlands " .
As with the EU , the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS ) and the California Low Carbon Fuel Standard ( LCFS ) both require specific levels of lifecycle greenhouse gas reductions compared to equivalent fossil fuel consumption . The RFS requires that at least half of the biofuels production mandated by 2022 should reduce lifecycle emissions by 50 percent . The LCFS is a performance standard that calls for a minimum of 10 percent emissions reduction per unit of transport energy by 2020 . Both the U.S. and California standards currently address only greenhouse gas emissions , but California plans to " expand its policy to address other sustainability issues associated with liquid biofuels in the future " .
In 2009 , Brazil also adopted new sustainability policies for sugarcane ethanol , including " zoning regulation of sugarcane expansion and social protocols " .
= = Oil price moderation = =
Biofuels offer the prospect of real market competition and oil price moderation . According to the Wall Street Journal , crude oil would be trading 15 per cent higher and gasoline would be as much as 25 per cent more expensive , if it were not for biofuels . A healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes .
= = Sustainable transport = =
Biofuels have a limited ability to replace fossil fuels and should not be regarded as a ‘ silver bullet ’ to deal with transport emissions . Biofuels on their own cannot deliver a sustainable transport system and so must be developed as part of an integrated approach , which promotes other renewable energy options and energy efficiency , as well as reducing the overall energy demand and need for transport . Consideration needs to be given to the development of hybrid and fuel cell vehicles , public transport , and better town and rural planning .
In December 2008 an Air New Zealand jet completed the world 's first commercial aviation test flight partially using jatropha @-@ based fuel . More than a dozen performance tests were undertaken in the two @-@ hour test flight which departed from Auckland International Airport . A biofuel blend of 50 : 50 jatropha and Jet A1 fuel was used to power one of the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 's Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 engines . Air New Zealand set several criteria for its jatropha , requiring that " the land it came from was neither forest nor virgin grassland in the previous 20 years , that the soil and climate it came from is not suitable for the majority of food crops and that the farms are rain fed and not mechanically irrigated " . The company has also set general sustainability criteria , saying that such biofuels must not compete with food resources , that they must be as good as traditional jet fuels , and that they should be cost competitive .
In January 2009 , Continental Airlines used a sustainable biofuel to power a commercial aircraft for the first time in North America . This demonstration flight marks the first sustainable biofuel demonstration flight by a commercial carrier using a twin @-@ engined aircraft , a Boeing 737 @-@ 800 , powered by CFM International CFM56 @-@ 7B engines . The biofuel blend included components derived from algae and jatropha plants . The algae oil was provided by Sapphire Energy , and the jatropha oil by Terasol Energy .
In March 2011 , Yale University research showed significant potential for sustainable aviation fuel based on jatropha @-@ curcas . According to the research , if cultivated properly , " jatropha can deliver many benefits in Latin America and greenhouse gas reductions of up to 60 percent when compared to petroleum @-@ based jet fuel " . Actual farming conditions in Latin America were assessed using sustainability criteria developed by the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels . Unlike previous research , which used theoretical inputs , the Yale team conducted many interviews with jatropha farmers and used " field measurements to develop the first comprehensive sustainability analysis of actual projects " .
As of June 2011 , revised international aviation fuel standards officially allow commercial airlines to blend conventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels . The renewable fuels " can be blended with conventional commercial and military jet fuel through requirements in the newly issued edition of ASTM D7566 , Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons " .
In December 2011 , the FAA awarded $ 7 @.@ 7 million to eight companies to advance the development of commercial aviation biofuels , with a special focus on alcohol to jet fuel . The FAA is assisting in the development of a sustainable fuel ( from alcohols , sugars , biomass , and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils ) that can be “ dropped in ” to aircraft without changing current practices and infrastructure . The research will test how the new fuels affect engine durability and quality control standards .
GreenSky London , a biofuels plant under construction in 2014 , will take in some 500 @,@ 000 tonnes of municipal rubbish and change the organic component into 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of jet fuel , and 40 megawatts of power . By the end of 2015 , all British Airways flights from London City Airport will be fuelled by waste and rubbish discarded by London residents .
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= Osmium =
Osmium ( from Greek ὀσμή osme , " smell " ) is a chemical element with symbol Os and atomic number 76 . It is a hard , brittle , bluish @-@ white transition metal in the platinum group that is found as a trace element in alloys , mostly in platinum ores . Osmium is the densest naturally occurring element , with a density of 22 @.@ 59 g / cm3 . Its alloys with platinum , iridium , and other platinum @-@ group metals are employed in fountain pen nibs , electrical contacts , and other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Osmium has a blue @-@ gray tint and is the densest stable element , slightly denser than iridium . Calculations of density from the X @-@ ray diffraction data may produce the most reliable data for these elements , giving a value of 22 @.@ 562 ± 0 @.@ 009 g / cm3 for iridium versus 22 @.@ 587 ± 0 @.@ 009 g / cm3 for osmium .
Osmium is a hard but brittle metal that remains lustrous even at high temperatures . It has a very low compressibility . Correspondingly , its bulk modulus is extremely high , reported between 395 and 462 GPa , which rivals that of diamond ( 443 GPa ) . The hardness of osmium is moderately high at 4 GPa . Because of its hardness , brittleness , low vapor pressure ( the lowest of the platinum @-@ group metals ) , and very high melting point ( the fourth highest of all elements ) , solid osmium is difficult to machine , form , or work .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Osmium forms compounds with oxidation states ranging from − 2 to + 8 . The most common oxidation states are + 2 , + 3 , + 4 , and + 8 . The + 8 oxidation state is notable for being the highest attained by any chemical element aside from iridium 's + 9 and is encountered only in xenon , ruthenium , hassium , iridium , plutonium , and curium ( uncertain ) . The oxidation states − 1 and − 2 represented by the two reactive compounds Na
2 [ Os
4 ( CO )
13 ] and Na
2 [ Os ( CO )
4 ] are used in the synthesis of osmium cluster compounds .
The most common compound exhibiting the + 8 oxidation state is osmium tetroxide . This toxic compound is formed when powdered osmium is exposed to air . It is a very volatile , water @-@ soluble , pale yellow , crystalline solid with a strong smell . Osmium powder has the characteristic smell of osmium tetroxide . Osmium tetroxide forms red osmates OsO
4 ( OH ) 2 −
2 upon reaction with a base . With ammonia , it forms the nitrido @-@ osmates OsO
3N − . Osmium tetroxide boils at 130 ° C and is a powerful oxidizing agent . By contrast , osmium dioxide ( OsO2 ) is black , non @-@ volatile , and much less reactive and toxic .
Only two osmium compounds have major applications : osmium tetroxide for staining tissue in electron microscopy and for the oxidation of alkenes in organic synthesis , and the non @-@ volatile osmates for organic oxidation reactions .
Osmium pentafluoride ( OsF5 ) is known , but osmium trifluoride ( OsF3 ) has not yet been synthesized . The lower oxidation states are stabilized by the larger halogens , so that the trichloride , tribromide , triiodide , and even diiodide are known . The oxidation state + 1 is known only for osmium iodide ( OsI ) , whereas several carbonyl complexes of osmium , such as triosmium dodecacarbonyl ( Os
3 ( CO )
12 ) , represent oxidation state 0 .
In general , the lower oxidation states of osmium are stabilized by ligands that are good σ @-@ donors ( such as amines ) and π @-@ acceptors ( heterocycles containing nitrogen ) . The higher oxidation states are stabilized by strong σ- and π @-@ donors , such as O2 − and N3 − .
Despite its broad range of compounds in numerous oxidation states , osmium in bulk form at ordinary temperatures and pressures resists attack by all acids and alkalis , including aqua regia .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Osmium has seven naturally occurring isotopes , six of which are stable : 184Os , 187Os , 188Os , 189Os , 190Os , and ( most abundant ) 192Os . 186Os undergoes alpha decay with such a long half @-@ life ( ( 2 @.@ 0 ± 1 @.@ 1 ) × 1015 years ) that for practical purposes it can be considered stable . Alpha decay is predicted for all seven naturally occurring isotopes , but it has been observed only for 186Os , presumably due to very long half @-@ lives . It is predicted that 184Os and 192Os can undergo double beta decay but this radioactivity has not been observed yet .
187Os is the daughter of 187Re ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 56 × 1010 years ) and is used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks ( see rhenium @-@ osmium dating ) . It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons . This decay is a reason why rhenium @-@ rich minerals are abnormally rich in 187Os . However , the most notable application of Os isotopes in geology has been in conjunction with the abundance of iridium , to characterise the layer of shocked quartz along the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago .
= = History = =
Osmium was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston in London , England . The discovery of osmium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group . Platinum reached Europe as platina ( " small silver " ) , first encountered in the late 17th century in silver mines around the Chocó Department , in Colombia . The discovery that this metal was not an alloy , but a distinct new element , was published in 1748 . Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia ( a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids ) to create soluble salts . They always observed a small amount of a dark , insoluble residue . Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite . Victor Collet @-@ Descotils , Antoine François , comte de Fourcroy , and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803 , but did not obtain enough material for further experiments .
In 1803 , Smithson Tennant analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal . Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide , which he believed to be of this new metal — which he named ptene , from the Greek word πτηνος ( ptènos ) for winged . However , Tennant , who had the advantage of a much larger amount of residue , continued his research and identified two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue , iridium and osmium . He obtained a yellow solution ( probably of cis – [ Os ( OH ) 2O4 ] 2 − ) by reactions with sodium hydroxide at red heat . After acidification he was able to distill the formed OsO4 . He named it osmium after Greek osme meaning " a smell " , because of the ashy and smoky smell of the volatile osmium tetroxide . Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21 , 1804 .
Uranium and osmium were early successful catalysts in the Haber process , the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia , giving enough yield to make the process economically successful . At the time , a group at BASF led by Carl Bosch bought most of the world 's supply of osmium to use as a catalyst . Shortly thereafter , in 1908 , cheaper catalysts based on iron and iron oxides were introduced by the same group for the first pilot plants , removing the need for the expensive and rare osmium .
Nowadays osmium is obtained primarily from the processing of platinum and nickel ores .
= = Occurrence = =
Osmium is the least abundant stable element in Earth 's crust with an average mass fraction of 50 parts per trillion in the continental crust .
Osmium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys ; especially the iridium – osmium alloys , osmiridium ( osmium rich ) , and iridosmium ( iridium rich ) . In nickel and copper deposits , the platinum group metals occur as sulfides ( i.e. , ( Pt , Pd ) S ) ) , tellurides ( e.g. , PtBiTe ) , antimonides ( e.g. , PdSb ) , and arsenides ( e.g. , PtAs2 ) ; in all these compounds platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium . As with all of the platinum group metals , osmium can be found naturally in alloys with nickel or copper .
Within Earth 's crust , osmium , like iridium , is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure : igneous deposits ( crustal intrusions from below ) , impact craters , and deposits reworked from one of the former structures . The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa , though the large copper – nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia , and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of osmium . Smaller reserves can be found in the United States . The alluvial deposits used by pre @-@ Columbian people in the Chocó Department , Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals . The second large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural Mountains , Russia , which is still mined .
= = Production = =
Osmium is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product from nickel and copper mining and processing . During electrorefining of copper and nickel , noble metals such as silver , gold and the platinum group metals , together with non @-@ metallic elements such as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud , which forms the starting material for their extraction . In order to separate the metals , they must first be brought into solution . Several methods are available depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture ; two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia , and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid . Osmium , ruthenium , rhodium and iridium can be separated from platinum , gold and base metals by their insolubility in aqua regia , leaving a solid residue . Rhodium can be separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate . The insoluble residue , containing Ru , Os and Ir , is treated with sodium oxide , in which Ir is insoluble , producing water @-@ soluble Ru and Os salts . After oxidation to the volatile oxides , RuO
4 is separated from OsO
4 by precipitation of ( NH4 ) 3RuCl6 with ammonium chloride .
After it is dissolved , osmium is separated from the other platinum group metals by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide . The first method is similar to the procedure used by Tennant and Wollaston . Both methods are suitable for industrial scale production . In either case , the product is reduced using hydrogen , yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques .
Neither the producers nor the United States Geological Survey published any production amounts for osmium . Estimations of the United States consumption date published from 1971 , which gives a consumption in the United States of 2000 troy ounces ( 62 kg ) , would suggest that the production is still less than 1 ton per year . In 2012 , the estimated US production of osmium was 75 kg .
= = Applications = =
Because of the volatility and extreme toxicity of its oxide , osmium is rarely used in its pure state , but is instead often alloyed with other metals . Those alloys are utilized in high @-@ wear applications . Osmium alloys such as osmiridium are very hard and , along with other platinum @-@ group metals , are used in the tips of fountain pens , instrument pivots , and electrical contacts , as they can resist wear from frequent operation . They were also used for the tips of phonograph styli during the late 78 rpm and early " LP " and " 45 " record era , circa 1945 to 1955 . Although very durable compared to steel and chromium needle points , osmium @-@ alloy tips wore out far more rapidly than competing but costlier sapphire and diamond tips and were discontinued .
Osmium tetroxide has been used in fingerprint detection and in staining fatty tissue for optical and electron microscopy . As a strong oxidant , it cross @-@ links lipids mainly by reacting with unsaturated carbon – carbon bonds and thereby both fixes biological membranes in place in tissue samples and simultaneously stains them . Because osmium atoms are extremely electron @-@ dense , osmium staining greatly enhances image contrast in transmission electron microscopy ( TEM ) studies of biological materials . Those carbon materials have otherwise very weak TEM contrast ( see image ) . Another osmium compound , osmium ferricyanide ( OsFeCN ) , exhibits similar fixing and staining action .
The tetroxide and a related compound potassium osmate are important oxidants for chemical synthesis , despite being very poisonous . For the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation , which uses osmate for the conversion of a double bond into a vicinal diol , Karl Barry Sharpless won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001 . OsO4 is very expensive for this use , so KMnO4 is often used instead , even though the yields are less for this cheaper chemical reagent .
In 1898 an Austrian chemist Auer von Welsbach developed the Oslamp with a filament made of osmium , which he introduced commercially in 1902 . After only a few years , osmium was replaced by the more stable metal tungsten . Tungsten has the highest melting point among all metals , and using it in light bulbs increases the luminous efficacy and life of incandescent lamps .
The light bulb manufacturer Osram ( founded in 1906 , when three German companies , Auer @-@ Gesellschaft , AEG and Siemens & Halske , combined their lamp production facilities ) derived its name from the elements of osmium and Wolfram ( the latter is German for tungsten ) .
Like palladium , powdered osmium effectively absorbs hydrogen atoms . This could make osmium a potential candidate for a metal @-@ hydride battery electrode . However , osmium is expensive and would react with potassium hydroxide , the most common battery electrolyte .
Osmium has high reflectivity in the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum ; for example , at 600 Å osmium has a reflectivity twice that of gold . This high reflectivity is desirable in space @-@ based UV spectrometers , which have reduced mirror sizes due to space limitations . Osmium @-@ coated mirrors were flown in several space missions aboard the Space Shuttle , but it soon became clear that the oxygen radicals in the low Earth orbit are abundant enough to significantly deteriorate the osmium layer .
The only known clinical use of osmium appears to be for synovectomy in arthritic patients in Scandinavia . It involves the local administration of osmium tetroxide ( OsO4 ) , which is a highly toxic compound . The lack of reports of long @-@ term side effects suggest that osmium itself can be biocompatible , although this depends on the osmium compound administered . In 2011 , osmium ( VI ) and osmium ( II ) compounds were reported to show anticancer activity in vivo , it indicated a promising future for using osmium compounds as anticancer drugs .
= = Precautions = =
Finely divided metallic osmium is pyrophoric and reacts with oxygen at room temperature , forming volatile osmium tetroxide . Some osmium compounds are also converted to the tetroxide if oxygen is present . This makes osmium tetroxide the main source of contact with the environment .
Osmium tetroxide is highly volatile and penetrates skin readily , and is very toxic by inhalation , ingestion , and skin contact . Airborne low concentrations of osmium tetroxide vapor can cause lung congestion and skin or eye damage , and should therefore be used in a fume hood . Osmium tetroxide is rapidly reduced to relatively inert compounds by polyunsaturated vegetable oils , such as corn oil .
= = Price = =
Osmium is usually sold as a minimum 99 @.@ 9 % pure powder . Like other precious metals , it is measured by troy weight and by grams . Its price in 2012 was about $ 400 per troy ounce ( or about $ 13 @,@ 000 per kilogram ) , depending on the quantity and its supplier .
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= Siege of Svetigrad ( 1448 ) =
The Siege of Svetigrad began on May 14 , 1448 when an Ottoman army , led by Sultan Murad II , besieged the fortress of Svetigrad ( now Kodžadžik ) . After the many failed Ottoman expeditions into Albania against the League of Lezhë , a confederation of Albanian Principalities created in 1444 and headed by Skanderbeg , Murad II decided to march an army into Skanderbeg 's dominions in order to capture the key Albanian fortress of Svetigrad . The fortress lay on an important route between Macedonia and Albania , and thus its occupation would give the Ottomans easy access into Albania . The force prepared by Murad was the largest force with which the Ottomans had ever attacked Skanderbeg . Murad planned to take the fortress , march into the Albanian interior , and capture the main citadel of Krujë , thus crushing the Albanian League .
At the same time , Skanderbeg had been at war with Venice . Realizing the magnitude of his challenge , Skanderbeg attempted to relieve the garrison by engaging in skirmishes with the Ottoman army . His forces succeeded in inflicting heavy casualties on the Turkish forces through guerrilla @-@ style attacks . Efforts were made by Skanderbeg to use intelligence forces , operating as far as Constantinople , to gather information on Murad 's plans of action . Meanwhile , near Scutari , he had been able to defeat a Venetian force and managed to considerably weaken the Venetian presence in Albania . Despite these efforts , on July 31 the garrison of Svetigrad surrendered due to a cut @-@ off in the water @-@ supply to Svetigrad . The garrison was spared and a force of Ottoman Janissaries was stationed inside the fortress instead . Two years later , Murad would march against Krujë , only to suffer a heavy defeat .
= = Prelude = =
In 1444 the major princes of the Albanian Principalities , which up to that point had been vassals of the Ottoman Empire , united and formed the League of Lezhë , an anti @-@ Ottoman confederacy under Skanderbeg 's lead . As a result , the Ottoman Empire sought to crush the League and re @-@ establish control over Albania . As of 1448 , all Ottoman expeditions into Albania had failed and Murad II chose lead a force in person into Albanian territory and fragment the League . The sultan decided to capture the fortress of Svetigrad . This fortress served the strategic purpose of protecting the Albanian eastern frontier , while also allowing the Albanians to launch their own assaults on Ottoman territory . In late 1447 , war began between Venice and the League , but had not yet escalated into full @-@ scale conflict . Skanderbeg had declared war on Venice as a result of a diplomatic impasse . This left him open to invasion from the East .
Albanian intelligence groups informed Skanderbeg — the main leader of the revolt — that a large Ottoman army was preparing to march into Albania , the number of which was reported by some as being as high as 170 @,@ 000 . This army , however , is likely to have contained no more than 80 @,@ 000 soldiers . Nevertheless , Murad marched his army into Monastir . Skanderbeg urgently called for material aid Venice . The answer , however , was negative . Instead , the only aid received came from the Neapolitans and the Ragusans . Nonetheless , Murad soon marched into Ohrid and Black Drin valley , traveling near Svetigrad . In response , Skanderbeg strengthened the garrisons of Krujë , Stellushi , Svetigrad , and Berat by ordering the populations around these fortress to take up arms .
Shortly before the Ottoman siege began , Skanderbeg positioned himself , and 4 @,@ 000 cavalry , 7 miles ( 11 km ) from the Turkish camp . The force also included 8 @,@ 000 other soldiers . Skanderbeg ordered that no campfires should be lit in order to keep his position secret . Moisi Arianit Golemi and Muzaka of Angelina were ordered , with thirty horsemen , to dress as peasants and enter the fortress . The plot was discovered , however , and the company was attacked , but the attackers were driven off . Upon returning to the main Ottoman camp , one of the commanding pashas saw that this was one of Skanderbeg 's plots and sent 4 @,@ 000 horsemen to find out where Skanderbeg was camping by following Moisi 's band . Moisi led the Ottoman force into a valley , and Skanderbeg , who was ready for such an enterprise , surrounded the valley with his forces . When the Ottoman force was within distance , the Albanians sprung the ambush and the Ottoman force was annihilated . This happened on May 14 , 1448 , after which Murad ordered the siege to begin .
= = Siege = =
= = = Ottoman arrival = = =
Murad 's force contained approximately 80 @,@ 000 men and two cannons , which could fire 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) balls . His army contained a fresh corps of Janissaries , and 3 @,@ 000 debtors and bankrupts fighting to regain their freedom . The Count of Gurrica persuaded Skanderbeg to incorporate a scorched earth strategy , by destroying all supplies that might be used by the Ottoman army . The Ottoman force paraded around the fortress and offered 300 @,@ 000 aspras ( Turkish currency ) to those who would open the gate and let the Ottoman army in the fortress without a fight . The heralds proposing these offers went into the fortress at night time and the garrison commanders gave them a splendid dinner , so that they would get the impression that the enemy was well prepared for a lengthy siege . After the dinner their offers were rejected and they were sent back to the Sultan . The size of the Ottoman army troubled Skanderbeg because of the effects it could have on the morale of his soldiers and on the local population which supported the princes . Skanderbeg thus moved from village to village , disguised as a common soldier , and invoked the fighting spirit of the population . As a result of this activity , the local chieftains agreed to fight the Ottomans and persuaded Skanderbeg to draw up his plans in concert with theirs .
= = = Albanian guerrilla attacks = = =
To relieve the garrison of Svetigrad , Skanderbeg continually harassed the Ottoman army . Many of these attacks had been surprise ambushes of isolated Ottoman forces . Hoping to evade Ottoman patrols , Skanderbeg moved towards the Ottoman camp . On June 22 , Skanderbeg led a night attack on the Ottoman camp which disillusioned the Ottoman soldiers who had been expecting a quiet campaign . Soon after , when the besiegers were taking their afternoon naps , Skanderbeg sent Moses with some men , again dressed as peasants , inside the Ottoman camp to reconnoiter for a future assault . Skanderbeg spoke to his troops , encouraging them not to take booty from the camp as this might give the Ottoman forces time to react and launch a counterattack . That night , the Albanians launched their attack , but the noise of the armor and the neighing of the horses inhibited a complete surprise . The periphery of the camp was thrown into confusion , but the bulk of the Turkish troops gathered and organized themselves , pushing the Albanians out of the camp but not before suffering heavy casualties . To prevent further attacks of this sort , Murad detached a contingent of troops under Firuz Pasha to watch the Albanians but it was prone to desertion and thoroughly destroyed with its baggage train being captured . A breach in the walls of Svetigrad was made , but the following infantry assault was repulsed . The Albanians began to hope that the sultan would now be returning to Edirne .
= = = Stalemate = = =
The fighting had reached a stalemate and Murad contemplated his next move . He was advised to pillage the countryside , but the surrounding fields had already been burned by Skanderbeg . The sultan decided to stop chasing bodies of men into the forests to prevent further casualties . Mehmed , Murad 's son , proposed leaving Svetigrad to strike at Krujë . Murad sternly rejected this , reasoning that the supplies to take Svetigrad would have been wasted and that Krujë would be more strongly defended than Svetigrad . The sultan thus decided to remain at Svetigrad in an attempt to starve the garrison into submission . Meanwhile , the garrison under the leadership of Peter Perlati made several successful sorties against the Ottomans , in order to ease the encirclement and strengthen his soldiers ' morale .
= = = Surrender of the fortress = = =
While campaigning against Venetian forces , Skanderbeg managed to inflict a serious defeat on July 23 , 1448 , seriously weakening Venetian power in Albania . The siege of Svetigrad continued , however , and Marin Barleti writes that the Ottomans bribed a soldier to throw a dead dog into the well of the fortress , forcing the garrison to refuse to drink out of it . It is more likely , however , that the Ottomans had cut off the water supply and induced the garrison to surrender . Given the circumstance , Perlati promised a surrender if the garrison were allowed a safe passage through the Ottoman lines . Prince Mehmed suggested that the garrison should be promised safe passage and then massacred , but Murad rejected his son 's proposal , in fear that the rebellion would only be intensified through such an act ; he decided to instead return the garrisoning force to Skanderbeg . On July 31 , 1448 the garrison of Svetigrad surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
Once the fortress had been captured , Murad placed his own garrison of Janissaries and ordered his men to repair the walls . Perlati and his soldiers came to Skanderbeg , begging for mercy . Skanderbeg pardoned his soldiers for the surrender and even thanked them for holding out for as long as they did . Skanderbeg continued to shadow the Ottoman army as it headed back home in the hopes of dealing some serious damage , but his forces were not strong enough to risk provoking them . In October of the same year , Murad managed to inflict a serious a defeat on John Hunyadi 's forces in Kosovo . Skanderbeg had planned to join Hunyadi 's offensive with 20 @,@ 000 men , but he was not able to get there in time due to Đurađ Branković blocking the roads to Kosovo .
The loss of Svetigrad allowed the Ottomans easy access into Albania from the northeast . They could now launch three coordinated invasions from south , southeast , and northeast into Albania . A few weeks after the siege , Mustafa Pasha led 15 @,@ 000 men into Albania , as requested by Skanderbeg 's Venetian rivals , only to be heavily defeated with Mustafa being captured . Skanderbeg tried to regain Svetigrad the next year , but he did not have the proper artillery to do so . He surrounded the fortress , but he realized that his position was hopeless and lifted the siege . In early 1450 , the Turks would take Berat through a night @-@ time stratagem and later that same year , Murad would besiege Krujë
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= Ernst Moritz Hess =
Ernst Moritz Hess ( 20 March 1890 — 14 September 1983 ) was a baptized German Jew who served in the Imperial German Army during the First World War . He commanded the company of the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 in which Adolf Hitler served during the war . During the inter @-@ war period he served as a judge before being forced out of office after the passing of the Nuremberg Laws by the Nazis in 1935 , as he was classified as a " full @-@ blooded Jew " due to his mother being Jewish , even though he was baptised a Protestant .
He emigrated with his family to Bolzano in Italy to escape Nazi persecution but was eventually forced to move back to Germany , though as a former war comrade of Hitler 's he was granted protection and some privileges for a while . However , his privileges were removed in 1941 and he spent the rest of the war as a forced labourer ; his sister died in Auschwitz but his mother managed to escape to Switzerland in 1945 . Following the war he began a new career in railway management and was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany for his services to the Deutsche Bundesbahn .
= = Early life and war service = =
Born in Gelsenkirchen in what was then the Rhine Province of the Kingdom of Prussia , Hess lived in Düsseldorf before the First World War . His father Julius was a lawyer and his mother Elisabeth was a member of a Jewish banking family from Wetzlar . Despite his Jewish ancestry on his mother 's side , he was baptised and brought up as a Protestant Christian .
On the outbreak of war he enlisted as an officer in the 2nd Royal Bavarian Reserve Infantry and was posted to the front line in Flanders , where he suffered a serious wound in October 1914 . Hitler served as a Gefreiter in the same regiment and in the summer of 1916 , Hess briefly became Hitler 's commanding officer . He sustained another serious wound the following October and was sent to Germany to recuperate . Hess was well regarded as a soldier and was decorated several times , receiving the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class as well as the Bavarian Military Order of Merit . In 1918 he was promoted to Lieutenant and in 1934 he was awarded the Honour Cross of the World War 1914 / 1918 .
After the war Hess became a judge in Düsseldorf , where he lived with his wife Margarete and daughter Ursula . Hitler 's rise to prominence came as a surprise to Hess and many of his colleagues from the regiment . The future dictator had been something of a non @-@ entity during his time in the army , with no friends within the regiment and little interaction with others . Hess regarded Hitler as " an absolute cypher " and spoke of his surprise that Hitler had been one of his comrades : " What , Hitler ? He was in our unit ? We never even noticed him . "
= = Discrimination and exile = =
Hitler 's accession to power led to the passage of a series of antisemitic laws banning Jews from the civil service . Although Hess was a Protestant Christian , the laws defined him as a " full @-@ blooded Jew " as he had four Jewish grandparents . In April 1933 , a " Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service " was passed banning many Jews from public service . Hess survived this first purge of Jews owing to the " front @-@ line fighters ' privilege " ( Frontkämpferprivileg ) he was able to invoke as a consequence of his war service . The Frontkämpferprivileg was instituted after Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg protested to Hitler that Jewish war veterans were being dismissed from state employment . Those who could prove that they had served on the front lines of the war were allowed to invoke the Frontkämpferprivileg to stay in their jobs .
However , in the autumn of 1935 the Nuremberg Laws revoked this privilege and instituted a full ban on Jews in the civil service . Hess had to leave his job as a judge at the start of 1936 and was forced out of Düsseldorf after being beaten up by Nazi supporters outside his house in the autumn of that year . He moved with his family to Wuppertal , then in October 1937 emigrated to Bolzano in the German @-@ speaking South Tyrol region of Italy , where he could continue the education in German of his 11 @-@ year @-@ old daughter .
Hess sought to lessen the impact of his racial classification by petitioning Hitler to make an exemption for himself and his daughter , who was classified as a " Mischling ( crossbreed ) 1st degree " . In a letter sent in June 1936 , Hess highlighted his Christian upbringing , patriotic outlook and military service . He wrote : " For us , it is a kind of spiritual death to now be branded as Jews and exposed to general contempt . " He was aided by Fritz Wiedemann , who had been an aide de camp in his regiment 's headquarters and later served as Hitler 's personal adjutant between 1934 – 39 . Wiedemann was able to intercede with Hans Heinrich Lammers , Head of the Reich Chancellery , who was also a war veteran .
Although Hitler turned down Hess 's petition , a number of concessions were nonetheless made ; Hess was allowed to continue receiving his pension , although at a reduced rate , he was exempted from the obligation to adopt the middle name " Israel " identifying himself as a Jew , and he was able to acquire a new passport that was not stamped with a red " J " , enabling him to travel abroad — a privilege that Jews no longer possessed by this time .
= = Return to Germany = =
In October 1939 , Hitler and Mussolini concluded the South Tyrol Option Agreement under which the German @-@ speaking population of South Tyrol was given the choice of complete Italianisation — abandoning their German language and even their personal names — or emigrating to Nazi Germany . As a result , Hess and his family were forced to return to Germany . Attempts to emigrate to Switzerland or Brazil failed , so they moved briefly back to Düsseldorf before resettling in Unterwössen , a small village in the district of Traunstein in the far south @-@ east of Bavaria , where his daughter attended the Landschulheim Marquartstein , a local gymnasium and boarding school .
Wiedemann and Lammers had provided assurances that Hess would not be harmed . In August 1940 , Heinrich Himmler , the Reichsführer of the SS , issued a letter to the Düsseldorf Gestapo ordering that Hess should not be " inopportuned in any way whatsoever " . Noting that Hess had been " both in the same company as the Führer and briefly the Führer 's company commander " , Himmler instructed that Hess should be granted " relief and protection as per the Führer 's wishes " and asked that he be informed if Hess should leave Düsseldorf . A follow @-@ up letter was sent by Lammers in November 1940 , informing Hess that " it is , however , the Führer 's wish that you should not be subject to any further restrictions because of your ancestry beyond those required by law . " Lammers expressly informed Hess that he was to use the letter for his protection : " I give you this letter , if necessary , to make use [ for your protection ] " .
It is unclear what role Hitler himself played in granting protection to Hess . A case is known of a Jew who enjoyed Hitler 's personal protection — his former family doctor , Eduard Bloch , whom Hitler called an Edeljude ( " noble Jew " ) . Hitler is known to have felt very close to the other veterans of his regiment . Thomas Weber , the author of Hitler 's First War : Adolf Hitler , the Men of the List Regiment , and the First World War , has said that it is conceivable that Hitler knew Hess personally because the two men had been wounded in the Battle of the Somme only a day apart , and may have been initially treated in the same place before being transported together to the same hospital in Germany . However , Weber cautions that the letters of protection may have been organised without Hitler 's knowledge by Wiedemann , " because he did the same in other cases involving Jewish soldiers . " The letter from Himmler was not found until 2012 , when it was discovered in surviving Gestapo files on Jewish lawyers and judges in Germany . It was publicised in the July 2012 issue of the quarterly publication Jewish Voice From Germany and was corroborated by Hess 's daughter Ursula .
= = Loss of protection and enslavement = =
The protection that Hess enjoyed turned out to be only temporary respite from persecution . Hess 's friend Wiedemann was dismissed from his position by Hitler and sent into de facto exile as Consul General to San Francisco . In May 1941 , Hess was informed that the protection order had been revoked and that he was now regarded as being " a Jew like any other " . Petitions to Berlin were unsuccessful , and in June 1941 he was summoned to the " Aryanization Office " in Munich . Lammers ' letter of protection was taken from him and he was sent to Milbertshofen concentration camp near Munich , where he was put to work as a labourer . He was subsequently assigned to the Munich firm of L. Ehrengut and later to a plumber 's , Georg Grau , where he served as a forced labourer until 20 April 1945 . His wife Margarete remained in Unterwössen , where she lived with her parents , but his teenage daughter Ursula was forced to work in an electrical firm in Munich .
Hess 's Jewish mother Elisabeth and sister Berta believed that the protection that he had received also extended to them . As a result , they did not comply with the restrictions imposed on Jews . However , when their case was reviewed in 1942 , Adolf Eichmann of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( Reich Main Security Office ) personally ordered their deportation to the Theresienstadt concentration camp in Czechoslovakia . Berta was subsequently killed at Auschwitz , while Elisabeth managed to escape to Switzerland in February 1945 . She later emigrated to Brazil with her son Paul . Hess himself only survived because of his " privileged miscegenated marriage " with Margarete .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the fall of the Third Reich , Hess was nominated to serve again as a judge in Düsseldorf but declined , as he did not wish to work alongside former colleagues who had been part of the Nazi judicial system . He started a new career in the railways in 1946 , and from 1949 – 55 served as President of the German Federal Railways Authority in Frankfurt am Main . He was awarded a Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany and was given a plaque of honour by the city of Frankfurt in 1970 . He died there on 14 September 1983 .
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= Where You Go I Go Too =
Where You Go I Go Too is the first studio album by Norwegian electronica artist Hans @-@ Peter Lindstrøm . It was first released in the United Kingdom on August 18 , 2008 and was subsequently released the next day in the United States . The album comprises three tracks , roughly 30 , 10 , and 15 minutes in length . Where You Go I Go Too is usually labeled " space disco " due to its " spacey , psychedelic " feel and four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor beats .
Production of the album followed the 2006 release of It 's a Feedelity Affair , a compilation of singles . Lindstrøm had become dissatisfied with simply producing remixes and average length songs , which led to experimentation with lengthy tracks . The album received positive reviews from critics , who praised its slick production values and epic scope . At the 2009 Spellemannprisen award ceremony in Norway , the record won the award for " best electronica album " .
= = Background and production = =
Following the release of It 's a Feedelity Affair in 2006 , Lindstrøm had become tired of producing dance remixes and average length vocal pieces . He began giving the artists and labels mixes with slower tempos . Lindstrøm also felt he was unwisely incorporating musical ideas into remixes instead of original works , which led to experiments with lengthier tracks for an original album . Four to five tracks were originally envisioned for Where You Go I Go Too , but only three were chosen .
The title track was a time @-@ consuming project ; Lindstrøm called it a " nightmare to finish . " The song comprised over 70 layers of sound and spanned almost 30 minutes . Around half the sound consisted of live performances , which Lindstrøm found difficult to merge with the electronic portions . After changing the music , he would usually listen to the entire song and evaluate the change . The repeated listens took a toll : " I needed to listen to 30 minutes of music every time I did something , " said Lindstrom " So I 'll never gonna [ sic ] do it again . " Despite this , he enjoyed working with extended songs because it allowed them to evolve and move at a slow pace .
The album mixing was delayed during spring 2008 . Typically , Lindstrøm would mix the record himself , but he felt overwhelmed by the album 's scope and decided to seek outside help : " I ’ ve kind of discovered that I ’ m not good at doing everything myself . The problem with involving other people is that sometimes all the progress gets slowed down , but as long as the results are good , I ’ m happy ... Leave the post @-@ production to somebody else . "
Though a common theme was not purposefully established for the album , some journalists noted similar feelings of travel and adventure when listening to the record . Lindstrøm has recommended people listen while traveling , and believes his travels may have influenced the album : " I don 't particularly like traveling , but I 've realised that it 's perfect for listening to whole albums ... I 'm sure the way I 'm listening to music now ... has something to do with the music I 'm writing . " The song titles were left " open " so " the listener could make up his own story . "
Where You Go I Go Too was released by Smalltown Supersound on August 18 , 2008 in the United Kingdom , and August 19 in the United States . A special edition was issued on December 23 , 2008 . The album featured a bonus disc with edited versions of the original tracks by frequent Lindstrøm collaborator Prins Thomas . Lindstrøm toured in Austria , Germany , Spain , and the United States that fall .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Where You Go I Go Too comprises three tracks , roughly 30 , 10 , and 15 minutes in duration , which seamlessly flow into each other in transitions that were described as " gradual and subtle " . The songs grow and develop independent musical traits , such as motifs , polyrhythms , and melodies . According to The Guardian , some musical changes are pronounced , such as the introduction of a synthesizer , while others , such as small tempo changes , remain " almost insensible " . Some critics have noted the album conjures the feeling of a journey .
The music is a collage of electronic music , characterized by synthesized melodies , layered sounds , live performances , and four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor beats . Pitchfork Media editor Dominique Leone described it as a " seamless combination of digital production , analog synthesizers and live instrumentation . " Lindstrøm has been heavily influenced by music from the 1970s and 1980s , particularly disco progenitors Jean @-@ Marc Cerrone and Giorgio Moroder . Where You Go I Go Too is often classified as " space disco " due to these influences and because it possesses a " spacey , psychedelic " sound . Lindstrøm listened to the Beach Boys , the Eagles , and Kirsty MacColl while writing the album .
= = Reception = =
Where You Go I Go Too debuted at No. 11 on the Norwegian music chart . The following week it fell to No. 27 before leaving the list . The record did not chart internationally . In 2009 , Where You Go I Go Too received a Spellemannprisen award for " best electronica album " . The album was well received by critics and received an 82 out of 100 on the aggregate website Metacritic , which signifies " universal acclaim " .
AllMusic writer K. Ross Hoffman declared the record an " entirely satisfying display " of Lindstrøm 's talents and positively commented on the textured instrumentation . Hoffman concluded the music was an " expansive , exploratory journey " worth experiencing . Andy Battaglia of the The A.V. Club disagreed , believing the album to be narrow minded and a missed opportunity to exploit the lengthy tracks and deliver more musical depth . Praise was given by Alex Macpherson of The Guardian , who stated " Every aspect of the record seems tailor @-@ made to produce maximum pleasure [ ... ] Where You Go I Go Too would make even the most hellish of journeys seem like a first @-@ class trip . "
Jim Brackpool of Yahoo ! Music felt audience reactions would be polarized ; some would find it " sophisticated and lovingly crafted " , while others might be put off by its " unabashed opulence " . No Ripcord writer Sam Draper christened the record " one of the finest pieces of music [ he had ] heard in years . " Pitchfork Media editor Tim Finney believed Where You Go I Go Too showed signs of a masterpiece , but also possessed " bloat , excess , and splendor " reminiscent of disco revivalists . Pitchfork named it one of the best albums of 2008 .
The album 's title track was received favorably . Draper displayed particular fondness for the song and was amazed the music could stay fresh for its entire length . Hoffman also spoke highly of it , stating " [ It ] contains only as many discernible musical ideas as your average five- to seven @-@ minute techno track [ ... ] but its luxurious length lets those ideas stretch out gloriously [ ... ] allowing a slow , fluid evolution that gestures towards a cosmic infinity . " Finney praised the title track for its " shimmering , strobing synthesizer melodies " and ability to expand and surprise . A favorable comparison to Kraftwerk 's similarly lengthy song " Autobahn " was made by Jason Newman of URB .
Reviews of the other two tracks were generally positive . Brackpool wrote favorably about " Grand Ideas " and made comparisons to Vangelis and Tangerine Dream , while Hoffman named it the most danceable track on the album . Though Battaglia felt the song kept repeating the same chord progression , he believed the " accents and shifts in pitch " strengthened it . Jeff Rovinelli writing for Tiny Mix Tapes thought " The Long Way Home " sounded silly . Brackpool agreed , writing " [ If ] isolated from the rest of the album [ The Long Way Home ] could easily pass for generic library music ... " While Draper considered it a solid song , he decided it was a " little too saccharine for its own good " . Hoffman enjoyed the song and wrote " the vibe is rangy and exultant [ ... ] as blissful and bemused as the vehemently unpretentious [ cover ] shot of Lindstrøm . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Hans @-@ Peter Lindstrøm except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Hans @-@ Peter Lindstrøm – writing , producing , performing , mixing
Knut Sævik – mixing
Chris Sansom – mastering
Kim Hiorthøy – photography
= = Charts = =
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= When I Grow Up ( The Pussycat Dolls song ) =
" When I Grow Up " is a song by American girl group The Pussycat Dolls from their second and final studio album Doll Domination ( 2008 ) . It was released by Interscope Records on June 3 , 2008 , as the lead single from the album . " When I Grow Up " was their first single following the departure of the group 's longest @-@ standing member Carmit Bachar . It was first recorded for Nicole Scherzinger 's planned solo project , Her Name Is Nicole , but after its cancellation and Scherzinger 's return to the group , she felt that the song was better suited for the group . It was written by Theron Thomas , Timothy Thomas and Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , who also produced the song . It is an uptempo electropop song with elements of the 1966 song , " He 's Always There " by British rock band The Yardbirds . " When I Grow Up " speaks about the desire to be famous , and was described as being " autobiographical " by Scherzinger .
The single was received favorably by contemporary music critics , many of whom highlighted it as a stand @-@ out . It peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the group 's highest charting single since " Buttons " ( 2006 ) . The song has sold over two million digital copies in the United States , making the Pussycat Dolls the first female group in digital history to have three singles pass the two million mark in digital sales . The song reached the top @-@ five in countries such as Australia , Canada , France , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , and the top @-@ ten in Austria , Denmark , Germany and Switzerland .
The song 's accompanying music video premiered on June 13 , 2008 . Directed by Joseph Khan , it portrays the Pussycat Dolls in a traffic jam on Hollywood Boulevard . It was complimented for its dance breakdown , and was nominated in five categories at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , the most of that ceremony , and went on to win Best Dance Video . The Pussycat Dolls performed the song on television shows including Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and So You Think You Can Dance , as well several award shows including the 2008 American Music Awards , and throughout their Doll Domination Tour ( 2009 ) .
= = Background = =
Following the commercial success of PCD ( 2005 ) , and over the course of two years ( 2005 – 07 ) , Scherzinger recorded 75 @-@ 100 songs for Her Name Is Nicole , her planned solo debut album . Her work as lead singer furthered Scherzinger 's popularity as she began work on her own music . She stated that she enjoyed collaborating with many different artists , and that although she had been writing songs for over ten years , she felt as if she was at a different level while working with such A @-@ list writers and producers . Following the moderate success of " Baby Love " , the complete lack of success of the singles such as " Whatever U Like " and numerous push backs , Scherzinger decided to put the release of the on hold . She then returned her focus back on the Pussycat Dolls , and recording commenced for their second studio album . Scherzinger cited that she felt as if the songs were more suited as a Pussycat Dolls song than her own .
" When I Grow Up " was written by Theron and Timothy Thomas , along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , who also produced the song . The Yardbirds ' drummer Jim McCarty and bassist Paul Samwell @-@ Smith both received co @-@ writing credits for the song , for its sample of " He 's Always There " ( 1966 ) . The song was recorded by Paul Foley , Mike " Handz " Donaldson and Roberto " Tito " Vazquez at 2nd Floor Studios in Orlando and Chalice Studios in Los Angeles , and was mixed by Spike Stent and Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins at Chalice Studios in Los Angeles . " When I Grow Up " made its world premiere online on May 16 , 2008 , and was issued as a digital download in North America on May 27 . It was later serviced to contemporary hit radio in the United States on June 1 , 2008 . The release of " When I Grow Up " came after the departure of member Carmit Bachar . It was officially confirmed , after months of speculation , on March 4 , 2008 that Bahar had left the group to follow " other performance interests " . At the time of her departure , she had been the longest member of the group , joining in 1995 when they were a burlesque act .
= = Composition = =
" When I Grow Up " is an uptempo R & B and electropop song that lasts four minutes and five seconds . Built around " bouncy synth lines " and a " thudding " bassline , the song features a heavy use of sirens , handclaps and pitch @-@ shifted vocals . Scherzinger was cited as adopting Britney Spears ' breathiness against the song 's sirens , shouts and " pumping beat " . Jaime Gill from Yahoo Music UK described " When I Grow Up " as a " dark , dissonant club banger " , while Rudy Klapper from Sputnikmusic compared the song 's composition to that of Basement Jaxx 's 2003 track " Plug It In " . " When I Grow Up " contains a sample of the main riff of " He 's Always There " by British rock band The Yardbirds , from their third studio album Roger the Engineer ( 1996 ) . The song 's writers , Jim McCarty and Paul Samwell @-@ Smith , were honored for their contributions to the song at the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) .
According to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " When I Grow Up " is set in common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E minor , with Scherzinger 's vocal range spanning from low @-@ note of E3 to the high @-@ note of G5 . Lyrically , the song is centered around the desire to be famous when one grows up . Using satirical and autobiographical lines , Scherzinger begins the song 's first verse with : " Now I 've got a confession / When I was young I wanted attention " . The " repetitive and catchy chorus " follows , where she sings the lines : " When I grow up / I wanna be famous / I wanna be a star / I wanna be in movies " . MTV News commented that the song contains a theme that is " getting plenty of traction these days – beware the high cost of fame . " Meanwhile , group member Melody Thornton said of the song 's concept : " If you strive for higher and bigger things – along with that – comes hard work and dealing with a lot of stuff that you 'd never assume you 'd have to . So yeah , while the song is meant to be playful , it still does have that little warning twist to it " . Bill Lamb from About.com named " When I Grow Up " a possible answer song to Pink 's " Stupid Girls " ( 2006 ) . Music critics were initially confused by the line " I wanna have groupies " in the chorus ; mistaking the line as saying " I wanna have boobies " . American comedian Ellen DeGeneres also pointed this out when they performed the song on her talk show on September 23 , 2008 .
= = Remixes = =
A number of remixes were commissioned by Interscope Records to accompany the song . On July 23 , 2008 a remix of " When I Grow Up " featuring a rap verse from American rapper Eve was released . Later that same day , a second remix was released online . Entitled the " Darkchild Remix " , it features an entirely different beat than the original , with added vocals from American rappers Diddy , Lil Wayne and Fatman Scoop , as well as the song 's producer Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins . Elements of Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " ( 1984 ) were heavily sampled throughout the remix , most noticeably in the song 's introduction . Lil Wayne 's verse was later removed and replaced by a new verse by the song 's composers , Rock City , due to issues with it being cleared in time for its commercial release as a B @-@ side to " Whatcha Think About That " , the second single from Doll Domination . For unknown reasons , the remix was never released . Additional " club " and " dub " remixes of " When I Grow Up " by DJs Dave Audé , Digital Dog , Dirty South and Ralphi Rosario , and the electronic band Wideboys were also released in a series of Compact Disc single and digital download releases .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 76 on the issue dated June 14 , 2008 . On its second week , the song sold 34 @,@ 000 digital downloads and ascended to number 31 . In its fourth week , it reached its peak position of number nine , becoming the group 's highest charting single since " Buttons " which peaked at number three in 2006 . The song topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart , the issue dated August 2 , 2008 . The song has sold over 2 @.@ 18 million digital downloads in the United States to date , according to Nielsen Soundscan , making the Pussycat Dolls the first all @-@ female group in digital history to have three singles — along with " Don 't Cha " and " Buttons " — pass the two million mark in digital sales . In Canada , the song debuted at number fifteen on the Canadian Hot 100 . On the chart dated September 6 , 2008 , " When I Grow Up " ascended and peaked at number three .
In Australia , the song debuted at number 45 , on June 22 , 2008 . In its sixth week , the song peaked at number two and stayed there for three consecutive weeks . " When I Grow Up " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song debuted on the chart at number 33 . It reached number five a few weeks later. and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for selling over 7 @,@ 500 copies . In the United Kingdom " When I Grow Up " debuted and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart with sales of 29 @,@ 688 . On the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles the song peaked at number three , and also peaked at number nine in Germany .
= = Critical response = =
" When I Grow Up " received acclaim from music critics . Bill Lamb from About.com listed " When I Grow Up " among the top tracks on Doll Domination , stating that the song " bursts out of the blocks " , and that it was of no surprise that it " landed in the pop top 10 with ease " . On a separate review , Lamb gave the song three out of five stars . He noted that the " anonymous nature " of the group 's vocals and " sexual lyrical tease " is starting to wear thin , stating : " This is more of the same , not a step forward " . Lamb , however , did compliment the song as being a " catchy dance workout " , and stated that the song carries their " usual sassiness " and " pounding dance beats " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy echoed Lamb 's comments , noting that the song is a " bolshy , hyperactive pop stomper that works just as well in the aerobics class as it does on the dance @-@ floor . " He continued : " If they keep releasing singles as infectious as this , they could last longer than we 'd think . " August Brown from Los Angeles Times called the song as the " ideological centerpiece " of Doll Domination . "
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described the song as a " catchy , full @-@ throttle club track " and commented that it is " a perfectly concocted blend of camp and vamp for the famous burlesque troupe " . Steve Perkins from BBC Music awarded the song four out of five stars writing : " It 's good to see that the dynamics of the group remain fundamentally unchanged " and that the song was a strong comeback . He also noted that : " The whole song seems to be centred around the desire to be famous when you grow up , which while not my favourite of all messages to give out to The Kids " . He ended his review writing " but in all fairness : who cares ? It 's hella catchy , and really , who 's the bigger fool here – the Pussycat Dolls lyricist who wrote some vaguely nonsensical lyrics , or the reviewer who expected anything different ? " Dan Cairns from The Times said that " if every song here were as batty and brilliant as this , Doll Domination would be one of the great pop records of 2008 . " However , Nic Oliver from MusicOMH , in a review of Doll Domination , did not favor the song , saying that the song would embarrass Paris Hilton , but " sets the template for the rest of the album . "
= = = Parodies and cover versions = = =
The song has been parodied on the video sharing website YouTube including a spoof called " I Wanna Be a Pussycat Mom " posted by The Momma Mary Show on September 9 , 2013 . On June 3 , 2008 the song was parodied by YouTube superstar Britney Houston as she recreated herself as part of the " Britneycat Dolls " and commented , " When I do these things , I [ usually ] try to give a twist to the choreography . But [ the Pussycat Dolls have ] a signature move , and I just had to put it in there intact . " It was posted on MTV.com. " When I Grow Up " was later performed by Simone Battle while auditioning for The X Factor in 2011 . It has also been covered by Mayday Parade on the compilation album Punk Goes Pop 2 in 2009 , and The Glee Project in 2012 .
= = = Use in media = = =
The song was featured in the 2008 comedy film The House Bunny , and the 2010 video game Just Dance 2 . The song and its video were also featured briefly on the pilot for the Nickelodeon series Big Time Rush .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was shot from May 23 to 24 , 2008 on Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles , with director Joseph Khan . American recording artist Britney Spears filmed a cameo appearance for the video on June 4 at the Warner Bros. lot in Los Angeles . An on set " insider " said that Spears ' scene was short , only consisting of her driving in a passing car and waving to the other girls . On June 12 , 2008 it was announced by MTV News that the cameo had been cut from the final video . Scherzinger was asked why Spears got cut from the video . She said : " I honestly am not so sure . You shoot a lot of things when you do a video . Some things stay in but other things don 't make the cut and Britney just didn 't make it . I 've seen a little clip of her performance and she looked adorable so I really wish she was in it ! Hopefully we 'll work together in the future . " A short clip of the music video was released online on June 12 , 2008 ; a day before the video 's premiere on June 13 , 2008 on FNMTV .
In the video the Pussycat Dolls are shown sitting in a car in the middle of a traffic jam , where Scherzinger flashes a ring that says " famous " . They sing the introduction of the song in the car before jumping out . When the chorus kicks in , the women leave the car and stand on the roofs of the other cars and start dancing a routine . Then they walk down a street of Hollywood stars with bubbles floating all around them . As they walk down the street , they also stop to sing on a bench . As the second chorus starts , the Dolls climb scaffolding and begin to dance . During Scherzinger 's solo , she stands in a small area with the Pussycat Dolls logo to the left and a mirror to the right , with lights flashing . The Dolls then dance in the breakdown section with the logo behind them and the camera zooms out to reveal filming equipment and playback screens .
Nick Levine from Digital Spy , wrote that : " The Pussycat Dolls have a novel way of amusing themselves during traffic jams " and described the dance breakdown as " entertaining " and " nostalgic " . In Australia , the video was criticized for the video being too raunchy . On August 17 , 2008 , it was announced that the video was nominated for Video of the Year , Best Dance Video , Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , and Best Choreography at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , having the most VMA nominations of that year . The ceremony was held on September 7 , 2008 , and the video won the award for the Best Dancing . The music video was the fifteenth @-@ most streamed video on MTV.com in 2008 .
= = Live performances = =
" When I Grow Up " was debuted live on American talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on May 20 , 2008 . On May 27 , 2008 MTV News reported that the Pussycat Dolls were among many set to perform at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards on June 1 , 2008 . Scherzinger talked about the performance saying : " This is a big deal for us . We just want to kill it . It 's all about the Dolls right now , and we 're coming strong . " The girls performed wearing spandex @-@ and @-@ leather getups , while a backdrop was displayed in the background with images of flashbulbs , tabloid headlines and diamonds . They were joined by America 's Best Dance Crew winners the Jabbawockeez who descended from the ceiling wearing matching red T @-@ shirts with stark @-@ white masks covering their faces , and baseball caps perched at 45 @-@ degree angles atop their heads . Of the performance , Geoff Boucher from the Los Angeles Times commented : " the Pussycat Dolls ' set climaxed with a powerful pyro display that left celebs in the first few rows feeling a bit roasted " . MTV Buzzworthy described the performance as " sexy " and " sultry " . However , Tod Martens , in another review for the Los Angeles Times , criticized their performance . He commented : " [ They appeared ] onstage looking like they had escaped a taping for a sexed @-@ up Jazzercise video . " He also wrote that Scherzinger never commanded the song except on " the cut 's final seconds when she turned her vocals up to a growl " and noted JabbaWockeez 's appearance as " annoy [ ing ] " .
" When I Grow Up " was also performed at So You Think You Can Dance on June 13 , 2008 . On August 2 , 2008 the Dolls performed the song and presented at the MTV Asia Awards 2008 in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia , along with " Buttons " ( 2005 ) . The group then performed the song at the Walmart Soundcheck , along with " I Hate This Part " , " Takin ' Over the World " , " Buttons " and " Don 't Cha " . On November 21 , they performed a medley of " I Hate This Part " and " When I Grow Up " at the 2008 American Music Awards . The performance included stripper poles , and the girls donned all @-@ rubber outfits . The Pussycat Dolls also performed " When I Grow Up " at the Doll Domination Tour ( 2009 ) . Maureen Ellis of the Evening Times said that the " high @-@ energy encore of ' Don 't Cha ' and ' When I Grow Up ' ensured the Dolls reigned supreme . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from the Doll Domination liner notes .
Technical
Recorded at : 2nd Floor Studios , Orlando and Chalice Studios , Los Angeles .
Contains elements of the composition : " He 's Always There " , written by Jim McCarty and Paul Samwell @-@ Smith .
Personnel
Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins – songwriting , producer , additional vocals , audio mixing
Rock City ( Theron and Timothy Thomas ) – songwriting , additional vocals
Jim McCarty – songwriting
Paul Samwell @-@ Smith – songwriting
Paul Foley – recording
Mike " Handz " Donaldson – recording
Roberto " Tito " Vazquez – recording
Spike Stent – audio mixing
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= Nimrod ( computing ) =
The Nimrod , built in the United Kingdom by Ferranti for the 1951 Festival of Britain , was an early computer custom @-@ built to play a computer game , one of the first games developed in the early history of video games . The twelve @-@ by @-@ nine @-@ by @-@ five @-@ foot computer , designed by John Bennett and built by engineer Raymond Stuart @-@ Williams , allowed exhibition attendees to play a game of Nim against an artificial intelligence . The player pressed buttons on a raised panel corresponding with lights on the machine to select their moves , and the Nimrod moved afterwards , with its calculations represented by more lights . The speed of the Nimrod 's calculations could be slowed down to allow the presenter to demonstrate exactly what the computer was doing , with more lights showing the state of the calculations . The Nimrod was intended to demonstrate Ferranti 's computer design and programming skills rather than to entertain , though Festival attendees were more interested in playing the game than the logic behind it . After its initial exhibition in May , the Nimrod was shown for three weeks in October 1951 at the Berlin Industrial Show before being dismantled .
The game of Nim running on the Nimrod is a candidate for one of the first video games , as it was one of the first computer games to have any sort of visual display of the game . It appeared only four years after the 1947 invention of the cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device , the earliest known interactive electronic game to use an electronic display , and one year after Bertie the Brain , a computer similar to the Nimrod which played tic @-@ tac @-@ toe at the 1950 Canadian National Exhibition . The Nimrod 's use of lightbulbs rather than a screen with real @-@ time visual graphics , however , much less moving graphics , does not meet some definitions of a video game .
= = Development = =
In the summer of 1951 , the United Kingdom held the Festival of Britain , a national exhibition held throughout the UK to promote the British contribution to science , technology , industrial design , architecture , and the arts and to commemorate the centenary of the 1851 Great Exhibition . British engineering firm and nascent computer developer Ferranti promised to develop an exhibit for the Festival . In late 1950 , John Bennett , an Australian employee of the firm and recent PhD graduate from the University of Cambridge , proposed that the company create a computer that could play the game of Nim . In Nim , players take turns removing at least one object from a set of objects , with the goal of being the player who removes the last object ; gameplay options can be modeled mathematically . Bennett 's suggestion was supposedly inspired by an earlier Nim @-@ playing machine , " Nimatron " , which had been displayed in 1940 at the New York World 's Fair . The Nimatron machine had been designed by Edward Condon and constructed by Westinghouse Electric from electromechanical relays , and had weighed over a ton . Although Bennett 's suggestion was a game , his goal was to show off the computer 's ability to do mathematical calculations , as Nim is based on mathematical principles , and thus showcase Ferranti 's computer design and programming skills rather than to entertain .
Ferranti began work on building the computer on 1 December 1950 , with engineer Raymond Stuart @-@ Williams adapting the design by Bennett into a working machine . Development was completed by 12 April 1951 , resulting in a device twelve feet wide , nine feet deep , and five feet tall . The majority of the volume was taken up by vacuum tubes and the lightbulbs that displayed the state of the game , with the actual computer taking up no more than two percent of the total volume of the machine . The Nimrod took the form of a large box with panels of lights , with a raised stand in front of it with buttons corresponding with the lights , which in turn represented the objects the player could remove .
The player would sit at the stand and press the buttons to make their moves , while one panel of lights showed the state of the game , and another showed the computer 's calculations during its move . The computer could be set to make its calculations at various speeds , slowing down so that the demonstrator could describe exactly what the computer was doing in real time . A visual guide attached to the Nimrod explained what the computer was doing during its turn , as well as showing possible game states and how they would be represented by the lights . Signs stating which player 's turn it was and whether one or the other had won would light up as appropriate during gameplay .
= = Presentation = =
On 5 May 1951 , the Nimrod computer was presented at the Festival as the Nimrod Digital Computer , advertised as " faster than thought " and an " electronic brain " . It exclusively played the game of Nim ; moves were made by players seated at the raised stand , with the demonstrator sitting on the other side between the stand and the computer . Nimrod could play either the traditional or " reverse " form of the game . A short guidebook was sold to visitors for one shilling and sixpence explaining how computers worked , how the Nimrod worked , and advertising Ferranti 's other developments . It explained that the use of a game to demonstrate the power of the machine did not mean that it was meant for entertainment and compared the mathematical underpinnings of Nim with modeling the economics of countries . Players of the Nimrod during the Festival included computer science pioneer Alan Turing .
Although it was intended as a technology demonstration , most of the onlookers at the Festival of Britain were more interested in playing the game than in the programming and engineering logic behind it . Bennett claimed that " most of the public were quite happy to gawk at the flashing lights and be impressed . " BBC Radio journalist Paul Jennings claimed that all of the festival attendees " came to a standstill " upon reaching the " frightful " " tremendous gray refrigerator " .
After the Festival , the Nimrod was showcased for three weeks in October at the Berlin Industrial Show , where it also drew crowds , including the West Germany economics minister Ludwig Erhard . Afterwards , however , as it had served its purpose the Nimrod was dismantled . As the Nimrod was not intended as an entertainment product , it was not followed up by any future games , and Ferranti continued its work on designing general purpose computers .
The Nimrod was created only four years after the 1947 invention of the cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device , the earliest known interactive electronic game , and one year after a similar purpose built game @-@ playing machine , Bertie the Brain , the first computer @-@ based game to feature a visual display of any sort . The Nimrod is considered under some definitions one of the first video games , possibly the second . While definitions vary , the prior cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device was a purely analog electrical game , and while the Nimrod and Bertie did not feature an electronic screen they both had a game running on a computer . The software @-@ based tic @-@ tac @-@ toe game OXO and a draughts program by Christopher Strachey were programmed a year later in 1952 and were the first computer games to display visuals on an electronic screen rather than through light bulbs .
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= Jane Austen =
Jane Austen ( / ˈdʒeɪn ˈɒstɪn / ; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817 ) was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels which interpret , critique and comment upon the life of the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century . Her most highly praised novel during her lifetime was Pride and Prejudice , her second published novel . Austen 's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of favorable social standing and economic security .
The author 's major novels are rarely out of print today , although they were first published anonymously and brought her little fame and brief reviews during her lifetime . A significant transition in her posthumous reputation as an author occurred in 1869 , fifty @-@ two years after her death , when her nephew 's publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience . Austen 's most successful novel during her lifetime was Pride and Prejudice , which went through two editions at the time . Her third published novel was Mansfield Park , which ( despite being largely overlooked by reviewers ) was successful during her lifetime .
All of Austen 's major novels were first published between 1811 and 1818 . From 1811 to 1816 , with the publication of Sense and Sensibility ( 1811 ) , Pride and Prejudice ( 1813 ) , Mansfield Park ( 1814 ) and Emma ( 1815 ) , she achieved success as a published author . Austen wrote two additional novels ( Northanger Abbey and Persuasion , both published posthumously in 1818 ) and began another , eventually titled Sanditon , before her death .
During the twentieth and twenty @-@ first centuries Austen 's writings have inspired a large number of critical essays and literary anthologies , establishing her as a British author of international fame . Her novels have inspired films , from 1940 's Pride and Prejudice starring Laurence Olivier to more recent productions : Emma Thompson in Sense and Sensibility ( 1995 ) and Kate Beckinsale in Love & Friendship ( 2016 ) .
= = Life and career = =
Information about Austen is " famously scarce " , according to one biographer . Only some personal and family letters remain ( by one estimate , only 160 of Austen 's 3 @,@ 000 letters are extant ) , and her sister Cassandra — to whom most of the letters were addressed — burned " the greater part " of them and censored those she did not destroy . Other letters were destroyed by the heirs of Admiral Sir Francis Austen , Jane 's brother . Most of the biographical material produced for fifty years after Austen 's death was written by her relatives and reflected the family 's bias in favour of " good quiet Aunt Jane " ; scholars have unearthed little information since . Austen wrote during the period of British Romanticism leading to British Idealism . She admired a number of British Romantic poets , including William Wordsworth ( 1770 – 1850 ) , Samuel Coleridge ( 1772 – 1834 ) and Lord Byron ( 1788 – 1824 ) , whose influence on her novels has been studied .
= = = Family = = =
Austen 's parents , George ( 1731 – 1805 ) , an Anglican rector , and his wife Cassandra ( 1739 – 1827 ) , shared a gentry background . George was descended from wool manufacturers who had risen to the lower ranks of the landed gentry , and Cassandra was a member of the aristocratic Leigh family . They married on 26 April 1764 at Walcot Church in Bath . From 1765 to 1801 ( for much of Jane 's life ) , George was a rector of Anglican parishes in Steventon , Hampshire , and a nearby village . From 1773 to 1796 , he supplemented his income by farming and teaching three or four boys at a time ( who boarded at his home ) .
Austen 's immediate family was large — six brothers : James ( 1765 – 1819 ) , George ( 1766 – 1838 ) , Edward ( 1768 – 1852 ) , Henry Thomas ( 1771 – 1850 ) , Francis William ( Frank ) ( 1774 – 1865 ) and Charles John ( 1779 – 1852 ) and one sister , Cassandra Elizabeth ( Steventon , Hampshire , 9 January 1773 – 1845 ) who , like Jane , did not marry . Cassandra was Austen 's closest friend and confidante throughout her life .
Of her brothers Austen felt closest to Henry , who became a banker and ( after his bank failed ) an Anglican clergyman . His sister 's literary agent , Henry 's large circle of friends and acquaintances in London included bankers , merchants , publishers , painters and actors and he provided Austen with a view of social worlds not normally visible from a small parish in rural Hampshire . He married their first cousin ( and Jane 's close friend ) , Eliza de Feuillide .
George was sent to live with a local family at a young age because , according to Austen biographer Le Faye , he was " mentally abnormal and subject to fits " ; he may also have been deaf and mute . Charles and Frank served in the navy , both rising to the rank of admiral . Edward was adopted by his fourth cousin , Thomas Knight , inheriting Knight 's estate and taking his name in 1812 .
= = = Early life and education = = =
Austen was born on 16 December 1775 at the Steventon rectory , and baptised on 5 April 1776 . After several months at home her mother placed her with Elizabeth Littlewood , a woman living nearby who nursed and raised her for twelve to eighteen months . In 1783 , according to family tradition , Jane and Cassandra were sent to Oxford to be educated by Ann Cawley and moved with her to Southampton later in the year . Both girls became ill with typhus , and Jane nearly died . Austen was then educated at home until she and Cassandra left for boarding school in early 1785 . The school curriculum probably included French , spelling , needlework , dancing and music , and may have included drama . By December 1786 , Jane and Cassandra had returned home because the Austens could not afford to send both daughters to school .
Austen acquired the remainder of her education by reading books , guided by her father and brothers James and Henry . She apparently had unfettered access to her father 's library and that of family friend Warren Hastings , which made up a large and varied collection . Her father was tolerant of Austen 's sometimes @-@ risqué experiments in writing , and provided the sisters with expensive paper and other materials for writing and drawing . According to biographer Park Honan , life in the Austen home was lived in " an open , amused , easy intellectual atmosphere " where the ideas of those with whom the Austens disagreed ( politically or socially ) were discussed . After returning from school in 1786 , Austen " never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment " .
Private theatricals were also a part of the author 's education . Beginning when Austin was seven years old and continuing until she was thirteen , her family and close friends staged a series of plays including Richard Sheridan 's The Rivals ( 1775 ) and David Garrick 's Bon Ton . Although the details are unknown , she would have joined in these activities as a spectator and ( later ) a participant . Most of the plays were comedies , suggesting a source for Austen 's comedic and satirical gifts .
= = = Juvenilia = = =
Perhaps as early as 1787 , Austen began to write poems , stories and plays for her and her family 's amusement . She later compiled " fair copies " of 29 of these early works into three bound notebooks , now known as the Juvenilia , with pieces written from 1787 to 1793 . Manuscript evidence exists that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1809 – 1811 and her niece and nephew , Anna and James Edward Austen , made further additions as late as 1814 . Among the pieces are Love and Freindship [ sic ] , a satirical epistolary novel in which she mocked popular novels of sensibility , and The History of England , a 34 @-@ page manuscript accompanied by 13 watercolour miniatures by Cassandra .
Austen 's History parodied popular historical writing , particularly Oliver Goldsmith 's 1764 History of England . Austen wrote , " Henry the 4th ascended the throne of England much to his own satisfaction in the year 1399 , after having prevailed on his cousin & predecessor Richard the 2nd , to resign it to him , & to retire for the rest of his Life to Pomfret Castle , where he happened to be murdered . " According to scholar Richard Jenkyns , Austen 's Juvenilia are often " boisterous " and " anarchic " ; he compares them to Monty Python and the work of 18th @-@ century novelist Laurence Sterne .
= = = Adulthood = = =
Austen continued to live in the family home , engaged in activities typical of women of her age and social standing ; she practised the fortepiano , assisted her sister and mother with the supervision of servants and attended relatives during childbirth and on their deathbeds . She sent short pieces of writing to her newborn nieces , Fanny Catherine and Jane Anna Elizabeth . Austen was particularly proud of her accomplishments as a seamstress . She attended church regularly , socialized frequently with friends and neighbours and read novels ( often her own ) aloud to her family in the evenings . Socializing with neighbours often meant dancing — impromptu in someone 's home after supper or at balls , held regularly in the town hall assembly rooms . According to her brother Henry , " Jane was fond of dancing , and excelled in it " .
In 1793 Austen began and abandoned a short play later titled Sir Charles Grandison , or , The happy man : a comedy in five acts which she completed around 1800 . The play parodied school @-@ textbook abridgments of her favourite contemporary novel , The History of Sir Charles Grandison ( 1753 ) by Samuel Richardson . According to Park Honan , soon after writing Love and Freindship in 1789 Austen decided to " write for profit , to make stories her central effort " and began writing longer , more sophisticated works around 1793 .
Between 1793 and 1795 Austen wrote Lady Susan , considered her most ambitious and sophisticated early novel . It is unlike Austen 's other work ; biographer Claire Tomalin describes the novella 's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate , betray and abuse lovers , friends and family :
Told in letters , it is as neatly plotted as a play , and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of the Restoration dramatists who may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen 's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters .
= = = Early novels = = =
After finishing Lady Susan , Austen began her first full @-@ length novel : Elinor and Marianne . Cassandra later remembered that the epistolary novel was read to the family " before 1796 " . Without surviving original manuscripts , there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 as Sense and Sensibility .
When Austen was twenty years old , Tom Lefroy ( a nephew of neighbours ) visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796 . Lefroy had just completed his university education and was moving to London for training as a barrister . Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering , and it is clear from her letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together : " I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved . Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together . " The Lefroy family intervened , sending him away at the end of January . Marriage was impractical , as both Lefroy and Austen must have known ; neither had any money , and he was dependent on a great @-@ uncle in Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career . If Lefroy later visited Hampshire he was carefully kept from the Austens , and Jane never saw him again .
She began work on a second novel , First Impressions , in 1796 . Austen completed the initial draft in August 1797 , when she was 21 , and it later became Pride and Prejudice . Like all of her novels , she read it aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an " established favourite " . At this time , her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels . In November 1797 , George wrote to London publisher Thomas Cadell asking if he would consider publishing " a Manuscript Novel , comprised in three Vols. about the length of Miss Burney 's Evelina " ( First Impressions ) at the author 's financial risk . Cadell quickly returned the letter , marked " Declined by Return of Post " , and Austen may not have known about her father 's efforts . After finishing First Impressions , she returned to Elinor and Marianne from November 1797 to mid @-@ 1798 , revising it heavily , replacing the epistolary format with third @-@ person narration and producing something close to Sense and Sensibility .
In mid @-@ 1798 , after revising Elinor and Marianne , she began writing a third novel with the working title Susan — later Northanger Abbey — a satire on the popular Gothic novel ; she finished it about a year later . In early 1803 Henry Austen offered Susan to the London publisher Benjamin Crosby , who paid £ 10 for the copyright . Although Crosby promised early publication and advertised the book as being " in the press " , he did nothing more and retained the unpublished manuscript until Austen bought back the copyright in 1816 .
= = = Bath and Southampton = = =
In December 1800 , George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry , leave Steventon and move the family to Bath . Although retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens , Jane was shocked to hear that she was moving from the only home she had ever known . An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity when she lived in Bath . She made some revisions to Susan and began — and abandoned — a new novel ( The Watsons ) , but there was nothing like the productivity of 1795 – 1799 . Tomalin suggests that this reflects a deep depression , disabling her as a writer ; Honan disagrees , arguing that Austen wrote ( or revised ) her manuscripts throughout her life except for a few months after her father died .
In December 1802 , Austen received her only known proposal of marriage . She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg , old friends who lived at Manydown Park near Basingstoke . Their younger brother , Harris Bigg @-@ Wither , had recently finished his education at Oxford and was at home . Bigg @-@ Wither proposed , and Austen accepted . As described by Caroline Austen ( Jane 's niece ) and Reginald Bigg @-@ Wither ( a descendant ) , Harris was unattractive — a large , plain @-@ looking man who spoke little , stuttered , was aggressive in conversation and almost completely tactless . However , Austen had known him since they were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to her and her family ; he was heir to extensive family estates in the area where the sisters had grown up . With these resources Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age , give Cassandra a permanent home and , perhaps , assist her brothers in their careers . By the next morning , Austen decided that she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance . No contemporary letters or diaries describe how she felt about the proposal . In 1814 Austen wrote a letter to her niece , Fanny Knight , who asked for advice about a serious relationship : " Having written so much on one side of the question , I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther , & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him . Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection " .
In 1804 , while living in Bath , Austen began an unfinished novel , The Watsons . The story centres on an invalid clergyman with little money and four unmarried daughters . Sutherland describes the novel as " a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women 's lives " . Honan suggests ( and Tomalin agrees ) that Austen stopped working on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for comfort .
Her father 's final illness struck suddenly , leaving him ( as Austen reported to her brother Francis ) " quite insensible of his own state " and he died quickly . Jane , Cassandra and their mother were left in a precarious financial situation and Edward , James , Henry and Francis Austen pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters . For the next four years , the family 's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity ; they lived part @-@ time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon and Godmersham . They spent the autumn of 1805 in the newly fashionable seaside resort of Worthing on the Sussex coast , at Stanford Cottage . It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy of Lady Susan and added its " Conclusion " . Her observations of early Worthing helped inspire her final ( unfinished ) novel , Sanditon , the story of an up @-@ and @-@ coming seaside resort in Sussex . In 1806 the family moved to Southampton , where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife and visited branches of the family .
On 5 April 1809 ( about three months before the family 's move to Chawton ) , Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby offering him a new manuscript of Susan if that was needed to secure immediate publication of her novel and otherwise requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher . Crosby replied he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time ( or at all ) ; Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £ 10 he had paid her , and find another publisher . She did not have the money to repurchase the book , but she did eventually repurchase the manuscript in 1816 .
= = = Chawton = = =
In early 1809 , Austen 's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life : the use of a large cottage in Chawton which was part of Edward 's nearby estate , Chawton House . Jane , Cassandra and their mother moved into the cottage on 7 July 1809 . In Chawton , life was quieter than it had been since the family 's move to Bath in 1800 . The Austens did not socialise with the neighbouring gentry , entertaining only when family visited . Austen 's niece , Anna , described the family 's life in Chawton : " It was a very quiet life , according to our ideas , but they were great readers , and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write . " Austen wrote almost daily , and was apparently relieved of some household responsibilities to give her more opportunity to write . In this setting , she could be productive once more .
= = = First publication = = =
At Chawton , Austen published four novels which were generally well received . Through her brother Henry , Thomas Egerton agreed to publish Sense and Sensibility , which appeared in October 1811 . Reviews were favourable ; the novel became fashionable among opinion @-@ makers , and the edition sold out by mid @-@ 1813 . Austen 's earnings from Sense and Sensibility gave her some financial and psychological independence . Egerton then published Pride and Prejudice , a revision of First Impressions , in January 1813 . He advertised the book and it was an immediate success , receiving three favourable reviews and selling well ; by October 1813 , Egerton began selling a second edition . Mansfield Park was published by Egerton in May 1814 . Although the novel was ignored by reviewers , it was a popular success . All copies were sold within six months , and Austen 's earnings for this novel were larger than for any of her others .
The author learned that the Prince Regent admired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences . In November 1815 the Prince Regent 's librarian , James Stanier Clarke , invited Austen to visit the prince 's London residence and hinted that she should dedicate the forthcoming Emma to the prince . Although Austen disliked the prince , she could not refuse the request . She later wrote Plan of a Novel , according to Hints from Various Quarters , a satirical outline of the " perfect novel " based on the librarian 's many suggestions for a future Austen novel .
In mid @-@ 1815 Austen moved from Egerton to John Murray , a better @-@ known London publisher , who published Emma in December 1815 and a second edition of Mansfield Park in February 1816 . Although Emma sold well , the new edition of Mansfield Park did poorly and this offset most of her profit on Emma . They were the last novels published during her lifetime .
While Murray prepared Emma for publication , Austen began a new novel she called The Elliots ( later published as Persuasion ) . She completed its first draft in July 1816 . Shortly after the publication of Emma , Henry Austen repurchased the copyright for Susan from Crosby . Austen was forced to postpone publishing both completed novels by family financial trouble . Henry Austen 's bank failed in March 1816 , depriving him of his assets , leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward , James and Frank Austen large sums ; Henry and Frank could no longer afford to support their mother and sisters .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Early in 1816 , Austen began to feel unwell . She ignored her illness at first , continuing to work and participate in the usual round of family activities . By midyear her decline was unmistakable to her and to her family , and she began a long , slow and irregular deterioration which ended in her death the following year . Although most Austen biographers rely on Dr. Vincent Cope 's tentative 1964 retrospective diagnosis and list her cause of death as Addison 's disease , her final illness has also been described as consistent with Hodgkin 's lymphoma . Katherine White of Britain 's Addison 's Disease Self Help Group suggests that Austen probably died of bovine tuberculosis , a disease now commonly associated with drinking unpasteurized milk . A contributing factor to Austen 's death , discovered by Linda Robinson Walker and described online in the winter 2010 issue of Persuasions , might have been Brill – Zinsser disease ( a recurrent form of typhus , which she had had as a child ) . Brill – Zinsser disease is to typhus as shingles is to chicken pox ; when a person who has had typhus is subjected to abnormal physiological stress ( such as malnutrition or another infection ) , it can resurface as Brill – Zinsser disease .
Despite her illness , Austen continued to work . She was dissatisfied with the ending of The Elliots and rewrote the final two chapters , finishing them on 6 August 1816 . In January 1817 she began a new novel she called The Brothers ( entitled Sanditon when it was first published in 1925 ) and completed twelve chapters before stopping in mid @-@ March , probably due to illness . Although she made light of her condition to others , describing it as " bile " and rheumatism , as her disease progressed she experienced increasing difficulty in walking and other activities . By mid @-@ April , Austen was bedridden . The following month Cassandra and Henry brought her to Winchester for medical treatment , but she died there on 18 July 1817 at age 41 . Through his clerical connections , Henry arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of the nave of Winchester Cathedral . The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen 's personal qualities – including the " extraordinary endowments of her mind " – and expresses hope for her religious salvation , but does not mention her achievements as a writer .
= = = Posthumous publication = = =
After Austen 's death , Cassandra and Henry arranged with John Murray for the publication of Persuasion and Northanger Abbey as a set in December 1817 . Henry contributed a biographical note which Claire Tomalin calls " a loving and polished eulogy " , identifying his sister for the first time as the author of the novels . Sales were good for a year ( only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818 ) before they declined ; Murray disposed of the remaining copies in 1820 , and Austen 's novels were out of print for twelve years . In 1832 publisher Richard Bentley purchased the remaining copyrights to her novels and , beginning in December 1832 or January 1833 , published them in five illustrated volumes as part of his Standard Novels series . In October 1833 , he published the first collected edition of Austen 's works . Since then , her novels have been continuously in print .
= = Novels = =
Although Austen 's novels had always been popular , they were disparaged by academics of English literature until her work was reassessed by F. R. Leavis , Ian Watt and others during the mid @-@ 20th century . They recognised Austen 's importance to the development of the English novel after Henry Fielding ( 1707 – 1754 ) and Samuel Richardson ( 1689 – 1761 ) and before Charles Dickens . They agreed that she combined Fielding and Richardson 's " qualities of interiority and irony , realism and satire to form an author superior to both " . Austen 's six main novels , in order of publication , are Sense and Sensibility , Pride and Prejudice , Mansfield Park , Emma and the posthumous Persuasion and Northanger Abbey .
= = = Sense and Sensibility = = =
Sense and Sensibility was originally written as an epistolary novel around 1795 , when Austen was about 19 years old , and was entitled Elinor and Marianne . Austen later changed its form to narrative and its title to Sense and Sensibility . In the novel , " sense " means good judgment or prudence and " sensibility " means sensitivity or emotion . " Sense " is personified by the character of Elinor , and " sensibility " by Marianne . By changing the novel 's title , Austen added " philosophical depth " to what began as a sketch of two characters . Its title and that of her next published novel , Pride and Prejudice ( 1813 ) , may allude to the political conflicts of the 1790s . Austen drew inspiration for Sense and Sensibility from other 1790s novels which explored similar themes . These included Adam Stevenson 's autobiographical 1785 essay " Life and Love " ( in which Stevenson described an unfortunate relationship ) and Jane West 's A Gossip 's Story ( 1796 ) , which features two sisters — one rational and the other romantic and emotional . West 's romantic sister @-@ heroine shares a first name ( Marianne ) with Austen 's character , and other textual similarities are described in a recent edition of West 's novel . According to Austen biographer Claire Tomalin , Sense and Sensibility has a " wobble in its approach " ; Austen , while writing the novel , gradually became uncertain whether sense or sensibility should prevail . She paints Marianne as sweet , with attractive qualities : intelligence , musical talent , frankness and the capacity to love deeply . The author also acknowledges that Willoughby , with all his faults , continues to love and ( to some degree ) appreciate Marianne . For these reasons , some readers find Marianne 's ultimate marriage to Colonel Brandon unsatisfactory .
= = = Pride and Prejudice = = =
Pride and Prejudice ( the author 's second published novel ) featured a memorable portrayal of the main character , Elizabeth Bennet . Austen began writing the novel after staying at Goodnestone Park in Kent with her brother , Edward , and his wife in 1796 . Originally entitled First Impressions , it was written between October 1796 and August 1797 . On 1 November 1797 , Austen 's father sent a letter to the London bookseller Thomas Cadell asking if he was interested in seeing the manuscript ; the offer was declined by return of post . Austen significantly revised the manuscript of First Impressions between 1811 and 1812 , and the original manuscript is lost . Because of the large number of letters in the final novel , First Impressions was probably an epistolary novel . Austen later renamed the novel Pride and Prejudice ; she probably had in mind the " sufferings and oppositions " summarised in the final chapter of Fanny Burney 's Cecilia , " Pride and Prejudice " , in which the phrase appears three times in block capitals . The title of First Impressions may have been changed to avoid confusion with other works . During the years between the completion of First Impressions and its revision into Pride and Prejudice , two other First Impressions had been published : a novel by Margaret Holford and a comedy by Horace Smith . Austen sold the novel 's copyright to Thomas Egerton of Whitehall for £ 110 , after requesting £ 150 . It was a costly decision ; Austen had published Sense and Sensibility on a commission basis , indemnifying the publisher against losses and receiving any profits ( less costs and the publisher 's commission ) . Not knowing that Sense and Sensibility would sell out its edition ( earning her £ 140 ) , she sold the copyright to Egerton for a lump sum ; all its profits would be his . According to Jan Fergus , Egerton earned about £ 450 from the novel 's first two editions alone . He published the first edition of Pride and Prejudice , in three hardcover volumes , on 27 January 1813 . It was advertised in the Morning Chronicle at a price of 18 shillings . Receiving favourable reviews , the edition sold out ; a second edition was published in November , and a third in 1817 .
= = = Mansfield Park = = =
Mansfield Park , Austen 's third published novel , is the most controversial of her major works . Although Regency critics praised its wholesome morality , many modern readers find Fanny 's timidity and disapproval of the theatricals difficult to relate to and reject the notion ( explicit in the final chapter ) that she is a better person for her childhood privations . Austen 's mother thought Fanny " insipid " , and other readers have found her priggish and unlikable . Critics point out that she is a complex personality , perceptive but given to wishful thinking , and demonstrates courage and greater self @-@ esteem during the latter part of the story . According to Austen biographer Claire Tomalin ( who is generally critical of Fanny ) , " It is in rejecting obedience in favour of the higher dictate of remaining true to her own conscience that Fanny rises to her moment of heroism " . Tomalin reflects the ambivalence many readers feel towards the character : " More is made of Fanny Price 's faith , which gives her the courage to resist what she thinks is wrong ; it also makes her intolerant of sinners , whom she is ready to cast aside . "
Austen 's life during the Regency era enmeshed her in the debate about slavery . She omits any mention of the Slave Trade Act 1807 , which abolished the slave trade ( not slavery itself ) in the British Empire . The act ( passed four years before Austen began the novel ) was the culmination of a long campaign by abolitionists , notably William Wilberforce . Slavery was not abolished in the empire until 1833 ; the death rate on the Caribbean plantations was high due to yellow fever and malaria , and abolitionists thought that abolishing the slave trade would end slavery in the West Indies ( since plantation owners would be unable to import slaves from Africa ) . Literary theoretician Edward Said implicated Mansfield Park in the acceptance by Western culture of the benefits of slavery and imperialism ( a connection also made by Vladimir Nabokov in his Lectures on Literature , delivered in the 1940s but unpublished until 1980 ) , citing Austen 's failure to note that the Mansfield Park estate was possible only with slave labour . Said depicted Austen as a racist supporter of slavery whose books should be condemned , not celebrated . His thesis that she wrote Mansfield Park to glorify slavery received wide attention ; the editor of a Penguin edition of the novel wrote in its introduction that Said had called Mansfield Park " part of the structure of an expanding imperialist venture " . Literary critics ( including Gabrielle White ) have rejected Said 's condemnation of Austen and Western culture , maintaining that she and other writers — including Samuel Johnson and Edmund Burke — opposed slavery and helped make its eventual abolition possible . Tomalin writes that the usually timid Fanny questions her uncle about the slave trade and receives no answer , suggesting that Fanny 's perception of its immorality is clearer than his .
= = = Emma = = =
Emma is the fourth and last of Austen 's novels published during her lifetime . Emma Woodhouse is the first Austen heroine with no financial concerns , which ( she tells naïve Miss Smith ) is why she has no inducement to marry . This is a departure from Austen 's other novels , where the quests for marriage and financial security are important themes . Emma 's financial resources place her in a more privileged position than the heroines of Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice ; Jane Fairfax 's prospects , in contrast , are bleak . By comparison to other Austen heroines , Emma seems immune to romantic attraction . Unlike Marianne Dashwood , who is attracted to the wrong man before she settles on the right one , Emma shows no romantic interest in the men she meets . She is surprised — and somewhat dismayed — when the parson Elton declares his love for her , similar to Elizabeth Bennet 's reaction to the obsequious Mr Collins ( who is also a parson ) . Emma 's fancy for Frank Churchill is more a romantic plot complication for Austen than a pursuit of Emma 's genuine affections . At the beginning of Chapter XIII , Emma has " no doubt of her being in love " ; however , it quickly becomes clear ( although she spends time " forming a thousand amusing schemes for the progress and close of their attachment " ) that " the conclusion of every imaginary declaration on his side was that she refused him " .
= = = Persuasion = = =
Persuasion , Austen 's last novel , was unpublished at the time of her death , although it appeared before the end of 1818 . It was first published in a four @-@ volume edition ; the first two volumes included the first publication of her early novel , Northanger Abbey , and the last two included Persuasion . Although readers might conclude that Austen intended " persuasion " to be the story 's unifying theme , the novel was named by her brother Henry after her death . The idea of persuasion runs through the story , with vignettes as variations on the theme . There is no known documentation of what Austen intended to call the novel . Whatever her intentions may have been , according to family tradition she referred to it as The Elliots and some critics believe that it was her intended title . Henry probably chose the title for Northanger Abbey as well . According to literary scholar Gillian Beer , Austen was deeply concerned about the level and application of " persuasion " in society ( particularly the pressures and choices facing young women ) . Beer writes that for Austen and her readers , persuasion was indeed " fraught with moral dangers " ; Austen was appalled by what she came to regard as her misguided advice to niece Fanny Knight on whether to accept a particular suitor , despite the prospect of a long engagement : " Jane Austen 's anxieties about persuasion and responsibility are here passionately expressed . She refuses to become part of the machinery with which Fanny is manoeuvering herself into forming the engagement . To be the stand @-@ in motive for another 's actions frightens her . Yet Jane Austen cannot avoid the part of persuader , even as dissuader . " Fanny ultimately rejects her suitor and , after her aunt 's death , marries someone else . Beer says that Austen was keenly aware that persuasion — to persuade or be persuaded , rightly or wrongly — is fundamental to human communication ; in the novel , " Jane Austen gradually draws out the implications of discriminating ' just ' and ' unjust ' persuasion . " The story winds through a number of situations in which people are influencing , or attempting to influence , other people ( or themselves ) . Beer notes " the novel 's entire brooding on the power pressures , the seductions , and also the new pathways opened by persuasion " .
= = = Northanger Abbey = = =
Northanger Abbey was written when Austen was relatively young ( before 1800 ) , well before the 1812 publication of Sense and Sensibility . Although it was written over a decade before Persuasion and left unpublished at that time , the two novels were posthumously co @-@ published in 1818 by her family . In Northanger Abbey , an early parody of Gothic fiction , Austen upends eighteenth @-@ century fictional conventions by making her heroine a plain , undistinguished girl from a middle @-@ class family , allowing her to fall in love with the hero before he gives her a thought and exposing her romantic fears and curiosity as groundless . According to Claire Tomalin , Austen may have begun the novel ( more comic than her other works , with literary allusions her parents and siblings would have enjoyed ) as family entertainment to be read aloud by the fireside . Joan Aiken writes , " We can guess that Susan [ the original title of Northanger Abbey ] , in its first outline , was written very much for family entertainment , addressed to a family audience , like all Jane Austen 's juvenile works , with their asides to the reader , and absurd dedications ; some of the juvenilia , we know , were specifically addressed to her brothers Charles and Frank ; all were designed to be circulated and read by a large network of relations . " Austen addresses the reader directly at times — particularly at the end of the fifth chapter , where she expresses at length her opinion of the value of novels and the contemporary social prejudice against them in favour of historical works and newspapers . Through discussions by Isabella , the Thorpe sisters , Eleanor and Henry , and when Catherine peruses the general 's library and her mother 's instructional books on behaviour , the reader gains an insight into Austen 's perspective on novels in general compared with other popular contemporary literature ( especially Gothic novels ) . Eleanor enjoys history books , despite Catherine 's pointing out the obvious fiction of speeches given to important historical characters . The directness with which Austen addresses the reader ( particularly at the end of the novel ) provides unique insight into Austen 's thoughts well before the publication of Sense and Sensibility ; this is particularly valuable because a large portion of Austen 's letters were burned , at her request , by her sister at Jane 's death .
= = Themes = =
The themes and literary theory applied to the analysis of Austen 's novels have varied and expanded with generations of readers and scholars who approach her writings . The reins of criticism and analysis of the major themes in Austen 's novels were first taken up by Walter Scott and theologian Richard Whately . After the disposition of her estate , by 1821 a second period of literary analysis and criticism of her writings began ; it lasted for about a half @-@ century , until 1870 . This was followed by several decades of Austen scholarship after the international reception of her novels , which were translated into a number of foreign languages during the late 19th century . The modern period of scholarship and analysis of her literary themes , from about 1930 to the present , defends her as one of the most accomplished internationally known British authors .
= = = Regency period = = =
While Austen was alive and during the years immediately following her death , critiques of her literary themes were written by historical novelist Walter Scott and theologian Richard Whately . Asked by publisher John Murray to review Emma , Scott wrote a long , thoughtful piece which was published anonymously in the March 1816 Quarterly Review . Using the review as a platform from which to defend the then @-@ disreputable genre of the novel , he praised Austen 's ability to copy " from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life , and presenting to the reader ... a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him " . According to 21st @-@ century Austen scholar William Galperin , " Unlike some of Austen 's lay readers , who recognized her divergence from realistic practice as it had been prescribed and defined at the time , Walter Scott may well have been the first to install Austen as the realist par excellence " . Scott wrote in his journal in 1826 what later became a widely quoted comparison : " Also read again and for the third time at least Miss Austen 's very finely written novel of Pride and Prejudice . That young lady had a talent for describing the involvement and feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met with . "
In the Quarterly Review in 1821 , English writer and theologian Richard Whately published the most serious and enthusiastic early posthumous review of Austen 's work . Whately drew favourable comparisons between Austen , Homer and Shakespeare , praising her dramatic narrative qualities . He affirmed the legitimacy of the novel as a genre , arguing that imaginative literature ( particularly narrative literature ) was more valuable than history or biography . When properly done ( as Austen had ) , Whately said , imaginative literature concerned itself with generalised human experience from which the reader could gain important insights into human nature ; it was moral . Whately also analysed Austen as a female writer : " We suspect one of Miss Austin 's [ sic ] great merits in our eyes to be , the insight she gives us into the peculiarities of female characters ... Her heroines are what one knows women must be , though one never can get them to acknowledge it . " No other significant , original Austen criticism was published until the late 19th century ; Whately and Scott had set the tone for the Victorian era 's view of the author .
= = = Victorian period = = =
For several decades after 1821 and the disposition of Austen 's literary estate , Victorian critics and audiences were drawn to authors such as Charles Dickens and George Eliot ; her novels seemed provincial and quiet by comparison . Although Austen 's works began to be republished in late 1832 or early 1833 by Richard Bentley in his Standard Novels series and remained in print continuously thereafter , they were not best @-@ sellers . Brian C. Southam describes her " reading public between 1821 and 1870 " as " minute beside the known audience for Dickens and his contemporaries " . Those who read Austen saw themselves as a discriminating , cultured few ( a common theme of Austen criticism during the 19th and early 20th centuries ) . Philosopher and literary critic George Henry Lewes articulated this view in a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s . In " The Novels of Jane Austen " , published anonymously in Blackwood 's Magazine in 1859 , Lewes praised Austen 's novels for " the economy of art ... the easy adaptation of means to ends , with no aid from superfluous elements " and compared her to Shakespeare . Acknowledging her weak plot construction , he appreciated Austen 's dramatisation : " The reader 's pulse never throbs , his curiosity is never intense ; but his interest never wanes for a moment . The action begins ; the people speak , feel , and act ; everything that is said , felt , or done tends towards the entanglement or disentanglement of the plot ; and we are almost made actors as well as spectators of the little drama . " Responding to Lewes 's essays and his communications with her , novelist Charlotte Brontë admired Austen 's fidelity to everyday life but described her as " only shrewd and observant " and criticised the absence of overt passion in her work . To Brontë , Austen 's work appeared formal and constrained : " a carefully fenced , highly cultivated garden , with neat borders and delicate flowers ; but no glance of bright vivid physiognomy , no open country , no fresh air , no blue hill , no bonny beck " .
= = = Edwardian period = = =
The six decades from around 1870 to 1930 saw a redoubling of Austen 's international renown , with translations of her works into other languages ( including French , German , Danish and Swedish ) and three biographical studies and analyses of her literary themes . In 1869 the first significant Austen biography ( A Memoir of Jane Austen by her nephew , James Edward Austen @-@ Leigh ) was published , and her popularity and critical standing increased dramatically . Readers of the Memoir were presented with the myth of an amateur novelist who wrote masterpieces ; it fixed in the public mind a sentimental image of Austen as a quiet , middle @-@ aged maiden aunt whose work was appropriate for a respectable Victorian family . Austen @-@ Leigh commissioned a portrait of Austen , based on an earlier watercolour , which softened her image for the Victorian public . Richard Bentley 's engraving , the Memoir 's frontispiece , is based on this idealised image . The Memoir sparked a revival of Austen 's novels . The first popular editions ( an economical , sixpenny series published by Routledge ) were published in 1883 . This was followed by elaborate illustrated editions , collectors ' sets and scholarly editions . Contemporary critics continued to assert that Austen 's works were sophisticated , capable of enjoyment only by those who could plumb their depths . However , more criticism of Austen 's novels was published in the two years following the Memoir than had appeared in the previous fifty . Austen descendants William Austen @-@ Leigh and Richard Arthur Austen @-@ Leigh published the definitive family biography , Jane Austen : Her Life and Letters — A Family Record , in 1913 . Based primarily on family papers and letters , it was described by Austen biographer Park Honan as " accurate , staid , reliable , and at times vivid and suggestive " . The authors distanced themselves from the Memoir 's sentimental tone , making little effort to go beyond immediately available family records and traditions , and their book offers facts with little interpretation .
During the last quarter of the 19th century , the first critical analyses of Austen 's works were published . Goldwin Smith 's 1890 Life of Jane Austen began a " fresh phase in the critical heritage " , in which Austen reviewers became critics . This launched " formal criticism " , focusing on Austen as writer and analysing what made her writing unique . According to Brian C. Southam , Austen criticism increased in quantity and ( to some degree ) quality after 1870 but was infused with " a certain uniformity " . Notable critics included Richard Simpson , Margaret Oliphant and Leslie Stephen . In a review of the Memoir , Simpson described Austen as a serious @-@ but @-@ ironic critic of English society . He introduced two interpretative themes which became the basis for modern literary criticism of her works : humour as social critique and irony as a means of moral evaluation . According to Simpson , Austen " began by being an ironical critic ; she manifested her judgment ... not by direct censure , but by the indirect method of imitating and exaggerating the faults of her models ... Criticism , humour , irony , the judgment not of one that gives sentence but of the mimic who quizzes while he mocks , are her characteristics . " Simpson 's essay , obscure for many years , became influential when Lionel Trilling quoted from it in 1957 .
Another prominent writer whose Austen criticism was ignored , novelist Margaret Oliphant , described her in quasi @-@ feminist terms as " armed with a ' fine vein of feminine cynicism , ' ' full of subtle power , keenness , finesse , and self @-@ restraint , ' blessed with an ' exquisite sense ' of the ' ridiculous , ' ' a fine stinging yet soft @-@ voiced contempt , ' whose novels are ' so calm and cold and keen ' " . This view was explored during the 1970s rise of feminist literary criticism . Although abridged editions of Austen 's novels had been published in the United States since 1832 , a distinct American response to Austen was not heard before 1870 . According to Southam , " For American literary nationalists Jane Austen 's cultivated scene was too pallid , too constrained , too refined , too downright unheroic " . Austen was not a democratic author , and her canvas did not extend to the frontier themes which had come to define American literature . By the turn of the 20th century , the American response was represented by a debate between American novelist and critic William Dean Howells and writer and humourist Mark Twain . In a series of essays , Howells painted Austen as a canonical popular figure ; Twain used her as an argument against anglophilia , demonstrating the distinctiveness of American literature by disparaging that from England . In his book , Following the Equator , Twain described his ship 's library : " Jane Austen 's books ... are absent from this library . Just that one omission alone would make a fairly good library out of a library that hadn 't a book in it . "
Members of the literary elite , who had appropriated an appreciation of Austen as a mark of culture , reacted against the popularisation of her work around 1900 . They called themselves " Janeites " , distinguishing themselves from the masses who ( in their view ) did not properly understand Austen . American novelist Henry James , part of this group , ranked Austen with Shakespeare , Cervantes and Henry Fielding as one of " the fine painters of life " . James considered her an " unconscious " artist , describing her as " instinctive and charming " . In 1905 , however , he responded to what he described as " a beguiled infatuation " with Austen — a rising tide of public interest which exceeded her " intrinsic merit and interest " . James attributed the groundswell principally to " the stiff breeze of the commercial , ... the special bookselling spirits . ... the body of publishers , editors , illustrators , producers of the pleasant twaddle of magazines ; who have found their ' dear , ' our dear , everybody 's dear , Jane so infinitely to their material purpose , so amenable to pretty reproduction in every variety of what is called tasteful , and in what seemingly proves to be salable , form . "
= = = Modern period = = =
Austen 's place among internationally known British authors appeared secure by the early twentieth century . Important early works included Oxford Shakespearean scholar A. C. Bradley 's 1911 essay , " generally regarded as the starting @-@ point for the serious academic approach to Jane Austen " . Bradley emphasised Austen 's ties to 18th @-@ century critic and writer Samuel Johnson , calling her a moralist as well as a humourist ; in this , according to Southam , he was " totally original " . Bradley divided Austen 's works into " early " and " late " novels , categories still used by scholars today . The second groundbreaking early @-@ 20th @-@ century critic of Austen was R. W. Chapman , whose collection of Austen 's works was the first scholarly edition of any English novelist ; the Chapman texts have remained the basis for subsequent editions of her works . In a burst of mid @-@ century revisionism , scholars approached Austen more sceptically . D. W. Harding , following and expanding upon Farrer , argued in his essay " Regulated Hatred : An Aspect of the Work of Jane Austen " that her novels subverted ( rather than supported ) the status quo . Her irony , more caustic than humorous , intended to undermine the assumptions of the society she portrayed . With this irony , Austen attempted to protect her integrity as an artist and a person in the face of attitudes and practices she rejected . Critic Q. D. Leavis wrote in " Critical Theory of Jane Austen 's Writing " , published in Scrutiny in the early 1940s , that Austen was a professional ( not an amateur ) writer . Harding 's and Leavis ' articles were followed by another revisionist treatment by Marvin Mudrick in Jane Austen : Irony as Defense and Discovery ( 1952 ) . Mudrick portrayed Austen as isolated , defensive and critical of her society , describing in detail the relationship he saw between her attitude toward contemporary literature and her use of irony to contrast the realities of her society with what she felt they should be . These revisionist views , with critic F. R. Leavis ' view in The Great Tradition ( 1948 ) that Austen was one of the great writers of English fiction ( a belief shared by Ian Watt , who helped shape scholarly debate about the novel as a genre ) , cemented Austen 's academic reputation .
Late @-@ 20th @-@ century literary critic Harold Bloom has continued F. R. Leavis ' tradition , comparing Austen to Shakespeare on the strength of the portrayal of the inner lives of her major characters . For Bloom , Austen 's " genius " is comparable to Murasaki Shikibu ( author of The Tale of Genji ) , Alexander Pope , John Donne and Jonathan Swift . Vladimir Nabokov was less enthusiastic about Austen in his comparison with Nikolai Gogol ( one of his favourite authors ) . To Nabokov , Gogol 's craftsmanship exceeded Austen 's .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary response = = =
Since Austen 's works were published anonymously , they brought her little personal renown . Although her novels quickly became fashionable among opinion @-@ makers such as Princess Charlotte Augusta ( daughter of George IV ) , only a few reviews were published . Most were short , favourable , superficial and cautious , focusing on the novels ' moral lessons . Walter Scott , a leading novelist of the day , provided an anonymous review . Using it as a platform from which to defend the then @-@ disreputable genre of the novel , he praised Austen 's realism . The other important early review of Austen 's works was attributed to Richard Whately in 1821 . Whately denied writing the review , which drew favourable comparisons between Austen , Homer and Shakespeare and praised the dramatic quality of her storytelling . Scott and Whately set the tone for nearly all subsequent 19th @-@ century Austen criticism .
= = = 19th century = = =
Because Austen 's novels failed to conform to romantic and Victorian expectations that " powerful emotion [ be ] authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing " , 19th @-@ century critics and audiences generally preferred Charles Dickens and George Eliot . Although her novels were republished in Britain beginning in the 1830s and sold steadily , they were not bestsellers .
Austen had many 19th @-@ century admirers who considered themselves part of a literary elite , viewing their appreciation of her work as a mark of cultural taste . Philosopher and literary critic George Henry Lewes expressed this view in a series of enthusiastic articles published in the 1840s and 1850s . Later in the century , novelist Henry James ranked Austen with Shakespeare , Cervantes and Henry Fielding ( author of Tom Jones ) as among " the fine painters of life " .
The 1869 publication of James Edward Austen @-@ Leigh 's A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider public as " dear aunt Jane " , a respectable maiden aunt . Publication of the Memoir sparked a revival of Austen 's novels ; the first popular editions appeared in 1883 , and illustrated editions and collectors ' sets quickly followed . Author and critic Leslie Stephen called Austen 's great popularity during the 1880s " Austenolatry " . Around the turn of the 20th century , members of the literary elite reacted against the popularization of Austen . They called themselves " Janeites " , distinguishing themselves from the masses who did not fully understand her works . Henry James began criticising what he called " a beguiled infatuation " with Austen , a rising tide of public interest which exceeded her " intrinsic merit and interest " . During the last quarter of the century , the first criticism of Austen was published ; after the Memoir , more criticism of Austen appeared in two years than in the previous half @-@ century .
= = = 20th century = = =
Several works paved the way for an academic focus on Austen 's novels . The first , a 1911 essay by Oxford Shakespearean scholar A. C. Bradley , is " generally regarded as the starting @-@ point for the serious academic approach to Jane Austen " . Bradley categorised her novels as " early " and " late " novels , a distinction still used by scholars . The second was R. W. Chapman 's 1923 edition of Austen 's collected works , her first scholarly edition and the first of any English novelist . The Chapman text is the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen 's works . With the 1939 publication of Mary Lascelles 's Jane Austen and Her Art , academic study of the author took hold . Lascelles ' work included an analysis of the books Austen read and the effect of her reading on her work and an extensive analysis of Austen 's style and " narrative art " . Concern arose that Austen criticism was becoming increasingly academic and esoteric , a concern which continues .
During a period of 1940s revisionism , scholars called Austen a subversive writer . These views , with F. R. Leavis ' and Ian Watt 's belief that Austen was one of the great writers of English fiction , cemented her academic reputation . They agreed that she " combined [ Henry Fielding 's and Samuel Richardson 's ] qualities of interiority and irony , realism and satire to form an author superior to both " . The post @-@ World War II period has seen increased scholarship on Austen using a variety of critical approaches , with anthologies published by Cambridge University Press , Chelsea House and Prentice Hall . However , the gap between academic and popular appreciation of Austen has widened .
Sequels , prequels and adaptations , from soft @-@ core pornography to fantasy , have been based on Austen 's novels . During the mid @-@ 19th century , Austen family members began publishing conclusions to her incomplete novels ; by 2000 , there were over 100 printed adaptations . Austen 's first film adaptation was the 1940 MGM production of Pride and Prejudice , starring Laurence Olivier and Greer Garson . BBC television dramatisations , first produced during the 1970s , attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen 's plots , characterisation and settings . In 1995 , two Austen adaptations appeared : Ang Lee 's film version of Sense and Sensibility ( for which screenwriter and star Emma Thompson won an Academy Award ) and the BBC 's popular TV mini @-@ series Pride and Prejudice , starring Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth .
= = = 21st century = = =
A 2005 British production of Pride and Prejudice was directed by Joe Wright . The film , a period piece which accurately depicts the five sisters as they deal with marriage , morality and misconceptions , is set in the late 18th century ( slightly earlier than the novel ) . Keira Knightley starred as Elizabeth Bennet and Matthew Macfadyen played her romantic interest , Fitzwilliam Darcy . Produced by Working Title Films and StudioCanal , it was released on 16 September 2005 in the United Kingdom and Ireland and on 11 November in the United States .
That year , Julia Day reported in The Guardian that ITV drama head Nick Elliott had ordered adaptations of Mansfield Park , Northanger Abbey and Persuasion . According to Elliot , they would be " important remakes for the new generation ... About every 10 years , all the great stories need retelling . These films will be very much 2007 films ... We 've asked and pushed the production team to make them young . Her stories always make great TV drama and our Jane Austen season will feature the absolute cream of British acting talent " . In January 2016 a film version of Lady Susan , directed by Whit Stillman and starring Kate Beckinsale and Chloe Sevigny , premiered at the Sundance Film Festival as Love & Friendship ( adapting its title from Austen 's youthful story , Love and Freindship [ sic ] ) .
In 2007 , Anne Hathaway starred in the biographical film Becoming Jane .
= = List of works = =
Novels
Sense and Sensibility ( 1811 )
Pride and Prejudice ( 1813 )
Mansfield Park ( 1814 )
Emma ( 1815 )
Northanger Abbey ( 1818 , posthumous )
Persuasion ( 1818 , posthumous )
Short fiction
Lady Susan ( 1794 , 1805 )
Unfinished fiction
The Watsons ( 1804 )
Sanditon ( 1817 )
Other works
Sir Charles Grandison ( adapted play , 1793 , 1800 )
Plan of a Novel ( 1815 )
Poems ( 1796 – 1817 )
Prayers ( 1796 – 1817 )
Letters ( 1796 – 1817 )
= = Critical editions = =
An authoritative , contemporary six @-@ volume critical edition of Austen 's major novels was begun in 2010 by Harvard University Press as part of their Belknap Press imprint . Other " complete " editions of Austen 's novels are available , although most lack annotations or period illustrations . The series ' final volume , Mansfield Park , is scheduled for publication in fall 2016 .
Pride and Prejudice . Hardcover : 446 pages Publisher : Belknap Press ; 1st edition ( October 31 , 2010 ) . ASIN : B00E6TK8MQ .
Persuasion . Hardcover : 360 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( November 7 , 2011 ) . ISBN 0674049748 .
Emma . Hardcover : 576 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( September 17 , 2012 ) . ISBN 0674048849 .
Sense and Sensibility . Hardcover : 448 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( October 1 , 2013 ) . ISBN 0674724550 .
Northanger Abbey . Hardcover : 384 pages Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( April 28 , 2014 ) . ISBN 0674725670 .
Mansfield Park . Hardcover : 490 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( October 24 , 2016 ) . ISBN 0674058100 .
= = Family trees = =
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= Final Fantasy Fables : Chocobo Tales =
Final Fantasy Fables : Chocobo Tales , released in Japan as Chocobo to Mahō no Ehon ( チョコボと魔法の絵本 , lit . " Chocobo and the Magic Picture Book " ) is a Nintendo DS adventure game developed by h.a.n.d. and published by Square Enix . It was released in Japan on December 14 , 2006 , in North America on April 3 , 2007 , and in the PAL region in May 2007 .
Final Fantasy Fables is a Final Fantasy spinoff starring a Chocobo in a setting which features common elements and creatures of the series . Music from the rest of the series is also reused . The game is composed of a number of minigames woven into a main adventure . The game was received positively by critics , who appreciated the originality and light @-@ hearted nature of the title .
A sequel , Chocobo to Mahō no Ehon : Majō to Shōjo to Gonin no Yūsha ( チョコボと魔法の絵本 魔女と少女と5人の勇者 , lit . " Chocobo and the Magic Picture Book : The Witch , the Girl , and the Five Heroes " ) was released in Japan on December 11 , 2008 .
= = Gameplay = =
Chocobo Tales features a mix of three different types of gameplay ; role @-@ playing video game , exploration , and card battles . Players explore a 3D environment to find picture books . Upon finding them the player is transported into pop @-@ up picture books to complete minigames and open the path to the next part of the story . The picture books take the form of Aesop 's Fables and Grimm 's Fairy Tales with the player character often taking the main role . Other Final Fantasy characters take up roles within the stories . More simplistic minigames , known as microgames , are also scattered throughout the world . Unlike minigames , these are not located within pop @-@ up books , do not affect the game @-@ world and are not required to progress in the game .
Throughout the course of the story , the player will participate in combat that is referred to as " pop @-@ up duels " . Battles utilize a deck constructed from cards they have collected from story events , minigames , microgames , or other characters . These decks are used to battle game 's bosses in card battle games . Chocobo Tales features online multiplayer capabilities as well . Players can compete against each other in either pop @-@ up duels or minigames . Both modes can connect either through local wireless or Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi . Multiplayer includes playing the card battles in multi @-@ card and online play by using Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi , and the mini @-@ games are multi @-@ card and single @-@ card download multiplayer as well . 2 @-@ 4 players may team up for battles , or to participate in mini @-@ games .
= = Story = =
The cast of characters includes such recurring characters as Chocobo , a White Mage named Shirma , a Black Mage named Croma , and others including Irma , the leader of the villains whose plan is to free Darkmaster Bebuzzu , the primary antagonist sealed inside Croma 's book , Greeble and Peekaboo , a pair consisting of a skinny blue Chocobo and fat pink Chocobo , Jail Birds , a group of black Chocobos acting and dressed as stereotypical crooks ( black ski masks and black and white striped shirts ) , and Volg , a black Chocobo who works alongside Greeble and Peekaboo .
The story is set in a fairly similar setting of Final Fantasy games such as Final Fantasy I and Final Fantasy V ; a medieval setting despite having things such as airships . Throughout the course of the game , Chocobo must enter magical picture books which are taken from popular existing fairy tales and folk stories , adapted to suit the Final Fantasy universe and often starring a Chocobo as the main character . There are eight storybooks to discover , each comprising two volumes , and the separate volumes often reference separate stories .
= = Development = =
Chocobo Tales was announced in the Summer of 2006 . Initial details revolved around the main character , Chocobo , the opening sequence of the story and the picture book worlds . Further details included the pop @-@ up duels and more information pertaining to the story . The game was produced by Yuki Yokoyama and took 20 staff members a year to create . The first decision made was to create a game about chocobos , market research showed that the characters are most popular with younger players , thus the game was designed for the Nintendo DS system , a popular system with that age group .
= = = Audio = = =
Much of the music in the game has been " borrowed " from other Final Fantasy games , newly rendered . The music played during card battles is the battle theme from Final Fantasy I , just as the theme played when traversing Mount Magma is the same as the theme of Gulug Volcano from the same game . The victory theme is the classic jingle , with the pre @-@ VII aftertune . There are many other examples , such as the chocobo racing theme from FFVII , the Boss theme being borrowed from Final Fantasy VI , Irma 's house is a rendition of the Final Fantasy IV sorrow music , and the end credits feature the airship theme from Final Fantasy VIII . Music from Final Fantasy III has also been borrowed , such as the crystal room theme and Gysahl theme .
= = Reception = =
Chocobo Tales sold over 78 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2006 , just over two weeks after release . It sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in Europe and 70 @,@ 000 copies in North America by November 2007 . Chocobo Tales met with overall positive reviews . RPGamer commented " Final Fantasy Fables is quite unique , offering a wide variety of gaming options . While building on the massive world of the Final Fantasy series , it takes a new spin in an attempt at something fresh . " Edge magazine referred to the game as a " decent effort " . They complemented the visuals , but stated " the execution and appeal is limited " . IGN called Chocobo Tales a " surprisingly fun and engaging experience . " GameSpot stated " it might look like just another kid 's game , but there is a lot of quality gaming buried under the saccharine visuals . "
The gameplay of the minigames and pop @-@ up duels were well received . IGN called the mini @-@ games " clever and fun " and stated the card battle " actually offers something simple yet challenging . " GameSpy praised the minigames and card battles . RPGamer praised the amount of minigames and called the card battling system " impressive . " GameSpot also praised the minigames and card battles , but commented some minigames were frustrating . The story received mix reviews . Some critics enjoyed it while other referred to it as childish . GameSpy commented the story was predictable and clichéd . RPGamer referred to it as a " light @-@ hearted story " . IGN stated the story is not huge or elaborate , but the game is surprisingly enjoyable for the older crowd . IGN also listed the game as the number eight Mini @-@ game collections on the Nintendo Wii or DS .
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= Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador =
Newfoundland and Labrador is the easternmost province in Canada . The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two geographical divisions , Labrador and the island of Newfoundland . The province also includes over seven thousand small islands .
Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield , a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America . Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland . Gros Morne National Park has a reputation of being an outstanding example of tectonics at work , and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site . The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundland 's west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains .
The fauna of Labrador is typical of that of similar areas of North America while the island of Newfoundland has considerably fewer mammals and no native amphibians .
The north @-@ south extent of the province ( 46 ° 36'N to 60 ° 22'N ) , prevalent westerly winds , cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province . Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate , southern Labrador is considered to be a subarctic climate while most of Newfoundland would be considered to be a cool summer subtype of a humid continental climate .
The provincial capital is St. John 's , located at the extreme eastern edge of the island on the Avalon Peninsula . About half of the province 's economy is based on its abundant natural resources , notably petroleum , minerals , forestry and the fishery .
= = Physical geography = =
Newfoundland is roughly triangular , with each side being approximately 500 kilometers ( 310 mi ) , and having an area of 108 @,@ 860 square kilometers ( 42 @,@ 030 sq mi ) . Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111 @,@ 390 square kilometers ( 43 @,@ 010 sq mi ) . Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46 ° 36'N and 51 ° 38'N .
Labrador is an irregular shape : the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide for the Labrador Peninsula . Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador , the rest belongs to Quebec . Labrador ’ s extreme northern tip , at 60 ° 22'N , shares a short border with Nunavut on Killiniq Island . Labrador ’ s area ( including associated small islands ) is 294 @,@ 330 square kilometers ( 113 @,@ 640 sq mi ) . Together , Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4 @.@ 06 % of Canada ’ s area .
The island of Newfoundland is separated from Labrador by the Strait of Belle Isle , which is 125 kilometres ( 78 mi ) long and from 60 to 15 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 3 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) wide . In addition to the island of Newfoundland , the province is made up of 12 larger islands with a total area of 2 @,@ 505 square kilometres ( 967 sq mi ) and 7 @,@ 170 smaller islands with a total area of 3 @,@ 598 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 389 sq mi ) .
= = Geology = =
A large part of the island of Newfoundland is an extension of the Appalachian system . Major bays , peninsulas , river systems and mountain ranges are typically oriented southwest to northeast , parallel to the Appalachians .
The eastern part of the island , ( the Avalon Peninsula and Burin Peninsula ) , is mostly folded sedimentary rocks with some intrusions of igneous rock and was part of southwestern Europe or Northern Africa about 250 million years ago . The oldest rocks are Precambrian . Small remnants of Cambrian and Ordovician rocks occur along the coast . Bell Island in Conception Bay is a good example of gently sloping Ordovician sedimentary rock . The plateau in the Avalon Peninsula averages 250 metres ( 820 ft ) above sea level .
The rest of the island is composed of a great variety of Paleozoic rocks of sedimentary , igneous and metamorphic origin . Along the west coast lie the Long Range Mountains , which are formed by an elongated block of the Earth 's crust ( a horst ) which rises to about 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level . This part of the island was once part of the eastern margin of continental North America . The island 's highest points , the Lewis Hills and Gros Morne are located within this mountain range . To the east is a depression or graben about 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) wide , which is occupied by Deer Lake and Grand Lake . The main plateau of the central part of the island , which was once the sea bottom of the ancient Iapetus Ocean , has been heavily eroded by water and ice . Steep , solitary rock knobs , called " tolts " in Newfoundland ( elsewhere known as inselbergs or monadnocks ) , which jut 100 metres ( 330 ft ) or more above the generally flat terrain are the remnants of a former higher landscape level . Glaciers which helped shape these tolts left other evidence around Newfoundland . Large blocks of stone called glacial erratics have been left scattered across much of the landscape . The long narrow lakes of the west coast , notably those in Gros Morne National Park resulted from glacial erosion . The lack of good soil on most parts of the island is a result of the scouring effect of glaciers during the most recent ice age . Newfoundland 's nickname , " The Rock " , is partially a result of the ice ages .
One of the most noteworthy aspects of Newfoundland geology is a result of the constant movement of tectonic plates . Approximately 500 million years ago the action of these plates forced parts of the oceanic crust beneath the Iapetus Ocean up and over the eastern margin of the North American plate . Sections of oceanic crust which overlie continental crust are known as ophiolites . Gros Morne National Park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site because it is one of the best places in the world to see the effects of plate tectonics and one of the few places where rocks formed at the Mohorovicic Discontinuity between the crust and the upper mantle of the Earth can be seen .
Another notable geology site is at Mistaken Point , where rocks containing probably the oldest metazoan fossils in North America and the most ancient deep @-@ water marine fossils in the world are found preserved in layers of volcanic ash .
Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield and is composed of ancient Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks . The interior is averages about 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) above sea level and is cut by large , east @-@ flowing rivers , such as the Churchill River and its tributaries . The northern coast is largely mountainous . The Torngat Mountains , Kaumajet Mountains and Kiglapait Mountains dominate this area with the highest peak being Mount Caubvick at 1 @,@ 652 metres ( 5 @,@ 420 ft ) . Torngat Mountains National Park Reserve was created in 2005 to preserve part of this area .
= = Biosphere = =
The biosphere is subdivided into distinct geographical regions called biomes . Newfoundland and Labrador are divided into two biomes : tundra and taiga . Northern Labrador is part of the tundra , while southern Labrador is part of the taiga . Newfoundland is not typical of either biome , as it lacks much of the plant and animal life that are characteristic to these biomes . During the last ice age the island of Newfoundland was completely covered by glaciers and swept clean of life . Only those species which were able to recolonize the island after the glaciers retreated about 18 @,@ 000 years ago are considered " native " . Similarly , only freshwater @-@ fish capable of surviving seawater swam to the island . Labrador has 42 native mammals , Newfoundland is home only to 14 , with no snakes , raccoons , skunks or porcupines. large herds of Woodland caribou can be found in the barren interior regions of the island . Two animals formerly resident in Newfoundland have been declared extinct : the Great auk , a flightless seabird , and the Newfoundland wolf , a subspecies of the Gray wolf . The Labrador duck , believed to have nested in Labrador , was one of the first North American bird species to be recorded as becoming extinct .
Many rare herbaceous plants and insects occur on the island . The west coast of the island supports over 200 plant species . Rare species such as Long ’ s braya ( Braya longii ) and Fernald ’ s braya ( B. fernaldii ) , are endemic to Newfoundland . Brayas are small perennial herbs of the brassicaceae family . They are only found on a narrow strip of land extending approximately 150 kilometers ( 93 mi ) on the extreme western portion of the Great Northern Peninsula , a limestones barrens habitat . The braya population is low due to habitat loss from gravel quarrying . Researchers have only found three populations of Long 's braya , and 14 or 15 populations of Fernald 's brayas . Researchers have focused on how various types of disturbances affect the long @-@ term viability of these populations . The Province of Newfoundland and Labrador , with many partners , is studying the rare plant flora of the island of Newfoundland and in 2002 announced a recovery plan for the braya species .
Many plants and animals have been introduced to Newfoundland , either by chance or deliberately . Moose , snowshoe hare , American red squirrel , eastern chipmunk , and masked shrew , and others , were brought to the island through specific wildlife mandates . Moose were introduced in 1904 and are now the dominant ungulate on the island . An unusual experiment conducted in 1964 involved relocating a small herd of bison onto Brunette Island in Fortune Bay . The last of these animals is thought to have died by 1994 . Rats and mice were unintentionally introduced while mink escaped from fur farms . Coyotes are a very recent addition to the fauna of Newfoundland . How coyotes got onto the island is still debated by wildlife officials , but it is probable that they crossed the ice from Cape Breton Island in the 1980s . Newfoundland has no native amphibians , but frogs were introduced onto the island in the 1860s and toads almost a century later .
The marine waters around the province are considered boreal , or sub @-@ Arctic , in nature . A great deal of the coastline is rock @-@ strewn , allowing an extensive variety of plant and animal life to thrive . The leading plants of the shoreline are the large brown seaweeds , such as bladder , forked and knotted Wracks , and winged and sugar kelps , though there are also a number of red and green seaweeds present . Common animals of the seashore region include barnacles , tortoiseshell limpet , common periwinkle , blue mussels , sea anemones , sea slugs , sea urchins , starfish , and rock crabs . The deeper waters are home to a variety of fish , such as Atlantic cod , sculpins and cunners , halibut , haddock , sharks , and marine mammals , such as dolphins , porpoises , and whales . Whales seen off Newfoundland include Pilot whales , minkes , sei whales , fin whales and humpbacks . Harp and hooded seals are usually found in the spring , giving birth to their young on coastal ice floes .
The tundra is a sub @-@ Arctic zone with long , cold winters and short , warm summers . Precipitation is low . Soil a meter below ground and deeper is permanently frozen ( permafrost ) , which does not allow water to drain easily through the soil , so it collects in shallow pools . Trees and shrubs are stunted since their roots cannot grow into the permafrost . Low shrubs , lichens , mosses , and small herbaceous plants are found instead . The most common mammals on the tundra are the barren @-@ ground caribou , Arctic wolf , Arctic fox , Arctic hare , lemmings , and voles . Occasional sightings of muskoxen have been made near Cape Chidley , Labrador 's most northerly point . The polar bear is the dominant carnivore of the tundra , but is an occasional visitor to coastal Newfoundland , especially in the spring . Many birds migrate to Labrador in spring to lay their eggs and raise their young before returning south for the winter , including the common eider , harlequin duck , Common redpoll and American pipit . The Labrador tundra is also permanent home to ptarmigan .
Southern Labrador is mostly taiga . It is characterized by low winter temperatures , a longer growing season , and more precipitation than the tundra . Soils are typically lacking important nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus . The taiga is dominated by coniferous trees , notably balsam fir and black spruce , though the deciduous white birch , trembling aspen and mountain ash are also present . The most common animals are the moose , American black bear , Canada lynx , red fox , pine marten , short @-@ tailed weasel , and American mink . Beavers , muskrats , and river otters thrive in the many rivers , streams , and wetlands . Willow ptarmigan , common raven , and blackpoll warbler inhabit the forests of southern Labrador while golden eagles , rough @-@ legged hawks and peregrine falcons nest on steep cliffs .
= = Climate = =
The province has been divided into seven climate types , but in broader terms Newfoundland is considered to be a cool summer subtype of a humid continental climate , which is greatly influenced by the sea since no part of the island is more than 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) from the ocean . Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate , southern Labrador is considered to have a subarctic climate .
Monthly average temperatures , rainfall and snowfall for four communities are shown in the attached graphs . St. John 's represents the east coast , Gander the interior of the island , Corner Brook the west coast of the island and Wabush the interior of Labrador . The detailed information and information for 73 communities in the province is available from a government website . The data used in making the graphs is the average taken over thirty years . Error bars on the temperature graph indicate the range of daytime highs and night time lows . Snowfall is the total amount which fell during the month , not the amount accumulated on the ground . This distinction is particularly important for St. John 's where a heavy snowfall can be followed by rain so that no snow remains on the ground .
Surface water temperatures on the Atlantic side reaches a summer average of 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) inshore and 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) offshore to winter lows of − 1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) inshore and 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) offshore . Sea temperatures on the west coast are warmer than Atlantic side by 1 to 3 ° C ( approximately 2 to 5 ° F ) . The sea keeps winter temperatures slightly higher and summer temperatures a little lower on the coast than at places inland . The maritime climate produces more variable weather , ample precipitation in a variety of forms , greater humidity , lower visibility , more clouds , less sunshine , and higher winds than a continental climate . Some of these effects can be seen in the graphs . Labrador 's climate differs from that of the island not only because it is further north , but also because the interior does not see the moderating effects of the ocean .
Weather systems affecting Newfoundland usually originate from the west , over mainland Canada , or from the southwest , from the east coast of the United States . Cyclonic storms consist of an area of low atmospheric pressure characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere . Such storms passing to the south of the island bring strong northeasterly winds sweeping in off the open North Atlantic Ocean . These storms are sometimes referred to as Nor 'easters and are responsible for the worst of Newfoundland 's weather . High winds sweeping over a large surface of ocean can build up very large waves . The frequency and severity of storms is greatest between November and March , although they may occur at any time of the year .
One of these storms was the " Independence Hurricane " , which struck eastern Newfoundland on September 9 , 1775 . About 4000 sailors , mostly from the British Isles , were reported to have been drowned .
During a violent storm on February 15 , 1982 , the drilling rig Ocean Ranger capsized and sank on the Grand Banks , 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) east of St. John 's . The entire 84 @-@ man crew perished , making it the worst Canadian marine disaster in decades .
Newfoundland and Labrador has the strongest winds of any of the provinces , with most places having average annual wind speeds over 20 kilometers per hour ( 12 mph ) .
Freezing rain is common in Newfoundland where it is known as " silver thaw " . Freezing drizzle or freezing rain occurs on average of 150 hours each winter , most commonly in March . One such storm struck St. John 's on April 11 , 1984 and lasted three days . Ice almost 15 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick disrupted electrical power to 200 @,@ 000 people on the Avalon Peninsula for days .
Newfoundland receives less than 1600 hours of sunshine per year , much lower than the Canadian average of 1925 hours . Summer months average 187 hours of sun while the December average is 60 hours .
Newfoundland is also known for its fog which occurs most often in the spring and early summer because of the contrast between sea and air temperatures . Argentia has 206 days of fog per year . Fog in Newfoundland is frequently accompanied by strong onshore winds ; while usually winds disperse fog , here the fog is too widespread for this to occur .
= = = St. John 's weather extremes = = =
Of all the major Canadian cities , St. John 's is the foggiest ( 124 days , next to Halifax 's 122 ) , snowiest ( 359 centimeters ( 141 in ) , next to Quebec City 's 343 centimeters ( 135 in ) ) , wettest ( 1514 millimeters ( 59 @.@ 6 in ) , next to Halifax 's 1491 millimeters ( 58 @.@ 7 in ) ) , windiest ( 24 @.@ 3 km / h ( 15 @.@ 1 mph ) average speed , next to Regina 's 20 @.@ 7 km / h ( 12 @.@ 9 mph ) ) , and cloudiest ( 1 @,@ 497 hours of sunshine , next to Charlottetown 's 1 @,@ 818 hours ) . St. John 's has one of the mildest winters in Canada ( third mildest city next to Victoria and Vancouver ) , yet has the most freezing rain days of any major Canadian city .
= = Hydrography = =
= = = Fresh water = = =
Shallow soil and bedrock deeply scored by glaciers are responsible for the numerous lakes and ponds , and short , swift flowing rivers scattered across Newfoundland and Labrador . The area of freshwater in Newfoundland and Labrador is 31 @,@ 340 square kilometers ( 12 @,@ 100 sq mi ) , covering 7 @.@ 7 % of the total surface of area of the province and accounting for 3 @.@ 5 % of the freshwater area of Canada .
= = = Ocean = = =
The west coast of Newfoundland borders on the Gulf of St. Lawrence while all other coasts face the Atlantic Ocean . Labrador 's coast borders the Labrador Sea , a part of the Atlantic Ocean . The Strait of Belle Isle connects the Gulf of St. Lawrence with the Labrador Sea and is the narrowest channel separating Newfoundland from mainland Canada . The Cabot Strait separates Newfoundland from Cape Breton Island , Nova Scotia .
The continental shelf off Newfoundland is known as the Grand Banks . The cold Labrador Current and the warm Gulf Stream meet on the Grand Banks , making the area not only one of the richest fishing grounds in the world , but also one of the foggiest areas . The Grand Banks are an area of significant petroleum production with Hibernia , White Rose and Terra Nova oil fields all located there .
= = = Icebergs and pack ice = = =
Approximately 90 % of icebergs in the North Atlantic come from about 100 iceberg @-@ producing glaciers on the Greenland coast . Once detached from the glaciers , icebergs are transported southward through the Davis Strait by the Labrador Current .
Approximately 40 @,@ 000 medium to large icebergs annually calve from Greenland glaciers , and depending on wind , and air and water temperature , between 400 and 800 of these go as far south as 48 ° north latitude ( St. John 's ) . Icebergs are most commonly seen in the waters off Newfoundland in the spring and early summer . Despite their size , the icebergs of Newfoundland move an average of 17 kilometers ( 11 mi ) a day . The average mass of icebergs in the Grand Banks area is between one and two hundred thousand tonnes . These icebergs represent a significant threat to shipping and off @-@ shore oil platforms and the hazard is aggravated by dense fog in this area .
During the first half of each year the waters off Newfoundland may become covered with floes of sea ice or " pack ice " . While icebergs are composed of fresh water , pack ice is frozen sea water . The severity of ice varies considerably , depending on the strength and direction of the wind and air temperature . Most of the pack ice off Newfoundland 's northern and eastern shores originates off Labrador . While some of the pack ice off the west coast also comes from the sea off Labrador via the Strait of Belle Isle , most of it originates in the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Beginning in January the pack ice begins to advance south , borne by the Labrador Current until ( usually ) in April the rate of melting overtakes the rate of advance and the ice retreats northward . The leading edge of the pack ice is known as " The Front " and is important to the annual seal hunt off Newfoundland 's north coast .
= = Time zones = =
Newfoundland is located in a unique time zone in North America . It is a half an hour ahead of Atlantic Time , one and a half hours ahead of Central Canada and 4 ½ hours ahead of the west coast of the country . Labrador operates on Atlantic Time , except for the coast between L 'Anse au Clair and Norman 's Bay , which is on Newfoundland time .
= = Natural resources = =
All currency is in Canadian dollars .
Exploitation of natural resources is a major part of the economic geography of Newfoundland and Labrador . In 2005 the gross domestic product ( GDP ) of Newfoundland and Labrador was approximately fourteen billion dollars . Service industries accounted for over $ 8 billion and resource @-@ based activities such as mining , oil production , fishery and forest @-@ based industries ( sawmills and paper mills ) accounted for the remainder .
= = = Minerals and petroleum = = =
Mines in Labrador , the iron ore mine at Wabush / Labrador City , and the new nickel mine in Voisey 's Bay produced a total of $ 2 @.@ 5 billion worth of ore in 2006 . A new mine at Duck Pond ( 30 kilometers ( 18 mi ) south of the now @-@ closed mine at Buchans ) , started producing copper , zinc , silver and gold in 2007 and prospecting for new ore bodies continues . Mining accounted for 3 @.@ 5 % of the provincial GDP in 2006 . The province produces 55 % of Canada ’ s total iron ore . Quarries producing dimension stone such as slate and granite , account for less than $ 10 million worth of material per year .
Oil production from offshore oil platforms on Hibernia , White Rose and Terra Nova oil fields on the Grand Banks was 110 million barrels ( 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) which contributed 15 % of the provinces GDP in 2006 . Total production from the Hibernia field from 1997 to 2006 was 733 million barrels ( 116 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) with an estimated value of $ 36 billion . Remaining reserves are estimated at almost 2 billion barrels ( 320 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) as of December 31 , 2006 . Exploration for new reserves is ongoing .
= = = Fishing and aquaculture = = =
The fishing industry remains an important part of the provincial economy , employing 26 @,@ 000 and contributing over $ 440 million to the GDP . The combined harvest of fish such as cod , haddock , halibut , herring and mackerel was 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 165 @,@ 000 tons ) valued at about $ 130 million in 2006 . Shellfish , such as crab , shrimp and clams , accounted for 195 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 215 @,@ 000 tons ) with a value of $ 316 million in the same year . The value of products from the seal hunt was $ 55 million .
Aquaculture is a new industry for the province , which in 2006 produced over 10 @,@ 000 tonnes of Atlantic Salmon , mussels and Steelhead Trout worth over $ 50 million .
= = = Forestry = = =
Newsprint is produced by the paper mill in Corner Brook , ( capacity of 420 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 462 @,@ 000 tons ) per year ) . Until March 31 , 2009 there was a second papermill located in Grand Falls , but due to the 2008 / 2009 economic crisis the mill shut down . The value of newsprint exports varies greatly from year to year , depending on the global market price . Lumber is produced by numerous mills in Newfoundland .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Agriculture in Newfoundland in limited to areas south of St. John 's , near Deer Lake and in the Codroy Valley . Elsewhere the soil is mostly unsuitable for farming . Potatoes , rutabagas , known locally as " turnips " , carrots and cabbage are grown for local consumption . Wild blueberries , partridge berries and bakeapples are harvested commercially and used in jams and wine making .
= = Human geography = =
Newfoundland and Labrador had a population of 505 @,@ 469 ( 2005 estimate ) and a population density of 1 @.@ 27 per km2 ( 3 @.@ 1 per sq mi ) . The provincial capital is St. John 's , which had a population of 181 @,@ 113 in 2005 ) . St John 's is located at the extreme eastern edge of the island on the Avalon Peninsula . The other cities are Mount Pearl and Corner Brook .
Human inhabitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back over 9 @,@ 000 years to the people of the Maritime Archaic Tradition . They were gradually displaced by people of the Dorset Culture and finally by the Innu and Inuit in Labrador and the Beothuks on the island . The oldest known European contact was made over a thousand years ago when the Vikings briefly settled in L 'Anse aux Meadows . Five hundred years later , European explorers ( John Cabot , Gaspar Corte @-@ Real , Jacques Cartier and others ) , fishermen from England , Portugal , France and Spain and Basque whalers ( the remains of several whaling stations have been found at Red Bay , Newfoundland and Labrador ) began exploration and exploitation of the area .
Early European ( primarily from England , Ireland and France ) settlement in Newfoundland was confined to the coast . The rich cod fishery on the Grand Banks and along the shore of the island was the primary reason for these settlements . The rugged shoreline provided many small , but isolated , harbors ( outports ) from which to conduct the fishery . The Avalon Peninsula was , and is , the most populous part of the island , and as such had the best developed system of early roads and trails . Transportation between communities on other parts of the coast , especially the south coast between Fortune Bay and Port aux Basques , was exclusively by boat . Almost all communities are now accessible by roads which are part of the provincial road system . The now @-@ defunct Newfoundland Railway , built in the latter part of the 19th century , and the development of the lead , zinc and copper mine at Buchans and the paper mill in Grand Falls in the early 20th century marked the beginning of the settlement of the interior of the island . Despite these developments the majority of the population is still found along the coast .
Settlement of Labrador followed a similar pattern , with the interior being settled only in the latter part of the 20th century with the development of the iron ore mines at Wabush , hydroelectric generation at Churchill Falls and the military base at Goose Bay .
Aboriginal peoples include the Innu , Inuit and Métis of Labrador and the Mi 'kmaq in Newfoundland . One aboriginal group , the Beothuks became extinct in the early 19th century .
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= New York State Route 178 =
New York State Route 178 ( NY 178 ) is an east – west state highway in Jefferson County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 10 @.@ 23 miles ( 16 @.@ 46 km ) from an intersection with NY 3 by Aspinwell Corners in the town of Henderson to a junction with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the village of Adams . NY 178 meets Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) at exit 41 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) west of its junction with US 11 . When NY 178 was assigned in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it continued east along modern County Route 189 ( CR 189 ) to NY 177 in Rodman . This extension was eliminated in 1979 . From the early 1930s to the late 1960s , NY 178 also continued west toward Lake Ontario on what is now County Route 178 .
= = Route description = =
= = = CR 178 = = =
CR 178 begins at an intersection with Snowshoe Road and Military Road near the shores of Lake Ontario . The highway progresses to the southeast along farmlands heading through Cedar Cove Road and Harmony Harbor . A short distance later , CR 178 enters the community of Hungerford Corners , where the right @-@ of @-@ way merges with Lighthouse Road . The highway continues eastward , crossing over a tributary of Lake Ontario as Military Road . The route passes to the south of Henderson Harbor , where it intersects with CR 123 . A short distance later , CR 178 intersects with NY 3 , where maintenance of the highway turns over to the New York State Department of Transportation and CR 178 becomes NY 178 .
= = = NY 178 = = =
NY 178 continues eastward from NY 3 , passing through a small populated region before entering the hamlet of Henderson . There , the route intersects with the southern terminus of CR 72 ( Penney Road ) . NY 178 turns to the south along CR 72 's right @-@ of @-@ way ( now with the moniker of Adams Road ) , turns to the southeast , and leaves the hamlet of Henderson . After intersecting with Town Barn Road , the highway continues southeastward , passing Henderson Pond and curving to the east at an intersection with CR 78 ( Clark Road ) . NY 178 curves back to the southeast and intersects with CR 152 ( Smith Road ) , where the right @-@ of @-@ ways merge . From there , NY 178 begins an eastward progression through the North Country , entering the community of Roberts Corner at an intersection with CR 75 ( Butterville Road ) . After crossing through the rural community , the highway turns to the southeast and intersects with the northern terminus of NY 289 in the community of Taylor Settlement .
After intersecting with NY 289 , NY 178 progresses northeastward , intersecting with the western terminus of CR 84 in the community of Thomas Settlement . After leaving Thomas Settlement , NY 178 intersects with CR 77 and turning to the southeast through a rural region before entering the village of Adams at an intersection with Cobbville Road . There , the surroundings become further residential , before the highway connects to I @-@ 81 at exit 41 . After the interchange , NY 178 becomes known as Church Street West , crosses over a railroad line and enters the downtown portion of Adams . After the intersection with Clay Street , NY 178 intersects with US 11 ( Main Street ) , where the NY 178 designation ends . The right @-@ of @-@ way continues eastward as Church Street East , which becomes CR 69 at the east village line .
= = History = =
When NY 178 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at NY 3C ( later NY 3 ) south of the hamlet ( then village ) of Henderson and ended at NY 177 west of Barnes Corners . In between , NY 178 passed through the village of Adams , where it had a short overlap with US 11 . NY 178 was extended northwestward c . 1932 along then @-@ NY 3D and Military Road to a new terminus at Snowshoe Road northwest of Henderson . By the following year , NY 3D was moved onto the current alignment of NY 3 in the vicinity of Henderson , eliminating its overlap with NY 178 .
NY 178 was truncated eastward in the late 1960s to begin at NY 3 west of Henderson . It was truncated westward to US 11 in Adams on August 1 , 1979 , after ownership and maintenance of NY 178 between US 11 and NY 177 was transferred from the state of New York to Jefferson County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The former routing of NY 178 between Snowshoe Road and NY 3 in the town of Henderson is now maintained by Jefferson County as CR 178 while the section of old NY 178 from US 11 to NY 177 is designated as CR 189 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Jefferson County .
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= Enamorada de Ti ( song ) =
" Enamorada de Ti " ( English : " In Love With You " ) is a song recorded by American Tejano recording artist Selena and originally written for her second studio album , Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) . The song was written by Selena y Los Dinos band member Pete Astudillo and her brother , A.B. Quintanilla III , and produced by Quintanilla . " Enamorada de Ti " is a freestyle song , a musical genre popular during the late 1980s . The recording was remixed by Juan Magan for the eponymous album in 2012 , a project headed by Humberto Gatica . Although the song was moderately successful during the early 1990s , it was exposed to a wider audience in the remix album Enamorada de Ti . Because of this , the song peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart that year . In 1997 , the posthumously @-@ released single " Is It the Beat ? " adopted the rap verse found in " Enamorada de Ti " .
In the lyrics the protagonist sings to her love interest about his departure , which has saddened her ; without him she cannot function normally , because she is in love with him . Selena performed the song during her Ven Conmigo Tour ( 1990 – 92 ) and at the 1990 Tejano Music Awards , where she received the Female Vocalist of the Year award . During the first season of Telemundo 's La Voz Kids , a Spanish @-@ language version of the US singing competition The Voice , Xairexis Garcia performed " Enamorada de Ti " .
= = Background and development = =
In 1989 , Selena was signed to EMI Latin and released her self @-@ titled debut album that year . Around that time her brother , A.B. Quintanilla III , began producing and writing most of her songs . According to Quintanilla III in the 20 Years of Music series , his father ( and band manager ) Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. originated the idea of recording a " hip @-@ hop " -type song for Ven Conmigo . He said that Quintanilla Jr was told by Jose Behar , president of EMI Latin , that several pop @-@ music executive producers were going to attend an upcoming performance by Selena and her band . The idea was that Quintanilla III could write a song which could attract a crossover deal from EMI Records . During the interview , Quintanilla III said that the writing for " Enamorada de Ti " began in an Albuquerque , New Mexico Motel 6 with fellow band members Pete Astudillo and keyboardist Ricky Vela . In the same interview Selena 's sister ( and drummer ) Suzette Quintanilla called the recording a " Top 40 song " and " fun , that was definitely one of the fun songs on the album " , with the recording " bringing out Selena 's soul side " .
The recording is a freestyle dance @-@ pop song in common time at a tempo of 112 beats per minute . In the lyrics , the singer is saddened and bewildered by the departure of her love interest . She tells him how much she is in love with him , and cannot live without him . The remix version featured on Enamorada de Ti ( 2012 ) is a merengue duet with Spanish singer Juan Magan .
At the 1990 Tejano Music Awards Selena performed " Enamorada de Ti " with three backup dancers , emulating dance moves popularized by Michael and Janet Jackson . She won the Tejano Music Award for Female Vocalist of The Year . During the first season of Telemundo 's La Voz Kids , a Spanish @-@ language version of the US singing competition show The Voice , Xairexis Garcia performed " Enamorada de Ti " .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
Federico Martinez of La Prensa called " Enamorada de Ti " a " popular title track " . In his review of the remix album Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that all its songs were " rooted in the ' 90s and sound that way " , and altering the recordings to " update it " was unfeasible . Carlos Quintana , a Latin @-@ music writer for About.com , called " Enamorada de Ti " one of the best tracks on the remix album . Enrique Lopetegui of the San Antonio Current called it a " crowd @-@ pleasing " song with an " unbearable " merengue . Nilan Lovelace of Reporter Magazine Archives noted that although the original recording of " Enamorada de Ti " was a " slow tempo love song " , the remix version had a " lively , tropical tone " .
" Enamorada de Ti " has been featured on several compilation albums since its debut on Ven Conmigo in 1990 . A club @-@ mix version of the song was featured on All My Hits / Todos Mis Exitos Vol . 2 ( 2000 ) , and the original version was added to La Leyenda ( 2010 ) . In 1997 , " Is It the Beat ? " was released posthumously on the soundtrack for Selena 's biographical film and as a single ; the recording included a rap verse taken directly from " Enamorada de Ti " . The single also included two versions of " Enamorada de Ti " : a Spanish version of " Is It the Beat ? " and a Spanish club mix . In 2012 , Humberto Gatica headed the production of Enamorada de Ti with the goal of rejuvenating several of Selena 's songs in popular genres . Spanish singer Juan Magan remixed and sang a small part in " Enamorada de Ti " for the album . The recording peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart that same year .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits from the album 's liner notes :
Selena – vocals
Ricky Vela – keyboards
Suzette Quintanilla – drums
A.B. Quintanilla III – writer / producer
Pete Astudillo - writer
Juan Magan - remixed / producer / arranger ( remix version )
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= Move ( Third Day album ) =
Move is the tenth studio album by Christian rock band Third Day . Released on October 19 , 2010 , the album was the band 's first after guitarist Brad Avery left Third Day . The band wanted the album to be a departure from the modern rock stylings of Revelation ( 2008 ) , intending to show more of their southern rock roots . Third Day chose to work with producer Paul Moak on the album and recorded it at their own studio , feeling it offered them more creative freedom . Primarily a southern rock album , Move also has significant influence from gospel music .
Move received positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised the album 's southern rock sound . It was nominated for multiple awards at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards , winning in the Recorded Music Packaging of the Year category . It sold 37 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 , number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , and number three on the Billboard Rock Albums chart . In the United States , it ranked as the twenty @-@ third best @-@ selling Christian Album of 2010 and the fifth best @-@ selling Christian Album of 2011 . The album 's four singles met with varying success at Christian radio , all of them appearing on the Billboard Christian Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
Move was Third Day 's first record without guitarist Brad Avery , who left the band after the recording of their previous album ( Revelation ) . After he left the group , the band felt they were at a musical crossroads ; although they considered replacing Avery , they ultimately decided not to . After playing a few concerts without Avery , Third Day felt they needed to step it up musically . The band 's induction into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame also served as inspiration for the record . Although the band felt that they had previously reined in sounds that were too southern rock in sound , they decided to show more of their southern roots in the record . Bassist Tai Anderson said that although Third Day felt Revelation was a " career record " for them , they felt they " just couldn 't just make ' Revelation Part II . ' It needed to feel different " . The band chose to record the album in their own studio , which they felt offered more creative freedom than their previous recording process in Los Angeles . The also opted to work with producer Paul Moak , whom the band ultimately developed a good chemistry with . All the songs on Move were either written or co @-@ written by Mac Powell .
Move was produced by Paul Moak , who also handled programming and some engineering . The album was recorded at The Quarry in Kennesaw , Georgia and The Smokestack in Nashville , Tennessee . It was mastered by Chris Athens and mixed by F. Reid Shippen and Erik " Keller " Jahner . Along with Paul Moak , Andy Hunt and Justin March also handled engineering on the album .
= = Composition = =
A southern rock album , Move is also influenced by gospel music . As opposed to the modern rock bent and introspective lyrics of Revelation , lead vocalist Mac Powell felt the end result of Move was a " down @-@ home , American grassroots record with a lot more gospel elements than [ Third Day have ] ever had before " . Although some songs are set from the perspective of someone outside the Christian church , Powell felt the record 's lyrics were a call to put faith into action . " Lift Up Your Face " , a southern rock song , displays influences from gospel and blues music . Gospel group The Blind Boys of Alabama provide backing vocals in the song , while the lyrics offer a message of encouragement . " Make Your Move " , which depicts evangelism from the perspective of a non @-@ believer , has a grunge @-@ influenced half time chorus . " Children of God " incorporates a children 's choir into what is an otherwise rock arrangement . " Surrender " is led by a dobro and has an acoustic rock sound , eventually building up to a climax of guitars and strings . " Follow Me There " has heavy gospel influence combined with a " rootsy rock " sound . " Gone " , which features vocals from Bear Rinehart of Needtobreathe , has an acoustic rock sound . " What Have You Got to Lose " , a ballad , offers the plea : " Sin and shame , guilt and pain , pride and your conceit / Here and now lay them down at the Savior 's feet " . " I 'll Be Your Miracle " has a country rock sound and features instrumentation from banjo and pedal steel guitar . " Sound of Your Voice " , a worship song , features vocals from guest vocalist Kerrie Roberts . " Don 't Give Up Hope " has " Allman Brothers @-@ style interplay " between the slide guitar and piano instruments .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
Move received mostly positive reviews upon its release , with many critics praising the album 's overall sound . Andree Farias of Allmusic gave the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , saying " After a number of career moves attempting to position themselves as the next big thing in rock , Third Day appear resigned to their place as one of the biggest rockers in Christian music : nothing more , nothing less . Move ... reveals that much , as it finds the group embracing , hopefully definitively , that midpoint between spiritual fervor and Southern rock passion that suits them so well " . Chris Carpenter of cbnmusic.com gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , opining that " The charismatic [ Mac ] Powell , along with guitarist Mark Lee , bassist Tai Anderson , and drummer David Carr , have crafted a project that is as musically stimulating as it is lyrically diverse ... It 's raw , passionate , and track after track is filled with uncompromising truth " . Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine gave Move three out of five stars , noting an overall southern rock sound to the album and saying that it " recalls 1999 's treasured Time " . C. E 'Jon Moore of The Christian Manifesto gave the album three out of five stars , saying " In the end , Move is a good album . It ’ s not a great album ... Some will feel it ’ s a progression , but I really feel as if this is more of the same from a band who has proven that they are capable of giving us more than the status quo " . Andrew Greer of Christianity Today gave the album four out of five stars , praising it as " Magically marrying deep soul with melodic rock throughout the entire twelve @-@ track list " and saying that it " is yet another attractive release in an illustrious discography certain to be celebrated for years to come " .
Peter Timmis of Cross Rhythms gave Move nine stars out of ten squares , commenting that " If you like your rock soulful and gospel @-@ tinged then ' Move ' is an album you 'll want to check out " . Glenn McCarty of Crosswalk.com said that " As always , Third Day plays to its strength ... to craft accessible , interesting country rock . When it clicks , the result is arm @-@ hair @-@ raising good . Move , unfortunately , doesn 't produce that reaction often enough ... Move feels a little too safe , or , said another way , a little too static " . Lindsay Williams of Gospel Music Channel said that " Move may not be Third Day ’ s best effort in their large discography , but it ’ s certainly a treasure trove of hooky rock . After more than 15 years , this band still has something to say , and they say it well " . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , opining " Move showcases some of the best Third Day has to offer . Whether it 's better than Revelation or some of their other previous installments ( like Wire or Conspiracy No. 5 ) is something to leave up to the listener to decide , but it does feel safe enough to say that Third Day 's Move is a dozen tracks of southern rock goodness " . Brian Mansfield of USA Today gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , saying " Whether accompanied by sharp @-@ edged electric or slippery resonator guitars , a kids choir or the Blind Boys of Alabama , Third Day 's Southern rock remains grounded in the band 's faith " .
Move won the award for Recorded Music Packaging of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards . Move was also nominated for Rock / Contemporary Album of the Year , although it did not win in that category . " Lift Up Your Face " was nominated for Rock / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards .
= = Release and sales = =
Move sold 37 @,@ 000 units in its first week , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 . It was their third top ten album on that chart . It also debuted at number one on the Christian Albums chart , number three on the Rock Albums chart , and number ten on the Digital Albums chart . It spent two consecutive weeks atop the Christian Albums chart following its release and spent an additional week atop the chart in February 2012 . Move spent one week on the Catalog Albums chart in 2012 , debuting and peaking at number nineteen .
In the United States , Move ranked as the twenty @-@ third best @-@ selling Christian album of 2010 . It was also ranked as the fifth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2011 and the forty @-@ first best @-@ selling rock album of 2011 .
= = Singles = =
Four singles were released from Move . Lead single " Lift Up Your Face " was released to Christian AC and Christian CHR radio on July 11 , 2010 . It peaked at number twelve on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and at number two on the Billboard Christian CHR chart . The album 's second single , " Children of God " was released to Christian AC radio on January 4 , 2011 and peaked at number four on the Christian Songs chart . " Make Your Move " was released to Christian CHR radio on January 30 , 2011 . It peaked at number twelve on the Christian CHR chart and number forty @-@ three on the Christian Songs chart . The final single from Move , " Trust in Jesus " , was released to Christian AC and Christian CHR radio on June 11 , 2011 . It peaked at number ten on the Christian Songs chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album liner notes of the Deluxe Edition of Move .
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Single charts = = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
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= Claudius of Turin =
Claudius of Turin ( or Claude ) ( fl . 810 – 827 ) was the Catholic bishop of Turin from 817 until his death . He was a courtier of Louis the Pious and was a writer during the Carolingian Renaissance . He is most noted for teaching iconoclasm , a radical idea at that time in Latin Church , and for some teachings that prefigured those of the Protestant Reformation . He was attacked as a heretic in written works by Saint Dungal and Jonas of Orléans .
= = Early career and the imperial court ( until 817 ) = =
Claudius is thought to have been from Spain . This belief may have its origins in the accusations of Jonas of Orléans , who claimed Claudius was a disciple of Felix of Urgel . Felix was a bishop in the foothills of the Spanish Pyrenees whom Claudius may have known personally . The bishop had been condemned by Alcuin at the Council of Frankfurt in 794 for teaching adoptionism . It is now certain that Claudius was not a disciple of Felix . If he was from Spain , it is uncertain whether or not he received his education there or in Lyon under the archbishop Leidrad . It was probably Leidrad and , as Claudius himself tells it , his schoolmates and the future emperor Louis the Pious who convinced Claudius to study exegesis and concentrate on certain portions of Scripture . Claudius also studied the Church Fathers .
When Louis the Pious was still King of Aquitaine , he called Claudius to his court at Chasseneuil sometime before 811 . In 813 , Emperor Charlemagne called Louis , his only surviving legitimate son , to his court . There he crowned him as his heir . The following year , Charlemagne died and Louis was made ruler of the Holy Roman Empire . He brought Claudius to Aachen , the empire 's capital city . There Claudius gave exegetical lectures to the emperor and the court and was even urged to put his lectures in writing by the emperor himself . Claudius was a member of an elite circle of secular and ecclesiastic politicians and authorities and a creatura della corte di Aquisgrana ( " creature of the court of Aachen " ) . In 817 , he was sent by Louis to Turin to act as bishop . It has been suggested that the appointment of a theologian and scholar to a post such as Turin , which had attendant military duties due to the threat of Saracen raids , was largely based on the need for an imperial supporter in Italy in light of the rebellion of Bernard . Bernard was the illegitimate son of King Pepin , the third son of Charlemagne . Louis gave Italy to his eldest son Lothair when the empire was partitioned among his three sons in 817 . Bernard rebelled against his uncle with the support of Bishop Theodulf of Orléans . The rebellion was put down , but the event reduced the emperor 's prestige amongst the Frankish nobility and it became important that the bishop of Turin be a man who was loyal to the emperor .
= = Episcopate ( 817 – 827 ) = =
As bishop of Turin , Claudius found that men were often directed to go on pilgrimage to Rome for penance and that worshippers were accustomed to venerate Christ and the saints by bowing before images and relics . Claudius , coming from an educated background , was not greatly exposed to such provincial modes of worship . He made attacks on the use of images , relics , and crosses , he opposed pilgrimages to obtain absolution , and he had little regard for the authority of the pope due to his belief that all bishops were equal .
Claudius was a heretic in the view of Dungal and Jonas of Orléans , who later wrote to refute some of his teachings at the request of the emperor . The last recorded act of Claudius is in a charter of the monastery of St Peter at Novalesa in May 827 . He was dead by the time Dungal finished his Responsa contra peruersas Claudii Taurinensis episcopi sententias late in 827 , so it can be presumed that he died that year .
= = Writings = =
Claudius was both an author and a copyist . Although most of his extant works are simple biblical commentaries , his writings are very personal . He had a penchant for divulging detail in an age when brevity and anonymity were more common . Around 811 , Claudius prepared an exhaustive and encyclopaedic commentary on the Book of Genesis at the request of the emperor . This commentary was edited by Johann Alexander Brassicanus in Vienna before it was first printed in Basel by Hieronymus Froben in 1531 .
Claudius also wrote commentaries on the books of Leviticus , the historical books of the Old Testament , the Gospel of Matthew , and all Pauline epistles , of which the commentary on the Epistle to Galatians shows some of his views prefigure those expressed by both the Waldensians and Protestants centuries later . It was once thought that he had in fact founded the Waldensians , however this was disproved in the 19th century . His epistles on 1 and 2 Corinthians , however , dedicated to Theodemir , Abbot of Psalmody , and a possible student of his , were sent to Aachen by the dedicatee to be condemned by the assembled bishops of the realm . The Corinthian commentaries were unpublished , though it was these commentaries that sparked the controversy concerning icons and pilgrimages .
Claudius introduced the " organic metaphor " of the state in his commentary on 1 Corinthians . He proposed that , as the church was the body of Christ , so the state was the body of the emperor . The imperial court would have been familiar with the work because Claudius later wrote that it had been well – received despite the attempts of his former friend , Theodemir of Nismes , to have it condemned as heretical . None of Claudius ' works were ever condemned and he tried unsuccessfully to regain Theodemir 's approval , but eventually had to pen a well known apology directed against Theodemir 's persistent attacks .
In 1950 , Claudius was identified by P. Bellet as the author of some works previously attributed to Pseudo @-@ Eucherius .
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= Staggered tuning =
Staggered tuning is a technique used in the design of multi @-@ stage tuned amplifiers whereby each stage is tuned to a slightly different frequency . In comparison to synchronous tuning ( where each stage is tuned identically ) it produces a wider bandwidth at the expense of reduced gain . It also produces a sharper transition from the passband to the stopband . Both staggered tuning and synchronous tuning circuits are easier to tune and manufacture than many other filter types .
The function of stagger @-@ tuned circuits can be expressed as a rational function and hence they can be designed to any of the major filter responses such as Butterworth and Chebyshev . The poles of the circuit are easy to manipulate to achieve the desired response because of the amplifier buffering between stages .
Applications include television IF amplifiers ( mostly 20th century receivers ) and wireless LAN .
= = Rationale = =
Staggered tuning improves the bandwidth of a multi @-@ stage tuned amplifier at the expense of the overall gain . Staggered tuning also increases the steepness of passband skirts and hence improves selectivity .
The value of staggered tuning is best explained by first looking at the shortcomings of tuning every stage identically . This method is called synchronous tuning . Each stage of the amplifier will reduce the bandwidth . In an amplifier with multiple identical stages , the 3 dB points of the response after the first stage will become the 6 dB points of the second stage . Each successive stage will add a further 3 dB to what was the band edge of the first stage . Thus the 3 dB bandwidth becomes progressively narrower with each additional stage .
As an example , a four @-@ stage amplifier will have its 3 dB points at the 0 @.@ 75 dB points of an individual stage . The fractional bandwidth of an LC circuit is given by ,
<formula>
where m is the power ratio of the power at resonance to that at the band edge frequency ( equal to 2 for the 3 dB point and 1 @.@ 19 for the 0 @.@ 75 dB point ) and Q is the quality factor .
The bandwidth is thus reduced by a factor of <formula> . In terms of the number of stages <formula> . Thus , the four stage synchronously tuned amplifier will have a bandwidth of only 19 % of a single stage . Even in a two @-@ stage amplifier the bandwidth is reduced to 41 % of the original . Staggered tuning allows the bandwidth to be widened at the expense of overall gain . The overall gain is reduced because when any one stage is at resonance ( and thus maximum gain ) the others are not , unlike synchronous tuning where all stages are at maximum gain at the same frequency . A two @-@ stage stagger @-@ tuned amplifier will have a gain 3 dB less than a synchronously tuned amplifier .
Even in a design that is intended to be synchronously tuned , some staggered tuning effect is inevitable because of the practical impossibility of keeping all tuned circuits perfectly in step and because of feedback effects . This can be a problem in very narrow band applications where essentially only one spot frequency is of interest , such as a local oscillator feed or a wave trap . The overall gain of a synchronously tuned amplifier will always be less than the theoretical maximum because of this .
Both synchronously tuned and stagger @-@ tuned schemes have a number of advantages over schemes that place all the tuning components in a single aggregated filter circuit separate from the amplifier such as ladder networks or coupled resonators . One advantage is that they are easy to tune . Each resonator is buffered from the others by the amplifier stages so have little effect on each other . The resonators in aggregated circuits , on the other hand , will all interact with each other , particularly their nearest neighbours . Another advantage is that the components need not be close to ideal . Every LC resonator is directly working into a resistor which lowers the Q anyway so any losses in the L and C components can be absorbed into this resistor in the design . Aggregated designs usually require high Q resonators . Also , stagger @-@ tuned circuits have resonator components with values that are quite close to each other and in synchronously tuned circuits they can be identical . The spread of component values is thus less in stagger @-@ tuned circuits than in aggregated circuits .
= = Design = =
Tuned amplifiers such as the one illustrated at the beginning of this article can be more generically depicted as a chain of transconductance amplifiers each loaded with a tuned circuit .
where for each stage ( omitting the suffixes )
gm is the amplifier transconductance
C is the tuned circuit capacitance
L is the tuned circuit inductance
G is the sum of the amplifier output conductance and the input conductance of the next amplifier .
= = = Stage gain = = =
The gain A ( s ) , of one stage of this amplifier is given by ;
<formula>
where s is the complex frequency operator .
This can be written in a more generic form , that is , not assuming that the resonators are the LC type , with the following substitutions ,
<formula> ( the resonant frequency )
<formula> ( the gain at resonance )
<formula> ( the stage quality factor )
Resulting in ,
<formula>
= = = Stage bandwidth = = =
The gain expression can be given as a function of ( angular ) frequency by making the substitution s = iω where i is the imaginary unit and ω is the angular frequency
<formula>
The frequency at the band edges , ωc , can be found from this expression by equating the value of the gain at the band edge to the magnitude of the expression ,
<formula>
where m is defined as above and equal to two if the 3 dB points are desired .
Solving this for ωc and taking the difference between the two positive solutions finds the bandwidth Δω ,
<formula>
and the fractional bandwidth B ,
<formula>
= = = Overall response = = =
The overall response of the amplifier is given by the product of the individual stages ,
<formula>
It is desirable to be able to design the filter from a standard low @-@ pass prototype filter of the required specification . Frequently , a smooth Butterworth response will be chosen but other polynomial functions can be used that allow ripple in the response . A popular choice for a polynomial with ripple is the Chebyshev response for its steep skirt . For the purpose of transformation , the stage gain expression can be rewritten in the more suggestive form ,
<formula>
This can be transformed into a low @-@ pass prototype filter with the transform
<formula>
where ω 'c is the cutoff frequency of the low @-@ pass prototype .
This can be done straightforwardly for the complete filter in the case of synchronously tuned amplifiers where every stage has the same ω0 but for a stagger @-@ tuned amplifier there is no simple analytical solution to the transform . Stagger @-@ tuned designs can be approached instead by calculating the poles of a low @-@ pass prototype of the desired form ( e.g. Butterworth ) and then transforming those poles to a band @-@ pass response . The poles so calculated can then be used to define the tuned circuits of the individual stages .
= = = Poles = = =
The stage gain can be rewritten in terms of the poles by factorising the denominator ;
<formula>
where p , p * are a complex conjugate pair of poles
and the overall response is ,
<formula>
where the ak = A0kω0k / Q0k
From the band @-@ pass to low @-@ pass transform given above , an expression can be found for the poles in terms of the poles of the low @-@ pass prototype , qk ,
<formula>
where ω0B is the desired band @-@ pass centre frequency and Qeff is the effective Q of the overall circuit .
Each pole in the prototype transforms to a complex conjugate pair of poles in the band @-@ pass and corresponds to one stage of the amplifier . This expression is greatly simplified if the cutoff frequency of the prototype , ω 'c , is set to the final filter bandwidth ω0B / Qeff .
<formula>
In the case of a narrowband design ω0 ≫ q which can be used to make a further simplification with the approximation ,
<formula>
These poles can be inserted into the stage gain expression in terms of poles . By comparing with the stage gain expression in terms of component values , those component values can then be calculated .
= = Applications = =
Staggered tuning is of most benefit in wideband applications . It was formerly commonly used in television receiver IF amplifiers . However , SAW filters are more likely to be used in that role nowadays . Staggered tuning has advantages in VLSI for radio applications such as wireless LAN . The low spread of component values make it much easier to implement in integrated circuits than traditional ladder networks .
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= Shawn Michaels =
Michael Shawn Hickenbottom ( born July 22 , 1965 ) , better known by his ring name Shawn Michaels , is an American professional wrestling personality , television presenter and retired professional wrestler . He has been signed to WWE , as an ambassador and occasional non @-@ wrestling performer , since December 2010 . Michaels wrestled consistently for WWE , formerly the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , from 1988 until his first retirement in 1998 . He held non @-@ wrestling roles from 1998 to 2000 and resumed wrestling in 2002 until retiring ceremoniously in 2010 .
In the WWF / E , Michaels headlined major pay @-@ per @-@ view events between 1989 and 2010 , closing the company 's flagship annual event , WrestleMania , five times . He was the co @-@ founder and original leader of the successful stable , D @-@ Generation X. He also wrestled in the American Wrestling Association ( AWA ) , where he founded The Midnight Rockers with Marty Jannetty in 1985 . After winning the AWA Tag Team Championship twice , the team continued to the WWF as The Rockers , and had a high @-@ profile breakup in January 1992 . Within the year , Michaels would twice challenge for the WWF Championship and win his first WWF Intercontinental Championship , heralding his arrival as one of the industry 's premier singles stars .
Michaels is a four @-@ time world champion : a three @-@ time WWF Champion and a one @-@ time World Heavyweight Champion . He is also a two @-@ time Royal Rumble winner , the first WWF Grand Slam Champion and the fourth WWF Triple Crown Champion , as well as a 2011 WWE Hall of Fame inductee . Michaels won the Pro Wrestling Illustrated " Match of the Year " reader vote a record eleven times .
= = Early life = =
Hickenbottom was born on July 22 , 1965 , in Chandler , Arizona . The last of four children – Randy , Scott , and Shari are his older siblings – he was raised in a military family and spent a brief part of his early years in Reading , Berkshire , England , but grew up in San Antonio , Texas . As a child , Hickenbottom disliked the name Michael , so his family and friends just called him Shawn . Ever since , he has been referred to as Shawn . Additionally , Hickenbottom moved around frequently since his father was in the military .
He knew he wanted to become a professional wrestler at the age of twelve and said he performed a wrestling routine in his high school 's talent show , complete with fake blood . Hickenbottom was already an athlete ; his career began at the age of six when he started playing football . He was a stand @-@ out linebacker at Randolph High School on Randolph Air Force Base and eventually became captain of the football team . After graduating , Hickenbottom attended Southwest Texas State University in San Marcos , Texas , but soon realized that college life was not for him . He then began pursuing a career in professional wrestling .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = National Wrestling Alliance ( 1984 – 1985 ) = = =
Hickenbottom began to train under Mexican professional wrestler Jose Lothario . During his training , Hickenbottom adopted the ring name , " Shawn Michaels " . After his training with Lothario , he debuted as Shawn Michaels with the National Wrestling Alliance 's ( NWA ) Mid @-@ South Wrestling on October 16 , 1984 , against Art Crews , losing to Crews via swinging neckbreaker . Michaels ' performance in his debut match impressed many veterans , including Terry Taylor .
In January 1985 , he debuted for World Class Championship Wrestling ( WCCW ) , the NWA territory in Dallas , Texas . In April 1985 , Michaels went to work for another NWA territory in Kansas City called Central States Wrestling . There , he and tag team partner Marty Jannetty defeated The Batten Twins for the NWA Central States Tag Team Championship , later losing it back to the Battens .
= = = Texas All @-@ Star Wrestling ( 1985 – 1986 ) = = =
After leaving Kansas City , he returned to Texas to wrestle for Texas All @-@ Star Wrestling ( TASW ) . During his time with TASW , Michaels replaced Nick Kiniski in the American Breed tag team , teaming with Paul Diamond . Michaels and Diamond were awarded the TASW Tag Team Championship by Chavo Guerrero Sr. The team was later renamed American Force . While in TASW , Michaels and Diamond feuded with Japanese Force .
= = = American Wrestling Association ( 1986 – 1987 ) = = =
Michaels made his national @-@ level debut , as Sean Michaels , at the age of 20 in the American Wrestling Association ( AWA ) , in a victory over Buddhakhan on ESPN . He was once again teamed with Marty Jannetty , billed as The Midnight Rockers . The Midnight Rockers won the AWA World Tag Team Championship , defeating Doug Somers and Buddy Rose .
= = = World Wrestling Federation ( 1987 – 1988 ) = = =
In 1987 , The Rockers were signed by a competing promotion : the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . They were fired from WWF two weeks later , for a bar incident ( a misunderstanding , according to Michaels ' autobiography ) . They then returned to AWA , but were re @-@ signed by WWF a year later .
= = = Return to WWF = = =
= = = = The Rockers ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = = =
The Rockers redebuted at a WWF live event on July 7 , 1988 . Due to WWF chairman Vince McMahon 's desire to have his performers carry WWF @-@ exclusive ring names , Michaels and Jannetty were renamed , as simply " The Rockers . " The team proved popular with both children and women , and was a mid @-@ card stalwart of television and pay @-@ per @-@ view shows for the next two years ; during this time , Michaels headlined his first pay @-@ per @-@ view for the WWF when The Rockers were involved in the 4 @-@ on @-@ 4 Survivor Series match main event of the 1989 Survivor Series .
On October 30 , 1990 , The Rockers unofficially won the WWF Tag Team Championship from The Hart Foundation ( Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart ) , as Neidhart , half of the championship team , was in the process of negotiating his release from the company . The match was taped with The Rockers winning the title , but soon after , Neidhart came to an agreement with management and was rehired . The championship was returned to the Hart Foundation , while the title change was never broadcast or even acknowledged on television ( though The Rockers did actually have a successful title defence on November 3 , 1990 , against Power and Glory ( Hercules and Paul Roma ) before the title was returned to the Hart Foundation ) . When news spread , WWF explained that the original result was void due to a collapsed turnbuckle in the ring during the bout . A buckle had indeed broke , but not to a noticeable or dangerous extent during the match . The Rockers continued their partnership , eventually splitting on December 2 , 1991 during an incident on Brutus Beefcake 's televised Barber Shop talk show promotional segment . Michaels superkicked Jannetty and threw him through a glass window on the set of Beefcake 's talk show . Jannetty returned to the WWF the following year and enjoyed moderate success before leaving the company in 1994 , while Michaels became a prominent villain of the early to mid @-@ 1990s as " The Boy Toy " .
= = = = The Heartbreak Kid ( 1992 – 1995 ) = = = =
At the suggestion of Curt Hennig , Michaels adopted the nickname " The Heartbreak Kid " . Along with his new name came a new gimmick as a vain , cocky villain . He was put together with mirror @-@ carrying manager , Sensational Sherri , who , according to the storyline , had become infatuated with him . Sherri even sang the first version of his new theme music , " Sexy Boy " . During that period , after Michaels had wrestled his scheduled match at live events , his departure was announced with " Shawn Michaels has left the building " , alluding to the phrase " Elvis has left the building " .
At WrestleMania VIII , in his first pay @-@ per @-@ view singles match , Michaels defeated Tito Santana : both men had simultaneously eliminated each other from that year 's Royal Rumble . He subsequently became a contender to the promotion 's singles titles . Michaels failed to win the WWF Championship from champion Randy Savage in his first opportunity to compete for that title at British event UK Rampage , held on April 19 at the Sheffield Arena and broadcast on Sky Movies Plus ( the match later aired in the US on the June 15 edition of Prime Time Wrestling ) . He was unable to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship from Bret Hart in the WWF 's first @-@ ever ladder match at a Wrestling Challenge taping on July 21 , which would subsequently be made available on multiple Coliseum / WWE Home Video releases . He , however , won the title from The British Bulldog on the October 27 , 1992 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , which aired on November 14 . Shortly thereafter , he faced Hart for the WWF Championship in the main event of the 1992 Survivor Series , but lost the match . Originally the secondary main event , Michaels and Hart became the primary main event after The Ultimate Warrior was unable to compete , and was replaced by Mr. Perfect in the tag team match that involved Randy Savage against the team of Ric Flair and Razor Ramon . During this time , Michaels and Sherri split and he engaged himself in a feud with former tag team partner Marty Jannetty . Michaels lost the Intercontinental Championship to Jannetty on Monday Night Raw on May 17 , 1993 . He then regained it on June 6 with the help of his debuting " bodyguard " ( and off @-@ air friend ) Diesel .
In September 1993 , Michaels was suspended for testing positive for steroids – a charge he never admitted . On WWF programs , his suspension was explained by his having neglected to defend the title often enough . After turning down World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) ' s advances , Michaels returned to the WWF and made several appearances in the United States Wrestling Association ( USWA ) during a WWF / USWA cross @-@ promotion . He returned to WWF television in November at the Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view , substituting for Jerry Lawler , who was dealing with legal issues , in a match pitting himself and three of Lawler 's " Knights " against the Hart brothers , Bret , Bruce , Keith and Owen .
He soon entered a staged rivalry with Razor Ramon , who had won the Intercontinental Championship , which had been vacated during Michaels ' absence . Since Michaels had never been defeated in the ring for the title , he claimed to be the rightful champion and even carried around his old title belt . This feud culminated in a ladder match between the two at WrestleMania X. Michaels lost the match , which featured both his and Ramon 's belts suspended above a ladder in the ring . This match was voted by fans as " Match of the Year " by Pro Wrestling Illustrated . It also received a 5 @-@ star rating from Wrestling Observer Newsletter member Dave Meltzer , one of five WWF / WWE matches to do so . Over the next few months , Michaels battled various injuries and launched the Heartbreak Hotel television talk show segment , mainly shown on WWF Superstars .
On August 28 , 1994 , Michaels and Diesel captured the Tag Team Championship from The Headshrinkers ( Samu and Fatu ) . The next day , at SummerSlam , Diesel lost the Intercontinental Championship to Ramon when Michaels accidentally superkicked Diesel . This triggered a split between Michaels and Diesel , a storyline that was drawn out until Survivor Series that November . Michaels went on to win the Royal Rumble in 1995 , which set up a championship grudge match at WrestleMania XI against Diesel ( who had gone on to win the WWF Championship from Bob Backlund ) . As part of the storyline , Michaels recruited Sid as his bodyguard for the build @-@ up , lost the match , and was attacked by Sid the following night . After this , Michaels took time off , because Vince McMahon wanted Michaels to become a fan favorite .
= = = = Formation of The Kliq ( 1995 ) = = = =
Michaels returned to the ring , as a fan favorite , in May 1995 and he went on to defeat Jeff Jarrett to win his third Intercontinental Championship in July at the In Your House pay @-@ per @-@ view event . This led to a title defense against Razor Ramon at SummerSlam , in a ladder match , which Michaels won . Around this time Michaels became the leader of a backstage group known as The Kliq . Critics perceive the group to have sufficient clout with WWF owner Vince McMahon , becoming dominant wrestling figures in the WWF for several years in the mid @-@ 1990s , causing friction with other wrestlers . Michaels disputes the perception , saying that McMahon pushed only deserving wrestlers . Michaels ' fan base was later nicknamed " The Kliq " as an inside reference to the real " Kliq " . In October 1995 , Michaels was the victim of a legit assault outside a bar in Syracuse , New York . Due to not being able to compete , Michaels was forced to forfeit the Intercontinental Championship to his original opponent Dean Douglas at the In Your House : Great White North pay @-@ per @-@ view , who in turn Douglas lost the championship Razor Ramon , another member of the Kliq . This event has been cited as an example of the Kliq holding others down . The next month , during a match with Owen Hart on an episode of Monday Night Raw , Owen performed an enzuigiri that struck the back of Michaels ' head . They continued the match , but Michaels collapsed in the ring , supposedly because he had suffered a concussion . The concussion was scripted , which was kept from most fans at the time . A retirement angle was written so that Michaels could take some time off , after he came back from an injury too soon .
= = = = WWF Champion ( 1996 – 1998 ) = = = =
After teasing a retirement , Michaels returned to the WWF at the Royal Rumble match in 1996 , which he wound up winning for a second year in a row , to receive a WWF Championship match in the main event at WrestleMania XII . Around this time , Jose Lothario became Michaels ' on @-@ screen manager . At WrestleMania XII , Michaels defeated WWF Champion Bret Hart in the overtime of their sixty @-@ minute Iron Man match , which had ended in a scoreless tie . On May 19 , 1996 , Michaels and his fellow Kliq members were involved in the incident known as " Curtain Call " . Diesel and Razor Ramon were about to leave WWF to company rival WCW . After Michaels won a match against Diesel , Ramon and Hunter Hearst Helmsley came to the ring and joined Michaels and Diesel in a group @-@ hug . As Diesel and Helmsley were seen as villains at the time , in contrast to Michaels and Ramon , this constituted a breach of " kayfabe " , as acting out of character , which was rare and controversial at the time . As WCW gained momentum due to the signings of Hall and Nash , Michaels held the championship for most of the year . Michaels ' championship reign ended at the 1996 Survivor Series event , where he lost to Sycho Sid , his former bodyguard . Michaels recaptured the championship from Sid in January 1997 at the Royal Rumble .
On a special episode of Raw dubbed Thursday Raw Thursday , Michaels vacated the WWF Championship ; he explained to fans that he was informed by doctors that he had conjured a knee injury , and that he had to retire . His speech was regarded as controversial , as Michaels was allegedly unwilling to lose to Bret Hart at WrestleMania 13 ( since it was noted that he was going to have a rematch with Hart at WrestleMania ) . Michaels contemplated thoughts of retirement and stated that he " had to find his smile again , " which he had " lost " somewhere down the line . After knee surgery by Dr. James Andrews , Michaels returned a few months later , briefly teaming with Steve Austin to win the WWF Tag Team Championship . In his autobiography , Michaels reveals about his real @-@ life feud with Bret Hart , claiming that Bret did interviews on live television claiming that he [ Michaels ] was faking his whole injury .
By spring of 1997 , the real @-@ life backstage conflict between Shawn Michaels and Bret Hart were reaching its heights . Both men were going out on television and frequently making personal , true to heart remarks about one another . Shawn Michaels briefly left the WWF in June of that year after a real backstage fight with Bret Hart , just hours before a Raw is War show , which allegedly resulted from Michaels making an on @-@ air remark , known as the " Sunny Days " comment , implying that Bret ( who was married at the time ) was having an affair with WWF Diva Sunny . Shawn Michaels and Steve Austin were still WWF Tag Team Champions at the time during an ongoing feud with The Hart Foundation and a tournament was made to decide new Tag Champions . Michaels would eventually return that summer in July . At SummerSlam , Michaels officiated the WWF Championship match between WWF Champion The Undertaker and Bret Hart . The match ended in controversial fashion , with Michaels hitting Undertaker with a chair ( unintentionally , as he was aiming for Bret after he spat in his face ) . Michaels was then forced to award the championship to his nemesis , Bret Hart . The next night on Raw , signs of a heel turn started to show as Michaels told the WWF fans what happened at SummerSlam was an accident and that he would deal with the Undertaker when the time came . At WWF One Night Only , held in Birmingham , England in September , Michaels defeated The British Bulldog to capture the WWF European Championship . The fans at the event were so appalled at the result of the match they booed Michaels out of the building , to the extent that they littered the ring with garbage , cementing his second heel turn . With this win , Michaels became the first Grand Slam Champion . At the October pay @-@ per @-@ view event , In Your House : Badd Blood , Michaels and Undertaker participated in the first Hell in a Cell match . During the match , it saw Michaels fall off the side of the 15 @-@ foot ( 5 m ) high structure through a table and saw him as the winner in the match after the debuting Kane tombstoned his victory bound half @-@ brother , The Undertaker . The match received a 5 @-@ star rating from Dave Meltzer .
In the fall , Michaels joined forces with real @-@ life friend Hunter Hearst Helmsley ( Triple H ) , Hunter 's then @-@ girlfriend Chyna , and Rick Rude to form the stable D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) . Michaels continued his rivalry with Bret Hart and his reformed Hart Foundation , which was now a pro @-@ Canada stable . Michaels taunted the group and Canada by engaging in acts such as blowing his nose with and humping the Canadian Flag . Michaels later claimed the flag desecration was Bret 's idea . Michaels ' feud with the Hart Foundation culminated in a championship match at Survivor Series in 1997 against Bret Hart . Michaels came out of this match , dubbed by fans the " Montreal Screwjob " , as the WWF Champion . Michaels now held both the WWF and European championship at the same time . Michaels dropped the European Championship to D @-@ Generation X member Hunter Hearst Hemsley in a farcical match .
= = = = First retirement ( 1998 ) = = = =
At the 1998 Royal Rumble , Michaels received a serious back injury in a Casket match against The Undertaker . Michaels took a back body drop to the outside of the ring and hit his lower back on the casket , causing him to herniate two discs and crush one completely . This rendered Michaels unable to compete in the main event of the following month 's No Way Out of Texas : In Your House as advertised , and forced him into retirement after losing the WWF Championship to Steve Austin at WrestleMania XIV .
= = = = WWF Commissioner ( 1998 − 2000 ) = = = =
After being away for nearly four months , Shawn Michaels would make a surprise return to the WWF as a guest commentator on the July 13th episode of Raw is War . Michaels would continue to make non @-@ wrestling appearances on WWF programming , and on November 23 , 1998 , replaced Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF Commissioner , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , eventually joining Vince McMahon 's group of wrestlers called the Corporation as a villain . Throughout late 1998 and early 1999 , Michaels made regular television appearances on Raw , in which he scheduled matches , throwing around his authority , and sometimes even deciding the outcome of matches . On January 4 , 1999 on Raw , Michaels re @-@ joined DX as a fan favorite , but disappeared from WWF television for a few weeks to have back surgery , and by the time he returned , DX was on the way of dissolving within the next couple of months .
Michaels made occasional appearances as the WWF Commissioner during the spring and summer of 1999 , but remained absent from television after August until May 15 , 2000 , when he returned on Raw to declare himself the special guest referee for The Rock and Triple H 's Iron Man match at Judgment Day . One month later , Michaels briefly reappeared on Raw to hand over the role of Commissioner to Mick Foley and after another appearance in October , he did not make any in @-@ ring appearances until mid @-@ 2002 , although he appeared briefly on television to make a speech at WWF New York during Armageddon 2000 . Michaels also had no part at all in the Invasion storyline .
= = = = Post WWE ( 2000 − 2002 ) = = = =
Believing that his wrestling career was over , Michaels was interested in training individuals who wanted to become professional wrestlers . He saw potential in using his name and opened the Shawn Michaels Wrestling Academy in 1999 , after his lawyer Skip McCormick suggested the idea . Michaels left the academy in 2002 , giving co @-@ founder Rudy Boy Gonzalez sole responsibility due to Michaels ' new contract with WWE . Michaels was also a sportscaster for San Antonio 's local news for a short period during his retirement .
On November 23 , 1999 , Michaels made a special appearance at FMW 's Yokohama Arena show as the guest referee for the H ( Hayabusa ) vs. fake Hayabusa ( Mr. Gannosuke ) main event . He got himself involved in the match when fake Hayabusa delivered a low blow on him and he responded later on with Sweet Chin Music .
Michaels was still contracted to the WWE during this period .
= = = Second return to WWE = = =
= = = = Comeback & Feud with Triple H ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
In 2002 , Michaels returned to WWE television after 18 months of absence . On the June 3 episode of Raw , Kevin Nash announced him as a new member of the recently reformed New World Order ( nWo ) . Michaels was the only nWo member to have never worked in WCW . After the nWo had disbanded , Triple H appeared to make amends with Michaels . This was solidified when Michaels pleaded Triple H to return to Raw . Later on , they came down to the ring sporting their DX music and attire . When the pair was about to perform their trademark " Suck It " taunt , Triple H turned on Michaels by performing a Pedigree on him . Continuing the angle , a week later , Triple H attacked Michaels from behind in a parking lot and put his head through a car window , in storyline . In response , Michaels challenged Triple H to " a fight " ( a non @-@ sanctioned match ) at SummerSlam , which Triple H accepted , laying the foundation for a rivalry that would last for several years . In his first official wrestling match since WrestleMania XIV , Michaels won at SummerSlam , but was attacked by Triple H with a sledgehammer after the match . At Survivor Series , Michaels won the World Heavyweight Championship from Triple H in the first @-@ ever Elimination Chamber match . Michaels ' reign as champion came to an end a month later when he lost the championship to Triple H in a Three Stages of Hell match , a series of three matches in which wrestlers attempt to win the majority of matches , at Armageddon .
Michaels then began a rivalry with Chris Jericho , after Jericho claimed that he was the next Shawn Michaels . On January 13 , 2003 , after Jericho won a battle royal to select his entry number for the Royal Rumble , choosing number two in order to start the match with Michaels , who had already been named number one . At the Royal Rumble , Jericho , with the help of Christian , eliminated Michaels . Michaels defeated Jericho at WrestleMania XIX . Despite this , Michaels was low @-@ blowed after hugging with Chris Jericho . On the final episode of Raw of 2003 , Michaels would defeat Triple H after a Sweet Chin Music for the World Heavyweight title in his hometown of San Antonio , Texas with Eric Bischoff as the special guest referee ( Earl Hebner originally refereed the match , only to be knocked out by Triple H in the middle of the match ) . However , Bischoff reversed the decision due to both men 's shoulders being on the mat . Angered by this , Michaels attacked Ric Flair and Bischoff . Because of Michaels putting his hands on Bischoff , Bischoff then fired him . However , Michaels would be rehired by Steve Austin .
As a part of an ongoing feud with Triple H , the two competed alongside Chris Benoit in the main event match at WrestleMania XX for the World Heavyweight Championship . The former DX partners both came up short in the match , however , as Benoit won the championship . The night before this , Shawn Michaels inducted Tito Santana in the WWE Hall of Fame . At Bad Blood in June , Michaels lost to Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match . Four months later , he lost a World Heavyweight championship match against Triple H , after Edge interfered at Taboo Tuesday , when the fans voted for him ahead of Edge and Chris Benoit to face Triple H one more time . Following this , Michaels was out of action for a few months with a legit torn meniscus .
= = = = D @-@ Generation X reunion ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
At the Royal Rumble in 2005 , Michaels competed in the Rumble match and eliminated Kurt Angle . In seeking revenge , Angle re @-@ entered the ring and eliminated Michaels , and thus placed him in an ankle lock submission hold , outside the ring . Michaels issued a challenge to Angle for a match at WrestleMania 21 , which Angle accepted when he appeared on Raw to attack Michaels . The following week on Raw , Marty Jannetty and Michaels had a one time reunion as The Rockers and defeated La Résistance ( Robért Conway and Sylvain Grenier ) . Three days later on SmackDown ! , Angle defeated Jannetty , after Angle made Jannetty submit to the ankle lock . To send a " message " to Michaels , Angle also humiliated Michaels ' former manager , Sensational Sherri , when he applied the ankle lock hold on her . At WrestleMania 21 in April , Angle defeated Michaels by submission , again with an ankle lock . Two months later , at a WrestleMania 21 rematch , Michaels defeated Angle at the Vengeance pay @-@ per @-@ view event .
Following the events of WrestleMania 21 , the next night on Raw , Muhammad Hassan and Daivari came out to confront and assault Michaels . On the April 11 episode of Raw , Michaels approached authority figure Eric Bischoff , in which he demanded a handicap match with Hassan and Daivari , a match consisting of one wrestler or team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as two against one , or three against two . Bischoff refused to schedule the match , but informed Michaels to find a partner and he would grant him the match . Michaels then made a plea for Hulk Hogan to come back and team with him . On the April 18 episode of Raw , Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared to save Michaels and accept his offer . At Backlash , Hassan and Daivari lost to Hogan and Michaels when Daivari was pinned . On the July 4 episode of Raw , Michaels and Hulk Hogan had a tag team match , which they won . During the post @-@ match pose , Michaels hit Hogan with his superkick , knocking Hogan to the ground and making Michaels a villain for the first time since returning in 2002 . The following week on Raw , Michaels appeared on Piper 's Pit where he superkicked Roddy Piper and then challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam . Hogan defeated Michaels at SummerSlam , and after the match Michaels extended his hand to him , saying " I needed to know , and I found out " and he and Hogan shook hands . Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd , and Michaels once again became a fan favorite .
On the December 26 , 2005 , episode of Raw , Vince McMahon lauded Michaels for his part in the " Montreal Screwjob " . Michaels said he was only being loyal to his company , he had moved on , and McMahon should move on as well . McMahon then began setting unusual stipulations for Michaels ' matches and interfering on behalf of Michaels ' opponents . During the Royal Rumble , McMahon made his way to the ring , and as Michaels stared at McMahon , Shane McMahon made a surprising appearance , eliminating Michaels from the match . On the February 13 episode of Raw , McMahon tried unsuccessfully to force Michaels to sign retirement papers . The following week , Michaels won a handicap match against the Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky and Mikey ) and after the match , Michaels ' former partner , Marty Jannetty , came down to help Michaels from the assault by the Spirit Squad . After the two reunited , McMahon offered Jannetty a contract if he " kissed his ass . " The following week , Jannetty refused McMahon 's offer and instead took Chris Masters ' " Masterlock challenge . " Michaels tried to help Jannetty , which ultimately resulted in Shane attacking Michaels and forcing him to kiss his father 's behind . At Saturday Night 's Main Event , Shane defeated Michaels in a Street Fight , a match without disqualifications and where scoring conditions can occur anywhere , after he applied a sharpshooter on Michaels , which led to McMahon immediately ordering for the bell to be rung , even though Michaels did not submit , which was an allusion to the " Montreal Screwjob " . Despite interference from the Spirit Squad and Shane , Michaels defeated McMahon at WrestleMania 22 in a No Holds Barred match , a match where there are no disqualifications . At Backlash , The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) defeated Michaels and " God " in a tag team match , with help from the Spirit Squad in a no disqualification match . On the May 22 episode of Raw , the Squad was scripted to injure Michaels ' knee . This was angle was written so that Michaels could have surgery on his knee , which had been legitely injured for some time .
In 2006 , a series of events took place which suggested a reunion of Michaels and Triple H as DX . They began at WrestleMania 22 , where both Michaels and Triple H performed the crotch chop , during their matches . On Raw , the two continued to deliver chops , as Michaels feuded with Vince McMahon and Triple H went for the WWE Championship , repeatedly butting heads with Vince McMahon in the process . On the June 12 episode of Raw , DX officially reunited . During Triple H 's gauntlet match , which had him compete against the Spirit Squad . Michaels came in to help Triple H , and the two did the DX " crotch chops . " At Vengeance , DX defeated the Spirit Squad in a 5 – on – 2 handicap match . They also defeated the Spirit Squad at Saturday Night 's Main Event in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 elimination match and defeated The McMahons at SummerSlam . At Unforgiven , DX once again defeated the McMahons and ECW World Champion The Big Show in a Hell in a Cell match , finally ending the nine @-@ month long feud .
At Cyber Sunday , DX took on Rated @-@ RKO ( Edge and Randy Orton ) . The fan @-@ selected referee Eric Bischoff allowed the illegal use of a steel chair to give Rated @-@ RKO the ill @-@ gotten win and the plaudit of being the first tag team to defeat DX in a tag team match since their reformation in June 2006 . At Survivor Series , however , Team DX emerged victorious against Team Rated @-@ RKO in a clean sweep victory . At New Year 's Revolution , Triple H suffered a legit torn right quadriceps during their match with Rated @-@ RKO . Rated @-@ RKO claimed victory over DX , citing Triple H 's injury , as the " end " of DX . On January 15 , Michaels lived up to his word of " dealing " with Rated @-@ RKO , from his comments the previous week before , when he took out Randy Orton with a con @-@ chair @-@ to after a handicap match against Edge and Orton .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
On the January 29 episode of Raw , Michaels captured the World Tag Team Championship with WWE Champion John Cena after defeating Rated @-@ RKO . He then defeated both Edge and Orton in a Triple Threat number one contender 's match on another episode of Raw to earn a shot at the WWE Championship . At WrestleMania 23 , Cena retained the championship , after he made Michaels submit to the STFU . The next night on Raw , Michaels and Cena competed in two back @-@ to @-@ back ten team battle royals , winning the first and losing the titles in the second to The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) when Michaels threw Cena over the top rope . Michaels ' feud with Cena continued and he faced off with Cena , Edge and Randy Orton in a Fatal Four @-@ Way Match at Backlash for the WWE Championship . Cena retained the championship when Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music on Cena causing him to fall on Orton , which gained Cena the pinfall .
Michaels then entered a feud with Randy Orton when Orton claimed that he could beat Michaels . The week before their scheduled match at Judgment Day , after Michaels won a match against Edge , Orton interfered , punting Michaels in the head . Orton assaulted Michaels again , just prior to their match at Judgment Day , interrupting Michaels ' interview segment . Michaels collapsed during the course of their match , causing Orton to win by referee stoppage . Afterwards , Orton continued the beating , when he performed an RKO to a fallen Michaels . Michaels was then removed out of the ring in a stretcher . During the feud , Michaels conjured a storyline concussion . This injury was used to keep Michaels out of action , as he required surgery for his knee . Michaels made his return on the October 8 episode of Raw , performing a superkick to newly crowned WWE Champion , Randy Orton , during his title ceremony at the end of the show and then celebrating over the knocked @-@ out champion as Vince McMahon watched . At Cyber Sunday , Michaels was voted by the fans to face Orton for the WWE Championship ; though he won via disqualification when Orton hit Michaels with a low blow , which resulted in Orton retaining the championship . Michaels got another opportunity at the WWE Championship , when he was granted his rematch against Orton at Survivor Series . In their match , Michaels was banned from using Sweet Chin Music upon request by Orton , referring to as Michaels superkicking Orton week after week . Michaels lost the match , when Orton performed an RKO for the win .
As part of the storyline involving Ric Flair , Michaels faced Flair in a Career Threatening match at WrestleMania XXIV , in which he won by performing Sweet Chin Music and thus ending Flair 's career . Afterwards , Batista confronted Michaels about his actions at WrestleMania , calling him selfish and egotistical . The two faced off at Backlash with Chris Jericho as the guest referee . Michaels won after faking a knee injury and performing Sweet Chin Music . Jericho then confronted Michaels on this matter , in which Michaels admitted to faking the injury in order to defeat Batista . Michaels then defeated Jericho at Judgment Day . At One Night Stand , Michaels lost to Batista in a stretcher match , thus ending their feud . On the June 9 episode of Raw , Michaels was attacked by Chris Jericho during his talk show segment , The Highlight Reel , being thrown directly through a television screen . The following week , it was revealed that , within the context of the storyline , Michaels had suffered a detached retina . At The Great American Bash , a match between Michaels and Jericho was scheduled , in which Jericho assaulted Michaels ' eye , which caused Jericho to win by referee stoppage .
A month later at SummerSlam , Michaels announced his retirement from professional wrestling . That night , Jericho punched Michaels ' wife in the face . On the next Raw , Michaels renounced his retirement and challenged Jericho to an unsanctioned match at Unforgiven , which Jericho accepted . The next week , they had an in @-@ ring contract signing for the unsanctioned match . During this , they started to fight , causing a legit small triceps tear for Michaels . He was medically cleared to compete at Unforgiven , and beat Jericho so severely that the referee called the match . Later that night , Jericho replaced CM Punk in the World Heavyweight Championship scramble match , and won the title . The next month. at No Mercy , Michaels lost a championship ladder match to Jericho .
In December 2008 , Michaels , having lost his family 's savings due to the global recession , grudgingly accepted a one @-@ year general employment contract from John Bradshaw Layfield ( JBL ) . After failing to help JBL win the World Heavyweight Championship from John Cena at the Royal Rumble , and being derided for it , Michaels agreed to face JBL in " All or Nothing " match at No Way Out in February . Michaels won the match , letting him out of his contract early , while still receiving full payment .
On the March 2 Raw , Michaels became the first person to defeat Vladimir Kozlov , and so earned a match with The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV in April . The Undertaker defeated Michaels in a highly acclaimed match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 17 – 0 . After WrestleMania , Michaels took a hiatus from WWE .
= = = = Final matches and retirement ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
Michaels returned to WWE programming in a series of segments that aired on the August 10 , 2009 episode of Raw , where he had , in storyline , left the WWE . Triple H met with Michaels at an office cafeteria in Texas where he was working as a chef ; throughout the segments , Triple H would try to convince Michaels to return to WWE and reform DX . After several incidents during the segments , Michaels agreed to team with Triple H to face The Legacy ( Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase ) at SummerSlam . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , DX defeated Legacy . The two teams would exchange victories , with their feud concluding in October . Two months later , at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , DX defeated Chris Jericho and Big Show to win the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match ( TLC ) . On the January 4 , 2010 episode of Raw , Michaels buried the hatchet with long @-@ time rival Bret Hart , as they shook hands and hugged in the ring . In contrast to the storylines featured on the show , this was in fact a real @-@ life reconciliation which laid to rest animosities surrounding the Montreal Screwjob . While some cast doubts on its sincerity , both men have confirmed that it was indeed genuine . DX lost the Unified Tag Team Championship in a Triple Threat match to the team of The Miz and Big Show on the February 8 episode of Raw , the match also included The Straight Edge Society ( CM Punk and Luke Gallows ) . At the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view , Michaels cost The Undertaker the World Heavyweight Championship in the main event . At WrestleMania XXVI , Michaels lost to The Undertaker and , as a result , he was forced to retire due to the match stipulation , the same way HBK ended Ric Flair 's career . The following night , on the March 29 episode of Raw , Michaels gave an emotional farewell speech , departing with the familiar sentence , " Shawn Michaels has left the building . "
In an interview with Bill Simmons of ESPN.com shortly after his retirement , Michaels stated that his decision to retire came a month before WrestleMania XXV , when a backstage employee asked about his son Cameron , and , in response to Shawn telling the employee that he 'd just turned nine , the employee said that he was " halfway gone " ; meaning that he was halfway to his eighteenth birthday , and after that , he 'd be " gone . " According to Michaels , the statement affected him deeply ; he did not want be absent when his son left home , so he decided that year would be his last year as an active wrestler .
= = = = WWE ambassador ( 2010 – present ) = = = =
On the December 14 Raw , Michaels won the Slammy Award for Moment of the Year for his match against The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXVI . Michaels accepted the award via satellite . Three days later , he announced a long @-@ term deal with WWE , where he will serve in an ambassadorial role . He made his in @-@ person TV return at the December 11 Tribute to the Troops taping , where he and Triple H had a one @-@ night only DX reunion .
He appeared on the January 10 , 2011 Raw , where he was announced as a WWE Hall of Fame inductee . After being ridiculed by Alberto Del Rio later that night , Michaels hit him with Sweet Chin Music . On the March 28 Raw , Michaels addressed Triple H and The Undertaker about their match at WrestleMania XXVII . Michaels was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 2 by Triple H. They were also joined by fellow Kliq members Kevin Nash ( who had returned to WWE for the Royal Rumble ) and Sean Waltman . He returned on the June 27 Raw , where he was confronted by CM Punk , and superkicked David Otunga and Michael McGillicutty . Later that night , when Diamond Dallas Page 's special appearance was interrupted by Drew McIntyre , he superkicked McIntyre .
In June 2011 , Jim Ross , Michaels and Hart announced that the three were working on a DVD chronicling the careers of Hart and Michaels that the WWE was planning to release in October 2011 . The subject of the DVD would be their on @-@ screen rivalry and real @-@ life conflicts , with a particular focus on the Montreal screwjob . In his tweet , Hart described working on the DVD as a " cathartic " experience , and Ross asserted that both Hart and Michaels had been very honest and emotional in their interviews . The DVD , Shawn Michaels vs Bret Hart : WWE 's Greatest Rivalries , was released in November 2011 .
On February 13 , 2012 , he confronted Triple H about accepting The Undertaker 's challenge for a Hell in a Cell at Wrestlemania XXVIII , and announced he 'd be the special guest referee for it . August 6 was " Shawn Michaels Appreciation Night " . He appeared on Raw , where he was confronted by Brock Lesnar , then again after the broadcast for the Appreciation Night ceremonies .
On the January 24 NXT , he announced a tournament to crown the inaugural NXT Tag Team Champions . On the April 1 , 2013 Raw , Michaels returned to offer to corner Triple H in his match with Lesnar at WrestleMania 29 . During that match , Michaels superkicked an interfering Paul Heyman , helping Triple H win and keep his job . He returned on the May 27 Raw in a backstage segment with John Cena , and again on the SummerSlam pre @-@ show .
In October 2013 , Michaels won a fan poll to become special guest referee for the Hell in a Cell match between Daniel Bryan and Randy Orton for the vacant WWE Championship . There , he superkicked Bryan , allowing Orton to pick up the win . The next night on Raw , he explained that he was upset with Bryan for attacking Triple H during the match . He degraded Bryan for not showing him respect , turning heel for the first time since 2005 . Bryan put him in his " Yes ! " Lock finisher to end the segment . On December 9 , he presented Bryan with the award for Superstar of the Year . Later that night , Bryan hit Michaels with a running knee after Michaels had super @-@ kicked CM Punk .
On the August 25 , 2014 episode of Raw , Michaels returned along with fellow legends Hulk Hogan and Ric Flair in a legends panel segment , where he predicted Bray Wyatt to win the rumble . All three legends then became involved in an altercation with Big Show . Michaels would appear at WrestleMania 31 , interfering as a member of DX in the Sting vs. Triple H match , delivering Sweet Chin Music to Sting . At a WWE tour in Australia Michaels was confronted by Bo Dallas and was called a has @-@ been and got a Sweet Chin Music for his troubles turning face again in the process . Michaels appeared on the October 19 , 2015 episode of Raw , confronting Seth Rollins who was cutting a promo on relieving Kane of his duties as Director of Operations .
At WrestleMania 32 , Michaels made an appearance during the event in his in @-@ ring attire , confronting The League of Nations alongside Mick Foley and Stone Cold Steve Austin where Michaels delivered Sweet Chin Music to Alberto Del Rio and King Barrett before celebrating with Foley , Austin and The New Day .
= = Personal life = =
Hickenbottom 's first marriage , to Theresa Wood , soon ended in an amicably settled divorce . He married Rebecca Curci , a former WCW Nitro Girl known as Whisper , on March 31 , 1999 , at the Graceland Wedding Chapel in Las Vegas , Nevada . Only the couple and an Elvis impersonator were present . Their son , Cameron Kade , was born on January 15 , 2000 , and a daughter , Cheyenne , born on August 19 , 2004 followed . His cousin Matt Bentley is also a professional wrestler , having wrestled in TNA and WWE .
In 1996 , Hickenbottom posed for a non @-@ nude layout in Playgirl magazine . Only after he posed did he discover Playgirl has a mostly homosexual readership , for which some of his fellow wrestlers teased him .
He is ambidextrous , and had trouble differentiating between right and left , which affected his football games as a boy . He uses his right hand to draw and color and his left hand to write . He typically kicks with his right leg in Sweet Chin Music , but uses either arm for his signature elbow drop , depending on position .
Hickenbottom is a born @-@ again Christian . He was raised a Catholic , but became a non @-@ denominational Christian because of his wife . Following his conversion , his later ring attire often incorporated cross symbols and he often made a praying gesture on his knees during ring entrances . He was in the audience for a televised service of John Hagee 's Cornerstone Church in his hometown , San Antonio , where he is also a Bible teacher . In 2008 , he appeared on a Trinity Broadcasting Network program with fellow professional wrestler Sting .
= = Other media = =
= = = Shawn Michaels ' MacMillan River Adventures = = =
Shawn Michaels is the host of the outdoor television show , ' Shawn Michaels ' MacMillan River Adventures ' . Michaels joins his hunting partner and longtime friend , Keith Mark , owner and operator of the original MacMillan River Adventures camp in Yukon , Canada , as they hunt big @-@ game animals around the world . This series airs on CarbonTV .
= = = HBK Line = = =
During their 2015 @-@ 16 season , the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League named a line , consisting of Carl Hagelin , Nick Bonino and Phil Kessel , the " HBK Line " due to the fact that the trio 's first initials , of their last names , are the same as the moniker used by Shawn “ The Heartbreak Kid ” Michaels .
After weeks of having fun with Penguins fans on Twitter , the team officially invited Michaels for their Eastern Conference Finals Game 5 matchup with the Tampa Bay Lightning ( which consists of several wrestlers in its fanbase , including Hulk Hogan and Titus O 'Neil ) at Consol Energy Center , upon which Michaels accepted . Michaels meet with Penguins ' owner Mario Lemieux and sat with former Pittsburgh Steelers ' defensive lineman Brett Keisel during the game . Keisel also gave Michaels a tour of the city including at the Steelers headquarters and having lunch at Primanti Brothers in the city 's Strip District . The Penguins lost the game in overtime 4 @-@ 3 , but would go on to defeat the Lightning in the series and advance to the Stanley Cup Finals , eventually defeating the San Jose Sharks for the Stanley Cup .
Outside of his numerous appearances with WWE , it would not be Michaels first visit to Pittsburgh . In 2013 he appeared at the opening of the first Field & Stream store in suburban Cranberry Township .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Sweet Chin Music ( Superkick , with theatrics )
Modified figure @-@ four leglock – was used rarely after 2008
Teardrop Suplex ( Leg @-@ hook Saito suplex ) – 1992 – 1993
Signature moves
Arm trap crossface – 2007 – 2010
Backhand chop
Belly to back suplex
Diving double axe handle
Diving elbow drop , with theatrics
Dropkick
Figure @-@ four leglock
Flying forearm smash followed by a kip @-@ up
Inverted atomic drop
Moonsault , sometimes while springboarding to the outside
Skin the cat
Slingshot crossbody
Managers
Chyna
Diesel
José Lothario
Luna Vachon
Rick Rude
Sensational Sherri
Sycho Sid
Nicknames
" Mr. WrestleMania "
" Mr. Hall of Fame "
" Mr. Main Eventer "
" Sexy Boy "
" The Best of the Best "
" The Headliner "
" The Heartbreak Kid ( HBK ) "
" The Icon " " The Main Event "
" The Most Honored Champion In WWE History "
" The Showstopper "
Entrance themes
" Sexy Boy " by Jimmy Hart and J.J. Maguire feat . Sensational Sherri ( February 15 , 1992 – January 30 , 1993 )
" Sexy Boy " by Jimmy Hart and J.J. Maguire feat . Shawn Michaels ( February 13 , 1993 – present )
" Break it Down " by The DX Band ( used while a member of D @-@ Generation X )
" Sexy Boy " ( " Pulse Enigma " Intro ) by Jim Johnston , Jimmy Hart and J.J. Maguire feat . Shawn Michaels ( used at WrestleMania XXV )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
American Wrestling Association
AWA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Marty Jannetty
Central States Wrestling
NWA Central States Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Marty Jannetty
Continental Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Marty Jannetty
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Chris Jericho
Feud of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) vs. Chris Jericho
Match of the Year ( 1993 ) vs. Marty Jannetty on Monday Night Raw on May 17
Match of the Year ( 1994 ) vs. Razor Ramon in a Ladder match at WrestleMania X
Match of the Year ( 1995 ) vs. Diesel at WrestleMania XI
Match of the Year ( 1996 ) vs. Bret Hart in an Iron Man match at WrestleMania XII
Match of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Triple H at WrestleMania XX
Match of the Year ( 2005 ) vs. Kurt Angle at WrestleMania 21
Match of the Year ( 2006 ) vs. Vince McMahon in a No Holds Barred match at WrestleMania 22
Match of the Year ( 2007 ) vs. John Cena on Raw on April 23
Match of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Ric Flair at WrestleMania XXIV
Match of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV
Match of the Year ( 2010 ) vs. The Undertaker in a Career vs. Streak match at WrestleMania XXVI
Match of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) vs. Ric Flair at WrestleMania XXIV
Most Inspirational Wrestler of the Year ( 2010 )
Most Inspirational Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 1995 , 1996 )
Ranked # 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1996
Ranked # 10 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
Ranked # 33 and # 55 of the top 100 tag teams of the " PWI Years " with Marty Jannetty and Diesel , respectively , in 2003
Texas All @-@ Star Wrestling
TASW Texas Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Paul Diamond
Texas Wrestling Alliance
TWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Triple H
WWF Championship ( 3 times )
WWF European Championship ( 1 time )
WWF Intercontinental Championship ( 3 times )
WWF / World Tag Team Championship ( 5 times ) – with Diesel ( 2 ) , Stone Cold Steve Austin ( 1 ) , John Cena ( 1 ) , and Triple H ( 1 )
Royal Rumble ( 1995 , 1996 )
First Grand Slam Champion
Fourth Triple Crown Champion
Slammy Awards ( 15 times )
Best Finisher ( 1997 )
Best Slammin ' Jammin ' Entrance ( 1996 )
Best Tag Team ( 1994 ) – with Diesel
Best Threads ( 1996 )
Double @-@ Cross of the Year ( 2013 ) – For turning on Daniel Bryan and costing him the WWE Championship at Hell in a Cell .
Leader of the New Generation ( 1996 )
Master of Mat Mechanics ( 1996 )
Match of the Year ( 1994 , 1996 , 1997 , 2008 , 2009 ) – vs. Razor Ramon in a ladder match at WrestleMania X , vs. Razor Ramon in a Ladder match at SummerSlam , vs Bret Hart at WrestleMania XII , vs Ric Flair at WrestleMania XXIII , vs The Undertalker at WrestleMania XXV
Moment of the Year ( 2010 ) – vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXVI
Squared Circle Shocker ( 1996 ) – Won for collapsing ; Owen Hart accepts the award for making Michaels collapse
Worst Tag Team ( 1994 ) – with Diesel
WWE Hall of Fame ( Class of 2011 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
5 Star Match ( 1994 ) vs. Razor Ramon in a ladder match at WrestleMania X
5 Star Match ( 1997 ) vs. The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell at Badd Blood
Best Babyface ( 1996 )
Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Triple H
Feud of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Chris Jericho
Match of the Year ( 1994 ) vs. Razor Ramon in a ladder match at WrestleMania X
Match of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Chris Jericho in a ladder match at No Mercy
Match of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV
Match of the Year ( 2010 ) vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXVI
Most Charismatic ( 1995 , 1996 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 1989 ) with Marty Jannetty as The Rockers
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2006 ) with Triple H vs. Shane and Vince McMahon
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2003 )
= = = Carrera contra carrera record = = =
|
= Zinc oxide =
Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO . ZnO is a white powder that is insoluble in water , and it is widely used as an additive in numerous materials and products including rubbers , plastics , ceramics , glass , cement , lubricants , paints , ointments , adhesives , sealants , pigments , foods , batteries , ferrites , fire retardants , and first @-@ aid tapes . Although it occurs naturally as the mineral zincite , most zinc oxide is produced synthetically .
ZnO is a wide @-@ bandgap semiconductor of the II @-@ VI semiconductor group . The native doping of the semiconductor due to oxygen vacancies or zinc interstitials is n @-@ type . This semiconductor has several favorable properties , including good transparency , high electron mobility , wide bandgap , and strong room @-@ temperature luminescence . Those properties are valuable in emerging applications for : transparent electrodes in liquid crystal displays , energy @-@ saving or heat @-@ protecting windows , and electronics as thin @-@ film transistors and light @-@ emitting diodes .
= = Chemical properties = =
Pure ZnO is a white powder , but in nature it occurs as the rare mineral zincite , which usually contains manganese and other impurities that confer a yellow to red color .
Crystalline zinc oxide is thermochromic , changing from white to yellow when heated in air and reverting to white on cooling . This color change is caused by a small loss of oxygen to the environment at high temperatures to form the non @-@ stoichiometric Zn1 + xO , where at 800 ° C , x = 0 @.@ 00007 .
Zinc oxide is an amphoteric oxide . It is nearly insoluble in water , but it is soluble in ( degraded by ) most acids , such as hydrochloric acid :
ZnO + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2O
Bases also degrade the solid to give soluble zincates :
ZnO + 2 NaOH + H2O → Na2 [ Zn ( OH ) 4 ]
ZnO reacts slowly with fatty acids in oils to produce the corresponding carboxylates , such as oleate or stearate . ZnO forms cement @-@ like products when mixed with a strong aqueous solution of zinc chloride and these are best described as zinc hydroxy chlorides . This cement was used in dentistry .
ZnO also forms cement @-@ like material when treated with phosphoric acid ; related materials are used in dentistry . A major component of zinc phosphate cement produced by this reaction is hopeite , Zn3 ( PO4 ) 2 · 4H2O .
ZnO decomposes into zinc vapor and oxygen at around 1975 ° C with a standard oxygen pressure . In a carbothermic reaction , heating with carbon converts the oxide into zinc vapor at a much lower temperature ( around 950 ° C ) .
ZnO + C → Zn ( Vapor ) + CO
Zinc oxide can react violently with aluminium and magnesium powders , with chlorinated rubber and linseed oil on heating causing fire and explosion hazard .
It reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give zinc sulfide . This reaction is used commercially .
ZnO + H2S → ZnS + H2O
= = Physical properties = =
= = = Structure = = =
Zinc oxide crystallizes in two main forms , hexagonal wurtzite and cubic zincblende . The wurtzite structure is most stable at ambient conditions and thus most common . The zincblende form can be stabilized by growing ZnO on substrates with cubic lattice structure . In both cases , the zinc and oxide centers are tetrahedral , the most characteristic geometry for Zn ( II ) . ZnO converts to the rocksalt motif at relatively high pressures about 10 GPa .
Hexagonal and zincblende polymorphs have no inversion symmetry ( reflection of a crystal relative to any given point does not transform it into itself ) . This and other lattice symmetry properties result in piezoelectricity of the hexagonal and zincblende ZnO , and pyroelectricity of hexagonal ZnO .
The hexagonal structure has a point group 6 mm ( Hermann @-@ Mauguin notation ) or C6v ( Schoenflies notation ) , and the space group is P63mc or C6v4 . The lattice constants are a |
= 3 @.@ 25 Å and c =
5 @.@ 2 Å ; their ratio c / a ~ 1 @.@ 60 is close to the ideal value for hexagonal cell c / a = 1 @.@ 633 . As in most group II @-@ VI materials , the bonding in ZnO is largely ionic ( Zn2 + – O2 − ) with the corresponding radii of 0 @.@ 074 nm for Zn2 + and 0 @.@ 140 nm for O2 − . This property accounts for the preferential formation of wurtzite rather than zinc blende structure , as well as the strong piezoelectricity of ZnO . Because of the polar Zn @-@ O bonds , zinc and oxygen planes are electrically charged . To maintain electrical neutrality , those planes reconstruct at atomic level in most relative materials , but not in ZnO – its surfaces are atomically flat , stable and exhibit no reconstruction . This anomaly of ZnO is not fully explained .
= = = Mechanical properties = = =
ZnO is a relatively soft material with approximate hardness of 4 @.@ 5 on the Mohs scale . Its elastic constants are smaller than those of relevant III @-@ V semiconductors , such as GaN . The high heat capacity and heat conductivity , low thermal expansion and high melting temperature of ZnO are beneficial for ceramics . ZnO exhibits a very long lived optical phonon E2 ( low ) with a lifetime as high as 133 ps at 10 K.
Among the tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors , it has been stated that ZnO has the highest piezoelectric tensor , or at least one comparable to that of GaN and AlN . This property makes it a technologically important material for many piezoelectrical applications , which require a large electromechanical coupling .
= = = Electrical properties = = =
ZnO has a relatively large direct band gap of ~ 3 @.@ 3 eV at room temperature . Advantages associated with a large band gap include higher breakdown voltages , ability to sustain large electric fields , lower electronic noise , and high @-@ temperature and high @-@ power operation . The bandgap of ZnO can further be tuned to ~ 3 – 4 eV by its alloying with magnesium oxide or cadmium oxide .
Most ZnO has n @-@ type character , even in the absence of intentional doping . Nonstoichiometry is typically the origin of n @-@ type character , but the subject remains controversial . An alternative explanation has been proposed , based on theoretical calculations , that unintentional substitutional hydrogen impurities are responsible . Controllable n @-@ type doping is easily achieved by substituting Zn with group @-@ III elements such as Al , Ga , In or by substituting oxygen with group @-@ VII elements chlorine or iodine .
Reliable p @-@ type doping of ZnO remains difficult . This problem originates from low solubility of p @-@ type dopants and their compensation by abundant n @-@ type impurities . This problem is observed with GaN and ZnSe . Measurement of p @-@ type in " intrinsically " n @-@ type material is complicated by the inhomogeneity of samples .
Current limitations to p @-@ doping limit electronic and optoelectronic applications of ZnO , which usually require junctions of n @-@ type and p @-@ type material . Known p @-@ type dopants include group @-@ I elements Li , Na , K ; group @-@ V elements N , P and As ; as well as copper and silver . However , many of these form deep acceptors and do not produce significant p @-@ type conduction at room temperature .
Electron mobility of ZnO strongly varies with temperature and has a maximum of ~ 2000 cm2 / ( V · s ) at 80 K. Data on hole mobility are scarce with values in the range 5 – 30 cm2 / ( V · s ) .
= = Production = =
For industrial use , ZnO is produced at levels of 105 tons per year by three main processes :
= = = Indirect process = = =
In the indirect or French process , metallic zinc is melted in a graphite crucible and vaporized at temperatures above 907 ° C ( typically around 1000 ° C ) . Zinc vapor reacts with the oxygen in the air to give ZnO , accompanied by a drop in its temperature and bright luminescence . Zinc oxide particles are transported into a cooling duct and collected in a bag house . This indirect method was popularized by LeClaire ( France ) in 1844 and therefore is commonly known as the French process . Its product normally consists of agglomerated zinc oxide particles with an average size of 0 @.@ 1 to a few micrometers . By weight , most of the world 's zinc oxide is manufactured via French process .
= = = Direct process = = =
The direct or American process starts with diverse contaminated zinc composites , such as zinc ores or smelter by @-@ products . The zinc precursors are reduced ( carbothermal reduction ) by heating with a source of carbon such as anthracite to produce zinc vapor , which is then oxidized as in the indirect process . Because of the lower purity of the source material , the final product is also of lower quality in the direct process as compared to the indirect one .
= = = Wet chemical process = = =
A small amount of industrial production involves wet chemical processes , which start with aqueous solutions of zinc salts , from which zinc carbonate or zinc hydroxide is precipitated . The solid precipitate is then calcined at temperatures around 800 ° C.
= = = Laboratory synthesis = = =
Numerous specialised methods exist for producing ZnO for scientific studies and niche applications . These methods can be classified by the resulting ZnO form ( bulk , thin film , nanowire ) , temperature ( " low " , that is close to room temperature or " high " , that is T ~ 1000 ° C ) , process type ( vapor deposition or growth from solution ) and other parameters .
Large single crystals ( many cubic centimeters ) can be grown by the gas transport ( vapor @-@ phase deposition ) , hydrothermal synthesis , or melt growth . However , because of high vapor pressure of ZnO , growth from the melt is problematic . Growth by gas transport is difficult to control , leaving the hydrothermal method as a preference . Thin films can be produced by chemical vapor deposition , metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy , electrodeposition , pulsed laser deposition , sputtering , sol @-@ gel synthesis , atomic layer deposition , spray pyrolysis , etc .
Ordinary white powdered zinc oxide can be produced in the laboratory by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate with a zinc anode . Zinc hydroxide and hydrogen gas are produced . The zinc hydroxide upon heating decomposes to zinc oxide .
Zn + 2 H2O → Zn ( OH ) 2 + H2
Zn ( OH ) 2 → ZnO + H2O
= = = ZnO nanostructures = = =
Nanostructures of ZnO can be synthesized into a variety of morphologies including nanowires , nanorods , tetrapods , nanobelts , nanoflowers , nanoparticles etc . Nanostructures can be obtained with most above @-@ mentioned techniques , at certain conditions , and also with the vapor @-@ liquid @-@ solid method . The synthesis is typically carried out at temperatures of about 90 ° C , in an equimolar aqueous solution of zinc nitrate and hexamine , the latter providing the basic environment . Certain additives , such as polyethylene glycol or polyethylenimine , can improve the aspect ratio of the ZnO nanowires . Doping of the ZnO nanowires has been achieved by adding other metal nitrates to the growth solution . The morphology of the resulting nanostructures can be tuned by changing the parameters relating to the precursor composition ( such as the zinc concentration and pH ) or to the thermal treatment ( such as the temperature and heating rate ) .
Aligned ZnO nanowires on pre @-@ seeded silicon , glass , and gallium nitride substrates have been grown using aqueous zinc salts such as zinc nitrate and zinc acetate in basic environments . Pre @-@ seeding substrates with ZnO creates sites for homogeneous nucleation of ZnO crystal during the synthesis . Common pre @-@ seeding methods include in @-@ situ thermal decomposition of zinc acetate crystallites , spincoating of ZnO nanoparticles and the use of physical vapor deposition methods to deposit ZnO thin films . Pre @-@ seeding can be performed in conjunction with top down patterning methods such as electron beam lithography and nanosphere lithography to designate nucleation sites prior to growth . Aligned ZnO nanowires can be used in dye @-@ sensitized solar cells and field emission devices .
= = History = =
Zinc compounds were probably used by early humans , in processed and unprocessed forms , as a paint or medicinal ointment , but their composition is uncertain . The use of pushpanjan , probably zinc oxide , as a salve for eyes and open wounds , is mentioned in the Indian medical text the Charaka Samhita , thought to date from 500 BC or before . Zinc oxide ointment is also mentioned by the Greek physician Dioscorides ( 1st century AD . ) Avicenna mentions zinc oxide in The Canon of Medicine ( 1025 AD ) , which mentioned it as a preferred treatment for a variety of skin conditions , including skin cancer . Though it is no longer used for treating skin cancer , it is still widely used to treat a variety of other skin conditions , in products such as baby powder and creams against diaper rashes , calamine cream , anti @-@ dandruff shampoos , and antiseptic ointments .
The Romans produced considerable quantities of brass ( an alloy of zinc and copper ) as early as 200 BC by a cementation process where copper was reacted with zinc oxide . The zinc oxide is thought to have been produced by heating zinc ore in a shaft furnace . This liberated metallic zinc as a vapor , which then ascended the flue and condensed as the oxide . This process was described by Dioscorides in the 1st century AD . Zinc oxide has also been recovered from zinc mines at Zawar in India , dating from the second half of the first millennium BC . This was presumably also made in the same way and used to produce brass .
From the 12th to the 16th century zinc and zinc oxide were recognized and produced in India using a primitive form of the direct synthesis process . From India , zinc manufacture moved to China in the 17th century . In 1743 , the first European zinc smelter was established in Bristol , United Kingdom .
The main usage of zinc oxide ( zinc white ) was in paints and as an additive to ointments . Zinc white was accepted as a pigment in oil paintings by 1834 but it did not mix well with oil . This problem was solved by optimizing the synthesis of ZnO . In 1845 , LeClaire in Paris was producing the oil paint on a large scale , and by 1850 , zinc white was being manufactured throughout Europe . The success of zinc white paint was due to its advantages over the traditional white lead : zinc white is essentially permanent in sunlight , it is not blackened by sulfur @-@ bearing air , it is non @-@ toxic and more economical . Because zinc white is so " clean " it is valuable for making tints with other colors , but it makes a rather brittle dry film when unmixed with other colors . For example , during the late 1890s and early 1900s , some artists used zinc white as a ground for their oil paintings . All those paintings developed cracks over the years .
In recent times , most zinc oxide was used in the rubber industry to resist corrosion . In the 1970s , the second largest application of ZnO was photocopying . High @-@ quality ZnO produced by the " French process " was added to photocopying paper as a filler . This application was soon displaced by titanium .
= = Applications = =
The applications of zinc oxide powder are numerous , and the principal ones are summarized below . Most applications exploit the reactivity of the oxide as a precursor to other zinc compounds . For material science applications , zinc oxide has high refractive index , high thermal conductivity , binding , antibacterial and UV @-@ protection properties . Consequently , it is added into materials and products including plastics , ceramics , glass , cement , rubber , lubricants , paints , ointments , adhesive , sealants , concrete manufacturing , pigments , foods , batteries , ferrites , fire retardants , etc .
= = = Rubber manufacture = = =
Between 50 % and 60 % of ZnO use is in the rubber industry . Zinc oxide along with stearic acid is used in the vulcanization of rubber ZnO additive also protect rubber from fungi ( see medical applications ) and UV light .
= = = Ceramic industry = = =
Ceramic industry consumes a significant amount of zinc oxide , in particular in ceramic glaze and frit compositions . The relatively high heat capacity , thermal conductivity and high temperature stability of ZnO coupled with a comparatively low coefficient of expansion are desirable properties in the production of ceramics . ZnO affects the melting point and optical properties of the glazes , enamels , and ceramic formulations . Zinc oxide as a low expansion , secondary flux improves the elasticity of glazes by reducing the change in viscosity as a function of temperature and helps prevent crazing and shivering . By substituting ZnO for BaO and PbO , the heat capacity is decreased and the thermal conductivity is increased . Zinc in small amounts improves the development of glossy and brilliant surfaces . However , in moderate to high amounts , it produces matte and crystalline surfaces . With regard to color , zinc has a complicated influence .
= = = Medicine = = =
Zinc oxide as a mixture with about 0 @.@ 5 % iron ( III ) oxide ( Fe2O3 ) is called calamine and is used in calamine lotion . Two minerals , zincite and hemimorphite , have been historically called calamine . When mixed with eugenol , a ligand , zinc oxide eugenol is formed , which has applications as a restorative and prosthodontic in dentistry .
Reflecting the basic properties of ZnO , fine particles of the oxide have deodorizing and antibacterial properties and for that reason are added into materials including cotton fabric , rubber , oral care products , and food packaging . Enhanced antibacterial action of fine particles compared to bulk material is not exclusive to ZnO and is observed for other materials , such as silver . This property results from the increased surface area of the fine particles .
Zinc oxide is widely used to treat a variety of other skin conditions , in products such as baby powder and barrier creams to treat diaper rashes , calamine cream , anti @-@ dandruff shampoos , and antiseptic ointments . It is also a component in tape ( called " zinc oxide tape " ) used by athletes as a bandage to prevent soft tissue damage during workouts .
Zinc oxide can be used in ointments , creams , and lotions to protect against sunburn and other damage to the skin caused by ultraviolet light ( see sunscreen ) . It is the broadest spectrum UVA and UVB reflector that is approved for use as a sunscreen by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , and is completely photostable . When used as an ingredient in sunscreen , zinc oxide blocks both UVA ( 320 – 400 nm ) and UVB ( 280 – 320 nm ) rays of ultraviolet light . Zinc oxide and the other most common physical sunscreen , titanium dioxide , are considered to be nonirritating , nonallergenic , and non @-@ comedogenic . Zinc from zinc oxide is , however , slightly absorbed into the skin
Many sunscreens use nanoparticles of zinc oxide ( along with nanoparticles of titanium dioxide ) because such small particles do not scatter light and therefore do not appear white . There has been concern that they might be absorbed into the skin . A study published in 2010 found a 0 @.@ 23 % to 1 @.@ 31 % ( mean 0 @.@ 42 % ) of blood zinc levels in venous blood samples could be traced to zinc from ZnO nanoparticles applied to human skin for 5 days , and traces were also found in urine samples . In contrast , a comprehensive review of the medical literature from 2011 says that no evidence of systemic absorption can be found in the literature .
Zinc oxide nanoparticles can enhance the antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin . It has been shown that nano ZnO which has the average size between 20 nm and 45 nm can enhance the antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in vitro . The enhancing effect of this nanomaterial is concentration dependent against all test strains . This effect may be due to two reasons . First , zinc oxide nanoparticles can interfere with NorA protein , which is developed for conferring resistance in bacteria and has pumping activity that mediate the effluxing of hydrophilic fluoroquinolones from a cell . Second , zinc oxide nanoparticles can interfere with Omf protein , which is responsible for the permeation of quinolones into the cell .
= = = Cigarette filters = = =
Zinc oxide is a constituent of cigarette filters . A filter consisting of charcoal impregnated with zinc oxide and iron oxide removes significant amounts of hydrogen cyanide ( HCN ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) from tobacco smoke without affecting its flavor .
= = = Food additive = = =
Zinc oxide is added to many food products , including breakfast cereals , as a source of zinc , a necessary nutrient . ( Zinc sulfate is also used for the same purpose . ) Some prepackaged foods also include trace amounts of ZnO even if it is not intended as a nutrient .
Zinc oxide was linked to dioxin contamination in pork exports in the 2008 Chilean pork crisis . The contamination was found to be due to dioxin contaminated zinc oxide used in pig feed .
= = = Pigment = = =
Zinc white is used as a pigment in paints and is more opaque than lithopone , but less opaque than titanium dioxide . It is also used in coatings for paper . Chinese white is a special grade of zinc white used in artists ' pigments . The use of zinc white ( zinc oxide ) as a pigment in oil painting started in the middle of 18th century . It has partly replaced the poisonous lead white and was used by painters such as Böcklin , Van Gogh , Manet , Munch and others . It is also a main ingredient of mineral makeup ( CI 77947 ) .
= = = UV absorber = = =
Micronized and nano @-@ scale zinc oxide and titanium dioxide provide strong protection against UVA ultraviolet radiation , and are used in suntan lotion , and also in UV @-@ blocking sunglasses for use in space and for protection when welding , following research by scientists at Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) .
= = = Coatings = = =
Paints containing zinc oxide powder have long been utilized as anticorrosive coatings for metals . They are especially effective for galvanized iron . Iron is difficult to protect because its reactivity with organic coatings leads to brittleness and lack of adhesion . Zinc oxide paints retain their flexibility and adherence on such surfaces for many years .
ZnO highly n @-@ type doped with Al , Ga , or In is transparent and conductive ( transparency ~ 90 % , lowest resistivity ~ 10 − 4 Ω · cm ) . ZnO : Al coatings are used for energy @-@ saving or heat @-@ protecting windows . The coating lets the visible part of the spectrum in but either reflects the infrared ( IR ) radiation back into the room ( energy saving ) or does not let the IR radiation into the room ( heat protection ) , depending on which side of the window has the coating .
Plastics , such as polyethylene naphthalate ( PEN ) , can be protected by applying zinc oxide coating . The coating reduces the diffusion of oxygen with PEN . Zinc oxide layers can also be used on polycarbonate ( PC ) in outdoor applications . The coating protects PC from solar radiation and decreases the oxidation rate and photo @-@ yellowing of PC .
= = = Corrosion prevention in nuclear reactors = = =
Zinc oxide depleted in 64Zn ( the zinc isotope with atomic mass 64 ) is used in corrosion prevention in nuclear pressurized water reactors . The depletion is necessary , because 64Zn is transformed into radioactive 65Zn under irradiation by the reactor neutrons .
= = = Methane reforming = = =
Zinc oxide ( ZnO ) is used as a pretreatment step to remove hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) from natural gas following hydrogenation of any sulfur compounds prior to a methane reformer , which can poison the catalyst . At temperatures between about 230 – 430 ° C ( 446 – 806 ° F ) , H2S is converted to water by the following reaction :
H2S + ZnO → H2O + ZnS
The zinc sulfide ( ZnS ) is replaced with fresh zinc oxide when the zinc oxide has been consumed .
= = Potential applications = =
= = = Electronics = = =
ZnO has wide direct band gap ( 3 @.@ 37 eV or 375 nm at room temperature ) . Therefore , its most common potential applications are in laser diodes and light emitting diodes ( LEDs ) . Some optoelectronic applications of ZnO overlap with that of GaN , which has a similar bandgap ( ~ 3 @.@ 4 eV at room temperature ) . Compared to GaN , ZnO has a larger exciton binding energy ( ~ 60 meV , 2 @.@ 4 times of the room @-@ temperature thermal energy ) , which results in bright room @-@ temperature emission from ZnO . ZnO can be combined with GaN for LED @-@ applications . For instance as transparent conducting oxide layer and ZnO nanostructures provide better light outcoupling . Other properties of ZnO favorable for electronic applications include its stability to high @-@ energy radiation and to wet chemical etching . Radiation resistance makes ZnO a suitable candidate for space applications . ZnO is the most promising candidate in the field of random lasers to produce an electronically pumped UV laser source .
The pointed tips of ZnO nanorods result in a strong enhancement of an electric field . Therefore , they can be used as field emitters .
Aluminium @-@ doped ZnO layers are used as a transparent electrodes . The constituents Zn and Al are much cheaper and less toxic compared to the generally used indium tin oxide ( ITO ) . One application which has begun to be commercially available is the use of ZnO as the front contact for solar cells or of liquid crystal displays .
Transparent thin @-@ film transistors ( TTFT ) can be produced with ZnO . As field @-@ effect transistors , they even may not need a p – n junction , thus avoiding the p @-@ type doping problem of ZnO . Some of the field @-@ effect transistors even use ZnO nanorods as conducting channels .
= = = Zinc oxide nanorod sensor = = =
Zinc oxide nanorod sensors are devices detecting changes in electric current passing through zinc oxide nanowires due to adsorption of gas molecules . Selectivity to hydrogen gas was achieved by sputtering Pd clusters on the nanorod surface . The addition of Pd appears to be effective in the catalytic dissociation of hydrogen molecules into atomic hydrogen , increasing the sensitivity of the sensor device . The sensor detects hydrogen concentrations down to 10 parts per million at room temperature , whereas there is no response to oxygen .
= = = Spintronics = = =
ZnO has also been considered for spintronics applications : if doped with 1 – 10 % of magnetic ions ( Mn , Fe , Co , V , etc . ) , ZnO could become ferromagnetic , even at room temperature . Such room temperature ferromagnetism in ZnO : Mn has been observed , but it is not clear yet whether it originates from the matrix itself or from secondary oxide phases .
= = = Piezoelectricity = = =
The piezoelectricity in textile fibers coated in ZnO have been shown capable of fabricating " self @-@ powered nanosystems " with everyday mechanical stress from wind or body movements .
In 2008 the Center for Nanostructure Characterization at the Georgia Institute of Technology reported producing an electricity generating device ( called flexible charge pump generator ) delivering alternating current by stretching and releasing zinc oxide nanowires . This mini @-@ generator creates an oscillating voltage up to 45 millivolts , converting close to seven percent of the applied mechanical energy into electricity . Researchers used wires with lengths of 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 mm and diameters of three to five micrometers , but the device could be scaled down to smaller size .
= = Safety = =
As a food additive , zinc oxide is on the U.S. FDA 's list of generally recognized as safe , or GRAS , substances .
Zinc oxide itself is non @-@ toxic ; however it is hazardous to inhale zinc oxide fumes , as generated when zinc or zinc alloys are melted and oxidized at high temperature . This problem occurs while melting brass because the melting point of brass is close to the boiling point of zinc . Exposure to zinc oxide in the air , which also occurs while welding galvanized ( zinc plated ) steel , can result in a nervous malady called metal fume fever . For this reason , typically galvanized steel is not welded , or the zinc is removed first .
= = Reviews = =
U. Ozgur et al . " A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices " ( 103 pages ) J. Appl . Phys . 98 ( 2005 ) 041301 doi : 10 @.@ 1063 / 1 @.@ 1992666
A. Bakin and A. Waag " ZnO Epitaxial Growth " ( 28 pages ) Chapter in “ Comprehensive Semiconductor Science and Technology “ 6 Volume Encyclopaedia , ELSEVIER , edited by Pallab Bhattacharya , Roberto Fornari and Hiroshi Kamimura , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 444 @-@ 53143 @-@ 8
S. Baruah and J. Dutta " Hydrothermal growth of ZnO nanostructures " ( 18 pages ) Sci . Technol . Adv. Mater . 10 ( 2009 ) 013001 doi : 10 @.@ 1088 / 1468 @-@ 6996 / 10 / 1 / 013001 ( free download )
R. Janisch et al . " Transition metal @-@ doped TiO2 and ZnO — present status of the field " ( 32 pages ) J. Phys . : Condens . Matter 17 ( 2005 ) R657 doi : 10 @.@ 1088 / 0953 @-@ 8984 / 17 / 27 / R01
Y.W. Heo et al . " ZnO nanowire growth and devices " ( 47 pages ) Mater . Sci . Eng . R 47 ( 2004 ) 1 doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.mser.2004.09.001
C. Klingshirn " ZnO : From basics towards applications " ( 46 pages ) Phys . Stat . Solidi ( b ) 244 ( 2007 ) 3027 doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / pssb.200743072
C. Klingshirn " ZnO : Material , Physics and Applications " ( 21 pages ) ChemPhysChem 8 ( 2007 ) 782 doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / cphc.200700002
J. G. Lu et al . " Quasi @-@ one @-@ dimensional metal oxide materials — Synthesis , properties and applications " ( 42 pages ) Mater . Sci . Eng . R 52 ( 2006 ) 49 doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.mser.2006.04.002
S. Xu and Z. L. Wang " One @-@ dimensional ZnO nanostructures : Solution growth and functional properties " ( 86 pages ) Nano Res. 4 ( 2011 ) 1013 doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s12274 @-@ 011 @-@ 0160 @-@ 7
S. Xu and Z. L. Wang " Oxide nanowire arrays for light @-@ emitting diodes and piezoelectric energy harvesters " ( 28 pages ) Pure Appl . Chem . 83 ( 2011 ) 2171 doi : 10 @.@ 1351 / PAC @-@ CON @-@ 11 @-@ 08 @-@ 17
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= Methoxyflurane =
Methoxyflurane ( INN ) , formerly marketed as Penthrane by Abbott Laboratories , is a halogenated ether that was in clinical use as a volatile inhalational anesthetic from its introduction by Joseph F. Artusio et al in 1960 until the late 1970s . It was first synthesized in the late 1940s by William T. Miller and his team of chemists following their involvement in the Manhattan Project .
Methoxyflurane is an extremely potent and highly lipid @-@ soluble anesthetic agent , characterized by very slow induction ( onset of action ) and emergence ( offset or dissipation ) times . It is non @-@ flammable , has relatively mild hemodynamic effects , and it does not predispose the heart to rhythm disturbances . It is , however , a significant respiratory depressant . Methoxyflurane has powerful analgesic ( pain @-@ relieving ) properties at well below full anesthetic doses . It was utilized in self @-@ administration devices for obstetric analgesia , in a manner that foreshadowed the patient @-@ controlled analgesia infusion pumps of today .
The biodegradation of methoxyflurane produces inorganic fluoride and dichloroacetic acid ( DCAA ) . The combined effects of these two compounds may be responsible for the toxicity of methoxyflurane to some of the major organs of the human body . Methoxyflurane was determined to be nephrotoxic ( damaging to the kidneys ) in a dose @-@ dependent response and hepatotoxic ( damaging to the liver ) at anesthetic doses in 1973 , and the drug was abandoned as a general anesthetic in the late 1970s . In 1999 , the manufacturer discontinued distribution of methoxyflurane in the United States and Canada , and on September 6 , 2005 , the Food and Drug Administration determined that it should be withdrawn from the market for safety concerns . It is however still used in Australia as an emergency analgesic for the initial management of pain due to acute trauma , as well as for brief painful procedures such as changing of wound dressings or for transport of injured people .
= = Medical use = =
Methoxyflurane has been extensively used since the 1970s in Australia as an emergency analgesic for short @-@ term use , mostly by the Australian and New Zealand Defence Forces , and the Australian ambulance services . The drug is currently only available from one manufacturer ( Medical Developments International , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia ) . It is self @-@ administered to children and adults using the Penthrox inhaler , a hand @-@ held inhaler device , known as " the green whistle " . A non @-@ opioid alternative to morphine , it is also easier to use than nitrous oxide . As of 2010 , methoxyflurane was listed under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme for the initial management of pain due to acute trauma , as well as for brief painful procedures such as changing of wound dressings or for patient transport . A portable , disposable , single @-@ use inhaler device ( the Penthrox inhaler ) , along with a single 3 milliliter brown glass vial of methoxyflurane is provided in doctor 's kits that allows conscious hemodynamically stable patients ( including children over the age of 5 years ) to self @-@ administer the drug , under supervision . The device is often referred to as the " green whistle " , due to its appearance .
Each 3 milliliter dose lasts approximately 30 minutes . Pain relief begins after 6 – 8 breaths and continues for several minutes after stopping inhalation . The maximum recommended dose is 6 milliliters per day or 15 milliliters per week because of the risk of cumulative dose @-@ related nephrotoxicity , and it should not be used on consecutive days . Despite the potential for renal impairment when used at anesthetic doses , no significant adverse effects have been reported in the literature when it is used at the lower doses ( up to 6 milliliters ) used for producing analgesia and sedation . Due to the risk of organ ( especially renal ) toxicity , methoxyflurane is contraindicated in patients with pre @-@ existing kidney disease or diabetes mellitus , and is not recommended to be administered in conjunction with tetracyclines or other potentially nephrotoxic or enzyme @-@ inducing drugs .
= = Chemical and physical properties = =
With a molecular formula of C3H4Cl2F2O and a condensed structural formula of CHCl2CF2OCH3 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) name for methoxyflurane is 2 @,@ 2 @-@ dichloro @-@ 1 @,@ 1 @-@ difluoro @-@ 1 @-@ methoxyethane . It is a halogenated ether in form of a clear , colorless liquid , and its vapor has a strong fruity aroma . It is miscible with ethanol , acetone , chloroform , diethyl ether , and fixed oils . It is soluble in rubber .
With a minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) of 0 @.@ 2 % , methoxyflurane is an extremely potent anesthetic agent . It is a powerful analgesic agent at well below full anesthetic concentrations . Because of its low volatility and very high boiling point ( 104 @.@ 8 ° C at 1 atmosphere ) , methoxyflurane has a low vapor pressure at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure . It is therefore quite difficult to vaporize methoxyflurane using conventional anesthetic vaporizers .
The carbon – fluorine bond , a component of all organofluorine compounds , is the strongest chemical bond in organic chemistry . Furthermore , this bond becomes shorther and stronger as more fluorine atoms are added to the same carbon on a given molecule . Because of this , fluoroalkanes are some of the most chemically stable organic compounds .
= = Pharmacokinetics = =
Methoxyflurane has a very high lipid solubility ( oil : gas partition coefficient of around 950 ) , which gives it very slow pharmacokinetics ( induction and emergence characteristics ) ; this being undesirable for routine application in the clinical setting . Initial studies performed in 1961 revealed that in unpremedicated healthy individuals , induction of general anesthesia with methoxyflurane @-@ oxygen alone or with nitrous oxide was difficult or even impossible using the vaporizers available at that time . It was found to be necessary to administer an intravenous anesthetic agent such as sodium thiopental to ensure a smooth and rapid induction . It was further found that after thiopental induction , it was necessary to administer nitrous oxide for at least ten minutes before a sufficient amount of methoxyflurane could accumulate in the bloodstream to ensure an adequate level of anesthesia . This was despite using high flow ( liters / minute ) of nitrous oxide and oxygen , and with the vaporizers delivering the maximum possible concentration of methoxyflurane .
Similar to its induction pharmacokinetics , methoxyflurane has very slow and somewhat unpredictable emergence characteristics . During initial clinical studies in 1961 , the average time to emergence after discontinuation of methoxyflurane was 59 minutes after administration of methoxyflurane for an average duration of 87 minutes . The longest time to emergence was 285 minutes , after 165 minutes of methoxyflurane administration .
= = Pharmacodynamics = =
Cardiovascular effects
The effects of methoxyflurane on the circulatory system resemble those of diethyl ether . In dogs , methoxyflurane anesthesia causes a moderate decrease in blood pressure with minimal changes in heart rate , and no significant effect on blood sugar , epinephrine , or norepinephrine . Bleeding and increased arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide ( PaCO2 ) both induce further decreases in blood pressure , as well as increases in blood glucose , epinephrine and norepinephrine . In humans , methoxyflurane produces some decrease in blood pressure , but cardiac output , stroke volume , and total peripheral resistance are only minimally depressed . Its effect on the pulmonary circulation is negligible , and it does not predispose the heart to cardiac dysrhythmias .
Respiratory effects
Unlike diethyl ether , methoxyflurane is a significant respiratory depressant . In dogs , methoxyflurane causes a dose @-@ dependent decrease in respiratory rate and a marked decrease in respiratory minute volume , with a relatively mild decrease in tidal volume . In humans , methoxyflurane causes a dose @-@ dependent decrease in tidal volume and minute volume , with respiratory rate relatively constant . The net effect of these changes is profound respiratory depression , as evidenced by CO2 retention with a concomitant decrease in arterial pH ( this is referred to as a respiratory acidosis ) when anesthetized subjects are allowed to breathe spontaneously for any length of time .
Gastrointestinal effects
In a series of 500 consecutive obstetric patients , Boisvert and Hudon observed vomiting in 12 ( 4 @.@ 8 % ) patients during or after administration of methoxyflurane anesthesia . These findings compared favorably with those reported for cyclopropane ( 42 % ) , trichloroethylene ( 28 % ) and halothane ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) . In another study of 645 obstetric patients , Romagnoli and Korman observed 8 cases ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) of postoperative vomiting , one of whom was retching before the administration of the anesthetic .
Analgesic effects
Although the high blood solubility of methoxyflurane is often undesirable , this property makes it useful in certain situations — it persists in the lipid compartment of the body for a long time , providing sedation and analgesia well into the postoperative period . There is substantial data to indicate that methoxyflurane is an effective analgesic and sedative agent at subanesthetic doses . Supervised self @-@ administration of methoxyflurane in children and adults can briefly lead to deep sedation , and it has been used as a patient controlled analgesic for painful procedures in children in hospital emergency departments . During childbirth , administration of methoxyflurane produces significantly better analgesia , less psychomotor agitation , and only slightly more somnolence than trichloroethylene .
In 1968 , Robert Wexler of Abbott Laboratories developed the Analgizer , a disposable inhaler that allowed the self @-@ administration of methoxyflurane vapor in air for analgesia . The Analgizer consisted of a polyethylene cylinder 5 inches long and 1 inch in diameter with a 1 inch long mouthpiece . The device contained a rolled wick of polypropylene felt which held 15 milliliters of methoxyflurane . Because of the simplicity of the Analgizer and the pharmacological characteristics of methoxyflurane , it was easy for patients to self @-@ administer the drug and rapidly achieve a level of conscious analgesia which could be maintained and adjusted as necessary over a period of time lasting from a few minutes to several hours . The 15 milliliter supply of methoxyflurane would typically last for two to three hours , during which time the user would often be partly amnesic to the sense of pain ; the device could be refilled if necessary . The Analgizer was found to be safe , effective , and simple to administer in obstetric patients during childbirth , as well as for patients with bone fractures and joint dislocations , and for dressing changes on burn patients . When used for labor analgesia , the Analgizer allows labor to progress normally and with no apparent adverse effect on Apgar scores . All vital signs remain normal in obstetric patients , newborns , and injured patients . The Analgizer was widely utilized for analgesia and sedation until the early 1970s , in a manner that foreshadowed the patient @-@ controlled analgesia infusion pumps of today . The Analgizer inhaler was withdrawn in 1974 , but use of methoxyflurane as a sedative and analgesic continues in Australia and New Zealand in the form of the Penthrox inhaler . Trials of methoxyflurane as an analgesic in emergency medicine are going on in the UK .
= = Biodegradation and toxicity = =
The first report of nephrotoxicity appeared in 1964 , when Paddock and colleagues reported three cases of acute renal insufficiency , two of whom were found to have calcium oxalate crystals in the renal tubules at autopsy . In 1966 , Crandell and colleagues reported a series in which 17 / 95 ( 18 % ) of patients developed an unusual type of nephropathy after operations in which methoxyflurane was used as a general anesthetic . This particular type of renal insufficiency was characterized by vasopressin @-@ resistant high @-@ output renal failure ( production of large volumes of poorly concentrated urine ) with a negative fluid balance , pronounced weight loss , elevation of serum sodium , chloride , osmolality and blood urea nitrogen . The urine of these patients was of a relatively fixed specific gravity and an osmolality very similar to that of the serum . Furthermore , the high urine output persisted a challenge test of fluid deprivation . Most cases resolved within 2 – 3 weeks , but evidence of renal dysfunction persisted for more than one year in 3 of these 17 cases ( 18 % ) , and more than two years in one case ( 6 % ) .
Reports of severe and even fatal hepatotoxicity related to the use of methoxyflurane began to appear in 1966 . These reports prompted anesthesiologists to subject this agent to intense and systematic scrutiny . A study published in 1973 by Cousins and Mazze demonstrated that compared with halothane , methoxyflurane produces dose @-@ dependent and deleterious abnormalities in renal function . The authors showed that subclinical nephrotoxicity occurred following methoxyflurane at minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) for 2 @.@ 5 to 3 hours ( 2 @.@ 5 to 3 MAC hours ) , while overt toxicity was present in all patients at dosages greater than five MAC hours . This landmark study provided a model that would be used for the assessment of the nephrotoxicity of volatile anesthetics for the next two decades .
The biodegradation of methoxyflurane begins immediately after the onset of exposure . The kidney and liver toxicity observed after anesthetic doses is attributable to one or more metabolites produced by O @-@ demethylation of methoxyflurane . Significant products of this catabolic process include methoxyfluoroacetic acid ( MFAA ) , dichloroacetic acid ( DCAA ) , and inorganic fluoride . Methoxyflurane nephrotoxicity is dose dependent and irreversible , resulting from O @-@ demethylation of methoxyflurane to fluoride and DCAA . This effect is so predictable and reproducible that methoxyflurane now serves as a pharmacologic model of fluoride @-@ related nephrotoxicity , one with which newer drugs are compared . It is not entirely clear whether the fluoride itself is toxic — it may simply be a surrogate measure for some other toxic metabolite . The concurrent formation of inorganic fluoride and DCAA is unique to methoxyflurane biotransformation compared with other volatile anesthetics , and this combination is more toxic than fluoride alone . This may explain why fluoride formation from methoxyflurane is associated with nephrotoxicity , while fluoride formation from other volatile anesthetics ( such as enflurane and sevoflurane ) is not . Furthermore , the concurrent use of tetracyclines and methoxyflurane has been reported to result in fatal renal toxicity .
Based on the findings of these and other studies in the early 1970s , the current consensus is that the use of methoxyflurane should be restricted only to healthy individuals , in situations where it offers specific advantages and even then , only at dosages less than 2 @.@ 5 MAC hours . Partly because of these warnings , but also because of the development of newer volatile anesthetics such as enflurane , isoflurane , desflurane and sevoflurane , the clinical use of methoxyflurane as a general anesthetic in humans was largely abandoned in the mid @-@ 1970s .
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health maintains a recommended exposure limit for methoxyflurane as waste anesthetic gas of 2 ppm ( 13 @.@ 5 mg / m3 ) over 60 minutes .
= = History = =
All of the currently used volatile anesthetic agents are organofluorine compounds . Aside from the synthesis of Freon ( Thomas Midgley , Jr. and Charles F. Kettering , 1928 ) and the discovery of Teflon ( Roy J. Plunkett , 1938 ) , the field of organofluorine chemistry had not attracted a great deal of attention up to 1940 because of the extreme reactivity of elemental fluorine , which had to be produced in situ for use in chemical reactions . The development of organofluorine chemistry was a spin @-@ off from the Manhattan Project , during which elemental fluorine was produced on an industrial scale for the first time .
The need for fluorine arose from the need to separate the isotope235U from 238U because the former , present in natural uranium at a concentration of less than 1 % is fissile ( capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction of nuclear fission with thermal neutrons ) , whereas the latter is not . Members of the MAUD Committee ( especially Francis Simon and Nicholas Kurti ) proposed the use of gaseous diffusion for isotope separation , since , according to Graham 's law the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to molecular mass . After an extensive search , uranium hexafluoride , UF6 , was determined to be the most suitable compound of uranium to be used for the gaseous diffusion process . Elemental fluorine is needed in the production of UF6 .
Significant obstacles had to be overcome in the handling of both fluorine and UF6 . Before the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant could be built , it was first necessary to develop non @-@ reactive chemical compounds that could be used as coatings , lubricants and gaskets for the surfaces which would come into contact with the UF6 gas ( a highly reactive and corrosive substance ) . William T. Miller , professor of organic chemistry at Cornell University , was co @-@ opted to develop such materials , because of his expertise in organofluorine chemistry . Miller and his team developed several novel non @-@ reactive chlorofluorocarbon polymers that were used in this application .
Charles Suckling synthesized halothane in 1951 . Halothane was the first organofluorine anesthetic agent to be introduced into clinical practice in 1956 . Miller and his team continued to develop organofluorine chemistry after the end of World War II and methoxyflurane was synthesized in 1948 .
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= The List ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The List " is the fifth episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files television series . It was first broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on October 20 , 1995 . " The List " was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' larger mythology . " The List " received a Nielson household rating of 10 @.@ 8 , being watched by 16 @.@ 72 million people on its initial broadcast , and received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a case where a death row inmate declares that he will be reincarnated and that as a result five men will die .
" The List " was written and directed by Carter after the success of the second season entry " Duane Barry " . The art department of The X @-@ Files were tasked with creating a death row set quickly , a feat which eventually caused the episode to go over budget . Several sequences necessitated the use of real maggots , a turn of events that was not popular with the cast , most notably with Anderson . " The List " later was nominated — and won — several International Monitor Awards .
= = Plot = =
Napoleon " Neech " Manley ( Badja Djola ) , a death row inmate at a Florida prison , is brought to the electric chair . Before he is executed , Neech proclaims that he will be reincarnated and avenge himself against five men who tormented him in prison .
Shortly after the execution , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are brought in to investigate when a prison guard is mysteriously found dead in Neech 's cell . The agents meet the prison 's warden , Brodeur ( J. T. Walsh ) , who believes that Neech planned the guard 's murder with someone on the outside before the execution . John Speranza , another inmate , believes that Neech has returned . When Scully explores the prison 's showers , she meets another guard named Vincent Parmelly ( Ken Foree ) . He claims that another prisoner , Roque ( Bokeem Woodbine ) , is keeping a list of the remaining four victims .
Later , the head of another guard , Fornier , is found inside a paint can . An examination of the head shows the premature appearance of larvae . The prison coroner tells Scully that the first guard 's lungs were completely infested with the larvae , belonging to the green bottle fly . Meanwhile , Mulder talks to Roque , who wants a transfer out of the prison in exchange for revealing the remaining three people on the list . Brodeur later finds Fornier 's headless body in his office . While searching Neech 's cell , Mulder discovers evidence of his obsession with reincarnation . Scully , of course , is skeptical . They later talk to Neech 's fearful widow , Danielle Manley ( April Grace ) , who is secretly seeing Parmelly . Roque is brought to the showers , where he is beaten to death by Brodeur after revealing he is the fifth person on the list .
Brodeur puts the prison under lockdown and tells Mulder that Neech had a violent history with all three victims . Mulder believes that Neech came back for revenge against the guards , but doubts that Roque was on the list . He requests that he be provided with the name of Neech 's executioner , who turns out to be a volunteer named Perry Simon . The agents arrive at Simon 's home to discover his decomposing body in the attic . Mulder confronts Speranza about the list , but Speranza only tells him that Roque was not on it . He claims to have seen Neech " big as life " outside of his cell . Based on phone records , Scully theorizes that Neech 's lawyer , Danny Charez , may have engineered the murders with Speranza . The agents interview Charez , who tells them about Danielle 's relationship with Parmelly ; after they leave , Charez is suffocated by a resurrected Neech .
Brodeur visits Speranza in his cell , and offers to have his death sentence commuted in exchange for stopping the murders . Speranza takes the offer . That night , Parmelly visits Danielle , who has become agitated since Mulder and Scully have begun staking out her house . The agents now suspect Parmelly to be behind the murders and leave to notify Brodeur , who asks that Parmelly be arrested . Soon afterward , Danielle wakes up to see Neech by her bed . She grabs her gun and confronts Parmelly , thinking he is Neech 's resurrected form . The agents and a police task force arrive to see her shoot and kill Parmelly . Meanwhile , Brodeur — assuming that Charez and Parmelly were on the list — thinks Speranza has reneged on their deal and has him taken to the showers . Before Brodeur kills him , Speranza claims that one person remains on the list .
Parmelly is blamed for the murders . The agents start to leave Florida , but Mulder soon pulls over . He remains frustrated , since Parmelly was on @-@ duty during only one murder , and was not one of the three men who knew Perry Simon 's confidential identity . He also points out inconsistencies in the actions of Parmelly and Roque , who was also assumed to be part of the plot . Mulder believes that Parmelly was not responsible for the deaths , and that Neech had indeed been reincarnated to enact his revenge . However , Scully convinces Mulder that the case is over , and that they should return home . Just then , Brodeur passes them in his car . Looking in his rear view mirror , he sees Neech , who attacks Brodeur and causes his car to crash into a tree , claiming his last victim .
= = Production = =
The episode was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter , his second directorial endeavor after the second season entry " Duane Barry " . The art department of The X @-@ Files were tasked with creating a " convincing " death row set " out of thin air " . The set took 10 days to build , making it one of the most complicated jobs for the show 's staff during the season . Due to the construction of the prison set , the episode ended up going over budget . However , the set was used again later in the season in " Teso Dos Bichos " and " Talitha Cumi " . The set was also rented out to other productions in Vancouver , Canada .
Real maggots were used during many of the scenes , which were described by Gillian Anderson as being the hardest animals to work with on the show . The show 's special effects producers were unable to create a full body replica of the first victim in time , requiring him to lay on an autopsy table with makeup applied while the maggots were poured on to him . Rice was used in place of the maggots during some of the scenes . The car crash at the end of the entry was described by stunt coordinator Tony Morelli as the most harrowing action sequence during the show 's third season . To give the episode a different look the producers applied a green palatte to the film in post @-@ production .
The executioner , Perry Simon , was named after an NBC executive producer that writer and director Chris Carter knew . The part was played by an uncredited Bruce Pinard . Joseph Patrick Finn , one of the show 's producers , played the prison chaplain .
= = Reception = =
" The List " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on October 20 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 8 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by a total of 16 @.@ 72 million viewers , and was later nominated for several International Monitor Awards , including nominations for best director , best editing , and best color correction . " The List " later won the award for best director . Story editor Frank Spotnitz said of the episode , " I think this is a vastly underrated episode . I also think it was a very brave and different show to do and that it will weather the test of time very well . I think it was brave because there is not a single likable character - nobody you can root for . Mulder and Scully do not solve the case , and that is something I had been interested in doing for some time . " Chris Carter was nominated for an award by the Directors Guild of America for his work on this episode .
" The List " received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " The List " a B + , describing it as " standard but well executed " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feelings about it , ultimately rating it a B- . He felt that " The List " embodied a bland stand @-@ alone X @-@ Files episode for its underdeveloped concept and script , with " attempts at drama " that had no depth , and " sideplots [ that ] have so little effect on the main narrative as to be basically padding " . Handlen however praised the cinematography and art direction , the performances of both Ken Foree and J.T. Walsh , and the final scene , but ultimately considered that " once you get past the set @-@ design and cinematography , you end up with some good lines and a few scary moments , and that 's it . "
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode two stars out of four . She praised Carter 's directing , but felt that the story suffered in comparison to the second season 's " Duane Barry " , also written and directed by Carter , which was better at " unsettling ambiguity " . She felt that there were too many characters for the audience to get to know them , and the lack of resolution would leave the audience " utterly frustrated " . Other reviews were more critical . Author Phil Farrand wrote negatively of the episode , calling it his third least favorite episode of the first four seasons in his book The Nitpickers Guide to the X @-@ Files . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two positively critiqued Carter 's directing , calling the entry " good looking " and noting that it was " a decidedly grisly hour of television . " However , they derided the plot and called it " barely cooked " , writing that the characters that are killed are wholly one @-@ dimensional and are not fleshed out .
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= Garden City High School ( Kansas ) =
Garden City High School ( known locally as GCHS ) is a fully accredited high school , serving students in grades 9 – 12 , located in Garden City , Kansas , USA . Garden City High School ( GCHS ) is the only high school within the city limits of Garden City , KS . The school colors are brown and white , although gold is generally considered a third unofficial color . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 students are enrolled for the 2014 @-@ 2015 school year . The current principal is James Mireles .
Garden City High was founded in 1910 on the site that is now Sabine Hall in order to help educate the increasing population of Garden City . In 1917 , a new high school was constructed at the site that is now known as Calkins Hall and two years later , the school was renamed " Sequoayah High School " . In 1954 , the school moved to its previous location , and on November 4 , 2008 , a bond issue for a new $ 95 million high school was passed . The first class to graduate from the current high school was the Class of 2013 .
Garden City is a member of the Kansas State High School Activities Association and offers a variety of sports programs . Athletic teams compete in Class 6A and are known as the " Buffaloes " . Extracurricular activities are also offered in the form of performing arts , school publications , and clubs . Despite rapidly rising numbers of English as a Second Language students , Garden City High School has raised student achievement in reading , mathematics and science . The school newspaper , The Sugar Beet , was established in 1910 and is the oldest high school newspaper in the state of Kansas .
= = History = =
= = = Early beginnings = = =
The first high school in Garden City that would eventually become Garden City High School was established in 1910 on the location that is now Sabine Hall in order to educate a rapidly increasing population . During the school 's inaugural year , the school newspaper , The Sugar Beet , was established . In 1913 , the high school was accredited by the North Central Association . In 1916 , the Garden City School Board set a minimum teaching standard of one year of college and two years of teaching experience for all staff members , and a year later , the high school was accredited by the U.S. Military Academy . Later that year , a new high school was constructed at the site that is now known as Calkins Hall . Two years later , the high school was renamed " Sequoyah High School " . The Board of Education approved night school in 1920 and summer school was approved the following year . In 1926 , vocational home economics was started and in 1927 , the Board established a maximum for teaching of two years of college and two years of experience . Calkins Hall was remodeled in 1929 and 15 credits were now required for graduation . This number was increased to 16 credits in 1931 when the high school was renamed " Garden City High School " . During this time , the main gym was named in honor of Ben Grimsley and was known as the " Ben Grimsley Gymnasium " . The hot lunch program began in 1938 .
As years passed , the athletics department began to experience moderate success , and in 1945 , Garden City won its first state championship in track as well as repeating the feat in 1946 . A new high school was constructed in 1954 , with the auditorium being completed the following year . The graduation credit limit was increased further to 19 credits in 1958 . Garden City High School experienced many changes in 1959 , including the creation of the counseling and honors programs . Another major change was the introduction of school uniforms .
= = = 1960s to 1980s = = =
In 1961 , the main gymnasium ( referred to as " The Garden " ) was completed . The football stadium was constructed in 1962 which was one of the largest stadiums in western Kansas at the time . Two years later , Garden City finally experienced unification as Garden City District No. 1 became Unified School District No. 457 . During this same year , the football stadium was renamed " Memorial Stadium " . As interest in athletics grew throughout Garden City , so did the athletic departments . Cross @-@ country was introduced in 1966 and the men 's basketball team won their first state championship . Eight trailers were also purchased for use in the remedial reading program . Two years later , GCHS experienced major renovations and expansion as the J.D. Adams Vocational Building was constructed and other high school remodeling was completed . The population of Garden City at this time was 14 @,@ 745 . The following year , an agreement was signed between the JUCO and the district relative to the exchange of the former junior college site for senior high vocational building space and other specified district facilities used by the college . The wrestling and debate teams each won their first state titles in 1971 . Restrooms facilities were also constructed during this year . The men 's basketball team advanced to the state championship the following year . In 1974 , math requirements for graduation increased to 1 ½ credits which became effective with the 1978 graduating class . An addition to the music department was completed in September 1975 , allowing more students to participate in a wide variety of musical activities and programs . Garden City would win its first state championship in men 's golf in 1977 and progress continued throughout the rest of the decade . The practice gym and locker rooms were added in 1981 . In 1984 , an idea was conceived among administrators and board members of the school district to recognize past graduates of GCHS who had gone on to distinguish themselves through outstanding accomplishments . This idea was brought into action the following spring , when the first members of the Garden City High School Hall of Fame were inducted . The Buffalo athletics programs struggled throughout the rest of the decade , failing to win a single state championship .
= = = 1990s = = =
The 1990s began with progress and changes . In 1991 , J.D. Adams Hall was remodeled and 9th grade was moved to the high school . The Buffaloes wrestling team would win state championships in 1990 and the following three years . In 1992 , the new cafeteria was completed and the alternative high school was moved to 1401 W. Jones Street . Dr. Milton Pippenger was appointed superintendent in 1993 and a new enclosed walkway was constructed . Another major addition was constructed which would eventually be used as the trophy room . The city population at this time was 24 @,@ 964 . In 1998 , the school district unsuccessfully attempted to pass a bond issue calling for a new high school . In terms of athletics , the Buffaloes continued their dominance throughout the rest of the decade . The wrestling program added two more state championships in 1998 and 1999 , while the men 's golf team won a state title in 1998 . Additionally , the football team finished state runner @-@ up in 1998 and won their first state championship in 1999 .
Sabine Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 , with the alternative name , Garden City High School .
= = = 21st century = = =
Throughout the 2000s , GCHS experienced many significant changes . In the fall of 2003 , James Mireles became the new principal , replacing former principal Kevin Burr . The men 's basketball team advanced to the state semi @-@ final in 2003 with the help of several future collegiate athletes . The following year , artificial turf was installed at Memorial Stadium . The Garden City Public Schools Foundation was founded in 2004 . In 2006 , an open @-@ air courtyard located at the center of the previous high school was enclosed and replaced with an atrium to increase space for lunchtime seating and activities . A new pressbox and visitor stands were constructed in 2007 .
On November 4 , 2008 , a bond issue for a new $ 95 million high school was passed . Groundbreaking for the new high school took place on September 23 , 2009 , and construction was completed on April 1 , 2012 at $ 7 million under budget . As a result , the school board approved construction of a $ 975 @,@ 000 ticket / concession / restroom and storage building . This also allowed the asphalt parking to be changed to concrete and for adding artificial turf to the football field , which saves on future maintenance costs . Installation of the football field 's turf was completed in September 2011 . In early 2012 , the Board of Education approved a 1 @-@ 1 initiative , providing every student with an iPad . In 2012 , GCHS was selected as one of 314 Blue Ribbon Schools nationwide . The Blue Ribbon Award recognizes public and private schools which perform at high levels or have made significant academic improvements . In addition , principal James Mireles was honored with the Terrel H. Bell Award for Outstanding Leadership .
= = Academics = =
Garden City High School operates on an 8 : 10 a.m. to 3 : 20 p.m. schedule , which includes an eight period block schedule ( 4 classes one day , 4 classes the next ) and a staggered 4 shift lunch schedule . Additionally , a mentoring period is offered which allows students to work on homework .
There are four academies at the high school ; School of Trade and Health Sciences , Academy of Arts and Communications , Academy of Public Service and the Ninth Grade Academy . Each career academy has teachers from different subjects , who combine their efforts as a means of integrating academic and technical curriculum . Students are able to participate in different academies each year , with the ultimate purpose of better preparing them for college and careers than traditional educational systems .
Despite rapidly rising numbers of English as a Second Language students , Garden City High School has raised student achievement in reading , mathematics and science . Even with a more rigorous curriculum and higher graduation requirements , the dropout rate fell from 15 percent in 1993 – 1994 to 3 @.@ 4 percent in 2003 – 2004 and the attendance rate rose from 89 percent to 96 percent . In 2009 , 18 students earned top rankings in the Spanish National Exams sponsored by the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese . In 2012 , GCHS was selected as one of 314 Blue Ribbon Schools nationwide .
Currently , Garden City requires students to complete 26 ½ credits in order to graduate . Many students also attend classes at Garden City Community College .
= = School layout = =
= = = Former high school = = =
The previous high school consisted of several halls . The main hall was the longest hall in the school and consisted of several classrooms . It was attached to the main entrance on the west and met the trophy room on the east . The John D. Adams Vocational Technology building stood by itself next to the main building . There were two gymnasiums on campus . The main gym was often referred to as " The Garden " and accommodated approximately 2 @,@ 000 people . There were also 8 trailers located on the north side of the school to help provide additional classrooms . These trailers were used largely for English and History classes .
GCHS underwent a major remodeling project during the 2005 – 2006 school year . An open courtyard had previously existed in the central section of the school which had gone largely unused . School officials met and decided to enclose the courtyard and transform the space into a multi @-@ purpose atrium tetrastylum . After nearly a year , construction was completed . The new multi @-@ purpose area was used for additional seating during lunchtime , as well as conferences , banquets , and additional uses . The atrium featured a projection screen , a flat @-@ screen HDTV , additional storage closets , a small elevated stage area , several unique design features , and additional entrances / exits to classrooms . The renovation was , however , largely regarded by students and residents of Garden City as a waste of resources , owing to the construction of the current high school . One of the main reasons for the enclosure of the courtyard was to provide adequate room for most of its students in a lunchroom of some sort . However , at the time , the high school espoused an open lunch policy , and consequently a majority of its close to 2 @,@ 000 students left campus for lunch . Administrators responded to this in the 2007 – 2008 school year by closing lunch to freshmen , and the following year by closing lunch to sophomores who do not have special identification cards .
= = = Current high school = = =
Unlike the previous high school which covered 225 @,@ 000 square feet , the current high school , located at 2720 Buffalo Way Boulevard is much larger , covering 384 @,@ 000 square feet on 160 acres . The high school has 123 classrooms with the capacity of holding approximately 2 @,@ 100 students . The building also has a 750 @-@ seat auditorium with a large amount of natural light . The football stadium seats 4 @,@ 000 people and the gymnasium seats 2 @,@ 500 .
The building is subdivided into four learning academies at the high school ; Academy of Trade and Health Science , Academy of Arts and Communications , Academy of Public Service and the Ninth Grade Academy . Each career academy has teachers from different subjects , who combine their efforts as a means of integrating academic and technical curriculum . Students are able to participate in different academies each year , with the ultimate purpose of better preparing them for college and careers than traditional educational systems .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
The extracurricular activities offered at Garden City High School are numerous and diverse due to the school 's large size . The Buffaloes compete in the Western Athletic Conference and are classified as a 6A school , the largest classification in Kansas according to the Kansas State High School Activities Association . Throughout its history , Garden City has won twenty @-@ one state championships in various sports and non @-@ athletic activities . Many graduates have gone on to participate in collegiate athletics . Garden City High School athletes are able to compete in some of the top facilities in western Kansas . The football , soccer , and track & field teams compete at Buffalo Stadium . Basketball , intramural basketball , volleyball , and wrestling take place in " The Garden " , Garden City 's main gymnasium . The men 's and women 's golf programs compete at Buffalo Dunes Golf Course and The Golf Club at Southwind . The tennis programs compete at the GCHS Tennis Complex . The baseball program competes at Clint Lightner Stadium and the softball team at the James Tangeman Sports Complex . The swim team practices at the local YMCA . In February 2015 , Jarrod Stoppel was promoted as the new interim athletic director , replacing Martin Segovia , who had been in the position since 2010 .
= = = Athletics = = =
= = = = Football = = = =
The GCHS football team has consistently competed at a high level in football . Led by former head coach Dave Meadows , Garden City High School won the 6A state championship in football on November 20 , 1999 over Olathe South High School . The Buffaloes had previously finished runner @-@ up in 1971 , 1990 , 1991 and 1998 .
In 2002 , Mike Smith took over as head coach . Smith resigned in November 2009 and was replaced by Brian Hill . As of 2009 , Garden City has been WAC champion five times , district champion thirteen times , and regional champion seven times . The football program also has produced several notable collegiate and professional athletes including former NFL pro @-@ bowler Fum McGraw . Each year , rivals Garden City High School and Dodge City High School play an annual football game known as the " Hatchet Game . " The winning team receives a decorated hatchet with an engraving of the victorious team and the year . The first Hatchet Game was played in 1938 and has been played every year since . During the 2007 Hatchet Game , junior quarterback Brodrick Smith set the school record when he rushed for 347 yards in a 42 @-@ 28 win . As of the 2013 season , Garden City High School has won the " Hatchet " for 15 of the past 20 seasons . In 2012 , USA Today voted the Hatchet Game as the " Greatest Rivalry in Kansas " .
Garden City has seen several improvements in its football facilities in recent years . FieldTurf was installed in the summer of 2004 to better accommodate the multiple uses of the field . Additionally , the visitor stands were greatly expanded in the summer of 2008 to accommodate visiting fans . A second pressbox was also installed to provide more accessibility for coaches and coordinators during games . The new Buffalo Stadium was part of the $ 92 million bond issue for the current high school .
= = = = Basketball = = = =
Another program at Garden City High School is the men 's basketball program . The Buffaloes won the state championship in 1966 and were sub @-@ state champions in 2003 . The men 's basketball team has featured several notable alumni including former Texas Longhorns ' all @-@ time leading free @-@ throw shooter , Brandy Perryman . On March 10 , 2010 , former head coach Jeff Tanner resigned after 12 years as head boys ' basketball coach . Former Iowa State point guard Jacy Holloway took over as head coach of the boys ' basketball team .
= = = = Wrestling = = = =
The most successful and storied athletic program at GCHS is wrestling . Since Garden City High School was established , it has won ten state championships in wrestling , occurring in 1971 , 1990 , 1991 , 1992 , 1993 , 1998 , 1999 , 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 ( and runner @-@ up in 2003 ) . Garden City wrestling has also had 26 individual state champions . In 1979 , two @-@ time state champion Jon Bigler was named as an Honorable Mention All @-@ American according to Wrestling USA Magazine .
Due to the immense success between 1990 – 1993 , GCHS earned national rankings and a reputation as having one of the finest wrestling programs in the country . Additionally , Wrestling USA Magazine ranked Garden City as having the 38th best high school wrestling dynasty in the 1990s out of over 38 @,@ 000 high schools . The success of the wrestling program during this time was due in large part to the leadership of legendary former head coach Rocky Welton . Overall , Welton led the wrestling program to six state championships and helped produce numerous individual state champions . Welton finished his coaching career with a dual record of 200 @-@ 50 @-@ 4 during his tenure at Goodland High School and Garden City High School . For his contributions , Rocky Welton was inducted into the Kansas Wrestling Coaches Association Hall of Fame and the National Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum . Since its inception in 1951 , the wrestling program has hosted an annual tournament which attracts some of the top wrestling programs from the midwestern United States . Originally known as the " Garden City Invitational " , the tournament was renamed the " Rocky Welton Invitational " in honor of the legendary coach .
Following the retirement of Rocky Welton in 1999 , former assistant coach Martin Segovia took over as the new head coach . In contrast to the 1990s , Garden City was unable to win a state championship throughout the 2000s , although the Buffaloes did produce three individual state titles and an All @-@ American . Jason Nichols won individual state championships in 2000 and 2001 and sophomore Ryan Kromer won an individual state championship in 2002 . In 2006 , Beth Johnson was named a Second @-@ Team All @-@ American and in 2008 , she was named as a First @-@ Team All @-@ American , the first girl to do so in school history . Also in 2008 , Martin Segovia relinquished his role as head coach and former assistant Monte Moser took over as the new head coach . In 2010 , the Buffaloes placed fourth in the state championship , while producing two individual state champions in Lane Greenlee and Joey Dozier . One year later , Anthony Calderon won an individual state championship . Following the 2012 season , Monte Moser retired and Carlos Prieto became the current head coach . In 2013 , the Buffaloes won the state championship for the first time since 1999 , and repeated in 2014 , 2015 and 2016 . Also in 2016 , Michael Prieto won his fourth consecutive individual state title , the first 4 @-@ time individual state champion in school history and 33rd in state history .
= = = = Golf = = = =
The men 's golf program has established itself as one of the top athletic programs at GCHS . The Buffaloes won state championships in 1977 and 1998 . The 1998 championship team was led by coach Mike Adams and players : Sean Villareal , Chris Becker , Dan Dreiling , Adam Fuller , Ryan Berry , and Kirby Schimke . Cole Wasinger won an individual state championship in 1995 . More recently , the men 's golf team competed at the state tournament in 2014 . In 2011 , MacKenzie Thayer became the first female state champion in school history after shooting an 81 and winning in a playoff . The Buffs compete on two of the top golf courses in the state of Kansas . The golf teams alternate their practices between The Golf Club at Southwind and Buffalo Dunes Golf Course .
= = = = Tennis = = = =
The men 's and women 's tennis programs have also had many successful years . The programs have remained as two of the more competitive tennis teams in the WAC for several decades . The women 's program experienced their most successful season in 1994 in which they finished state runner @-@ up . The men 's program won 10 consecutive WAC championships from 1994 to 2003 . In 1999 , former head coach Bob Krug was named NFCA Midwest Region Coach of the Year . The streak in WAC Championships ended during the 2003 – 04 school year , but the Buffs rebounded and won three more consecutive WAC championships from 2005 to 2007 . The Buffs added WAC Championship titles in 2011 and 2014 . The tennis program has sent numerous players to the state tournament throughout the program 's history .
= = = = Track and Field = = = =
The Buffalo track and field program has had several successes throughout its history . The Buffaloes won the state championship in 1945 and 1946 , but in more recent years results have been variable . In 2003 , future Big 12 long jump champion Eric Babb won the long jump state title for the first time in the school 's history . The track & field program finished runner @-@ up in the 2006 state championship , falling to Lawrence High School by 1 / 2 of a point . Garden City has also produced several notable athletes , including 1995 Kansas Track and Field Gatorade Athlete of the Year , high @-@ jumper Jason Archibald .
= = = State championships = = =
= = = Fall = = =
= = = Winter = = =
= = = Spring = = =
= = = Non @-@ athletic programs = = =
= = = = Music = = = =
Garden City High School offers many music @-@ related clubs and organizations . Garden City offers marching band , pep band , orchestra , choir , and show choir in addition to many other groups . The Garden City Municipal Band rehearses at the former Garden City High School building ( Now Horace Good Middle School ) once a week during the summer months .
= = = = Band = = = =
The first unofficial band was organized in 1915 . The Garden City Marching Band is often referred to as the " Marching Stampede " . Each year , the marching band performs during halftime of football games and the pep band plays during basketball games . Additionally , throughout the football season , the marching band competes in the WAC Band Festival to determine the top marching band in the area , the Andover Marching Festival , and the Kansas State University Marching Festival . The band also performs during pep rallies and other school functions .
= = = = Debate and Forensics = = = =
The Garden City High debate and forensics teams have been ranked among the top schools in the nation in terms of state appearances by the National Forensics League . Garden City High has competed at the state level in all of the NFL events and at the national level in many of the events . It is one of the largest teams by members in the state . The debate team won the state championship in 1959 , 1961 , 1962 , and 1971 ( two @-@ speaker ) . The forensics team won the state championship in 2011 . Russ Tidwell is the current debate and forensics coach at Garden City High School .
= = = Student newspaper and yearbook = = =
The journalism department at GCHS is a member of the Kansas Scholastic Press Association . Established in 1910 , the school newspaper , The Sugar Beet , is the oldest high school newspaper in the state of Kansas . The Sugar Beet is a frequent Columbia Scholastic Press Association Gold Medal winner and has also won the First @-@ Place Award issued by the American Scholastic Press Association . The Sugar Beet is one of only two weekly , student @-@ produced high school newspapers in Kansas , the other being The Mentor , which is produced by students of Manhattan High School . GCHS also produces an annual yearbook at the end of every school year , known as The Buffalo .
= = Student activities = =
= = = Clubs = = =
There are numerous extracurricular activities available to Garden City students . Among these are :
= = Notable alumni = =
Kendall Carl Campbell , U.S. Naval Reserve aviator , USS Kendall C. Campbell ( DE @-@ 443 ) was named in his honor
Mark Fox , head men 's basketball coach at the University of Georgia
Clifford R. Hope , youngest man ever chosen to serve as Speaker of the House of Representatives
Mike Johnson , former NFL player for the Dallas Cowboys
Gene Krug , former Major League Baseball player for the Chicago Cubs
Frank Mantooth , late jazz pianist and arranger
Fum McGraw , former Colorado State athletic director , NFL Pro @-@ Bowler , 1981 inductee into the College Football Hall of Fame
Fred Myton , screenwriter
Harold " Prince Hal " Patterson , former University of Kansas basketball player and member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Brandy Perryman , University of Texas ’ all @-@ time leader in free throw shooting and fourth @-@ best three @-@ point shooter
Larry Powell , member of the Kansas House of Representatives
Chuck Reed , former mayor of San Jose , California , 2007 – 2014
Eric Robinson , comedian
Roy Romer , former governor of Colorado , 1987 – 1999
Todd Tichenor , MLB umpire
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= Catherine de ' Medici 's building projects =
Catherine de ' Medici 's building projects included the Valois chapel at Saint @-@ Denis , the Tuileries Palace , and the Hôtel de la Reine in Paris , and extensions to the château of Chenonceau , near Blois . Born in 1519 in Florence to an Italian father and a French mother , Catherine de ' Medici was a daughter of both the Italian and the French Renaissance . She grew up in Florence and Rome under the wing of the Medici popes , Leo X and Clement VII . In 1533 , at the age of fourteen , she left Italy and married Henry , the second son of Francis I and Queen Claude of France . On doing so , she entered the greatest Renaissance court in northern Europe .
King Francis set his daughter @-@ in @-@ law an example of kingship and artistic patronage that she never forgot . She witnessed his huge architectural schemes at Chambord and Fontainebleau . She saw Italian and French craftsmen at work together , forging the style that became known as the first School of Fontainebleau . Francis died in 1547 , and Catherine became queen consort of France . But it wasn 't until her husband King Henry 's death in 1559 , when she found herself at forty the effective ruler of France , that Catherine came into her own as a patron of architecture . Over the next three decades , she launched a series of costly building projects aimed at enhancing the grandeur of the monarchy . During the same period , however , religious civil war gripped the country and brought the prestige of the monarchy to a dangerously low ebb .
Catherine loved to supervise each project personally . The architects of the day dedicated books to her , knowing that she would read them . Though she spent colossal sums on the building and embellishment of monuments and palaces , little remains of Catherine 's investment today : one Doric column , a few fragments in the corner of the Tuileries gardens , an empty tomb at Saint Denis . The sculptures she commissioned for the Valois chapel are lost , or scattered , often damaged or incomplete , in museums and churches . Catherine de ' Medici 's reputation as a sponsor of buildings rests instead on the designs and treatises of her architects . These testify to the vitality of French architecture under her patronage .
= = Influences = =
Historians often assume that Catherine 's love for the arts stemmed from her Medici heritage . " As the daughter of the Medici , " suggests French art historian Jean @-@ Pierre Babelon , " she was driven by a passion to build and a desire to leave great achievements behind her when she died . " Born in Florence in 1519 , Catherine lived at the Medici palace , built by Cosimo de ' Medici to designs by Michelozzo di Bartolomeo . After moving to Rome in 1530 , she lived , surrounded by classical and Renaissance treasures , at another Medici palace ( now called the Palazzo Madama ) . There she watched the leading artists and architects of the day at work in the city . When she later commissioned buildings herself , in France , Catherine often turned to Italian models . She based the Tuileries on the Pitti palace in Florence ; and she originally planned the Hotel de la Reine with the Uffizi palace in mind .
Catherine , however , left Italy in 1533 at the age of fourteen and married Henry of Orléans , the second son of King Francis I of France . Though she kept in touch with her native Florence , her taste matured at the itinerant royal court of France . Her father @-@ in @-@ law impressed Catherine deeply as an example of what a monarch should be . She later copied Francis ' policy of setting the grandeur of the dynasty in stone , whatever the cost . His lavish building projects inspired her own .
Francis was a compulsive builder . He began extension works at the Louvre , added a wing to the old castle at Blois , and built the vast château of Chambord , which he showed off to the emperor Charles V in 1539 . He also transformed the lodge at Fontainebleau into one of the great palaces of Europe , a project that continued under Henry II . Artists such as Rosso Fiorentino and Francesco Primaticcio worked on the interior , alongside French craftsmen . This meeting of Italian Mannerism and French patronage bred an original style , later known as the first School of Fontainebleau . Featuring frescoes and high @-@ relief stucco in the shape of parchment or curled leather strapwork , it became the dominant decorative fashion in France in the second half of the sixteenth century . Catherine later herself employed Primaticcio to design her Valois chapel . She also patronised French talent , such as the architects Philibert de l 'Orme and Jean Bullant , and the sculptor Germain Pilon .
The death of Henry II from jousting wounds in 1559 changed Catherine 's life . From that day , she wore black and took as her emblem a broken lance . She turned her widowhood into a political force that validated her authority during the reigns of her three weak sons . She also became intent on immortalizing her sorrow at the death of her husband . She had emblems of her love and grief carved into the stonework of her buildings . She commissioned a magnificent tomb for Henry , as the centrepiece of an ambitious new chapel .
In 1562 , a long poem by Nicolas Houël likened Catherine to Artemisia , who had built the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus , one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World , as a tomb for her dead husband . Artemesia had also acted as regent for her children . Houël laid stress on Artemesia 's devotion to architecture . In his dedication to L 'Histoire de la Royne Arthémise , he told Catherine :
You will find here the edifices , columns , and pyramids that she had built both at Rhodes and Halicarnassus , which will serve as remembrances for those who reflect on our times and who will be astounded at your own buildings – the palaces at the Tuileries , Montceaux , and Saint @-@ Maur , and the infinity of others that you have constructed , built , and embellished with sculptures and beautiful paintings .
= = Valois Chapel = =
In memory of Henry II , Catherine decided to add a new chapel to the basilica of Saint Denis , where the kings of France were traditionally buried . As the centrepiece of this circular chapel , sometimes known as the Valois rotunda , she commissioned a magnificent and innovative tomb for Henry and herself . The design of this tomb should be understood in the context of its planned setting . The plan was to integrate the tomb 's effigies of the king and queen with other statues throughout the chapel , creating a vast spatial composition . Catherine 's approval would have been essential for such a departure from funerary tradition .
= = = Architecture = = =
To lead the Valois chapel project , Catherine chose Francesco Primaticcio , who had worked for Henry at Fontainebleau . Primaticcio designed the chapel as a round building , crowned by a dome , to be joined to the north transept of the basilica . The interior and exterior of the chapel were to be decorated with pilasters , columns , and epitaphs in coloured marble . The building would contain six other chapels circling the tomb of Henry and Catherine . Primaticcio 's circular design solved the problems faced by the Giusti brothers and Philibert de l 'Orme , who had built previous royal tombs . Whereas de l 'Orme had designed the tomb of Francis I to be viewed only from the front or the side , Primaticcio 's design allowed the tomb to be viewed from all angles . Art historian Henri Zerner has called the plan " a grand ritualistic drama which would have filled the rotunda 's celestial space " .
Work on the chapel began in 1563 and continued over the next two decades . Primaticcio died in 1570 , and the architect Jean Bullant took over the project two years later . After Bullant 's death in 1578 , Baptiste du Cerceau led the work . The building was abandoned in 1585 . Over two hundred years later , in 1793 , a mob tossed Catherine and Henry 's bones into a pit with the rest of the French kings and queens .
= = = Tomb = = =
Several of the monuments built for the Valois chapel have survived . These include the tomb of Catherine and Henry — in Zerner 's view , " the last and most brilliant of the royal tombs of the Renaissance " . Primaticcio himself designed its structure , which eliminated the traditional bas @-@ reliefs and kept ornamentation to a minimum . The sculptor Germain Pilon , who had provided statues for the tomb of Francis I , carved the tomb 's two sets of effigies , which represented death below and eternal life above . The king and queen , cast in bronze , kneel in prayer ( priants ) on a marble canopy supported by twelve marble columns . Their poses echo those on the nearby tombs of Louis XII and Francis I. Pilon 's feel for the material , however , invests his statues with a greater sense of movement .
Before they were destroyed in the Revolution , the remains of the king and queen lay in the mortuary chamber below . Catherine 's effigy suggests sleep rather than death , while Henry is posed strikingly , with his head thrown back . From 1583 , Pilon also sculpted two later gisants of Catherine and Henry wearing their crowns and coronation robes . In this case , he portrays Catherine realistically , with a double chin . These two statues were intended to flank the altar of the chapel . Pilon 's four bronze statues of the cardinal virtues stand at the corners of the tomb . Pilon also carved the reliefs round the base that recall Bontemps ' work on the monument for the heart of Francis I.
= = = Statuary = = =
In the 1580s , Pilon began work on statues for the chapels that were to circle the tomb . Among these , the fragmentary Resurrection , now in the Louvre , was designed to face the tomb of Catherine and Henry from a side chapel . This work owes a clear debt to Michelangelo , who had designed the tomb and funerary statues for Catherine 's father at the Medici chapels in Florence . Pilon 's statue of St Francis in Ecstasy now stands in the church of St Jean and St François . In art historian Anthony Blunt 's view , it marks a departure from the tension of Mannerism and " almost foreshadows " the Baroque .
Pilon had by this time developed a freer style of sculpture than previously seen in France . Earlier French sculpture seems to have influenced him less than Primaticcio 's decorations at Fontainebleau : the work of his predecessor Jean Goujon , for example , is more linear and classical . Pilon openly depicts extreme emotion in his work , sometimes to the point of the grotesque . His style has been interpreted as a reflection of a society torn by the conflict of the French wars of religion .
= = Montceaux = =
Catherine 's earliest building project was the château of Montceaux @-@ en @-@ Brie , near Paris , which Henry II gave her in 1556 , three years before his death . The building consisted of a central pavilion housing a straight staircase , and two wings with a pavilion at each end . Catherine wanted to cover the alley in the garden where Henry played pall mall , an early form of croquet . For this commission , Philibert de l 'Orme built her a grotto . He set it on a base made to look like natural rock , from which guests could watch the games while taking refreshments . The work was completed in 1558 but has not survived . The château ceased to be used as a royal residence after 1640 , and had fallen into ruin by the time it was demolished by revolutionary decree in 1798 .
= = Tuileries = =
After the death of Henry II , Catherine abandoned the palace of the Tournelles , where Henry had lain after a lance fatally pierced his eye and brain in a joust . To replace the Tournelles , she decided in 1563 to build herself a new Paris residence on the site of some old tile kilns or tuileries . The site was close to the congested Louvre , where she kept her household . The grounds extended along the banks of the Seine and afforded a view of the countryside to the south and west . The Tuileries was the first palace that Catherine had planned from the ground up . It was to grow into the largest royal building project of the last quarter of the sixteenth century in western Europe . Her massive building schemes would have transformed western Paris , as seen from the river , into a monumental complex .
To design the new palace , Catherine brought back Philibert de l 'Orme from disgrace . This arrogant genius had been sacked as superintendent of royal buildings at the end of Henry II 's reign , after making too many enemies . De l 'Orme mentioned the project in his treatises on architecture , but his ideas are not fully known . It appears from the small amount of work carried out that his plans for the Tuileries departed from his known principles . De l 'Orme is said to have " taught France the classical style — lucid , rational and regular " . He notes , however , that in this case he added rich materials and ornaments to please the queen . The plans therefore include a decorative element that looks forward to Bullant 's later work and to a less classical style of architecture .
For the pilasters of Catherine 's palace , de l 'Orme chose the Ionic order , which he considered a feminine form :
I will not go on to other matters without pointing out to you that I chose the present Ionic order , from amongst all others , in order to ornament and to give lustre to the palace , which Her Majesty the Queen , mother of the most Christian King Charles IX , today is having built at Paris ... The other reason why I wanted to use and to show the Ionic order properly , on the palace of Her Majesty the Queen , is because it is feminine and was devised according to the proportions and beauties of women and goddesses , as was the Doric to those of men , which is what the ancients have told me : for , when they decided to build a temple to a god , they used the Doric , and to a goddess , the Ionic . Yet all architects have not followed that [ principle ] , shown in Vitruvius 's text ... accordingly I have made use , at the palace of Her Majesty the Queen , of the Ionic order , on the view that it is delicate and of greater beauty than the Doric , and more ornamented and enriched with distinctive features .
Catherine de ' Medici was closely involved in planning and supervising the building . De l 'Orme records , for example , that she told him to take down some Ionic columns that struck her as too plain . She also insisted on large panels between the dormers to make room for inscriptions . Only a part of de l 'Orme 's scheme was ever built : the lower section of a central pavilion , containing an oval staircase , and a wing on either side . Though work on de l 'Orme 's design was abandoned in 1572 , two years after his death , it is nonetheless held in high regard . According to Thomson , " The surviving portions of the palace scattered between the Tuileries gardens , the courtyards of the Ecole des Beaux @-@ Arts [ Paris ] and the Château de la Punta in Corsica show that the columns , pilasters , dormers and tabernacles of the Tuileries were the outstanding masterpieces of non @-@ figurative French Renaissance architectural sculpture " .
De l 'Orme 's original plans have not survived . Jacques Androuet du Cerceau , however , has left us a set of plans for the Tuileries . One engraving shows a grandiose palace , with three courts and two oval halls . This design is atypical of de l 'Orme 's style and so is likely to have been du Cerceau 's own proposal or his son Baptiste 's . It recalls the houses with tall pavilions and multiple courtyards that du Cerceau often drew in the 1560s and 1570s . Architectural historian David Thomson suggests that the oval halls within du Cerceau 's courtyards were Catherine de ' Medici 's idea . She may have planned to use them for her famously lavish balls and entertainments . Du Cerceau 's drawings reveal that , before he published them in 1576 , Catherine decided to join the Louvre to the Tuileries by a gallery running west along the north bank of the Seine . Only the ground floor of the first section , the Petite Galerie , was completed in her lifetime . It was left to Henry IV , who ruled from 1589 to 1610 , to add the second floor and the Grande Galerie that finally linked the two palaces .
After de l 'Orme died in 1570 , Catherine abandoned his design for a freestanding house with courtyards . To his unfinished wing she added a pavilion that extended the building towards the river . This was built in a less experimental style by Jean Bullant . Bullant attached columns to his pavilion , as advocated in his 1564 book on the classical orders , to mark proportion . Some commentators have interpreted his different approach as a criticism of de l 'Orme 's departures from the style of Roman monuments .
Despite its unfinished state , Catherine often visited the palace . She held banquets and festivities there and loved to walk in the gardens . According to the French military leader Marshal Tavannes , it was in the Tuileries gardens that she planned the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre , in which thousands of Huguenots were butchered in Paris . The gardens had been laid out before work on the palace halted . They included canals , fountains , and a grotto decorated with glazed animals by the potter Bernard Palissy . In 1573 , Catherine hosted the famous entertainment at the Tuileries that is depicted on the Valois tapestries . This was a grand ball for the Polish envoys who had come to offer the crown of Poland to her son , the duke of Anjou , later Henry III of France . Henry IV later added to the Tuileries ; but Louis XVI was to dismantle sections of the palace . The communards set fire to the remainder in 1871 . Twelve years later , the ruins were demolished and then sold off .
= = Saint @-@ Maur = =
The palace of Saint @-@ Maur @-@ des @-@ Fossés , south east of Paris , was another of Catherine 's unfinished projects . She bought this building , on which Philibert de l 'Orme had worked , from the heirs of Cardinal Jean du Bellay , after the latter 's death in 1560 . She then commissioned de l 'Orme to finish the work he had begun there . Drawings by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau in the British Museum may shed light on Catherine 's intentions for Saint @-@ Maur . They show a plan to enlarge each wing by doubling the size of the pavilions next to the main block of the house . The house was to stay as one storey , with a flat roof and rusticated pilasters . That meant the extensions would not unbalance the masses of the building as seen from the side .
De l 'Orme died in 1570 ; in 1575 an unknown architect took over at Saint @-@ Maur . The new man proposed to heighten the pavilions on the garden side and top them with pitched roofs . He also planned two more arches over de l 'Orme 's terrace , which joined the pavilions on the garden side . In historian R. J. Knecht 's view , the scheme would have given this part of the house , a " colossal , even grotesque " pediment . The work was only partly carried out , and the house was never fit for Catherine to live in .
= = Hôtel de la Reine = =
After de l 'Orme 's death , Jean Bullant replaced him as Catherine 's chief architect . In 1572 , Catherine commissioned Bullant to build a new home for her within the Paris city walls . She had outgrown her apartments at the Louvre and needed more room for her swelling household . To make space for the new scheme and its gardens , she had an entire area of Paris demolished .
The new palace was known in Catherine 's time as the Hôtel de la Reine and later as the Hôtel de Soissons . Engravings made by Israël Silvestre in about 1650 and a plan from about 1700 show that the Hôtel de la Reine possessed a central wing , a courtyard , and gardens . The walled gardens of the hôtel included an aviary , a lake with a water jet , and long avenues of trees . Catherine also installed an orangery that could be dismantled in winter . The actual construction work was carried out after Bullant 's death in 1582 . The building was demolished in the 1760s . All that remains of the Hôtel de la Reine today is a single Doric column , known as the Colonne de l 'Horoscope or Medici column , which stood in the courtyard . It can be seen next to the domed Bourse de commerce . Catherine 's biographer Leonie Frieda has called it " a poignant reminder of the fleeting nature of power " .
= = Chenonceau = =
In 1576 , Catherine decided to enlarge her château of Chenonceau , near Blois . On Henry II 's death , she had demanded this property from Henry 's mistress Diane de Poitiers . She had not forgotten that Henry had given this crown property to Diane instead of to her . In return , she gave Diane the less prized Chaumont . When Diane arrived at Chaumont , she found signs of the occult , such as pentangles drawn on the floor . She quickly withdrew to her château of Anet and never set foot in Chaumont again .
Diane had carried out major works at Chenonceau , such as de l 'Orme 's bridge over the Cher River . Now Catherine set out to efface or outdo her former rival 's work . She lavished vast sums on the house and built two galleries on the extension over the bridge . The architect was almost certainly Bullant . The decorations show the fantasy of his late style .
Catherine loved gardens and often conducted business in them . At Chenonceau , she added waterfalls , menageries , and aviaries , laid out three parks , and planted mulberry trees for silkworms . Jacques Androuet du Cerceau made drawings of a grandiose scheme for Chenonceau . A trapezoidal lower court leads to a forecourt of semicircular atria joined to two halls that flank the original house . These drawings may not be a reliable record of Bullant 's plans . Du Cerceau " sometimes inserted in his book designs embodying ideas which he himself would have liked to see carried out rather than those of the actual designer of the building in question " .
Jacques Androuet du Cerceau was a favourite architect of Catherine 's . Like Bullant , he became a more fantastical designer with time . Nothing he built himself , however , has survived . He is known instead for his engravings of the leading architectural schemes of the day , including Saint @-@ Maur , the Tuileries , and Chenonceau . In 1576 and 1579 , he produced the two @-@ volume Les Plus Excellents Bastiments de France , a beautiful publication dedicated to Catherine . His work is an invaluable record of buildings that were never finished or were later substantially altered .
= = End of the dynasty = =
Catherine spent ruinous sums of money on buildings at a time of plague , famine , and economic hardship in France . As the country slipped deeper into anarchy , her plans grew ever more ambitious . Yet the Valois monarchy was crippled by debt and its moral authority was in steep decline . The popular view condemned Catherine 's building schemes as obscenely extravagant . This was especially true in Paris , where the parlement was often asked to contribute to her costs .
Ronsard captured the mood in a poem :
Ronsard was in many ways proved correct . The death of Catherine 's beloved son Henry III in 1589 , a few months after her own , brought the Valois dynasty to an end . Precious little of Catherine 's grand building work has survived .
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= Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) =
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey , from her twelfth studio album Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . It was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Carey , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , James " Big Jim " Wright and The @-@ Dream . Due to the success of her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) , and its lead single " Touch My Body " , Carey had planned to embark on an extensive tour in support of the effort , but poor charting subsequent singles from the album prompted a halt on promotion by her label , Island Records . It was also rumored that Carey had become pregnant and miscarried , though she never addressed it until late 2010 . She began to work on her twelfth studio effort , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel throughout 2009 , and it was released later on in the year . In October 2010 , Carey revealed that she had in fact been pregnant in late 2008 , and that was the reason why tour plans were cancelled .
The song was recorded at several recording locations , including The Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California , the Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas , Nevada and at Honeywest Studios in New York City . The lyrics revolve around the idea of outing a cheating boyfriend publicly on television , and Carey makes a reference to Oprah Winfrey and her chat show . " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " garnered mixed responses from music critics . Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine wrote that the song was " promising , " however , Jon Caramanica for The New York Times criticized the song 's lackluster arrangement and Carey 's vocal execution . Upon the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , the song peaked at number 66 on the US Hot Digital Songs chart in October 2009 , and remained on the chart for a total of two weeks .
= = Background = =
After Carey finished her The Adventures of Mimi Tour ( 2006 ) in support of her tenth studio album The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) , she began to work on material for her eleventh studio effort , the yet untitled E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . E = MC ² was hailed as one of the most anticipated albums to be released in 2008 , with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success , following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi . After the release and success of " Touch My Body " , the project 's lead single , subsequent singles of the album failed to garner airplay or significant charting , Island Records halted promotion of the album . Since the album 's release , Carey had planned to embark on an extensive tour in support of E = MC ² , describing its production and direction in several interviews . When asked to describe the tour 's theme , Carey explained " I 'm thinking elaborate . I like elaborate . We only do substantial . That 's what my jeweler says . I haven 't gotten the looks in mind just yet , but we 're going to figure it out soon enough . " Althoguh plans for a tour were underway , and Carey 's announcement for a tour during her promotional appearance on The X Factor in the United Kingdom in November 2008 , the tour was suddenly cancelled in the following month .
Because of the tour 's cancellation , various media outlets circulated speculation that Carey had become pregnant , and had abandoned her plans for a tour as a result . Many reports were made claiming that Carey had been visiting a famed gynecologist 's office in Los Angeles . Carey did not address those rumours until two years later on October 28 , 2010 , which was the same day she announced her new pregnancy ; she admitted that she had indeed been pregnant during that time period in late 2008 , and suffered a miscarriage . For that reason , she cancelled the tour , and lost the child only two months later . Carey later opted to record a new album , that would be released during the summer of 2009 . During the later stages of the project , Carey released the title , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , that would serve as the singer 's twelfth studio album .
= = Production = =
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " was co @-@ written by Carey , Christopher Stewart , James Wright and Terius Nash . It was also produced by the foursome , with Stewart credited as Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Wright as James " Big Jim " Wright and Nash as The @-@ Dream . It was recorded by Brian Garten and Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California , Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas , Nevada and Honeywest Studios , New York City . Luis Navarro served as Garten and " B @-@ Luv " ' s recording assistant . Additional engineering was carried out by Andrew Wuepper . It was mixed by Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pencado at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California . They were assisted in the process by Giancarlo Lino . Keys and Hammond B3 were performed by " Big Jim " and " Tricky " Stewart .
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " is the opening song on the album , and lasts for a duration of 4 minutes exactly . As the album 's opening track , Carey sing 's " Welcome to a day of my life " as the first line of the song , as she begins to sing about the downfalls and shortcomings of love . According to Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine , Carey sings in a taunting , schoolyard nature when she performs the lyrics " I 'm gon ' la @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la @-@ laugh . " The song 's lyrical content revolves around the protagonist getting a their own back to their estranged and cheating lover publicly on TV , as Carey sings " Oprah Winfrey whole segment , for real . " Becky Bain for Idolator interpretation of the lyrics were that it is from a female perspective who sings about an adulterous man . The remix featuring R. Kelly leaked in July 2011 , and draws influence from R & B. In 2014 , Carey announced that the remix would appear on her upcoming fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , as a deluxe edition bonus track .
= = Critical reception = =
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " garnered mixed responses from music critics . Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine wrote that " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " is a " promising " song . James Reed for the Boston Globe was complimentary of the song because he felt that the first half of the track list better represented Carey , writing " halfway in , ' Memoirs ' starts to sag under its own weight , and the sweetness that initially was so irresistible starts to get a little too sticky . " Jon Caramanica for The New York Times was critical of the song , noting that her collaborators of choice on the album have delivered " largely listless arrangements " , writing that Carey is " mumbling " on " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " . He likened her singing style on the song to other tracks on the album " Ribbon " and " Insepareable " , writing that " talk @-@ singing " is usually " the preserve of far worse singers . " When the " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " remix featuring R. Kelly surfaced online , Becky Bain for Idolator wrote that the " stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness , the various voices for multiple players , the cheating plotline " is a reworking of his series of songs entitled Trapped in the Closet ( 2005 ) .
= = Format = =
Album version ( download as an album track from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel )
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " - 4 : 00
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at The Boom Boom Room , Burbank , California ; Studio at the Palms , Las Vegas , Nevada and Honeywest Studios , New York City .
Mixed at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California .
Personnel
Songwriting – Mariah Carey , Christopher Stewart , James Wright and Terius Nash
Production – Mariah Carey , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , James " Big Jim " Wright and The @-@ Dream
Recording – Brian Garten and Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas
Recording assistant – Luis Navarro
Mixing – Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pencado
Assistant mixing – Giancarlo Lino
Keys and Hammond B3 – " Big Jim " and " Tricky " Stewart
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " debuted and peaked at number 66 on the US Hot Digital Songs chart on October 17 , 2009 . The song spent two weeks on the chart in total . It debuted at number three and peaked at number one on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Remix featuring R. Kelly = =
Following the announcement of plans for the Angels Advocate Tour in support of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , Carey revealed that she was going to release a remix album of the standard edition , including new featured artists and songs from the album 's recording sessions which did not make the final cut . American singer @-@ songwriter R. Kelly was confirmed to be the featured artist on the remix of " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " . Angels Advocate had been planned to be released in March 2010 , but for unknown reasons was cancelled . The remix featuring R. Kelly , with the shortened title of " Betcha Gon ' Know " , was included as a deluxe edition bonus track on her fourteenth studio album Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , which was released on May 27 , 2014 . Upon the release of the album , " Betcha Gon ' Know ' " debuted on the South Korean International Gaon Single Chart at number 67 for the week ending May 31 , 2014 .
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= USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) =
USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) , the second United States Navy ship to be named after the 36th state , was the lead ship of the two Nevada @-@ class battleships ; her sister ship was Oklahoma . Launched in 1914 , the Nevada was a leap forward in dreadnought technology ; four of her new features would be included on almost every subsequent US battleship : triple gun turrets , oil in place of coal for fuel , geared steam turbines for greater range , and the " all or nothing " armor principle . These features made Nevada the first US Navy " super @-@ dreadnought " .
Nevada served in both World Wars : during the last few months of World War I , Nevada was based in Bantry Bay , Ireland , to protect the supply convoys that were sailing to and from Great Britain . In World War II , she was one of the battleships trapped when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . She was the only battleship to get underway during the attack , making the ship " the only bright spot in an otherwise dismal and depressing morning " for the United States . Still , she was hit by one torpedo and at least six bombs while steaming away from Battleship Row , forcing her to be beached . Subsequently salvaged and modernized at Puget Sound Navy Yard , Nevada served as a convoy escort in the Atlantic and as a fire @-@ support ship in four amphibious assaults : the Normandy Landings and the invasions of Southern France , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa .
At the end of World War II , the Navy decided that Nevada was too old to be retained , so they assigned her to be a target ship in the atomic experiments that were going to be conducted at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 ( Operation Crossroads ) . After being hit by the blast from the first atomic bomb , Able , she was still afloat but heavily damaged and radioactive . She was decommissioned on 29 August 1946 and sunk during naval gunfire practice on 31 July 1948 .
= = Design = =
Being the first second @-@ generation battleship in the US Navy , Nevada has been described as " revolutionary " and " as radical as Dreadnought was in her day " by present @-@ day historians . At the time of her completion in 1916 , the New York Times remarked that the new warship was " the greatest [ battleship ] afloat " because she was so much larger than other contemporary American battleships : her tonnage was nearly three times that of the obsolete 1890 pre @-@ dreadnought Oregon , almost twice that of the 1904 battleship Connecticut , and almost 8 @,@ 000 long tons ( 8 @,@ 100 t ) greater than that of one of the first American dreadnoughts , Delaware , which had been built just seven years prior to Nevada .
Nevada was the first battleship in the US Navy to have triple gun turrets , a single funnel , and an oil @-@ fired steam power plant . In particular , using oil gave the ship an engineering advantage over the earlier coal @-@ fired plants , as oil is much more efficient than coal because it yields " a far greater steaming radius for a given amount of fuel " . Nevada was also the first US battleship with geared turbines , also increasing fuel economy and thus range compared to earlier direct drive turbines . The ability to steam great distances without refueling was a major concern of the General Board at that time . In 1903 , the Board felt all American battleships should have a minimum steaming radius of 6 @,@ 000 nmi ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) so that the US could enforce the Monroe Doctrine . One of the main purposes of the Great White Fleet , which sailed around the world in 1907 – 1908 , was to prove to Japan that the US Navy could " carry any naval conflict into Japanese home waters " . Possibly as a result of this , battleships after 1908 were mainly designed to " steam 8 @,@ 000 miles at cruising speeds " ; given the distance between San Pedro , where the fleet would be based , and Manila , where the Fleet was expected to have to fight under War Plan Orange , was 6 @,@ 550 nmi ( 7 @,@ 540 mi ; 12 @,@ 130 km ) , endurance was obviously a major concern for the U.S. Navy . Also , oil allowed for the boiler @-@ room crew to be reduced — the engineer on Delaware estimated that 100 firemen ( stokers ) and 112 coal passers could be adequately replaced by just 24 men , which would allow some crew 's quarters to be eliminated ; this would save weight and also reduce the amount of fresh water and provisions that the ship would have to carry .
In addition to all of this , Nevada had maximum armor over critical areas , such as the magazines and engines , and none over less important places , even though previous battleships had armor of varying thickness depending on the importance of the area it was protecting . This radical change became known as the " all or nothing " principle , which most major navies later adopted for their own battleships . With this new armor scheme , the armor on the battleship was increased to 41 @.@ 1 % of the displacement .
As a result of all of these design modifications from previous battleships , Nevada was the first of the US Navy 's " Standard " type battleships . " Standards " were characterized by the use of oil fuel , the " all or nothing " armor scheme , and the arrangement of the main armament in four triple or twin turrets without any turrets located in the middle of the ship . The Navy was to create a fleet of modern battleships similar in long @-@ range gunnery , speed , turning radius , and protection . " Nevada " was followed by 11 other battleships of this type , although significant improvements were made in subsequent designs as naval technology rapidly progressed . An additional seven standard type battleships , the USS Washington ( BB @-@ 47 ) and the South Dakota class were never completed due to the Washington Naval Treaty .
The two battleships of the Nevada @-@ class were virtually identical except in their propulsion . Nevada and her sister were fitted with different engines to compare the two , putting them ' head @-@ to @-@ head ' : Oklahoma received older vertical triple expansion engines , which had proven more fuel @-@ efficient and reliable than the direct drive turbines of some earlier battleships , while Nevada received geared Curtis steam turbines .
= = Construction and trials = =
Nevada 's construction was authorized by an Act of Congress on 4 March 1911 . The contract went to Fore River Shipbuilding Company on 22 January 1912 for a total of $ 5 @,@ 895 @,@ 000 ( not including the armor and armament ) , and the time of construction was originally to be 36 months . A secondary contract was signed on 31 July 1912 for $ 50 @,@ 000 to cover the additional cost of a geared cruising unit on each propeller shaft ; this also extended the planned construction time by five months . Her keel was laid down on 4 November 1912 , and by 12 August 1914 , the ship was 72 @.@ 4 % complete . Nevada was launched on 11 July 1914 ; she was sponsored by Miss Eleanor Anne Seibert , niece of Governor Tasker Oddie of Nevada and a descendant of the first Secretary of the Navy , Benjamin Stoddert . The launch was attended by several prominent members of the government , including Governor Oddie , Governor David I. Walsh of Massachusetts , Senator Key Pittman of Nevada , Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt , who would later become the 32nd President of the United States .
Nevada then had to undergo many different tests and trials prior to her commissioning to ensure that she met the terms of the original contract . These began on 4 November 1915 , when the ship conducted a twelve @-@ hour endurance run " up and down the New England coast " , reaching a top speed of 21 @.@ 4 kn ( 24 @.@ 6 mph ; 39 @.@ 6 km / h ) . Though her " acceptance trials " were interrupted on 5 November because of a gale and rough seas , they were continued on the 6th with a test of her fuel economy ; this consisted of a 24 @-@ hour run where Nevada steamed at 10 kn ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . The test results were positive : the oil consumption of the battlewagon was 6 lb per knot lower than the contract had demanded . Another test was conducted for 12 hours at 15 kn ( 17 mph ; 28 km / h ) , with an even better result of 10 lb per knot lower than the contract specifications . After completing all of these tests and running trials off Rockland , Maine , Nevada sailed to the Boston and New York Navy Yards for equipment , torpedo tubes , and ammunition hoists . When all of the preliminaries were completed , Nevada was commissioned on 11 March 1916 at the Charlestown Navy Yard , and William S. Sims was the first captain of the new ship .
= = World War I = =
After fitting out in the Boston and New York Navy Yards , Nevada joined the Atlantic Fleet in Newport , Rhode Island on 26 May 1916 . Prior to the United States ' entry into World War I , she conducted many training cruises and underwent many exercises out of her base in Norfolk , Virginia , sailing as far south as the Caribbean on these cruises . The US entered the war in April 1917 , but Nevada was not sent to the other side of the Atlantic because of a shortage of fuel oil in Britain . Instead , four coal @-@ fired battleships of Battleship Division 9 ( BatDiv 9 ) ( Delaware , Florida , Wyoming , and New York ) departed the US to join the British Grand Fleet on 25 November 1917 . They arrived on 7 December and were designated as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet . Texas joined them after damage from a grounding on Block Island was repaired ; she departed on 30 January and arrived in Scotland on 11 February . It was not until 13 August 1918 that Nevada left the US for Britain , becoming the last American ship to join the Fleet overseas .
After a 10 @-@ day voyage , she arrived in Berehaven , Ireland , on 23 August . Along with Utah and her sister Oklahoma , the three were nicknamed the " Bantry Bay Squadron " ; officially , they were BatDiv 6 under the command of Rear Admiral Thomas S. Rodgers , who chose Utah as his flagship . For the rest of the war , the three ships operated from the bay , escorting the large and valuable convoys bound for the British Isles to ensure no German heavy surface ships could slip past the British Grand Fleet and annihilate the merchant ships and their weak escorts of older cruisers . This never came to pass , and the war ended on 11 November with Nevada not getting a chance to engage an enemy during the war .
On 13 December 10 battleships , including Nevada , and 28 destroyers escorted the ocean liner George Washington , with president Woodrow Wilson embarked , into Brest , France , during the last day of Wilson 's journey to the country so he could attend the Paris Peace Conference . The flotilla met George Washington and her escorts ( Pennsylvania and four destroyers ) just off Brest and escorted them into the port . The 10 battleships sailed for home at 14 : 00 on the next day , 14 December . They took less than two weeks to cross the Atlantic , and arrived in New York on 26 December to parades and celebrations .
= = Interwar period = =
Between the two World Wars , Nevada served in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets . Though she had originally been equipped with 21 five @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 cal guns to defend against enemy destroyers , this number was reduced to 12 in 1918 , due to the overly wet bow and stern positions of the other nine .
Along with Arizona , Nevada represented the United States at the Peruvian Centennial Exposition in July 1921 . A year later , in company with Maryland this time , she returned to South America as an escort to the steamer Pan America with Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes embarked ; they all attended the Centennial of Brazilian Independence in Rio de Janeiro , celebrated from 5 to 11 September 1922 . The New York Times later credited the crew of Nevada for bringing baseball and that sport 's unique terminology to Brazil , allowing the country to " make the Yankee game an institution of their own " . Three years later , from July – September 1925 , Nevada took part in the US Fleet 's " goodwill cruise " to Australia and New Zealand . During this cruise , the ships had only limited replenishment opportunities , but they still made it to Australia and back without undue difficulty . This demonstrated to those allies and Japan that the US Navy had the ability to conduct transpacific operations and meet the Imperial Japanese Navy in their home waters , where both Japanese and American war plans expected the " decisive battle " to be fought , if it should come .
After the cruise , Nevada was modernized at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard between August 1927 and January 1930 , with the exchange of her " basket " masts for tripod masts and her steam turbines for those from the recently stricken battleship North Dakota . These were geared turbines that had been retrofitted to North Dakota in 1917 , replacing her original direct drive turbines to increase her range . Additionally , many different adaptations and additions were made : her main guns ' elevation was increased to 30 ° ( which upped the range of the guns from 23 @,@ 000 yd ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) to 34 @,@ 000 yd ( 31 @,@ 100 m ) ) , anti @-@ torpedo bulges were added , her 12 original Yarrow boilers were replaced with 6 more efficient Bureau Express boilers in a new arrangement to accommodate those bulges , two catapults were added for three Vought O2U @-@ 3 Corsair biplane spotter aircraft , eight 5 in ( 127 mm ) / 25 cal AA guns were added , a new superstructure was installed , and her 5 inch ( 127 mm ) 51 cal secondary battery was relocated above the hull in an arrangement similar to that of the New Mexico class . Nevada then served in the Pacific Fleet for the next eleven years .
= = World War II = =
= = = Attack on Pearl Harbor = = =
When the weekend of 6 – 7 December arrived , all of the Pacific Fleet 's battleships were in port for the weekend for the first time since 4 July . Normally they took turns spending time in port — six would be out with Vice Admiral William S. Pye 's battleship Task Force One one weekend , while the next weekend would find three ranging with Vice Admiral William Halsey , Jr . ' s aircraft carrier task force . However , because Halsey could not afford to take the slow battleships with his fast carriers on his dash to reinforce Wake Island 's Marine detachment with fighters and because it was Pye 's turn to rest in port and the harbor was where it was considered safe , none of the battleships were sailing on that morning . When the sun rose over Nevada on the 7th , the ship 's band was playing " Morning Colors " ; but planes then appeared on the horizon and the attack on Pearl Harbor began .
Aft of Arizona during the attack , Nevada was not moored alongside another battleship off Ford Island , and therefore was able to maneuver , unlike the other seven battleships present . The Officer of the Deck , Ensign Joe Taussig ( son of the admiral of the same name ) , had earlier that morning ordered a second boiler lit off , planning to switch the power load from one boiler to the other around 0800 . As Nevada 's gunners opened fire and her engineers started to raise steam , a single 18 in ( 460 mm ) Type 91 Mod 2 torpedo exploded against Frame 41 about 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) above the keel at 0810 . Seconds later , the same Kate torpedo bomber that dropped the torpedo was shot down by the Nevada 's gunners . The torpedo bulkhead held , but leaking through joints caused flooding of port side compartments below the first platform deck between frames 30 and 43 and a list of 4 – 5 ° . Her damage control crew corrected the list by counter @-@ flooding and Nevada got underway at 0840 , her gunners already having shot down four planes . Ensign Taussig 's efficiency paid off , likely saving his ship , but he lost a leg in the attack .
Nevada became a prime target for Japanese Val dive bombers during the second wave . Japanese pilots intended to sink her in the channel ostensibly to block the harbor . Tactically target selection was wrong as 14 – 18 dive bombers attacking her wouldn 't be able to sink a battleship with 250 kg bombs and the channel 's width of 1200 feet made the idea of bottling up the harbor impossible . As she steamed past Ten @-@ Ten Dock at about 09 : 50 , Nevada was struck by five bombs . One exploded over the crew 's galley at Frame 80 . Another struck the port director platform and exploded at the base of the stack on the upper deck . Yet another hit near No. 1 turret inboard from the port waterway and blew large holes in the upper and main decks . Two struck the forecastle near Frame 15 ; one passed out through the side of the second deck before exploding , but the other exploded within the ship near the gasoline tank ; leakage and vapors from this tank caused intense fires around the ship .
The gasoline fires that flared up around Turret 1 might have caused more critical damage if the main magazines had not been empty . For several days prior to the attack , all of the 14 @-@ inch @-@ gun ( 356 mm ) battleships had been replacing their standard @-@ weight main battery projectiles with a new heavier projectile that offered greater penetration and a larger explosive charge in exchange for a slight decrease in range . All of the older projectiles and powder charges had been removed from the magazines of Nevada , and the crew had taken a break after loading the new projectiles in anticipation of loading the new powder charges on Sunday .
As bomb damage became evident , Nevada was ordered to proceed to the west side of Ford Island to prevent her from sinking in deeper water . Instead , she was grounded off Hospital Point at 10 : 30 , with the help of Hoga and Avocet , though she managed to force down three planes before she struck the shore . Gasoline fires prevented damage control parties from containing flooding forward of the main torpedo defense system . Flooding the main magazine and counterflooding to keep the ship stable lowered the bow allowing water to enter the ship at the second deck level . Lack of watertight subdivision between the second and main decks from frame 30 to frame 115 allowed water entering through bomb holes in the forecastle to flow aft through the ship 's ventilation system to flood the dynamo and boiler rooms .
Over the course of the morning , Nevada suffered a total of 60 killed and 109 wounded . Two more men died aboard during salvage operations on 7 February 1942 when they were overcome by hydrogen sulfide gas from decomposing paper and meat . The ship suffered a minimum of six bomb hits and one torpedo hit , but " it is possible that as many as ten bomb hits may have been received , [ ... ] as certain damaged areas [ were ] of sufficient size to indicate that they were struck by more than one bomb . "
= = = Attu and D @-@ Day = = =
Nevada was refloated on 12 February 1942 and underwent temporary repairs at Pearl Harbor so she could get to Puget Sound Navy Yard for a major overhaul and modernization . This was completed in October 1942 , and it changed the old battleship 's appearance so she slightly resembled a South Dakota from a distance . Her 5 " / 51s and 5 " / 25s were replaced with sixteen 5 " / 38 caliber guns in new twin mounts . Nevada then sailed for Alaska , where she provided fire support from 11 – 18 May 1943 for the capture of Attu .
Nevada then departed for Norfolk Navy Yard in June for further modernization . After this was completed , Nevada went on Atlantic convoy duty . Old battleships such as Nevada were attached to many convoys across the Atlantic to guard against the chance that a German capital ship might head out to sea on a raiding mission .
After completing more convoy runs , Nevada set sail for the United Kingdom to prepare for the Normandy Invasion , arriving in April 1944 . Her float plane artillery observer pilots were temporarily assigned to VOS @-@ 7 flying Spitfires from RNAS Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent ( HMS Daedalus ) . She was chosen as Rear Admiral Morton Deyo 's flagship for the operation . During the invasion , Nevada supported forces ashore from 6 – 17 June , and again on 25 June ; during this time , she employed her guns against shore defenses on the Cherbourg Peninsula , " [ seeming ] to lean back as [ she ] hurled salvo after salvo at the shore batteries . " Shells from her guns ranged as far as 17 nmi ( 20 mi ; 31 km ) inland in attempts to break up German concentrations and counterattacks , even though she was straddled by counterbattery fire 27 times ( though never hit ) . Nevada was later praised for her " incredibly accurate " fire in support of beleaguered troops , as some of the targets she hit were just 600 yd ( 550 m ) from the front line . Nevada was the only battleship present at both Pearl Harbor and the Normandy landings .
= = = Southern France and Iwo Jima = = =
After D @-@ Day , the Allies headed to Toulon for another amphibious assault , codenamed Operation Dragoon . To support this , many ships were sent from the beaches of Normandy to the Mediterranean , including five battleships ( the United States ' Nevada , Texas , Arkansas , the British Ramillies , and the Free French Lorraine ) , three US heavy cruisers ( Augusta , Tuscaloosa and Quincy ) , and many destroyers and landing craft were transferred south .
Nevada supported this operation from 15 August to 25 September 1944 , " dueling " with " Big Willie " : a heavily reinforced fortress with four 340 mm ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin turrets . These guns had been salvaged from the French battleship Provence after the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon ; the guns had a range of nearly 19 nautical miles ( 35 km ) and they commanded every approach to the port of Toulon . In addition , they were fortified with heavy armor plate bedded into the rocky sides of the island of Saint Mandrier . Due to these dangers , the fire @-@ support ships assigned to the operation were ordered to level the fortress . Beginning on 19 August , and continuing on subsequent days , one or more heavy warships bombarded it in conjunction with low @-@ level bomber strikes . On the 23rd , a bombardment force headed by Nevada struck the " most damaging " blow to the fort during a 6 ½ hour battle , which saw 354 salvos fired by Nevada . Toulon fell on the 25th , but the fort , though it was " coming apart at the seams " , held out for three more days .
Nevada then headed to New York to have her gun barrels relined . In addition , her 14 " / 45 caliber guns ( 356 mm ) from Turret 1 were replaced with the Mark 8 guns from turret 2 of Arizona ; these new guns were relined to Mark 12 specifications . After that was completed , she sailed for the Pacific , arriving off Iwo Jima on 16 February 1945 to " [ prepare ] the island for invasion with heavy bombardment " ; which she did through 7 March . During the invasion , she moved to be within 600 yd ( 550 m ) from shore to provide maximum firepower for the troops that were advancing .
= = = Okinawa and Japan = = =
On 24 March 1945 , Nevada joined Task Force 54 ( TF 54 ) , the " Fire Support Force " , off Okinawa as pre @-@ invasion bombardment began . The ships of TF 54 then moved into position on the night of the 23rd , beginning their bombardment missions at dawn on the 24th . Along with the rest of the force , Nevada shelled Japanese airfields , shore defenses , supply dumps , and troop concentrations . However , after the fire support ships retired for the night , dawn " came up like thunder " when seven kamikazes attacked the force while it was without air cover . One plane , though hit repeatedly by antiaircraft fire from the force , crashed onto the main deck of Nevada , next to turret No. 3 . It killed 11 and wounded 49 ; it also knocked out both 14 in ( 360 mm ) guns in that turret and three 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft weapons . Another two men were lost to fire from a shore battery on 5 April . Until 30 June , she was stationed off Okinawa ; she then departed to join the 3rd Fleet from 10 July to 7 August , which allowed Nevada to come within range of the Japanese home islands during the closing days of the war , though she did not bombard them .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Nevada then returned to Pearl Harbor after a brief stint of occupation duty in Tokyo Bay . Nevada was surveyed and , at 32 ⅓ years old , was deemed too old to be kept in the post @-@ war fleet . As a result , she was assigned to be a target ship in the first Bikini atomic experiments ( Operation Crossroads ) of July 1946 . The experiment consisted of detonating two atomic bombs to test their effectiveness against ships . Nevada was the bombardier 's target for the first test , codenamed ' Able ' , which used an air @-@ dropped weapon . To help distinguish the target from surrounding vessels , Nevada was painted a reddish @-@ orange . However , even with the high @-@ visibility color scheme , the bomb fell about 1 @,@ 700 yd ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) off @-@ target , exploding above the attack transport Gilliam instead . Due in part to the miss , Nevada survived . The ship also remained afloat after the second test — ' Baker ' , a detonation some 90 ft ( 27 m ) below the surface of the water — but was damaged and extremely radioactive from the spray . Nevada was later towed to Pearl Harbor and decommissioned on 29 August 1946 .
After she was thoroughly examined , Iowa and two other vessels used Nevada as a practice gunnery target on 31 July 1948 . The ships did not sink Nevada , so she was given a coup de grâce with an aerial torpedo hit amidships .
= = Awards = =
World War I Victory Medal with " ATLANTIC FLEET " and " GRAND FLEET " clasps
American Defense Service Medal with " FLEET " clasp
Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with five battle stars
American Campaign Medal
European @-@ African @-@ Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with two battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal with " ASIA " clasp
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= Sophocles =
Sophocles ( / ˈsɒfəkliːz / ; Greek : Σοφοκλῆς , Sophoklēs , Ancient Greek : [ so.pʰo.klɛ ̂ ːs ] ; c . 497 / 6 – winter 406 / 5 BC ) is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived . His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus , and earlier than or contemporary with those of Euripides . Sophocles wrote 120 plays during the course of his life , but only seven have survived in a complete form : Ajax , Antigone , The Women of Trachis , Oedipus the King , Electra , Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus . For almost 50 years , Sophocles was the most celebrated playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city @-@ state of Athens that took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia . He competed in 30 competitions , won 18 , and was never judged lower than second place . Aeschylus won 14 competitions , and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles , while Euripides won 5 competitions .
The most famous tragedies of Sophocles feature Oedipus and also Antigone : they are generally known as the Theban plays , although each play was actually a part of a different tetralogy , the other members of which are now lost . Sophocles influenced the development of the drama , most importantly by adding a third actor , thereby reducing the importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot . He also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus .
= = Life = =
Sophocles , the son of Sophilus , was a wealthy member of the rural deme ( small community ) of Hippeios Colonus in Attica , which was to become a setting for one of his plays , and he was probably born there . Sophocles was born a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC : the exact year is unclear , although 497 / 6 is the most likely . Sophocles was born into a wealthy family ( his father was an armour manufacturer ) and was highly educated . Sophocles ' first artistic triumph was in 468 BC , when he took first prize in the Dionysia theatre competition over the reigning master of Athenian drama , Aeschylus . According to Plutarch , the victory came under unusual circumstances . Instead of following the usual custom of choosing judges by lot , the archon asked Cimon and the other strategoi present to decide the victor of the contest . Plutarch further contends that following this loss Aeschylus soon left for Sicily . Although Plutarch says that this was Sophocles ' first production , it is now thought that his first production was probably in 470 BC . Triptolemus was probably one of the plays that Sophocles presented at this festival .
In 480 BC Sophocles was chosen to lead the paean ( a choral chant to a god ) , celebrating the Greek victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis . Early in his career , the politician Cimon might have been one of his patrons , although if he was , there was no ill will borne by Pericles , Cimon 's rival , when Cimon was ostracized in 461 BC . In 443 / 2 he served as one of the Hellenotamiai , or treasurers of Athena , helping to manage the finances of the city during the political ascendancy of Pericles . According to the Vita Sophoclis , in 441 BC he was elected one of the ten generals , executive officials at Athens , as a junior colleague of Pericles , and he served in the Athenian campaign against Samos ; he was supposed to have been elected to this position as the result of his production of Antigone .
In 420 BC , he welcomed and set up an altar for the image of Asclepius at his house , when the deity was introduced to Athens . For this , he was given the posthumous epithet Dexion ( receiver ) by the Athenians . He was also elected , in 413 BC , one of the commissioners ( probouloi ) who responded to the catastrophic destruction of the Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily during the Peloponnesian War .
Sophocles died at the age of ninety or ninety @-@ one in the winter of 406 / 5 BC , having seen within his lifetime both the Greek triumph in the Persian Wars and the bloodletting of the Peloponnesian War . As with many famous men in classical antiquity , his death inspired a number of apocryphal stories . The most famous is the suggestion that he died from the strain of trying to recite a long sentence from his Antigone without pausing to take a breath . Another account suggests he choked while eating grapes at the Anthesteria festival in Athens . A third holds that he died of happiness after winning his final victory at the City Dionysia . A few months later , a comic poet , in a play titled The Muses , wrote this eulogy : " Blessed is Sophocles , who had a long life , was a man both happy and talented , and the writer of many good tragedies ; and he ended his life well without suffering any misfortune . " According to some accounts , however , his own sons tried to have him declared incompetent near the end of his life ; he is said to have refuted their charge in court by reading from his as yet unproduced Oedipus at Colonus . One of his sons , Iophon , and a grandson , also called Sophocles , also became playwrights .
Several ancient sources mention Sophocles ' homosexuality or bisexuality . Athenaios reported that Sophocles loved boys like Euripides loved women . The poet Ion of Chios relates an anecdote involving Sophocles seducing a serving boy at a symposium , and Athenaios one in which Sophocles is tricked by a hustler .
= = Works and legacy = =
Among Sophocles ' earliest innovations was the addition of a third actor , which further reduced the role of the chorus and created greater opportunity for character development and conflict between characters . Aeschylus , who dominated Athenian playwriting during Sophocles ' early career , followed suit and adopted the third character into his own work towards the end of his life . Aristotle credits Sophocles with the introduction of skenographia , or scenery @-@ painting . It was not until after the death of the old master Aeschylus in 456 BC that Sophocles became the pre @-@ eminent playwright in Athens .
Thereafter , Sophocles emerged victorious in dramatic competitions at 18 Dionysia and 6 Lenaia festivals . In addition to innovations in dramatic structure , Sophocles ' work is also known for its deeper development of characters than earlier playwrights . His reputation was such that foreign rulers invited him to attend their courts , although unlike Aeschylus who died in Sicily , or Euripides who spent time in Macedon , Sophocles never accepted any of these invitations . Aristotle used Sophocles ' Oedipus the King in his Poetics ( c . 335 BC ) as an example of the highest achievement in tragedy , which suggests the high esteem in which his work was held by later Greeks .
Only two of the seven surviving plays can be dated securely : Philoctetes ( 409 BC ) and Oedipus at Colonus ( 401 BC , staged after Sophocles ' death by his grandson ) . Of the others , Electra shows stylistic similarities to these two plays , which suggests that it was probably written in the latter part of his career . Ajax , Antigone and The Trachiniae are generally thought to be among his early works , again based on stylistic elements , with Oedipus the King coming in Sophocles ' middle period . Most of Sophocles ' plays show an undercurrent of early fatalism and the beginnings of Socratic logic as a mainstay for the long tradition of Greek tragedy .
= = = Theban plays = = =
The Theban plays consist of three plays : Oedipus the King ( also called Oedipus Tyrannus or by its Latin title Oedipus Rex ) , Oedipus at Colonus and Antigone . All three plays concern the fate of Thebes during and after the reign of King Oedipus . They have often been published under a single cover . Sophocles , however , wrote the three plays for separate festival competitions , many years apart . Not only are the Theban plays not a true trilogy ( three plays presented as a continuous narrative ) but they are not even an intentional series and contain some inconsistencies among them . He also wrote other plays having to do with Thebes , such as the Epigoni , of which only fragments have survived .
= = = = Subjects = = = =
Each of the plays relates to the tale of the mythological Oedipus , who killed his father and married his mother without knowledge that they were his parents . His family is fated to be doomed for three generations .
In Oedipus the King , Oedipus is the protagonist . Oedipus ' infanticide is planned by his parents , Laius and Jocasta , to avert him from fulfilling a prophecy ; in truth , the servant entrusted with the infanticide passes the infant on through a series of intermediaries to a childless couple , who adopt him not knowing his history . Oedipus eventually learns of the Delphic Oracle 's prophecy of him , that he would kill his father and marry his mother ; Oedipus attempts to flee his fate without harming those he knows as his parents ( at this point , he does not know that he is adopted ) . Oedipus meets a man at a crossroads accompanied by servants ; Oedipus and the man fought , and Oedipus killed the man . ( This man was his father , Laius , not that anyone apart from the gods knew this at the time ) . He becomes the ruler of Thebes after solving the riddle of the sphinx and in the process , marries the widowed queen , his mother Jocasta . Thus the stage is set for horror . When the truth comes out , following from another true but confusing prophecy from Delphi , Jocasta commits suicide , Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes . At the end of the play , order is restored . This restoration is seen when Creon , brother of Jocasta , becomes king , and also when Oedipus , before going off to exile , asks Creon to take care of his children . Oedipus 's children will always bear the weight of shame and humiliation because of their father 's actions .
In Oedipus at Colonus , the banished Oedipus and his daughter Antigone arrive at the town of Colonus where they encounter Theseus , King of Athens . Oedipus dies and strife begins between his sons Polyneices and Eteocles .
In Antigone , the protagonist is Oedipus ' daughter , Antigone . She is faced with the choice of allowing her brother Polyneices ' body to remain unburied , outside the city walls , exposed to the ravages of wild animals , or to bury him and face death . The king of the land , Creon , has forbidden the burial of Polyneices for he was a traitor to the city . Antigone decides to bury his body and face the consequences of her actions . Creon sentences her to death . Eventually , Creon is convinced to free Antigone from her punishment , but his decision comes too late and Antigone commits suicide . Her suicide triggers the suicide of two others close to King Creon : his son , Haemon , who was to wed Antigone , and his wife , Eurydice , who commits suicide after losing her only surviving son .
= = = = Composition and inconsistencies = = = =
The plays were written across thirty @-@ six years of Sophocles ' career and were not composed in chronological order , but instead were written in the order Antigone , Oedipus the King , and Oedipus at Colonus . Nor were they composed as a trilogy – a group of plays to be performed together , but are the remaining parts of three different groups of plays . As a result , there are some inconsistencies : notably , Creon is the undisputed king at the end of Oedipus the King and , in consultation with Apollo , single @-@ handedly makes the decision to expel Oedipus from Thebes . Creon is also instructed to look after Oedipus ' daughters Antigone and Ismene at the end of Oedipus the King . By contrast , in the other plays there is some struggle with Oedipus ' sons Eteocles and Polynices in regard to the succession . In Oedipus at Colonus , Sophocles attempts to work these inconsistencies into a coherent whole : Ismene explains that , in light of their tainted family lineage , her brothers were at first willing to cede the throne to Creon . Nevertheless , they eventually decided to take charge of the monarchy , with each brother disputing the other 's right to succeed . In addition to being in a clearly more powerful position in Oedipus at Colonus , Eteocles and Polynices are also culpable : they consent ( l . 429 , Theodoridis , tr . ) to their father 's going to exile , which is one of his bitterest charges against them .
= = = Other plays = = =
In addition to the three Theban plays , there are four surviving plays by Sophocles : Ajax , The Women of Trachis , Electra , and Philoctetes , the last of which won first prize in 409 BC in which it competed .
Ajax focuses on the proud hero of the Trojan War , Telamonian Ajax , who is driven to treachery and eventually suicide . Ajax becomes gravely upset when Achilles ’ armor is presented to Odysseus instead of himself . Despite their enmity toward him , Odysseus persuades the kings Menelaus and Agamemnon to grant Ajax a proper burial .
The Women of Trachis ( named for the Trachinian women who make up the chorus ) dramatizes Deianeira 's accidentally killing Heracles after he had completed his famous twelve labors . Tricked into thinking it is a love charm , Deianeira applies poison to an article of Heracles ' clothing ; this poisoned robe causes Heracles to die an excruciating death . Upon learning the truth , Deianeira commits suicide .
Electra corresponds roughly to the plot of Aeschylus ' Libation Bearers . It details how Electra and Orestes ' avenge their father Agamemnon 's murder by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus .
Philoctetes retells the story of Philoctetes , an archer who had been abandoned on Lemnos by the rest of the Greek fleet while on the way to Troy . After learning that they cannot win the Trojan War without Philoctetes ' bow , the Greeks send Odysseus and Neoptolemus to retrieve him ; due to the Greeks ' earlier treachery , however , Philoctetes refuses to rejoin the army . It is only Heracles ' deus ex machina appearance that persuades Philoctetes to go to Troy .
= = = Fragmentary plays = = =
Although the list of over 120 titles of plays associated with Sophocles are known and presented below , little is known of the precise dating of most of them . Philoctetes is known to have been written in 409 BC , and Oedipus at Colonus is known to have only been performed in 401 BC , posthumously , at the initiation of Sophocles ' grandson . The convention on writing plays for the Greek festivals was to submit them in tetralogies of three tragedies along with one satyr play . Along with the unknown dating of the vast majority of over 120 play titles , it is also largely unknown how the plays were grouped . It is , however , known that the three plays referred to in the modern era as the " Theban plays " were never performed together in Sophocles ' own lifetime , and are therefore not a trilogy ( which they are sometimes erroneously seen as ) .
Fragments of Ichneutae ( Tracking Satyrs ) were discovered in Egypt in 1907 . These amount to about half of the play , making it the best preserved satyr play after Euripides ' Cyclops , which survives in its entirety . Fragments of the Epigoni were discovered in April 2005 by classicists at Oxford University with the help of infrared technology previously used for satellite imaging . The tragedy tells the story of the second siege of Thebes . A number of other Sophoclean works have survived only in fragments , including :
= = = Sophocles ' view of his own work = = =
There is a passage of Plutarch 's tract De Profectibus in Virtute 7 in which Sophocles discusses his own growth as a writer . A likely source of this material for Plutarch was the Epidemiae of Ion of Chios , a book that recorded many conversations of Sophocles . This book is a likely candidate to have contained Sophocles ' discourse on his own development because Ion was a friend of Sophocles , and the book is known to have been used by Plutarch . Though some interpretations of Plutarch 's words suggest that Sophocles says that he imitated Aeschylus , the translation does not fit grammatically , nor does the interpretation that Sophocles said that he was making fun of Aeschylus ' works . C. M. Bowra argues for the following translation of the line : " After practising to the full the bigness of Aeschylus , then the painful ingenuity of my own invention , now in the third stage I am changing to the kind of diction which is most expressive of character and best . "
Here Sophocles says that he has completed a stage of Aeschylus ' work , meaning that he went through a phase of imitating Aeschylus ' style but is finished with that . Sophocles ' opinion of Aeschylus was mixed . He certainly respected him enough to imitate his work early on in his career , but he had reservations about Aeschylus ' style , and thus did not keep his imitation up . Sophocles ' first stage , in which he imitated Aeschylus , is marked by " Aeschylean pomp in the language " . Sophocles ' second stage was entirely his own . He introduced new ways of evoking feeling out of an audience , as in his Ajax , when Ajax is mocked by Athene , then the stage is emptied so that he may commit suicide alone . Sophocles mentions a third stage , distinct from the other two , in his discussion of his development . The third stage pays more heed to diction . His characters spoke in a way that was more natural to them and more expressive of their individual character feelings .
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= Washington State Route 527 =
State Route 527 ( SR 527 , also known as the Bothell – Everett Highway ) is a state highway in Snohomish County , of the U.S. state of Washington . It extends 9 @.@ 23 miles ( 14 @.@ 85 km ) north from I @-@ 405 in the city of Bothell , Washington , to an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) , SR 99 , and SR 526 in Everett , Washington . SR 527 intersects SR 524 and SR 96 before ending in Everett . The route serves as a connector between Bothell , Everett , and Mill Creek .
The highway itself did not fully open until October 17 , 1969 , and , since its opening , has become increasingly congested , with about 57 @,@ 000 motorists using the highway at its interchange with I @-@ 405 in 2004 . A large construction project to widen the highway and put up sound walls ran from 1991 @-@ 2006 . A 2 @.@ 69 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 33 km ) section of the route was turned over to local authorities in 2011 .
= = Route description = =
SR 527 links the cities of Bothell , Everett , and Mill Creek , and intersects two highways : SR 524 , and SR 96 WSDOT has found that about 46 @,@ 000 motorists utilize the road daily at I @-@ 405 based on average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) data .
SR 527 starts at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 405 . From the interchange , the road heads northeast to Thrashers Corner , where SR 527 intersects SR 524 before moving on to pass Kennard Corner , Silver Creek Park , North Creek County Park , and Mays Pond Park . The highway then intersects 164th Street SE , a major arterial road , in Mill Creek . Beyond 164th Street SE , the road turns to the north , routing traffic past Mill Creek 's town center , Mill Creek Library and Library Park before intersecting a connector to SR 96 westbound . Following the connector , SR 527 intersects SR 96 and runs along the eastern shore of Silver Lake . The route then intersects 112th Street SE , which goes west to the South Everett Freeway Station . From 112th Street , the route continues north to the Eastmount Park and Ride , where it turns northwest toward an interchange with I @-@ 5 and then to an intersection with SR 99 , SR 526 , and Broadway , where it terminates . The road continues west from the intersection as SR 526 ( also known as the Boeing Freeway ) , leading to the Boeing Everett Factory , Paine Field , and Mukilteo , Washington . SR 99 runs south from the intersection to the Everett Mall , Seattle , and Fife . An extension of SR 99 , Broadway , continues north from the intersection into downtown Everett .
= = History = =
In 1923 , before the Primary and Secondary system , SR 527 was part of State Road 1 , which later became U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) . In 1937 , the route became part of Secondary State Highway 2A ( SSH 2A ) , but was later removed in 1943 , and readded as SSH 2J in 1957 . It went from PSH 2 BO ( Bothell branch ) in Bothell to SSH 1I and US 99 in Everett . SSH 2J became state highway during the 1964 highway renumbering , in which the Washington State Department of Transportation replaced the previous system of Primary and Secondary Highways with the system of State Routes in use today .
SR 527 officially opened on October 17 , 1969 , but eventually became overcrowded , with about 57 @,@ 000 motorists using the road at the I @-@ 405 interchange as of 2004 . To alleviate congestion , an expansion project began in 1991 that was completed in 2006 . The first stage of the project involved widening the road between 228th Street SE and SR @-@ 524 to five – seven lanes , as well as minor improvements at its interchange with I @-@ 405 . The second stage widened the roadway to five lanes between SR 524 and 164th Street , while the third widened the road between 164th Street SE and SR 96 . The fourth and most complex stage widened the road between SR 96 and 112th Street SE . This stage involved expanding the SR 527 / SR 96 intersection dramatically and raising the roadway near Silver Lake , along with numerous pedestrian and aesthetic improvements .
On May 4 , 2011 , Gov. Christine Gregoire signed into law HB 1520 which turned over the responsibility of a 2 @.@ 69 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 33 km ) section between I @-@ 405 and SR 522 from the state to the City of Bothell . The transferred section will be developed into a suburban multi @-@ way boulevard with pedestrian walkways and bikeways .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Snohomish County .
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= Hurricane Paul ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Paul was a hurricane that ultimately struck Mexico as a tropical depression in October 2006 . It developed from an area of disturbed weather on October 21 , and slowly intensified as it moved into an area of warm waters and progressively decreasing wind shear . Paul attained hurricane status on October 23 , and later that day it reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , a strong Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . A strong trough turned the hurricane to the north and northeast into an area of strong vertical shear , and Paul weakened to a tropical storm on October 24 . It accelerated northeastward , and after passing a short distance south of Baja California Sur the low level circulation became decoupled from the rest of the convection . Paul weakened to a tropical depression on October 25 a short distance off the coast of Mexico , and after briefly turning away from the coast it made landfall on northwestern Sinaloa on October 26 .
Paul was the third hurricane to threaten western Mexico in the season , the others being Hurricanes John and Lane . Rough surf killed two people along Baja California Sur , while flooding was reported in Sinaloa . Damage totaled more than $ 35 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 3 @.@ 2 million 2006 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on October 4 . It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on October 18 . The next day , it combined with a previously existing area of disturbed weather , resulting in a large area of convection extending northward into southern Mexico . The broad and disorganized system moved westward at 10 – 15 mph ( 16 – 24 km / h ) . On October 20 , the system developed an area of low pressure , and began to show signs of organization . It continued to organize , and developed into Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E on October 21 while located about 265 miles ( 425 km ) south @-@ southwest of Manzanillo . Upon forming , the depression possessed a small , tight low @-@ level circulation beneath a well @-@ defined mid @-@ level circulation . Easterly wind shear initially restricted upper @-@ level outflow as the cyclone moved to the west , a motion due to a subtropical ridge to its north .
The cloud pattern of the depression quickly became better organized as a curved band developed around intensifying deep convecltion , and it is estimated the system intensified into Tropical Storm Paul just six hours after forming . Easterly wind shear exposed the low level circulation to the east of the area of deep convection , though Paul continued to intensify as it moved through an area of warm waters and progressively weakening wind shear . The low level circulation gradually became more embedded within the convection as the cloud pattern improved . Computer models had troubles in forecasting the future of the storm early in its life ; the GFDL model forecast Paul to reach winds of 119 mph ( 191 km / h ) , while global models expected the system to dissipate in 48 – 72 hours . Early on October 22 , wind shear began to decrease , which coincided with an increase of outflow on its eastern side . The storm temporarily degraded in appearance as it turned to the northwest . However , shear sharply abated over Paul late on October 22 , resulting in the storm quickly gaining organization and intensifying . An eye began to develop within the convection , and Paul intensified into a hurricane early on October 23 .
Located in an area of warm water temperatures and light wind shear , Hurricane Paul continued to intensify and organize ; its well @-@ defined eye was surrounded by a ring of deep convection while outflow remained strong to the north and south . On October 23 , while located 465 miles ( 750 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Paul reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale . A large trough located off the west coast of California turned the hurricane to the north @-@ northwest , and later to the north . The combination of increasing shear and dry air quickly weakened Paul to a tropical storm on October 24 as its low @-@ level circulation became detached from the diminishing convection . The storm then turned to the northeast after passing near Socorro Island . Despite increasing wind shear of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , Paul remained a tropical storm while its circulation remained on the southwest side of its developing deep convection . Early on October 25 , the storm passed about 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . The circulation briefly became involved with the deep convection as it accelerated northeastward , though as it approached the coast of Sinaloa , the center again decoupled from the upper level circulation . Later that day , Paul weakened to a tropical depression a short distance off the coast of Mexico , and turned to the north . Early the next day , the depression , devoid of any deep convection , made landfall near Isla Altamura in northwestern Sinaloa . Hours later , the National Hurricane Center issued the last advisory on the dissipating tropical depression .
= = Preparations = =
As Paul became a hurricane , the government of Mexico issued a hurricane watch for Baja California Sur from Agua Blanca on the west coast to La Paz on the east coast . When a weakening trend was evident as the storm turned to the northeast , the hurricane watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning . 45 hours before the storm struck land , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch from Mazatlán to San Evaristo along the coast of Sinaloa . When Paul was expected to weaken to a tropical depression before landfall , the tropical storm watch for mainland Mexico was discontinued . When Paul retained tropical storm status for longer than expected , and was now expected to make landfall as a tropical storm , a tropical storm warning was issued from Mazatlán to Atlata , which was later discontinued as Paul weakened to a tropical depression .
Emergency officials near the southern tip of Baja California closed schools , while rescue workers ordered for the evacuation of more than 1 @,@ 500 people from shanty towns . Local police officers went door @-@ to @-@ door to inform the potentially affected residents . Buses carried the evacuated citizens to schools temporarily set up as shelters . A hotel in Cabo San Lucas informed its guests of the approaching storm , and organized indoor activities for those that stayed . Several tourists ended their vacations early and left through local airports . The threat of the storm closed the port at Cabo San Lucas , causing delays in a local fishing competition . In Sinaloa , authorities evacuated over 5 @,@ 000 families in risk of flooding .
= = Impact = =
The National Hurricane Center noted that the precursor disturbance had the potential to drop heavy rainfall which could result in life @-@ threatening flash flooding or mudslides in Oaxaca and Guerrero . However , no damage reports were received there .
In southern Baja California , a fisherman slipped off rocks due to strong seas , while an American tourist was swept out to sea due to rough surf ; both were killed . Two others were killed in Sinaloa when their truck was swept away by a swollen river . Paul was the third hurricane in the year to threaten Los Cabos , the others being John and Lane . The hurricane caused little damage in the area , only producing gusty winds and some rainfall . Paul dropped moderate rainfall across mainland Mexico , including a 24 @-@ hour total of 2 @.@ 3 inches ( 58 mm ) in Mazatlán , Sinaloa and over 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in isolated locations . The rainfall led to flooding , the worst of which occurred in Villa Juarez . There , a canal overflowed , while the rainfall flooded streets with up to 3 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 m ) of water . 5 @,@ 000 houses were damaged from the flooding , displacing 20 @,@ 000 people . The storm damaged more than 3 @,@ 700 acres ( 15 km2 ) of crop lands , primarily beans and corn . Damage totaled more than $ 35 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 3 @.@ 2 million 2006 USD ) .
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= Triumph International =
Triumph International is an international underwear manufacturer founded in 1886 in Heubach , Germany . The company 's headquarters has been located in Bad Zurzach since 1977 , and it has branches in 50 countries . In addition to the Triumph brand , the company produces and distributes the products under the brands sloggi and BeeDees . Triumph International has been an industry leader , particularly in women 's and sleepwear , since the 1960s . Shares of the German subsidiary have been traded on the stock exchange until 2011 .
= = History = =
In 1886 , Johann Gottfried Spiesshofer and Michael Braun founded a factory for the production of corsets in Heubach ( Baden @-@ Wurttemberg ) . They first employed six people on the same number of sewing machines . That number rose to 150 people in 1890 , and in 1894 their first exports were sent abroad , to England . It was only in 1902 that Spieshofer and Braun registered the Triumph brand , which was reminiscent of the Parisian Arc de Triomphe , to which International was later added . After the economic boom in the 1920s , demand for the classic corset declined , which is why the company began parallel production of brassieres . In the 1930s , Triumph International also began producing corselets .
In 1933 , the first foreign branch was set up in Bad Zurzach ( Switzerland ) . With the division of Germany in 1949 , the Triumph International brand continued in the German Democratic Republic , but business activities there came to a virtual standstill . However , the internationalization of the company continued in the following period and beginning in the 1950s , offices were opened in Belgium , Great Britain , Sweden , Norway and Austria . Triumph International further expanded in 1960 by establishing its Asia @-@ Pacific region headquarters in Hong Kong , and opening its first Japanese branch in 1963 . At the time , observers already described it as a " cunning web " of companies , some of which were registered in the tax havens of Liechtenstein and Bermuda . In the late 1960s , Triumph International 's market share for corsetry in Germany was about 50 percent .
At that time , the group had generated sales of 620 million Deutsche Mark and employed 22 @,@ 600 employees . In the mid @-@ 1960s Triumph International introduced broad scale electronic data processing . Due to the economic crisis , the company encountered significant difficulties for the first time at the beginning of the 1970s , meaning the company even had to introduce short @-@ term work . The crisis also affected the company ’ s tights sales , which they had begun in 1969 and discontinued only three years later . At the same time , Triumph International began for the first time to produce products from lighter fabrics with fibers such as nylon or lycra .
At the end of the 1970s , the new sloggi brand was introduced , under which underwear and other products with high cotton content were marketed . The company moved its headquarters from Germany to Switzerland in 1977 , and its holding has since been headquartered in Bad Zurzach . By 1986 , sales increased to 996 million Swiss francs and the number of employees fell slightly to 19 @,@ 000 employees . At the same time , sales began in the People 's Republic of China and beginning in 1988 , individual Triumph products were manufactured under license in East Germany for the local market . This included swimwear in addition to underwear .
With the takeover of two French name brands , HOM and Valisère , Triumph International ventured into the men 's underwear and high @-@ quality lingerie market . At the same time , the company announced in 1995 that in the future it would focus more on its Triumph umbrella brand , under which a number of brands would be classified . To that end , an advertising campaign was launched featuring Naomi Campbell and Helena Christensen . In the 1990s , Triumph International launched another phase of international expansion , and since 1998 it has been present on the subcontinent of India . In 2001 , its newest production facility opened in Dunaújváros ( Hungary ) . After the turn of the millennium , Triumph was one of the biggest textile manufacturers in terms of sales in the domestic market .
From 2008 to 2012 , the company hosted the Triumph Inspiration Awards , where lingerie designers were able to compete according to an annually changing theme . The entries were evaluated both by a jury and according to the votes by visitors to the competition website . In 2009 , the competition attracted broader attention , particularly as that event was held in London . Initially a local competition was held in the participating countries prior to the international final competition .
Since 2012 , all the collections of Triumph International have been tested for harmful substances and certified under the Oeko @-@ tex standard for textiles , after individual products had been successfully tested as early as 1993 when the initiative was established .
In recent years , the company has expanded , opening new stores of its own and acquiring competitors . In 2010 , Triumph International acquired Beldona , the leading Swiss distributor of lingerie , and later purchased other distributors in Mexico and the United States . In the latter country , Triumph International has also acquired the majority stake in the luxury dealer Journelle and has since opened two Triumph stores in New York City . The Triumph International AG , headquartered in Munich , under which the company 's German business is associated , was once again fully acquired by the company in 2011 through the exclusion of minority shareholders . Since then , company stocks have no longer been traded on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange , and the company is wholly owned by the Braun and Spiesshofer families .
= = Brands = =
The Triumph brand is the focus of the company . Products are divided into several categories for different target groups , with Triumph International typically presenting several collections each year . As of 2010 , the importance of shapewear for the company increased , and Triumph 's sale of these products attracted special attention . In 2013 , Triumph was honored as one of the best brands . In 2015 , the Magic Wire bra received the Red Dot Design Award .
In the late 1970s , Triumph International launched the sloggi cotton underwear brand , at first only for female customers and later also with products for men ( sloggi Men ) and swimwear ( sloggi swim ) . Since the 1980s , Triumph International has also been targeting young customers aged up to 25 years old with the BeeDees brand . The products are characterized by accessories and patterned fabrics . In addition to sloggi and BeeDees , the company has also been marketing sports bras under Triaction since the late 1990s .
In the 1980s HOM , the French manufacturer of upscale underwear for men , was purchased and has since continued as a trademark within the company . The headquarters was located in Marseille . In early 2015 , HOM was sold to the Austrian Huber Group , as Triumph wanted to streamline its portfolio . Valisère is the label for upper segment products , which beginning in 2007 became also available in Germany and was used primarily for luxury lingerie . Since 2014 , Triumph International no longer uses the Valisère brand in the European market . Instead , the company focuses on Triumph Essence in the premium segment .
Triumph products are distributed both via trade partners and department stores , as well as in their own shops . By the end of 2011 , the company had built a network of 2 @,@ 000 stores in 120 countries , of which 800 are its own stores , 450 are franchises and 850 are run with other partners . The company is one of the largest lingerie retailers in Germany based on the number of branches . The largest branch in terms of retail space was opened in Dresden 's Centrum Gallery in 2012 . In addition , Triumph International operates several online stores . These were developed using a fulfillment service provider that is part of Arvato .
= = Criticism = =
In 2002 , Triumph International had to close its factory in Myanmar due to public pressure . The Berne Declaration and Clean Clothes Campaign accused the company of renting land from the country 's military regime and thus indirectly supporting it . In January 2002 , Triumph International announced that it would close the affected factory and offer a social plan for the remaining employees because no buyer had been found . Moreover , Triumph International clarified that there had not been any forced laborers among the employees .
In October 2003 , the self @-@ regulatory body of the French advertising industry criticized Triumph International for a campaign for the sloggi brand . At the center of the protest was a picture of scantily clad women on billboards which advertised thongs under the slogan " It 's String Time " . It was claimed that the ads violated the dignity of women and harmed the public perception of advertising , but the company did not adjust the campaign . It was also criticized for the same reason by leading French politicians like Ségolène Royal .
In 2008 , Triumph International came under fire after a female president of a local union was dismissed in Thailand . She had appeared on a Thai evening television program with a T @-@ shirt on which a political statement could be seen . The company 's management had the view that the appearance had harmed their public image and therefore laid off the staff member in question . The international work council of the company , Triumph International Labor Union , protested and collected 2 @,@ 500 signatures to petition for the rehiring of the union president , supported in solidarity in Germany , inter alia , by the ver.di youth . In November 2008 , the Labor Court in Bangkok found the lay @-@ off to have been lawful .
Most recently , Triumph International has been the subject of even greater criticism after mass layoffs in Thailand and the Philippines at the end of 2009 were met with transnational protests by trade unions . The company regretted this step and made it clear that it was necessitated by the global economic crisis . Allegations that , parallel to the redundancies , another location was being set up in Thailand , were rejected .
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= French battleship Lorraine =
Lorraine was a battleship of the French Navy built in the 1910s , named in honor of the region of Lorraine in France . She was a member of the Bretagne class , alongside her two sister ships , Bretagne and Provence . Lorraine was laid down in August 1912 at the Chantiers de Penhoët shipyard , launched in September 1913 , and commissioned into the fleet in March 1916 , after the outbreak of World War I. She was armed with a main battery of ten 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns and had a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Lorraine spent the bulk of her career in the French Mediterranean Squadron . During World War I , she was stationed at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from leaving the Adriatic Sea , but she saw no action . She was modernized significantly in the 1920s and 1930s , and in 1935 her amidships 340 mm gun turret was removed and aircraft facilities were installed in its place . After the outbreak of World War II , Lorraine carried a shipment of gold from the French treasury to Bermuda before returning to operate in the Mediterranean . At the French surrender in July 1940 , Lorraine was moored in Alexandria , where she was disarmed by the Royal Navy . After joining the Free French Naval Forces in December 1942 , Lorraine was refitted for active service . She provided gunfire support for the landings in Operation Dragoon in August – September 1944 and bombarded German positions around La Rochelle in April 1945 . After the end of the war , Lorraine was used was a gunnery training ship and then a barracks ship until late 1953 , when she was stricken and sold to shipbreakers .
= = Design = =
Lorraine was 166 meters ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall and had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 m ( 88 ft 3 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 23 @,@ 230 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 860 long tons ) as designed and around 25 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ; 28 @,@ 000 short tons ) at full load and had a crew of between 1124 and 1133 officers and enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines with twenty @-@ four Guyot du Temple water @-@ tube boilers . They were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) and provided a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 2 @,@ 680 t ( 2 @,@ 640 long tons ; 2 @,@ 950 short tons ) , which provided a range of 4 @,@ 700 nmi ( 8 @,@ 700 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Lorraine 's main battery consisted of ten 340mm / 45 Modèle 1912 guns mounted in five twin gun turrets , numbered from front to rear . They were placed all on the centerline ; two were in a superfiring pair forward , one amidships , and the last two in a superfiring arrangement aft . As completed , however , the amidships turret did not have its guns installed until January 1917 . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ two Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1910 guns in casemates along the length of the hull . She also carried seven 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns , two on the conning tower and one on the roof of each turret . The ship was also armed with four submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ship 's main belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main armored deck was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor on the turrets and the casemates for the secondary guns were 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The conning tower had 314 mm ( 12 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides .
= = Service = =
Lorraine was ordered on 15 July 1912 , as a replacement for the battleship Liberté , which had been destroyed by a magazine explosion the previous year . She was laid down at the Chantiers de Penhoët shipyard in Saint @-@ Nazaire on 1 August 1912 and launched on 30 September 1913 . She was commissioned into the French Navy on 10 March 1916 . After entering service in 1916 , Lorraine and her sisters were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Battle Squadron . The three ships remained in the unit for the remainder of the war . They spent the majority of their time at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from attempting to break out of the Adriatic . The fleet 's presence was also intended to intimidate Greece , which had become increasingly hostile to the Triple Entente . Later in the war , men were drawn from their crews for anti @-@ submarine warfare vessels . As the Austro @-@ Hungarians largely remained in port for the duration of the war , Lorraine saw no action during the conflict . In 1917 , she returned to Toulon for a periodic refit , but apart from that voyage , she saw no time at sea for the rest of the year .
In January 1919 , she went to Cattaro , where she guarded the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . She assisted in repatriating Austrian naval personnel , and escorted former Austro @-@ Hungarian warships to France and Italy ; this duty lasted until March . The French Navy intended to send Lorraine and her sister Provence to the Black Sea to join operations against the Bolsheviks , but a major mutiny prevented the operation . The two ships went to Constantinople in October 1919 , where they formed the core of the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron , which operated until July 1921 . Lorraine underwent her first refit starting on 10 November 1921 , which lasted until 4 December 1922 . After emerging from refit , Lorraine was placed in reserve , due to fiscal limitations in the post @-@ war French Navy . She returned to service the following year — 1923 — with the 1st Battleship Division of the Mediterranean Fleet .
Lorraine was modernized a second time between 15 November 1924 and 4 August 1926 . A third refit followed on 17 September 1929 and lasted until 6 June 1931 . During these periods in dock , the range of the main battery was increased , the anti @-@ aircraft battery was strengthened , and her boilers were replaced with newer , oil @-@ fired models . Between 18 September 1934 and 20 September 1935 , a fourth and final pre @-@ war refit was carried out in Brest ; Lorraine 's amidships turret was removed , and an aircraft catapult along with a hangar for three aircraft were installed . The aircraft were initially Gourdou @-@ Leseurre GL819 and Potez 452 seaplanes , though they were later replaced with Loire 130 flying boats . In 1936 , Lorraine was transferred to the Atlantic Squadron , where she remained until the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
After the start of World War II , Lorraine served primarily in the western Mediterranean . On 4 December , Lorraine operated out of Casablanca against German surface forces , along with the cruisers Algérie , La Galissonnière , and Marseillaise , and several destroyers and submarines . During this period , she carried a shipment of gold bullion from the French treasury to Bermuda . On 1 January 1940 , she was transferred to the 2nd Battleship Division of the 1st Squadron , and went into drydock for refit , which lasted until April .
On 27 April , Lorraine and her two sisters were transferred to Alexandria . On 10 June , Italy declared war on France ; by that time , both Bretagne and Provence had moved back to the western Mediterranean . Lorraine was the only French capital ship in the eastern Mediterranean , though she was joined by four British battleships and an aircraft carrier . On the night of 20 – 21 June , Lorraine formed the center of an Anglo @-@ French task force , with the cruisers HMS Neptune , Orion , and Achilles , for a bombardment of Italian positions at Bardia . The operation , which caused only minimal damage , was the last combined British and French naval operation before the French surrender .
Following the French surrender , the French commander , Vice Admiral Godfroy , concluded an agreement with Admiral Andrew Cunningham to demilitarize and intern the French ships in Alexandria ; this included Lorraine , four cruisers , and three destroyers . In December 1942 , the ship 's crew decided to join the Allies in the Free French Naval Forces , and so Lorraine was placed back into service . On 3 July 1943 , the ship left the Suez and sailed around Africa to Dakar , stopping in Cape Town on the way . After arriving on 12 October , she was used briefly as a training ship ; on 2 December , Lorraine was sent to Oran for refitting . The work included removing the aircraft facilities and installing a large number of anti @-@ aircraft guns , including eight 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , fourteen 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns , and twenty @-@ five 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . Radar equipment was also installed on the ship .
The overhaul readied Lorraine to participate in Operation Dragoon , the Allied invasion of southern France in August 1944 . On 15 August , Lorraine joined the bombardment force , Task Force 86 , that supported landings . She and the American battleship USS Nevada hammered German defenses in and around Toulon , including 340 mm coastal guns that had been removed from Provence . The bombardment lasted until 21 August . Over the course of 1 – 13 September , Lorraine , four cruisers , and two destroyers shelled German defenses throughout the French Riviera . Among the targets Lorraine attacked were fortresses at Sospel and Castillon , along with Axis positions around Carqueiranne and Saint @-@ Tropez . Lorraine left the bombardment area on 17 September , but remained in the western Mediterranean until she was sent to Portsmouth for a brief refit toward the end of the year . She was then sent to Cherbourg in December .
In late March 1945 , Lorraine left Cherbourg to participate in her final wartime operations , codenamed Vénérable and Vermeille . In the operations , which took place in April , the French Navy focused on eliminating a pocket of German resistance in Gironde . On 14 – 20 April , Lorraine and several cruisers and destroyers bombarded the German " Girond @-@ Nord " fortress in Royan in support of an attack by the French 10th Division and American 66th Division ; the German defenders surrendered on the 20th . After completing the operation , Lorraine returned to Brest before being sent to Toulon . Starting in February 1947 , she was used as a stationary gunnery training ship . Later , she was used as a barracks ship , until she was stricken from the naval register on 17 February 1953 . She was sold on 18 December , to a French shipbreaking company , and towed to Brégaillon outside Toulon in January 1954 and broken up for scrap .
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= Stanley Holloway =
Stanley Augustus Holloway , OBE ( 1 October 1890 – 30 January 1982 ) was an English stage and film actor , comedian , singer , poet and monologist . He was famous for his comic and character roles on stage and screen , especially that of Alfred P. Doolittle in My Fair Lady . He was also renowned for his comic monologues and songs which he performed and recorded throughout most of his 70 @-@ year career .
Born in London , Holloway pursued a career as a clerk in his teen years . He made early stage appearances before infantry service in the First World War , after which he had his first major theatre success starring in Kissing Time when the musical transferred to the West End from Broadway . In 1921 , he joined a concert party , The Co @-@ Optimists , and his career began to flourish . At first , he was employed chiefly as a singer , but his skills as an actor and reciter of comic monologues were soon recognised . Characters from his monologues such as Sam Small , invented by Holloway , and Albert Ramsbottom , created for him by Marriott Edgar , were absorbed into popular British culture , and Holloway developed a following for the recordings of his many monologues . By the 1930s , he was in demand to star in variety , pantomime and musical comedy , including several revues .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Holloway made short propaganda films on behalf of the British Film Institute and Pathé News and took character parts in a series of war films including Major Barbara , The Way Ahead , This Happy Breed and The Way to the Stars . After the war , he appeared in the film Brief Encounter and made a series of films for Ealing Studios , including Passport to Pimlico , The Lavender Hill Mob and The Titfield Thunderbolt .
In 1956 he was cast as the irresponsible and irrepressible Alfred P. Doolittle in My Fair Lady , a role that he played on Broadway , the West End and in the film version in 1964 . The role brought him international fame , and his performances earned him nominations for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . In his later years , Holloway appeared in television series in the UK and the US , toured in revues , appeared in stage plays in Britain , Canada , Australia and the US , and continued to make films into his eighties . Holloway was married twice and had five children , including the actor Julian Holloway .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and early life = = =
Holloway was born in Manor Park , Essex ( now in the London Borough of Newham ) , the younger child and only son of George Augustus Holloway ( 1860 – 1919 ) , a lawyer 's clerk , and Florence May née Bell ( 1862 – 1913 ) , a housekeeper and dressmaker . He was named after Henry Morton Stanley , the journalist and explorer famous for his exploration of Africa and for his search for David Livingstone . There were theatrical connections in the Holloway family going back to Charles Bernard ( 1830 – 1894 ) , an actor and theatre manager , who was the brother of Holloway 's maternal grandmother .
Holloway 's paternal grandfather , Augustus Holloway ( 1829 – 1884 ) , an orphan , was brought up by John Stone , a sailmaker , and his wife Mary , in Poole , Dorset . Augustus became a wealthy shopkeeper , running his own brush @-@ making business . He married Amelia Catherine Knight in September 1856 , and they had three children , Maria , Charles and George .
In the early 1880s the family moved to Poplar , London . When Augustus died , George Holloway ( Stanley 's father ) moved to nearby Manor Park and became a clerk for a city lawyer , Robert Bell . George married Bell 's daughter Florence in 1884 , and they had two children , Millie ( 1887 – 1949 ) and Stanley . George left Florence in 1905 and was never seen or heard from again by his family .
During his early teenage years , Holloway attended the Worshipful School of Carpenters in nearby Stratford and joined a local choir , which he later called his " big moment " . He left school at the age of 14 and worked as a junior clerk in a boot polish factory , where he earned ten shillings a week . He began performing part @-@ time as Master Stanley Holloway – The Wonderful Boy Soprano from 1904 , singing sentimental songs such as " The Lost Chord " . A year later , he became a clerk at Billingsgate Fish Market , where he remained for two years before commencing training as an infantry soldier in the London Rifle Brigade in 1907 .
= = = Career = = =
= = = = Early career and First World War = = = =
Holloway 's stage career began in 1910 , when he travelled to Walton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Naze to audition for The White Coons Show , a concert party variety show arranged and produced by Will S. Pepper , father of Harry S. Pepper , with whom Holloway later starred in The Co @-@ Optimists . This seaside show lasted six weeks .
In 1913 Holloway was recruited by the comedian Leslie Henson to feature as a support in Henson 's more prestigious concert party called Nicely , Thanks . In later life , Holloway often spoke of his admiration for Henson , citing him as a great influence on his career . The two became firm friends and often consulted each other before taking jobs . In his 1967 autobiography , Holloway dedicated a whole chapter to Henson , whom he described as " the greatest friend , inspiration and mentor a performer could have had " . Later in 1913 , Holloway decided to train as an operatic baritone , and so he went to Italy to take singing lessons from Ferdinando Guarino in Milan . However , a yearning to start a career in light entertainment and a contract to re @-@ appear in Bert Graham and Will Bentley 's concert party at the West Cliff Theatre caused him to return home after six months .
In the early months of 1914 , Holloway made his first visit to the US and then went to Buenos Aires and Valparaíso with the concert party The Grotesques . At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , he decided to return to the UK , but his departure was delayed for six weeks due to his contract with the troupe . At the age of 25 , Holloway enlisted in the Connaught Rangers . In December 1915 he was commissioned as a subaltern because of his previous training as a private in the London Rifle Brigade . He was stationed in Cork and initially fought against Sinn Féin during the Easter Rising of 1916 . Later that year , he was sent to France , where he fought in the trenches alongside Michael O 'Leary , who later won the Victoria Cross for gallantry . Holloway and O 'Leary stayed in touch after the war , becoming close friends .
Holloway spent much of his time in the later part of the war organising shows to boost troop morale in France . One such revue , Wear That Ribbon , was performed in honour of O 'Leary 's winning the VC . Holloway , along with Henson and his newly established Star Attractions concert party , entertained the British troops in Wimereux . The party included such performers as Jack Buchanan , Eric Blore , Binnie Hale and Phyllis Dare , as well as the performers who would later form The Co @-@ Optimists . Upon his return from France , Holloway joined a Yorkshire regiment in Hartlepool and immediately after the war ended he starred in The Disorderly Room with Leslie Henson , which Eric Blore had written while serving in the South Wales Borderers . It toured theatres on England 's south coast , including Walton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Naze and Clacton @-@ on @-@ Sea .
= = = = Inter @-@ war years = = = =
On being demobilised on 1 May 1919 , Holloway returned to London and resumed his singing and acting career , finding success in two West End musicals at the Winter Garden Theatre . Later that month , he created the role of Captain Wentworth in Guy Bolton and P. G. Wodehouse 's Kissing Time , followed in 1920 by the role of René in A Night Out . Following its provincial success , The Disorderly Room was given a West End production at the Victoria Palace Theatre in late 1919 , in which Holloway starred alongside Henson and Tom Walls . Holloway made his film debut in a 1921 silent comedy called The Rotters .
From June 1921 , Holloway had considerable success in The Co @-@ Optimists , a concert party formed with performers whom he had met during the war in France , which The Times called " an all @-@ star ' pierrot ' entertainment in the West @-@ end . " It opened at the small Royalty Theatre and soon transferred to the much larger Palace Theatre , where the initial version of the show ran for over a year , giving more than 500 performances . The entertainment was completely rewritten at regular intervals to keep it fresh , and the final edition , beginning in November 1926 , was the 13th version . The Co @-@ Optimists closed in 1927 at His Majesty 's Theatre after 1 @,@ 568 performances over eight years . In 1929 , a feature film version was made , with Holloway rejoining his former co @-@ stars .
In 1923 Holloway established himself as a BBC Radio performer . The early BBC broadcasts brought variety and classical artists together , and Holloway could be heard in the same programme as the cellist John Barbirolli or the Band of the Scots Guards . He developed his solo act throughout the 1920s while continuing his involvement with the musical theatre and The Co @-@ Optimists . In 1924 he made his first gramophone discs , recording for HMV two songs from The Co @-@ Optimists : " London Town " and " Memory Street " . After The Co @-@ Optimists disbanded in 1927 , Holloway played at the London Hippodrome in Vincent Youmans 's musical comedy Hit the Deck as Bill Smith , a performance judged by The Times to be " invested with many shrewd touches of humanity " . In The Manchester Guardian , Ivor Brown praised him for a singing style " which coaxes the ear rather than clubbing the head . "
Holloway began regularly performing monologues , both on stage and on record , in 1928 , with his own creation , Sam Small , in Sam , Sam , Pick oop thy Musket . Over the following years , he recorded more than 20 monologues based around the character , most of which he wrote himself . He created Sam Small after Henson had returned from a tour of northern England and told him a story about an insubordinate old soldier from the Battle of Waterloo . Holloway developed the character , naming him after a Cockney friend of Henson called Annie Small ; the name Sam was chosen at random . Holloway adopted a northern accent for the character . The Times commented , " For absolute delight ... there is nothing to compare with Mr. Stanley Holloway 's monologue , concerning a military contretemps on the eve of Waterloo ... perfect , even to the curled moustache and the Lancashire accent of the stubborn Guardsman hero . "
In 1929 Holloway played another leading role in musical comedy , Lieutenant Richard Manners in Song of the Sea , and later that year he performed in the revue Coo @-@ ee , with Billy Bennett , Dorothy Dickson and Claude Hulbert . When The Co @-@ Optimists re @-@ formed in 1930 , he rejoined that company , now at the Savoy Theatre , and at the same venue appeared in Savoy Follies in 1931 , where he introduced to London audiences the monologue The Lion and Albert . The monologue was written by Marriott Edgar , who based the story on a news item about a boy who was eaten by a lion in the zoo . In the monologue , Mr. and Mrs. Ramsbottom react in a measured way when their son Albert is swallowed . Neither Edgar nor Holloway was convinced that the piece would succeed , but needing material for an appearance at a Northern Rugby League dinner Holloway decided to perform it . It was well received , and Holloway introduced it into his stage act . Subsequently , Edgar wrote 16 monologues for him . In its obituary of Holloway , The Times wrote that Sam and Albert " became part of English folklore during the 1930s , and they remained so during the Second World War . " These monologues employed the Holloway style that has been called " the understated look @-@ on @-@ the @-@ bright @-@ side world of the cockney working class . ... Holloway 's characters are [ mischievous , like Albert , or ] obstinate , and hilariously clueless . He often told his stories in costume ; sporting outrageous attire and bushy moustaches . "
Beginning in 1934 , Holloway appeared in a series of British films , three of which featured his creation Sam Small . He started his association with the filmmakers Ealing Studios in 1934 , appearing in the fifth Gracie Fields picture Sing As We Go . His other films from the 1930s included Squibs ( 1935 ) and The Vicar of Bray ( 1937 ) . In December 1934 , Holloway made his first appearance in pantomime , playing Abanazar in Aladdin . In his first season in the part , he was overshadowed by his co @-@ star , Sir Henry Lytton , as the Emperor , but he quickly became established as a favourite in his role , playing it in successive years in Leeds , London , Edinburgh and Manchester .
= = = = Second World War and post @-@ war = = = =
On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 Holloway was 49 , too old for active service . Instead , he made his contribution in short propaganda pieces for the British Film Institute and Pathé News . He narrated documentaries aimed at lifting morale in war @-@ torn Britain , including Albert 's Savings ( 1940 ) , written by Marriott Edgar and featuring the character Albert Ramsbottom , and Worker and Warfront No.8 ( 1943 ) , with a script written by E. C. Bentley about a worker who neglects to have an injury examined and contracts blood poisoning . Both films were included on a 2007 Imperial War Museum DVD Britain 's Home Front at War : Words for Battle .
On stage during the war years , Holloway appeared in revues , first Up and Doing , with Henson , Binnie Hale and Cyril Ritchard in 1940 and 1941 , and then Fine and Dandy , with Henson , Dorothy Dickson , Douglas Byng and Graham Payn . In both shows , Holloway presented new monologues , and The Times thought a highlight of Fine and Dandy was a parody of the BBC radio programme The Brains Trust , with Holloway " ponderously anecdotal " and Henson " gigglingly omniscient " .
In 1941 Holloway took a character part in Gabriel Pascal 's film of Bernard Shaw 's Major Barbara , in which he played a policeman . He had leading parts in later films , including The Way Ahead ( 1944 ) , This Happy Breed ( 1944 ) and The Way to the Stars ( 1945 ) . After the war , he played Albert Godby in Brief Encounter and had a cameo role as the First Gravedigger in Laurence Olivier 's 1948 film of Hamlet . In 1951 Holloway played the same role on the stage to the Hamlet of Alec Guinness . For Pathé News , he delivered the commentary for documentaries in a series called Time To Remember , where he narrated over old newsreels from significant dates in history from 1915 to 1942 . Holloway also starred in a series of films for Ealing Studios , beginning with Champagne Charlie in 1944 alongside Tommy Trinder . After that he made Nicholas Nickleby ( 1947 ) and Another Shore ( 1948 ) . He next appeared in three of the most famous Ealing Comedies , Passport to Pimlico ( 1949 ) , The Lavender Hill Mob ( 1951 ) and The Titfield Thunderbolt ( 1953 ) . His final film with the studio was Meet Mr. Lucifer ( 1953 ) .
In 1948 Holloway toured for six months in Australia around Melbourne and in New Zealand supported by the band leader Billy Mayerl . He made his Australian début at The Tivoli Theatre , Melbourne , and recorded television appearances to publicise the forthcoming release of Passport to Pimlico . Holloway wrote the monologue Albert Down Under especially for the tour .
= = = = 1950s and 1960s stage and screen = = = =
In 1954 Holloway joined the Old Vic theatre company to play Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , with Robert Helpmann as Oberon and Moira Shearer as Titania . After playing at the Edinburgh Festival , the Royal Shakespeare Company took the production to New York , where it played at the Metropolitan Opera House and then on tour of the US and Canada . The production was harshly reviewed by critics on both sides of the Atlantic , but Holloway made a strong impression . Holloway said of the experience : " Out of the blue I was asked by the Royal Shakespeare Company to tour America with them , playing Bottom . ... From that American tour came the part of Alfred Doolittle in My Fair Lady and from then on , well , just let 's say I was able to pick and choose my parts and that was very pleasant at my age . " Holloway 's film career continued simultaneously with his stage work ; one example was the 1956 comedy Jumping for Joy . American audiences became familiar with his earlier film roles when the films began to be broadcast on television in the 1950s .
In 1956 Holloway created the role of Alfred P. Doolittle in the original Broadway production of My Fair Lady . The librettist , Alan Jay Lerner , remembered in his memoirs that Holloway was his first choice for the role , even before it was written . Lerner 's only concern was whether , after so long away from the musical stage , Holloway still had his resonant singing voice . Holloway reassured him over a lunch at Claridge 's : Lerner recalled , " He put down his knife and fork , threw back his head and unleashed a strong baritone note that resounded through the dining room , drowned out the string quartet and sent a few dozen people off to the osteopath to have their necks untwisted . " Holloway had a long association with the show , appearing in the original 1956 Broadway production at the Mark Hellinger Theatre , the 1958 London version at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , and the film version in 1964 , which he undertook instead of the role of Admiral Bloom in Mary Poppins that he had been offered the same year . In The Manchester Guardian , Alistair Cooke wrote , " Stanley Holloway distils into the body of Doolittle the taste and smell of every pub in England . " Also in 1964 , he appeared as Bellomy in the Hallmark Hall of Fame television production of The Fantasticks .
Looking back in 2004 , Holloway 's biographer Eric Midwinter wrote , " With his cockney authenticity , his splendid baritone voice , and his wealth of comedy experience , he made a great success of this role , and , as he said , it put him ' bang on top of the heap , in demand ' again at a time when , in his mid @-@ sixties , his career was beginning to wane " . His performances earned him a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Musical and an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . Following his success on Broadway , Holloway played Pooh @-@ Bah in a 1960 US television Bell Telephone Hour production of The Mikado , produced by the veteran Gilbert and Sullivan performer Martyn Green . Holloway appeared with Groucho Marx and Helen Traubel of the Metropolitan Opera . His notable films around this time included Alive and Kicking in 1959 , co @-@ starring Sybil Thorndike and Kathleen Harrison , and No Love for Johnnie in 1961 opposite Peter Finch . In 1962 , Holloway took part in a studio recording of Oliver ! with Alma Cogan and Violet Carson , in which he played Fagin .
In 1962 Holloway played the role of an English butler called Higgins in a US television sitcom called Our Man Higgins . It ran for only a season . His son Julian also appeared in the series . In 1964 he again appeared on stage in Philadelphia in Cool Off ! , a short @-@ lived Faustian spoof . He returned to the US a few more times after that to take part in The Dean Martin Show three times and The Red Skelton Show twice . He also appeared in the 1965 war film In Harm 's Way , together with John Wayne and Kirk Douglas .
= = = = Last years = = = =
Holloway appeared for the first time in a major British television series in the BBC 's 1967 adaptation of P. G. Wodehouse 's Blandings Castle stories , playing Beach , the butler , to Ralph Richardson 's Lord Emsworth . His portrayal of Beach was received with critical reservation , but the series was a popular success . After My Fair Lady , Holloway was able to get film roles in Mrs. Brown You 've Got A Lovely Daughter ( 1968 ) , which starred the 1960s British pop group Herman 's Hermits , The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes , Flight of the Doves and Up the Front , all in the early 1970s . His final film was Journey into Fear ( 1974 ) .
In 1970 , Holloway began an association with the Shaw Festival in Canada , playing Burgess in Candida . He made what he considered his West End debut as a straight actor in Siege by David Ambrose at the Cambridge Theatre in 1972 , co @-@ starring with Alastair Sim and Michael Bryant . He returned to Shaw and Canada , playing the central character Walter / William in You Never Can Tell in 1973 .
Holloway continued to perform until well into his eighties , touring Asia and Australia in 1977 together with Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. and David Langton in The Pleasure of His Company , by Samuel A. Taylor and Cornelia Otis Skinner . He made his last appearance performing at the Royal Variety Performance at the London Palladium in 1980 , aged 89 .
Holloway died of a stroke at the Nightingale Nursing Home in Littlehampton , West Sussex , on 30 January 1982 , aged 91 . He is buried , along with his wife Violet , at St. Mary the Virgin Church in East Preston , West Sussex .
= = = Personal life = = =
Holloway was married twice , first to Alice " Queenie " Foran . They met in June 1913 in Clacton , while he was performing in a concert party and she was selling charity flags on behalf of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution . Queenie was orphaned at the age of 16 , something that Holloway felt he and Queenie had in common , as his mother had died that year and his father had earlier abandoned the family . He married Queenie in November 1913 .
Holloway and Queenie had four children : Joan , born on Holloway 's 24th birthday in 1914 , Patricia ( b . 1920 ) , John ( 1925 – 2013 ) and Mary ( b . 1928 ) . Upon the death of her mother , Queenie inherited some property in Southampton Row and relied on the rents from the property for her income . During the First World War , while Holloway was away fighting in France , Queenie began to have financial trouble , as the tenants failed to pay their rent . Out of desperation , she approached several loan sharks , incurring a huge debt about which Holloway knew nothing . She also started to drink heavily as the pressures from the war and of supporting her daughter took their toll . On Holloway 's return from the war , the debt was paid off and they moved to Hampstead , West London . By the late 1920s , Holloway found himself in financial difficulties with the British tax authorities and was briefly declared bankrupt . In the 1930s , Holloway and Queenie moved to Bayswater and remained there until Queenie 's death in 1937 at the age of 45 , from cirrhosis of the liver . Of the children from this first marriage , John worked as an engineer in an electrics company , and Mary worked for British Petroleum for many years .
On 2 January 1939 , Holloway married a 25 @-@ year @-@ old actress and former chorus dancer named Violet Marion Lane ( 1913 – 1997 ) and they moved to Marylebone . Violet was born into a working @-@ class family from Leeds . Her mother was Scottish , and her civil engineer father , Alfred Lane , was a Yorkshireman . Holloway 's second marriage lasted over 40 years until his death in 1982 . Although he was a client of the Aza Agency in London , Violet effectively managed Holloway 's career , and no project was taken on without her approval . In his autobiography , Holloway said of her , " I suppose I am committing lawful bigamy . Not only is she my wife , lover , mother , cook , chauffeuse , private secretary , house keeper , hostess , electrician , business manager , critic , handy woman , she is also my best friend . " Together , they had one son , Julian , who also became an actor and is best known for appearing in the Carry On films . Julian had a brief relationship with Patricia Neal 's daughter Tessa Dahl which produced a daughter , the model and author Sophie Dahl .
Holloway , Violet and Julian lived mainly in the tiny village of Penn , Buckinghamshire . Holloway also owned other properties including a flat in St. John 's Wood in North West London , which he used when working in the capital , and a flat in Manhattan during the My Fair Lady Broadway years . The final years of his life were spent in Angmering , West Sussex , with Violet . Holloway forged close friendships with fellow performers including Leslie Henson , Gracie Fields , Maurice Chevalier , Laurence Olivier and Arthur Askey , who said of him , " He was the nicest man I ever knew . He never had a wrong word to say about anyone . He was a great actor , a super mimic and a one @-@ man walking comic show . " While working in the US , Holloway numbered among his friends Frank Sinatra , Dean Martin , Burgess Meredith and Groucho Marx .
= = Honours , memorials and books = =
Holloway was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1960 New Year 's Honours list for his services to entertainment . In 1978 he was honoured with a special award by the Variety Club of Great Britain .
There is a memorial plaque dedicated to Holloway in St. Paul 's , Covent Garden , London , which is known as " the actors ' church " . The plaque is next to a memorial to Gracie Fields . In 2009 English Heritage unveiled a Blue plaque at 25 Albany Road , Manor Park , Essex , the house in which he was born in 1890 . There is a building named after him at 2 Coolfin Road , Newham , London , called Stanley Holloway Court .
Holloway entitled his 1967 autobiography Wiv a Little Bit of Luck after the song he performed in My Fair Lady . The book was ghost @-@ written by the writer and director Dick Richards and was published in 1967 . Holloway oversaw the publication of three volumes of the monologues by or associated with him : Monologues ( 1979 ) ; The Stanley Holloway Monologues ( 1980 ) ; and More Monologues ( 1981 ) .
= = Recordings = =
Holloway had a 54 @-@ year recording career , beginning in the age of acoustic recording , and ending in the era of the stereophonic LP . He mainly recorded songs from musicals and revues , and he recited many monologues on various subjects . Most prominent among his recordings ( aside from his participation in recordings of My Fair Lady ) are those of three series of monologues that he made at intervals throughout his career . They featured Sam Small , Albert Ramsbottom , and historical events such as the Battle of Hastings , Magna Carta and the Battle of Trafalgar . In all , his discography runs to 130 recordings , spanning the period 1924 to 1978 . A review in The Gramophone of one of his 1957 albums containing recordings of his old " concert party " songs commented , " what a fine voice he has and how well he can use it – diction , phrasing , range and the interpretative insight of the artist " .
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= Maine Coon =
The Maine Coon is the largest domesticated breed of cat .
It has a distinctive physical appearance and valuable hunting skills . It is one of the oldest natural breeds in North America , specifically " native " to the state of Maine ( though the feline was simply introduced there ) , where it is the official state cat .
No records of the Maine Coon 's exact origins and date of introduction to the United States exist , so several competing hypotheses have been suggested . The breed was popular in cat shows in the late 19th century , but its existence became threatened when long @-@ haired breeds from overseas were introduced in the early 20th century . The Maine Coon has since made a comeback and is now one of the more popular cat breeds in the world .
The Maine Coon is a large and sociable cat , hence its nickname , " the gentle giant " . It is characterized by a robust bone structure , rectangular body shape , a silky flowing coat and a long , bushy tail . The breed 's colors vary widely , with only lilac and chocolate disallowed for pedigree . Reputed for its intelligence and playful , gentle personality , the Maine Coon is often cited as having " dog @-@ like " characteristics . Professionals notice certain health problems in the breed including feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and hip dysplasia , but reputable breeders use modern screening methods to minimize the frequency of these problems .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The ancestral origins of the Maine Coon are unknown — there is only speculation and folk tales . One such folk tale involves Marie Antoinette , the Queen of France , who was executed in 1793 . The story goes that before her death , Antoinette attempted to escape France with the help of Captain Samuel Clough . She loaded Clough 's ship with her most prized possessions , including six of her favorite Turkish Angora cats . Although she did not make it to the United States , her pets safely reached the shores of Wiscasset , Maine , where they bred with other short @-@ haired breeds and developed into the modern breed of the Maine Coon .
Another folk tale involves Captain Charles Coon , an English seafarer who kept long @-@ haired cats aboard his ships . Whenever Coon 's ship would anchor in New England ports , the felines would exit the ship and mate with the local feral cat population . When long @-@ haired kittens began appearing in the litters of the local cat population , they were referred to as one of " Coon 's cats " .
A myth which is trait @-@ based , though genetically impossible , is the idea that the modern Maine Coon descended from ancestors of semi @-@ feral domestic cats and raccoons . This myth is likely based on the common color of the breed ( brown tabby ) and its bushy tail . Another idea is that the Maine Coon originated between the matings of domestic cats and wild bobcats , which could explain the tufts of hairs that are so commonly seen on the tips of the ears .
The generally accepted hypothesis among breeders is that the Maine Coon is descended from the pairings of local short @-@ haired domestic cats and long @-@ haired breeds brought overseas by English seafarers ( possibly by Captain Charles Coon ) or 11th @-@ century Norsemen . The connection to the Norsemen is seen in the strong resemblance of the Maine Coon to the Norwegian Forest Cat , another breed that is said to be a descendant of cats that traveled with the Norsemen .
= = = Cat shows and popularity = = =
The first mention of Maine Coons in a literary work was in 1861 , in Frances Simpson 's The Book of the Cat ( 1903 ) . F.R. Pierce , who owned several Maine Coons , wrote a chapter about the breed . During the late 1860s , farmers located in Maine told stories about their cats and held the " Maine State Champion Coon Cat " contest at the local Skowhegan Fair .
In 1895 , a dozen Maine Coons were entered into a show in Boston . On 8 May 1895 , the first North American cat show was hosted at Madison Square Garden in New York City . A female Maine Coon brown tabby , named Cosey , was entered into the show . Owned by Mrs. Fred Brown , Cosey won the silver collar and medal and was named Best in Show . The silver collar was purchased by the Cat Fanciers ' Association ( CFA ) Foundation with the help of a donation from the National Capital Cat Show . The collar is housed at the CFA Central Office in the Jean Baker Rose Memorial Library .
In the early 20th century , the Maine Coon 's popularity began to decline with the introduction of other long @-@ haired breeds , such as the Persian , which originated in the Middle East . The last recorded win by a Maine Coon in a national cat show for over 40 years was in 1911 at a show in Portland , Oregon . The breed was rarely seen after that . The decline was so severe that the breed was declared extinct in the 1950s , although this declaration was considered to be exaggerated and reported prematurely at the time . The Central Maine Cat Club ( CMCC ) was created in the early 1950s by Alta Smith and Ruby Dyer in attempts to increase the popularity of the Maine Coon . For 11 years , the CMCC held cat shows and hosted exhibitions of photographs of the breed and is noted for creating the first written breed standards for the Maine Coon .
The Maine Coon was denied provisional breed status — one of the three steps required for a breed not yet recognized by the CFA to be able to compete in championship competitions — by the CFA three times , which led to the formation of the Maine Coon Cat Club in 1973 . The breed was finally accepted by the CFA under provisional status on 1 May 1975 , and was approved for championship status on 1 May 1976 . The next couple of decades saw a rise in popularity of the Maine Coon , with championship victories and an increase in national rankings . In 1985 , the state of Maine announced that the breed would be named the official State Cat . Today the Maine Coon is the third most popular cat breed , according to the number of kittens registered with the CFA .
= = Breed description = =
Maine Coons are the largest breed of domestic cat . On average , males weigh from 13 to 18 lb ( 5 @.@ 9 to 8 @.@ 2 kg ) with females weighing from 8 to 12 lb ( 3 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 kg ) . The height of adults can vary between 10 and 16 in ( 25 and 41 cm ) and they can reach a length of up to 48 in ( 120 cm ) , including the tail , which can reach a length of 14 in ( 36 cm ) and is long , tapering , and heavily furred , almost resembling a raccoon 's tail . The body is solid and muscular , which is necessary for supporting their own weight , and the chest is broad . Maine Coons possess a rectangular body shape and are slow to physically mature ; their full potential size is normally not reached until they are three to five years old , while other cats take about one year .
In 2010 , the Guinness World Records accepted a male purebred Maine Coon named " Stewie " as the " Longest Cat " measuring 48 @.@ 5 in ( 123 cm ) from the tip of his nose to the tip of his tail . Stewie died 4 February 2013 , from cancer at his home in Reno , Nevada , at age 8 . Large Maine coons can overlap in length with Eurasian lynxes , although with a much lighter build and lower height .
The Maine Coon is a longhaired , or medium @-@ haired , cat . The coat is soft and silky , although texture may vary with coat color . The length is shorter on the head and shoulders , and longer on the stomach and flanks with some cats having a lion @-@ like ruff around their neck . Minimal grooming is required for the breed , compared to other long @-@ haired breeds , as their coat is mostly self @-@ maintaining owing to a light @-@ density undercoat . The coat is subject to seasonal variation , with the fur being thicker in the winter and thinner during the summer .
Maine Coons can have any colors that other cats have . Colors indicating crossbreeding , such as chocolate , lavender , the Siamese pointed patterns or the " ticked " patterns , are not accepted by some breed standards ( the ' ticked ' pattern , for example , is accepted by TICA ) . The most common pattern seen in the breed is brown tabby . All eye colors are accepted under breed standards , with the exception of the occurrence of blue @-@ colored or odd @-@ eyes ( i.e. two eyes of different colors ) in cats possessing coat colors other than white .
Maine Coons have several physical adaptations for survival in harsh winter climates . Their dense water @-@ resistant fur is longer and shaggier on their underside and rear for extra protection when they are walking or sitting on top of wet surfaces of snow or ice . Their long and bushy raccoon @-@ like tail is resistant to sinking in snow , and can be curled around their face and shoulders for warmth and protection from wind and blowing snow and it can even be curled around their backside like an insulated seat cushion when sitting down on a snow or ice surface . Large paws , and especially the extra @-@ large paws of polydactyl Maine Coons , facilitate walking on snow and are often compared to snowshoes . Long tufts of fur growing between their toes help keep the toes warm and further aid walking on snow by giving the paws additional structure without significant extra weight . Heavily furred ears with extra long tufts of fur growing from inside help keep their ears warm .
Many of the original Maine Coon cats that inhabited the New England area possessed a trait known as polydactylism ( having one or more extra toes on the feet ) . While some sources claim that trait is thought to have occurred in approximately 40 % of the Maine Coon population in Maine at one time , little evidence has been given to substantiate this claim . Polydactylism is rarely , if ever , seen in Maine Coons in the show ring since it is unacceptable by competition standards . The gene for polydactylism is a simple autosomal dominant gene , which has shown to pose no threat to the cat 's health . The trait was almost eradicated from the breed due to the fact that it was an automatic disqualifier in show rings . Private organizations and breeders were created in order to keep polydactylism in Maine Coons from disappearing .
Maine Coons are known as the " gentle giants " and possess above @-@ average intelligence , making them relatively easy to train . They are known for being loyal to their family and cautious — but not mean — around strangers , but are independent and not clingy . The Maine Coon is generally not known for being a " lap cat " but their gentle disposition makes the breed relaxed around dogs , other cats , and children . They are playful throughout their lives , with males tending to be more clownish and females generally possessing more dignity , yet both are equally affectionate . Many Maine Coons have a fascination with water and some theorize that this personality trait comes from their ancestors , who were aboard ships for much of their lives . Maine Coons are also well known for being very vocal cats . They are known for their frequent yowling or howling , trilling , chirping , and making other loud vocalizations .
= = = Diet = = =
Maine Coons require ample protein and nutrients in their diets . Since they are a large cat breed with high levels of energy , it is best to feed them quality food . Their dietary needs are fulfilled with both dry food and wet food . However , the wet food should be mixed in with the dry food only 2 @-@ 3 times a week . Feeding the cat with quality dry food can reduce tartar build up on the teeth . Avoid grain based foods . A cat 's natural diet does not contain grain and grain can also lead to both obesity and diabetes . Maine Coons should not eat food that lists soy or some grains as the first ingredient on the label . Food that lists meat as the first ingredient is best for the Maine Coon . Cats can develop allergies from plastic bowls , so it is best if they eat out of a glass or stainless steel bowl .
= = Health = =
Pet insurance data obtained from a study during years 2003 – 2006 in Sweden puts the median lifespan of the Maine Coon at > 12 @.@ 5 years . 74 % lived to 12 years or more and 54 % lived to 16 @.@ 5 years or more . Maine Coons are generally a healthy and hardy breed and have adapted to survive the New England climate . The most severe threat is feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy ( HCM ) , the most common heart disease seen in cats , whether pure bred or not . In Maine Coons , it is thought to be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait . Middle @-@ aged to older cats as well as males are thought to be predisposed to the disease . HCM is a progressive disease and can result in heart failure , paralysis of the hind legs due to clot embolization originating in the heart , and sudden death . A specific mutation that causes HCM is seen in Maine Coons for which testing services are offered . Of all the Maine Coons tested for the MyBPC mutation at the Veterinary Cardiac Genetics Lab at the College of Veterinary Medicine located at Washington State University , approximately one @-@ third tested positive . Not all cats that tested positive will have clinical signs of the disease and some Maine Coon cats with clinical evidence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy test negative for this mutation , strongly suggesting that a second mutation exists in the breed . The HCM prevalence was found to be 10 @.@ 1 % ( 95 % CI 5 @.@ 8 -14.3 % ) in this study .
Another potential health problem is spinal muscular atrophy ( SMA ) , another genetically inherited disease which causes the loss of the spinal @-@ cord neurons which activate the skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs . Symptoms are normally seen within 3 – 4 months of age and result in muscle atrophy , muscle weakness , and a shortened life span . A test is offered to detect the genes responsible for SMA .
Hip dysplasia is an abnormality of the hip joint which can cause crippling lameness and arthritis . The cats most commonly affected with hip dysplasia tend to be males of the larger , big @-@ boned breeds such as Persians and Maine Coons . This is similar to the situation with dogs , but the relatively smaller size and weight of cats frequently results in symptoms that are less pronounced . X @-@ rays submitted to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals ( OFA ) between 1974 and 2011 indicates that 24 @.@ 3 % of Maine Coons in the database were dysplastic . The Maine Coon is the only cat breed listed in the database .
Polycystic kidney disease ( PKD ) is a slowly progressive disease affecting Persian and Persian @-@ related breeds , in which fluid @-@ filled cysts expand within the kidneys , destroying functional tissue . While renal cysts are observed with a low incidence in Maine Coons , PKD appears to be a misnomer in this particular breed . In a recent study spanning 8 years , renal cysts were documented by ultrasound in 7 of 187 healthy Maine Coons enrolled in a pre @-@ breeding screening programme . The cysts were mostly single and unilateral ( 6 / 7 , 85 @.@ 7 % ) small ( mean 3 @.@ 6 mm in diameter ) and located at corticomedullary junction ( 4 / 6 , 66 @.@ 7 % ) , thus different in size , numbers and location from those observed in Persian @-@ related breeds . In the same study , not only did all six Maine Coon cats with renal cysts test negative for the PKD1 mutation , proving the disease in these cats to be unrelated to the PKD observed in Persians and related breeds , but gene sequencing of these cats failed to demonstrate any common genetic sequences . The presence of renal cysts , in the absence of other changes , does not appear to negatively impact the patients ' quality of life , as those for which follow @-@ up was available were reported alive and well in adulthood . Although the exact nature and clinical relevance of renal cysts in Maine Coons is currently unknown , its screening is still recommended for pre @-@ breeding assessment . Ultrasonography is currently the only valid diagnostic method for its detection in this breed .
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= Joseph W. Tkach =
Joseph W. Tkach ( / təˈkɒtʃ / ; March 16 , 1927 – September 23 , 1995 ) was the appointed successor of Herbert W. Armstrong , founder of the Worldwide Church of God . Tkach became President and Pastor General of the church upon the death of Armstrong in 1986 . Tkach spearheaded a major doctrinal transformation of the Worldwide Church of God , abandoning Armstrong 's unconventional doctrines and bringing the church into accord with mainstream evangelical Christianity . His son , Joseph Tkach Jr . , continued his work and in 1997 the Worldwide Church of God became a member of the National Association of Evangelicals .
During Tkach 's tenure , the changes that he implemented stirred much controversy and significant dissent among those who continued to follow Armstrong 's theology . The dissenters labeled the changes as heresy and many left to form new church organizations . Within the mainstream Christian community , some have hailed Tkach 's reforms , which brought a church from the fringe to orthodoxy , as unprecedented .
= = Background = =
He was born March 16 , 1927 , in Chicago , the youngest of five children and the only son of Vassil and Mary Tkach . The name Tkach / təˈkɒtʃ / is of Carpatho @-@ Rusyn ( Ukrainian ) origin , but his parents were originally from Czechoslovakia . The neighborhood where he grew up was composed mainly of blue @-@ collar working people of Russian origin . He graduated from Tilden High School in southwest Chicago . He then served a short term in the U.S. Navy near the end of World War II and afterward returned to his native Chicago . On March 31 , 1951 , Tkach married Elaine Apostolos ; they had three children : Joseph Jr . , Tanya , and Jennifer .
Tkach grew up in the Russian Orthodox faith , but eventually his family , including his parents , became interested in the Radio Church of God through the radio broadcast of Herbert W. Armstrong , the founder of the church . The Radio Church of God would eventually change its name in 1968 to the Worldwide Church of God ( WCG ) , the church that Tkach would lead . It was a church characterized by the strong influence of its founder and his unique doctrines based on his own interpretation of the Bible . Initially , Tkach was the only member of his family who was not interested in listening to the radio broadcasts . However , a purportedly miraculous event was to change him . At the time , Tkach suffered from severe ulcers and was required to stay on a special diet . His wife then suggested that God would heal him if he were to become a minister in Armstrong 's church . Although skeptical , he accepted the suggestion of becoming a minister and he found himself cured , never again to suffer from the ulcers . He was baptized by Radio Church of God minister , Dean Blackwell , on March 1 , 1957 . On June 7 , 1961 , Blackwell ordained him a deacon in the Chicago congregation , and on June 3 , 1963 , Roderick C. Meredith , who would eventually lead a breakaway church from the WCG , ordained him as an elder .
In 1966 Tkach moved his family to Pasadena , California , where he enrolled in classes at Ambassador College , a state @-@ approved , but not regionally accredited , college that was sponsored by the WCG . In 1974 , he was ordained to the rank of preaching elder . Armstrong taught that the Bible endorsed " ranks " in the ministry , and elders could progress up the ladder from local elder to preaching elder to pastor to evangelist . The highest rank , apostle , was reserved for the leader of the church .
In the late 1970s a period of financial and leadership disputes occurred within the church hierarchy , with church treasurer , Stanley Rader , at the center of many of the disputes . The gravest incident was the church bwing placed in financial receivership by the Attorney General of California , George Deukmejian , an action that was later disallowed in court . Tkach took an active role in the defense of Armstrong , Rader , and the church headquarters ' operations . He rallied the WCG membership to take action against the court proceedings . Armstrong recognized his effectiveness and subsequently ordained him to the rank of evangelist on September 27 , 1979 . See Evangelists of the Worldwide Church of God . In March 1981 Armstrong appointed him to the WCG 's advisory council of elders , and eventually , Armstrong named him Director of Church Administration , one of the most prominent administrative positions other than Armstrong himself .
= = Selection by Armstrong = =
Armstrong had recovered from severe heart problems in the late 1970s , but by the mid @-@ 1980s he was experiencing rapidly declining health . By 1985 this was common knowledge among church members as the 93 @-@ year @-@ old preacher had not been seen in public for several months . According to The Worldwide News , the official church newsletter , Armstrong told his advisory council on January 7 , 1986 , of his decision to appoint Tkach to succeed him in the event of his death . It was also announced by Armstrong in a letter to members of the church . Armstrong died on January 16 , 1986 , only nine days after naming his successor .
Initially there were few visible changes within the church . Tkach continued Armstrong 's tradition of traveling abroad , although his emphasis was more on visiting church members and operations than on Armstrong 's agenda of visiting world leaders to attempt to witness to them . The church entered a period of rapid growth during the early years of Tkach 's administration . In fact , the membership peaked during his tenure at 126 @,@ 800 members in 1988 . The finances were stable , largely due to the church 's teaching that members should tithe , giving a tenth of their gross income to the church . The church magazine , The Plain Truth , continued to serialize the final and most controversial book by Armstrong , Mystery of the Ages . Tkach also continued , at least in public , to promote the church 's unique doctrines .
Tkach did not have the charismatic personality of his predecessor . Unlike Armstrong , who kept a strong hold of the reins , Tkach delegated many tasks , including the presentation of the church @-@ supported television broadcast , The World Tomorrow and the authoring of articles and booklets produced by the church . Although Tkach was not known as a theologian , and made no claims as such , eventually he was to have profound impact on the theological foundations of the WCG .
= = Doctrinal changes = =
The first major change under Tkach 's tenure was the WCG 's doctrine on healing . Previously the church taught that true believers were healed by faith in God and not by doctors . Tkach asked the church leadership to study the question . Once Tkach was satisfied with the results of the study , he officially softened the church 's teaching on the matter , encouraging members to seek proper treatment while retaining faith in God as a healer .
Another officially published doctrinal change was that women in the church would be allowed to wear makeup . In the earliest years of the denomination , Armstrong announced the prohibition of makeup for women . In the 1970s that prohibition was lifted , but in 1981 Armstrong reinstituted the teaching . In 1988 Tkach lifted the ban for good .
The first major sign of dissent occurred in 1989 when a WCG minister , Gerald Flurry , published a manuscript outlining what he and others believed were disturbing trends in the work , including the beginnings of the doctrinal departure from what had been established by Armstrong . Flurry and another minister , John Amos , were disfellowshipped and went on to form the Philadelphia Church of God ( PCG ) . The PCG began an alternative radio program and magazine , and over the next several years a few thousand WCG members left to join the PCG . Despite this , Tkach continued to implement additional changes in thinking including : the shift in emphasis away from observing world events primarily through the lens of prophetic interpretation ; the removal of the prohibition of interracial marriage ; the allowance of work on the Sabbath ; the acceptance of the trinitarian doctrine ; and the acceptance of the validity of other Christian denominations , among many other changes . Older Armstrong publications that supported the church 's once unique doctrines were allowed to go out @-@ of @-@ print .
As these reforms were being carried out , questions arose as to whether the decisions were truly made by Tkach himself or by others in the church leadership . The church leadership at that time included Mike Feazell , executive assistant and editorial advisor to Tkach , Greg Albrecht , editor of The Plain Truth , and Joseph Tkach , Jr . , the son of Joseph W. Tkach , and church administration director . One conspiracy theory stated that the decisions did not come from Tkach himself but from the church leadership . Another stated that the ideas did originate from Tkach but he formed them early in his career , kept them hidden from Armstrong , and only allowed the ideas to come to fruition after Armstrong 's death . Feazell claims that the reforms were initially driven by a re @-@ examination of church literature that was mainly spurred by questions posed by church ministers and members . These examinations were done by Tkach and Feazell , but the final decisions and approval of materials for publication were made by Tkach . By 1990 , Tkach authorized the formation of a " Doctrinal Manual Group " , consisting of thirteen ministers and Ambassador College faculty members with the mission of assuring doctrinal consistency , refinement , and advice to the Pastor General . Tkach reviewed and made the final decisions on all recommendations made by the group .
The church 's traditions of following the Sabbath , the Old Testament holy days , and tithing were initially retained . But some WCG ministers and members continued to express alarm over the doctrinal revisions Tkach had already made , and from time to time some would leave to create dissident branches . They included Tkach 's one @-@ time mentor , Roderick C. Meredith , who formed the Global Church of God in 1992 . As various breakaway groups were established , additional clusters of church members followed .
= = Christmas Eve sermon = =
The doctrinal changes in the church occurred gradually , but by 1994 , most of the concepts of Armstrongism had been largely modified or discontinued . However , the major bombshell was dropped during what is now called the Christmas Eve Sermon . Tapes of Tkach 's sermon ( dated January 7 , 1995 ) were delivered to local congregations for viewing . In this sermon , he publicly declared that the Worldwide Church of God was a New Covenant church and , therefore , not bound by the terms of the Old Covenant . Christian theology defines the Old Covenant as the Mosaic Law embodied in the Torah . Hence , by making this statement , Tkach officially dropped all doctrines based on Mosaic Law ( i.e. , the keeping of the Sabbath , the Holy Days , and the dietary laws ) , making observance of such practices an individual choice . He also dropped the requirement of tithing , declaring that giving as taught in the New Testament was voluntary . The last change had a significant and rather immediate impact on church finances .
These and other major changes brought about major defections among ministers and members , which in turn contributed to a further drop in church revenue . In order to bring the finances in order , major changes in the church infrastructure were implemented . The World Tomorrow , which had seen record numbers of viewers in the early years of the Tkach administration , was stopped . The Plain Truth publication runs were reduced . Staff at the church headquarters were laid off . The famous , church @-@ subsidized Ambassador Auditorium concert series was canceled and offers were sought for the purchase of the Ambassador College Pasadena campus .
= = Final days = =
The Christmas Eve sermon only accelerated the departure of church members . A new branch , the United Church of God , was created in 1995 by a conference of departing ministers and named Tkach 's one @-@ time associate and former The World Tomorrow presenter , David Hulme , as president . It eventually became the largest of the groups to break away from the WCG during this period . Although revenues continued to drop , Tkach remained steadfastly committed to the changes that he had implemented .
On May 12 , 1995 Tkach had surgery to remove his gall bladder . Shortly thereafter , he was readmitted to the hospital because of severe intestine and back pain . Surgeons then removed a grapefruit @-@ size tumor from his intestines and discovered he had colon cancer . In a letter to ministers , dated September 6 , Tkach announced that he was also diagnosed with bone cancer . He elected not to undertake radiation treatments . As Armstrong had done before him , Tkach named a successor to become pastor general in the event of his death . In that case , it was Tkach 's son , Joseph Tkach Jr .
Tkach died on September 23 , 1995 .
= = Assessment = =
The impact of Tkach ’ s tenure as the head of the WCG was notable . Church income dropped from a high of over $ 200 million in 1990 to $ 50 million by 1996 . By then the church could only count 49 @,@ 000 as members , less than half from its peak . The circulation of The Plain Truth , distributed free by subscription and via newsstand distribution around the globe , fell from a peak of 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to less than 100 @,@ 000 before it switched to a paid subscription status . Eventually the magazine was spun off into a separate , independent , evangelical ministry . The number of employees at the church headquarters fell from 1 @,@ 000 to about 50 . Ambassador University , as the college had become after earning regional accreditation in Texas , ceased operations in 1997 as the church could no longer provide its annual operating subsidy . The Pasadena campus was finally sold in 2004 .
In assessing the work of Tkach , there are two points of view . The critics of Tkach , especially those who formed the splinter churches , see Tkach as the key person responsible for the collapse of the WCG . They believe that the changes he brought were a turn against God and say his rejection of Armstrong 's unique doctrines were , at best , without biblical foundation .
Tkach ’ s supporters , including those in the leadership of the WCG , see events differently . The WCG describes Tkach ’ s tenure as " A Decade of Painful Change " and that the end result of his work was the reconciliation of the church with mainstream Christianity . Ruth Tucker , an evangelical leader and an early supporter of the changes which occurred in the WCG , wrote in an article in Christianity Today that
The " changes " — as they are referred to by insiders — are truly historic . Never before in the history of Christianity has there been such a complete move to orthodox Christianity by an unorthodox fringe church .
Vern Bullough , a secular humanist and senior editor of Free Inquiry , commented on the significance of the changes noting :
The shedding of almost every doctrine the Worldwide Church of God once clung to is a story almost without parallel in American religious history .
After his death , the WCG reiterated its full acceptance of the doctrinal changes implemented by Tkach and published an apology to current and former members of the church for the impact previous doctrines had had on members . As evidence that Tkach 's work was instrumental in the move toward mainstream Christianity , the WCG was accepted into the membership of the National Association of Evangelicals within two years of his death .
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= Machinima =
Machinima ( / məˈʃiːnᵻmə / or / məˈʃɪnᵻmə / ) is the use of real @-@ time computer graphics engines to create a cinematic production . Most often video games are used to generate the computer animation . Machinima @-@ based artists , sometimes called machinimists or machinimators , are often fan laborers , by virtue of their re @-@ use of copyrighted materials ( see below ) . Machinima offers to provide an archive of gaming performance and access to the look and feel of software and hardware that may already have become unavailable or even obsolete ; for game studies , " machinima ’ s gestures grant access to gaming ’ s historical conditions of possibility and how machinima offers links to a comparative horizon that informs , changes , and fully participates in videogame culture . "
The practice of using graphics engines from video games arose from the animated software introductions of the 1980s demoscene , Disney Interactive Studios ' 1992 video game Stunt Island , and 1990s recordings of gameplay in first @-@ person shooter ( FPS ) video games , such as id Software 's Doom and Quake . Originally , these recordings documented speedruns — attempts to complete a level as quickly as possible — and multiplayer matches . The addition of storylines to these films created " Quake movies " . The more general term machinima , a portmanteau of machine cinema , arose when the concept spread beyond the Quake series to other games and software . After this generalization , machinima appeared in mainstream media , including television series and advertisements .
Machinima has advantages and disadvantages when compared to other styles of filmmaking . Its relative simplicity over traditional frame @-@ based animation limits control and range of expression . Its real @-@ time nature favors speed , cost saving , and flexibility over the higher quality of pre @-@ rendered computer animation . Virtual acting is less expensive , dangerous , and physically restricted than live action . Machinima can be filmed by relying on in @-@ game artificial intelligence ( AI ) or by controlling characters and cameras through digital puppetry . Scenes can be precisely scripted , and can be manipulated during post @-@ production using video editing techniques . Editing , custom software , and creative cinematography may address technical limitations . Game companies have provided software for and have encouraged machinima , but the widespread use of digital assets from copyrighted games has resulted in complex , unresolved legal issues .
Machinima productions can remain close to their gaming roots and feature stunts or other portrayals of gameplay . Popular genres include dance videos , comedy , and drama . Alternatively , some filmmakers attempt to stretch the boundaries of the rendering engines or to mask the original 3 @-@ D context . The Academy of Machinima Arts & Sciences ( AMAS ) , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to promoting machinima , recognizes exemplary productions through Mackie awards given at its annual Machinima Film Festival . Some general film festivals accept machinima , and game companies , such as Epic Games , Blizzard Entertainment and Jagex , have sponsored contests involving it .
= = History = =
= = = Precedent = = =
1980s software crackers added custom introductory credits sequences ( intros ) to programs whose copy protection they had removed . Increasing computing power allowed for more complex intros , and the demoscene formed when focus shifted to the intros instead of the cracks . The goal became to create the best 3 @-@ D demos in real @-@ time with the least amount of software code . Disk storage was too slow for this ; graphics had to be calculated on the fly and without a pre @-@ existing game engine .
In Disney Interactive Studios ' 1992 computer game Stunt Island , users could stage , record , and play back stunts ; as Nitsche stated , the game 's goal was " not ... a high score but a spectacle . " Released the following year , id Software 's Doom included the ability to record gameplay as sequences of events that the game engine could later replay in real @-@ time . Because events and not video frames were saved , the resulting game demo files were small and easily shared among players . A culture of recording gameplay developed , as Henry Lowood of Stanford University called it , " a context for spectatorship .... The result was nothing less than a metamorphosis of the player into a performer . " Another important feature of Doom was that it allowed players to create their own modifications , maps , and software for the game , thus expanding the concept of game authorship . In machinima , there is a dual register of gestures : the trained motions of the player determine the in @-@ game images of expressive motion .
In parallel of the video game approach , in the media art field , Maurice Benayoun ’ s Virtual Reality artwork The Tunnel under the Atlantic ( 1995 ) , often compared to video games , introduced a virtual film director , fully autonomous intelligent agent , to shoot and edit in real time a full video from the digging performance in the Pompidou Center in Paris and the Museum of Contemporary art in Montreal . The full movie , Inside the Tunnel under the Atlantic , 21h long , was followed in 1997 by Inside the Paris New @-@ Delhi Tunnel ( 13h long ) . Only short excerpts where presented to the public . The complex behavior of the Tunnel ’ s virtual director makes it a significant precursor of later application to video games based machinimas .
Doom 's 1996 successor , Quake , offered new opportunities for both gameplay and customization , while retaining the ability to record demos . Multiplayer games became popular , almost a sport ; demos of matches between teams of players ( clans ) were recorded and studied . Paul Marino , executive director of the AMAS , stated that deathmatches , a type of multiplayer game , became more " cinematic " . At this point , however , they still documented gameplay without a narrative .
= = = Quake movies = = =
On October 26 , 1996 , a well @-@ known gaming clan , the Rangers , surprised the Quake community with Diary of a Camper , the first widely known machinima film . This short , 100 @-@ second demo file contained the action and gore of many others , but in the context of a brief story , rather than the usual deathmatch . An example of transformative or emergent gameplay , this shift from competition to theater required both expertise in and subversion of the game 's mechanics . The Ranger demo emphasized this transformation by retaining specific gameplay references in its story .
Diary of a Camper inspired many other " Quake movies , " as these films were then called . A community of game modifiers ( modders ) , artists , expert players , and film fans began to form around them . The works were distributed and reviewed on websites such as The Cineplex , Psyk 's Popcorn Jungle , and the Quake Movie Library ( QML ) . Production was supported by dedicated demo @-@ processing software , such as Uwe Girlich 's Little Movie Processing Center ( LMPC ) and David " crt " Wright 's non @-@ linear editor Keygrip ; the latter became known as " Adobe Premiere for Quake demo files " . Among the notable films were Clan Phantasm 's Devil 's Covenant , the first feature @-@ length Quake movie ; Avatar and Wendigo 's Blahbalicious , which the QML awarded seven Quake Movie Oscars ; and Clan Undead 's Operation Bayshield , which introduced simulated lip synchronization and featured customized digital assets .
Released in December 1997 , id Software 's Quake II improved support for user @-@ created 3 @-@ D models . However , without compatible editing software , filmmakers continued to create works based on the original Quake ; these included the ILL Clan 's Apartment Huntin ' and the Quake done Quick group 's Scourge Done Slick . Quake II demo editors became available in 1998 ; in particular , Keygrip 2 @.@ 0 introduced " recamming " , the ability to adjust camera locations after recording . Paul Marino called the addition of this feature " a defining moment for [ m ] achinima " . With Quake II filming now feasible , Strange Company 's 1999 production Eschaton : Nightfall was the first work to feature entirely custom @-@ made character models .
The December 1999 release of id 's Quake III Arena posed a problem to the Quake movie community . The game 's demo file included information needed for computer networking ; however , to prevent cheating , id warned of legal action for dissemination of the file format . Thus , it was impractical to enhance software to work with Quake III . Concurrently , the novelty of Quake movies was waning . New productions appeared less frequently , and , according to Marino , the community needed to " reinvent itself " to offset this development .
Borg War , a 90 @-@ minute animated Star Trek fan film , was produced using Elite Force 2 ( a Quake III variant ) and Starfleet Command 3 , repurposing the games ' voiceover clips to create a new plot . Borg War was nominated for two " Mackie " awards by the Academy of Machinima Arts & Sciences . An August 2007 screening at a Star Trek convention in Las Vegas was the first time that CBS / Paramount had approved the screening of a non @-@ parody fan film at a licensed convention .
= = = Generalization = = =
In January 2000 , Hugh Hancock , the founder of Strange Company , launched a new website , machinima.com. The new name surprised the community ; a misspelled contraction of machine cinema ( machinema ) , the term machinima was intended to dissociate in @-@ game filming from a specific engine . The misspelling stuck because it also referenced anime . The new site featured tutorials , interviews , articles , and the exclusive release of Tritin Films ' Quad God . The first film made with Quake III Arena , Quad God was also the first to be distributed as recorded video frames , not game @-@ specific instructions . This change was initially controversial among machinima producers who preferred the smaller size of demo files . However , demo files required a copy of the game to view . The more accessible traditional video format broadened Quad God 's viewership , and the work was distributed on CDs bundled with magazines . Thus , id 's decision to protect Quake III 's code inadvertently caused machinima creators to use more general solutions and thus widen their audience . Within a few years , machinima films were almost exclusively distributed in common video file formats .
Machinima began to receive mainstream notice . Roger Ebert discussed it in a June 2000 article and praised Strange Company 's machinima setting of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's sonnet " Ozymandias " . At Showtime Network 's 2001 Alternative Media Festival , the ILL Clan 's 2000 machinima film Hardly Workin ' won the Best Experimental and Best in SHO awards . Steven Spielberg used Unreal Tournament to test special effects while working on his 2001 film Artificial Intelligence : A.I. Eventually , interest spread to game developers . In July 2001 , Epic Games announced that its upcoming game Unreal Tournament 2003 would include Matinee , a machinima production software utility . As involvement increased , filmmakers released fewer new productions to focus on quality .
At the March 2002 Game Developers Conference , five machinima makers — Anthony Bailey , Hugh Hancock , Katherine Anna Kang , Paul Marino , and Matthew Ross — founded the AMAS , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to promoting machinima . At QuakeCon in August , the new organization held the first Machinima Film Festival , which received mainstream media coverage . Anachronox : The Movie , by Jake Hughes and Tom Hall , won three awards , including Best Picture . The next year , " In the Waiting Line " , directed by Tommy Pallotta and animated by Randy Cole , utilizing Fountainhead Entertainment 's Machinimation tools , it became the first machinima music video to air on MTV . As graphics technology improved , machinima filmmakers used other video games and consumer @-@ grade video editing software . Using Bungie 's 2001 game Halo : Combat Evolved , Rooster Teeth Productions created a popular comedy series Red vs. Blue : The Blood Gulch Chronicles . The series ' second season premiered at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in 2004 .
= = = Mainstream appearances = = =
Machinima has appeared on television , starting with G4 's series Portal . In the BBC series Time Commanders , players re @-@ enacted historic battles using Creative Assembly 's real @-@ time game Rome : Total War . MTV2 's Video Mods re @-@ creates music videos using characters from video games such as The Sims 2 , BloodRayne , and Tribes . Blizzard Entertainment helped to set part of " Make Love , Not Warcraft " , an Emmy Award – winning 2006 episode of the comedy series South Park , in its massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) World of Warcraft . By purchasing broadcast rights to Douglas Gayeton 's machinima documentary Molotov Alva and His Search for the Creator in September 2007 , HBO became the first television network to buy a work created completely in a virtual world . In December 2008 , machinima.com signed fifteen experienced television comedy writers — including Patric Verrone , Bill Oakley , and Mike Rowe — to produce episodes for the site .
Commercial use of machinima has increased.Rooster Teeth sells DVDs of their Red vs. Blue series and , under sponsorship from Electronic Arts , helped to promote The Sims 2 by using the game to make a machinima series , The Strangerhood . Volvo Cars sponsored the creation of a 2004 advertisement , Game : On , the first film to combine machinima and live action . Later , Electronic Arts commissioned Rooster Teeth to promote their Madden NFL 07 video game . Blockhouse TV uses Moviestorm 's machinima software to produce its pre @-@ school educational DVD series Jack and Holly
Game developers have continued to increase support for machinima . Products such as Lionhead Studios ' 2005 business simulation game The Movies , Linden Research 's virtual world Second Life , and Bungie 's 2007 first @-@ person shooter Halo 3 encourage the creation of user content by including machinima software tools . Using The Movies , Alex Chan , a French resident with no previous filmmaking experience , took four days to create The French Democracy , a short political film about the 2005 civil unrest in France . Third @-@ party mods like Garry 's Mod usually offer the ability to manipulate characters and take advantage of custom or migrated content , allowing for the creation of works like Counter @-@ Strike For Kids that can be filmed using multiple games .
In a 2010 interview with PC Magazine , Valve Corporation CEO and co @-@ founder Gabe Newell said that they wanted to make a Half @-@ Life feature film themselves , rather than hand it off to a big @-@ name director like Sam Raimi , and that their recent Team Fortress 2 " Meet The Team " machinima shorts were experiments in doing just that . Two years later , Valve released their proprietary non @-@ linear machinima software , Source Filmmaker .
Machinima has also been used for music video clips . Second Life virtual artist Bryn Oh created a work for Australian performer Megan Bernard 's song " Clean Up Your Life " , released in 2016 .
= = Production = =
= = = Comparison to film techniques = = =
The AMAS defines machinima as " animated filmmaking within a real @-@ time virtual 3 @-@ D environment " . In other 3 @-@ D animation methods , creators can control every frame and nuance of their characters but , in turn , must consider issues such as key frames and inbetweening . Machinima creators leave many rendering details to their host environments , but may thus inherit those environments ' limitations . Second Life Machinima film maker , Ozymandius King , provided a detailed account of the process by which the artists at MAGE Magazine produce their videos . " Organizing for a photo shoot is similar to organizing for a film production . Once you find the actors / models , you have to scout locations , find clothes and props for the models and type up a shooting script . The more organized you are the less time it takes to shoot the scene . " Because game animations focus on dramatic rather than casual actions , the range of character emotions is often limited . However , Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd state that a small range of emotions is often sufficient , as in successful Japanese anime television series .
Another difference is that machinima is created in real time , but other animation is pre @-@ rendered . Real @-@ time engines need to trade quality for speed and use simpler algorithms and models . In the 2001 animated film Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within , every strand of hair on a character 's head was independent ; real @-@ time needs would likely force them to be treated as a single unit . Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd argue that improvement in consumer @-@ grade graphics technology will allow more realism ; similarly , Paul Marino connects machinima to the increasing computing power predicted by Moore 's law . For cut scenes in video games , issues other than visual fidelity arise . Pre @-@ rendered scenes can require more digital storage space , weaken suspension of disbelief through contrast with real @-@ time animation of normal gameplay , and limit interaction .
Like live action , machinima is recorded in real @-@ time , and real people can act and control the camera . Filmmakers are often encouraged to follow traditional cinematic conventions , such as avoiding wide fields of view , the overuse of slow motion , and errors in visual continuity . Unlike live action , machinima involves less expensive , digital special effects and sets , possibly with a science @-@ fiction or historical theme . Explosions and stunts can be tried and repeated without monetary cost and risk of injury , and the host environment may allow unrealistic physical constraints . University of Cambridge experiments in 2002 and 2003 attempted to use machinima to re @-@ create a scene from the 1942 live @-@ action film Casablanca . Machinima filming differed from traditional cinematography in that character expression was limited , but camera movements were more flexible and improvised . Nitsche compared this experiment to an unpredictable Dogme 95 production .
Berkeley sees machinima as " a strangely hybrid form , looking forwards and backwards , cutting edge and conservative at the same time " . Machinima is a digital medium based on 3 @-@ D computer games , but most works have a linear narrative structure . Some , such as Red vs. Blue and The Strangerhood , follow narrative conventions of television situational comedy . Nitsche agrees that pre @-@ recorded ( " reel " ) machinima tends to be linear and offers limited interactive storytelling ; he sees more opportunities in machinima performed live and with audience interaction . In creating their improvisational comedy series On the Campaign Trail with Larry & Lenny Lumberjack and talk show Tra5hTa1k with ILL Will , the ILL Clan blended real and virtual performance by creating the works on @-@ stage and interacting with a live audience . In another combination of real and virtual worlds , Chris Burke 's talk show This Spartan Life takes place in Halo 2 's open multiplayer environment . There , others playing in earnest may attack the host or his interviewee . Although other virtual theatrical performances have taken place in chat rooms and multi @-@ user dungeons , machinima adds " cinematic camera work " . Previously , such virtual cinematic performances with live audience interaction were confined to research labs equipped with powerful computers .
Machinima can be less expensive than other forms of filmmaking . Strange Company produced its feature @-@ length machinima film BloodSpell for less than £ 10 @,@ 000 . Before using machinima , Burnie Burns and Matt Hullum of Rooster Teeth Productions spent US $ 9 @,@ 000 to produce a live @-@ action independent film ; in contrast , the four Xbox game consoles used to make Red vs. Blue in 2005 cost $ 600 . The low cost caused a product manager for Electronic Arts to compare machinima to the low @-@ budget independent film The Blair Witch Project , without the need for cameras and actors . Because these are seen as low barriers to entry , machinima has been called a " democratization of filmmaking " . Berkeley weighs increased participation and a blurred line between producer and consumer against concerns that game copyrights limit commercialization and growth of machinima .
Comparatively , machinimists using pre @-@ made virtual platforms like Second Life have indicated that their productions can be made quite successfully with no cost at all . Creators like Dutch director Chantal Harvey , producer of the 48 Hour Film Project Machinima sector , have created upwards of 200 films using the platform . Harvey 's advocacy of the genre has resulted in the involvement of film director Peter Greenaway who served as a juror for the Machinima category and gave a keynote speech during the event .
= = = Character and camera control = = =
Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd list four main methods of creating machinima . From simple to advanced , these are : relying on the game 's AI to control most actions , digital puppetry , recamming , and precise scripting of actions . Although simple to produce , AI @-@ dependent results are unpredictable , thus complicating the realization of a preconceived film script . For example , when Rooster Teeth produced The Strangerhood using The Sims 2 , a game that encourages the use of its AI , the group had to create multiple instances of each character to accommodate different moods . Individual instances were selected at different times to produce appropriate actions .
In digital puppetry , machinima creators become virtual actors ; each crew member controls a character in real @-@ time , as in a multiplayer game . The director can use built @-@ in camera controls , if available . Otherwise , video is captured from the perspectives of one or more puppeteers who serve as camera operators . Puppetry allows for improvisation and offers controls familiar to gamers , but requires more personnel than the other methods and is less precise than scripted recordings . However , some games , such as the Halo series , ( except for Halo PC and Custom Edition , which allow AI and custom objects and characters ) , allow filming only through puppetry . According to Marino , other disadvantages are the possibility of disruption when filming in an open multi @-@ user environment and the temptation for puppeteers to play the game in earnest , littering the set with blood and dead bodies . However , Chris Burke intentionally hosts This Spartan Life in these unpredictable conditions , which are fundamental to the show . Other works filmed using puppetry are the ILL Clan 's improvisational comedy series On the Campaign Trail with Larry & Lenny Lumberjack and Rooster Teeth Productions ' Red vs. Blue . In recamming , which builds on puppetry , actions are first recorded to a game engine 's demo file format , not directly as video frames . Without re @-@ enacting scenes , artists can then manipulate the demo files to add cameras , tweak timing and lighting , and change the surroundings . This technique is limited to the few engines and software tools that support it .
A technique common in cut scenes of video games , scripting consists of giving precise directions to the game engine . A filmmaker can work alone this way , as J. Thaddeus " Mindcrime " Skubis did in creating the nearly four @-@ hour The Seal of Nehahra ( 2000 ) , the longest work of machinima at the time . However , perfecting scripts can be time @-@ consuming . Unless what @-@ you @-@ see @-@ is @-@ what @-@ you @-@ get ( WYSIWYG ) editing is available , as in Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption , changes may need to be verified in additional runs , and non @-@ linear editing may be difficult . In this respect , Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd compare scripting to stop @-@ motion animation . Another disadvantage is that , depending on the game , scripting capabilities may be limited or unavailable . Matinee , a machinima software tool included with Unreal Tournament 2004 , popularized scripting in machinima .
= = = Limitations and solutions = = =
When Diary of a Camper was created , no software tools existed to edit demo files into films . Rangers clan member Eric " ArchV " Fowler wrote his own programs to reposition the camera and to splice footage from the Quake demo file . Quake movie editing software later appeared , but the use of conventional non @-@ linear video editing software is now common . For example , Phil South inserted single , completely white frames into his work No Licence to enhance the visual impact of explosions . In the post @-@ production of Red vs. Blue : The Blood Gulch Chronicles , Rooster Teeth Productions added letterboxing with Adobe Premiere Pro to hide the camera player 's head @-@ up display .
Machinima creators have used different methods to handle limited character expression . The most typical ways that amateur @-@ style machinima gets around limitations of expression include taking advantage of speech bubbles seen above players ' heads when speaking , relying on the visual matching between a character 's voice and appearance , and finding methods available within the game itself . Garry 's Mod and Source Filmmaker include the ability to manipulate characters and objects in real @-@ time , though the former relies on community addons to take advantage of certain engine features , and the latter renders scenes using non @-@ real @-@ time effects . In the Halo video game series , helmets completely cover the characters ' faces . To prevent confusion , Rooster Teeth 's characters move slightly when speaking , a convention shared with anime . Some machinima creators use custom software . For example , Strange Company uses Take Over GL Face Skins to add more facial expressions to their characters filmed in BioWare 's 2002 role @-@ playing video game Neverwinter Nights . Similarly , Atussa Simon used a " library of faces " for characters in The Battle of Xerxes . In some cases , some game companies may provide such software ; examples include Epic Games ' Impersonator for Unreal Tournament 2004 and Valve Corporation 's Faceposer for Source games . Another solution is to blend in non @-@ machinima elements , as nGame did by inserting painted characters with more expressive faces into its 1999 film Berlin Assassins . It may be possible to point the camera elsewhere or employ other creative cinematography or acting . For example , Tristan Pope combined creative character and camera positioning with video editing to suggest sexual actions in his controversial film Not Just Another Love Story .
= = Legal issues = =
New machinima filmmakers often want to use game @-@ provided digital assets , but doing so raises legal issues . As derivative works , their films could violate copyright or be controlled by the assets ' copyright holder , an arrangement that can be complicated by separate publishing and licensing rights . The software license agreement for The Movies stipulates that Activision , the game 's publisher , owns " any and all content within ... Game Movies that was either supplied with the Program or otherwise made available ... by Activision or its licensors ... " Some game companies provide software to modify their own games , and machinima makers often cite fair use as a defense , but the issue has never been tested in court . A potential problem with this defense is that many works , such as Red vs. Blue , focus more on satire , which is not as explicitly protected by fair use as parody . Berkeley adds that , even if machinima artists use their own assets , their works could be ruled derivative if filmed in a proprietary engine . The risk inherent in a fair @-@ use defense would cause most machinima artists simply to yield to a cease @-@ and @-@ desist order . The AMAS has attempted to negotiate solutions with video game companies , arguing that an open @-@ source or reasonably priced alternative would emerge from an unfavorable situation . Unlike The Movies , some dedicated machinima software programs , such as Reallusion 's iClone , have licenses that avoid claiming ownership of users ' films featuring bundled assets .
Generally , companies want to retain creative control over their intellectual properties and are wary of fan @-@ created works , like fan fiction . However , because machinima provides free marketing , they have avoided a response demanding strict copyright enforcement . In 2003 , Linden Lab was praised for changing license terms to allow users to retain ownership of works created in its virtual world Second Life . Rooster Teeth initially tried to release Red vs. Blue unnoticed by Halo 's owners because they feared that any communication would force them to end the project . However , Microsoft , Bungie 's parent company at the time , contacted the group shortly after episode 2 , and allowed them to continue without paying licensing fees .
A case in which developer control was asserted involved Blizzard Entertainment 's action against Tristan Pope 's Not Just Another Love Story . Blizzard 's community managers encouraged users to post game movies and screenshots , but viewers complained that Pope 's suggestion of sexual actions through creative camera and character positioning was pornographic . Citing the user license agreement , Blizzard closed discussion threads about the film and prohibited links to it . Although Pope accepted Blizzard 's right to some control , he remained concerned about censorship of material that already existed in @-@ game in some form . Discussion ensued about boundaries between MMORPG player and developer control . Lowood asserted that this controversy demonstrated that machinima could be a medium of negotiation for players .
= = = Microsoft and Blizzard = = =
In August 2007 , Microsoft issued its Game Content Usage Rules , a license intended to address the legal status of machinima based on its games , including the Halo series . Microsoft intended the rules to be " flexible " , and , because it was unilateral , the license was legally unable to reduce rights . However , machinima artists , such as Edgeworks Entertainment , protested the prohibitions on extending Microsoft 's fictional universes ( a common component of fan fiction ) and on selling anything from sites hosting derivative works . Compounding the reaction was the license 's statement , " If you do any of these things , you can expect to hear from Microsoft 's lawyers who will tell you that you have to stop distributing your items right away . "
Surprised by the negative feedback , Microsoft revised and reissued the license after discussion with Hugh Hancock and an attorney for the Electronic Frontier Foundation . The rules allow noncommercial use and distribution of works derived from Microsoft @-@ owned game content , except audio effects and soundtracks . The license prohibits reverse engineering and material that is pornographic or otherwise " objectionable " . On distribution , derivative works that elaborate on a game 's fictional universe or story are automatically licensed to Microsoft and its business partners . This prevents legal problems if a fan and Microsoft independently conceive similar plots .
A few weeks later , Blizzard Entertainment posted on WorldofWarcraft.com their " Letter to the Machinimators of the World " , a license for noncommercial use of game content . It differs from Microsoft 's declaration in that it addresses machinima specifically instead of general game @-@ derived content , allows use of game audio if Blizzard can legally license it , requires derivative material to meet the Entertainment Software Rating Board 's Teen content rating guideline , defines noncommercial use differently , and does not address extensions of fictional universes .
Hayes states that , although licensees ' benefits are limited , the licenses reduce reliance on fair use regarding machinima . In turn , this recognition may reduce film festivals ' concerns about copyright clearance ; in an earlier analogous situation , festivals were concerned about documentary films until best practices for them were developed . According to Hayes , Microsoft and Blizzard helped themselves through their licenses because fan creations provide free publicity and are unlikely to harm sales . If the companies had instead sued for copyright infringement , defendants could have claimed estoppel or implied license because machinima had been unaddressed for a long time . Thus , these licenses secured their issuers ' legal rights . Even though other companies , such as Electronic Arts , have encouraged machinima , they have avoided licensing it . Because of the involved legal complexity , they may prefer to under @-@ enforce copyrights . Hayes believes that this legal uncertainty is a suboptimal solution and that , though limited and " idiosyncratic " , the Microsoft and Blizzard licenses move towards an ideal video gaming industry standard for handling derivative works .
= = Semiotic mode = =
Just as machinima can be the cause of legal dispute in copyright ownership and illegal use , it makes heavy use of intertextuality and raises the question of authorship . Machinima takes copyrighted property ( such as characters in a game engine ) and repurposes it to tell a story , but another common practice in machinima @-@ making is to retell an existing story from a different medium in that engine .
This re @-@ appropriation of established texts , resources , and artistic properties to tell a story or make a statement is an example of a semiotic phenomenon known as intertextuality or resemiosis . A more common term for this phenomenon is “ parody ” , but not all of these intertextual productions are intended for humor or satire , as demonstrated by the Few Good G @-@ Men video . Furthermore , the argument of how well @-@ protected machinima is under the guise of parody or satire is still highly debated ; a piece of machinima may be reliant upon a protected property , but may not necessarily be making a statement about that property . Therefore , it is more accurate to refer to it simply as resemiosis , because it takes an artistic work and presents it in a new way , form , or medium . This resemiosis can be manifested in a number of ways . The machinima @-@ maker can be considered an author who restructures the story and / or the world that the chosen game engine is built around . In the popular web series Red vs. Blue , most of the storyline takes place within the game engine of Halo : Combat Evolved and its subsequent sequels . Halo : Combat Evolved has an extensive storyline already , but Red vs. Blue only ever makes mention of this storyline once in the first episode . Even after over 200 episodes of the show being broadcast onto the Internet since 2003 , the only real similarities that can be drawn between Red vs. Blue and the game @-@ world it takes place in are the character models , props , vehicles , and settings . Yet Burnie Burns and the machinima team at Rooster Teeth created an extensive storyline of their own using these game resources .
The ability to re @-@ appropriate a game engine to film a video demonstrates intertextuality because it is an obvious example of art being a product of creation @-@ through @-@ manipulation rather than creation per se . The art historian Ernst Gombrich likened art to the " manipulation of a vocabulary " and this can be demonstrated in the creation of machinima . When using a game world to create a story , the author is influenced by the engine . For example , since so many video games are built around the concept of war , a significant portion of machinima films also take place in war @-@ like environments .
Intertextuality is further demonstrated in machinima not only in the re @-@ appropriation of content but in artistic and communicatory techniques . Machinima by definition is a form of puppetry , and thus this new form of digital puppetry employs age @-@ old techniques from the traditional artform . It is also , however , a form of filmmaking , and must employ filmmaking techniques such as camera angles and proper lighting . Some machinima takes place in online environments with participants , actors , and " puppeteers " working together from thousands of miles apart . This means other techniques born from long @-@ distance communication must also be employed . Thus , techniques and practices that would normally never be used in conjunction with one another in the creation of an artistic work end up being used intertextually in the creation of machinima .
Another way that machinima demonstrates intertextuality is in its tendency to make frequent references to texts , works , and other media just like TV ads or humorous cartoons such as The Simpsons might do . For example , the machinima series Freeman 's Mind , created by Ross Scott is filmed by taking a recording of Scott playing through the game Half Life as a player normally would and combining it with a voiceover ( also recorded by Scott ) to emulate an inner monologue of the normally voiceless protagonist Gordon Freeman . Scott portrays Freeman as a snarky , sociopathic character who makes frequent references to works and texts including science fiction , horror films , action movies , American history , and renowned novels such as Moby Dick . These references to works outside the game , often triggered by events within the game , are prime examples of the densely intertextual nature of machinima .
= = Common genres = =
Nitsche and Lowood describe two methods of approaching machinima : starting from a video game and seeking a medium for expression or for documenting gameplay ( " inside @-@ out " ) , and starting outside a game and using it merely as animation tool ( " outside @-@ in " ) . Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd similarly distinguish between works that retain noticeable connections to games , and those closer to traditional animation . Belonging to the former category , gameplay and stunt machinima began in 1997 with Quake done Quick . Although not the first speedrunners , its creators used external software to manipulate camera positions after recording , which , according to Lowood , elevated speedrunning " from cyberathleticism to making movies " . Stunt machinima remains popular . Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd state that Halo : Combat Evolved stunt videos offer a new way to look at the game , and compare Battlefield 1942 machinima creators to the Harlem Globetrotters . Built @-@ in features for video editing and post @-@ recording camera positioning in Halo 3 were expected to facilitate gameplay @-@ based machinima . MMORPGs and other virtual worlds have been captured in documentary films , such as Miss Galaxies 2004 , a beauty pageant that took place in the virtual world of Star Wars Galaxies . Footage was distributed in the cover disc of the August 2004 issue of PC Gamer . Douglas Gayeton 's Molotov Alva and His Search for the Creator documents the title character 's interactions in Second Life .
Gaming @-@ related comedy offers another possible entry point for new machinima producers . Presented as five @-@ minute sketches , many machinima comedies are analogous to Internet Flash animations . After Clan Undead 's 1997 work Operation Bayshield built on the earliest Quake movies by introducing narrative conventions of linear media and sketch comedy reminiscent of the television show Saturday Night Live , the New @-@ York @-@ based ILL Clan further developed the genre in machinima through works including Apartment Huntin ' and Hardly Workin ' . Red vs. Blue : The Blood Gulch Chronicles chronicles a futile civil war over five seasons and 100 episodes . Marino wrote that although the series ' humor was rooted in video games , strong writing and characters caused the series to " transcend the typical gamer " . An example of a comedy film that targets a more general audience is Strange Company 's Tum Raider , produced for the BBC in 2004 .
Machinima has been used in music videos , of which the first documented example is Ken Thain 's 2002 " Rebel vs. Thug " , made in collaboration with Chuck D. For this , Thain used Quake2Max , a modification of Quake II that provided cel @-@ shaded animation . The following year , Tommy Pallotta directed " In the Waiting Line " for the British group Zero 7 . He told Computer Graphics World , " It probably would have been quicker to do the film in a 3D animated program . But now , we can reuse the assets in an improvisational way . " Scenes of the game Postal 2 can be seen in the music video of the Black Eyed Peas single " Where Is the Love ? " . In television , MTV features video game characters on its show Video Mods . Among World of Warcraft players , dance and music videos became popular after dancing animations were discovered in the game .
Others use machinima in drama ; these works may or may not retain signs of their video game provenance . Unreal Tournament is often used for science fiction and Battlefield 1942 for war , but some artists subvert their chosen game 's setting or completely detach their work from it . In 1999 , Strange Company used Quake II in Eschaton : Nightfall , a horror film based on the work of H. P. Lovecraft . A later example is Damien Valentine 's series Consanguinity , made using BioWare 's 2002 computer game Neverwinter Nights and based on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Another genre consists of experimental works that attempt to push the boundaries of game engines . One example , Fountainhead 's Anna , is a short film that focuses on the cycle of life and is reminiscent of Fantasia . Other productions go farther and completely eschew a 3 @-@ D appearance . Friedrich Kirschner 's The Tournament and The Journey deliberately appear hand @-@ drawn , and Dead on Que 's Fake Science resembles two @-@ dimensional Eastern European modernist animation from the 1970s .
Another derivative genre termed macinima verite , from cinéma vérité , seeks to add a documentary and additional realism to the machinima piece . L.M. Sabo 's CATACLYSM achieves a machinima verite style through displaying and recapturing the machinima video with a low resolution black and white hand @-@ held video camera to produce a shaky camera effect . Other element of cinéma vérité , such as longer takes , sweeping camera transitions , and jump cuts may be included to complete the effect .
Some have used machinima to make political statements , often from left @-@ wing perspectives . Alex Chan 's take on the 2005 civil unrest in France , The French Democracy , attained mainstream attention and inspired other machinima commentaries on American and British society . Horwatt deemed Thuyen Nguyen 's 2006 An Unfair War , a criticism of the Iraq war , similar in its attempt " to speak for those who cannot " . Joshua Garrison mimicked Chan 's " political pseudo @-@ documentary style " in his Virginia Tech Massacre , a controversial Halo 3 – based re @-@ enactment and explanation of the eponymous real @-@ life events . More recently , War of Internet Addiction addressed internet censorship in China using World of Warcraft .
= = Competitions = =
After the QML 's Quake Movie Oscars , dedicated machinima awards did not reappear until the AMAS created the Mackies for its first Machinima Film Festival in 2002 . The annual festival has become an important one for machinima creators . Ho Chee Yue , a founder of the marketing company AKQA , helped to organize the first festival for the Asia chapter of the AMAS in 2006 . In 2007 , the AMAS supported the first machinima festival held in Europe . In addition to these smaller ceremonies , Hugh Hancock of Strange Company worked to add an award for machinima to the more general Bitfilm Festival in 2003 . Other general festivals that allow machinima include the Sundance Film Festival , the Florida Film Festival , and the New Media Film Festival . The Ottawa International Animation Festival opened a machinima category in 2004 , but , citing the need for " a certain level of excellence " , declined to award anything to the category 's four entries that year .
Machinima has been showcased in contests sponsored by game companies . Epic Games ' popular Make Something Unreal contest included machinima that impressed event organizer Jeff Morris because of " the quality of entries that really push the technology , that accomplish things that Epic never envisioned " . In December 2005 , Blizzard Entertainment and Xfire , a gaming @-@ focused instant messaging service , jointly sponsored a World of Warcraft machinima contest .
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= Kangana Ranaut =
Kangana Ranaut ( pronounced [ kəŋɡənaː raːɳoːʈʰ ] ; born 23 March 1986 ) is an Indian film actress . She has established a career in Bollywood and is one of the highest @-@ paid actresses in India . Ranaut is particularly known in the media for expressing her honest opinions in public and is frequently credited as one of the most fashionable Indian celebrities . She is the recipient of several awards , including three National Film Awards and Filmfare Awards in four categories .
Born in Bhambla , a small town in Himachal Pradesh , Ranaut initially aspired to become a doctor at the insistence of her parents . Determined to build her own career path , she relocated to Delhi at age sixteen , where she briefly became a model . After training under the theatre director Arvind Gaur , Ranaut made her feature film debut in the 2006 thriller Gangster , for which she was awarded the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut . She received praise for portraying emotionally intense characters in the dramas Woh Lamhe ( 2006 ) , Life in a ... Metro ( 2007 ) and Fashion ( 2008 ) . For the last of these , she won the National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress and a Filmfare Award in the same category .
Ranaut featured in the commercially successful films Raaz : The Mystery Continues ( 2009 ) and Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai ( 2010 ) , though she was criticised for being typecast in neurotic roles . A comic role opposite R. Madhavan in the 2011 box office hit Tanu Weds Manu was well @-@ received , though this was followed by a series of brief , glamorous roles in films that failed to propel her career forward . She then played a mutant opposite Hrithik Roshan in the science fiction film Krrish 3 ( 2013 ) , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films , and won the Filmfare and National Film Award for Best Actress for her performance in the comedy @-@ drama Queen ( 2014 ) . In 2015 , Ranaut portrayed dual roles in Tanu Weds Manu Returns , the most successful Bollywood film featuring a female protagonist , for which she won a Filmfare Critics Award and a second consecutive National Film Award for Best Actress .
= = Early life and background = =
Ranaut was born on 23 March 1986 at Bhambla ( now Surajpur ) , a small town in the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh , into a Rajput family . Her mother , Asha Ranaut , is a school teacher , and her father , Amardeep Ranaut , is a businessman . She has an elder sister , Rangoli , who as of 2014 works as her manager and a younger brother , Akshat . Her great @-@ grandfather , Sarju Singh Ranaut , was a Member of the Legislative Assembly and her grandfather was an officer for the Indian Administrative Service . She grew up in a joint family at their ancestral haveli ( mansion ) in Bhambla , and described her childhood as " simple and happy " .
According to Ranaut , she was " stubborn and rebellious " while growing up : " If my father would gift my brother a plastic gun and get a doll for me , I would not accept that . I questioned the discrimination . " She did not subscribe to the stereotypes that were expected of her and experimented with fashion from a young age , often pairing up accessories and clothes that would seem " bizarre " to her neighbours . Ranaut was educated at the DAV School in Chandigarh , where she pursued science as her core subject , remarking that she was " very studious " and " always paranoid about [ ... ] results " . She initially intended to become a doctor on the insistence of her parents . However , a failed unit test in chemistry during her twelfth grade led Ranaut to reconsider her career prospects and despite preparing for the All India Pre Medical Test , she did not turn up for the exam . Determined to find her " space and freedom " , she relocated to Delhi at the age of sixteen . Her decision not to pursue medicine led to constant feuding with her parents and her father refused to sponsor a pursuit he considered to be aimless .
In Delhi , Ranaut was unsure which career to choose ; the Elite Modelling Agency were impressed by her looks and suggested that she model for them . She took on a few modelling assignments , but generally disliked the career as she found " no scope for creativity " . Ranaut decided to shift focus towards acting and joined the Asmita Theatre Group , where she trained under the theatre director Arvind Gaur . She participated in Gaur 's theatre workshop at the India Habitat Centre , acting in several of his plays , including the Girish Karnad @-@ scripted Taledanda . During a performance , when one of the male actors went missing , Ranaut played his part along with her original role of a woman . A positive reaction from the audience prompted her to relocate to Mumbai to pursue a career in film and she enrolled herself for a four @-@ month acting course in Asha Chandra 's drama school .
Ranaut struggled with her meager earnings during this period , eating only " bread and aachar ( pickle ) " . Refusing her father 's financial assistance led to a rift in their relationship which she later regretted . Her relatives were unhappy with her decision to enter the film @-@ making industry , and they did not correspond with her for several years . She reconciled with them after the release of Life in a ... Metro in 2007 .
= = Career = =
= = = 2004 – 08 : Film debut and critical acclaim = = =
In 2004 , the producers Ramesh Sharma and Pahlaj Nilani announced that Ranaut would make her film debut with the Deepak Shivdasani @-@ directed I Love You Boss . The following year , an agent took her to the office of the producer Mahesh Bhatt , where she interacted with the director Anurag Basu and auditioned for the lead role in the romantic thriller Gangster . Bhatt felt that she was too young for the role and signed Chitrangada Singh instead . However , Singh was later unavailable to do the film and Ranaut was contracted as a replacement for Gangster , opting out of I Love You Boss . She was cast in the central role of Simran , an alcoholic woman caught in a romantic triangle between a notorious gangster ( played by Shiney Ahuja ) and a sympathetic friend ( played by Emraan Hashmi ) . Ranaut was only seventeen while filming and said that she " had difficulty first in understanding and then unwinding from the character " , describing her craft as " raw and immature " . Released in 2006 , Gangster emerged as a critical and commercial success and her performance was praised . Raja Sen of Rediff.com said that " Kangana is a remarkable find , the actress coming across with great conviction . Hers is the pivotal character and an extremely difficult role to essay , but she manages it well [ ... ] Kangana 's nuances [ of an alcoholic character ] are disconcertingly realistic . " She won the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut , along with various other debut awards .
Ranaut 's next role was in the Mohit Suri @-@ directed drama Woh Lamhe ( 2006 ) , a semi @-@ biographical film based on the schizophrenic actress Parveen Babi and her relationship with the director Mahesh Bhatt . She said that portraying Babi had left her emotionally drained , as she had begun to " feel her desolation and loneliness . " Film critic Subhash K. Jha wrote that Ranaut " is the first female performer of Bollywood since Smita and Shabana who isn 't scared to strip her soul naked for the camera " , adding that she is a " hugely expressive actress with a phenomenal ability to convey torment , hurt and incredulity through the eyes " . Despite positive reviews , the film underperformed at the box office .
The following year , Ranaut portrayed an aspiring musician in Suneel Darshan 's musical thriller Shakalaka Boom Boom , alongside Bobby Deol , Upen Patel and Celina Jaitly . The film 's production was marred by a dispute between Ranaut and Darshan ; she objected to her voice being dubbed by another artist , but he insisted that he needed a particular " twang and accent " for her character . India Today described the film as an " amateur mess " and the film proved to be a box office flop . She next reunited with Anurag Basu for the ensemble drama Life in a ... Metro , playing the supporting role of Neha , a shrewd socialite engaged in an affair with her married boss ( played by Kay Kay Menon ) . Despite a poor initial run at the box office , the film emerged as a profitable venture . Khalid Mohamed of Hindustan Times was critical of the film , noting its lack of originality and realism . In a more positive review , Raja Sen wrote that Ranaut " is refreshing [ ... ] and manages to herd her emotions well , playing a complex role but hardly ever overreaching " , but criticised her delivery of English lines . For her role , Ranaut was awarded the Stardust Award for Breakthrough Performance – Female .
Ranaut next portrayed a village girl in Dhaam Dhoom ( 2008 ) , a Tamil romantic thriller , opposite Jayam Ravi . Production on the film was temporarily halted when the director , Jeeva , died of cardiac arrest and the film was completed by the crew members . A review carried by Post wrote that Ranaut had " little scope " in a role that did not suit her . India Today described her next film , the Madhur Bhandarkar @-@ directed drama Fashion ( 2008 ) , as a " landmark " in her career . Set against the backdrop of the Indian fashion industry , the film co @-@ starred Priyanka Chopra and Mugdha Godse and featured Ranaut as Shonali Gujral , a substance abusing supermodel struggling to cope with her foundering career . Because the media speculated that her role was based on the former model Geetanjali Nagpal ( which both Ranaut and Bhandarkar denied ) , the Delhi Commission for Women ( DCW ) , ordered a stay on the film 's release , approving it only after a script narration . With a worldwide revenue of 600 million Indian rupees ( ₹ ) , approximately US $ 10 million , Fashion emerged as a commercial success , and was listed by Subhash K. Jha as one of the best films of the decade with women protagonists . Ranaut 's performance drew unanimous critical acclaim . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama praised her confident portrayal of the character and believed that she was the real star of the film , and Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India added that she " does an exquisite metamorphosis from a wispy , high @-@ strung , nervous child @-@ woman to a stunning ramp diva . " Ranaut 's portrayal earned her several awards , including the National Film Award and Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress .
= = = 2009 – 12 : Career fluctuations = = =
The supernatural horror film Raaz : The Mystery Continues from director Mohit Suri was Ranaut 's first film release of 2009 , in which she played a successful model who is possessed by a ghost . The film co @-@ starred Emraan Hashmi and Adhyayan Suman and proved to be a financial success . Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express noted that Ranaut was becoming stereotyped in roles that required her to be " hysterical " , adding that she needed a " radical change of image " . Also that year , she played the leading lady in the drama Vaada Raha and the Telugu action film Ek Niranjan , neither of which were particularly notable .
In a brief role in Anurag Basu 's romantic thriller Kites ( 2010 ) , Ranaut portrayed the fiancée of Hrithik Roshan 's character . She said that she felt " cheated " after watching the film , as her role proved to be much smaller than what she had initially signed on for . She then portrayed fictional film actress Rehana in the Milan Luthria @-@ directed gangster film Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai . Also starring Ajay Devgn , Emraan Hashmi and Prachi Desai , the film chronicles the rise and subsequent fall of an underworld don ( played by Devgn ) in the 1970s . Ranaut said that her character was " a mix " of the actress Madhubala and the gangster Haji Mastan 's wife and that to prepare she observed the work of the actresses Zeenat Aman and Parveen Babi . The film was one of the most successful releases of the year and garnered positive reviews from critics . Sudish Kamath of The Hindu labelled her a " delight " and Mid Day 's Sarita Tanwar praised her for being " totally convincing " in the role . After playing a television reporter in the thriller Knock Out , Ranaut actively looked for a comedy and found the role in Anees Bazmee 's No Problem , but both films failed to propel her career forward .
According to Bollywood Hungama , after establishing a reputation for portraying neurotic characters , Ranaut was seeking projects that would be " less emotionally exhausting " for her . Her first release of 2011 was Anand L. Rai 's Tanu Weds Manu , a romantic comedy opposite R. Madhavan , which Ranaut considers a " game changer " for her . Rai stated that he cast her for the role to illustrate that the actress was capable of playing other roles and that her character in the film was unlike any of those that she had played previously . Critical reaction to the film was mixed , though Ranaut 's performance was praised . Rajeev Masand wrote , " Kangana Ranaut is a pleasant surprise in a cheery , upbeat part that we haven 't seen her take on before . She rises to the challenge , only hampered occasionally by her mangled dialogue delivery . " Ranaut received Best Actress nominations at several award ceremonies , including Screen and Zee Cine .
Ranaut followed the success of Tanu Weds Manu by starring in a series of brief , glamorous roles in four other films of 2011 : Game , Double Dhamaal , Rascals and Miley Naa Miley Hum . With the exception of Double Dhamaal , none of these films performed well . In a review for Rascals , the critic Gaurav Malani wrote : " Kangana Ranaut is ill at ease in comedy . She struggles to hold her own and emerges as a bimbo in her act . " Ranaut later said that she did some of these films due to a dearth of film offers . The following year , Ranaut portrayed a supporting role opposite Ajay Devgn in Priyadarshan 's action thriller Tezz , another box office flop .
= = = 2013 – present : Established actress = = =
The director Sanjay Gupta cast Ranaut in a brief role opposite John Abraham in the crime thriller Shootout at Wadala ( 2013 ) due to her ability to stand out in a predominantly male @-@ centric film . The Daily News and Analysis ' Tushar Joshi wrote that her role was written " to provide the sex quotient " and critic Vinayak Chakravorty opined that she " does not get much scope [ ... ] beyond the steamy lovemaking grind " . Commercially , the film performed moderately well .
Ranaut achieved success later in 2013 for her portrayal of Kaya , a shapeshifting mutant , in Rakesh Roshan 's science fiction film Krrish 3 , alongside Hrithik Roshan , Priyanka Chopra and Vivek Oberoi . When Rakesh Roshan first offered the role to her , she declined it due a disappointing prior association with him on Kites , in which Roshan had served as producer . Following Ranaut 's rejection , other actresses also turned down the role . Roshan approached her again and after assuring her that the role would not be a minuscule one , Ranaut accepted the part . Critics thought that Krrish 3 was entertaining but lacking in originality , though Ranaut 's performance garnered praise . The critic Sarita Tanwar of Daily News and Analysis said : " Kangana Ranaut is delightful as an alien making the weird hair and clothes work for her . She even manages to make you feel her pain . Quite an accomplishment that ! " With global ticket sales of ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) , the film emerged as one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time , becoming Ranaut 's most financially profitable venture . Also that year , Ranaut played the eponymous lead in the musical drama Rajjo . The film was a critical and commercial failure and Ranaut 's portrayal of a nautch girl was largely criticised . Paloma Sharma of Rediff.com commented that " Kangana Ranaut struggles with her Mumbaiyya dialogues and is not as graceful in the dance sequences as one would have expected . "
In 2014 , Ranaut established herself in Hindi cinema when she featured alongside Rajkummar Rao and Lisa Haydon in the coming @-@ of @-@ age dramedy Queen ; she also co @-@ wrote the dialogues with Anvita Dutt Guptan . The film tells the story of Rani , a naive girl who embarks on her honeymoon alone after her fiancé calls off their wedding . Ranaut , who describes herself as " independent and confident " , reflected that the role was one of the toughest she had played , as the character 's personality traits contrasted with her own . The film and Ranaut 's performance received unanimous acclaim from critics . Devesh Sharma of Filmfare wrote that the fact that she " flits from one aspect of her character to another without breaking stride shows her maturity as an actor . Her efforts make you clap for Rani 's small and big victories , you root for her character to come up trumps and are glad about the glorious transformation at the end . " With a worldwide total of ₹ 970 million ( US $ 14 million ) , the film also emerged as a box office hit . She won both the Filmfare Award and the National Film Award for Best Actress for the film . Ranaut followed Queen by playing an aggressive politician in the black comedy Revolver Rani and a medical intern in the political drama Ungli ( both 2014 ) .
The following year , Ranaut starred in Tanu Weds Manu Returns ( 2015 ) , a sequel to Tanu Weds Manu , in which she portrayed dual roles — she reprised the character of Tanuja from the original and also portrayed an aspiring athlete in it . In preparation for the latter role , she interacted with students of the University of Delhi in disguise ; in addition , she attended workshops to learn the Haryanvi language and trained in the sport of triple jump . The film received positive reviews from critics and Ranaut 's performance was considered its prime asset . Sweta Kaushal of Hindustan Times praised her for perfecting the body languages and accents of the two women , and Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that she " fleshes out this pair of distinct individuals with such energy and finesse that it becomes difficult at times to tell that it is the same actress playing the two roles " . Tanu Weds Manu Returns earned over ₹ 2 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 36 million ) worldwide , becoming the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film featuring a female protagonist . Ranaut won a Filmfare Critics Award and a second consecutive National Film Award for Best Actress , and received an additional Best Actress nomination at Filmfare .
Also in 2015 , Ranaut appeared in the romantic comedies I Love NY ( a production delayed since 2013 ) and Nikhil Advani 's Katti Batti , both of which failed at the box office . The latter saw her play opposite Imran Khan as a cancer patient , a role that critic Uday Bhatia of Mint thought " lack [ ed ] the sort of definition she ’ s had in her last few roles " .
= = = = Upcoming projects = = = =
As of May 2016 , Ranaut has completed filming for the part of an actress in Vishal Bhardwaj 's Rangoon , a romantic drama set during World War II , co @-@ starring Saif Ali Khan and Shahid Kapoor . In addition , Ranaut is committed to star in Simran , a drama from the director Hansal Mehta , in which she will play a Gujarati immigrant in America involved in criminal activities , and in Ketan Mehta 's biopic on Rani Laxmibai . Ranaut will also be making her production and directorial debut with an English language short film entitled The Touch , dealing with the relationship between a four @-@ year @-@ old boy and a dog ; she co @-@ wrote the screenplay with an Australian writer and completed principal photography in America .
= = Personal life = =
Ranaut has stated that her initial years in the film industry were marred with difficulties as she was unprepared to be an actress . She was conscious of her poor command of the English language and struggled to " fit in " . In a 2013 interview with Daily News and Analysis , Ranaut recollected :
" People in the industry treated me like I didn 't deserve to be spoken to and I was some unwanted object . I couldn 't speak English fluently and people made fun of me for that . So dealing with rejection became a part of life . ... All that has taken a toll , I guess . I find it hard to deal with praise . Today , when people say that I have made it and made it on my own , I feel like locking up myself somewhere ... It scares me . "
During the struggle , Ranaut found support in the actor Aditya Pancholi and his wife Zarina Wahab and considered them her " family away from home " . She became embroiled in a well publicised scandal when the media speculated on the nature of her relationship with Pancholi . She declined to speak about it openly , although she made several public appearances with him . In 2007 it was reported that Ranaut had filed a police complaint against Pancholi for physically assaulting her under the influence of alcohol . The following year Pancholi confirmed the affair in an interview , saying that he had been cohabiting with Ranaut in the past and accused her of owing him ₹ 2 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 37 @,@ 000 ) . In response , Ranaut 's spokesperson said that " after physically assaulting her in the middle of a road , he has no right to expect anything from her " , adding that she had " already given ₹ 5 million ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) to [ him ] as a goodwill gesture " . Ranaut later said that the incident had left her " physically and mentally " damaged .
While filming Raaz : The Mystery Continues in 2008 , Ranaut began a romantic relationship with co @-@ star Adhyayan Suman . On Suman 's insistence that he focus on his professional career , the couple separated the following year . From 2010 to 2012 , Ranaut was involved in a long @-@ distance romance with Nicholas Lafferty , an English doctor ; she described the relationship as " the most normal " she ever had , but the couple split amicably as she was not ready for marriage . She has since maintained that she will never get married , and has expressed a desire to not be bound by a relationship . In 2016 , Hrithik Roshan , her co @-@ star from Krrish 3 , filed a lawsuit against Ranaut accusing her of cyber stalking and harassment . Denying the charges , Ranaut filed a counter @-@ charge against Roshan , claiming that his lawsuit was an attempt to cover @-@ up their affair for the benefit of his divorce proceedings .
Ranaut lives in Mumbai with her sister Rangoli , who was the victim of an acid attack in 2006 . She makes yearly visits to her hometown of Bhambla . A practicing Hindu , Ranaut follows the teachings of the spiritual leader Swami Vivekananda and considers meditation to be " the highest form of worshipping God " . She practices vegetarianism and was listed as " India 's hottest vegetarian " in a poll conducted by PETA in 2013 . Since 2009 Ranaut has been studying the dance form of kathak from the Nateshwar Nritya Kala Mandir . She has said that the technical process of filmmaking is of tremendous interest to her , and to better her understanding of it Ranaut enrolled in a two @-@ month screenplay writing course at the New York Film Academy in 2014 . In an interview with Filmfare she said that despite her stardom , she wants to lead a normal life : " I don 't want to lose my rights as a common person to learn and grow " .
= = In the media = =
In the book Acting Smart : Your Ticket to Showbiz , Tisca Chopra describes Ranaut as a " free @-@ spirited , original creative " person " who cannot really be slotted in a particular mould " . Ranaut is particularly known for her forthrightness in expressing her opinions in public on issues ranging from film to feminism . A televised interview hosted by Anupama Chopra in which Ranaut spoke out against gender bias and nepotism in Bollywood went viral online , which led Sunaina Kumar of Tehelka to write : " In this age of cookie @-@ cutter heroines with stock responses , Kangana Ranaut is refreshingly real and honest . "
Analysing Ranaut 's career , the journalist Parmita Uniyal , in 2014 , noted that she " loves to challenge herself with tricky roles and manages to add a different dimension to her character every time . " A reviewer for Rediff.com described her as a " director 's actress " who is susceptible to both " shine and crumble under the right / wrong guidance " . Anand L Rai ( the director of Tanu Weds Manu ) says that Ranaut actively pursues roles in which she can " work in her own space and not become a mere prop in the male @-@ dominated Bollywood " . Alongside actress Vidya Balan , Ranaut has been credited for spearheading a movement that breaks stereotypes of a Hindi film heroine by playing the protagonist in films not starring a well @-@ known male star . Following the success of Queen and Tanu Weds Manu Returns , Deccan Chronicle labelled her as " one of the most bankable actresses in the industry " , and Daily News and Analysis reported that she had emerged as one of the highest @-@ paid actresses in Bollywood .
Ranaut is considered a sex symbol and a style icon in India . Analysing Ranaut 's off @-@ screen persona , Hindustan Times published that she was initially written off by Indian journalists due to her " funny accent " and the negative publicity generated by her troubled relationships ; however , her defining fashion choices and her unconventional film roles eventually established her as a star . Ranaut has frequently featured in listings of the most attractive and stylish celebrities in India . She ranked among the top 10 on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most Desirable Woman " in 2010 , 2011 , 2013 and 2015 . Ranaut was featured on Verve 's listing of the most powerful women of 2010 and in 2012 she was named the " Best Dressed Personality " by the Indian edition of People magazine . In 2013 , Ranaut featured as one of the best @-@ dressed women celebrities by Vogue India . The journalist Jagmeeta Thind Joy credits the actress for her " quirky , almost non @-@ Bollywood take on personal style " , adding that she " likes to shock and awe with her choices " . She has collaborated with the fashion brand Vero Moda to launch two clothing lines for the company , named Marquee and Venice Cruise , in 2015 and 2016 , respectively .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Ranaut has been the recipient of three National Film Awards : Best Supporting Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) and Best Actress for Queen ( 2014 ) and Tanu Weds Manu Returns ( 2015 ) . She has also won four Filmfare Awards : Best Female Debut for Gangster ( 2006 ) , Best Supporting Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) , Best Actress for Queen ( 2014 ) , and Best Actress - Critics for Tanu Weds Manu Returns ( 2015 ) .
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= Ulm Campaign =
The Ulm Campaign consisted of a series of French and Bavarian military maneuvers and battles to outflank and capture an Austrian army in 1805 during the War of the Third Coalition . It took place in the vicinity of and inside the Swabian ( then Bavarian ) city of Ulm . The French Grande Armée , led by Napoleon Bonaparte , comprised 210 @,@ 000 troops organized into seven corps , and hoped to knock out the Austrian army in the Danube before Russian reinforcements could arrive . Through rapid marching , Napoleon conducted a large wheeling maneuver that captured an Austrian army of 23 @,@ 000 under General Mack on 20 October at Ulm , bringing the total number of Austrian prisoners in the campaign to 60 @,@ 000 . The campaign is generally regarded as a strategic masterpiece and was influential in the development of the Schlieffen Plan in the late 19th century .
The victory at Ulm did not end the war , since a large Russian army under Kutuzov was still near Vienna . The Russians withdrew to the northeast to await reinforcements and to link up with surviving Austrian units . The French followed and captured Vienna on 12 November . On 2 December the decisive French victory at Austerlitz removed Austria from the war . The resulting Treaty of Pressburg in late December brought the Third Coalition to an end and left Napoleonic France as the major power in Central Europe , leading to the War of the Fourth Coalition with Prussia and Russia the following year .
= = Prelude = =
Europe had been by then embroiled in the French Revolutionary Wars since 1792 . After five years of war , the French Republic subdued the First Coalition in 1797 . A Second Coalition was formed in 1798 but this too was defeated by 1801 . Britain remained the only opponent for the new French Consulate . In March 1802 , France and Britain agreed to end hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens . For the first time in ten years , all of Europe was at peace . There were many problems between the two sides and implementing the agreements they had reached at Amiens seemed to be a growing challenge . Britain resented having to turn over all colonial conquests since 1793 and France was angry that British troops had not evacuated the island of Malta . The tense situation only worsened when Napoleon sent an expeditionary force to crush the Haitian Revolution . In May 1803 , Britain declared war on France .
= = = Third Coalition = = =
In December 1804 , an Anglo @-@ Swedish agreement led to the creation of the Third Coalition . British Prime Minister William Pitt spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity to form a new coalition against France . Mutual suspicion between the British and the Russians eased in the face of several French political mistakes and by April 1805 the two had signed a treaty of alliance . Having been defeated twice in recent memory by France and keen on revenge , Austria also joined the coalition a few months later .
= = = French military preparations = = =
Prior to the formation of the Third Coalition , Napoleon had assembled the " Army of England , " an invasion force meant to strike at the British Isles , around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France . Although they never set foot on British soil , Napoleon 's troops received careful and invaluable training for any possible military operation . Although boredom quickly set in among the troops , Napoleon paid many visits to conduct lavish parades to maintain their morale .
The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon would later call " La Grande Armée " ( The Great Army ) . At the start , the French army had about 200 @,@ 000 men organized into seven corps , which were large field units , each containing about 36 to 40 cannon each and capable of independent action until other corps could arrive . On top , Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22 @,@ 000 troopers organized into two cuirassier divisions , four mounted dragoon divisions and two divisions of dismounted dragoons and light cavalry , all supported by 24 artillery pieces . By 1805 , La Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350 @,@ 000 , was equipped and trained . Itpossessed a competent officer class where almost all from sergeants to marshals had experience in the recent Revolutionary Wars .
= = = Austrian military preparations = = =
Archduke Charles , brother of the Austrian Emperor , had started to reform the Austrian army in 1801 by taking away power from the Hofkriegsrat ( Aulic Council ) , the military @-@ political council responsible for decisionmaking in the Austrian armed forces . Charles was Austria 's best field commander , but he was unpopular with the royal court and lost much influence when , against his advice , Austria decided to go to war with France .
Karl Mack became the new main commander in Austria 's army , instituting reforms on the infantry on the eve of war that called for a regiment to be composed of four battalions of four companies rather than the older three battalions of six companies . The sudden change came with no corresponding officer training ; new units were led by commanders who had not been given sufficient tactical training in using their units .
Austrian cavalry forces were regarded as the best in Europe , but the detachment of many cavalry units to various infantry formations precluded the hitting power of their massed French counterparts , who could , at the orders of Napoleon , amass a whole corps of cavalry to influence the battle .
= = Campaign = =
The Ulm Campaign lasted for nearly a month and saw the French army under Napoleon deliver blow after blow to the confused Austrians . It culminated on 20 October with the loss of an entire Austrian army .
= = = Austrian Plans & Preparations = = =
General Mack thought that Austrian security relied on sealing off the gaps through the mountainous Black Forest area in Southern Germany that had witnessed much fighting during the campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars . Mack believed that there would be no action in Central Germany . Mack decided to make the city of Ulm the centerpiece of his defensive strategy , which called for a containment of the French until the Russians under Kutuzov could arrive and alter the odds against Napoleon . Ulm was protected by the heavily fortified Michelsberg heights , giving Mack the impression that the city was virtually impregnable from outside attack .
Fatally , the Aulic Council decided to make Northern Italy the main theater of operations for the Habsburgs . Archduke Charles was assigned 95 @,@ 000 troops and directed to cross the Adige River with Mantua , Peschiera , and Milan as the initial objectives . The Austrians based an army of 72 @,@ 000 men on Ulm . Nominally commanded by Archduke Ferdinand , the army 's real authority was Mack . Austrian strategy required that Archduke John with 23 @,@ 000 troops secure the Tyrol and provide the link between his brother Charles 's army and his cousin Ferdinand 's army . The Austrians also detached individual corps to serve with the Swedish in Pomerania and the British in Naples , though these were designed to confuse the French and divert their resources .
= = = French Plans & Preparations = = =
In both the campaigns of 1796 and 1800 , Napoleon had envisaged the Danube theater as the central focus of French efforts , but in both instances the Italian theater became the most important . The Aulic Council thought Napoleon would strike in Italy again . Napoleon had other intentions : 210 @,@ 000 French troops would be launched eastwards from the camps of Boulogne and would envelop General Mack 's exposed Austrian army if it kept marching towards the Black Forest . Meanwhile , Marshal Murat would conduct cavalry screens across the Black Forest to fool the Austrians into thinking that the French were advancing on a direct west @-@ east axis . The main attack in Germany would be supported by French assaults in other theaters : Marshal Masséna would confront Charles in Italy with 50 @,@ 000 men of the Armée d 'Italie , St. Cyr would march to Naples with 20 @,@ 000 men , and Marshal Brune would patrol Boulogne with 30 @,@ 000 troops against a possible British invasion .
Murat and Bertrand conducted reconnaissance between the area bordering the Tyrol and the Main as Savary , chief of the planning staff , drew up detailed road surveys of the areas between the Rhine and the Danube . The left wing of the Grande Armée would move from Hanover in northern Germany and Utrecht in the Netherland to fall on Württemberg ; the right and center , troops from the Channel coast , would concentrate along the Middle Rhine around cities like Mannheim and Strasbourg . While Murat was making demonstrations across the Black Forest , other French forces would then invade the German heartland and swing towards the southeast by capturing Augsburg , a move that was supposed to isolate Mack and interrupt the Austrian lines of communication .
= = = The French invasion = = =
On 22 September Mack decided to hold the Iller line anchored on Ulm . In the last three days of September , the French began the furious marches that would place them at the Austrian rear . Mack believed that the French would not violate Prussian territory , but when he heard that Bernadotte 's I Corps had marched through Prussian Ansbach , he made the critical decision to stay and defend Ulm rather than retreat to the south , which would have offered a reasonable opportunity at saving the bulk of his forces . Napoleon had little accurate information about Mack 's intentions or maneuvers ; he knew that Kienmayer 's Corps was sent to Ingolstadt east of the French positions , but his agents greatly exaggerated its size . On 5 October Napoleon ordered Ney to join Lannes , Soult , and Murat in concentrating and crossing the Danube at Donauwörth . The French encirclement , however , was not deep enough to prevent Kienmayer 's escape : the French corps did not all arrive at the same place – they instead deployed on a long west @-@ east axis – and the early arrival of Soult and Davout at Donauwörth incited Kienmayer to exercise caution and evasion . Napoleon gradually became more convinced that the Austrians were massed at Ulm and ordered sizeable portions of the French army to concentrate around Donauwörth ; on 6 October three French infantry and cavalry corps headed to Donauwörth to seal off Mack 's escape route .
Realizing the danger of his position , Mack decided to go on the offensive . On 8 October he commanded the army to concentrate around Günzburg and hoped to strike at Napoleon 's lines of communication . Mack instructed Kienmayer to draw Napoleon further east towards Munich and Augsburg . Napoleon did not seriously consider the possibility that Mack would cross the Danube and move away from his central base , but he did realize that seizing the bridges at Günzburg would yield a large strategic advantage . To accomplish this objective , Napoleon sent Ney 's Corps to Günzburg , completely unaware that the bulk of the Austrian army was heading to the same destination . On 8 October , however , the campaign witnessed its first serious battle at Wertingen between Auffenburg 's troops and those of Murat and Lannes .
= = = Battle of Wertingen = = =
For reasons not entirely clear , on 7 October Mack ordered Franz Xavier Auffenburg to take his division of 5 @,@ 000 infantry and 400 cavalry from Günzburg to Wertingen in preparation for the main Austrian advance out of Ulm . Uncertain of what to do and having little hope for reinforcements , Auffenburg was in a dangerous position . The first French forces to arrive were Murat 's cavalry divisions – Louis Klein 's 1st Dragoon Division , Marc Antoine de Beaumont 's 3rd Dragoon Division , and Nansouty 's 1st Cuirassier Division . They began to assault the Austrian positions and were soon joined by Nicolas Oudinot 's grenadiers , who were hoping to outflank the Austrians from the northeast . Auffenburg attempted a retreat to the southwest , but he was not quick enough : the Austrians lost nearly their entire force , 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 of which were taken prisoner . The Battle of Wertingen had been an easy French victory .
The action at Wertingen convinced Mack to operate on the left ( north ) bank of the Danube instead of making a direct eastwards retreat on the right bank . This would require the Austrian army to cross to the north at Günzburg . On 8 October Ney was operating under Louis Alexandre Berthier 's directions that called for a direct attack on Ulm the following day . Ney sent in Jean @-@ Pierre Firmin Malher 's 3rd Division to capture the Günzburg bridges over the Danube . In the Battle of Günzburg , a column of this division ran into some Tyrolean jaegers and captured 200 of them , including their commander Konstantin Ghilian Karl d 'Aspré , along with two cannons . The Austrians noticed these developments and reinforced their positions around Günzburg with three infantry battalions and 20 cannons . Malher 's division conducted several heroic attacks against the Austrian positions , but all failed . Mack then sent in Ignaz Gyulai with seven infantry battalions and fourteen cavalry squadrons to repair the destroyed bridges , but this force was charged and swept away by the delayed French 59th Infantry Regiment . Fierce fighting ensued and the French finally managed to establish a foothold on the right ( south ) bank of the Danube . While the Battle of Günzburg was being fought , Ney sent Louis Henri Loison 's 2nd Division to capture the Danube bridges at Elchingen , which were lightly defended by the Austrians . Having lost most of the Danube bridges , Mack marched his army back to Ulm . By 10 October Ney 's corps had made significant progress : Malher 's 3rd division had crossed to the right ( south ) bank , Loison 's 2nd division held Elchingen , and Pierre Dupont de l 'Étang 's 1st Division was heading towards Ulm .
= = = Haslach @-@ Jungingen and Elchingen = = =
The demoralized Austrian army arrived at Ulm in the early hours of 10 October . Mack was deliberating his course of action and the Austrian army remained inactive at Ulm until the 11th . Meanwhile , Napoleon was operating under flawed assumptions : he believed the Austrians were moving to the east or southeast and that Ulm was lightly guarded . Ney sensed this misapprehension and wrote to Berthier that Ulm was , in fact , more heavily defended than the French originally thought . During this time , the Russian threat to the east began to preoccupy Napoleon so much that Murat was given command of the right wing of the army , consisting of Ney 's and Lannes 's corps . The French were separated in two massive wings at this point : the forces of Ney , Lannes , and Murat to the west were containing Mack while those of Soult , Davout , Bernadotte , and Auguste Marmont to the east were charged with guarding against any possible Russian and Austrian incursions . On 11 October Ney made a renewed push on Ulm ; the 2nd and 3rd divisions were to march to the city along the right bank of the Danube while Dupont 's division , supported by one dragoon division , was to march directly for Ulm and seize the entire city . The orders were hopeless because Ney still did not know that the entire Austrian army was stationed at Ulm .
The 32nd Infantry Regiment in Dupont 's division marched from Haslach towards Ulm and ran into four Austrian regiments holding Boefingen . The 32nd carried out several ferocious attacks , but the Austrians held firm and repulsed every one . The Austrians flooded the battle with more cavalry and infantry regiments to Ulm @-@ Jungingen hoping to score a knockout blow against Ney 's corps by enveloping Dupont 's force . Dupont sensed what was happening and preempted the Austrians by launching a surprise attack on Jungingen , during which he took as prisoner at least 1 @,@ 000 of the Austrians . Renewed Austrian attacks drove these forces back to Haslach , which the French managed to hold . Dupont was eventually forced to fall back on Albeck , where he joined Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers 's foot dragoons division . The effects of the Battle of Haslach @-@ Jungingen on Napoleon 's plans are not fully clear , but the Emperor may have finally ascertained that the majority of the Austrian army was concentrated at Ulm . Accordingly , Napoleon sent the corps of Soult and Marmont towards the Iller , meaning he now had four infantry and one cavalry corps to deal with Mack ; Davout , Bernadotte , and the Bavarians were still guarding the region around Munich . Napoleon did not intend to fight a battle across rivers and ordered his marshals to capture the important bridges around Ulm . He also began shifting his forces to the north of Ulm because he expected a battle in that region rather than an encirclement of the city itself . These dispositions and actions would lead to a confrontation at Elchingen on the 14th as Ney 's forces advanced on Albeck .
At this point in the campaign , the Austrian command staff was in full confusion . Ferdinand began to openly oppose Mack 's command style and decisions , charging that the latter spent his days writing contradictory orders that left the Austrian army marching back and forth . On 13 October Mack sent two columns out of Ulm in preparation for a breakout to the north : one under Johann Sigismund Riesch headed towards Elchingen to secure the bridge there and the other under Franz von Werneck went north with most of the heavy artillery . Ney hurried his corps forward to reestablish contact with Dupont , who was still north of the Danube . Ney led Loison 's division to the south of Elchingen on the right bank of the Danube to begin the attack . Malher 's division crossed the river farther east and moved west toward Riesch 's position . The field was a partially wooded flood plain , rising steeply to the hill town of Elchingen , which had a wide field of view . The French cleared the Austrian pickets from a bridge , then a regiment boldly attacked and captured the abbey at the top of the hill at bayonet point . During the Battle of Elchingen , the Austrian cavalry was also defeated and Reisch 's infantry fled toward Ulm . Ney was given the title Duke of Elchingen for his impressive victory .
= = = Battle of Ulm = = =
On 13 October Soult 's IV Corps fell on Memmingen from the east . After a minor clash that resulted in 16 French casualties , General @-@ Major Karl Spangen von Uyternesse surrendered 4 @,@ 600 soldiers , eight guns , and nine colors . The Austrians were low on ammunition , cut off from Ulm , and completely demoralized by the confusion reigning at army headquarters .
More actions took place on the 14th . Murat 's forces joined Dupont at Albeck just in time to drive off an Austrian attack from Werneck ; together Murat and Dupont beat the Austrians to the north in the direction of Heidenheim . By night on the 14th , two French corps were stationed in the vicinity of the Austrian encampments at Michelsberg , right outside of Ulm . Mack was now in a dangerous situation : there was no longer any hope of escaping along the north bank , Marmont and the Imperial Guard were hovering at the outskirts of Ulm to the south of the river , and Soult was moving north from Memmingen to prevent the Austrians escaping south to the Tyrol . Troubles continued with the Austrian command as Ferdinand overrode the objections of Mack and ordered the evacuation of all cavalry from Ulm , a total of 6 @,@ 000 troopers . Murat 's pursuit was so effective , however , that only eleven squadrons joined Werneck at Heidenheim . Murat continued his harassment of Werneck and forced him to surrender with 8 @,@ 000 men at Treuchtlingen on 19 October ; Murat also took an entire Austrian field park of 500 vehicles , then swept on towards Neustadt an der Donau and captured 12 @,@ 000 Austrians .
Events at Ulm were now reaching a conclusion . On 15 October Ney 's troops successfully charged the Michelsberg encampments and on the 16th the French began to bombard Ulm itself . Austrian morale was at a low point and Mack began to realize that there was little hope of rescue . On 17 October Napoleon 's emissary , Ségur , signed a convention with Mack in which the Austrians agreed to surrender on 25 October if no aid came by that date . Gradually , however , Mack heard of the capitulations at Heidenheim and Neresheim and agreed to surrender five days before schedule on 20 October . Fifteen hundred troops from the Austrian garrison managed to escape , but the vast majority of the Austrian force marched out on 21 October and laid down their arms without incident , all with the Grande Armée drawn up in a vast semicircle observing the capitulation ( see infobox picture ) . The officers were permitted to leave , pending their signatures on a parole in which they agreed not to take up arms against France until they were exchanged . More than ten general officers were included in this agreement , including Mack , Johann von Klenau , Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour , Prince Liechtenstein , and Ignaz Gyulai .
= = Aftermath = =
As the Austrians were marching out of Ulm to surrender , a combined Franco @-@ Spanish fleet was being destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar . This decisive British victory ended the naval threat from France and ensured British naval domination until World War I. Despite this setback , the Ulm Campaign had been a spectacular victory and had witnessed the elimination of an entire Austrian army at very little cost for the French . The 8th bulletin of the Grande Armée described the scale of the achievement :
Marshal Augereau 's arrival from Brest with the newly formed VII Corps gave the French one more piece of good news . In the Capitulation of Dornbirn on 13 November , Franjo Jelačić 's division was cornered and forced to surrender . The Russians withdrew to the northeast after Mack 's capitulation and Vienna fell on 12 November . The Allies were thoroughly defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz in December and Austria was permanently knocked out of the Third Coalition a few weeks later . The French victory highlighted the effectiveness of la manoeuvre sur les derrières , a special type of strategic envelopment first used by Napoleon in his Italian campaign in 1796 . The maneuver called for a pinning force that would occupy a broad front of the enemy line while other supporting units positioned themselves at a specific location in the enemy 's flank or rear . As the enemy became more embroiled with the pinning force , the flanking troops would attack at a critical spot and seal the victory . In the Ulm Campaign , Murat 's cavalry served as the pinning force that fooled the Austrians into thinking the main French attack would come from the Black Forest . As Murat lulled the Austrians towards Ulm , the main French forces crashed through Central Germany and separated Mack 's army from the other theaters of the war .
= = = Significance = = =
The Ulm Campaign is considered to be one of the greatest historical examples of a strategic turning movement . Historians often analyze the campaign on a wide strategic level that does not include tactical confrontations , even though these were common and relevant . The decisive victory at Ulm is also believed to be a product of the long training and preparation the Grande Armée received at the camps of Boulogne . The Grande Armée carried little baggage , invaded enemy territory at harvest time , and marched far faster than the Austrians had expected . The campaign highlighted the utility of the Corps d 'Armée system ; corps went on to become the fundamental strategic building block for the major wars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries . A typical corps might have three infantry divisions , a light cavalry brigade for reconnaissance , and reserve artillery batteries in addition to those attached to each division ; their increased size allowed them to fight without support for long periods of time , as Ney did , and their durability permitted them to spread out and subsist by requisitioning local food . The French needed about one eighth the transport used by contemporary armies , giving them a level of mobility and flexibility unseen at that time : invasions of South Germany by Marlborough or Moreau covered a narrow front , but the Grande Armée invaded in 1805 on a front that was 100 miles ( 161 km ) wide , an action that took the Austrians by complete surprise and caused them to underestimate the gravity of the situation .
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= Hard Target =
Hard Target is a 1993 American action film directed by Hong Kong film director John Woo in his American directorial debut . The film stars Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme as Chance Boudreaux , an out @-@ of @-@ work Cajun merchant seaman who saves a young woman , named Natasha Binder ( Yancy Butler ) , from a gang of thugs in New Orleans . Chance learns that Binder is searching for her missing father ( Chuck Pfarrer ) , and agrees to aid Binder in her search . Boudreaux and Binder soon learn that Binder 's father has died at the hands of wealthy sportsman Emil Fouchon ( Lance Henriksen ) who hunts homeless men as a form of recreation . The screenplay was written by Chuck Pfarrer and is based on the 1932 film adaptation of Richard Connell 's 1924 short story , The Most Dangerous Game .
Hard Target was Woo 's first American film and was also the first major Hollywood film made by a Chinese director . Universal Pictures was nervous about having Woo direct a feature , and sent in director Sam Raimi to look over the film 's production and to take Woo 's place as director if he were to fail . Woo went through several scripts finding mostly martial arts films with which he was not interested . After deciding on Chuck Pfarrer 's script for Hard Target , Woo wanted to have actor Kurt Russell in the lead role , but found Russell too busy with other projects . Woo then went with Universal 's initial choice of having Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme star . Woo got along with Van Damme during filming and raised the amount of action in the film as he knew that Van Damme was up for it .
After 65 days of filming in New Orleans , Woo had trouble with the Motion Picture Association of America to secure the R rating that Universal wanted . Woo made dozens of cuts to the film until the MPAA allowed it an R rating . On its initial release , Hard Target was a financial success but received mixed reviews from film critics . Critics found Hard Target to have good action scenes but noted the weak script and poor quality acting from Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme .
= = Plot = =
In New Orleans , a homeless veteran named Douglas Binder ( Chuck Pfarrer ) is the target of a hunt . He is given a belt containing $ 10 @,@ 000 and told that he must reach the other side of town where he would then win the money and his life . Hunting him is the hunt organizer Emil Fouchon ( Lance Henriksen ) , his lieutenant Pik Van Cleef ( Arnold Vosloo ) , a businessman named Mr. Lopaki who has paid $ 500 @,@ 000 for the opportunity to hunt a human , and mercenaries including Stephan ( Sven @-@ Ole Thorsen ) and Peterson ( Jules Sylvester ) . Binder fails to reach his destination and is shot by three crossbow bolts . Van Cleef retrieves the money belt .
While searching for her father , Binder 's long @-@ estranged daughter Natasha ( Yancy Butler ) is attacked by a group of thugs who saw that she had a lot of money earlier . She is saved by a homeless man with exceptional martial arts skills named Chance Boudreaux ( Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme ) , a former Marine Force Recon . Chance is initially hesitant to involve himself with her mission , but as his merchant seaman union dues are in arrears he reluctantly allows Natasha to hire him as her guide and bodyguard during her search . Meanwhile , Chance 's homeless friend Elijah Roper ( Willie C. Carpenter ) is the next to participate in Fouchon 's hunt , and is also killed .
Natasha discovers that her father distributed fliers for a seedy recruiter named Randal Poe ( Eliott Keener ) who has been secretly supplying Fouchon with homeless men with war experience and no family ties . Natasha questions Randal about her father 's death , but they are discovered by an eavesdropping Van Cleef . Fouchon and Van Cleef beat Randal to punish him for sending them a man with an interested family . New Orleans detective Mitchell ( Kasi Lemmons ) is reluctant to investigate Binder 's disappearance until his charred body is discovered in the ashes of a derelict building . The death is ruled accidental , but Chance searches the ruins and finds Binder 's dog tag , which was pierced by one of the crossbow bolts . Van Cleef 's thugs suddenly ambush Chance and beat him unconscious to scare him and Natasha out of town . When he recovers , he offers Mitchell the dog tag as evidence that Binder was murdered . With the investigation getting closer , Van Cleef and Fouchon decide to relocate their hunting business and begin eliminating " loose ends " . The medical examiner who had been hiding evidence of the hunt and Randal are both executed . Mitchell , Natasha and Chance arrive moments later at Randal 's office and are ambushed by Van Cleef and several of his men . During the shootout Mitchell is shot in the chest and killed . Chance kills a handful of the mercenaries and escapes with Natasha . Fouchon and Van Cleef assemble their mercenary team and five paid @-@ for hunters to continue the chase .
Chance leads Natasha to his uncle Douvee 's ( Wilford Brimley ) house deep in the bayou , and enlists his help in defeating the men . Chance , Natasha , and Douvee lead the hunting party to a warehouse of old Mardi Gras floats , and kill Fouchon 's men one by one . Van Cleef is finally shot to death by Chance in a shoot out . In the end only Fouchon is left , but he holds Chance at bay by taking Natasha hostage and stabbing Douvee in the chest with an arrow . Chance charges him , attacking with a flurry of blows , and then drops a grenade in his pants . Fouchon attempts to dismantle the grenade , but fails and dies in the explosion . Chance , Natasha , and Douvee now make their way out of the warehouse .
= = Cast = =
Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme as Chance Boudreaux , an out @-@ of @-@ work Cajun United States Marine Corps veteran . After Boudreaux saves Natasha Binder , he is hired by her to help search for her missing father .
Lance Henriksen as Emil Fouchon , a wealthy sportsman who hunts homeless former soldiers for sport . After finding that he is being investigated by Chance and Natasha , Fouchon sends out his gang led by Pik Van Cleaf to ambush them .
Arnold Vosloo as Pik Van Cleef , a collaborator of Fouchon who takes part in his sport of hunting men . He leads the crew of men who are sent out to murder Chance and Natasha . Van Cleaf 's surname is a reference to actor Lee Van Cleef .
Yancy Butler as Natasha " Nat " Binder , a young woman who comes to New Orleans to search for her father , whom she has not seen since she was seven years old . When Natasha is attacked by thugs , she is saved by Chance Boudreaux who agrees to help her find her father .
Kasi Lemmons as May Mitchell , a police detective who works in the office while the police are on strike . Mitchell helps Natasha by ordering another autopsy when they show her the pierced dog tags that her father had .
Chuck Pfarrer as Douglas Binder , Natasha 's father who has moved to New Orleans . After Natasha finds that three weeks have passed since she has heard from her father , she goes to New Orleans to find that he has been homeless and has been murdered by Emil Fouchon 's crew .
Willie C. Carpenter as Elijah Roper , Chance Boudreaux 's friend who is also homeless .
Wilford Brimley as Uncle Douvee , Chance Boudreaux 's uncle who lives deep in the Bayou . Chance and Natasha take shelter at his home as well as have him help during the film 's final shoot out .
Sven @-@ Ole Thorsen and Jules Sylvester as Stephan and Peterson , Fouchon 's mercenaries .
Eliott Keener as Randal Poe
Robert Apisa as Mr. Lopacki
Douglas Forsythe Rye and Mike Leinert as Frick and Frack
Marco St. John as Dr. Morton
Joe Warfield as Zenan
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After making Hard Boiled in Hong Kong , director John Woo decided to take an offer to work in the United States , where he would find himself happier as a filmmaker with a preferable work pace and working with more reasonable hours . Woo was first offered this job in the United States by Universal Pictures chairman Tom Pollock after he had seen Woo 's film The Killer . Universal was not eager to have Woo direct an entire feature and only agreed after what producer James Jacks called a " difficult period of convincing " . Universal was worried about having an Asian director on set who had limited command of English on a large scale project . They hired American director Sam Raimi to oversee the film 's production and to have him on standby if Woo was not able to fulfill his role as a director . Raimi was very excited to work with Woo as he was fan of his Hong Kong films . Raimi was also confident in Woo 's directorial skills , stating that " Woo at 70 % is still going to blow away most American action directors working at 100 % . "
On his arrival in the United States , Woo went through several scripts before deciding on Hard Target . Describing the scripts he received , Woo stated that " Some of them were good — some of them were very good — but the rest were simply martial @-@ arts movies and I told producers that I had no interest in doing those kinds of films anymore . I 'd done a lot of them already . " One of the scripts offered to Woo at this period was for Face / Off , which he turned down at the time , turned off by the science fiction aspect of the story . The script for Hard Target was written by Chuck Pfarrer . Director Andrew Davis was interested in the script , but ultimately turned it down . Woo read Pfarrer 's script for Hard Target appreciating that it was a " simple but powerful story , with a lot of feeling underneath . For a good action film you need a solid structure . Chuck gave me that " . Woo also stated that the story is " less John Woo " but the visual aspect would be " very John Woo " . Pfarrer wrote the script originally basing it on the film The Naked Prey . After the script did not turn out Pfarrer worked on a script influenced by the film Aliens that became the basis for his comic Virus . The final attempt was a script based on The Most Dangerous Game . Pfarrer had the story take place in New Orleans to give an explanation of Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme 's accent .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Before any director was attached to Hard Target , Universal Pictures saw the film as a potential vehicle for actor Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . Van Damme had already been a huge fan of Woo 's films and arranged to meet with him in Hong Kong where the two got along despite both Woo and Van Damme 's difficulty with their English . Woo originally wanted actor Kurt Russell for the lead role , but found Russell to be booked for two years with other film projects . On working with Van Damme , Woo stated that he was " sure of [ my own ] abilities and I know how to make an actor look good on screen , make him look like a hero . I thought I could do the same for Van Damme " . Despite early misgivings of working with Van Damme , Woo changed many action scenes in the film to make them more spectacular on finding that Van Damme was up for it . While working with Van Damme , Woo stated that Van Damme had " a pretty big ego , but he 's still professional and always tries to do a good job . " Woo had some control over the film 's casting including casting minor characters and finding a cinematographer . Actress Yancy Butler was cast as Natasha Binder in her feature film debut . The role led Butler to other starring roles in action films such as Drop Zone and Fast Money . Actor Lance Henriksen accepted the role of Emil Fouchon stating he was great fan of Woo , noting that his earlier films " were so creative , so balletic , and had this incredible philosophy in them . The violence was only a container for the philosophy " .
= = = Filming = = =
Hard Target had 74 days of production time and was shot on location in New Orleans , including sequences shot in the French Quarter . Hard Target was put on a tight schedule by Universal that allowed only 65 days of shooting time . This put a lot of pressure on Woo . Woo was also pressured by Universal to tone @-@ down the violence and body count that they had seen in his Hong Kong films . As Woo had not mastered the English language yet , it took time for the cast and crew to get used to working with him . When Woo could not explain what he wanted with a shot to cinematographer Russell Carpenter , he would resort to simple statements such as " this will be the Sam Peckinpah shot " to get his message across to Carpenter . Actor Lance Henriksen recalled that it was a gradual process that led everyone involved to start seeing the film as a John Woo film rather than a Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme film . Producer James Jacks recalled that Woo was not " the most powerful person on the set but as far as I was concerned , he was certainly the most respected " .
The weapon fire on the set was considered dangerous , which led the crew to build a new bulletproof plexiglas shield that could be bolted to the camera . This shield was useful particularly for one sequence in Hard Target where Van Damme empties a magazine of ammo into the camera . These camera dollies were nicknamed by the crew as " the Woo @-@ Woo Choo @-@ Choo " . Russell Carpenter found difficulty in filming the huge gunfight scenes . Carpenter specifically noted the Mardi Gras parade warehouse by recollecting that " just the lighting for a space like that , with all those strange shapes and shadows was difficult enough , but John then added the further complication of wanting the scene shot from several angles at once — often with more than one of the cameras moving " . Producer James Jacks supported this style of filming finding it the most economical way to shoot these types of action scenes .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film was edited by Bob Murawski on the set using a then state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art computerized editing unit that allows the user to edit the film as the movie was being shot . The film was then scored by Graeme Revell who utilized Kodo drummers from Japan . Woo was contractually obligated to release a R rating by Universal Pictures . When submitting the film to the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) , it was judged as too violent and intense for an R rating and received an NC @-@ 17 rating . Woo re @-@ edited the film six times for the MPAA as they never indicated what specific scenes they found objectionable . During this editing period , Van Damme went with his own editor to make his own edit of the film . Van Damme 's version excises whole characters to insert more scenes and close @-@ ups of his character Chance . When asked about this edit , Van Damme replied that " People pay their money to see me , not to see Lance Henriksen " . The MPAA accepted the film after Woo had made 20 cuts to the film . Scenes cut include the opening chase sequence and the Mardi Gras warehouse sequence . A non @-@ action scene that is cut from the film is a romantic scene between Chance and Natasha .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical run = = =
Hard Target was tentatively scheduled to open in July 1993 . Hard Target was released August 20 , 1993 in the United States making it the first film by an Asian director to be released by a Hollywood studio .
Hard Target did well in the box office , being the second highest grossing film release of the week at the American box office on its initial release . Hard Target also became the 49th highest grossing film in the United States in 1993 . Hard Target made domestic ticket sales of $ 32 @,@ 589 @,@ 677 ( worldwide sales were $ 74 @,@ 189 @,@ 677 ) .
= = = Home media = = =
Hard Target was released on Laserdisc and VHS in 1994 . In the United States , the film was the 14th highest selling laserdisc and the 46th most rented VHS film of 1994 . Hard Target was released on DVD for Region 1 on July 1 , 1998 . A Region 2 DVD of the film was released on March 20 , 2000 . The American DVD has also been released with DVD bundle packs , that include other films starring Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . These DVDs included Hard Target , as well as Timecop , Street Fighter , Lionheart , Sudden Death and The Quest .
A longer 116 @-@ minute copy of the film has not been released officially , but has been found as a bootleg . This copy is a poor @-@ quality videocassette dub and has a burned @-@ in time code in the corner indicating that the film was not meant for public viewing . However , the European , Japanese and Australian DVD releases restore three minutes of the violent footage missing from the Region 1 DVD ( that was cut for an R rating ) , making them the versions closest to Woo 's original cut .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Hard Target received mixed reviews on its initial release praising the film 's action scenes but noting the poor story and Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme 's acting abilities . On the film review television show Siskel & Ebert , Roger Ebert stated that Hard Target is " not very smart and it 's not very original , but it is well made on a technical level . The stunts are impressive ... as an action picture , it 's well made , but it never becomes more than competent action and I just can 't recommend it for that " . Gene Siskel also gave the film a thumbs down on the show stating that " John Woo is a good filmmaker ... Van Damme is pretty wooden ... You notice the style in the film because there is not much substance " . Janet Maslin of the New York Times wrote that " Van Damme has still not broken the habit of his own blank @-@ faced posturing , although Mr. Woo films him in the most aggrandizing style imaginable " . In Variety , Emanuel Levy wrote that Hard Target was " a briskly vigorous , occasionally brilliant actioner starring Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . However , hampered by a B @-@ script with flat , standard characters , and subjected to repeated editing of the violent sequences to win an R rating , pic doesn 't bear the unique vision on display in Woo 's recent " The Killer " and " Hard @-@ Boiled . " Van Damme and the director 's reputation should ensure initial commercial kick on the way to solid if not spectacular box office " . Desson Thompson of The Washington Post wrote that " When Van Damme isn 't duking it out with the English language , scriptwriter Chuck Pfarrer is filling Henriksen 's mouth with villainous pseudo @-@ profundities . Even in a second @-@ rate action picture like this , and despite Henriksen 's commendable efforts , they 're painful to listen to ... Woo 's creative presence is practically stifled . There are some flashes of his deliriously wild style — a slow @-@ motion moment here , a well @-@ chosen freeze @-@ frame there . He also introduces American audiences to his taste for unique motorcycle stunts and very , very loud car explosions . But these Wooisms are disappointingly minimal " . Lance Henriksen received a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Emil Fouchon in the film . In 1997 , Woo looked back on Hard Target stating that it was " in some ways , quite a troublesome movie to make , but I 'm rather happy with the way the action scenes turned out " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film premiered in cinemas on August 20 , 1993 in wide release throughout the U.S .. During its opening weekend , the film opened in second place grossing $ 10 @,@ 106 @,@ 500 in business showing at 1 @,@ 972 locations . The film The Fugitive , came in first place during that weekend grossing $ 18 @,@ 148 @,@ 331 . Hard Target ' s revenue dropped by 50 % in its second week of release , earning $ 5 @,@ 027 @,@ 485 . For that weekend , the film fell to third place , even with an increased screening count of 1 @,@ 999 theaters . The Fugitive , remained unchallenged in first place grossing $ 14 @,@ 502 @,@ 865 in box office revenue . During its final week in release , Hard Target opened in a distant eleventh place with $ 1 @,@ 270 @,@ 945 in revenue . For that particular weekend , Striking Distance starring Bruce Willis made its debut , opening in first place with $ 8 @,@ 705 @,@ 808 in revenue . The film went on to top out domestically at $ 32 @,@ 589 @,@ 677 in total ticket sales through a 5 @-@ week theatrical run . Internationally , the film took in an additional $ 41 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in box office business for a combined worldwide total of $ 74 @,@ 189 @,@ 677 . For 1993 as a whole , the film worldwide would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 23 .
= = Sequel = =
Scott Adkins finished shooting a sequel to the film in December 2015 . The sequel will also star Robert Knepper , Rhona Mitra , Ann Truong , Temuera Morrison , Adam Saunders , Jamie Timony , Peter Hardy , Troy Honeysett , Sean Keenan and Sahajak Boonthanakit .
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= Fuller Houses =
The Fuller Houses are two historic homes at 339 @-@ 341 and 343 @-@ 345 Broadway in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . Constructed in 1896 @-@ 1897 , the two Queen Anne @-@ styled homes were constructed as rental properties for the Fuller family and are believed to have originally been identical in construction . The two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story houses are marked by an octagonal bay which contains the front staircase and a large two @-@ story porch projecting almost completely from the house itself . For the National Register of Historic Places nomination only a single unit was examined , but the identical unit below is believed to have undergone minimal alterations . The other house , 343 @-@ 345 Broadway , was not surveyed , but has been more seriously modified to allow for four apartment units . The Fuller Houses are architecturally significant as well @-@ preserved and well @-@ detailed Queen Anne @-@ styled apartment flats . The Fuller Houses were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= = History = =
The Fuller Houses were constructed in 1896 @-@ 1897 for Susan E. Fuller . Fuller 's husband , Charles H. Fuller , operated a successful jewelry findings firm . The Fullers owned the houses until 1915 , and intended to use them as rental properties . The only member of the Fuller family to reside in one of the houses , specifically 341 Broadway , was Alice G. Fuller beginning in either 1911 or 1912 . The houses are positioned to be prominently viewed from their location on the east side of U.S Route 1 and from northbound traffic on Interstate 95 . Though not originally placed in a location of such prominence , the construction through the heart of Pawtucket greatly increased the visibility of these " I @-@ 95 landmarks " .
= = Design = =
The Fuller Houses are originally believed to have been constructed as identical two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story Queen Anne @-@ styled homes with both having their gable @-@ ends facing the street . The southern flank of the building is visually broken up by a two @-@ story bay window with a gabled peak . A semi @-@ octagonal bay on the northern corner of the houses indicates the position of the front staircase . A single @-@ story porch with a shed @-@ roof overhangs the front doorways . A striking feature of the Fuller Houses is the two @-@ story circular porch on the southwest side . The porches are almost removed from the building and topped with a conical roof and ornamented with Queen Anne @-@ style spindle . The exterior walls of the houses are clapboarded and the tops of the gables have simple metal finials .
For the National Register of Historic Places nomination , only the interior of one of the four units was surveyed , the second floor interior of 341 Broadway . This unit is accessed from a spiral staircase leading from the first floor to the attic . The second floor landing has a short foyer before opening to two parlors . The front parlor is said to have had a water fountain which was removed , but the plumbing is said to exist within the floor . The back parlor has a Queen Anne mantel and leads to the dining room with large floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling china closets . Located on the east side of the apartment is the kitchen , pantry and rear staircase . The north part of the apartment contains two bedrooms and a bath . The NRHP nomination states that the alterations to the unit were minimal and it is likely that the same would have been done for the first floor unit . The northern Fuller House , containing 343 @-@ 345 Broadway , has been more seriously modified because it has been split into four units . In 2013 , real estate information for 343 Broadway suggests the expanse of the modifications to the house by listing the property as having 20 rooms , with 8 bedrooms and 5 baths . According to Trulia the house was sold in 2010 for $ 140 @,@ 000 and still in the four unit configuration . A three bay stuccoed garage dating from the 1920s or 1930 is used by 339 @-@ 341 Broadway .
= = Significance = =
The Fuller Houses are architecturally significant as a pair of two well @-@ preserved and well @-@ detailed two @-@ family Queen Anne @-@ style apartment " flat " houses . The Queen Anne @-@ style spindle @-@ work porches are descriptive in the NRHP nomination as the most impressive examples remaining in Pawtucket . The two houses represent an important step in the development of Pawtucket 's architectural development and contribute to the city 's visual character . The Fuller Houses were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
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= Codex Basilensis A. N. IV . 2 =
Codex Basilensis A. N. IV . 2 , Minuscule 1 ( on the list of Gregory @-@ Aland ) , δ 254 ( in von Soden 's numbering ) and formerly designated by 1eap to distinguish it from minuscule 1rK ( which previously used number 1 ) is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament , usually dated palaeographically to the 12th century AD . It is written on 297 parchment leaves and contains the entire New Testament except the Book of Revelation .
The codex was prepared for liturgical use with marginalia ( text 's division ) , and has almost completely survived ; it was used by Erasmus for his Novum Instrumentum omne . The text of the manuscript has been cited in all critical editions of the Greek New Testament ; in this codex , the text of the Gospels is more highly esteemed by scholars than that of the remaining New Testament books . The codex is housed at the Basel University Library , with shelf number A. N. IV , 2 ( earlier B. VI . 27 ) .
= = Description = =
The codex contains the entire New Testament ( except of Book of Revelation ) in the following order : the Gospels , the Acts of the Apostles and the General and Pauline epistles ( Hebrews is the last book in Paul ) . The text is written in one column per page , 38 lines per page , on 297 parchment leaves ( 18 @.@ 5 cm by 11 @.@ 5 cm ) . It was originally accompanied by miniatures , which were stolen before 1860 – 1862 ( except one before the Gospel of John , which remains ) .
The dimensions of the text are 13 @.@ 6 cm by 6 @.@ 8 cm . It was written on parchment continuously and without separation in elegant minuscule , furnished with breathings ( spiritus asper and spiritus lenis ) and accents , in Iota adscript . The initial letters are gilt , and on the first page of each Gospel the full stop is a large gilt ball .
The text is divided according to chapters ( κεφαλαια ) whose numbers are given at the margin , with their titles ( τιτλοι ) at the top of the page . The text of the Gospels is divided according to the smaller Ammonian Sections ( in Matthew 352 , in Mark 236 with last numbered section in 16 : 12 , in Luke 340 , in John 227 ) , but references to the Eusebian Canons are absent . The Book of Acts and the epistles have the Euthalian Apparatus .
It contains prolegomena , synaxaria ( a list of saints ) , two types of lectionary markings at the margin ( for liturgical reading ) and pictures ( e.g. a portrait of John the Evangelist and Prochorus ) . The later type of liturgical notes , so called αναγνωσεις ( only for Gospels ) were added by a later hand ( in red ) . The Gospel of Matthew has 116 αναγνωσεις , the Gospel of Mark – 70 , the Gospel of Luke – 114 , and the Gospel of John – 67 αναγνωσεις . In the 15th century , the later hand added Prolegomena .
The codex contains a scholion questioning the authenticity of Mark 16 : 9 @-@ 20 . The Pericope Adulterae ( John 7 : 53 @-@ 8 : 11 ) is placed after John 21 : 25 .
= = Text = =
In Aland 's Profile , Kurt and Barbara Aland placed the codex 's Gospels in Category III , meaning it has historical importance , with the profile of 1191 , 802 , 601 / 2 , 69s . This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 119 times , with the original text against the Byzantine 80 times , and with both the Byzantine and original text 60 times . There are 69 independent or distinctive readings in the Gospels . While the Gospels are a representative of the Caesarean text @-@ type , the remainder of the books of the New Testament in this codex is a representative of the Byzantine text @-@ type and falls into Category V , the lowest and least important in Aland 's Profile .
It belongs to the textual Family 1 with manuscripts 118 , 131 and 209 . Classification in this textual family was supported by the Claremont Profile Method , but it examined with this method only in Luke 1 , Luke 10 and Luke 20 .
Johann Jakob Griesbach was the first who noted its similarities to the text of Origen 's commentary to the Gospel of Matthew . According to Hort , its text preceded the byzantine text @-@ type .
Kirsopp Lake compared the text of the codex with the text of Stephanus and showed that in the sections comprising Matthew 1 @-@ 10 ; Matthew 22 – Mark 14 ; Luke 4 @-@ 23 ; John 1 @-@ 13 and 18 , in this codex there are 2243 variants from the Textus Receptus .
In Matthew 27 : 16 , it has the well @-@ known textual variant " Ιησουν τον Βαραββαν " ( Jesus Barabbas ) . This variant also appears in the Codex Koridethi , Minuscule 700 and other members of the group f1 .
= = History = =
Textual critics and palaeographers like Johann Jakob Wettstein , Constantin von Tischendorf , Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener and Caspar René Gregory dated the manuscript to the 10th century . Henri Omont and Kirsopp Lake dated it to the 12th century , and Dean Burgon to the 12th or 13th century . It is dated by the Institute for New Testament Textual Research to the 12th century because the frequent occurrence of enlarged letters , rounded breathing marks , flourishes and ligatures seem to eliminate earlier dates .
The manuscript was presented to the monastery of the Preaching Friars by Cardinal Ragusio ( 1380 – 1443 ) , general of the Dominicans . It was used by Desiderius Erasmus in the first edition of his Novum Testamentum ( 1516 ) ; as a result , some of its readings are found in the Textus Receptus . Erasmus used this codex very little , because its text was different from other manuscripts with which he was acquainted . Oecolampadius and Gerbelius ( Erasmus 's sub @-@ editors ) insisted that he use more readings from this codex in his third edition ; however , according to Erasmus the text of this codex was altered from the Latin manuscripts and had secondary value . Since 1559 , it has been kept at the University of Basel , along with Codex Basilensis and minuscule 2 ( GA ) .
Johann Albrecht Bengel used several extracts from the codex , and Wettstein was the first who thoroughly examined it . According to him , in the Gospels its text agrees with the most ancient codices and patristic quotations ; therefore , he called it number one . In 1751 he changed his high opinion ( Novum Testamentum Græcum ) , dating the codex to the 10th century . Wettstein collated this manuscript twice , with many errors ; according to Samuel Prideaux Tregelles , his collation was incorrect in more than 1 @,@ 200 readings . Leonard Hug supported Wettstein 's last opinion that the codex was Latinisated . Tregelles and Roth again collated the text of this codex , and Tregelles noticed that this codex is textually close to minuscule 118 . Dean Burgon noticed that codices 131 and 209 are also textually similar . This entire group was examined by Kirsopp Lake in 1902 , and it was called " the Lake Group " ( or Family 1 ) . The text of the family was established on the basis of minuscule 1 ( collates codex 1 with Minuscules 118 , 131 , and 209 ) .
F. H. A. Scrivener ( 1813 – 1891 ) demonstrated that at least 22 verses of Erasmian text were derived from minuscule 1 :
Matthew 22 : 28 ; 23 : 25 ; 27 : 52 ; 28 : 3 @.@ 4 @.@ 19 @.@ 20
Mark 7 : 18 @.@ 19 @.@ 26 ; 10 : 1 ; 12 : 22 ; 15 : 46
Luke 1 : 16 @.@ 61 ; 2 : 43 ; 9 : 1 @.@ 15 ; 11 : 49
John 1 : 28 ; 10 : 8 ; 13 : 20
The manuscript has been cited in all critical editions of the Greek New Testament and systematically cited in the third and fourth editions edited by United Bible Societies ( UBS3 and UBS4 ) and Nestle @-@ Aland 's 26th and 27th editions ( NA26 and NA27 ) . In NA27 , the codex is cited as a witness of the first order .
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= National symbols of the Philippines =
The national symbols of the Philippines consist of symbols that represent Philippine traditions and ideals and convey the principles of sovereignty and national solidarity of the Filipino people . Some of these symbols are stated in the Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines , which is also known as Republic Act 8491 . The national language of the Philippines is Filipino as stated in the Constitution of the Philippines . Aside from those stated symbols in the Constitution and in Republic Act 8491 , there are only five official national symbols of the Philippines enacted through law , namely sampaguita as national flower , narra as national tree , the Philippine eagle as national bird , Philippine pearl as national gem and arnis as national martial art and sport .
There are symbols such as the carabao ( national animal ) , mango ( national fruit ) and anahaw ( national leaf ) that are widely known as national symbols but have no laws recognizing them as official national symbols . Even Jose Rizal , who is widely considered as a national hero , has not been declared officially as a national hero in any existing Philippine law according to historical experts . Although in 2003 , Benigno Aquino , Jr. was officially declared by the President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo as a national hero by an executive order . A National Artist of the Philippines is a rank or a title given to a Filipino citizen in recognition to the recipient 's contributions to Philippine arts and letters and they are not considered as a national symbol that represents traditions and ideals .
On 17 February 2014 , Bohol First District Representative Rene Relampagos filed a bill at the Philippine House of Representatives that seeks to declare or re @-@ declare and to recognize a number of national symbols . The proposed bill , House Bill 3926 or the " Philippine National Symbols Act of 2014 " , aims also to encourage nationalism and unity ; to guarantee respect , preservation and promotion of national symbols ; and to correct the " unofficial " status of the symbols . Among the proposed national symbols listed in the measure are Jose Rizal as the only historical Filipino to be recognized as national hero , adobo as national food and jeepney as national vehicle . It also includes the previous ten official national symbols . The bill is still pending to become a law and once the bill turned into law , all the symbols stated in the bill would be official national symbols of the Philippines .
= = Development of the symbols = =
Republic Act 8491 , known also as Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines , stipulates the code for national flag , anthem , motto , coat @-@ of @-@ arms and other heraldic items and devices of the Philippines . According to Article XIV Section 6 of the Constitution of the Philippines , the national language of the Philippines is Filipino . Apart from RA 8491 and the Constitution , the Philippines has only five official national symbols enacted either through a proclamation by the executive department or through a Republic Act by the legislative department , namely sampaguita , narra , the Philippine eagle , the Philippine pearl and arnis . In 1934 , during the Commonwealth era , Governor @-@ General Frank Murphy declared sampaguita and narra as national flower and national tree , respectively , through Proclamation No. 652 . Philippine President Fidel Ramos proclaimed the Philippine eagle as the national bird in 1995 through Proclamation No. 615 . Ramos also declared the South Sea Pearl or Philippine Pearl as the national gem in 1996 through Proclamation No. 905 . In 2009 , President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo declared arnis as the national sport and martial art through Republic Act 9850 .
In February 2013 , the Philippine Senate passed a bill declaring waling @-@ waling ( Vanda sanderiana ) as the national flower alongside Sampaguita . A similar bill in the House of Representatives had already been passed in 2012 . Normally , the bill would become law after being signed by the President . However , it was vetoed by President Benigno Aquino III . The veto did not grant the waling @-@ waling as the second national flower due to the confusion that it would create .
A year later , on 17 February 2014 , Representative Rene Relampagos , a congressman from the First District of Bohol , proposed a measure at the Philippine House of Representatives that seeks to declare or re @-@ declare and to recognize a number of national symbols . The bill dubbed as House Bill 3926 or the " Philippine National Symbols Act of 2014 " , aims also to encourage nationalism and unity ; to guarantee respect , preservation and promotion of national symbols ; and to correct the " unofficial " status of the symbols . It lists 26 symbols including the previous ten official national symbols .
In February 2016 , the House of Representatives approved on final reading the House Bill 6366 , which declares the ancient boat balangay at the national boat of the Philippines . The bill is not yet a law , therefore , the symbol is not yet official . For the balangay to become a national boat , there should be a senate concurrence and the President of the Philippines must sign the bill .
= = = Making a national symbol official = = =
A Philippine national symbol will be considered official once it is declared through a law or a proclamation . National symbols such as the cariñosa , carabao , bangus ( milkfish ) , and anahaw ( footstool palm ) that are circulating through various sources have no official status and have not established by law . According to Nestor Castro , a Filipino cultural anthropologist , most of these unofficial symbols were passed on as tradition in schools every start of the school year when students were asked to buy posters containing the supposed national symbols . While official national symbols are declared through law , Castro and National Historical Commission of the Philippines ( NHCP ) Section Chief Teodoro Atienza considered that the public must be consulted first before declaration of national symbol .
= = = Filipinos as national symbol = = =
According to the NHCP Section Chief Teodoro Atienza , and Filipino historian Ambeth Ocampo , there is no Filipino historical figure officially declared national hero through law or executive order . Although , there were laws and proclamations honoring Filipino heroes . In the Rizal Law principally sponsored by Claro M. Recto and enacted in 1956 , Jose Rizal is mentioned as a national hero in the " whereas " clause of the law . Although , " whereas " clauses function as a preamble or introduction and it is not part of the provisions . On 15 November 1995 , the Technical Committee of the National Heroes Committee , created through Executive Order No. 5 by former President Fidel Ramos , recommended nine Filipino historical figures to be National Heroes : Jose Rizal , Andres Bonifacio , Emilio Aguinaldo , Apolinario Mabini , Marcelo H. del Pilar , Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat , Juan Luna , Melchora Aquino , and Gabriela Silang . No action has been taken for these recommended National Heroes until it was revisited in one of the proceedings of the 14th Congress in 2009 .
On 3 August 2009 , shortly after the death of former President Corazon Aquino , widow of Benigno Aquino , Jr . , legislative measures have been filed calling for her official recognition as a national hero . Congresswoman Liwayway Vinzons @-@ Chato filed a house resolution declaring Corazon Aquino a national hero . Although , a week after she filed the resolution , she realized that there is no Filipino historical figure declared through law . On 10 August 2009 , she cited on her privilege speech in Congress the nine Filipino heroes recommended by National Heroes Committee in 1995 . She then urge Congress to sign the resolutions declaring the nine Filipinos recommended by the National Heroes Committee plus Benigno Aquino , Jr. and Corazon Aquino as national heroes . Congressman Salvador Escudero interpellated Vinzons @-@ Chato 's speech and stated that heroes are made in the hearts and minds of people and not through legislation . After the interpellation , it was moved by House of Representatives to refer the privilege speech of Vinzons @-@ Chato to the Committee of Basic Education and Culture .
In 2013 , Bayan Muna Congressmen Neri Colmenares and Carlos Isagani Zarate filed House Bill 3431 aiming to declare Andres Bonifacio as National Hero due to his actual participation in the Philippine Revolution against Spain . Another measure filed by Congressman Rene Relampagos from Bohol in February 2014 seeks to declare Jose Rizal as the sole Filipino national hero . According to the bill , he was a nationalist and well known for his Philippine reforms advocacy during the Spanish colonial era .
Filipinos awarded with the rank or title National Artist of the Philippines are not considered to be national symbols because the title is given in recognition to the recipient 's contributions to Philippine arts and letters and not as a symbol that represents traditions and ideals and convey the principles of sovereignty and national solidarity .
Despite declaration from historical experts that there is no historical person declared as a national hero , in 2003 , an executive order by then President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo officially declared Beningno Aquino Jr. as one of the national heroes . Due to laws declaring the heroism of Rizal and Bonifacio , their recognition as National Heroes is considered implied .
= = List of national symbols = =
= = = Official = = =
Here are list of national symbols excluding national heroes that were enacted through Philippine law .
Notes
...
1 The description of the Philippines ' coat of arms can be found under section 14 of Executive Order No. 292 ( Book I / Chapter 4 ) , which is also known as the Administrative Code of 1987 .
= = = Unofficial = = =
Here are the lists of national symbols that have no official status .
= = = = From failed and proposed laws = = = =
The following individuals were recommended by the Technical Committee of the National Heroes Committee as national heroes :
Emilio Aguinaldo
Melchora Aquino
Andrés Bonifacio
Marcelo H. del Pilar
Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat
Juan Luna
Apolinario Mabini
José Rizal
Gabriela Silang
The review by the Technical Committee of National Heroes was revisited during the 14th Congress at the House of Representatives . In a resolution , a congresswoman added the following two historical figures to the nine heroes declared by the National Heroes Committee , making the total to eleven national heroes . This was referred to a Congressional Committee and still must be acted upon and passed into law to make it official .
In August 2009 , a bill has been filed calling for Corazon Aquino 's official recognition as a national hero . In 2003 , Benigno Aquino Jr . , was already officially declared as one of the national heroes by then President Gloria Arroyo through an executive order .
Waling @-@ waling as national flower ; passed by Congress in 2013 but was vetoed by the President Benigno Aquino III .
The following are the list of proposed national symbols ( excluding the 10 official national symbols ) as per House Bill 3926 as proposed by Congressman Rene Relampagos.Adobo as national food
Anahaw as national leaf
Bakya as national slippers
Bangus as national fish
Barong and Baro 't saya as national costume
" Bayan Ko " as national song
Carabao as national animal
Cariñosa as national dance
Jeepney as national vehicle
Jose Rizal as national hero
Malacañang Palace as national seat of government
Mango as national fruit
Manila as national capital
National Seal ( essentially modified version of the coat of arms of the Philippines )
Nipa hut ( bahay kubo ) as national house
Philippine peso as national currency
The House of Representatives has approved on third and final reading of House Bill 6366 declaring the Balangay as the national boat .
= = = = From various sources = = = =
Juan de la Cruz - as national personification ( symbolizing the Filipino people )
Lechon and sinigang as national food
Sipa as national sport
Tinikling as national dance
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= Connie Talbot =
Connie Talbot ( born 20 November 2000 ) is an English child singer from Streetly , West Midlands . She rose to fame in 2007 when she reached the final of the first series of Britain 's Got Talent . Talbot signed with Rainbow Recording Company and released her debut album Over the Rainbow in the UK on 26 November 2007 . The album was re @-@ released 18 June 2008 with a new track listing , and the first single from the album , a cover of Bob Marley 's " Three Little Birds " , was released on 10 June .
Despite its negative critical reception , Over the Rainbow has sold over 250 @,@ 000 copies worldwide and reached number one in three countries . Since the initial album release , Talbot has performed publicly and on television in Europe , the US and across Asia , where her music had gained recognition through YouTube . Her second album , Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , was released on 24 November 2008 , her third , Holiday Magic , was released on 20 October 2009 and her fourth , Beautiful World , was released on 26 November 2012 . While pursuing her musical career , Talbot goes to The Streetly Academy , and lives in Streetly with her family .
= = History = =
= = = Britain 's Got Talent and Sony BMG = = =
Talbot initially auditioned for the first series of television reality show Britain 's Got Talent for fun , but her confidence increased when Simon Cowell , whom she is said to have idolised , described her as " pure magic " and said that he would make her earn " £ 1 million @-@ plus this year " . The judges expected a " joke " performance as she had never taken singing lessons , but Talbot 's initial performance received international press coverage . She reached the final round after winning her semi @-@ final with a live performance of " Ben " by Michael Jackson . On the night of the final , she sang The Wizard of Oz 's " Over the Rainbow " , but lost to Paul Potts as a result of the call @-@ in vote . Talbot and Potts had been joint favourites to win the series .
According to journalist and Britain 's Got Talent judge Piers Morgan , Talbot 's performances resulted in many children , including Faryl Smith , auditioning for the second series of the show . After his victory , series 2 winner George Sampson spoke of his participation in the first series , where he was knocked out before the live shows , saying " I don 't think I had any shot of winning last year ... When you look at the standard of Paul Potts and Connie Talbot . Paul Potts is out of this league , and Connie is out of this league – I wasn 't good enough . " Talbot voted for Sampson , saying " I liked his dancing – he was good on the lamppost " .
Cowell had preliminary agreed to sign Talbot with his own record label , Sony BMG . After recording two songs in London with Talbot ( " Over the Rainbow " and " Smile " ) , the label pulled out of the deal . Talbot 's mother , Sharon , said she was told that her daughter " ... was too young to be their sort of artist " , adding " We have been told to look for a company which looks after children . " In a statement , the label said " there was some deliberation over the possibility of recording with Connie ... However , the decision not to proceed was made with the best intentions for Connie , taking into consideration her age and that it would not be right to do so at this time . " Cowell himself said that " when the time is right , [ he would ] be delighted to see if [ they could ] make it work " . The Talbot family decided to search for another label , saying " while [ Talbot ] loves what she 's doing it would be cruel to stop her . Fame and money will never matter . "
= = = Over the Rainbow = = =
In October 2007 Talbot signed with the Rainbow Recording Company for a six @-@ figure deal . Rainbow Recording Company , an offshoot of record label Rhythm Riders made specifically for Talbot , was due to release Talbot 's first album on 26 November 2007 . It was later reported that the album was named Over the Rainbow , and the first single , " Over the Rainbow " / " White Christmas " , would be released on 3 December 2007 . Experts predicted that she had a good chance of getting the Christmas number one , but the single was cancelled in favour of an album @-@ first release . Before the album was released , there was much speculation about Talbot and the album , with music experts describing her as potentially being " the next Charlotte Church " .
The team behind the album consisted of John Arnison , who also managed Gabrielle and Billy Ocean , and Marc Marot , former managing director of Island Records . It was produced and mixed by Simon Hill and Rob May . Arnison revealed that he and his team " are not going to give [ Talbot ] singing lessons – we don 't need to " , and said that when he met Talbot , he was " blown away " . A schedule was worked out allowing Talbot to continue with her normal school activities while recording the album in her aunt Vicky 's spare bedroom , which her mother described as " a better solution [ than Sony BMG offered ] which has not robbed her of her childhood " . Although Arnison claimed he did not " want to put her through the promotional grind which most artists go through because she is too young " , plans were made for an appearance on daytime television programme This Morning , as well as an appearance on Children in Need on 16 November 2007 . The album was released on 26 November 2007 and Talbot 's mother said that " All the family is really excited , but Connie is quite blase about it . " The album was certified gold in early December , with Talbot being presented a gold disc by Phillip Schofield on This Morning . Initially , 50 @,@ 000 copies of the album were pressed , but an additional 120 @,@ 000 had to be made after the album sold out in days .
In late 2007 , public appearances by Talbot included headlining the Great Bridge Christmas and Winter Festival , which local police threatened to cancel unless crowds clamouring to reach the tent in which Talbot was performing could be brought under control . At the event , on 7 December 2007 , Talbot said " I love it here , it 's brilliant , really fun " , but had to be ushered off @-@ stage by the police . Talbot performed publicly in Walsall 's HMV store , and in Birmingham 's Centenary Square . TV appearances included GMTV and Channel 5 news , both on 26 November 2007 . According to her mother , Talbot has received offers for film roles . Sharon said " [ Talbot ] ' s been sent a script , I haven 't had a good look at it yet but it 's really exciting ... Connie 's a singer , not an actress , so we 'll see what happens . It 's completely up to her whether or not she wants to do it . I can 't believe it , though . "
Sharon Mawer of Allmusic praised Over the Rainbow by saying " She can sing , for a seven @-@ year old , and most of the notes ( if not all of them ) are in the right order and sung to the right pitch ; the timing is fine too " . However , she criticised the album , saying " there 's no feeling , no emotion , no realisation of what each song is about ; they 're just pretty little songs " , giving the album 2 / 5 . Nick Levine , of Digital Spy , said in a review of the album that Talbot had a " sweet , pure voice " , but that there is " no nuance or depth to her performance " . However , he said that " There 's something inherently wrong about awarding a star rating to a seven @-@ year @-@ old " , and that " the decidedly adult concept of musical merit should have nothing to do with [ her music ] " , awarding the album 2 / 5 .
The album was rereleased on 16 June 2008 , but was available for pre @-@ order in May , with three new tracks to replace its Christmas @-@ themed songs . The first single from the album , " Three Little Birds " , was released in June 2008 , and a video for the song was shot in Jamaica . In April and May 2008 , Talbot toured Asia to promote Over the Rainbow . Asian press attributed her success to her videos on YouTube , with the Sun.Star mentioning that her most viewed video had been watched over 14 million times , and The Straits Times saying that videos of Talbot 's performances have been watched over 30 million times . The tour made stops in South Korea , Taiwan , Hong Kong and Singapore , and Talbot and her family returned to England in late May . Following the tour , it was reported that the album had reached number one on the charts in Taiwan , South Korea and Hong Kong , as well as reaching number three in Singapore . After the tour , Talbot travelled to Poland , where she performed on television .
It was also revealed that Over the Rainbow was due for release in America in September , resulting in attention from American press sources including Fox Business Network and MarketWatch . The US version was eventually released on 14 October , with Talbot appearing on American television shows including The Ellen DeGeneres Show to publicise the release .
In August 2008 , it was announced that Talbot had signed a contract with Data Design Interactive for production of a video game on the Wii console . The game was to feature 15 songs from Over the Rainbow , allowing players to sing along with a computer @-@ generated image of Talbot or against other players in a karaoke mode . Talbot rerecorded the album for the game . The game was scheduled for release in the first quarter of 2009 , and is called Connie Talbot : Over the Rainbow . The game has never been released , citing copyright issues on the songs used for it .
= = = Christmas Album and Holiday Magic = = =
In November 2008 , it was announced that Talbot had produced a series of new songs for an album . Recorded in her bedroom studio , Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album was released on 24 November . It is a Christmas themed album , featuring , according to Talbot 's official website , " a mix of classics and modern Christmas tunes " . News was also released of a one @-@ off Christmas special to be shown on ITV1 in the days leading up to Christmas , featuring footage of Talbot 's journey to America and a " secret concert " at her primary school . The documentary , Christmas with Connie , was shown on ITV Central on 18 December . Talbot appeared at Walsall 's HMV branch shortly after the release of her Christmas Album to sign copies and meet fans . She then embarked on a promotional tour making stops around the world , which included a performance at Ewha Womans University in Korea , and a performance on the A Heart for Children television charity gala in Berlin , Germany . She returned home in mid December , to have " a quiet family Christmas " .
Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album was difficult to obtain in Britain after the distributor , Pinnacle Entertainment , went into administration . Talbot 's mother , Sharon , was quoted as saying " We don 't really know what 's going to happen at the moment ... We think they 'll probably wait and promote the album later this year . It 's a shame , but they can still get the album in Asia and the US . " Reviewing the album for FemaleFirst magazine , Ruth Harrison gave it 4 / 5 , saying that Talbot has " a great voice when it comes to swing , but lets us down in parts " .
In April 2009 , Talbot again travelled to the US to publicise her new single , a cover of " I Will Always Love You " . The single was released in the US on 7 April , along with a newly recorded " You Raise Me Up " . Talbot then traveled to the US on 30 April , and returned on 2 May . Appearances included a performance on Good Day New York on Fox Broadcasting Company 's WNYW .
Talbot 's third album , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , was released on 20 October 2009 in the United States and on 30 November 2009 in the United Kingdom . The United States album is dedicated to the Toys for Tots campaign , of which Talbot has been named the child ambassador . In a statement , Bill Grein , Vice @-@ President of the Marine Toys for Tots Foundation , said-
The Marine Toys for Tots Foundation is extremely proud and excited to have Connie as our youngest ambassador ever ... She is the perfect person to inform the public of the millions of less fortunate children who may be overlooked this Christmas holiday season , unless people step up to donate a toy or make a cash contribution . Her angelic looks and voice will remind everyone of the innocence of children . And they all deserve to experience the magic of the holiday season ! I hope she sells lots of CDs and raises a lot of money and awareness for our children .
Along with Talbot 's third album , a television special , entitled Holiday Magic , was produced by WVIA . Holiday Magic featured performances of all of the songs from Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , and was available to all PBS stations shown in November and December 2009 . A 17 @-@ track DVD of the special , including two additional songs , " What a Wonderful World " and " Over the Rainbow " , was released for sale .
= = = 2010 – 2015 = = =
Talbot opened a special concert celebrating South Korea 's hosting of the G20 summit of world leaders in 2010 . Talbot performed for her largest ever audience when she performed on Chinese state television during the Chinese new @-@ year in 2011 . Reporting the event , the Daily Mail 's Kathryn Knight observed that Talbot has " had more than 300 million hits on YouTube and in the Far East , in particular , she 's something of an icon . Japan , Taiwan , Korea , China , Brazil , Mexico and the U.S. — you name it , Connie 's a star there . In fact Connie is in huge demand across the globe – everywhere , that is , apart from her native Britain . " Viewing figures for the event were estimated to be around 400 million .
During this time , Talbot continued to upload videos of her performances onto YouTube . Maggie Coughlan , of PopEater.com , praised her covers of Katy Perry 's " Firework " and Bruno Mars 's " Grenade " , but was most impressed by her cover of Adele 's " Someone Like You " , which she said was performed " with such grace that she makes the entire performance look effortless " . The video was also picked up by PerezHilton.com. After the death of Whitney Houston , Talbot posted a cover version of " Run to You " as a tribute to Houston . The video received attention from around the world .
On 28 November 2011 , Talbot released " Beautiful World " as a single on iTunes . The song was written by Talbot when she was seven . A demo of the track was placed on YouTube , and became the 39th most watched video in the world on the day it was uploaded .
In March 2012 , Talbot performed with and led Young Voices , a choir made up of around 7000 primary school children , at the O2 Arena for four nights . The choir broke the world @-@ record for being the largest backing choir for a lead vocalist . This Guinness world record follows her accolades as the youngest artist to make the UK album charts and the youngest to release a gold @-@ selling record . Others involved in the event included Randolph Matthews and The High Kings . Performances took place elsewhere in the United Kingdom , including Manchester and Birmingham. and were in aid of CLIC Sargent , a children 's cancer charity .
Talbot 's single , " Sail Away " , was written and produced by Robbie Nevil and released independently by Group 3 Management , Inc in May 2012 .
In June 2012 , she performed three private concerts in Hong Kong and then it was back in L.A. to begin recording demos with the multi @-@ platinum songwriter / producer and Grammy winner , Toby Gad . Talbot wrote a song called " Building Bridges " , which she has performed live a number of times but is yet to be released commercially .
In September 2012 , Talbot signed a recording agreement with Hong Kong @-@ based Evolution Limited and went into the studio with Grammy @-@ winning producer Kipper together with Phil Taylor , to record her next album . Her fourth album , Beautiful World , containing 13 tracks , was released in Asia on 26 November 2012 on Evolution 's Evosound label . The title track being a rerecorded version of her self @-@ penned track " Beautiful World " .
Talbot performed in Hong Kong , Taiwan , the Philippines and Indonesia for her Beautiful World tour in December 2012 . Her debut headline concert appearance was on 21 December at the Taiwan International Convention Centre ( TICC ) in front of an audience of 1800 . This was followed by two headline concerts at KITEC , Hong Kong . She also made guest appearances in several TV shows , namely Eat Bulaga ! .
Talbot toured with the Young Voices choir for a second year in early 2013 , performing at venues across the UK . The African Children 's Choir also took part in these events .
Talbot 's song " Let 's Get Along " , written by Kipper , was featured on ONE Campaign 's agit8 Spotify album in July 2013 . Talbot is also featured in the song " Building Bridges " , which also made the agit8 album , together with Jordan Jansen .
Talbot 's vocals are featured in the theme song of the video game Rain , released during the beginning of October 2013 .
In October 2013 , Talbot appeared as a special guest at the African Children 's Choir concert in Walsall , UK . It was announced that Talbot would be an ambassador for the African Children 's Choir and have a school named after her .
In late April 2014 , Connie performed a couple of concerts in South Korea ( Osan and Seoul ) . These concerts , performed shortly after the horrendous Sewol ferry tragedy , were delivered with much personal consideration by Connie to make sure that all song choices were appropriate . Connie performed with yellow ribbons to show her respect for the families of the victims . The proceeds from at least one of the concerts were donated to the fundraising efforts in support of the families of the victims .
On 28 July 2014 , a DVD and Blu @-@ ray was released of Talbot ’ s concerts in Hong Kong and Taiwan during her Beautiful World tour in 2012 . It features live performances of the songs from the Beautiful World album , and two additional songs , " I Will Always Love You " and " Over the Rainbow " .
On 7 November 2014 , Talbot released an EP called " Gravity " . She has released three of the five songs from the album , Mr. Blue Sky , Gravity and Inner Beauty from late 2014 to early 2015 .
= = = Matters To Me ( 2016 ) = = =
February 19 , 2016 , the release of digital single Shut Up ( Move On ) was announced . The single is taken from Connie Talbot 's new studio album Matters To Me , a 13 track album with a bonus track available only on iTunes . The album was released on March 25 , 2016 .
= = Personal life = =
Connie lives in Streetly , in the West Midlands with her mother , Sharon , her father Gavin , her older brother Josh , and her older sister Mollie . When Connie was little , she spent much time with her grandmother Violet , watching The Wizard of Oz . It was with Violet that Connie first sang . Violet died in 2006 , before Connie became internationally known , and Connie sang at her funeral .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Video albums = = =
= = = Extended plays = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Other appearances = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
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= William Beebe =
William Beebe ( / ˈbiːbi / born Charles William Beebe ; July 29 , 1877 – June 4 , 1962 ) was an American naturalist , ornithologist , marine biologist , entomologist , explorer , and author . He is remembered for the numerous expeditions he conducted for the New York Zoological Society , his deep dives in the Bathysphere , and his prolific scientific writing for both academic and popular audiences .
Born in Brooklyn , New York and raised in East Orange , New Jersey , Beebe left college before obtaining a degree in order to work at the then newly opened New York Zoological Park , where he was given the duty of caring for the zoo 's birds . He quickly distinguished himself in his work for the zoo , first with his skill in designing habitats for its bird population , and soon also with a series of research expeditions of increasing length , including an expedition around the world to document the world 's pheasants . These expeditions formed the basis for a large quantity of writing for both popular and academic audiences , including an account of his pheasant expedition titled A Monograph of the Pheasants and published in four volumes from 1918 to 1922 . In recognition of the research conducted on his expeditions , he was granted honorary doctorates from Tufts and Colgate University .
During the course of his expeditions Beebe gradually developed an interest in marine biology , ultimately leading to his 1930s dives in the Bathysphere off the coast of Bermuda , along with the Bathysphere 's inventor Otis Barton . These dives represented the first time a biologist observed deep @-@ sea animals in their native environment , and set several successive records for the deepest dive ever performed by a human , the deepest of which stood until it was broken by Barton 15 years later . Following his Bathysphere dives , Beebe returned to the tropics and began to focus his study on the behavior of insects . In 1949 , he founded a tropical research station in Trinidad which he named Simla , and which remains in operation as part of the Asa Wright Nature Centre . Beebe 's research at Simla continued until his death from pneumonia in 1962 at the age of 84 .
William Beebe is regarded as one of the founders of the field of ecology , as well as one of the early 20th century 's major advocates of conservation . He is also remembered for several theories he proposed about avian evolution which are now regarded as having been ahead of their time , particularly his 1915 hypothesis that the evolution of bird flight passed through a four @-@ winged or " Tetrapteryx " stage , which has been supported by the 2003 discovery of Microraptor gui .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Charles William Beebe was born in Brooklyn , New York , son of the newspaper executive Charles Beebe . Although some sources have described him as an only child , he had a younger brother named John who died in infancy . Early in his life , his family moved to East Orange , New Jersey , where he began to acquire both his fascination with the natural world and his tendency to record everything he saw . The American Museum of Natural History , which opened the year that Beebe was born , fostered Beebe 's love of nature and was an early influence on him .
In September 1891 , Beebe began attending East Orange High School . Although Beebe did not formally drop his first name " Charles " until 1915 , before attending high school he was already commonly known as " William Beebe " , as he would be known from this point onward . During his high school years Beebe developed an interest in collecting animals , particularly after receiving his first gun at the age of sixteen , and trained himself in taxidermy in order to preserve them . When he was unable to collect a specimen for himself , he often obtained it from a supply house known as Lattin 's , or by trading with other collectors . Beebe 's first article was published while he was still in high school , a description of a bird called a brown creeper , which appeared in the January 1895 issue of the magazine Harper 's Young People .
In 1896 , Beebe was accepted with advanced placement to Columbia University . While attending university , Beebe frequently split his time between the university and the American Museum of Natural history , many of whose researchers were also professors at Columbia . At Columbia he studied under Henry Fairfield Osborn , and developed a close relationship with him which would endure until Osborn 's death in 1935 .
While attending Columbia , Beebe persuaded his professors to sponsor him and several fellow students taking research trips to Nova Scotia , where he continued his hobby of collecting , as well as attempting to photograph difficult @-@ to @-@ observe scenes of birds and other animals . Several of Beebe 's photographs from these expeditions were purchased by Columbia professors to use as slides during their lectures . During these trips Beebe also developed an interest in dredging , the practice of using nets to haul up animals that lived deep underwater , and attempting to study them before they died or disintegrated . Beebe never applied to receive a degree from Columbia , although years later he was granted honorary doctorates from both Tufts and Colgate University .
= = = Employment at the Bronx Zoo = = =
In November 1897 , Frank Chapman sponsored Beebe to become an associate member of the American Ornithologists ' Union , and the following month Beebe gave his first professional lecture on ornithology to a society called Uncle Clarence 's Bergen Point Culture Club . In 1899 , although he had completed all of the required courses for a degree in science from Columbia except for mathematics , he decided to forgo his studies in favor of an invitation from Osborn to work at the New York Zoological Park which was about to open . Several factors contributed to this decision , including both excitement at being part of the zoo , and the sense that his studies were putting too much of a strain on his family 's finances .
Osborn appointed Beebe to the position of assistant curator of ornithology . As assistant curator , one of his principal jobs was to breed and rear the zoo 's birds in order to sustain their population . Beebe placed much importance on the birds being given as much space as possible , and proposed the building of a " flying cage " the size of a football field . This was eventually built , although at less than half the size that Beebe had originally requested . While Beebe 's flying cage was criticized as being based on an inaccurate understanding of birds ' needs , it ultimately proved very successful .
In 1901 , Beebe returned to Nova Scotia on his first expedition for the zoo , with the goal of collecting marine animals by searching tide pools and with additional dredging . The following year he was promoted from assistant curator to the rank of full curator , a post he held until 1918 . He then went on to serve as an honorary curator from 1919 to 1962 .
On August 6 , 1902 , Beebe was married to Mary Blair Rice , better known by her pen name Blair Niles . Blair subsequently accompanied Beebe on several of his expeditions , and as a writer herself , frequently assisted Beebe with his own writing . Beebe and Blair regarded their honeymoon , another trip to Nova Scotia , as a further opportunity for collecting .
The following February , Beebe and Blair went on an expedition to the Florida Keys , because Beebe was suffering from a throat infection and the zoo believed that the warm climate would be beneficial to his health . This expedition was Beebe 's introduction to the tropics , with which he developed a long @-@ standing fascination . In July 1903 , at the request of a lawyer named Louis Whealton whom the zoo 's director William Temple Hornaday regarded as a potential donor to the zoo , Beebe and Blair went on another expedition to Virginia 's Barrier Islands . Although it was intended as an expedition for the zoo , Beebe described it as " our third honeymoon this year " .
By the end of 1903 , at the age of 26 , Beebe had published more than thirty @-@ four articles and photographs in the past year . For his contributions to science , he was elected a fellow in the American Association for the Advancement of Science .
= = = Early exploration and expeditions = = =
In December 1903 , in an effort to avert another bout of Beebe 's throat ailment , Hornaday sent him on an expedition to Mexico which would last until the following April . Since Mexico was still largely unstable at this point , he and Blair traveled on horseback and lived mostly in tents , and both carried revolvers for self @-@ protection . Although the purpose of the expedition was to discover , identify and collect Mexico 's birds , it has also been described as yet another honeymoon between him and Blair . Beebe 's first book , titled Two Bird Lovers in Mexico , was an account of this expedition . The last chapter was written by Blair , and was an explanation of how to plan and execute a vacation in the wilderness . The book was enthusiastically well received .
Beebe 's second book , The Bird , Its Form and Function , was published in 1906 . This book was a reworking of a manuscript that Beebe had submitted to Henry Holt in 1902 , but which Holt had asked him to expand into a major work on birds . In its finished form it represented a new kind of nature writing in that , although it presented technical information about bird biology and evolution , it did so in a way meant to be accessible to a general audience . It also represented an important turning point for Beebe , because in contrast to his youthful fascination with adding animals to his collection , in this book he was beginning to emphasize the importance of wildlife conservation . Regarding the killing of animals for the sole purpose of collecting , the book states :
Although Beebe continued to shoot animals when it was necessary for the purpose of examining them scientifically , he no longer regarded adding to a collection as a valid reason to take a life . In 1906 Beebe presented his own collection , which had grown to 990 specimens during his earlier years as a collector , as a gift to the zoo for educational and research purposes . For this gift he was made a life member of the New York Zoological Society . The same year , he was also elected a fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences .
In 1907 , the journal Zoologica was founded by Osborn and Hornaday specifically as a place for Beebe to publish his research . The first issue of the journal contained twenty papers , ten of which were written by Beebe , and two more of which were jointly written by him and Lee Saunders Crandall , the zoo 's assistant curator of birds . The following year Beebe received a promotion from the Zoological Society , placing him on equal footing with the research scientists at the Museum of Natural History . This promotion explicitly granted him two months off each year , for the purpose of further research expeditions . The first expedition conducted under his new privileges , beginning in February 1908 , took him to Trinidad and Venezuela to research birds and insects . During this expedition Beebe captured 40 live birds for the zoo , belonging to 14 different species .
At this point in his life , Beebe was forming a close friendship with then @-@ president Theodore Roosevelt , which would last until Roosevelt 's death in 1919 . Beebe admired Roosevelt 's skill as a field naturalist as well as his advocacy of conservation , and Roosevelt 's fame made his support highly valuable in Beebe 's scientific endeavors . Roosevelt in turn admired Beebe 's writing and his respect for the natural world . Roosevelt frequently provided praise for Beebe 's books , and went on to write introductions to Beebe 's books Tropical Wild Life and Jungle Peace .
In February 1909 , Beebe and Blair traveled to British Guiana , in the hope that with Roosevelt 's support , it might be possible to establish a permanent field research station there . Another goal of this expedition was to find and capture a hoatzin , a bird whose clawed wings caused it to be considered an important link in the evolution of birds from reptiles . Beebe made extensive documentation of hoatzin behavior through field glasses , but their plans to capture one were foiled when they had to return home early due to Blair breaking her wrist . Despite their failure to obtain their most sought @-@ after prize , the expedition still returned with 280 live birds of 51 species , 33 of which were new to the zoo , although several of these died or escaped during the long trip back to New York . Beebe summarized this expedition in his book Our Search for a Wilderness , which was enthusiastically well reviewed .
= = = The pheasant expedition = = =
In December 1909 , businessman and philanthropist Anthony R. Kuser proposed to the zoo that Beebe be allowed to go on a voyage around the world for the purpose of documenting the world 's pheasants , which would be financed by Kuser . Hornaday strongly objected to this proposal , describing Kuser as an " evil genius " who was attempting to steal Beebe away from his duties at the zoo . However , the zoo ultimately decided in Kuser 's favor , partly because the scientific papers produced by Beebe 's trip to Guiana had been beneficial to the zoo 's reputation . Hornaday appointed Crandall as the zoo 's acting curator of birds , giving him the duty of caring for its birds in Beebe 's absence . Beebe and Blair left for their expedition accompanied by Robert Bruce Horsfall , whose job would be to provide illustrations of the birds for the book that would hopefully result from this expedition .
After crossing the Atlantic Ocean on the RMS Lusitania to London , where they gathered the supplies they would need for their expedition , Beebe and his team traveled across the Mediterranean Sea to Egypt , through the Suez Canal , and across the Indian Ocean to Ceylon , where they began their task of documenting the native wildfowl . From Ceylon they traveled to Calcutta , with the goal of capturing the species of pheasants which live only in the Himalayas . By this point Beebe was beginning to be in conflict with Horsfall , who was unaccustomed to such expeditions . After Beebe had finished his documentation in the eastern part of the range , Horsfall refused to accompany Beebe in the western part of the range , causing Beebe to leave him in the town of Jorepokhri and continue his work in the Western Himalayas without him . Horsfall rejoined them in Calcutta , from which they sailed to Indonesia . The next ship took them to Singapore , where Beebe established a base of operations for the next stage of his expedition .
The expedition 's next destination was Sarawak , on the island of Borneo . By the time they left Sarawak , the conflict between Beebe and Horsfall had grown to such a degree that Beebe decided Horsfall was endangering the expedition and must be sent home . In response to Beebe 's dismissal , Horsfall retorted that he had been ill @-@ treated by Beebe from the beginning of the expedition , and that his subsequent actions had been for the express purpose of revenge . Continuing without Horsfall , Beebe and Blair traveled to Batavia in Java , to the island of Madura just to the north , and to Belitung between Borneo and Sumatra .
Finished in Java , Beebe and his crew sailed north from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur to begin exploring Malaya . After Malaya , the next portion of their expedition took them to Burma , where they arrived in Rangoon and traveled by rail to Myitkyina . In Burma Beebe succumbed temporarily to a bout of depression , and it was several days before he was able to resume working or continue the expedition . He attributed his recovery to the pile of penny dreadful novels he discovered in his bungalow at Pungatong , which he then read constantly for the next few days .
The last portion of Beebe 's journey took him to China , from which they made an unplanned visit to Japan in order to escape a riot as well as a surge of bubonic plague . When the plague and riots had subsided , Beebe returned to China to document the local pheasant species , then made a second visit to Japan to study pheasants kept in the Imperial Preserves there . In Japan , Beebe was given two cranes by the Imperial Household in exchange for a pair of swans , which were unknown in Japan .
His expedition completed after a total of 17 months , Beebe and Blair crossed the Pacific to San Francisco , then crossed the United States to return to their home in New York . Their expedition had obtained live or stuffed specimens of nearly all the pheasants he had sought , and also produced extensive notes about their behavior . Some of these pheasants , such as Sclater 's impeyan or Himalayan monal , had never before been seen in the wild by Americans or Europeans . Beebe 's observations of sexual dimorphism in pheasants during this expedition led him to become the first biologist to correctly understand the mechanism by which this aspect of sexual selection operates . On the basis of his observations he also proposed a new evolutionary model of pheasant ancestry , involving a period of rapid diversification followed by more typical and gradual changes . Although this evolutionary model is now taken for granted , in William Beebe 's time it was a novel idea .
In January 1913 , Blair left Beebe for Reno with the intention of divorcing him , since at this time in history it was easier to obtain a divorce in Reno than in most other areas of the United States . The divorce was granted on August 29 , 1913 , after Blair had spent the minimum requirement of six months as a resident in Reno . Obtaining a divorce in Reno required a person to demonstrate that their spouse had committed either adultery or extreme cruelty ; Blair 's complaint accused Beebe of the latter , claiming that during the pheasant expedition he had threatened to commit suicide by " throwing himself in the river , shooting himself through the roof of the mouth with a revolver , and by cutting his throat with a razor . " Beebe made very little effort to contest the divorce , and did not appear in court to offer any testimony . Although newspapers at the time reported Blair 's accusations uncritically , with headlines such as " Naturalist was cruel " , modern biographers consider it more likely that Blair resorted to hyperbole in order to make a case for divorce . A week after her divorce from Beebe , Blair was remarried to their next @-@ door neighbor Robin Niles , suggesting that the true reason for the divorce may have been cuckoldry . On the other hand , some biographers have suggested that Beebe suffered a nervous breakdown during the expedition , and that he may have contributed his own part to Blair 's alienation .
Blair 's departure came as a shock to Beebe , and he was severely depressed for more than a year afterward . Despite her assistance during the pheasant expedition , Beebe excised any mention of her from the monograph he was preparing based on the data gathered during it .
By the end of 1914 , Beebe 's pheasant monograph was essentially complete in manuscript . While the text was written by Beebe , the illustrations were provided by several artists : Robert Bruce Horsfall , who had accompanied Beebe on the expedition , painted the environmental scenes for the illustrations ' backgrounds , while the pheasants themselves were painted by other artists including George Edward Lodge , Charles R. Knight , and Louis Agassiz Fuertes . Due to the elaborate nature of the book 's color artwork , no American publisher was considered capable of reproducing it . The publisher which Beebe chose for his work was George Witherby and Sons of London , as a result of their success publishing the artwork of John James Audubon . The reproduction of the illustrations themselves was to be handled by several companies in Germany and Austria . Reproductions of the illustrations were in the process of being printed when World War I began , holding up the completion of the project for the next four years .
= = = Return to Guiana , and World War I = = =
Beebe undertook an expedition to Brazil in 1915 , for the purpose of capturing more birds for the zoo . This expedition was an important turning point for Beebe in several ways . Beebe had far more field experience than either of the two others accompanying him on the expedition , G. Inness Hartler and Herbert Atkins , making this his introduction to the role of a mentor . During this expedition , Beebe was also amazed to discover the number and variety of organisms living under a single tree , and pioneered the method of studying a small area of wilderness for an extended amount of time . This expedition marked the beginning of a shift for Beebe from ornithology to the study of tropical ecosystems .
In 1916 , Beebe traveled to Georgetown in pursuit of his earlier goal of establishing a permanent field research station in Guiana . After following several leads which came to nothing , his goal was realized when George Withers , who owned a rubber plantation on the Mazaruni River , offered him the use of a large house on his property for this purpose . Soon after Beebe and his researchers moved into the plantation house , which was known by the name of Kalacoon , they were paid a visit by Theodore Roosevelt and his family . Roosevelt subsequently wrote an article about the station for Scribner 's Magazine , which helped to build public support for the station .
The establishment of the Kalacoon research station enabled Beebe to research the ecology of the surrounding jungle in far more detail than had been possible during his earlier expeditions . Using Kalacoon as his base of operations , Beebe performed a novel type of study : methodically dissecting a small area of jungle , and all of the animals which inhabit it , from the top of the canopy to below the ground . In a second study , Beebe performed the same task for a much larger area of jungle , approximately a quarter mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) square . During his first season at Kalacoon in 1916 , Beebe brought back 300 living specimens for the zoo . This time he succeeded at capturing a hoatzin , the bird that he had narrowly missed during his earlier trip to Guiana , although he was unable to keep it alive for the zoo during the trip back to New York .
Beebe summarized his discoveries at Kalacoon in his 1917 book Tropical Wild Life in British Guiana , which inspired many other researchers to plan trips to Kalacoon , or to establish their own field research stations of the type that Beebe had pioneered .
Beebe was eager to serve in World War I , but at 40 he was considered too old for regular service . With Roosevelt 's help , he secured a post training American pilots for a flight squadron on Long Island . His training work was halted when , veering to avoid a photographer who had run in front of his airplane as he landed , he crashed on landing and severely injured his right wrist . During a second trip to Kalacoon while his wrist healed , Beebe was further devastated to discover that due to wartime demand for rubber , the entire jungle surrounding the house had been clear @-@ cut to make room for rubber trees . Since the purpose of Kalacoon station had been to study the jungle , the jungle 's destruction left Beebe with no choice but to close the station and return with its supplies to New York . Combined with his earlier loss of Blair , the effect of losing Kalacoon plunged Beebe into depression . This did not go unnoticed by Beebe 's mentor Osborn , who expressed concern about it in a letter to Madison Grant , writing " I find that he is worried and far from well . [ ... ] Without telling him so , we must take care of him . "
In October 1917 , Beebe had his opportunity to serve in the war . With the help of a letter of recommendation from Roosevelt , he was given the duty of flying aerial photography planes over German gun emplacements . He also spent time in trenches and accompanied a Canadian Indian platoon on a night raid . Beebe subsequently wrote several articles describing his war experience for Scribner 's Magazine and Atlantic Monthly . Beebe generally did not make the exact nature of his military service clear in his writings about it , although he expressed his general dismay at the realities of the war . The best @-@ known of these accounts is provided by the opening paragraph of his 1918 book Jungle Peace :
Beebe 's position in the Zoological Society underwent a change in 1918 : He was given the title of Honorary Curator of Birds , and was made the director of the newly created Department of Tropical Research . With his new position , Beebe no longer had the duty of caring for the zoo 's animals , freeing him to devote himself fully to his writing and research . Beebe 's duties as curator were passed to Lee Crandall , the former Assistant Curator who had worked under Beebe , although Crandall continued to rely on Beebe for help treating illness in birds , and caring for the exotic birds brought back from Beebe 's expeditions .
The first volume of Beebe 's pheasant monograph was published that fall , although the ongoing war made it unclear when the remaining three volumes would be published . The first volume was highly praised by reviewers , and received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1918 . In January 1919 Roosevelt , who was severely ill by this point , wrote to Beebe from his hospital bed congratulating Beebe on the publication of his monograph . His letter of congratulation to Beebe was the last letter that Roosevelt wrote before his death . Volume II of the monograph was published in 1921 , and volumes III and IV were published in 1922 . The completed work , titled A Monograph of the Pheasants , has been considered by some reviewers to be possibly the greatest ornithological monograph of the twentieth century .
In 1919 , Osborn helped secure Beebe a new research station in Guiana to replace Kalacoon : Beebe was offered Kartabo Point , an outpost of a New York @-@ based mining corporation . Beebe was enthusiastic about the new station , and it proved very successful for conducting the same detailed analyses of wildlife within small areas that had been performed at Kalacoon . At Kartabo Beebe discovered the phenomenon known as an ant mill , a column of ants following itself in an endless loop until nearly all of them died of exhaustion .
= = = Galápagos expeditions = = =
Beebe was eager to undertake an expedition to the Galápagos Islands , with the intention of obtaining more detailed data in support of evolution than Charles Darwin had been able to collect in his earlier visit . In 1923 , Harrison Williams agreed to finance such an expedition , and Beebe was provided with a 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) steam yacht called the Noma for this purpose along with a support crew . The support crew included a number of scientists who had worked with Beebe previously , as well as some of Williams ' friends whose inclusion was a condition for Williams ' agreement to fund the expedition . Passing through the Sargasso Sea on the way to the Galápagos , Beebe was fascinated by the diversity of life that could be found in the sargassum weed floating on the surface , and spent several days scooping the weed from the water to examine the creatures that lived in it .
Beebe 's first expedition to the Galápagos lasted twenty days , broken into two ten @-@ day periods , between which the Noma was forced to return to Panama for fresh water and coal . During this expedition he documented the unique ways that animals that inhabit the Galápagos have evolved in response to the absence of predators . The Galápagos animals generally showed no fear of humans , causing the team to have a high degree of success at capturing live specimens for the zoo . Beebe also discovered a previously unknown bay on Tower Island in the Galápagos , which he named Darwin Bay , and documented the diversity of animal life that inhabited it . During the return to New York from this expedition , Beebe continued to dredge animals from the sea , using a pair of new devices he had devised to assist himself with this : a " pulpit " , an iron cage affixed to the bow of the ship that enabled its occupant to examine the surface of the sea more closely ; and a " boom walk " , a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) boom jutting from the side of the ship from which he suspended himself . The book in which Beebe summarized this expedition , titled Galápagos : World 's End , was an instant best @-@ seller and remained on the New York Times top ten list for several months .
In 1924 , Beebe went on another expedition to his Guiana research station of Kartabo , with the goal of continuing the detailed documentation of the tropical ecosystem that he had begun at Kalacoon . The paper which finally resulted from this study was published in Zoologica in 1925 , and was the first study of its kind in the developing field of tropical ecology . Beebe continued to battle depression during this trip to Kartabo , both over his earlier loss of Blair , and over the death of his mother Nettie , who had died shortly before the beginning of the expedition .
Despite his ongoing research in Guiana , what Beebe desired most was to return to the Galápagos , this time with a properly fitted @-@ out scientific research vessel that possessed the ability to dredge animals from beneath the ocean . In 1925 , Beebe set out on a second Galápagos expedition , backed by Williams and several other donors . His ship for this expedition was the Arcturus , a steam yacht considerably larger than the Noma that was capable of being at sea for extended periods of time . The Arcturus was outfitted with Beebe 's pulpit and boom walk from the Noma , as well as cages and tanks for live animals , chemicals and vials to preserve dead ones , and a darkroom for developing film and studying the bioluminescent animals they hoped to encounter .
The Arcturus did not encounter the thick mats of sargassum in the Sargasso Sea that Beebe was hoping to study , but Beebe and his crew experienced great success dredging creatures from the sea off the coast of Saint Martin and Saba . In the Pacific , they encountered a strange boundary between two currents of very different temperatures , containing a vast diversity of life on the border between the two . He sailed along the border between the currents for several days to document it , theorizing that it could be the cause of the unusual climate which South America had recently been experiencing . Beebe 's study of these currents , and their effect on the climate of South America , is the earliest known study of the phenomenon known as El Niño .
Anchoring near Darwin Bay , Beebe made his first attempt at studying sea animals in their native environment by descending into the ocean in a diving helmet . Beebe continued to perform helmet dives throughout his Galápagos expedition , documenting several previously unknown sea animals . In addition to his helmet dives , Beebe applied the same method of research that he had pioneered in the tropics to a small area of ocean , sailing in circles around it for ten days with the intention of documenting all actions and interactions of marine life within that area . This study yielded a collection of 3 @,@ 776 fish of 136 species , many of them also new to science .
While anchored off the Galápagos , Beebe and his crew noticed volcanic activity on Albemarle Island , and set out to investigate it . Anchoring in a small cove , Beebe and his assistant John Tee @-@ Van searched for an active crater where they could observe the eruption , and were nearing exhaustion by the time they found one . As he observed the crater , Beebe realized that the air surrounding it was filled with noxious gases , and narrowly avoided suffocation before staggering away from it . Observing the eruption from his ship for another two days , as well as again at a later point in the expedition , Beebe recorded how numerous birds and marine animals were killed after either failing to escape the lava , or drawing too close to it in an attempt to scavenge other animals that had died .
During the return from the Galápagos through the Sargasso Sea , Beebe once again failed to find the thick mats of Sargassum whose study had been one of the primary goals of the expedition . Searching for a way to satisfy his expedition 's donors , Beebe hit upon the idea of documenting the marine life of the Hudson Gorge just beyond the shore of New York City . Applying the same techniques to studying the Hudson Gorge that he had used in the Galápagos , Beebe encountered a surprising variety of sea animals , many of which had previously been thought to be exclusive to the tropics .
Shortly after Beebe 's return from this expedition , Anthony Kuser requested that Beebe produce a condensed , popular version of his pheasant monograph . The book which resulted from this , titled Pheasants : their Lives and Homes ( also known by the title Pheasants of the World ) , was released in 1926 and received the John Burroughs Medal . During the course of writing this book , Beebe was reminded of many experiences during the pheasant expedition which he had not included in his original monograph , and wrote an additional book titled Pheasant Jungles about his adventures during this expedition . While A Monograph of the Pheasants had been a factual account of this expedition , Pheasant Jungles was a somewhat fictionalized account , in which Beebe altered some aspects of his experience in order to appeal to a wider audience .
= = = Haiti and Bermuda = = =
In 1927 , Beebe went on an expedition to Haiti in order to document its marine life . Anchoring his ship the Lieutenant in the harbor of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , he performed over 300 helmet dives examining the area 's coral reefs and classifying the fish that inhabited them . These dives involved several technological innovations : a watertight brass box which could be used to house a camera for underwater photography , and a telephone which was incorporated into the diving helmet , allowing the diver to dictate observations to someone on the surface instead of having to take notes underwater . Within a hundred days , Beebe and his team had created a catalog of species inhabiting the area nearly as long as what had been assembled on the neighboring island of Puerto Rico in the past four hundred years . In 1928 Beebe and Tee @-@ Van published an illustrated and annotated list of 270 such species , which was expanded in 1935 bringing the total to 324 . Beebe provided an account of this expedition in his 1928 book Beneath Tropic Seas , which was the first of his books to receive less than enthusiastic reviews , due to its episodic structure .
As he gained experience with helmet diving , Beebe soon became an enthusiastic advocate of it , believing it to be something that should be experienced by everyone who had the opportunity to do so . He later went so far as to suggest that beachfront homes would someday contain their own underwater gardens , to be experienced with the help of diving helmets :
By this point in his life Beebe was developing a close friendship with the American romance novelist Elswyth Thane , who had met Beebe in 1925 . Very little of their early correspondence survives , but Elswyth had idolized Beebe for years , and her first novel Riders of the Wind was devoted to him . The novel was an account of a young woman who falls in love with , and eventually marries , a much older adventurer who strongly resembled Beebe . Beebe and Elswyth were married on September 22 , 1927 , when Beebe was 50 . Due to Elswyth 's tendency to misrepresent her age , conflicting accounts exist of how old she was when she and Beebe were married , ranging from 23 to 28 . Elswyth and Beebe had an open marriage , in which neither expected sexual exclusivity from the other so long as their life together was not damaged .
Although Riders of the Wind was partially based on Beebe 's pheasant expedition , Elswyth did not enjoy Beebe 's current research . She disliked the heat of the tropics , and was unwilling to go with Beebe to Kartabo . As a compromise , Beebe decided to continue his marine research in Bermuda , where she and Beebe had spent their honeymoon . Bermuda 's governor Louis Bols introduced Beebe to Prince George , who was fascinated by Beebe 's books , and Prince George persuaded Beebe to take him helmet diving . Governor Bols and Prince George subsequently offered Beebe Nonsuch Island , a 25 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 10 km2 ) island off the east coast of Bermuda , for use as a research station .
With the financial help of his sponsors , Beebe planned to use his new research station on Nonsuch island to conduct a thorough study of an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) square area of ocean , documenting every living thing they could find from the surface to a depth of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . However , Beebe 's ability to research the deep ocean using these methods was constrained by the inherent limitations of dredging , which could only provide an incomplete picture of the animals living there . Beebe compared the knowledge that could be gained of the deep ocean from dredging to what a visitor from Mars could learn about a fog @-@ shrouded earthly city by using a dredge to pick up bits of debris from a street . Beebe began planning to create an underwater exploration device , which he could use to descend into the depths and observe these environments directly . The New York Times carried articles describing Beebe 's plans , which called for a diving bell with the shape of a cylinder .
These articles caught the attention of Otis Barton , an engineer who had long admired Beebe and who had his own ambition to become a deep @-@ sea explorer . Barton was convinced that Beebe 's design for a diving vessel would never be capable of withstanding the extreme pressure of the deep ocean , and with the help of a friend who arranged a meeting with Beebe , proposed an alternative design to him . Barton 's design called for a spherical vessel , which was the strongest possible shape for resisting high pressure . Barton had the good fortune that years earlier , Theodore Roosevelt had proposed a similar idea to Beebe , and Beebe approved of Barton 's design . Beebe and Barton made a deal : Barton would pay for the sphere and all of the other equipment to go with it . In return , Beebe would pay for other expenses such as chartering a ship to raise and lower the sphere , and as the owner of the sphere Barton would accompany Beebe on his expeditions in it . Beebe named their vessel the Bathysphere , from the Greek prefix bathy- meaning " deep " combined with " sphere " .
= = = Work at Nonsuch Island = = =
From 1930 to 1934 , Beebe and Barton used the Bathysphere to conduct a series of dives of increasing depth off the coast of Nonsuch Island , becoming the first people to observe deep @-@ sea animals in their native environment . The Bathysphere was lowered into the ocean using a steel cable , and a second cable carried a phone line which the Bathysphere 's occupants used to communicate with the surface , as well as an electrical cable for a searchlight to illuminate animals outside the Bathysphere . Beebe 's observations were relayed up the phone line to be recorded by Gloria Hollister , his chief technical associate who was also in charge of preparing specimens obtained from dredging . Beebe and Barton made a total of 35 dives in the Bathysphere , setting several consecutive world records for the deepest dive ever performed by a human . The record set by the deepest of these , to a depth of 3 @,@ 028 feet ( 923 m ) on August 15 , 1934 , lasted until it was broken by Barton in 1949 .
In 1931 , Beebe and Barton 's Bathysphere dives were interrupted for a year due to technical problems and uncooperative weather . An additional difficulty in 1931 was the death of Beebe 's father , and Beebe left Nonsuch Island for a week in order to attend his father 's funeral . A second year @-@ long interruption occurred in 1933 , and was caused in part by a lack of funds due to the Great Depression . Although Beebe and Barton performed no dives in 1933 , their work gathered a large amount of publicity when the Bathysphere was displayed in a special exhibit for the American Museum of Natural History , and later at the Century of Progress World 's Fair in Chicago , where they shared the fair 's Hall of Science with Auguste Piccard . Beebe and Barton also obtained publicity for their dives from several articles Beebe wrote describing them for National Geographic , and from an NBC radio broadcast in which Beebe 's voice transmitted up the phone line from inside the Bathysphere was broadcast nationally over the radio .
Although Beebe attempted to ensure that Barton would receive credit as the Bathysphere 's inventor and Beebe 's fellow diver , the popular media tended to ignore Barton and pay attention only to Beebe . Barton was often resentful of this , believing Beebe to be deliberately hogging the fame . Beebe in turn lacked patience for Barton 's unpredictable moods , and felt that Barton did not display the proper respect for the natural world . Still , Beebe and Barton both had something the other needed : Beebe for his experience as a marine biologist , and Barton for his mechanical skill . Out of pragmatic concern for the success of their dives , they managed to resolve their disagreements well enough to work together at Nonsuch Island , although they did not remain on good terms afterwards .
It is likely that Beebe became romantically involved with Hollister during his work at Nonsuch Island . An entry in Beebe 's personal journal , written in a secret code that he used when describing things he wished kept secret , reads " I kissed her [ Gloria ] and she loves me . " It is unclear whether Elswyth knew of Beebe 's affair with Gloria , but if she did she appears to not have minded it . In addition to the open nature of their marriage , Elswyth described in a 1940s interview with Today 's Woman magazine that she enjoyed the knowledge that Beebe was attractive to women .
Beebe continued to conduct marine research after 1934 , but he felt that he had seen what he wanted to see using the Bathysphere , and that further dives were too expensive for whatever knowledge he gained from them to be worth the cost . With the help of Beebe 's friend the physician Henry Lloyd , Beebe conducted an expedition in the West Indies examining the stomach contents of tuna , which uncovered previously unknown larval forms of several species of fish . Shortly after returning , Beebe set out on a longer expedition to the waters around Baja California , financed by the Californian businessman Templeton Crocker on board his yacht the Zaca . The goal of this expedition was to study the area 's undersea fauna by means of dredging and helmet diving , and Beebe and his team were surprised by the diversity of animals that they encountered there . In 1937 Beebe went on a second expedition aboard the Zaca , documenting the native wildlife along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to Colombia . During this expedition , rather than focusing on either sea animals as he had at Nonsuch Island or on birds as he had earlier in his life , he attempted to document all aspects of the ecosystem . Beebe described his two expeditions on board the Zaca in his books Zaca Venture and The Book of Bays , in which he emphasized his concern for threatened habitats and his dismay at human destruction .
During the two Zaca expeditions Beebe was accompanied by his longtime assistant John Tee @-@ Van as well as Jocelyn Crane , a young carcinologist who had first worked for Beebe at Nonsuch Island in 1932 , and who would subsequently be among Beebe 's most cherished associates for the rest of his life . Like Hollister before her , Crane would eventually become Beebe 's lover during the long expeditions that Beebe made without Elswyth 's companionship . During this time Beebe was also forming a close friendship with Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh 's creator A. A. Milne , who wrote of Half Mile Down " I don 't know which I envy you most : all those moral and physical qualities which you have and I lack , or all that wonder of a new world . [ ... ] One of the few things in the world of which I am really proud is that I know Will Beebe . "
= = = Return to the tropics = = =
Although Beebe continued to use Nonsuch Island as his base of operations throughout the 1930s , with the onset of World War II in 1939 it was announced that the ferry linking Bermuda to New York would soon be making its final run , requiring Beebe and his team to hastily abandon their station there . Transportation to and from Bermuda resumed in 1940 , and Beebe returned there in May 1941 , but the environment was slowly being transformed due to the war . The large number of military ships made docking difficult , most of the island 's reefs were being destroyed in order to construct an airfield , and the combination of construction activity and pollution made observation of the sea life impossible . Appalled by the destruction , Beebe finally rented his station at Nonsuch Island to a military contractor and returned to New York .
With the loss of their station on Bermuda , Beebe and Elswyth gave up on their compromise of finding a research station where they could both be happy . Elswyth , who was most content in temperate environments , began searching for a home in New England where she could continue her writing . Meanwhile , Beebe began searching for a new tropical research station to replace Kartabo , which had fallen victim to deforestation just like Kalacoon before it . Beebe eventually helped Elswyth purchase a small farm near Wilmington , Vermont , where he visited her frequently . Elswyth explained in a magazine interview that she was uncomfortable on Beebe 's expeditions , so the two of them had agreed that they would keep their careers separate from their private lives .
With the financial assistance of Standard Oil and the Guggenheim Foundation , Beebe established his next research station in Caripito , a small city in Venezuela around 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Trinidad . Beebe and his team used this station to study the ecology of the region , and recorded how its inhabitants were affected by its cycle of wet and dry seasons . One important study which resulted from this region was the first documentation of rhinoceros beetles using their horns in competition between males , proving that their horns were an adaptation for sexual selection rather than for defense against predators . Although Beebe 's research at Caripito was productive , he felt that the extremity of its wet @-@ dry cycle made it impractical as a research station , and the expanding oil operations in the region were in danger of destroying the local environment . For these reasons , Beebe did not return to Caripito after his first season there .
In spring of 1944 , Jocelyn Crane returned to Venezuela to search for a location for a new field station to replace the one at Caripito . The location that she found , known as Rancho Grande , had initially been intended as a palace for Venezuela 's dictator Juan Vicente Gómez in the Henri Pittier National Park . The palace 's construction had been left unfinished after Gómez 's death , and since then the building 's vast corridors and ballrooms had become the home of jaguars , tapirs and sloths . Unlike Beebe 's other tropical research stations , which had been located in lowland regions , Rancho Grande was located on a mountainside in what Beebe described as " the ultimate cloud jungle " . Creole Petroleum , a Venezuelan spin @-@ off of Standard , agreed to cover the cost of the station and finished a small portion of the vast structure for Beebe and his team to use . Beebe and his team began work there in 1945 , staying as guests of the Venezuelan government .
Rancho Grande was located at a mountain pass in a branch of the Andes known as the Venezuelan Coastal Range , which was an important migration route for butterflies , and the station proved very lucrative in the study of insects . During his work at Rancho Grande , Beebe broke his leg in a fall from a ladder , and the forced immobility which resulted from having his leg in a cast presented him with a new opportunity for observing the area 's wildlife . At his request , he and his chair were transported into the nearby jungle , and as he sat motionless the wild animals around him soon began to go about their business without noticing his presence . His immobility also presented him with the opportunity to spend hours at a time observing a pair of bat falcons through binoculars , documenting the behavior of their two chicks and every prey item fed to them by their parents . His observations documented several behaviors which were new to science , including the first documented example of play in birds .
Although Beebe and his team enjoyed rewarding seasons at Rancho Grande in 1945 and 1946 , they did not return there in 1947 . The reason they gave in their annual report was that the previous two seasons had produced so much material that they needed an additional year to analyze it , but in reality this was more the result of insufficient funding as well as the unstable state of Venezuelan politics . Beebe returned to Rancho Grande in 1948 , where he completed several technical papers about the migration patterns of birds and insects , as well as a comprehensive study of the area 's ecology which he coauthored with Jocelyn Crane . Realizing that the area 's politics might soon put an end to their research there , in spring of 1948 Jocelyn made a side trip to Trinidad and Tobago in hope of finding a site for a research station where the politics would be more secure . Finally , when the 1948 Venezuelan coup d 'état installed Marcos Pérez Jiménez as Venezuela 's dictator , Beebe decided that he could no longer continue to work in Venezuela . Beebe described his experiences at Rancho Grande in his 1949 book High Jungle , which was the last of Beebe 's major books .
In January 1950 , the New York Zoological Society held a celebration to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Beebe 's work for them . He was by this point the only remaining member of the zoo 's original staff , and had produced more scholarly papers and publicity than any other employee . Letters and testimonials poured in from other scientists with whom Beebe had worked , attesting to their admiration of him and his influence on them . One letter from the Harvard biologist Ernst Mayr wrote that Beebe 's work had been an inspiration to his own , particularly A Monograph of the Pheasants and Beebe 's books about jungle wildlife .
= = = Final years in Trinidad = = =
The product of Jocelyn Crane 's search for a potential research station in Trinidad was a house on a hill overlooking the Arima Valley , which was known as Verdant Vale . In 1949 , Beebe bought this estate to use a permanent research station to replace Rancho Grande . Beebe renamed the estate Simla , after the hill in India that featured in Rudyard Kipling 's writings . He later described the sense of destiny that marked his introduction to the estate :
At Simla Beebe and his team worked closely together with Asa and Newcome Wright , the owners of the adjacent Spring Hill estate , who provided accommodations for them while water and electricity were connected at Simla . Although the initial purchase of Simla had contained only the house and 22 acres ( 0 @.@ 089 km2 ) of forest surrounding it , Beebe soon realized that this was insufficient for the research he wished to conduct , and purchased another neighboring estate known as St. Pat 's which contained an additional 170 acres ( 0 @.@ 69 km2 ) . In 1953 , Beebe donated both properties to the New York Zoological Society for one dollar , giving him the position of one of the society 's " Benefactors in Perpetuity " .
Research at Simla formally began in 1950 . Beebe 's research at Simla combined elements of many different earlier stages of his research , including observations of the life cycles of the area 's birds , detailed analyses of every plant and animal in small areas of forest , and studies of insect behavior . Insects were the focus of the scientific papers he produced during this period , marking a transition from his past areas of study into the field of entomology . Local children periodically brought animal specimens to Beebe at Simla and asked him to classify them . Remembering the early studies of his own childhood , in which he had brought specimens to the American Museum of Natural History , he was happy working with them .
In 1952 , on his seventy @-@ fifth birthday , Beebe retired from his position as the director of the NYZS 's Department of Zoological Society and became Director Emeritus , while Jocelyn Crane was promoted to Assistant Director . In honor of his lifetime of work as a naturalist , Beebe was awarded the Theodore Roosevelt Distinguished Service Medal in 1953 . Beebe 's last major expedition occurred in 1955 , retracing the route he had taken during his pheasant expedition 45 years earlier , with the intention of discovering how the populations he had previously studied were faring in response to human encroachment . Jocelyn accompanied him on this expedition for the purpose of documenting Asia 's fiddler crabs . Although Jocelyn 's studies during this expedition served as part of the basis for her monograph Fiddler Crabs of the World , Beebe never published the results of his own observations during it .
During Beebe 's later years , Simla was an important gathering point for researchers in many other areas of biology . Other biologists who visited to conduct studies there and exchange ideas with Beebe included myrmecologist Ted Schneirla , ethologist Konrad Lorenz , entomologist Lincoln Brower , ethologist Donald Griffin , and ornithologist David Snow . Snow became a regular visitor to Simla , and in return Beebe provided financial assistance for some of Snow 's own research . Beebe devised an unusual method for determining how he would react to his visitors at Simla . His terrace there was decorated with statues of characters from Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh that had been a gift from A. A. Milne . Visitors who recognized these characters as Milne 's creations were greeted by Beebe with enthusiasm , while those who did not recognize them were just endured by Beebe until they left .
Beebe remained active well into his old age . In 1957 , at the age of eighty , he was still capable of climbing slippery tree trunks in order to study bird nests . However , by 1959 his strength had lessened enough that that long hikes and tree climbing were no longer practical for him , and he contented himself with work that could be conducted in the laboratory , such as dissecting birds ' nests to analyze their method of construction . Beebe also began to be afflicted with a throat ailment which may have been Sjögren 's syndrome , although lacking a complete understanding of what caused it , Beebe and his doctors referred to it as " mango mouth " . Beebe was reluctant to accept speaking engagements because of the effect this had on his voice , although he continued to give lectures on occasion with Jocelyn 's help .
In an account of his final meeting with Beebe , Henry Fairfield Osborn , Jr. describes how during Beebe 's last few years he gradually succumbed to illness , eventually becoming nearly immobile and incapable of speech . However , Beebe 's personal physician A. E. Hill provides a differing account , stating that Beebe remained lucid and able to move about without assistance almost until his last day , apart from the periods of time during which his " mango mouth " temporarily slurred his speech . Both accounts agree that throughout his final years Beebe remained fond of playing practical jokes on his visitors at Simla , and retained his sense of humor even within days of his death .
William Beebe died of pneumonia at Simla on June 4 , 1962 . According to his wishes , he was buried in Mucapuro cemetery in Port of Spain . Memorial services were held in both Trinidad and New York City , so that Beebe 's friends in both parts of the world could attend . Following Beebe 's death , Jocelyn succeeded him as the director of the Department of Tropical Research , and continued to run the Simla station along with the rest of Beebe 's former staff .
During his life , Beebe had frequently worried that Elswyth would write a biography of him after his death . In order to prevent this possibility , he left all of his papers and journals to Jocelyn . After Elswyth 's death in 1984 , Jocelyn donated Beebe 's papers to the Department of Rare Books and Special Collections at Princeton University 's Firestone Library . Even in the possession of Firestone Library , Beebe 's papers remained inaccessible without Jocelyn 's permission , and most scholars were prevented from using them until Jocelyn offered access to the writer Carol Grant Gould for the purpose of writing Beebe 's biography .
= = Personality and cultural image = =
William Beebe was more famous in the United States than any other American naturalist prior to the days of television . As a scientific writer who participated in both the popular and academic worlds , he occupied a similar role to the role later occupied by Stephen Jay Gould . Beebe was a well @-@ known figure in the Roaring Twenties of New York City , and was friends with numerous other well @-@ known figures of the period , including Fannie Hurst and the cartoonist Rube Goldberg . Although he was not physically handsome in the traditional sense , he tended to dominate every social and professional situation due to his enthusiasm , intelligence and charisma . As a result of his much @-@ publicized divorce from Blair and his later marriage to Elswyth , he was also known for his stormy relationships with women .
Beebe described his religious beliefs as a combination of Presbyterianism and Buddhism . His religion was largely the result of seeking to combine his sense of awe and wonder at the natural world with a scientific understanding of its workings . He was highly critical of efforts to use science to justify political ideologies , such as socialism or the belief that women were inferior to men . Beebe also disapproved of the eugenic ideas advocated by many biologists in the early 20th century , including some of his contemporaries at the zoo , although this was largely out of fear that these ideas would alienate friends of the zoo and cause divisions among its staff .
Beebe was an avid player of tennis , and remained skilled enough to beat others at it even in his early seventies . Other pastimes enjoyed by him included parties , theater , dancing , and occasionally cinema .
Beebe had a troubled relationship with some of his superiors at the zoo , particularly Hornaday , who was resentful of Beebe 's constant demands for more funding and staff , as well as the fact that as Beebe 's career progressed he gradually devoted less and less time to caring for the zoo itself . One particular point of disagreement was Beebe 's forgetfulness about returning books which he had borrowed from the Zoological Society 's Library , which would occasionally go missing for years as a result . However , Hornaday never publicly expressed his disagreements with Beebe , and did not hesitate to defend Beebe 's work when others criticized it .
Beebe had high expectations of the people working under him on all of his expeditions , although he never revealed the exact characteristics that he looked for in potential employees . Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr. recounts one incident in which Beebe turned down a scientist who wished to work with him when the scientist described boredom with his current duties as one of his reasons for requesting this . In response to this request , Beebe retorted :
Beebe nonetheless exhibited a high degree of loyalty to those employees who were capable of meeting his standards . When he felt that pressure of working under him had become too great , he would announce that his birthday was approaching , and his staff would have several days free from work in order to celebrate it . On one such occasion , when a scientist working under Beebe whispered to him that he knew it was not in fact Beebe 's birthday , Beebe responded " A man should have a birthday when he needs one . "
= = Impact of work and legacy = =
William Beebe was a pioneer in the field now known as ecology . His theory that organisms must be understood in the context of the ecosystems they inhabit was completely new for its time , and has been highly influential . The method he invented of methodically analyzing all organisms within a small area of wilderness has become a standard method in this field . Beebe was also a pioneer in the field of oceanography , setting a precedent with his Bathysphere dives which many other researchers would follow .
E. O. Wilson , Sylvia Earle and Ernst Mayr have all described Beebe 's work as an influence on their own choice of careers . Among the most significant of Beebe 's influences on other researchers was Rachel Carson , who regarded Beebe as both a friend and an inspiration . Carson dedicated her 1951 book The Sea Around Us to Beebe , writing " My absorption in the mystery and meaning of the sea have been stimulated and the writing of this book aided by the friendship and encouragement of William Beebe . " Due to Beebe 's renewed emphasis on field research at a time when laboratory studies were becoming the dominant trend in biology , more recent field researchers such as Jane Goodall and George Schaller are also sometimes considered his intellectual descendants .
By writing for a scientific as well as popular audience , Beebe did much to make science accessible to the general public . This was particularly significant in the area of conservation , of which he was one of the most important early advocates . With his many writings about the dangers of environmental destruction , Beebe helped to raise public awareness about this topic . However , Beebe 's prolific writing for a popular audience had a downside , in that other scientists of his time were reluctant to hold him in high accord because they regarded him as a popularizer .
During the course of his career , Beebe authored over 800 articles and 21 books , including his four @-@ volume pheasant monograph . He had a total of 64 animals named after him , and himself described one new species of bird and 87 species of fish . While 83 of the fish that he described were done so in a conventional manner , the remaining four were done so based on visual observations .
A lingering controversy exists in ichthyology over the validity of the four species Beebe described on the basis of visual descriptions only , which he had observed during his Bathysphere dives . The naming of a new species ordinarily requires obtaining and analyzing a type specimen , something which was obviously impossible from inside the Bathysphere . Some of Beebe 's critics claimed that these fish were illusions resulting from condensation on the Bathysphere 's window , or even that Beebe willfully made them up , although the latter would have been strongly at odds with Beebe 's reputation as an honest and rigorous scientist . While many of Beebe 's observations from the Bathysphere have since been confirmed by advances in undersea photography , it is unclear whether others fit the description of any known sea animal . One possibility is that although these animals indeed exist , so much remains to be discovered about life in the deep ocean that these animals have yet to be seen by anyone other than him .
= = = Tetrapteryx = = =
Along with his analysis of pheasant phylogeny and his studies of life in the Galápagos islands , Beebe regarded one of his most important contributions to the field of evolutionary biology to be his hypothesis that the ancestors of birds passed through what he referred to as a “ Tetrapteryx stage ” , with wings on both their front and hind limbs . Beebe based this theory on his observation that the hatchlings and embryos of some modern birds possess long quill feathers on their legs , which he regarded as an atavism ; he also noticed vestiges of leg @-@ wings on one of the specimens of Archaeopteryx . Beebe described his idea in a 1915 paper published in Zoologica , titled " A Tetrapteryx Stage in the Ancestry of Birds " .
Gerhard Heilmann discussed Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis at considerable length in his 1926 book The Origin of Birds . Heilmann examined hatchlings of many other bird species , both closely related to those studied by Beebe and belonging to more primitive species , in hope of finding additional evidence for the leg @-@ wings which Beebe had documented . After failing to find such evidence , Heilmann ultimately rejected Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis , and this remained the consensus among ornithologists for the next several decades . Beebe , however , continued to advance his Tetrapteryx hypothesis as late as the 1940s .
In 2003 , Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis was supported by the discovery of Microraptor gui , a small feathered dinosaur which possessed asymmetrical flight feathers on both its front and hind limbs . Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis is now regarded as prescient for its prediction of both the anatomy and likely gliding posture of Microraptor gui , which Richard O. Prum has described as " [ looking ] as if it could have glided straight out of the pages of Beebe ’ s notebooks . " This animal 's discovery has had the effect of resurrecting Beebe 's theory that leg feathers played an important role in the origin of bird flight .
= = = William Beebe Tropical Research Station = = =
Following William Beebe 's death in 1962 , his research station at Simla remained in operation under Jocelyn Crane 's management , under the new name of the William Beebe Tropical Research Station . However , because Jocelyn 's research required her to travel north for extended periods , by 1965 she had little time to keep the station running . By 1971 , the station had fallen into disuse and was declared closed . Meanwhile , as Asa Wright 's health began to fail in her old age , her friends began to fear that after her death her neighboring estate of Spring Hill might be lost to developers , and established a trust to buy the estate and convert it into the Asa Wright nature center . In 1974 , Beebe 's property was donated to the newly established Asa Wright Nature Center .
Now under the management of the Asa Wright Nature Center , the William Beebe Tropical Research Station has gradually been renovated . It is now once again actively involved in research and an important gathering place for scientists . It is also a popular destination for birdwatchers , who can observe the same populations of hummingbirds , tanagers and oilbirds that William Beebe studied decades earlier .
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= Chuck Baldwin presidential campaign , 2008 =
The Chuck Baldwin presidential campaign of 2008 began April 10 , 2008 as pastor and radio host Chuck Baldwin of Florida announced his candidacy for the Constitution Party presidential nomination . He previously served as the party 's vice @-@ presidential nominee in 2004 . Baldwin 's main opposition for the nomination was former ambassador Alan Keyes , who had just left the Republican Party . After a campaign touting his stands on civil liberties , foreign affairs , and religion , Baldwin won the nomination at the April 26 Constitution Party National Convention . Attorney Darrell Castle was selected as his running mate .
During the general election , Baldwin expressed paleo @-@ conservative positions on a number of issues including protectionism on trade , nonintervention in foreign affairs , religious practice in the public sphere , and nativism . He cast himself as a close ally of 2008 Republican presidential candidate , Representative Ron Paul , who ultimately endorsed Baldwin 's campaign .
With 199 @,@ 314 votes , about 0 @.@ 15 % of the total , Baldwin finished fifth in the race , ahead of Green Party nominee Cynthia McKinney , but behind both independent Ralph Nader and Libertarian Bob Barr , as well as Republican nominee John McCain and the eventual winner , Democratic nominee Barack Obama
= = Background = =
Chuck Baldwin was initially a Democrat , but changed his party affiliation to Republican in 1980 . In the 1970s , he founded Crossroad Baptist Church in Pensacola , Florida , which President Ronald Reagan recognized for its growth and influence . As a Republican , Baldwin headed the Florida branch of Moral Majority , which promoted social conservatism . He also hosted a radio show called Chuck Baldwin Live , which focused on conservative issues . It made its national radio debut on the Genesis Communications Network in 2001 .
Baldwin left the Republican Party in 2004 , believing it had become a " second big @-@ government , big @-@ spending party " that could be characterized as " more liberal than the Democratic Party ... in practice . " He joined the Constitution Party , but still considered himself a political independent . That year , Constitution Party presidential candidate Michael Peroutka asked Baldwin to be his running mate . The ticket won the nomination at the 2004 Constitution Party National Convention . In the general election , they received 143 @,@ 630 popular votes for 0 @.@ 12 % . Afterwards , Baldwin argued , " the American people haven 't rejected our message ; they haven 't heard our message . "
= = Early stages = =
While considering a run for president , during an October 2006 interview with The Conservative President 2008 website , Baldwin expressed his frustration with the Republican Party , which he believed was on a course of " self @-@ destruction " and that was only kept afloat by the " absurd liberalism of Democrats . " He praised Congressmen Tom Tancredo and Ron Paul as well as activists Pat Buchanan and Alan Keyes , but stated that the Republican Party had steered too far to the left for him to support any of their candidates for president . When asked if he would run for president in 2008 he stated that he had " no desire to run " but that he was " always open to God 's will . " Baldwin endorsed Ron Paul for the Republican presidential nomination in a message posted to YouTube on December 19 , 2007 .
During a March 25 , 2008 interview with Miller Politics , two weeks before Baldwin officially entered the race , he commended Alan Keyes as a possible Constitution Party candidate but stated that he " needs to clarify his foreign policy positions for the party . " He described Libertarian Party candidate Bob Barr as a " very attractive candidate " whom he " like [ s ] ... very much . " When asked about his own presidential aspirations , he responded by saying that " There are many great people in our party that , in my opinion , are much more qualified [ to be the presidential nominee ] than I am . I have always tried to be open to God 's will . At this time , however , I have no inclination that this is God 's will for me . "
= = 2008 Constitution Party National Convention = =
Baldwin announced on April 10 , 2008 that he would seek the Constitution Party presidential nomination at the party 's April 23 – 26 convention in Kansas City , Missouri . His run was believed to have arisen from draft efforts within the Constitution Party , who feared the party would nominate a pro @-@ Iraq War candidate like Alan Keyes . Until the convention , Baldwin did not campaign and in an April 17 interview with Miller Politics , he stated that he was " not running " but merely placing his name into consideration , " trusting that God will reveal His will accordingly . "
During the convention , the party 's founder Howard Phillips endorsed Baldwin and gave a passionate speech in which he referred to Keyes as " the Neocon candidate " who " lingered in the Republican Party until a week ago . " Afterwards , Baldwin defeated Keyes , 383 @.@ 8 to 125 @.@ 7 , winning approximately 74 % of the delegates . He won the majority of delegates from most states with the exceptions of Missouri , Maryland , and Oklahoma , where Keyes narrowly edged Baldwin . At Baldwin 's request , the delegates then chose attorney Darrell Castle of Tennessee as his running mate .
Following the nomination , Baldwin set up a campaign website and opened accounts on MySpace and Facebook . He announced that he would use the Internet in the same manner as Ron Paul " to circumvent the media , " holding the mainstream news media responsible for holding back third party candidates .
= = General election campaign = =
Though Baldwin was not included on many mainstream polls , a May 2008 Fox News opinion poll revealed favorable news for the campaign . It showed that 47 % of the public were open to voting for a third party presidential candidate such as Baldwin , compared to 39 % who were not . Moreover , a Zogby poll discovered that 42 % of conservatives ( whom the Baldwin campaign targeted ) said they would never vote for the presumptive Republican presidential nominee John McCain and found that 86 % of " very conservative " respondents were displeased .
Baldwin expressed his own discontent with the Republican Party in a May 22 interview with Montana News . He expressed frustration with evangelicals who " coalesc [ e ] around John McCain " despite his " twenty @-@ plus year track record of liberal policies . " Baldwin highlighted globalism as the main threat to the nation stating that " Immigration , the U.N .... , NATO , NAFTA , CAFTA , the North American Union , the Superhighway , the war in Iraq , China 's threat to our peace ... are connected " through globalism . Baldwin stated that Iran would only be a threat " by sneaking people into our country . And that would be far more difficult with a sealed border . " He stated that the border could be sealed by deploying troops to those areas .
At the end of May and the beginning of June , several controversial developments concerning the Baldwin campaign hit the press . Comments surfaced that were made by Baldwin , raising the possibility of a 9 / 11 conspiracy theory of a controlled demolition stating , " I don 't know whether there was any kind of an inside apparatus involved in this or not ... If there 's duplicity involved in some kind of conspiracy , then let 's find out who it is and prosecute whoever 's involved . "
= = = Growing media interest = = =
The campaign also increased a drive for ballot access , appealing to supporters for help to get on the presidential ballot in Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , Maryland , and West Virginia .
The campaign began August by announcing its plans to participate in a demonstration against illegal immigration in Denver during the Democratic National Convention . Baldwin was joined by Bob Barr , Alan Keyes and Tom Tancredo at the " Rally Against Illegal Immigration " during the first day of the convention . Later in August , Baldwin campaigned in Spartanburg , South Carolina where he criticized both party 's presidential nominee 's as " globalists . " He declared his opposition to the Federal Reserve , whom he stated has " subjugated " the nation to " foreign dependence . " He railed against the use of the National Guard in the Iraq War remarking that the forces should be used to " repel " the " invasion " of illegal aliens from the southern border , and described the United Nations as " a sinister organization run by Marxists , socialists and communists . " Baldwin criticized both major parties for not cutting spending stating that " the only difference between Democrats and Republicans is Democrats want to tax and spend and Republicans want to borrow and spend . " He promised that slashing spending would be a priority in his administration .
On September 10 , Baldwin appeared on the Lou Dobbs Tonight television program on CNN where he proclaimed that if elected president he would release U.S. Border agents Jose Compean and Ignacio Ramos . The agents were sentenced to 11 and 12 year terms in prison , respectively , after shooting a drug smuggler on the US @-@ Mexico border . Baldwin promised he would release the men during his first day on the job as President .
= = = Final stages = = =
On October 7 , Baldwin addressed the John Birch Society on the second day of its 50th anniversary . At the event he discussed the role of Christianity in the United States public life and delivered his stump speech . He attacked globalist entities such as NAFTA , the International Criminal Court , the Law of the Sea Treaty and the Security and Prosperity Partnership as well as calling for the withdrawal of the United States from the United Nations .
Later in October , Baldwin was interviewed by NPR where he discussed his opposition to the Federal Reserve , which he described as a " fraudulent system " and which he blamed for the 2008 economic crisis . He attacked Republicans for " reneg [ ing ] on their promises " in 1994 's Contract with America to " eliminate five federal departments , such as Department of Education , Energy , Commerce ... " and to " slash spending . " He also criticized Republicans ' failure to criminalize abortion during their years in government . As president Baldwin stated he would eliminate the IRS and cut government spending as well . He stated that the " responsibility of government [ is ] to protect life , even life in the womb . "
Baldwin participated in a third party debate with Independent candidate Ralph Nader on October 23 , broadcast on CSPAN @-@ 2 . During the debate , Baldwin often agreed with Nader on as wide ranging issues as corporations and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . He stood in solidarity with Nader in expressing the need to open the presidential debates to third party candidates . He emphasized his connections to Congressman Ron Paul throughout the debate , even suggesting that as president he would appoint " somebody like Ron Paul " as United States Secretary of Treasury . He articulated his opposition to the USA PATRIOT Act and questioned how an ideological conservative could support the legislation . But , he marked a disagreement with Nader on health care , criticizing government involvement in favor of free market solutions but with use of regulation to lower health care costs . Baldwin stated that if elected his first priority would be to secure the border . Throughout the debate Baldwin repeated his party 's pro @-@ life platform and support for the right to bear arms .
On election day , Baldwin was on ballot in 37 states . He was a write @-@ in candidate in eleven additional states including Montana where Ron Paul was listed as the party 's nominee . Baldwin was completely absent from ballots in Oklahoma , North Carolina and the District of Columbia .
= = = Results = = =
Baldwin 's campaign ended after receiving 199 @,@ 314 or 0 @.@ 15 % of the popular vote on Election Day . He finished in fifth place , but won the largest percentage of votes for his party since Howard Phillips in 1996 . 14 @,@ 865 of his votes were won in Michigan , but he won his largest percentage in Utah with 1 @.@ 26 % of the state 's votes .
= = Aftermath = =
Baldwin relocated to Montana in 2010 , and founded the Liberty Fellowship , believing the people of the state responded well to his constitutionalist message . In 2012 , he briefly ran for Lieutenant Governor of Montana as the running mate of Republican gubernatorial primary candidate Bob Fanning , but dropped out due to the lack of campaign funds .
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= Kilham , Northumberland =
Kilham is a hamlet and civil parish in the English county of Northumberland , located 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) west of Wooler , 12 @.@ 0 miles ( 19 @.@ 3 km ) east of Kelso , 17 @.@ 0 miles ( 27 @.@ 4 km ) south west of Berwick upon Tweed and 38 @.@ 9 miles ( 62 @.@ 6 km ) north west of Morpeth . It lies on the northern edge of the Northumberland National Park in Glendale . The hamlet , which consists of a small group of agricultural dwellings , is overlooked by Kilham Hill and the northern limits of the Cheviot Hills . The parish had a population of 131 in 2001 , and includes the hamlets of Howtel and Pawston , along with the former upland township of Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls. falling to less than 100 at the 2011 Census . Details are now included in the parish of Branxton
Situated on the border with Scotland , Kilham had a turbulent history . It suffered from repeated Scottish incursions , and was often destroyed and laid waste . The situation was considered serious enough for a report to be made to the Privy Council of England , about a raid in 1597 which had resulted in the death of several villagers . In later , more peaceful times , the area developed into an agricultural backwater , which was gradually opened up by the construction of roads and railways .
= = Etymology = =
Kilham first appears in documents in 1177 as Killum , which is usually thought to derive from the Old English Cylnum , indicating the presence of kilns . The name was still spelt Killum as late as the 18th century .
= = History = =
Several well preserved Bronze Age settlements exist in the area around Kilham , and a cairn on Kilham Hill , excavated in 1905 , was found to conceal a cist containing burnt bones , thought to date from the period . A bronze rapier blade dating from 1500 – 1000 BC , found near the Bowmont Water in the 19th century , and now in the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh , provides further evidence of Bronze Age activity in the parish .
Iron Age hillforts are found throughout the Cheviot Hills , and the parish contains examples at Bowmont Hill , Kilham Hill , Pawston Camp , and Wester Hill . Such hillforts were not necessarily defensible , and the small interior area of most suggests they were not permanent settlements . Although some may have served as defended farmsteads , others are likely to have been animal enclosures , market places or places of worship . An enclosure at Barley Hill , in the north of the parish , is considered to have been a small farmstead , consisting of roundhouses and adjacent stockyards .
Towards the end of the first millennium BC , all of the remaining upland forest in the area had been cleared , and increasing numbers of settlements or homesteads were established on the high moorland . Some of these appear to have been built within the ramparts of earlier hillforts , which had been abandoned for some time . A well @-@ preserved settlement at Longknowe is thought to be Romano @-@ British , although this part of Northumberland lay beyond the Roman frontier for much of the period of occupation . Small enclosed homesteads such as this are likely to have continued in use for several centuries , and were probably only abandoned as the population moved to lower lying hamlets during the Early Medieval period .
In 651 King Oswine granted 12 named vills , or townships , including Shotton , and perhaps Thornington , along with a large tract of land beside the Bowmont Water , to Saint Cuthbert . The villagers would have been required to hand over the major proportion of any surplus produce and labour from these communities to the church .
By the 13th century , Kilham formed one of the constituent manors of the barony of Wark on Tweed . The barony had been established by King Henry I , and granted to Walter L 'espec , one of his principal agents of government in Northern England . The lord of the manor was Michael of Kilham , although he did not possess the whole township , part being held by Kirkham Priory in North Yorkshire , which had been founded by the barons of Wark . In 1269 it was recorded that the priory had 1 @,@ 000 sheep feeding on the " great moor " of Kilham . Land at Shotton and Coldsmouth was held by Kelso Abbey in the Scottish Borders . The manorial lordship passed through various hands to the Greys of Chillingham Castle , who eventually consolidated ownership of the whole township , in the 17th century acquiring the former Kirkham Priory holdings , which had earlier been sold by the crown after the dissolution of the Monasteries .
A bastle , or fortified farmhouse , was built at the north end of the village in the late 16th or early 17th centuries . Right up to the end of the 16th century , Kilham had suffered repeated Scottish incursions . Every valuation of the village 's lands in the 15th century revealed a state of waste and destruction . In 1541 the lack of any defensive structure was criticised by Sir Robert Bowes and Sir Ralph Ellerker , the Border Commissioners , who strongly urged that a tower be built in the village . They also reported on the tower at Howtel , which had been " rased and casten downe " during an invasion in 1497 . Howtel Tower is mentioned again by Sir Henry Hadston , who in 1584 reported to Queen Elizabeth I that it was one of a number of towers needing repair . Sir Robert Carey , Lord Warden of the Marches , in 1597 reported to the Privy Council of England :
On the 14th instant , at night , four Scotsmen broke up a poor man 's door at Kilham on this march , taking his cattle . The town followed , rescued the goods , sore hurt three of the Scots , and brought them back prisoners . The fourth Scot raised his country meanwhile , and at daybreak 40 horse and foot attacked Kilham , but being resisted by the town , who behaved themselves very honestly , they were driven off and two more were taken prisoners . Whereon the Scots raised Tyvidale ( Teviotdale ) , being near at hand , and to the number of 160 horse and foot came back by seven in the morning , and not only rescued all the prisoners but slew a man , left seven for dead and hurt very sore a great many others .
A map dated 1712 shows two rows of dwellings and toft enclosures in the village . A total of 19 buildings are shown , plus a watermill to the north beside the Bowmont Water , and three buildings to the south west at Longknowe . The village appears to extend slightly further along the lane to Longknowe than the current hamlet . Although not shown on the map , the ruins of an earlier chapel are believed to have existed in Chapel Field , on the hillside to the south east of the village .
By the latter part of the 19th century Kilham consisted of a large farm with farmhouse and two rows of cottages for the farm 's workforce . There was , in addition , a smithy and a post office . To the south , Thompson 's Walls was by 1800 an estate with a farm complex laid out around a square courtyard . Hemp and flax were grown , and a small mill is shown on maps from the 1860s onwards . The adoption of new agricultural techniques and improvements to the area 's transport infrastructure resulted in greater prosperity for Kilham 's farming community in the late 18th and 19th centuries . Enclosure of common land was intended to increase efficiency , bring more land under the plough , and reduce the high prices of agricultural production , and Howtel Common was enclosed in 1779 . Female bondagers , or outworkers , were employed to work in the fields up to the end of the 19th century . The system was recorded in the Scottish Borders as early as 1656 , and subsequently spread into Glendale . Agricultural labourers , known as hinds , were required to provide a female , often a relative or a girl living with the hind 's family , who would be on call as a day labourer whenever required . The bondager 's work was regarded as paying the rent of the hind 's cottage .
Thomas Henry Scott , a police constable from Pawston , was murdered in 1880 , while attempting to arrest two poachers at Hethpool . He had been blugeoned and beaten .
The Alnwick and Cornhill Railway , owned by the North Eastern Railway , opened in 1887 , providing a rail link to Wooler and Cornhill on Tweed . There was no station at Kilham , the nearest being at Mindrum and Kirknewton , but sidings were built to handle goods traffic . Passenger services were withdrawn in 1930 , with a goods and parcels service continuing until 1965 . Kilham sidings closed in 1953 .
Farming at Kilham during most of the 20th century concentrated on rearing pedigree Aberdeen Angus cattle . However , mechanisation and the decline in farming incomes resulted in the farm ceasing to function as an independent unit . In 1988 the Kilham estate was divided into three separate farms : Kilham , Longknowe and Thompson 's Walls . Longknowe Farm now specialises in breeding and rearing sheep and suckler cows , while Kilham Farm is leased to a neighbouring farmer at Thornington , and some of the buildings have been converted into workshops .
= = Geography = =
Kilham stands on the south bank of the Bowmont Water in Glendale , at the mouth of Kilham Burn . Settlement is limited to dispersed farmsteads and small hamlets , of which Kilham is the largest . Glendale has a clearly defined valley floor and pronounced raised terraces . The area is relatively well wooded , with both coniferous plantations and broadleaved woodland on the surrounding hills , and areas of alder woodland and pollarded willow along the valley floor . The river forms part of the River Tweed Site of Special Scientific Interest , designated in 2001 due to its biological interest , and the River Tweed Special Area of Conservation , designated under the European Habitats Directive for the biological interest within the river system .
To the south , the area is dominated by Kilham Hill , 1 @,@ 109 feet ( 338 m ) high , and above Longknowe , in the valley of Kilham Burn , is the former township of Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls , lying in the northern limits of the Cheviot Hills . The geology of the upland area is composed of Devonian igneous rocks , and the landscape is characterised by smooth rolling hills and extensive plateaux of semi @-@ natural acidic grass moor , known locally as white grass . There are areas of heather moorland and , in wetter parts , blanket bog dominated by dwarf shrubs , sedges , sphagnum moss and cotton grass . Coniferous woodland plantations are common on the upper valley slopes , with the remnants of broadleaved woodland , gorse scrub and meadow grassland in the steep sided valleys . The area reaches a height of 1 @,@ 358 feet ( 414 m ) at Coldsmouth Hill .
On the opposite side of the dale , to the north , are the hamlets of Howtel and Thornington . Much of this area consists of glacial gravel , and both sand and gravel were extracted at Thornington . Upstream on the Bowmont Water , the former township of Pawston lies to the south west .
Northumberland is the coldest county in England , with mean summer temperatures in the northern lowlands 0 @.@ 5 ° C below those found 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the south . Kilham is sheltered from the prevailing winds , which are from the south west , but there are cold winds from the east in winter . The growing season is between April and November . The low mean temperature and high rainfall result in water @-@ logging of fine textured soils , and leaching of nutrients from soils with a coarser texture . The nearest weather station for which comprehensive records are published is at Boulmer , located 29 @.@ 8 miles ( 48 @.@ 0 km ) south east of Kilham , on the North Sea coast .
= = Governance = =
Kilham , Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls , Howtel and Pawston were four of 15 townships in the ancient parish of Kirknewton , one of the largest parishes in England . Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , parishes were grouped into unions : Glendale Poor Law Union was created in 1837 . Under the Public Health Act 1848 the area of the poor law union became Glendale Rural Sanitary District , which from 1889 formed a second tier of local government under Northumberland County Council . The four townships became civil parishes in their own right , separate from Kirknewton but within the sanitary district , in 1866 , and under the Local Government Act 1894 became part of Glendale Rural District . Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls , Howtel and Pawston were amalgamated into Kilham in 1955 . Glendale Rural District was abolished in 1974 , and became part of the newly created Borough of Berwick upon Tweed , which was in turn abolished as a result of the Northumberland ( Structural Change ) Order 2008 , under which Northumberland became a unitary authority in 2009 .
Kilham now forms part of Wooler electoral division of Northumberland County Council , represented by Anthony Murray of the Conservative Party , who was elected to the new council on its creation in 2008 . The parish does not have a parish council .
Since 1885 , Kilham has been part of Berwick upon Tweed parliamentary constituency . It has been represented by Sir Alan Beith , the deputy leader of the Liberal Democrats , since he won a by @-@ election in 1973 .
= = = Public services = = =
Water and sanitation are provided by Northumbrian Water , owned since 2011 by Hong Kong based Cheung Kong Infrastructure Holdings . Water supplies come from an aquifer , and are abstracted by boreholes . The electricity distribution company serving Kilham is Northern Powergrid , formerly known as CE Electric , which is owned by Berkshire Hathaway , a multinational conglomerate based in Nebraska .
The North East Ambulance Service , formed in 2006 , provides ambulance and paramedic services , operating out of the ambulance station at Wooler . The general provision of health services is the responsibility of Northumbria Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust . The nearest hospital is Berwick Infirmary in Berwick upon Tweed , which has a 24 @-@ hour minor injuries service .
Law enforcement is the responsibility of Northumbria Police , the sixth largest police force in England and Wales , which was formed in 1974 by the merger of Northumberland Constabulary and part of Durham Constabulary . The local neighbourhood team is based at the police station in Berwick upon Tweed .
Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service , a division of Northumberland County Council , provides public protection services , operating out of the fire station at Wooler . A search and rescue service is provided by the Northumberland National Park Mountain Rescue Team and North of Tyne Search and Rescue Team .
= = Demography = =
Kilham had a population of 131 in 2001 , of which 13 @.@ 7 per cent were below the age of 16 , and 11 @.@ 5 per cent were over 64 years of age . Owner occupiers inhabited 13 @.@ 7 per cent of the dwellings , and 61 @.@ 6 per cent were rented . Holiday homes accounted for a further 12 @.@ 3 per cent of dwellings , and 12 @.@ 3 per cent were vacant . The proportion of households without use of a vehicle was 5 @.@ 2 per cent , but 34 @.@ 5 per cent had two or more . The population was predominantly white : 94 @.@ 8 per cent identified themselves as such .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture has been an important part of Kilham 's life for centuries . As early as the 13th century sheep farming had been developed on the moorland , and in 1269 it was recorded that Kirkham Priory had 1 @,@ 000 sheep on the " great moor " of Kilham . Shepherds often lived in shiellings , temporary summer settlements high in the hills . Hemp and flax were grown , and Aberdeen Angus cattle reared . The high hills and moors of Northumberland are ideal for grazing cattle and sheep , and some of England 's tastiest beef and lamb is produced .
In the 19th century , the upland areas were increasingly used for shooting wild gamebirds . The great landowners would hold large organised shooting parties for their friends , employing local farm workers as beaters . Gamekeepers were responsible for looking after the birds before they were shot , and for breeding pheasants in special shelters . Arable farming was more important in the north of the parish , and was aided by increased mechanisation and improved transport links . Andesite was quarried for use as a building material , and sand and gravel extracted .
At the 2001 census , 72 @.@ 0 per cent of Kilham 's population were in employment ; the unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 6 per cent . Of those employed , 54 @.@ 5 per cent worked in service industries , while 46 @.@ 8 per cent were in extractive and manufacturing industries . The average distance travelled to work was 14 @.@ 9 miles ( 24 @.@ 0 km ) .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls = = =
Now almost unpopulated , Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls lies 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) south west of Kilham in the northern reaches of the Cheviot Hills . Coldsmouth Hill , 1 @,@ 358 feet ( 414 m ) high , is the highest point in the parish . Two Bronze Age burial cairns crown the summit . A flint knife , bronze dagger and cremated bone were discovered during excavations in 1929 . South of the hill St Cuthbert 's Way , a 62 miles ( 100 km ) long @-@ distance trail , passes on its route from Melrose to Holy Island . Remains of a Romano @-@ British village , on the north west slopes of the hill , include five enclosures containing the circular foundations of buildings . Nearby , Ring Chesters is an Iron Age hillfort . The enclosure contains the circular stone foundations of at least eight huts , two of which contain traces of what may be hearths . In the saddle between the two hills , the remains of the medieval settlement of Heddon , first recorded in 1296 , contain the sites of at least six longhouses , which are each divided into two rooms . The village overlies an earlier Romano @-@ British enclosed settlement .
Thompson 's Walls consists of two 19th @-@ century farm cottages and a group of farm buildings , notable for being built entirely of hard , igneous rock . Andesite was quarried , and was used in the construction of Yetholm church .
= = = Howtel = = =
Howtel is situated 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north east of Kilham , to the north of the Bowmont Water . The name is thought to mean Low Ground with a Wood , and the area has a number of ancient camps and settlements shown on early Ordnance Survey maps . The remains of a peel tower , which was partly destroyed in 1496 , stand in the centre of the hamlet . The walls are over 6 @.@ 6 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) thick .
Bowmont House , a former Scottish Presbyterian chapel and manse , is on the Kilham road , to the south of the hamlet . The building dates from 1850 , and is rendered , with ashlar dressings and a Welsh slate roof .
= = = Kilham = = =
Many of the buildings in Kilham date back to the 19th century , and the stone construction is typical of Northumbrian farms in the 1850s . Locally quarried dark igneous andesite and granite were mainly used , although sandstone was brought in from the east for higher status buildings . Kilham House was transformed from a traditional farmhouse into a small country house by a substantial extension built in 1926 . The appearance was enhanced by the use of identical 12 @-@ pane windows throughout .
The old mill pond above the hamlet has been restored by the Northumberland National Park Authority . Blackbirds , wrens and thrushes are often seen in the hedge banks along the lane to Longknowe , and the roadside verges contain a colourful variety of flowering plants , including dog roses , St John 's wort , stitchwort and bloody cranesbill . Nearby is a sheepwash , where Kilham 's shepherds increased the value of the fleeces by washing their sheep 's wool before it was clipped .
On the slopes of Kilham Hill are the remains of a shielling , which provided shelter for shepherds watching over the sheep as they grazed . In summer the hillside is a profusion of purple and blue as wild thyme , cross @-@ leaved heath and harebells come into bloom ; foxgloves have colonised the stony ground . A stone cairn crowns the summit , and was found to conceal a Bronze Age cist containing burnt bones . From the summit , there are views over the Milfield Plain , Glendale and the Till Valley , and to Eildon Hill , Yeavering Bell and the Cheviot Hills . Buzzards , kestrels , lapwings and curlews are common , while bilberry , tormentil and heath bedstraw carpet the soil .
North of the hamlet , the trackbed of the former Alston and Cornhill Railway forms part of a walk along the Bowmont Water , where kingfishers , grey herons , oystercatchers and mallards can be seen . Sedge warblers are regular visitors in summer , and short @-@ eared owls hunt in the nearby tree plantation . On the northern bank of the river , Reedsford Farm has a 17th @-@ century dovecote .
= = = Pawston = = =
Pawston lies 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) west of Kilham on the south bank of the Bowmont Water . It was the site of the deserted medieval village of Thornington , first recorded in 1296 . To the north east of Pawston House are single storey shelter sheds and a two @-@ storey granary , dating from the 18th century . An old beam forms a continuous bressumer over the door and two windows , and the building has a steeply pitched Scottish slate roof . South of the house is a 17th @-@ century sundial base decorated with foliage , grotesque heads and festoons . John Selby , a " gentleman dwelling at Pawston " , was killed in 1596 while defending his home against Scottish marauders . Pawston Hill has the remains of an Iron Age settlement . The locally rare wood carpet moth was found at Pawston Lake in 1929 , and a number of nationally or locally scarce plants are also present , including the autumnal water starwort , blunt leaved pondweed , gypsywort , maiden pink and shoreweed .
Shotton Farm , immediately north of the Scottish border , marks the site of large medieval hamlet , first recorded in 1296 . A document from 1541 records that it had been laying waste for more than 30 years . Shotton House was built in 1828 , and has an ashlar facade and Scottish slate roof . Above the panelled door is a Tuscan entablature showing the year of construction and the original owner 's name . The nearby gatepiers have Greek decoration , and were added in 1829 .
The Rising of the North in 1569 was an attempt to depose Queen Elizabeth I and replace her with Mary , Queen of Scots . Thomas Percy , the Earl of Northumberland , one of its leaders , was betrayed while seeking shelter at Harelaw . The current Harelaw House was built in 1593 . It stands below Hare Law , 912 feet ( 278 m ) high , on which are the remains of a hillfort .
= = Transport = =
Kilham lies on the B6351 road between Akeld and Mindrum . The B6352 runs north east through Howtel to Ford , where it connects with the A697 . A bus service is provided only on Wednesdays . Service 266 has two morning journeys operated by Glen Valley Tours , and runs a circular Wooler – Akeld – Kirknewton – Kilham – Flodden – Milfield – Akeld – Wooler route .
The road from Wooler through Kirknewton and Kilham to the Scottish border was converted into a turnpike by the early 19th century . In 1812 the Ford and Lowick Turnpike Trust took over responsibility for the road from Milfield through Flodden , Howtel , Kilham , Langham and Shotton to the border , and in 1834 the deviation through Thornington was included . With reduced income from tolls due to competition from the new railways , the turnpike trusts were gradually wound up in the late 19th century , and responsibility for highways taken over by Northumberland County Council after its creation in 1889 .
From the 1860s onwards , various schemes were promoted to build a railway line , either through Glendale or over the Milfield Plain . In 1881 the Central Northumberland Railway was proposed , linking Newcastle upon Tyne with Ponteland , Rothbury , Wooler and Kelso . The threat posed by the proposal spurred the North Eastern Railway to put forward a branch line of its own between Alnwick , Wooler and Cornhill on Tweed . The company was strongly supported by the tradespeople of Alnwick , who were concerned at the loss of business if the farmers of Glendale had a direct raillink to the rival market and shops in Rothbury . Both schemes were presented to Parliament in 1881 , and it was the North Eastern Railway 's route which gained approval , with the Alnwick and Cornhill Act passed in 1882 . The single @-@ track line opened on 5 September 1887 , having cost £ 272 @,@ 267 to build . From Wooler , it ran through Kirknewton and Kilham to Mindrum , before turning north to Cornhill on Tweed , where it joined the line from Tweedmouth to Kelso . There was no station at Kilham , but sidings were built to handle goods traffic .
The North Eastern Railway was amalgamated into the London and North Eastern Railway in 1923 and , just 43 years after the line opened , passenger trains were withdrawn in 1930 , the new owners claiming that passenger numbers had declined due to competition from buses . A goods and parcels service continued , but on 12 August 1948 torrential rain caused severe flooding , damaging the bridge over the Bowmont Water between Mindrum and Kilham . For a while the line operated as two separate lines with termini at Mindrum and Kirknewton , but further flooding in October 1949 destroyed the bridge at Ilderton . Rather than rebuild the bridge British Railways , which had taken over the line the previous year , repaired the bridge at Mindrum , restoring services from the north through to Wooler . Goods services were withdrawn from Kilham sidings in 1953 , and the remaining northern part of the line to Wooler finally closed on 29 March 1965 .
Apart from a short heritage line , the Heatherslaw Light Railway , operating between Heatherslaw and Etal , the nearest railway station is at Berwick upon Tweed , 17 @.@ 0 miles ( 27 @.@ 4 km ) to the north east on the East Coast Main Line between London and Edinburgh . Services are provided by the East Coast Main Line Company and Cross Country Trains . Chathill , 25 @.@ 2 miles ( 40 @.@ 6 km ) east of Kilham , has a limited commuter service to Newcastle upon Tyne , operated by Northern Rail .
= = Education = =
A national school for 60 children opened at Howtel in 1875 . Primary education to the age of nine is now provided by Wooler First School , which had 101 pupils in 2007 , and is located in Wooler , 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) to the east . It was last inspected by Ofsted in 2007 .
Children aged from nine to 13 attend Glendale Middle School , also located in Wooler , which had 150 pupils when it was last inspected in 2010 . The school has specialist status as a Technology College , holds the Sportsmark and Healthy Schools awards , and has a " partner school " in China .
At the age of 13 , pupils transfer to Berwick Academy , formerly Berwick Community High School , in Berwick upon Tweed , 17 miles ( 27 km ) north east of Kilham . As a high school , it was inspected in 2007 when it had 922 pupils , including 174 in the sixth form . The academy has specialist status as both a Business and Enterprise College and as an applied learning college . In 2009 it was awarded High Performing Specialist School status , and holds a Healthy Schools award .
= = Culture = =
Robert Story , known as " the Craven Poet " , was born at Wark on Tweed in 1795 . His father was an agricultural labourer , and the family moved frequently around the Northumberland villages . When just 10 years old , Story ran away to accompany a lame fiddler on an excursion through the Scottish Borders for a month , and about a year later the family moved to Howtel , where Story attended the local school . He later claimed that this was where " I learned nearly all that I ever learned from a Master — namely to read badly , to write worse , and to cipher a little farther , perhaps than to the Rule of Three . " There he was introduced to Divine Songs for Children , and discovered a love of poetry while reading on the hills , where he was employed as a shepherd . By 1820 he had moved to Gargrave in North Yorkshire where he opened a school , and in 1825 published a volume of poetry , Craven Blossoms . Algernon Percy , the Duke of Northumberland , became a patron in 1857 and financed an edition of his works . In 1859 Story was invited to Ayr for the centenary celebrations of Robert Burns , where he recited his poem on Burns . The Bradfordian considered that " he stands high among the minor poets of Great Britain , and many of his sweet lyrics will most assuredly descend to and be highly admired by posterity , and by none more than Yorkshiremen . "
A ten @-@ minute DVD postcard , The Cheviot Hills from Dawn till Dusk , shows the scene across five Cheviot valleys , including Kilham , set to the music On Cheviot Hills by Alistair Anderson . The film shows the changing moods as the day progresses , and was produced by Shadowcat Films , with support from the Northumberland National Park Authority .
Linda Scott @-@ Robinson is a painter living in Howtel . She paints local landscapes and states that her inspiration comes from the ever shifting light that constantly changes the surrounding landscape . She is a member of Network Artists , an independent association of professional artists living and working in Northumberland .
Inglenook Sidings is an award winning model railway train shunting puzzle created by Alan Wright for the Manchester Model Railway Society 's 1978 show , based on the former Kilham Sidings on the Alnwick and Cornhill Railway . The aim of the puzzle is to create a train consisting of five of the eight wagons sitting in the sidings , in the order in which the wagons are randomly selected .
A local saying in Northumberland was " to take Hector 's cloak " , meaning to deceive a friend who relies on your loyalty . The saying referred to the betrayal of Sir Thomas Percy , the Earl of Northumberland , by Hector Armstrong of Harelaw . The earl , a loyal Roman Catholic , had been one of the leaders of the Rising of the North in 1569 , an attempt to depose Queen Elizabeth I and replace her with Mary , Queen of Scots . The rebels captured Barnard Castle and advanced on York but , with little popular support and facing overwhelming government forces , fled north , towards Scotland . The earl sought shelter in Armstrong 's house at Harelaw , but was betrayed to James Douglas , the Earl of Morton , the regent of Scotland . The Scots subsequently sold him to the English government for £ 2 @,@ 000 , and he was beheaded at York , refusing an offer to save his life by renouncing Catholicism .
= = Religion = =
Although an early chapel is believed to have existed in Kilham , the local parish church , dedicated to Saint Gregory the Great , is at Kirknewton . The site has been used for Christian worship since the 11th century , and the present church dates from the 12th century . It was restored in 1860 . A Scottish Presbyterian chapel , with seating for 350 worshippers , was built at Howtel in 1850 , although this is no longer in use .
= = Sport = =
Fellwalking is a popular pastime in the Cheviot Hills , and Coldsmouth Hill is a favoured destination , with excellent views in all directions , and two large burial cairns on its summit . It is most easily climbed from Halterburn in Yetholm . St Cuthbert 's Way , a 62 miles ( 100 km ) long @-@ distance trail , passes to the south of the hill on its route from Melrose to Holy Island . Kilham Hill can be ascended from the Kilham Valley or the Kirknewton road east of Kilham .
The Northumbria Hang Gliding and Paragliding Club , based in Newcastle upon Tyne , organises both hang gliding and paragliding at Coldsmouth Hill , which works in an easterly or west north westerly wind , and Longknowe , which works best in a west north westerly wind .
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= Xx ( album ) =
xx is the debut album by English indie pop band the xx . After they signed a contract with XL Recordings , the band recorded the album from December 2008 to February 2009 at the record label 's in @-@ house studio in London . Audio engineer Rodaidh McDonald worked with the xx during the recording sessions and strived to reproduce the intimate , unembellished quality of their demos . The band 's Jamie Smith produced xx on his laptop and created electronic beats for the songs , which he then mixed in a detailed process with McDonald .
Although the xx had been strongly influenced by R & B acts , the album drew comparisons from critics to alternative rock , electronica , and post @-@ punk sounds . The melancholic songs on xx featured minimalist arrangements and were built around Smith 's beats , Oliver Sim 's basslines , and sparse guitar figures played by Baria Qureshi and Romy Madley Croft , who employed reverb in her lead guitar parts . Most of them were sung as low @-@ key duets by Croft and Sim , both of whom wrote emotional lyrics about love , intimacy , loss , and desire .
xx was released in August 2009 by Young Turks , an imprint of XL , and received widespread acclaim from critics , many of whom named it one of the year 's best records . It sold consistently over its first few years of release , becoming a sleeper hit in the United Kingdom and the United States . Although none of its singles became hits , xx benefited commercially from the licensing of its songs to television programs and the band 's Mercury Prize win in 2010 . When Qureshi was dismissed from the group shortly after the album 's release , they continued to play as a trio on a protracted concert tour that helped increase their fanbase , reputation in the press , and confidence as performers .
= = Background = =
While students at South London 's Elliott School in 2005 , childhood friends Romy Madley Croft and Oliver Sim formed the xx with Jamie Smith and Baria Qureshi . Croft and Sim played guitar and bass , respectively , and dueted as the band 's vocalists , while Smith programmed electronic beats for their songs and Qureshi doubled as a keyboardist and additional guitarist . During late nights , Croft and Sim either shared lyrics with each other through instant messaging or rehearsed quietly with Smith and Qureshi in their bedrooms so they would not disturb the rest of the household . The xx were greatly influenced by American R & B producers such as The Neptunes and Timbaland , whose minimalist productions incorporated vocal harmonies , handclaps , unconventional samples , and pronounced beats . The band covered Aaliyah 's " Hot Like Fire " ( 1997 ) , Womack & Womack 's " Teardrops " ( 1988 ) , and other past R & B hits when they performed live and recorded their demos .
After posting the demos on their Myspace page , the xx drew the interest of Young Turks , an imprint label of XL Recordings . They submitted the demos to XL 's head office at Ladbroke Grove and were subsequently signed to a recording contract . The group worked with producers such as Diplo and Kwes , to no success before they were introduced to audio engineer Rodaidh McDonald by the xx 's manager Caius Pawson , who gave him three CDs of demos titled " Early Demos " , " Recorded in Rehearsal Space " , and " What Producers Did Wrong " . McDonald was impressed by the intimate quality and use of silence on the demos , which both he and the band felt may have challenged other producers who wanted to incorporate their individual tastes : " They 'd worked with about four other producers before then that had — and no discredit to them — I guess they 'd seen a lot of space to add a kind of stamp on . There was a lot of empty space in the xx 's music , even then , in the ' Early Demos ' . But we just found that the best stuff was the most sparse . "
= = Recording and production = =
At the behest of XL owner Richard Russell , the xx recorded their debut album at the label 's small , in @-@ house recording studio , making them the first act to record there . It was once the head office building 's rear garage before Russell transformed it at the beginning of 2008 into a makeshift writing , rehearsal , and demo space for XL 's artists . McDonald was assigned in September to manage and properly equip the room , which he liked because it was soundproof and " isolated from the rest of the office , so it wasn 't like you were working in the record company 's presence . " Croft , on the other hand , called it a " pretty confined space " the size of a bathroom . Over the next few months , McDonald and Pawson prepared a budget for the label to fund the studio 's preliminary setup , which would have recording equipment specifically suited for the xx , including a modestly sized soundboard ideal for recording a small group .
The xx started to record the album in December with McDonald , who engineered the sessions . They would usually record at night after XL 's staff had left , which Croft said made it feel " isolated and quite creepy " . To reproduce the sound he had heard on the band 's demos , McDonald had them write down their instruments ' settings and test different areas of the studio to determine where he should record each member . Sim , who played a Precision Bass manufactured in the 1970s , was often recorded in the hallway outside the studio with a Fender Bassman , one of several amplifiers McDonald experimented with for xx . Some of Qureshi and Croft 's guitars were also done in the hallway . Qureshi played a Gibson SG with a Fender Hot Rod Deluxe or Blues Deluxe amplifier , while Croft played an Epiphone Les Paul on most of the album and a Gibson ES @-@ 335 on a few songs . For her lead guitar parts , Croft used a delay pedal and a Roland Micro Cube amplifier with a reverb setting , which McDonald felt would best replicate her " icy " , echo @-@ filled sound on the demos .
After all the instrumental elements had been tracked , Croft and Sim recorded their vocals together , rarely singing backup to one another on any of the songs . McDonald believed it was important for the singers be " in sync " and share the same mental state or mood when performing full takes of songs , some of which he said benefited from when they were both " quite tired and emotional " . He had Croft and Sim sing into Neumann microphones on most of the songs in order to make their vocals sound as " intimate " and conversational as possible . The microphones were among the more expensive items he borrowed for the studio 's preliminary setup so XL would not be overwhelmed with a costly budget .
Despite McDonald 's close involvement , the xx had been encouraged to self @-@ produce their album by Russell ; he believed it would remain faithful to both the band 's distinctive live sound and the DIY ethic practiced at XL since its beginnings as a rave label . Smith was chosen by the rest of the group to produce xx . He used Logic 8 recording software on his Mac Pro and often worked late nights in a nearby conference room while they recorded in the studio with drafts of his beats . Smith produced rhythm tracks with an Akai MPC sampler , which he occasionally processed through a Roland RE @-@ 201 and other effects units . He also created click tracks for the rest of the band to keep timing when they recorded their individual parts . After those parts had been recorded , he refined and incorporated his beats into the songs for three to four weeks . Croft trusted that Smith , who did not want to conceal any imperfections by overproducing xx , would make it practical for them to perform live rather than layer the songs with several guitar or vocal elements .
Most of xx was recorded from late December to late January before McDonald and Smith began an exhaustive mixing process , which lasted two weeks . For each song , they mixed one or two tracks of each instrument and used Waves Audio components to equalize the recordings . Having enjoyed how the demos captured unintended background noises such as street sounds , McDonald deliberately left certain sounds that would have otherwise been unwanted in the final mix . " I wanted it to sound like people in a room , rather than this polished kind of perfect crystalline thing " , he explained . " It was all the small details that we really liked . " In February , the group wrote and recorded " Fantasy " , " Shelter " , and " Infinity " before finishing xx by month 's end . Sim sang his vocals for " Infinity " on the side of the studio opposite from Croft after his microphone had been unintentionally moved there , which resulted in a distant @-@ sounding vocal exchange on the song . While recording " Shelter " , a mechanical part from the guitar amplifier loosened and caused it to make a clattering sound , which McDonald and the xx chose to retain . " It was just like this missing piece of percussion that the track needed ! " , McDonald recalled .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The songs on xx were developed around a framework of basslines and beats , while incorporating simple guitar riffs for melody , rhythm , and texture ; their melodic notes were separated by rests . Croft said the band 's style of instrumentation had become defined by the limited equipment they originally used : " My guitar sound pretty much came from discovering there was reverb on my little practice amp and really loving the mood it created . " The loudest song , " Intro " , was a largely instrumental recording with double @-@ tracked beats , distorted keyboard , non @-@ lexical vocables , and a guitar riff . Songs such as " Crystalised " and " VCR " began with a melodic ostinato and some understated sounds , including a xylophone on the latter , before leading to quietly sung verses . Croft and Sim exchanged verses on " Crystalised " while backed by the sound of drum stick clicks and basslines before the beat was heard . On the austerely arranged " Night Time " , Croft sang its first two minutes over only guitar and bass before its beat developed . " Fantasy " was highlighted by a shoegazing guitar sound .
While McDonald observed a predominant R & B element , Russell felt the xx 's music evoked the early hip hop records he listened to when he was young , as they were often limited to vocals , samples , and beats . Music journalists , however , inferred from xx that their influences were alternative rock acts such as Portishead , Young Marble Giants , and Cocteau Twins , the last of which Croft said she had never heard before the album was released . The Scotsman described xx as a minimalist , melancholic indie pop record that draws on elements from electronica and R & B , as well as The Cure and other alternative groups . According to Sarah Boden of The Observer , the album 's unadorned , dream pop love songs are reminiscent of Cocteau Twins and Mazzy Star , because they feature low tempos , moody melodies , and rhythms influenced by R & B and dubstep . Their arrangements have what Neil McCormick called " a very British , industrial aspect " , somewhat similar to the dub @-@ inflected post @-@ punk sound of English producer Martin Hannett and his work with the band Joy Division . Both Croft and Sim said their combination of seemingly disparate influences could have been attributed to the variety in each band member 's music collection .
On xx , Croft and Sim touched on themes of love , desire , and loss in their songwriting , which Croft said has " always been based around emotions , right from the start . My favourite songs are usually quite sad and I think heartbreak is something that so many people can connect with . " Like Croft , Sim said he wrote much of his lyrics at night when his emotions ran " a bit higher " . Because of their reserved personalities , Robert Christgau believed they relied on a low @-@ key , vulnerable style and " traded ideas about intimacy as contemporaries , comrades , prospects , lovers , ex @-@ lovers , and friends " . According to NME magazine 's Emily Mackay , all of the songs dealt with the consuming emotions associated with first love , including the tacit intimacy on " VCR " , the yearning expressed on " Heart Skipped a Beat " , and the premature affection warned of on " Crystalised " . Petra Davis from The Quietus argued that the thematic crux of xx was in the succession of songs from " Islands " to " Shelter " , each of which saw " a radical shift in perspective on a similar — perhaps a single — love story . "
The album 's Roman numeral title referred to each of the band members having turned 20 years old by the time xx was released . Because of their age , many critics interpreted the songs as nocturnal depictions of adolescent lust . Philip Sherburne wrote in Spin that xx brimmed with a " young lust " often found in rock music , and recordings such as " Fantasy " and " Shelter " expressed a jaded yearning , particularly in a lyric from the latter song : " Can I make it better with the lights turned on " . Croft vehemently denied this : " We were writing these songs when we were 17 . I can honestly say I 've never thought this is about my sex life . " Croft and Sim , who were both gay , did not intend for the songs to be heard as romantic duets ; she said they were singing " past each other " rather than each other . Having combined their individually written lyrics , they could not definitely explain what their songs were about , although Croft said Sim 's lyrics resonated with her nonetheless and enjoyed the personal interpretation it offered . " You can put them into your own life " , she explained , " like , ' Oh , this is my song . ' " The romantic situations Sim wrote of had been inspired by other people . " I hadn 't really had any relationships to be working off , but I had a huge interest in life , and looking at other people 's relationships around me " , he said .
= = Promotion = =
" Crystalised " was released as the xx 's debut single on 27 April 2009 and helped build interest among listeners and journalists . It was part of a series of singles from xx , which included " Basic Space " on 3 August , " Islands " on 26 October , and " VCR " on 25 January 2010 . They did not receive significant airplay on BBC Radio 1 in the United Kingdom , and other media outlets believed the xx did not warrant strong attention ; one editor from NME said at the time that the band was not ideal for their magazine 's front cover . In the United States , the xx benefited from the word @-@ of @-@ mouth marketing of blogs , beginning when they performed six consecutive sold @-@ out shows at New York City clubs such as Pianos and the Mercury Lounge months prior to the album 's release .
Several of the songs from xx were licensed by XL to television programs in the UK and North America . " Intro " became widely used as theme music in television , including sports highlights , episodes of series such as Law & Order and Cold Case , an advertisement for AT & T , and BBC 's coverage of the 2010 British general election . Along with their placement in television , songs from the record were used by North American chain stores such as Starbucks and Urban Outfitters as background music at their locations . According to McCormick , these marketing strategies helped the xx develop enough media presence to garner " over half a million sales around the world without ever having anything as vulgar as a hit " . Kris Chen , XL 's A & R senior vice president , believed the exposure was desired and necessary for promoting an album that was not " driven by pop radio " . Although the band realised their music had to be marketed somehow , Croft expressed reservations about " putting our music on everything , just to put it to anything just for the sake of money " .
= = Release and reception = =
xx was released by Young Turks in August 2009 to widespread critical acclaim . According to Alexis Petridis , it was the most acclaimed album of the year , and at Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , it received an average score of 87 , based on 25 reviews . Critics particularly praised the group 's sound on the album ; Simon Price wrote in The Independent that they were being universally lauded for their " atmospheric indie rock , and rightly so " . In a review for The New Yorker , Sasha Frere @-@ Jones remarked that xx rewarded repeated listens because of the band 's disciplined playing , while Mark Edwards of The Sunday Times said it succeeded with simple but " very near perfect " pop songs . AllMusic 's Heather Phares called the instrumentation impeccable and said she was impressed by how poised and refined such a young group sounded . Matthew Cole from Slant Magazine believed Croft and Sim 's rapport gave an emotional weight to the music , which he said sounded timeless and capable of appealing to both indie and popular tastes . Christgau , writing in MSN Music , was somewhat more impressed by the music than by the lyrics , although he said the underlying force behind Croft and Sim 's charmingly minimalist songs was a " spiritual dimension " offered by their ability to " shift roles without ever seeming hostile , cold or even unsupportive " . Daily Telegraph critic Jack Arnhold considered it " one of this year 's most beautiful and original debut albums " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times felt the singers were too disengaged and reticent to reveal any genuine emotion . " Though they 're singing to each other , it rarely feels intimate " , he wrote , " more like two shy teenagers , eyes cast downward , awkwardly talking to the ground " . In the opinion of PopMatters critic Ben Schumer , the consistent structures and tempos of the songs made them sound somewhat monotonous on what was an otherwise affecting nocturnal mood piece . Conversely , Joshua Errett from Now found the music and singing mesmerizing but lamented the lyrics , which he deemed emotionally immature and " overwrought " .
By the end of 2009 , xx had appeared on several critics ' lists of the year 's best albums . It was ranked second by NME , sixth by Uncut , third by Pitchfork , ninth by Rolling Stone , and fourth by Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot . The Guardian named it the year 's best record in their annual critics poll and Tim Jonze , the newspaper 's editor , hailed it as not only " the sound of 2009 , [ but also ] a distinctive musical statement of the like we may never get to hear again " . It also finished seventh in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop poll of American critics and third in HMV 's Poll of Polls , an annual list compiled by British music retailer HMV and collated from best @-@ album nominations made by journalists in the English and Irish music press . In decade @-@ end lists of the greatest records from the 2000s , The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times ranked xx thirtieth and seventy @-@ seventh , respectively . In September 2010 , it won the Mercury Prize , an annual award given to the best album from the UK and Ireland . Before the nominations shortlist had been announced , bookmakers and critics considered the xx as favorites and predicted they would win over the more high @-@ profile artists Corinne Bailey Rae , Paul Weller , and Dizzee Rascal . McCormick , one of the critics who predicted its victory , explained that it " seemed the record that most represented Britain " with its charmingly intimate style and unique take on modern pop tastes .
xx was not an immediate chart success , but eventually became a sleeper hit . It debuted at number 36 on the UK 's Official Albums Chart and sold 4 @,@ 180 copies in the first week after it was released , while in the United States it did not chart higher than number 92 on the Billboard 200 . The album sold steadily for the next 44 weeks until July 2010 , when its announcement as a Mercury Prize nominee led to a sharp increase in sales and a jump from number 44 to 16 on the British chart . By then , it had sold more than 150 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and 179 @,@ 000 copies in the United States. xx remained in the top 20 of the Official Albums Chart in the weeks leading up to the Mercury Prize ceremony . Immediately after its win that week , it climbed from number 16 to 3 on its highest weekly sales — 28 @,@ 666 copies — and reached a total of 212 @,@ 835 copies sold . According to McCormick , " its triumph is a rare example of the Mercury Prize doing music lovers a service . " In the US , the album reached sales of 350 @,@ 000 copies by June 2012 with consistent weekly sales during its first two years of release , which Time magazine 's Melissa Locker said was " quite a feat " in an era of music piracy , media streaming , and YouTube .
Although xx had been highly anticipated by XL , the album 's success exceeded expectations in the press . McDonald said their direction and sound would have been entirely different had expectations been higher . Croft was " baffled " by the acclaim given to what she viewed as an album they had made " for themselves " . Sim had mixed feelings about its success and believed it could affect his songwriting in the future : " This album was done with no expectations . No one knew who we were . When I was writing the songs , I didn 't think anyone other than Romy or James would ever actually hear them . Now I know so many people will . I might feel I have to be a bit more private . " At the Mercury Prize ceremony , he said the time since its release has " felt like a haze " , but that the event serves as " a moment of clarity " . In their acceptance speech , the band announced they would use the £ 20 @,@ 000 prize money to build their own studio , where they subsequently wrote and recorded their second album Coexist . When Coexist debuted in September 2012 , xx was still on the British chart at number 37 and had sold 446 @,@ 734 copies in the UK . The following year , it was ranked number 237 on NME 's list of the top 500 albums of all time and named the 74th greatest debut record by Rolling Stone , who found its music radical as " an exercise in restraint , in the artful use of space and silence " during popular music 's period of maximalism .
= = Touring = =
After xx was released , the xx toured Europe and North America through the end of 2009 . Their first show in August was at Hoxton Hall in London , which Sim recalled was attended by only 112 people . When Pitchfork 's positive review of the album elicited greater interest among American listeners , the xx were booked as the supporting act for the Friendly Fires 's tour of larger club venues in the US . The difficulties of touring early on exacerbated the growing tensions between the xx and Qureshi , which culminated in her dismissal after a difficult stay at an October music festival in New York . It was reported that she had become fatigued and left the group after they cancelled several concerts . Sim disputed those reports and said her departure had been the band 's decision : " We 've grown up to be very different people . It wasn 't working any more musically or as a friendship . " Croft told NME in November , " I guess ' personal differences ' would be the standard way to say it . I guess it 's just the intensity of being on tour , things are so much heightened . "
Rather than find a replacement for Qureshi , the xx continued to tour as a smaller line @-@ up of guitar , bass , and percussion . They also reduced their already minimalist arrangements for songs in concert , although Sim jokingly said Smith " needs another few arms so he can work everything " after Qureshi 's departure . In their shows , Croft abandoned playing solos and chords in favor of less defined figures and motifs , while Smith performed beats and ambient sounds from his synth pad as an accompaniment to Croft and Sim 's playing . Because their style had been suited to the small venues they first played , the xx focused more on the production value of their concerts and performing for larger audiences while on tour . They dressed in dark clothing and illuminated the stage with light boxes displaying their x @-@ shaped , white @-@ on @-@ black logo .
With a growing fanbase , the xx made commitments to more concerts and extended their tour for the album . They intermittently toured for 18 months , including most of 2010 . That year , they embarked on their first US tour and played high @-@ profile festivals such as South by Southwest , Coachella , and Bonnaroo . Croft recalled their show at Coachella , where they performed for 30 @,@ 000 people : " That was the moment when I was , like , Oh , my God , I think people might be into this . " They were also a supporting act for fellow English group Florence and the Machine . By touring frequently , the xx broadened their reputation among listeners and the press . In March 2010 , they played two consecutive nights at the Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London to capacity crowds and appeared on the cover of NME , who proclaimed them " the most underrated band in Britain " . In April and May , they toured the southern US and Japan , which Croft said was most demanding part of the tour because " none of us had been away from home continuously for so long . " They were accompanied during this six @-@ week period by photographer Jamie @-@ James Medina , who later published his photos of the group in his book The Tourist ( 2010 ) .
While on tour , the xx acclimated themselves to the increased attention and became considerably more sociable and confident . As Sim recounted , " If you 'd have put me onstage at London 's Shepherd 's Bush Empire a few years ago , I 'd have run away . I couldn 't have done it . We used to be terrified . " In June , the band played the Glastonbury Festival in Somerset and , according to journalist Jude Rogers , displayed a newfound confidence through the rest of their summer and " post @-@ Mercury [ Prize ] autumn " concerts : " Croft would sing more boldly , Sim developed an onstage swagger and Smith began experimenting with different rhythms and textures . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Romy Madley Croft and Oliver Sim , all music composed by Madley Croft , Sim , Jamie Smith , and Baria Qureshi , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = The xx = = =
Romy Madley Croft – guitar , vocals
Oliver Sim – bass , vocals
Jamie Smith – beats , mixing , MPC , production
Baria Qureshi – guitar , keyboards
The xx – design , photography
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Phil Lee – art direction , design
Rodaidh McDonald – engineering , mixing
Nilesh Patel – mastering
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Type Ib and Ic supernovae =
Types Ib and Ic supernovae are categories of stellar explosions that are caused by the core collapse of massive stars . These stars have shed ( or been stripped of ) their outer envelope of hydrogen , and , when compared to the spectrum of Type Ia supernovae , they lack the absorption line of silicon . Compared to Type Ib , Type Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have lost more of their initial envelope , including most of their helium . The two types are usually referred to as stripped core @-@ collapse supernovae .
= = Spectra = =
When a supernova is observed , it can be categorized in the Minkowski – Zwicky supernova classification scheme based upon the absorption lines that appear in its spectrum . A supernova is first categorized as either a Type I or Type II , then sub @-@ categorized based on more specific traits . Supernovae belonging to the general category Type I lack hydrogen lines in their spectra ; in contrast to Type II supernovae which do display lines of hydrogen . The Type I category is sub @-@ divided into Type Ia , Type Ib and Type Ic supernovae .
Type Ib / Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ia by the lack of an absorption line of singly ionized silicon at a wavelength of 635 @.@ 5 nanometres . As Type Ib / Ic supernovae age , they also display lines from elements such as oxygen , calcium and magnesium . In contrast , Type Ia spectra become dominated by lines of iron . Type Ic supernovae are distinguished from Type Ib in that the former also lack lines of helium at 587 @.@ 6 nm .
= = Formation = =
Prior to becoming a supernova , an evolved massive star is organized in the manner of an onion , with layers of different elements undergoing fusion . The outermost layer consists of hydrogen , followed by helium , carbon , oxygen , and so forth . Thus when the outer envelope of hydrogen is shed , this exposes the next layer that consists primarily of helium ( mixed with other elements ) . This can occur when a very hot , massive star reaches a point in its evolution when significant mass loss is occurring from its stellar wind . Highly massive stars ( with 25 or more times the mass of the Sun ) can lose up to 10 − 5 solar masses ( M ☉ ) each year — the equivalent of 1 M ☉ every 100 @,@ 000 years .
Type Ib and Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have been produced by core collapse of massive stars that have lost their outer layer of hydrogen and helium , either via winds or mass transfer to a companion . The progenitors of Types Ib and Ic have lost most of their outer envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction with a close companion of about 3 – 4 M ☉ . Rapid mass loss can occur in the case of a Wolf @-@ Rayet star , and these massive objects show a spectrum that is lacking in hydrogen . Type Ib progenitors have ejected most of the hydrogen in their outer atmospheres , while Type Ic progenitors have lost both the hydrogen and helium shells ; in other words , Type Ic have lost more of their envelope ( i.e. , much of the helium layer ) than the progenitors of Type Ib . In other respects , however , the underlying mechanism behind Type Ib and Ic supernovae is similar to that of a Type II supernova , thus placing Type Ib / c between Type Ia and Type II . Because of their similarity , Type Ib and Ic supernovae are sometimes collectively called Type Ibc supernovae .
There is some evidence that a small percent of the Type Ic supernovae may be the progenitors of gamma ray bursts ( GRB ) ; in particular , type Ic supernovae that have broad spectral lines corresponding to high @-@ velocity outflows are thought to be strongly associated with gamma ray bursts ( GRB ) . However , it is also hypothesized that any hydrogen @-@ stripped Type Ib or Ic supernova could be a GRB , dependent upon the geometry of the explosion . In any case , astronomers believe that most Type Ib , and probably Type Ic as well , result from core collapse in stripped , massive stars , rather than from the thermonuclear runaway of white dwarfs .
As they are formed from rare , very massive stars , the rate of Type Ib and Ic supernovae occurrence is much lower than the corresponding rate for Type II supernovae . They normally occur in regions of new star formation , and have never been observed in an elliptical galaxy . Because they share a similar operating mechanism , Type Ib / c and the various Type II supernovae are collectively called core @-@ collapse supernovae . In particular , Type Ib / c may be referred to as stripped core @-@ collapse supernovae .
= = Light curves = =
The light curves ( a plot of luminosity versus time ) of Type Ib supernovae vary in form , but in some cases can be nearly identical to those of Type Ia supernovae . However , Type Ib light curves may peak at lower luminosity and may be redder . In the infrared portion of the spectrum , the light curve of a Type Ib supernova is similar to a Type II @-@ L light curve . ( See Supernova . ) Type Ib supernovae usually have slower decline rates for the spectral curves than Ic .
Type Ia supernovae light curves are useful for measuring distances on a cosmological scale . That is , they serve as standard candles . However , due to the similarity of the spectra of Type Ib and Ic supernovae , the latter can form a source of contamination of supernova surveys and must be carefully removed from the observed samples before making distance estimates .
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= The Old Man and the Key =
" The Old Man and the Key " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It first aired in the United States on the Fox network on March 10 , 2002 . In the episode , Grampa Simpson falls in love with Zelda , an old woman who has just moved in to the senior home in which Grampa lives . However , Grampa is not the only one in the home who is infatuated with Zelda .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Lance Kramer . The storyline was pitched by Vitti , who based it on an article about social status in senior homes . The episode features Olympia Dukakis as Zelda , and Bill Saluga as his television character Ray J. Johnson . The song " Ode to Branson " , which was written by Vitti and composed by Alf Clausen , was submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music And Lyrics in 2002 , which it ultimately lost to a score from The Blue Planet .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with Homer anticipating the new XFL season before Marge tells him that the league has folded , which she hears from the league 's MVP , who now works at her hair salon . The Simpson family then gets a phone call from Grampa Simpson 's retirement home saying that he is dead . When the family arrives he informs them the home got it wrong and Grampa is still alive . A beautiful new woman named Zelda moves into his retirement home . Grampa is determined to win her love over Zack , the youthful owner of a minivan . After renewing his driver 's license ( which Patty quickly gave to him in return that he would not wink at her again ) , Grampa convinces Homer to let him borrow the car to romance her . Although he impresses the new old gal , Homer and Marge think she is a hoochie and only likes Grampa because he can drive . After he crashes Homer 's car in a death race with the Souvenir Jackitos , a rival seniors gang , Homer gets particularly livid with Grampa and takes his keys away , forbidding him to drive ever again . Zelda informs Grampa that she got them tickets to Branson , Missouri but when he tells her he does not have a car Zelda leaves with Zack and his minivan .
Grampa steals Marge 's car and " kidnaps " Bart , taking him on the road to Branson , Missouri to win back Zelda . When realizing that Grandpa and Bart are heading to Branson , Homer , Marge , Lisa , and Maggie , take a bus there . However they end up not in Branson , Missouri , but Bronson , Missouri ( where everyone in town looks and talks like Charles Bronson ) . Ray Jay Johnson , Mr. T , Charo , Yakov Smirnoff , Charlie Callas , Bonnie Franklin and Adrian Zmed are the stars of the show in Branson they go to see . ( Tennessee Ernie Ford is backstage , but crumbles to dust when Grampa proves he is dead by showing the deceased singer his obituary . ) Grampa calls out to his lady from on @-@ stage , but then denounces her in front of everyone , who then call her ( in a chant ) a hoochie , sending her fleeing off the stage in tears . Grampa then reconciles with Homer .
= = Production = =
" The Old Man and the Key " was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Lance Kramer . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on March 10 , 2002 . The idea for the episode was pitched by Vitti , who was inspired by an article about senior homes . The article described senior homes as being a lot like high schools , in that there are popular and unpopular people , and that those who , for example , own a car are " like kings " . Vitti suggested that the episode should be that " Grampa 's life [ is ] basically like that of a teenager " , with Homer acting as if he was Grampa 's father . The Souvenir Jackitos , who challenge Grampa to a death race in the episode , were conceived from an observation by the writers . The writers argued that the only ones buying expensive trademarked jackets are old people who want to appear younger .
A scene in the episode shows Grampa and Bart driving to Branson with Marge 's car , listening to the radio . Because the scene consists entirely of auditive gags , the Simpsons staff had difficulty figuring out what to show visually during the scene . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Jean explained that these scenes “ get a really big laugh at the table , ” but are subsequently hard for the animators . The scene makes use of a repeated background , an animation technique made famous by Hanna @-@ Barbera in order to cut budget .
The song " Ode to Branson , " which is performed by several " washed @-@ up " celebrities , was composed by Alf Clausen and written by Vitti . Even though Vitti received sole credit for writing the song , parts of the lyrics were written by Simpsons writer Carolyn Omine , which were then revised by fellow writer Matt Selman . Selman was especially satisfied with the rhyme sung by Mr. T ; he stated that whenever he feels down , he thinks of that rhyme and that it " boosts [ him ] up inside . " The episode features American actress Olympia Dukakis as Grampa 's love interest Zelda . American comedian Bill Saluga also makes an appearance , as his television character Ray J. Johnson . The owner of the minivan is portrayed by series regular Hank Azaria , who imitated the voice of Clark Gable for the character .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode itself is a reference of Ernest Hemingway 's book " The old man and the sea " . A scene in the episode shows Grandpa wearing a zoot suit , a suit popular in the 1940s . When Grandpa and Zelda take off on one of their dates , three old men with long beards imitate ZZ Top as a short part of " Sharp Dressed Man " is played . Grandpa 's interaction with the " Souvenir Jackitos " in Apu 's store mirrors a scene in the 1961 musical film West Side Story , with Grandpa and his friends taking the role of the Jets in the film , the " Souvenir Jackitos " as the Sharks , and Apu as Doc . The " Death race " on the other hand , is a reference to the 1955 drama film Rebel Without a Cause . The abandoned aqueduct , in which the death race takes place , is based on the Los Angeles River . Yakov Smirnoff 's appearance at a theatre in Branson , Missouri in the episode may be a reference to the fact that he owns and performs at a theatre in the city in reality . During the ending credits , the Simpsons wave goodbye while The Beverly Hillbillies theme song is playing . In fact , before the Gracie Films jingle , Lisa says in a southern accent , " This has been a Gracie Films presentation ! " , which parodies the line " This has been a Filmways presentation ! " The beginning of the episode shows Homer excitedly preparing for the new XFL season , only to be disappointed when Marge informs him that the league folded after one year .
The name " Zelda " is a reference to Zelda Fitzgerald the wife of F. Scott Fitzgerald . Like Grampa , F Scott 's courtship of Zelda was difficult . The Fitzgeralds are closely tied to the Roaring 20s , so this is also a joke about Grampa 's age .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on March 10 , 2002 , " The Old Man and the Key " received a 7 @.@ 9 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode ranked 19 in the top 25 most watched television programs the week it aired . Later in 2002 , " Ode to Branson " was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music And Lyrics , which it ultimately lost to a score from BBC 's nature documentary The Blue Planet . In 2007 , the song was included on the soundtrack album The Simpsons : Testify .
Following the thirteenth season 's release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , " The Old Man and the Key " received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Writing for Project : Blu , Nate Boss stated that Grampa " just isn 't all that funny when cornered , and that 's what we get here , " and that " the jokes are a bit too few and far between " . Giving the episode a negative review , Ryan Keefer of DVD Talk wrote that it was " borderline painful " and one of the season 's " duds " . Casey Broadwater of Blu @-@ ray.com wrote that the episode " moves at a geriatric pace " , and R. L. Shaffer of IGN stated that it " represent [ s ] some of the worst of The Simpsons . " On the other hand , giving the episode a positive review , Ron Martin of 411Mania enjoyed the " poke towards Branson , Missouri , a mecca for old people everywhere , " and Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B rating . Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that , even though Grampa is " essentially a one @-@ joke personality , " " those gags tend to be pretty fun . " He concluded his review by writing that the episode was " a likable program . "
Despite the mixed responses , the episode features one of the " most used little clips " of the series . The scene shows Grampa getting his driver 's license . Instead of taking a photo for the license on the spot , Grampa suggests that Patty , who works in the facility , use a photo of him from a newspaper headline that reads " Old man yells at cloud . " Patty agrees , and Grampa , holding his newly acquired license , goes up to a window and yells " Who 's laughing now ? " at a cloud . A still from the scene has been used several times on The Daily Show . Both Malkowski of DVD Verdict and Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide considered it to be the best part of the episode . After Clint Eastwood 's speech at the 2012 Republican National Convention , which featured Eastwood talking to an empty chair representing President Barack Obama , a modified version of the image with the caption , " Old man yells at chair " , was used in an internet meme .
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= Noemvriana =
The Noemvriana ( Greek : Νοεμβριανά , " November Events " ) of November – December 1916 , or the Greek Vespers , was a political dispute , which led to an armed confrontation in Athens between the royalist government of Greece and the forces of the Allies over the issue of Greece 's neutrality during World War I.
Friction existed between the two sides from the beginning of World War I. The unconditional surrender of the border fortress of Rupel , in May 1916 , to the Central Powers ' forces , mainly composed of Bulgarian troops , was the first event that led to Noemvriana . The Allies feared the possibility of a secret pact between the Greek royalist government and the Central Powers . Such an alliance would endanger the Allied army in Macedonia bivouacking around Thessalonica since the end of 1915 . Intensive diplomatic negotiations between King Constantine and Allied diplomats took place throughout the summer . The king wanted Greece to maintain her neutrality , a position that would favor the Central Powers plans in the Balkans . While the Allies wanted demobilization of the Greek army and the surrender of war materiel equivalent to what was lost at Fort Rupel as a guarantee of Greece 's neutrality . By the end of the summer of 1916 , the failure of negotiations , along with Bulgarian army 's advance in eastern Macedonia and the Greek government 's orders for the Greek army not to offer resistance , led to a military coup by Venizelist military officers in Thessaloniki with the support of the Allies . The former Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos , who from the very beginning supported the Allies , established a provisional government in northern Greece . He began forming an army to liberate areas lost to Bulgaria , but this effectively split Greece into two entities .
The inclusion of the Greek army along with Allied forces , as well as the division of Greece , sparked several anti @-@ Allied demonstrations in Athens . In late October , a secret agreement was reached between the king and the Allied diplomats . The pressure from the military advisers forced the king to abandon this agreement . In an attempt to enforce their demands , the Allies landed a small contingent in Athens on 1 December [ O.S. 18 November ] 1916 . However , it met organized resistance and an armed confrontation took place until a compromise was reached at the end of the day . The day after the Allied contingent evacuated from Athens , a royalist mob began rioting throughout the city , targeting supporters of Venizelos . The rioting continued for three days , and the incident became known as the Noemvriana in Greece , which in the Old Style calendar occurred during the month of November . The incident drove a deep wedge between the Venizelists and the royalists , bringing closer what would become known as the National Schism .
Following Noemvriana , the Allies , determined to remove King Constantine , established a naval blockade to isolate areas which supported the king . After the resignation of the king on 15 June 1917 , Greece unified under a new king Alexander Constantine 's son and the leadership of Eleftherios Venizelos , joined World War I on the side of the Allies . By 1918 , the mobilized Greek army provided the numerical superiority the Allies needed on the Macedonian front . The Allied army shortly thereafter defeated the Central Powers forces in the Balkans followed by the liberation of Serbia and the conclusion of the First World War .
= = Background : Greece 1914 @-@ 1916 = =
Greece emerged victorious after the 1912 @-@ 1913 Balkan Wars , with her territory almost doubled . The unstable international political climate of the early 20th century placed Greece in a difficult position . The ownership of the Greek occupied eastern Aegean islands was contested by the Ottoman Empire which claimed them as their own . In the north , Bulgaria , defeated in the Second Balkan War , was engineering revanchist strategies against Greece and Serbia . The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Serbia precipitated Austria @-@ Hungary 's declaration of war against Serbia . This caused Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , and countries allied with Serbia ( the Triple Entente Powers ) to declare war on each other , starting World War I.
Greece , like Bulgaria , initially maintained neutrality during the conflict . The Greek leadership was divided between the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos , who supported Great Britain on the side of the Allies and King Constantine who was educated in Germany and married to the Kaiser 's sister . The king admired Prussian militarism and was anticipating a quick German victory . The king wanted Greece to remain neutral in the conflict , a strategy favorable to Germany and the Central Powers .
In early 1915 , Britain offered Greece " territorial concessions in Asia Minor " if it would participate in the upcoming Gallipoli Campaign . Venizelos supported this idea , while the king and his military advisers opposed it . Dismayed at the king 's opposition , the prime minister resigned on 21 February 1915 . A few months later , Venizelos ' Liberal Party won the May elections , and formed a new government . When Bulgaria mobilized against Serbia in September 1915 , Venizelos ordered a Greek counter @-@ mobilization and asked the Anglo @-@ French army to defend Thessaloniki and aid Serbia . The Allies , led by General Maurice Sarrail , began landing on 22 September 1915 and entrenched around the city . The Greek parliament gave Venizelos a vote of confidence to help Serbia , yet the king unconstitutionally dismissed the prime minister along with the parliament . This unlawful order escalated the animosity between the king and Venizelos as well as their loyal followers . The Liberals boycotted the December elections .
= = Causes = =
= = = Surrender of Fort Rupel = = =
On 9 May 1916 , the Chief of the General Staff of the Central Powers , Erich von Falkenhayn informed Athens of the imminent advance of German @-@ Bulgarian forces . In reply , Athens minimized the importance of General Sarrail 's movements and requested Falkenhayn to change his strategy . On 23 May , Falkenhayn guaranteed that the territorial integrity of Greece and the rights of its citizens would be respected . On 26 May , despite an official protest by the Greek government , 25 @,@ 000 Bulgarian soldiers led by German cavalry invaded Greece . The Greek forces at Fort Rupel surrendered . The German Supreme Command was concerned about Allied General Sarrail 's movements and Falkenhayn was ordered to occupy strategic positions inside Greek territory , specifically Fort Rupel . Despite the assurances of Falkenhayn , Bulgarian soldiers immediately began to forcibly centralize the Greek population into large cities , namely Serres , Drama and Kavala . German attempts to restrain Bulgarian territorial ambitions were partially successful , yet on 4 September , Kavala was occupied by the Bulgarian army .
= = = Reactions of Venizelos and the Allies = = =
The surrender of Fort Rupel caused the Allies to believe that the German @-@ Bulgarian advance was a result of a secret agreement between Athens and the Central Powers , as they were assured that no Bulgarian force would invade Greek territory . The Allies saw this as a violation of Greek neutrality and a disturbance in the balance of power in the Balkans . The Allied press , especially in France , demanded swift military action against Greece to protect the Allied forces in Macedonia . For Venizelos and his supporters , the surrender of Fort Rupel signaled the loss of Greek Macedonia . On 29 May , Venizelos proposed to Sir Francis Elliot ( senior British diplomat in Athens ) and Jean Guillemin ( senior French diplomat in Athens ) that he and General Panagiotis Danglis should establish a provisional government in Thessaloniki to mobilize the Greek army to repel the Bulgarians . Venizelos pledged that the army would not move against the king and the royal family . According to Elliot 's report , Venizelos hoped that the " success of his action and pressure of the public opinion might at the last moment convert His Majesty " . The proposal had French support . However it met with strong opposition from Britain , forcing Venizelos to abandon the plan .
On 9 June the Allies held a conference in London to examine the reasons behind the quick surrender of Fort Rupel and favored a complete demobilization of the Greek army and navy . King Constantine anticipated the results of the conference and ordered a partial demobilization on 8 June . The tension between the royal government and the Allies continued since ' anti @-@ Allied activities ' in Athens were ignored by the Greek Government . On 12 – 13 June , a mob destroyed Venizelist newspapers : Nea Ellas , Patris , Ethnos , and Estia . The mob proceeded to the British Embassy as police idly stood by without interfering . This incident gave France the political ammunition to persuade Britain that more extreme measures were needed . On 17 June , the London conference decided " that it was absolutely necessary to do something to bring the king of Greece and his Government to their senses " .
= = = Military coup of Thessaloniki = = =
On 27 August 1916 , during a demonstration in Athens , Venizelos explained his disagreements with the king 's policies . Venizelos said that the king became a victim of his advisers , whose aims were to destroy the goals of the Goudi revolution . Additionally , Venizelos appealed to the king to pursue a policy of benevolence and true neutrality . Venizelos ended his speech by stating that " if this proposal does not lead to success then there are other means to protect the country from complete catastrophe " . The king refused to accept any compromise including meeting with a committee sent by Venizelos .
Two days later , army officers loyal to Venizelos organized a military coup in Thessaloniki and proclaimed the " Provisional Government of National Defence " . Despite the support of the army , the provisional government was not officially recognized by Venizelos nor the Allied powers . Venizelos criticized this course of action , noting that without the support of the Allied army , the movement would fail immediately . This further polarized the population between the royalists ( also known as anti @-@ Venizelists ) , and Venizelists . The newly founded separate " provisional state " included Northern Greece , Crete and the Aegean Islands . The " New Lands " , won during the Balkan Wars , broadly supported Venizelos , while the " Old Greece " was mostly pro @-@ royalist . Venizelos , Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis and General Panagiotis Danglis formed a triumvirate provisional government and on 9 October moved to Thessaloniki to assume command of the National Defense . They directed Greek participation in the Allied war effort in direct conflict with the royal wishes in Athens . According to a British diplomat :
From the very beginnings , Venizelos continued his appeals to the king to join forces to jointly liberate Macedonia . Venizelos wrote :
Venizelos ' moderation did not convince many citizens , even among his own followers . It was only after the end of 1916 and the " Noemvriana " that he pushed for a radical solution to end the stalemate .
= = Constantine – Bénazet agreement = =
After the creation of the provisional government in Thessaloniki , negotiations between the Allies and king intensified . The Allies wanted further demobilization of the Greek army and the removal of military forces from Thessaly to insure the safety of their troops in Macedonia . The king wanted assurances that the Allies would not officially recognize or support Venizelos ' provisional government and guarantees that Greece 's integrity and neutrality would be respected . After several unproductive negotiations , on 23 October the king suddenly agreed to some of the demands required by the Allies including the removal of the Greek army from Thessaly . The king also volunteered war materiel and the Greek navy to assist them . In exchange , the king requested French Deputy Paul Bénazet to keep this agreement secret from the Central Powers .
On 3 November , Vice @-@ admiral du Fournet , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the allied Mediterrean fleet , used the sinking of two Greek merchant ships by a German submarine , as well as the secret agreement , to demand the surrender of the docked Greek war ships and took command of the Salamis naval arsenal . The Greek government yielded , and on 7 November , the partial disarmament of Greek warships began . The Allies towed away 30 lighter craft . Three weeks later the French took over the Salamis naval base completely , and began using Greek ships operated by French crews .
The Constantine – Bénazet agreement was short @-@ lived due to Venizelos ' military plans as well as pressure exerted by the military in Athens , led by the king , regarding the forced Greek disarmament . Venizelos ' action at Katerini met with some disapproval among the Allied circles and among his own associates in Athens . Answering these criticisms Venizelos wrote to A. Diamandidis :
The Venizelist advance was not an attempt to undermine the king 's pact with Bénazet , since it had been planned long before that . The failure of the secret agreement was caused by subversive activities within segments of the royalist government in Athens to paralyze and disrupt the Thessaloniki provisional government .
= = Last diplomatic efforts before the events = =
The seizure of Greek ships by the Allies , the Katerini incident and the Franco @-@ British violations of Greece 's territorial integrity offended the national honor of a segment of " Old Greece " and increased the king 's popularity . The king refused to honor his secret agreement with Bénazet and soldiers who requested to fight against the Bulgarian occupation were charged with " desertion to the rebels " . A growing movement amongst the low rank officers within the army , led by Ioannis Metaxas and Sofoklis Dousmanis , were determined to oppose disarmament and any assistance to the Allies .
Diplomacy failed despite continuing pressure applied by the Allies against Athens . On 24 November , du Fournet presented a 7 @-@ day ultimatum demanding the immediate surrender of at least ten Greek mountain artillery batteries . Du Fournet was instructed not to use force to take possession of the batteries . The admiral made a last effort to persuade the king to accept France 's demands . He advised the king that he would land an Allied contingent , and occupy certain positions in Athens until all the demands were accepted by Greece . The king said that the citizens of Greece , as well as the army , were against disarmament , and only promised that the Greek forces would not attack the Allies .
Despite the gravity of the situation , both the royalist government and the Allies made no serious effort to reach a diplomatic solution . On 29 November , the royalist government rejected the proposal of the Allies and armed resistance was organized . By 30 November military units and royalist militia ( the epistratoi , " reservists " ) from surrounding areas had been recalled and gathered in and around Athens ( in total over 20 @,@ 000 men ) and occupied strategic positions , with orders not to fire unless fired upon . The Allied commanders failed in their assessment of the situation , disregarding Greek national pride and determination , causing them to conclude that the Greeks were bluffing . The Allies thought that in the face of a superior force , Greeks would " bring the cannons on a plater " ( surrender ) ; a viewpoint that Du Fournet also shared .
= = = The battle of Athens : 1916 = = =
On early morning of 1 December [ O.S. 18 November ] 1916 the Allies landed a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong marine force in Piraeus , and headed towards Athens . When the Allied troops reached their designated positions , they found them already occupied by Greek troops . For more than two hours both sides stood facing each other . Some time in the morning , an unknown origin rifle shot was fired and the battle of Athens began . Each side blamed the other for firing first . Once the battle spread throughout the city , the king requested a ceasefire proposing a solution and reach a compromise . Du Fournet , with a small contingent of troops was unprepared to encounter organized Greek resistance , and was already short of supplies , so readily accepted the king 's compromise . However , before an agreement was finalized , the battle resumed . The Greek battery from Arditos Hill fired a number of rounds at the entrance of Zappeion where the French admiral had established his headquarters . The Allied squadron from Phaliron responded by bombarding sections of the city , mostly around the Stadium and near the Palace . Discussions soon were resumed and a final compromise was reached . The king compromised to surrender just six artillery batteries camouflaged in the mountains instead of the ten that the Allied Admiral demanded . By late afternoon the battle was finished . The Allies had suffered 194 casualties , dead and wounded , and the Greeks lost 82 , not counting civilians . By early morning of 2 December , all Allied forces had been evacuated .
The role of the Venizelists during the battle has been intensely contested by witnesses and historians . Vice admiral Louis Dartige du Fournet wrote that Venizelists supported the Allies and attacked passing Greek royalist army units . Venizelists participation was allegedly so extensive , that lead Admiral du Fourne wrote in his report that he had been involved in a civil war . The Venizelists continued fighting after the evacuation of the Allied marines until the next day , when they capitulated . The royalists claimed that large caches of weapons and ammunition were found in their strongholds packed in French military containers . Venizelists were led to prison surrounded by a furious mob and supposedly only the royal army escorts saved them from being murdered by the angry citizens . Other historians deny that the Venizelists collaborated with the Allied forces : Pavlos Karolidis , a contemporary royalist historian , argues that no Venizelist attacked their fellow citizens and the only weapons found during the raids on prominent Venizelists ' houses were knives .
= = = The following days = = =
The authorities , with the pretext of the events , claimed that the Venelizelists had staged an insurrection with the support of Allied troops and proceeded with the help of the Reservists to extensive arrests and reprisals against the city 's Venizelists . The entire operation was led by two generals of the army ; troops of the military district of Athens took orders from General K. Kallaris and the soldiers of the active defense were commanded by General A. Papoulas ( later commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Asia Minor expedition ) . The terror and destruction that followed soon went out of hand , making even the respectable conservative newspaper Politiki Epitheorisis ( Greek : Πολιτική Επιθεώρηση , Political Review ) that at the beginning urged Greek " justice " to " smite mercifully the atrocious conspiracy " and to purge all followers of the " archconspirator of Salonika [ Venizelos ] " , in the end to urge " prudence " . During the following three days houses and shops of Venizelists were ransacked and 35 people were murdered . Chester says that most of those who were murdered were refugees from Asia Minor . Many hundreds were imprisoned and kept in solitary confinement . Karolidis characterizes the imprisonment of certain prominent Venizelists , such as Emmanuel Benakis ( mayor of Athens ) , as a disgrace . Some authors argue that Benakis was not only arrested and imprisoned but also disrespected and ill @-@ treated . Seligman describes that they were only released 45 days later after a strong demand contained within the Entente ultimatum , which was accepted on 16 January . Opposing reports also exist , e.g. Abbot asserts that during the evacuation of the Allied forces , many " criminals " and " collaborators " on the payrolls of different Allied spy agencies slipped out of Athens at night after allegedly " terrorizing the city for nearly a year " . Due to his failure Vice @-@ admiral Dartige du Fournet was relieved of his command .
= = Aftermath = =
In Greece , this incident became known as Noemvriana ( November events ) , using the Old Style calendar , and marked the culmination of the National Schism .
= = = Political situation in Greece and Europe = = =
On 2 December [ O.S. 19 November ] 1916 , Britain and France officially recognized Venizelos government as the only lawful government of Greece , effectively splitting the country . On 7 December [ O.S. 24 November ] 1916 , Venizelos ' government officially declared war on the Central Powers . A royal warrant for the arrest of Venizelos was immediately issued and the Archbishop of Athens , pressured by the royal house , anathematised the prime minister .
In France , the presidency of Aristide Briand , a leading proponent of engaging with Constantine to bring about a reconciliation of the two Greek administrations , was threatened by the events in Athens , leading to the reorganization of the French government . In Britain , Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and foreign minister Sir Edward Grey resigned and were replaced by Lloyd George and Arthur Balfour . The change in the British leadership proved to be particularly important for Greece , since Lloyd George was a known Hellenophile , an admirer of Venizelos and dedicated to resolving the Eastern Question .
The fall of the Romanovs in Russia ( who refused the French proposals for Constantine 's removal from the throne ) , caused France and Great Britain to take more drastic measures against King Constantine . In June they decided to invoke their obligation as " protecting powers " to guarantee a constitutional democracy in Greece and demanded the king 's resignation . Constantine accepted and on 15 June 1917 went into exile . His son Alexander , who was considered to have Allies sympathies , became the new King of Greece instead of Constantine 's elder son and crown prince , George . The king 's exile was followed by the deportation of many prominent royalists , especially army officers such as Ioannis Metaxas , to France and Italy .
The course of events paved the way for Venizelos to return to Athens on 29 May 1917 . Greece , now unified , officially joined the war on the side of the Allies . The entire Greek army was mobilized ( though tensions remained inside the army between supporters of the Constantine and supporters of Venizelos ) and began to participate in military operations against the Central Powers on the Macedonian front .
= = = The Macedonian front = = =
By the fall of 1918 , the Greeks , with over 300 @,@ 000 soldiers , were the single largest component of the Allied army on the Macedonian front . The Greek army gave the much needed advantage to the Allies that altered the balance between the two sides on the Macedonian front . On 14 September 1918 , under the command of French General Franchet d 'Esperey , a combined Greek , Serbian , French and British force launched a major offensive against the Bulgarian and German army . After the first serious battle ( see battle of Skra ) the Bulgarian army gave up their defensive positions and began retreating towards their country . On 29 September , the armistice with Bulgaria was signed by the Allied command . The Allied army pushed north and defeated the remaining German and Austrian forces . By October 1918 the Allied armies had recaptured all of Serbia and were preparing to invade Hungary . The offensive was halted because the Hungarian leadership offered to surrender in November 1918 , marking the dissolution of the Austro @-@ Hungarian empire . This ended the First World War since Germany lacked forces to stop the Allies from invading Germany from the south . The participation of the Greek army at the Macedonian front was one of the decisive event of the war , earning Greece a seat at the Paris Peace Conference under Venizelos .
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= The Black Parade =
The Black Parade is the third studio album by American rock band My Chemical Romance . Released on October 23 , 2006 through Reprise Records , it was produced by Rob Cavallo , known for having produced multiple albums for Goo Goo Dolls and Green Day . It is a rock opera centering on a dying character with cancer known as " The Patient " . The album tells the story of his apparent death , experiences in the afterlife , and subsequent reflections on his life .
Four singles were released from the album : " Welcome to the Black Parade " , " Famous Last Words " , " I Don 't Love You " , and " Teenagers " . The Black Parade has received generally favorable reviews , and the band achieved its first Number 1 single in the UK with " Welcome to the Black Parade " . The album debuted at number two on both the Billboard 200 and the UK Albums Chart and is also certified as platinum by the RIAA , as well as a Platinum certification in the UK and a Gold certification in Argentina by the CAPIF and in Chile by the IFPI Chile . The Black Parade was given the Platinum Europe Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for 1 million sales in Europe . The limited edition boxed set also earned My Chemical Romance a Grammy Award nomination . In the video game Guitar Hero II ( Xbox 360 version ) , the song " Dead ! " was added to the game 's track list prior to the earlier PS2 version , and the three songs " Teenagers , " " Famous Last Words " and " This Is How I Disappear " are available for download . The Black Parade has sold 1 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of October 2010 , and has sold 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
= = Musical and lyrical themes = =
The Black Parade is a rock opera centering around the character of " The Patient " . It is about his passage out of life and the memories he has of his life . " The Patient " dies and death comes for him in the form of a parade . This is based upon Gerard Way 's notion of death appearing to a person in the form of their fondest memory , in this case seeing a parade as a child .
The album also saw the creation of the alter @-@ ego band , The Black Parade . My Chemical Romance would perform the album live in costume as the Black Parade up until October 7 , 2007 Mexico City performance . On stage , the band would don black marching uniforms similar to those worn by The Beatles for the album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) . The live performance was theatrical , with Gerard Way assuming the character of a member of The Black Parade . Way 's mannerisms were compared to Bob Geldof in his performance of the lead character in the movie adaption of Pink Floyd 's The Wall ( 1979 ) . His performance was also compared to David Bowie 's performance of Ziggy Stardust and Freddie Mercury 's stage presence . There are also similarities to Alice Cooper in his " Welcome to My Nightmare " period . The video for " Welcome to the Black Parade " , directed by Sam Bayer , portrays the events of the entire story , starring all its characters , including Mother War , who is primarily involved in the song " Mama " . Gerard Way has described this video as " The definitive video for the record " and one that " summed up the album . "
The album also has strong influences from 1970s classic rock , glam rock , pop music , punk rock and gothic rock . The album 's style is considered pop punk , and alternative rock .
Lead singer Gerard Way has cited the bands Queen and Pink Floyd as major influences on the album . Similarities have been noted between the guitar orchestration in " Welcome to the Black Parade " , and the arrangements of Queen . Additionally , Pink Floyd 's The Wall and David Bowie 's The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars ( 1972 ) are noted as major influences for the album , which is especially evident when comparing the album 's opening track , " The End . " , to the first tracks on The Wall , " In the Flesh ? " , and on Ziggy Stardust , " Five Years " . Gerard Way has also stated that one of their biggest influences were The Smashing Pumpkins , often giving them credit for their thematic videos .
“ The intention was to make something that was classic , something timeless , ” explained guitarist Ray Toro . “ Something that 20 or 30 years from now , parents could play for their kids and say , “ This is what I was listening to when I was your age . Check it out , it ’ s still fucking cool . ’ We wanted to make a record you could pass down . There ’ s a lot of music out now that doesn ’ t feel like that . ”
Looking back at the creation of the album , guitarist Frank Iero was blasé about criticism the band received for this decidedly “ non @-@ scene ” record . " When we did Three Cheers For Sweet Revenge , we didn 't fit in , " he said . “ There was a little less screaming and a little more melody , but it was still us . Never was it a case of , ' Don 't put that melody there because Hardcore Chuck , who took me to my first show at Fairfield American Legion Hall , is really going to be bummed at me . ' I don ’ t give a shit : If I had to work at McDonald 's for the rest of my life to play shows and ride in a shitty van on tour ? I 've done it . I 'll do it again . "
= = Release = =
The Black Parade debuted at number two in the United States on the Billboard 200 behind Hannah Montana ( 2006 ) .It also debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart , behind Robbie Williams ' Rudebox ( 2006 ) . In its first week , the album sold 240 @,@ 000 copies , far surpassing the 38 @,@ 000 best @-@ week sales of the band 's previous album , Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge ( 2004 ) . The album debuted at number three on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart and was certified platinum after shipping more than 70 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted atop the charts in New Zealand and was certified platinum there , with shipments of more than 15 @,@ 000 . In 2012 , The Black Parade was certified Platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sales in Europe . The Black Parade has also been certified platinum by the RIAA for selling over 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 copies . It has been certified 2x Platinum in the UK , and has sold just over 600 @,@ 000 units there to date . As of August 25 , 2007 , the album has sold 1 @,@ 169 @,@ 697 copies in the U.S. " Welcome to the Black Parade " , a single from " The Black Parade " became My Chemical Romance 's first and only top 10 single in the United States .
= = Reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 79 , based on 24 professional critic reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Dan Martin from NME compared the album to Green Day 's American Idiot , positing that " it 's a piece of work that will challenge every preconception you ever had about the people who made it . " Tim Karan of Alternative Press called The Black Parade " MCR 's whole raison d 'etre rolled up into one mega @-@ decibel calling card " . Ed Thompson of IGN stated , " The Black Parade is a rock and roll gem that celebrates everything that was over the top about the 1970s rock scene . " David Fricke of Rolling Stone praised the classic rock feel of the album . Rolling Stone went on to rank The Black Parade # 20 in its " Top 50 Albums of 2006 " feature . Spin magazine named it the 5th best album of 2006 . Entertainment Weekly stated that " On their third studio album , a musical H @-@ bomb of an effort , the Jersey quintet combine the rock @-@ opera pomp of Queen with the darker , dirtier tones of their screamo past : Call it a Bro @-@ hemian Rhapsody . Even without its broad concept — a dying cancer patient seeks revenge and redemption — Parade stands as one of the most cohesive , engaging rock records of 2006 . " The Black Parade was ranked the third best record of the year , being surpassed only by Gnarls Barkley and TV on the Radio . Wizard Magazine praised the album in their " Best of 2006 " issue , declaring it " an instant classic . " IGN named it one of the best rock albums of the last decade . Robert Christgau gave the album a two @-@ star honorable mention ( ) and said , " In prog , a good sense of humor means so much . "
The album was not without its share of criticism , and was panned by such publications as The Observer and Aversion . Stated Jamie Hodgson of The Observer , " ... it reeks of a band with ideas above its station . " Matt Schild of Aversion originally refused to review the album , simply writing the word " lame " in lieu of an actual review . Bowing to editorial pressure , he later posted a review listing specific aspects of the album before denouncing them as " lame " . Theon Weber of Stylus praised the album 's use of Queen influences , but went on to summarize the album as " ... a goofy record of bubblegum punk , with Queen lapping at its edges and enough good tracks to justify the smattering of empty screamfests . " The album was included in Rock Sound 's 101 Modern Classics list at number 9 .
= = Versions = =
Several special editions of The Black Parade were released . One bears white text on a black background , and the second has black text on a white background . A third version has the normal booklet reversed , showing the picture of the parade drawn and painted by comic artist James Jean . Inside the booklet there are also lyrics , a photo of the band , and characters from the album .
A limited edition of the album was released the same time as the original release . It contains the same track listing as the original release but it is sold in a box wrapped in black velveteen material . It also contains a 64 @-@ page book which includes concept art by Gerard Way and making of the album notes by the band .
The version of The Black Parade that was released in Japan contains different content than the other regular editions . It contains 14 tracks , but the 14th track is the song " Heaven Help Us " ( which was released with the single version of " Welcome to the Black Parade " ) , instead of the song " Blood " . The Japanese version is also an Enhanced CD and includes the music video of " Welcome to the Black Parade " .
On December 11 , 2007 , The Black Parade was released as a vinyl LP , a first for the band . Two versions were released , the regular edition and the special edition . Both editions contain two records . The first record of both editions has tracks one to four on the A @-@ side and five to seven the B @-@ side . The second record has tracks eight to ten on the A @-@ side and 11 to 13 on the B @-@ side . The special edition includes the hidden track , " Blood , " while the regular edition does not . The special edition comes in a slip @-@ case box with two 15 @-@ page books . 2 @,@ 500 copies were made of the special edition , while 3 @,@ 000 copies of the regular vinyl edition were made . On February 10 , 2015 , the album was repressed on vinyl as a 2 @-@ LP set . The D side of the album includes an engraved picture of the cover of artwork .
= = Tour = =
My Chemical Romance began The Black Parade World Tour on February 22 , 2007 in Manchester , New Hampshire 's Verizon Wireless Arena . The tour featured 138 performances worldwide , as well as several festival and condensed shows . The tour is the longest and most internationally comprehensive headlining tour that the band has played to date , featuring three legs in North America , two legs in Europe , and one in Asia , Australia , and Latin America . The shows at the Palacio de los Deportes in Mexico City , Mexico on October 7 , 2007 and Maxwell 's in Hoboken , New Jersey on October 24 , 2007 were filmed for the DVD , The Black Parade Is Dead ! , which was released on July 1 , 2008 .
During the tour there were several cancellations and some members left the tour for personal or medical reasons . On January 11 , 2007 Frank Iero left the tour because of an unspecified illness . He was replaced by Drive By guitarist Todd Price . Mikey Way took time off to get married and spend time with his new wife ( Alicia Simmons ) and was replaced by guitar tech , Matt Cortez , from April 18 , 2007 until October 4 , 2007 . Six shows were cancelled from April 29 , 2007 to May 4 , 2007 after the band and crew contracted food poisoning . Bob Bryar suffered injuries relating to his wrists during the tour which led to the cancellation of the show at the University of Maine on October 27 , 2007 . Bryar left the tour on November 9 , 2007 and was replaced by a friend of the band , Pete , who wished to remain anonymous . Following the November 11 , 2007 show in Newcastle , Frank Iero left the tour to return home after learning about a family member 's illness . He was replaced by Matt Cortez .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by My Chemical Romance .
" The End . " – 1 : 52
" Dead ! " – 3 : 15
" This Is How I Disappear " – 3 : 59
" The Sharpest Lives " – 3 : 20
" Welcome to the Black Parade " – 5 : 11
" I Don 't Love You " – 3 : 58
" House of Wolves " – 3 : 04
" Cancer " – 2 : 22
" Mama " – 4 : 39
" Sleep " – 4 : 43
" Teenagers " – 2 : 41
" Disenchanted " – 4 : 55
" Famous Last Words " – 4 : 59
Bonus tracks
B @-@ sides
= = Release history = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Personnel = =
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= IPad ( 4th generation ) =
The fourth @-@ generation iPad ( marketed as iPad with Retina display , colloquially referred to as the iPad 4 ) is a tablet computer produced and marketed by Apple Inc . Compared to its predecessor , the fourth @-@ generation iPad maintained the Retina Display but featured new and upgraded components such as the Apple A6X chip , and the Lightning connector , which was introduced on September 12 , 2012 . It shipped with iOS 6 @.@ 0 , which provides a platform for audio @-@ visual media , including electronic books , periodicals , films , music , computer games , presentations and web content . It has supported 5 major iOS releases , they are iOS 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , and 10 . This being the third iPad to support 5 major iOS versions , after the iPad ( 3rd generation ) and the iPad 2 .
It was announced at a media conference on October 23 , 2012 as the fourth generation of the iPad line , succeeding the third @-@ generation iPad , and was first released on November 2 , 2012 in thirty @-@ five countries . The device was released throughout December in ten other countries including China , India and Brazil . The third generation was discontinued following the fourth 's announcement , after only seven months of general availability .
The device is available with either a black or white front glass panel and various connectivity and storage options . Storage size options include 16 GB , 32 GB , 64 GB , and 128 GB ; the available connectivity options are Wi @-@ Fi only and Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular with LTE capabilities .
The fourth @-@ generation iPad received primarily positive reviews and was praised for its hardware improvements as well as the Retina display , which was also featured in the device 's predecessor . Furthermore , benchmarks reveal that the fourth @-@ generation iPad is able to perform CPU @-@ reliant tasks twice as fast as its predecessor . During the first weekend of sales , an aggregated amount of three million fourth @-@ generation iPads and iPad Minis were sold .
= = History = =
Rumors regarding the next @-@ generation iPad emerged shortly after the release of the third @-@ generation iPad . At that point some speculated that the next iPad released would be of a smaller size . Further speculations emerged in July 2012 when DigiTimes , with the help of unspecified sources , claimed that Apple made small revisions to the then upcoming iPad and scheduled its release for late 2012 . On October 16 , 2012 , Apple announced a media event scheduled for October 23 at the California Theatre in San Jose , California . The company did not pre @-@ disclose the subject of the event , but it was widely expected to be regarding the iPad Mini . Photographic images of the device 's dock connector and front camera emerged shortly before the media event .
At the media event , Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced a new version of iBooks and new generations of the MacBook Pro , Mac Mini , and the iMac before unveiling the fourth @-@ generation iPad and the iPad Mini . During the unveiling , Apple stated that the fourth @-@ generation iPad would be available to pre @-@ order online in a selected number of countries starting October 26 . On November 2 , Apple released the Wi @-@ Fi model of device in thirty @-@ five countries across Europe , East Asia and North America . The cellular model was released in @-@ store a few weeks after the initial release of the device .
The release of the fourth @-@ generation iPad led to the discontinuation of its predecessor , which angered many third @-@ generation iPad users . In response , Apple extended its 14 @-@ day return policy to 30 days . ITProPortal noted that , since the price of both models is identical , consumers that purchased the third @-@ generation iPad within this time frame were effectively allowed to exchange their discontinued device for the fourth @-@ generation model .
On January 29 , 2013 , Apple announced and scheduled the launch of the 128 GB variant of 4th generation iPad . It was released on February 5 , 2013 .
Following the announcement of the iPad Air on October 22 , 2013 , sales of the fourth @-@ generation iPad was discontinued . The fourth @-@ generation iPad was reintroduced on March 18 , 2014 , following the discontinuation of the iPad 2 . In order to make its reintroduction a low @-@ end device to the iPad Air , its price was cut by 20 % over its original launch price . On October 16 , 2014 the fourth @-@ generation iPad was discontinued in favor of the iPad Air 2 and iPad Mini 3 . The iPad Air takes its place as the entry @-@ level iPad .
= = Features = =
= = = Software = = =
The fourth @-@ generation iPad is shipped with iOS 6 @.@ 0 . It can act as a hotspot with some carriers , sharing its Internet connection over Wi @-@ Fi , Bluetooth , or USB , and also access the Apple App Store , a digital application distribution platform for iOS . The service allows users to browse and download applications from the iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple . From the App Store , GarageBand , iMovie , iPhoto , and the iWork apps ( Pages , Keynote , and Numbers ) are available .
The iPad comes with several pre @-@ installed applications , including Siri , Safari , Mail , Photos , Video , Music , iTunes , App Store , Maps , Notes , Calendar , Game Center , Photo Booth , and Contacts . Like all iOS devices , the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes , although iOS 5 and later can be managed and backed up without a computer . Although the tablet is not designed to make phone calls over a cellular network , users can use a headset or the built @-@ in speaker and microphone to place phone calls over Wi @-@ Fi or cellular using a VoIP application , such as Skype . The device has a dictation application , using the same voice recognition technology as the iPhone 4S . The user speaks and the iPad types what they say on the screen , though the iPad must have an internet connection available ( via Wi @-@ Fi or cellular network ) due to the feature 's reliance on Apple servers to translate the speech .
The fourth @-@ generation iPad has an optional iBooks application , which displays books and other ePub @-@ format content downloaded from the iBookstore . Several major book publishers including Penguin Books , HarperCollins , Simon & Schuster , and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the device . Despite being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook , both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble offer e @-@ reader apps for the iPad .
It was announced at the Apple WWDC 2015 that the 4th generation iPad ( along with various other iOS devices ) will support iOS 9 .
It was announced at the Apple WWDC 2016 that the 4th generation iPad ( along with various other iOS devices ) will support iOS 10 , which is the latest version of iOS , while dropping support to its immediate predecessor the 3rd generation iPad .
= = = Hardware = = =
The device has an Apple A6X SoC which comprises a 32 @-@ bit Apple Swift dual @-@ core CPU running at 1 @.@ 4 GHz and a quad @-@ core PowerVR SGX554MP4 GPU , 1 GB of RAM . It also features a 5 @-@ megapixel , rear @-@ facing camera capable of 1080p video recording ; and a 720p HD front @-@ facing videophone camera designed for FaceTime . The device features a 9 @.@ 7 " ( diagonal ) display with a resolution of 2 @,@ 048 by 1 @,@ 536 ( QXGA ) resulting in 3 @.@ 1 million pixels , this gives the display a pixel density of 264 ppi . The total number of pixels used in the display of the fourth @-@ generation iPad is four times that of the iPad 2 – providing even scaling from the prior model .
As with all previous generations of iPhone and iPad hardware , there are four buttons and one switch on the fourth @-@ generation iPad . With the device in its portrait orientation , these are : a " home " button on the face of the device under the display that returns the user to the home screen , a wake / sleep button on the top edge of the device , and two buttons on the upper right side of the device performing volume up / down functions , under which is a switch whose function varies according to device settings , generally functioning either to switch the device into or out of silent mode or to lock / unlock the orientation of the screen . Externally , the fourth @-@ generation iPad is identical to its predecessor apart from the differences between dock connectors used and change of manufacturers that produce the display . In addition , the Wi @-@ Fi only version weighs 652 grams while the cellular model weighs 662 grams – 2 grams heavier than their respective predecessors . The display responds to other sensors : an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3 @-@ axis accelerometer to sense orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes . Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch 's built @-@ in applications , which work in three orientations ( portrait , landscape @-@ left and landscape @-@ right ) , the iPad 's built @-@ in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations , including upside @-@ down . Consequently , the device has no intrinsic " native " orientation ; only the relative position of the home button changes .
The tablet is manufactured either with or without the capability to communicate over a cellular network . All models can connect to a wireless LAN via Wi @-@ Fi . The fourth @-@ generation iPad is available with 16 , 32 , 64 or 128 GB of internal flash memory , with no expansion option . Apple sells a " camera connection kit " with an SD card reader , but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos .
The audio playback of the fourth @-@ generation iPad has a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 @,@ 000 Hz . Without third @-@ party software it can play the following audio formats : HE @-@ AAC , AAC , Protected AAC , MP3 , MP3 VBR , Audible formats ( 2 , 3 , 4 , AEA , AAX , and AAX + ) , ALAC , AIFF , and WAV .
This iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium @-@ ion polymer ( LiPo ) battery that can hold a charge of 11 @,@ 560 mAh . The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology ( 60 % ) and Dynapack International Technology ( 40 % ) . The iPad is designed to be charged with a relatively high current of 2 amps using the included 12 W USB power adapter and Lightning connector . While it can be charged by an older USB port from a computer , these are limited to 500 milliamps ( 0 @.@ 5 amps ) . As a result , if the iPad is in use while powered by a computer , it may charge very slowly , or not at all . High @-@ power USB ports found in newer computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities . Apple claims that the battery can provide up to 10 hours of video , audio playback , or web surfing on Wi @-@ Fi , 9 hours of web surfing over a cellular connection , or one month on standby . Like any rechargeable battery , the iPad 's battery loses capacity over time . However , the iPad 's battery is not user @-@ replaceable . In a program similar to iPod and iPhone battery @-@ replacement programs , Apple promised to replace an iPad that does not hold an electrical charge with a refurbished unit for a fee . During the battery replacement process , user data is not preserved / transferred , and repaired or refurbished units come with a new case . The warranty on the refurbished unit may vary between jurisdictions .
= = = Accessories = = =
The Smart Cover , introduced with the iPad 2 , is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad . The cover has three folds which allow it to convert into a stand , which is also held together by magnets . The Smart Cover can also assume other positions by folding it . Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad , and wakes up the unit when the cover is removed . It comes in five colors of both polyurethane and the more expensive leather .
Apple offers several other accessories , most of which are adapters for the proprietary Lightning connector , the only port besides the headphone jack . A dock holds the iPad at an angle , and has a dock connector and audio line @-@ out port . The iPad can use Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs . The iPad can be charged by a standalone power adapter ( " wall charger " ) compatible with iPods and iPhones , and a 12 watt charger is included .
= = Reception = =
The fourth @-@ generation iPad received primarily favorable reviews from critics and commentators . The review by Gareth Beavis of TechRadar praised the device for its high resolution Retina Display , which TechRadar wrote is " ... one of the most impressive we 've seen on a tablet to date . " However , the reviewer also wrote that the screen " lacks the ' punch ' seen in Super AMOLED screens seen on devices like the Samsung Galaxy Note 2 . " The review also praised the interface of the iPad for its simple design and easy to use layout . Additionally , other aspects , such as the design of the iPad and updated SoC were noted and praised in the review . Critically , Beavis noted that the iPad can still moderately heat up under medium usage , however not to the extent seen in the third @-@ generation iPad . Tim Stevens of Engadget praised the Retina Display and labelled it as the best screen available on tablets . Benchmarks and tests conducted by Engadget resulted in Stevens concluding that the fourth @-@ generation iPad is the fastest Apple mobile device available , surpassing a " record " that the iPhone 5 held for a brief period .
Benchmark tests conducted by SlashGear concluded that the SoC of the fourth @-@ generation iPad is able to perform CPU @-@ reliant tasks more than twice as fast as that of the third @-@ generation iPad . A series of benchmark tests conducted on the graphics performance of the fourth @-@ generation iPad by Anandtech resulted in the device achieving the highest score compared to other consumer mobile devices , including the Samsung Galaxy S III , Nexus 10 and third @-@ generation iPad . The performance increase of the fourth @-@ generation iPad varies between tests , however an increase is nonetheless evident . Furthermore , battery longevity tests conducted by the same organization suggests that the battery of the fourth @-@ generation iPad is able to last longer than its predecessor . However , the battery of the updated iPad 2 is able to outlast the fourth @-@ generation iPad .
= = = Commercial Reception = = =
In the first weekend of sales of the iPad Mini and fourth @-@ generation iPad , Apple reported that it sold an aggregated number of 3 million units . TechRadar noted that the first weekend sales figures for the fourth @-@ generation iPad are lower than corresponding figures for the third @-@ generation iPad , which sold 3 million units in its first weekend . Subsequent reports and analysis such as that from David Hsieh , a technology analyst , suggest that the iPad mini is selling better than the fourth @-@ generation iPad . Despite the noted slump in sales , Apple 's stock price , in direct response to the figures released , rose by 1 @.@ 4 % to $ 584 @.@ 62 on November 5 .
= = = Criticism = = =
In a repairability review conducted by iFixit , the fourth @-@ generation iPad scored 2 out of 10 ( 10 being the easiest to repair ) due to the use of adhesive to attach components . However , reviewers noted that several components such as the screen and battery could be removed easily for replacement .
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= Music of Final Fantasy VI =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy VI was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version , a compilation of all the music in the game , was released in Japan by NTT Publishing in 1994 and re @-@ released by Square Enix in 2004 . The album was released by Square Co . / NTT Publishing in North America in 1994 under the name Kefka 's Domain . Selected tracks from the official soundtrack were later released as part of the Music From FFV and FFVI Video Games album that was included with the release of Final Fantasy Anthology , and two EPs were produced containing character theme tracks entitled Final Fantasy VI Stars Vol . 1 and Vol . 2 . A special orchestral arrangement of selected tracks from the game , arranged by Shiro Sagisu and Tsuneyoshi Saito , and performed by the Milan Symphony Orchestra , was released under the title Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale by NTT Publishing in 1994 and 2004 , and a collection of piano arrangements , arranged by Shirou Satou and performed by Reiko Nomura , was released under the title Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI by Square / NTT Publishing in 1994 and by NTT Publishing in 2001 . Additionally , a single containing unused and remixed tracks from the game was released as Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks by NTT Publishing in 1994 .
The music received very positive reviews , with reviewers finding it to be one of the best video game music soundtracks ever composed . Several pieces , particularly " Terra 's Theme " and " Aria di Mezzo Carattere " , remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series such as the Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series , the Distant Worlds : Music from Final Fantasy series , and the Orchestral Game Concert series . Music from the soundtrack has also been published in arranged albums and compilations by Square Enix as well as outside groups .
= = Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version = =
Final Fantasy VI Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album containing musical tracks from the game , composed and produced by Nobuo Uematsu . The album was originally released through NTT Publishing on March 25 , 1994 under the name Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version and the catalog numbers PSCN @-@ 5001 ~ 3 , and was later re @-@ released by Square Enix on October 1 , 2004 with the new name and catalog numbers NTCP @-@ 5001 ~ 3 . The soundtrack spans three discs and has a combined duration of 3 : 07 : 21 . The soundtrack was also officially released in the United States by Square / NTT Publishing under the name of Kefka 's Domain on July 1 , 1994 . This version of the album is the same as its Japanese counterpart , except for different packaging and small differences in the translation of some track names between the album and newer releases . The album has a catalog number of SQ108 .
Ten tracks from the soundtrack , comprising all of the character themes for the required characters of the game , were released in a pair of EPs entitled Final Fantasy VI Stars Vol . 1 and Vol . 2 . The CDs were released in 1994 by NTT Publishing with durations of 13 : 04 and 11 : 54 and catalog numbers of N09D @-@ 023 and NO9D @-@ 024 , respectively . Additionally , thirteen tracks from the soundtrack were included in a bonus CD titled Music From FFV and FFVI Video Games that shipped with Final Fantasy Anthology on October 5 , 1999 . The soundtrack was again released as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box by Square Enix on March 28 , 2007 under the catalog numbers FFFB @-@ 0004 @-@ 6 along with the OSTs of Final Fantasy IV and Final Fantasy V after the game was ported to the Game Boy Advance .
Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version sold 175 @,@ 000 copies as of January 2010 . The album was very well received by critics . Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan claimed that " almost every track here is truly a very good , or even a great composition . " Issac Engelhorn of Soundtrack Central agreed , claiming it to be the best video soundtrack ever , a sentiment Jon Turner and Nick Melton of Soundtrack Central agreed with . Patrick Gann of RPGFan claimed that the " Dancing Mad " track contained some of the " most astounding music ever created on a keyboard " and highly recommended the soundtrack .
A new edition of the soundtrack , Final Fantasy VI Original Soundtrack Remaster Version , was released by Square Enix on September 3 , 2013 . This version is similar in length to the original soundtrack release . Despite the name , the album features the original Super NES version of the music , rather than a more modern synthesizer sound . The album has the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10387 ~ 9 , and its 61 tracks have a duration of 3 : 07 : 47 . Andrew Barker of RPGFan stated that the differences between the original release and this version were " minor and barely noticeable " , but that all of the praises for the original music still held true .
Track listing
= = Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale = =
Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale is a collection of orchestral arrangements of Final Fantasy VI music composed by Nobuo Uematsu and arranged by Shiro Sagisu and Tsuneyoshi Saito . It was initially released through NTT Publishing on May 25 , 1994 under the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5004 and subsequently re @-@ released on October 1 , 2004 under the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5004 . The arrangements are performed by the Milan Symphony Orchestra , with vocal performances by Svetla Krasteva . The album spans 11 tracks and covers a duration of 54 : 33 .
Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale was well received by critics , though not as well as the other albums of music from the game . Daniel Space of RPGFan found that , while he was pleased with the album as a whole , there were issues with the track selections and arrangement quality that detracted from the album . Adam Corn of Soundtrack Central found that , while not without flaws , the album was " interesting and entertaining " . Patrick Gann concurred , saying that while there are a few minor arrangement issues , the overall quality of the album is great .
= = Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI is an album of music from Final Fantasy VI composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged on piano by Shirou Satou and performed by Reiko Nomura . It was first published by Square and NTT Publishing on June 25 , 1994 with the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5005 . It was subsequently republished by NTT Publishing on July 25 , 2001 under the catalog number NTCP @-@ 1003 . The album spans 13 tracks and covers a duration of 41 : 23 . The original release included a hard @-@ cover piano score with all pieces from the album .
The album was well received , with Daniel Space of RPGFan terming it an " amazing CD " . Sigmund Shen of Soundtrack Central concurred , calling it " an impressive CD " and " a must @-@ have " . Gary King of Soundtrack Central termed it " simply astonishing " and " a CD that really no collector should be without " .
= = Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks = =
Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks is an EP released on April 25 , 1994 , through NTT Publishing with the catalog number PSDN @-@ 6101 . It is composed primarily of unused or remixed tracks for Final Fantasy VI , including exclusive unused vocal track " Approaching Sentiment " , as well as a remixed version of the Final Fantasy IV track " Troian Beauty " . The CD spans six tracks and covers a duration of 20 : 46 .
Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks , while not as widely reviewed as the other Final Fantasy VI albums , was seen as " very neat " by Patrick Gann , who especially liked the " Techno de Chocobo " track .
= = Legacy = =
Uematsu was personally very pleased with the way that the soundtrack for Final Fantasy VI turned out , and has said in interviews that he felt that " with the satisfaction and excitement I felt after finishing that project , I thought I had reached my primary goal , and could quit doing game music with no regrets . " He stated in the liner notes for Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI that he intended the music to be emotionally moving , and entreated the listener not to think about the music , but to feel it . He also feels that the title track for Final Fantasy VI was the most challenging track he has ever made . As for Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale , on the other hand , Uematsu has said that he was " not satisfied with this album at all " , due to the deviation it took from his original visions for the music due to his lack of personal involvement in the arrangements . Although he did not feel that the album was a poor one , saying that if he said nothing no one would ever know of his dissatisfaction , he felt that it was not what he would have created if he had " defend [ ed ] the image of each piece " .
The Black Mages , a band led by Nobuo Uematsu that arranges music from Final Fantasy games into a rock music style , has arranged four pieces from Final Fantasy VI . These are " The Decisive Battle " , " Battle " , and " Dancing Mad " from The Black Mages , published in 2003 , and " Darkness and Starlight " , based on " Aria di Mezzo Carattere " , from The Black Mages III : Darkness and Starlight , published in 2008 . A lyrical version of " Kids Run Through the City " , sung by Risa Ohki , appears on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , a lyrical version of " Relm 's Theme " , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appears on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .
Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The music of Final Fantasy VI has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 Music from Final Fantasy , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including " Terra 's Theme " . In 1994 , " Aria di Mezzo Carattere " was played as " Love Oath , Maria and Draco " by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra for the fourth entry in their Orchestral Game Music Concerts series . Additionally , the aria was also performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy VI music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
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= The Smashing Pumpkins =
The Smashing Pumpkins ( or Smashing Pumpkins ) is an American alternative rock band from Chicago , Illinois , formed in 1988 . Formed by frontman Billy Corgan ( lead vocals , guitar ) and James Iha ( guitar ) , the band included D 'arcy Wretzky ( bass guitar ) and Jimmy Chamberlin ( drums ) in its original incarnation . It has undergone many line @-@ up changes over the course of its existence , with the current lineup including Corgan , rhythm guitarist Jeff Schroeder and Chamberlin .
Disavowing the punk rock roots of many of their alt @-@ rock contemporaries , the Pumpkins have a diverse , densely layered , and guitar @-@ heavy sound , containing elements of gothic rock , heavy metal , dream pop , psychedelic rock , progressive rock , shoegazing , and electronica in later recordings . Corgan is the group 's primary songwriter — his grand musical ambitions and cathartic lyrics have shaped the band 's albums and songs , which have been described as " anguished , bruised reports from Billy Corgan 's nightmare @-@ land " .
The Smashing Pumpkins broke into the musical mainstream with their second album , 1993 's Siamese Dream . The group built its audience with extensive touring and their 1995 follow @-@ up , the double album Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness , which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart . With 20 million albums sold in the United States alone , The Smashing Pumpkins were one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed bands of the 1990s . However , internal fighting , drug use , and diminishing record sales led to a 2000 break @-@ up .
In 2006 , Billy Corgan and Jimmy Chamberlin reconvened to record a new Smashing Pumpkins album , Zeitgeist . After touring throughout 2007 and 2008 with a lineup including new guitarist Jeff Schroeder , Chamberlin left the band in early 2009 . Later that year , Corgan began a new recording series entitled Teargarden by Kaleidyscope featuring a rotating lineup of musicians , that has resulted in the albums Oceania ( 2012 ) , Monuments to an Elegy ( 2014 ) , and a forthcoming album . Chamberlin rejoined , originally temporarily , in 2015 for The End Times Tour , but remained a member of the band afterwards . As of 2016 , Corgan , Chamberlin & Schroeder are the sole permanent band members .
= = History = =
= = = Early years : 1988 – 1991 = = =
After the breakup of his gothic rock band The Marked , singer and guitarist Billy Corgan left St. Petersburg , Florida , to return to his native city of Chicago , where he took a job in a record store and formed the idea of a new band to be called " The Smashing Pumpkins " . While working there , he met guitarist James Iha . Adorning themselves with paisley and other psychedelic trappings , the two began writing songs together ( with the aid of a drum machine ) that were heavily influenced by The Cure and New Order . The duo performed live for the first time on July 9 , 1988 at the Polish bar Chicago 21 . This performance included only Corgan on bass and Iha on guitar with a drum machine . Shortly thereafter , Corgan met D 'arcy Wretzky after a show by the Dan Reed Network where they argued the merits of the band . After finding out Wretzky played bass guitar , Corgan recruited her into the lineup and the now @-@ trio played a show at the Avalon Nightclub . After this show , Cabaret Metro owner Joe Shanahan agreed to book the band on the condition that they replace the drum machine with a live drummer .
Jazz drummer Jimmy Chamberlin was recommended by a friend of Corgan 's . Chamberlin knew little of alternative music and immediately changed the sound of the nascent band . As Corgan recalled of the period , " We were completely into the sad @-@ rock , Cure kind of thing . It took about two or three practices before I realized that the power in his playing was something that enabled us to rock harder than we could ever have imagined . " On October 5 , 1988 , the complete band took the stage for the first time at the Cabaret Metro .
In 1989 , The Smashing Pumpkins made their first appearance on record with the compilation album Light Into Dark , which featured several Chicago alternative bands . The group released its first single , " I Am One " , in 1990 on local Chicago label Limited Potential . The single sold out and they released a follow @-@ up , " Tristessa " , on Sub Pop , after which they signed to Caroline Records . The band recorded their 1991 debut studio album Gish with producer Butch Vig at his Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin for $ 20 @,@ 000 . In order to gain the consistency he desired , Corgan often played all instruments save drums , which created tension in the band . The music fused heavy metal guitars , psychedelia , and dream pop , garnering them comparisons to Jane 's Addiction . Gish became a minor success , with the single " Rhinoceros " receiving some airplay on modern rock radio . After releasing the Lull EP in October 1991 on Caroline Records , the band formally signed with Virgin Records , which was affiliated with Caroline . The band supported the album with a tour that included opening for bands such as the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Jane 's Addiction , and Guns N ' Roses . During the tour , Iha and Wretzky went through a messy breakup , Chamberlin became addicted to narcotics and alcohol , and Corgan entered a deep depression , writing some songs for the upcoming album in the parking garage where he lived at the time .
= = = Mainstream breakout : 1992 – 1994 = = =
With the breakthrough of alternative rock into the American mainstream due to the popularity of grunge bands such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam , The Smashing Pumpkins were poised for major commercial success . At this time , the Pumpkins were routinely lumped in with the grunge movement , with Corgan protesting , " We 've graduated now from ' the next Jane 's Addiction ' to ' the next Nirvana , ' now we 're ' the next Pearl Jam . ' "
Amid this environment of intense internal pressure for the band to break through to widespread popularity , the band relocated to Marietta , Georgia in late 1992 to begin work on their second album , with Butch Vig returning as producer . The decision to record so far away from their hometown was motivated partly by the band 's desire to avoid friends and distractions during the recording , but largely as a desperate attempt to cut Chamberlin off from his known drug connections . The recording environment for Siamese Dream was quickly marred by discord within the band . As was the case with Gish , Corgan and Vig decided that Corgan should play nearly all of the guitar and bass parts on the album , contributing to an air of resentment . The contemporary music press began to portray Corgan as a tyrant . Corgan 's depression , meanwhile , had deepened to the point where he contemplated suicide , and he compensated by practically living in the studio . Meanwhile , Chamberlin quickly managed to find new connections and was often absent without any contact for days at a time . In all , it took over four months to complete the record , with the budget exceeding $ 250 @,@ 000 .
Despite all the problems in its recording , Siamese Dream debuted at number ten on the Billboard 200 chart , and sold over four million copies in the U.S. alone . Alongside the band 's mounting mainstream recognition , the band 's reputation as careerists among their former peers in the independent music community was worsened . Indie rock band Pavement 's 1994 song " Range Life " directly mocks the band in its lyrics , although Stephen Malkmus , lead singer of Pavement , has stated , " I never dissed their music . I just dissed their status . " Former Hüsker Dü frontman Bob Mould called them " the grunge Monkees " , and fellow Chicago musician / producer Steve Albini wrote a scathing letter in response to an article praising the band , derisively comparing them to REO Speedwagon ( " by , of and for the mainstream " ) and concluding their ultimate insignificance . The opening track and lead single of Siamese Dream , " Cherub Rock " , directly addresses Corgan 's feud with the " indie @-@ world " .
In 1994 , Virgin released the B @-@ sides / rarities compilation Pisces Iscariot which charted higher than Siamese Dream by reaching number four on the Billboard 200 . Also released was a VHS cassette titled Vieuphoria featuring a mix of live performances and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . Following relentless touring to support the recordings , including headline slots on the 1994 Lollapalooza tour and at Reading Festival in 1995 , the band took time off to write the follow @-@ up album .
= = = Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness : 1995 – 1997 = = =
Corgan worked non @-@ stop over the next year and wrote about fifty @-@ six songs for the next album . Following this spell of concentrated creativity , the Pumpkins went back into the studio with producers Flood and Alan Moulder to work on what Corgan described as " The Wall for Generation X " , a comparison with the 1979 Pink Floyd two @-@ LP concept album .
The result was Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness , a double album featuring twenty @-@ eight songs and lasting over two hours ( the vinyl version of the album contained three records , two extra songs , and an alternate track listing ) . The songs were intended to hang together conceptually as a symbol of the cycle of life and death . Praised by Time as " the group 's most ambitious and accomplished work yet " , Mellon Collie debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 in October 1995 . Even more successful than Siamese Dream , it was certified ten times platinum in the United States and became the best @-@ selling double album of the decade to date . It also garnered seven 1997 Grammy Award nominations , including Album of the Year . The band won only the Best Hard Rock Performance award , for the album 's lead single " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " . The album spawned five singles — " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " , " 1979 " , " Zero " , " Tonight , Tonight " , and " Thirty @-@ Three " — of which the first three were certified gold and all but " Zero " entered the Top 40 . Many of the remaining songs that did not make it onto Mellon Collie were released as B @-@ sides to the singles , and were eventually compiled in The Aeroplane Flies High box set . As a testament to the band 's popularity , Virgin Records originally intended to limit the set to 200 @,@ 000 copies , but produced more after the original run sold out due to overwhelming demand .
In 1996 , the Pumpkins undertook an extended world tour in support of Mellon Collie . Corgan 's look during this period — a shaved head , a longsleeve black shirt with the word " Zero " printed on it , and silver pants — became iconic . That year , the band also made a guest appearance in an episode of The Simpsons , " Homerpalooza " . With considerable video rotation on MTV , major industry awards , and " Zero " shirts selling in many malls , the Pumpkins were considered one of the most popular bands of the time . But the year was far from entirely positive for the band . In May , the Smashing Pumpkins played a gig at The Point Theatre in Dublin , Ireland . Despite the band 's repeated requests for moshing to stop , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old fan named Bernadette O 'Brien was crushed to death . The concert ended early and the following night 's performance in Belfast was cancelled out of respect for her . However , while Corgan maintained that moshing 's " time [ had ] come and gone " , the band would continue to request open @-@ floor concerts throughout the rest of the tour .
The band suffered a personal tragedy on the night of July 11 , 1996 , when touring keyboardist Jonathan Melvoin and Chamberlin overdosed on heroin in a hotel room in New York City . Melvoin died , and Chamberlin was arrested for drug possession . A few days later , the band announced that Chamberlin had been fired as a result of the incident . The Pumpkins chose to finish the tour , and hired drummer Matt Walker and keyboardist Dennis Flemion . Corgan later said the decision to continue touring was the worst decision the band had ever made , damaging both their music and their reputation . Chamberlin admitted in a 1994 Rolling Stone cover story that in the past he 'd " gotten high in every city in this country and probably half the cities in Europe . " But in recent years , he had reportedly been clean . On July 17 , the Pumpkins issued a statement in which they said , " For nine years we have battled with Jimmy 's struggles with the insidious disease of drug and alcohol addiction . It has nearly destroyed everything we are and stand for . … We wish [ him ] the best we have to offer , " Meanwhile , the band had given interviews since the release of Mellon Collie stating that it would be the last conventional Pumpkins record , and that rock was becoming stale . James Iha said at the end of 1996 , " The future is in electronic music . It really seems boring just to play rock music . "
= = = Adore , Machina , and breakup : 1998 – 2000 = = =
After the release of Mellon Collie , the Pumpkins contributed a number of songs to various compilations . Released in early 1997 , the song " Eye " , which appeared on the soundtrack to David Lynch 's Lost Highway , relied almost exclusively on electronic instruments and signaled a drastic shift from the Pumpkins ' previous musical styles . At the time , Corgan stated his " idea [ was ] to reconfigure the focus and get away from the classic guitars @-@ bass @-@ drum rock format . " Later that year , the group contributed " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " to the soundtrack for the film Batman & Robin . With Matt Walker on drums , the song featured a heavy sound similar to " Bullet With Butterfly Wings " while still having strong electronic influences . The song later won the 1998 Grammy for Best Hard Rock Performance . Though Corgan announced that the song represented the sound people could expect from the band in the future , the band 's next album would feature few guitar driven songs .
Recorded following the death of Corgan 's mother and his divorce , 1998 's Adore represented a significant change of style from the Pumpkins ' previous guitar @-@ based rock , veering into electronica . The record , cut with assistance from drum machines and studio drummers including Matt Walker , was infused with a darker aesthetic than much of the band 's earlier work . The group also modified its public image , shedding its alternative rock look for a more subdued appearance . Although Adore received favorable reviews and was nominated for Best Alternative Performance at the Grammy Awards , the album had only sold about 830 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by the end of the year , which led the music industry to consider it a failure . The album nonetheless sold three times as many copies overseas . The band began a seventeen @-@ date , fifteen @-@ city charity North American tour in support of Adore . At each stop on the tour , the band donated 100 percent of tickets sales to a local charity organization . The tour 's expenses were entirely funded out of the band 's own pockets . All told , the band donated over $ 2 @.@ 8 million to charity as a result of the tour .
In 1999 , the band surprised fans by reuniting with a rehabilitated Jimmy Chamberlin for a brief tour dubbed " The Arising " , which showcased both new and classic material . The lineup was short @-@ lived , however , as the band announced the departure of Wretzky in September during work on the album Machina / The Machines of God . Former Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur was recruited for the " Sacred and Profane " tour in support of the album and appeared in the videos accompanying its release . Released in 2000 , Machina was initially promoted as the Pumpkins ' return to a more traditional rock sound , after the more gothic , electronic @-@ sounding Adore . The album debuted at number three on the Billboard charts , but quickly disappeared and as of 2007 had only been certified gold . Music journalist Jim DeRogatis , who described the album as " one of the strongest of their career " , noted that the stalled sales for Machina in comparison to teen pop ascendant at the time " seems like concrete proof that a new wave of young pop fans has turned a deaf ear toward alternative rock . "
On May 23 , 2000 , in a live radio interview on KROQ @-@ FM ( Los Angeles ) , Billy Corgan announced the band 's decision to break up at the end of that year following additional touring and recording . The group 's final album before the break @-@ up , Machina II / The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music , was released in September 2000 in a limited pressing on vinyl with permission and instructions for free redistribution on the Internet by fans . Only twenty @-@ five copies were cut , each of which was hand numbered and given to friends of the band along with band members themselves . The album , released under the Constantinople Records label created by Corgan , consisted of one double LP and three ten @-@ inch EPs . Originally , the band asked Virgin to offer Machina II as a free download to anyone who bought Machina . When the record label declined , Corgan opted to release the material independently .
On December 2 , 2000 , Smashing Pumpkins played a farewell concert at The Metro , the same Chicago club where their career had effectively started twelve years earlier . The four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour @-@ long show featured 35 songs spanning the group 's career , and attendees were given a recording of the band 's first concert at The Metro , Live at Cabaret Metro 10 @-@ 5 @-@ 88 . The single " Untitled " was released commercially to coincide with the farewell show .
= = = Post @-@ breakup : 2001 – 2004 = = =
In 2001 , the compilation Rotten Apples was released . The double @-@ disc version of the album , released as a limited edition , included a collection of B @-@ sides and rarities called Judas O. The Greatest Hits Video Collection DVD was also released at the same time . This was a compilation of all of the Pumpkins promo videos from Gish to Machina along with unreleased material . Vieuphoria was released on DVD in 2002 , as was the soundtrack album Earphoria , previously released solely to radio stations in 1994 .
Billy Corgan and Jimmy Chamberlin reunited in 2001 as members of Corgan 's next project , the short @-@ lived supergroup Zwan . The group 's only album , Mary Star of the Sea , was released in 2003 . After cancelling a few festival appearances , Corgan announced the demise of the band in 2003 . During 2001 , Corgan also toured as part of New Order and provided vocals on their comeback album Get Ready . In October 2004 , Corgan released his first book , Blinking with Fists , a collection of poetry . In June 2005 , he released a solo album , TheFutureEmbrace , which he described as " ( picking ) up the thread of the as @-@ of @-@ yet @-@ unfinished work of the Smashing Pumpkins " . Despite this , it was greeted with generally mixed reviews and lackluster sales . Only one single , " Walking Shade " , was released in support of the album .
In addition to drumming with Zwan , Jimmy Chamberlin also formed an alternative rock / jazz fusion project band called The Jimmy Chamberlin Complex . The group released an album in 2005 titled Life Begins Again . Corgan provided guest vocals on the track " Lokicat " . James Iha served as a guitarist in A Perfect Circle , appearing on their Thirteenth Step club tour and 2004 album , eMOTIVe . He has also been involved with other acts such as Chino Moreno 's Team Sleep and Vanessa and the O 's . He continues to work with his own record label as well , Scratchie Records . D 'arcy Wretzky has , aside from one radio interview in 2009 , not made any public statements or appearances nor given any interviews since leaving the band in 1999 . On January 25 , 2000 , she was arrested after she allegedly purchased three bags of crack cocaine , but after successfully completing a court @-@ ordered drug education program , the charges were dropped .
Corgan insisted during this period that the band would not reform , although when Zwan broke up he announced , " I think my heart was in Smashing Pumpkins [ … ] I think it was naive of me to think that I could find something that would mean as much to me . " Corgan said in 2005 , " I never wanted to leave the Smashing Pumpkins . That was never the plan . " On February 17 , 2004 , Corgan posted a message on his personal blog calling Wretzky a " mean @-@ spirited drug addict " and blaming Iha for the breakup of The Smashing Pumpkins . On June 3 , 2004 , he added that " the depth of my hurt [ from Iha ] is only matched with the depth of my gratitude " . Iha responded to Corgan 's claims in 2005 , saying , " No , I didn 't break up the band . The only person who could have done that is Billy . "
= = = Reformation and Zeitgeist : 2005 – 2008 = = =
On June 21 , 2005 , the day of the release of his album TheFutureEmbrace , Corgan took out full @-@ page advertisements in the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun @-@ Times to announce that he planned to reunite the band . " For a year now " , Corgan wrote , " I have walked around with a secret , a secret I chose to keep . But now I want you to be among the first to know that I have made plans to renew and revive the Smashing Pumpkins . I want my band back , and my songs , and my dreams " . Corgan and Chamberlin were verified as participants in the reunion , but there was question as to whether other former members of the band would participate .
In April 2007 , Iha and Auf der Maur separately confirmed that they were not taking part in the reunion . Chamberlin would later state that Iha and Wretzky " didn 't want to be a part of " the reunion . The Smashing Pumpkins performed live for the first time since 2000 on May 22 , 2007 , in Paris , France . There , the band unveiled new touring members : guitarist Jeff Schroeder , bassist Ginger Reyes , and keyboardist Lisa Harriton . That same month , " Tarantula " was released as the first single from the band 's forthcoming album . On July 7 , the band performed at the Live Earth concert in New Jersey .
The band 's new album , Zeitgeist , was released that same month on Reprise Records , entering the Billboard charts at number two and selling 145 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Zeitgeist received mixed reviews , with much of the criticism targeted at the absence of half of the original lineup . The album divided the Pumpkins ' fanbase . Corgan would later admit , " I know a lot of our fans are puzzled by Zeitgeist . I think they wanted this massive , grandiose work , but you don 't just roll out of bed after seven years without a functioning band and go back to doing that " .
Corgan and Chamberlin continued to record as a duo , releasing the four @-@ song EP American Gothic in January 2008 and the singles " Superchrist " and " G.L.O.W. " later that year . That November , the group released the DVD If All Goes Wrong , which chronicled the group 's 2007 concert residences in Asheville , North Carolina and San Francisco , California . In late 2008 , the band commenced on a controversy @-@ riddled 20th Anniversary Tour . Around this time , Corgan said the group will make no more full @-@ length records in order to focus exclusively on singles , explaining , " The listening patterns have changed , so why are we killing ourselves to do albums , to create balance , and do the arty track to set up the single ? It 's done . "
= = = Teargarden and Oceania : 2009 – 2013 = = =
In March 2009 , Corgan announced on the band 's website that Chamberlin had left the group and would be replaced . Chamberlin subsequently stated that his departure from the band is " a positive move forward for me . I can no longer commit all of my energy into something that I don 't fully possess . " Chamberlin stressed that the split was amicable , commenting , " I am glad [ Corgan ] has chosen to continue under the name . It is his right . " Chamberlin soon formed the band Skysaw , which has released an album and toured in support of Minus the Bear . In July 2009 , Billy Corgan formed a new group called Spirits in the Sky , initially as a tribute band to Sky Saxon of The Seeds , who had recently died . The following month Corgan confirmed on the band 's website that 19 @-@ year @-@ old Spirits in the Sky drummer Mike Byrne had replaced Chamberlin and that the pair was working on new Pumpkins recordings .
The group announced plans to release a 44 @-@ track concept album , Teargarden by Kaleidyscope , for free over the Internet one track at a time . The first track , " A Song for a Son " , was released in December 2009 to moderate press acclaim . In March 2010 , Ginger Reyes officially left the band , prompting an open call for auditions for a new bassist . In May , Nicole Fiorentino announced she had joined the band as bass player , and would be working on Teargarden by Kaleidyscope . The new lineup went on a world tour through to the end of 2010 . One of the first shows with the new lineup was a concert to benefit Matthew Leone , bassist for the rock band Madina Lake , at the Metro on July 27 , 2010 . In late 2010 , all four members contributed to the sessions for the third volume of Teargarden .
On April 26 , 2011 , Corgan announced that the Smashing Pumpkins would be releasing a new album titled Oceania , which he labeled as " an album within an album " in regards to the Teargarden by Kaleidyscope project , in the fall . As with the previous recording sessions , all four band members contributed to the project . Also , the entire album catalog was to be remastered and reissued with bonus tracks , starting with Gish and Siamese Dream in November 2011 . The pre @-@ Gish demos , Pisces Iscariot , and Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness were released in 2012 , with The Aeroplane Flies High released the following year . Adore was released in 2014 , and Machina / The Machines of God and the yet commercially unreleased Machina II / Friends and Enemies of Modern Music are expected to be combined , remixed , and released in the same year . The band did a thirteen @-@ city US tour in October 2011 followed by a European tour in November and December .
Oceania was released on June 19 , 2012 and received generally positive reviews . The album debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Independent . The album spawned two singles , " The Celestials " and " Panopticon " . The band proceeded to tour in support of the album , including a US tour involving playing the album in its entirety . By September 2012 , Corgan stated that the band had already begun work on their next album . However , despite this , the band concentrated on touring , playing at Glastonbury Festival , Dour Festival and the Barclays Center , where they recorded Oceania : Live in NYC , which was released on September 24 , 2013 , without much comment on new material .
= = = Monuments to an Elegy : 2014 – present = = =
On March 25 , 2014 , Corgan announced he had signed a new record deal with BMG , for two new albums , titled Monuments to an Elegy and Day for Night , respectively . In June , it was revealed that Mike Byrne was no longer in the band , to be replaced by Tommy Lee of Mötley Crüe on the new album , and Fiorentino would not be recording on the album either . Monuments to an Elegy was released on December 5 , 2014 , to generally positive reviews . The band toured in support of the album starting on November 26 , with Rage Against the Machine 's Brad Wilk filling in on drums and The Killers ' Mark Stoermer filling in on bass . The follow @-@ up album , which will no longer be titled Day For Night , was pushed back to a late 2015 or early 2016 release as the band continued to tour .
Later in 2015 , Corgan announced that the band would undertake a co @-@ headlining tour of North America with Marilyn Manson . The End Times Tour was set to begin in Concord , California , at the Concord Pavilion on July 7 , and was scheduled to end with a concert in Cincinnati , Ohio , at the Riverbend Music Center on August 8 . Prior to the co @-@ headlining dates , the band performed a series of acoustic shows with drum machines and tapes for percussion . When the time came for the co @-@ headlining tour , plans for a drummer fell through and Corgan recruited Chamberlin to reunite for the shows . On February 1 , 2016 , it was announced that the band would continue their In Plainsong acoustic tour with Jimmy Chamberlin on drums and were planning to head " straight to the studio after the dates to record a brand new album inspired by the sounds explored in the new acoustic setting " . On February 25 , 2016 , Corgan posted a video from a Los Angeles studio on the band 's Facebook account , giving an update on the writing process for the new songs for the upcoming album to be released after the In Plainsong tour . The tour began in Portland , Oregon , on March 22 , 2016 .
On his birthday on March 26 , 2016 , original guitarist James Iha joined Billy Corgan , Jimmy Chamberlin , and Jeff Schroeder on stage unannounced at the Ace Hotel in downtown Los Angeles . He performed a few songs , including " Mayonaise " , " Soma " and " Whir " marking his first appearance with the Smashing Pumpkins in 16 years . Iha also played at the second of the two Smashing Pumpkins shows at the Ace Hotel the following day , which was Easter Sunday . Iha joined the Pumpkins for a third time at their April 14 concert at the Civic Opera House in Chicago .
= = Musical style , influences , and legacy = =
The direction of the band is dominated by chief guitarist , lead vocalist , and principal songwriter Billy Corgan . Journalist Greg Kot wrote , " The music [ of The Smashing Pumpkins ] would not be what it is without his ambition and vision , and his famously fractured relationships with his family , friends , and bandmembers . " Melissa Auf der Maur commented upon news of the group 's reunion , " Everyone knows Billy doesn 't need too many people to make a Pumpkins record , other than Jimmy [ Chamberlin ] — who he has on board . " In a 2015 interview Corgan himself referred to the current iteration of the band " as sort of an open source collective " noting that " It 's whoever feels right at the time . " . Many of Corgan 's lyrics for the Pumpkins are cathartic expressions of emotion , full of personal musings and strong indictments of himself and those close to him . Music critics were not often fans of Corgan 's angst @-@ filled lyrics . Jim DeRogatis wrote in a 1993 Chicago Sun @-@ Times article that Corgan 's lyrics " too often sound like sophomoric poetry , " although he viewed the lyrics of later albums Adore and Machina as an improvement . Corgan responded to DeRogatis ' words with " fuck the Sun @-@ Times " , at the band 's 1993 show at the Metro Chicago .
The Smashing Pumpkins ' distinctive sound up until Adore involved layering numerous guitar tracks onto a song during the recording process , a tactic that Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness coproducer Flood called the " Pumpkin guitar overdub army . " Although there were a lot of overdubbed parts on Gish , Corgan began to really explore the possibilities of overdubbing with Siamese Dream ; Corgan has stated that " Soma " alone contains up to 40 overdubbed guitar parts . While Corgan knew many of the songs would be difficult or impossible to replicate from their recorded versions in concert ( in fact , some songs were drastically altered for live performance ) , he has explained the use of overdubbing by posing the question " When you are faced with making a permanent recorded representation of a song , why not endow it with the grandest possible vision ? " This use of multilayered sounds was inspired by Corgan 's love of 1970s arena rock bands Queen , Boston , and the Electric Light Orchestra , as well as shoegaze , a British alternative rock style of the late 1980s and early 1990s that relied on swirling layers of guitar noise for effect . Mellon Collie coproducer Alan Moulder was originally hired to mix Siamese Dream because Corgan was a fan of his work producing shoegaze bands such as My Bloody Valentine , Ride , and Slowdive .
Like many contemporary alternative bands , The Smashing Pumpkins utilized shifts in song dynamics , going from quiet to loud and vice versa . Hüsker Dü 's seminal album Zen Arcade demonstrated to the band how they could place gentler material against more aggressive fare , and Corgan made such shifts in dynamics central to the pursuit of his grand musical ambitions . Corgan said he liked the idea of creating his own alternative universe through sound that essentially tells the listener , " Welcome to Pumpkin Land , this is what it sounds like on Planet Pumpkin . " This emphasis on atmosphere carried through to Adore ( described as " arcane night music " in prerelease promotion ) and the Machina albums ( concept records that tell the story of a fictional rock band ) .
The Pumpkins drew inspiration from a variety of other genres , some unfashionable during the 1990s among music critics . Corgan in particular was open about his appreciation of heavy metal , citing Dimebag Darrell of Pantera as his favorite contemporary guitarist . When one interviewer commented to Corgan and Iha that " Smashing Pumpkins is one of the groups that relegitimized heavy metal " and that they " were among the first alternative rockers to mention people like Ozzy and Black Sabbath with anything other than contempt , " Corgan went on to rave about Black Sabbath 's Master of Reality and Judas Priest 's Unleashed in the East . The song " Zero , " which reminded Iha of Judas Priest , is an example of what the band dubbed " cybermetal . " Post @-@ punk and gothic rock bands like Joy Division / New Order , Bauhaus , The Cure , and Depeche Mode were formative influences on the band , which covered such artists in concert and on record . Corgan also cited Siouxsie and the Banshees saying it was important to point back to bands that influenced them . Psychedelic rock was also referenced often in the band 's early recordings ; according to Corgan , " In typical Pumpkins fashion , no one at that point really liked loud guitars or psychedelic music so , of course , that 's exactly what we had to do . " Corgan acknowledged that a chord he jokingly claimed as " the Pumpkin chord " ( a G # octave chord at the eleventh fret of a guitar with the low E string played over it ) , used as the basis for " Cherub Rock " , " Drown " , and other songs , was in fact previously used by Jimi Hendrix . Other early influences cited by Corgan include Cream , The Stooges , and Blue Cheer .
Regarding the band 's influence upon other groups , Greg Kot wrote in 2001 , " Whereas Nirvana spawned countless mini @-@ Nirvanas , the Pumpkins remain an island unto themselves . " Still , some artists and bands have been influenced by the Pumpkins , such as Nelly Furtado , Marilyn Manson , Tegan and Sara , Panic ! at the Disco , and members of My Chemical Romance . My Chemical Romance vocalist Gerard Way has said that they pattern their career upon the Pumpkins ' , including music videos . The members of fellow Chicago band Kill Hannah are friends with Corgan , and lead singer Mat Devine has compared his group to the Pumpkins .
= = Music videos = =
The Smashing Pumpkins have been praised as " responsible for some of the most striking and memorable video clips " and for having " approached videos from a completely artistic standpoint rather than mere commercials to sell albums " . MTV 's 2001 anniversary special Testimony : 20 Years of Rock on MTV credited the Pumpkins , along with Nine Inch Nails , with treating music videos as an art form during the 1990s . Corgan has said , " We generally resisted the idea of what I call the classic MTV rock video , which is like lots of people jumping around and stuff . " The band worked with video directors including Kevin Kerslake ( " Cherub Rock " ) , Samuel Bayer ( " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " ) , and , most frequently , the team of Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris ( " Rocket " , " 1979 " , " Tonight , Tonight " , " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " , and " Perfect " ) . Corgan , who was frequently heavily involved in the conception of the videos , said of Dayton and Faris , " I know my [ initial ] versions are always darker , and they 're always talking me into something a little kinder and gentler . " Videos like " Today " , " Rocket " , and " 1979 " dealt with images taken from middle American culture , albeit exaggerated . The group 's videos so often avoid the literal interpretation of the song lyrics that the video for " Thirty @-@ Three " , with images closely related to the words of the song , was created as an intentional stylistic departure .
The band was nominated for several MTV Video Music Awards during the 1990s . In 1996 , the group won seven VMAs total for the " 1979 " and " Tonight , Tonight " videos , including the top award , Video of the Year , for " Tonight , Tonight " . The video was also nominated for a Grammy at the 1997 ceremony . Of the " Tonight , Tonight " video , Corgan remarked , " I don 't think we 've ever had people react [ like this ] ... it just seemed to touch a nerve . "
Shortly after the band 's 2000 breakup , the Greatest Hits Video Collection was released , collecting the band 's music videos from 1991 to 2000 and including commentary from Corgan , Iha , Chamberlin , Wretzky , and various music video directors with outtakes , live performances , and the extended " Try , Try , Try " short film . The band has also released several music videos to YouTube and other online sources since reuniting .
= = Band members = =
= = = Current = = =
Billy Corgan – lead vocals , guitars , keyboards , bass guitar ( 1988 – 2000 ; 2006 – present )
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums , percussion , backing vocals ( 1988 – 1996 ; 1999 – 2000 ; 2006 – 2009 ; 2015 – present )
Jeff Schroeder – guitars , keyboards , backing vocals ( 2007 – present )
= = = Current touring = = =
Katie Cole – various instruments ( 2015 ; 2016 – present )
Sierra Swan – various instruments ( 2016 – present )
= = = Former = = =
James Iha – guitars , backing vocals ( 1988 – 2000 )
D 'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1988 – 1999 )
Melissa Auf der Maur – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1999 – 2000 )
Mike Byrne – drums , percussion , backing vocals , keyboards ( 2009 – 2014 )
Nicole Fiorentino – bass guitar , backing vocals , keyboards ( 2009 – 2014 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Gish ( 1991 )
Siamese Dream ( 1993 )
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness ( 1995 )
Adore ( 1998 )
Machina / The Machines of God ( 2000 )
Machina II / The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music ( 2000 )
Zeitgeist ( 2007 )
Teargarden by Kaleidyscope ( 2009 – 2016 )
Oceania ( 2012 )
Monuments to an Elegy ( 2014 )
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= Jamaica at the 1988 Winter Olympics =
Jamaica competed in the Winter Olympic Games for the first time at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary , Canada . They competed in one sport , Bobsledding , in both the two @-@ man and four @-@ man events and finished outside the medal places in both competitions . Athletes were recruited from the Jamaica Defence Force , which saw Dudley Stokes , Devon Harris and Michael White become the first members of the team . Caswell Allen was the fourth man , but was injured prior to the start of the Olympics and was replaced by Chris Stokes , who was only in Canada to support his brother and new team @-@ mate Dudley .
The two man event took place first , with Dudley Stokes and White finishing in 30th position overall . American television stations aired footage of the four @-@ man Jamaican team , and despite crashing during the third run and finishing last overall , went on to inspire the 1993 film Cool Runnings .
= = Background = =
The Jamaica Olympic Association was formed in 1936 , but due to the cancellation of the 1940 and 1944 Olympics due to the Second World War , the first Games they competed in was the 1948 Summer Olympics in London . They have appeared at every Summer Games since , including at the 1960 Games in which they appeared as part of the combined team of the British West Indies . They have won medals at every Summer Games they have competed at , with the exception of the 1956 and 1964 Summer Olympics .
= = Bobsleigh = =
Businessmen George B. Fitch and William Maloney proposed the idea of a Jamaican bobsleigh team after seeing a local pushcart derby in Jamaica . The President of the Jamaica Olympic Association at the time supported the idea , and so preparations were made to hire athletes . Advertisements were placed describing " dangerous and rigorous " trials which would form the basis of the country 's first bobsleigh team . However , recruitment proved to be problematic and so the Jamaica Defence Force was asked for volunteers . This resulted in the first team of Dudley Stokes , Devon Harris and Michael White . These three were selected as part of the team in October 1987 , with team @-@ mate Casewell Allen added later .
With funding provided by the Fitch and the Jamaica Tourist Board , training was conducted in Canada and Austria in preparation for the 1988 Winter Olympics . Sepp Haidacher was recruited as a coach , and the team began to be featured in North American media with a comical angle . An agreement was reached with the Fédération International de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing in order to allow for entrance in both the four @-@ man and the two @-@ man events at the Games . Once in Calgary , the team conducted test runs on a frozen lake in order to get used to the conditions , but Allen fell and was injured . Chris Stokes , who was only in Canada in order to support his brother Dudley , was added to the four @-@ man team three days before the first run having never been in a bobsleigh before .
The first event which Jamaica competed in was the two @-@ man bobsleigh , where Dudley Stokes and Michael White became Jamaica 's first Winter Olympians . In their first run , they finished in 34th position , ahead of the second New Zealand team , both of the pairs from Portugal , U.S. Virgin Islands and Mexico . They improved in the second run , moving up to 22nd place , but were in 31st place on the third run and finished only one place higher in 30th place during the fourth and final run . Overall the duo finished in 30th place out of the 41 teams competing .
Following the elimination of the United States ice hockey team , American television stations needed to fill airtime and chose to focus on the Jamaican bobsleigh team in the four @-@ man event . The first run ended poorly , as when Dudley Stokes jumped into the bobsleigh , the push @-@ bar in the sleigh broke , resulting in the team coming in third from last in 24th place . On their second attempt , the team ranked second to last , due in part to White struggling to crouch down properly in his seat , remaining almost upright through the first corner .
It was the events of the third run for which the team became best known . Stokes injured his shoulder prior to the race , but decided to continue with the run . The team set the seventh fastest start for all competitors . At the turn called the " Kreisel " , Stokes lost control of the bobsleigh and it careened into the wall of the track , and flipped over on top of the four athletes . The four team members climbed out and pushed the bobsleigh to the end of the track , before they carried it off . The team did not compete in the fourth run of the event , and subsequently were listed as not finishing the event and therefore were placed in the last place overall .
= = Legacy = =
The story of the Jamaican bobsleigh team at the 1988 Winter Olympics was turned into the 1993 movie Cool Runnings . However , the film was only loosely based on actual events , with real life coach Pat Brown later saying that the team had never experienced any of the animosity from the other teams as depicted in the movie .
All of the team members returned for the 1992 Winter Olympics , however Harris only competed in the two @-@ man event , with his place in the four @-@ man team taken by newcomer Ricky McIntosh . Harris and the Stokes brothers would continue to compete at the Winter Games in the bobsleigh events until the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano .
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= My Bloody Valentine ( band ) =
My Bloody Valentine are an Irish rock band formed in Dublin in 1983 . Since 1987 , the band 's lineup has consisted of founding members Kevin Shields ( vocals , guitar ) and Colm Ó Cíosóig ( drums ) , with Bilinda Butcher ( vocals , guitar ) and Debbie Googe ( bass ) . The group are known for their integration of noise , melody , and unorthodox guitar and production techniques . Their work in the late 1980s and early 1990s resulted in their pioneering a musical style known as shoegaze .
Following several membership changes and unsuccessful releases , My Bloody Valentine signed to Creation Records in 1988 . The band released a number of successful EPs , including You Made Me Realise ( 1988 ) , Glider ( 1990 ) and Tremolo ( 1991 ) , and two studio albums , Isn 't Anything ( 1988 ) and Loveless ( 1991 ) on the label . Loveless , which has been described as the band 's magnum opus and one of the best albums of the 1990s , was a major critical success . However , the band were dropped by Creation Records after its release due to the album 's extensive production costs . In 1992 , My Bloody Valentine signed to Island Records and recorded several albums worth of unreleased material , remaining largely inactive . Following the departure of Googe and Ó Cíosóig in 1995 , My Bloody Valentine later disbanded in 1997 .
In 2007 , Shields announced My Bloody Valentine had reformed and the band subsequently toured across Europe , Asia and North America . Following reissues of both Isn 't Anything and Loveless , and the release of the compilation album EP 's 1988 – 1991 ( 2012 ) , My Bloody Valentine 's long @-@ delayed third studio album , m b v , was released on 2 February 2013 , 22 years after the release of their last full @-@ length album .
= = History = =
= = = Formation : 1978 – 1985 = = =
In 1978 , Kevin Shields and Colm Ó Cíosóig were introduced to each other at a karate tournament in South Dublin . The duo became friends in what has been described as " an almost overnight friendship " and later formed The Complex , a punk rock band , with Liam Ó Maonlaí , Ó Cíosóig 's friend from Coláiste Eoin . The band , who performed " a handful of gigs " consisting of Sex Pistols and Ramones songs , disbanded when Ó Maonlaí left to form Hothouse Flowers . Shields and Ó Cíosóig later formed a Life in the Day , a post @-@ punk trio , but failed to secure performances with more than a hundred people present . Following A Life in the Day 's dissolution , Shields and Ó Cíosóig formed My Bloody Valentine in early 1983 with lead vocalist David Conway . Conway , who performed under the pseudonym Dave Stelfox , suggested a number of potential band names , including the Burning Peacocks , before the trio settled on My Bloody Valentine . Shields has since claimed he was unaware that My Bloody Valentine was the title of a 1981 Canadian slasher film when the name was suggested .
My Bloody Valentine experienced a number of line @-@ up changes during their initial months . Lead guitarist Stephen Ivers and bassist Mark Ross were recruited in April 1983 and the band would often rehearse near Smithfield and Temple Bar in rehearsal spaces owned by Aidan Walsh . Walsh , who booked some of the band 's early performances , said the rehearsals were " too noisy " and " crazy " that " next door were giving out hell " . Ross left the band in December 1983 and was replaced by Paul Murtagh , who left the band in early 1984 . In March 1984 , Shields , Ivers and Conway recorded the band 's first demo on a four @-@ track recorder in Shields ' parents ' home in Killiney . Shields and Ó Cíosóig overdubbed bass and drum tracks at Litton Lane Studios , and the tape was later used to secure a contract with Tycoon Records .
Soon after recording the demo , Ivers left My Bloody Valentine and Conway 's girlfriend , Tina Durkin , joined as a keyboard player . Around this time , Conway , on the suggestion of Shields , contacted Gavin Friday , the lead vocalist of the post @-@ punk band Virgin Prunes . According to Shields , Conway approached Friday in Finglas , asked him for advice and was told to " get out of Dublin . " Friday provided the band with contacts that secured them a show in Tilburg , Netherlands . The band relocated to the Netherlands after the show and lived there for a further nine months , opening for R.E.M. on one occasion on 8 April 1984 . Due to a lack of opportunities and a lack of correct documentation , the band relocated to West Berlin , Germany in late 1984 and recorded their debut mini album , This Is Your Bloody Valentine ( 1985 ) . The album failed to receive much attention and the band returned temporarily to the Netherlands , before settling in London , United Kingdom in the middle of 1985 .
= = = Independent releases : 1985 – 1986 = = =
Following their relocation to London in 1985 , members of My Bloody Valentine lost contact with each other while looking for accommodation and Tina Durkin , not confident in her abilities as a keyboard player , left the band . When the remaining four members regained contact with one another , the band decided to audition bassists , as they lacked a regular bassist since their formation . Shields acquired Debbie Googe 's telephone number from a contact in London , invited her to audition and subsequently recruited her as a bassist . Googe managed to attend rehearsals , which were centred around her day job . Rehearsal sessions were regularly held at Salem Studios , which was connected to the independent record label Fever Records . The label 's management were impressed with the band and agreed to release an extended play , provided the band would finance the recording sessions themselves . Released in December 1985 , Geek ! failed to reach the band 's expectations ; however , soon after its release , My Bloody Valentine were performing on the London gig circuit , alongside bands such as Eight Living Lags , Kill Ugly Pop and The Stingrays .
Due to the band 's slow progress , Shields contemplated relocating to New York , where members of his family were living at the time . However , Creation Records co @-@ founder Joe Foster had decided to establish his own record label , Kaleidoscope Sound and persuaded My Bloody Valentine to record and release an EP . The New Record by My Bloody Valentine , produced by Foster , was released in October 1986 and was a minor success , peaking at number 22 on the UK Indie Chart upon its release . On the strength of the release , the band began performing more frequent shows , later developing a small following and travelling outside London for live performances , supporting and opening for bands such as The Membranes .
= = = Lazy Records and Butcher 's recruitment : 1987 = = =
In early 1987 , My Bloody Valentine signed to Lazy Records , another independent record label , which was founded by the indie pop band The Primitives and their manager , Wayne Morris . My Bloody Valentine 's first release on the label was the single " Sunny Sundae Smile " , released in February 1987 . It peaked at number 6 on the UK Indie Singles Chart and the band toured following its release . After a number of performances throughout the United Kingdom , the band managed to secure a support slot with The Soup Dragons . In March 1987 , during the tour with The Soup Dragons , David Conway announced his decision to leave the band , due to a gastric illness , disillusionment with music and ambitions to become a writer .
Conway 's departure left My Bloody Valentine without a lead vocalist — a situation Shields , Ó Cíosóig and Googe decided to amend by placing advertisements in the local music press . The audition process , which Shields described as " disastrous and excruciating " , was unsuccessful due to Shields " mentioning The Smiths , because [ he ] liked their melodies " , which attracted a number of vocalists he referred to as " fruitballs " . Although considering forming another group , the band were recommended a number of vocalists from peers and experimented with two lead vocalists , Bilinda Butcher and Joe Byfield . Byfield was deemed unsuited as a vocalist and the band recruited Butcher . Butcher , whose prior musical experience was playing classical guitar as a child and singing and playing tambourine " with some girlfriends for fun " , had learned that My Bloody Valentine needed a backing vocalist from her partner , who had met Colm Ó Cíosóig on a ferry from the Netherlands . At her audition for the band , she sang " The Bargain Store " , a song from Dolly Parton 's 1975 album of the same name .
In light of Butcher 's recruitment , Shields became a co @-@ lead vocalist , splitting and often sharing duties alongside Butcher . Commenting on the transition , Shields noted that Butcher " sounded all right and she could sing one of our songs , we just had to show her how to play guitar . " Shields was initially reluctant to take on a vocal role within the band , but said that he had " always sung in the rehearsal room [ ... ] and made up the melodies . " With the new line up in place , the band intended to drop the My Bloody Valentine moniker , but according to Ó Cíosóig and Shields , the band was unable to decide on a name and kept the moniker " for better or for worse " .
Under pressure from Lazy Records to release a full @-@ length album , My Bloody Valentine compromised and agreed to release a single and subsequent mini album , citing the need for time to stabilize their new line @-@ up . " Strawberry Wine " , a three @-@ track single , was released in November 1987 and Ecstasy was released a month later . Both received moderate critical acclaim , and peaked at number 13 and 12 on the independent singles and albums chart , respectively . " Strawberry Wine " , however , was described as " certainly the better of the two releases " , as Ecstasy was plagued by production difficulties , including errors in the mastering process . Ecstasy was criticised as showing " a group who appeared to have run out of money halfway through recording " , which was later confirmed , as the band were funding the studio sessions themselves . My Bloody Valentine 's contract with Lazy stated that the label would handle promotion of releases , whereas the band would finance the recording sessions . Following their departure from Lazy , who later rereleased " Strawberry Wine " and Ecstasy on the compilation album Ecstasy and Wine ( 1989 ) without the band 's consent , Rough Trade Records offered a deal to finance the recording and release of a full @-@ length album , however , the band turned it down .
= = = Creation Records and Loveless : 1988 – 1991 = = =
In January 1988 , My Bloody Valentine performed in Canterbury , opening for Biff Bang Pow ! , a band that featured Creation Records founder Alan McGee . After " blowing [ Biff Bang Pow ! ] off the stage " , My Bloody Valentine were described as " the Irish equivalent to Hüsker Dü " by McGee , who approached the band after the show and offered them an opportunity to record and release a single on Creation . The band recorded five songs at a studio in Walthamstow , East London in less than a week and in August 1988 , released You Made Me Realise . The EP was well received by the independent music press and according to AllMusic 's Nitsuh Abebe , the release that " made critics stand up and take notice of the brilliant things My Bloody Valentine were up to " , adding " it developed some of the stunning guitar sounds that would become the band 's trademark " . It debuted at number 2 on the UK Indie Chart . Following the success of You Made Me Realise , My Bloody Valentine released their debut full @-@ length studio album , Isn 't Anything , in November 1988 . Recorded in rural Wales , the album was a major success , receiving widespread critical acclaim , peaking at number 1 on the UK Indie Chart and influencing a number of shoegazing bands , who " worked off the template My Bloody Valentine established with [ the album ] " .
In February 1989 , My Bloody Valentine began recording their second studio album at Blackwing Studios in Southwark , London . Creation Records believed that the album could be recorded " in five days " . However , it soon " became clear that wasn 't going to happen " . Following several unproductive months , during which Shields assumed main duties on the musical and technical aspects of the sessions , the band relocated to a total of nineteen other studios and hired a number of engineers , including Alan Moulder , Anjali Dutt and Guy Fixsen . Due to the extensive recording time , Shields and Alan McGee agreed to release another EP and subsequently the band released Glider in April 1990 . Containing the lead single " Soon " , which featured the first recorded use of Shields ' " glide guitar " technique , the EP peaked at number 2 on the UK Indie Chart and the band toured in summer 1990 to support its release . In February 1991 , while still recording their second album , My Bloody Valentine released Tremolo , which was another critical success and topped the UK Indie Chart .
Released in November 1991 , Loveless was rumoured to have cost over £ 250 @,@ 000 and bankrupt Creation Records , claims which Shields has denied . Critical reception to Loveless was almost unanimous with praise although the album was not a commercial success . It peaked at number 24 on the UK Albums Chart but failed to chart elsewhere internationally . McGee dropped My Bloody Valentine from Creation Records soon after the release of Loveless , due to the album 's extensive recording period and interpersonal problems with Shields .
= = = Island Records and breakup : 1992 – 1997 = = =
My Bloody Valentine signed with Island Records in October 1992 for a reported £ 250 @,@ 000 contract . The band 's advance went towards the construction of a home studio in Streatham , South London , which was completed in April 1993 . Several technical problems with the studio sent the band into " semi @-@ meltdown " , according to Shields , who was rumoured to have been suffering from writer 's block . The band remained largely inactive , however , they recorded and released two cover songs from 1993 to 1996 — a rendering of " We Have All the Time in the World " by Louis Armstrong for Peace Together and a cover of " Map Ref . 41 ° N 93 ° W " by Wire for the tribute album Whore : Tribute to Wire .
In 1995 , Debbie Googe and Colm Ó Cíosóig left My Bloody Valentine . Googe , who briefly worked as a taxi driver following her departure , formed the indie rock supergroup Snowpony with Katharine Gifford of Moonshake and Ó Cíosóig relocated to the United States , forming Hope Sandoval & the Warm Inventions with Hope Sandoval of Mazzy Star . Shields and Butcher attempted to record a third studio album , which Shields claimed would be released in 1998 , however Butcher departed the band in 1997 . Unable to finalise a third album , Shields isolated himself , and in his own words " went crazy " , drawing comparisons in the music press to the eccentric behavior of other musicians , including Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys and Syd Barrett of Pink Floyd . Shields later became a touring member of Primal Scream , collaborated with a number of artists including Yo La Tengo , Dinosaur Jr . , and Le Volume Courbe and recorded songs for the soundtrack to the 2003 film Lost in Translation .
Rumours had spread amongst fans that albums worth of material had been recorded and shelved prior to the band 's break up . In 1999 , it was reported that Shields had delivered 60 hours of material to Island Records , and Butcher confirmed that there existed " probably enough songs to fill two albums . " Shields later admitted that at least one full album of " half @-@ finished " material was abandoned , stating " it was dead . It hadn 't got that spirit , that life in it . "
= = = Reunion and m b v : 2007 – present = = =
In August 2007 , reports emerged suggesting My Bloody Valentine would reunite for the 2008 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio , California , United States . Similar reports had circulated in 2003 , stating that Shields , Butcher and Ó Cíosóig were together in Berlin , Germany , re @-@ recording five songs recorded for Glider , which were due for release on an upcoming box set ; and in 2007 , reports suggested My Bloody Valentine were due to perform at a series of Pod @-@ organised concerts at the Irish Museum of Modern Art in Kilmainham , Dublin . Shields later confirmed the reunion and said that the band 's third studio album , which he had begun recording in 1996 , was near completion . Three live shows in the United Kingdom were announced in November 2007 and on 13 June 2008 , My Bloody Valentine performed in public for the first time in 16 years during two live rehearsals at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London .
My Bloody Valentine began an extensive worldwide tour throughout summer and autumn 2008 . The band began performing at European music festivals , including the Roskilde Festival in Roskilde , Denmark , Øyafestivalen in Oslo , Norway , and Electric Picnic in Stradbally , Ireland , as well as the Fuji Rock Festival in Niigata , Japan . From 19 to 21 September , the band curated and performed at the 2008 All Tomorrow 's Parties festival in New York , United States and later performed throughout North America , including dates in Chicago , Toronto , Denver , San Francisco , Los Angeles and Austin . The band spent £ 200 @,@ 000 on equipment for their world tour , which was their first since 1992 in support of Loveless .
Following additional touring in 2009 , My Bloody Valentine dedicated their time to completing their third album . Rumours of a My Bloody Valentine box set , which had circulated amongst the public in April 2008 following a listing on HMV Japan 's web site , began recirculating . In March 2012 , after a number of reported delays , Sony Music Ireland announced the release of the compilation album EP 's 1988 – 1991 — a collection of the band 's Creation Records extended plays , singles and unreleased tracks . The compilation album was released on 4 May 2012 , alongside remastered versions of Isn 't Anything and Loveless .
In November 2012 , Kevin Shields announced plans to release My Bloody Valentine 's third album online before the end of the year . In December , the band announced on Facebook that the album was completed and mastered , and on 27 January 2013 , during a warm @-@ up show at Electric Brixton in London , Shields told the audience that the album " might be out in two or three days . " The album , titled m b v , was released through the band 's official website on 2 February 2013 , although the site crashed on its launch due to high traffic . Upon its release , m b v received " universal acclaim " , according to Metacritic , and the band began a worldwide tour . Shields has since announced intentions to release a My Bloody Valentine EP " of all @-@ new material " , which will be followed by a fourth studio album .
= = Style = =
My Bloody Valentine 's musical style progressed throughout their career . The band were originally influenced by post @-@ punk , in particular The Birthday Party , The Cramps and Joy Division , and as author Mike McGonial noted , " brought together the least interesting elements " of their influences . Their debut mini album , This is Your Bloody Valentine ( 1985 ) , incorporated a further gothic rock sound which AllMusic referred to as " unfocused and derivative " . However , when the band began experimenting with indie pop melodies on The New Record by My Bloody Valentine ( 1986 ) , it marked " a vital point in the development of their sound " , which was influenced primarily by The Jesus and Mary Chain . The band later took a " rarified , effete and poppy approach to Byrdsian rock " with their two successive releases , " Strawberry Wine " and Ecstasy ( 1987 ) . Isn 't Anything , and its preceding release You Made Me Realise ( 1988 ) , were influenced by American indie rock bands , most notably Dinosaur Jr. and Sonic Youth , as well as hip hop music . Loveless ( 1991 ) was influenced by a wide range of genres , including dream pop , noise rock and house music . In the mid @-@ 1990s , during the recording of m b v ( 2013 ) , Kevin Shields and Colm Ó Cíosóig began experimenting with drum and bass music , which was an underground trend in London at the time . Elements of jungle music were incorporated into m b v , particularly the final three tracks — " In Another Way " , " Nothing Is " and " Wonder 2 " — which marked a further shift in My Bloody Valentine 's sound that Pitchfork Media referred to as " so surprising and ultimately powerful . "
One of the most recognisable aspects of My Bloody Valentine 's music is Shields ' guitar sound , which " use [ s ] texture more than technique to create vivid soundscapes . " During the late 1980s , Shields began customising the tremolo systems for his Fender Jaguars and Jazzmasters ; extending the tremolo arm and loosening it considerably , to allow him to manipulate the arm while strumming chords , which resulted in excessive pitch bending . Shields used a number of alternate and open tunings that together with his tremolo manipulation achieved " a strange warping effect that makes the music wander in and out of focus " , according to Rolling Stone . Shields ' most notable effect is reverse digital reverb , sourced from a Yamaha SPX90 effects unit . Together with the tremolo manipulation and distortion , he created a technique known as " glide guitar " . Shields effects rig , which is composed largely of distortion , graphic equalizers and tone controls , consists of at least 30 effects pedals and is connected to a large amount of amplifiers , which are often set to maximum volume to increase sustain . During live performances , and in particular the closing song " You Made Me Realise " , My Bloody Valentine perform an interlude of noise and excessive feedback , known as " the holocaust " , which would last for half an hour and often reached 130db . Shields later remarked " it was so loud it was like sensory deprivation . We just liked the fact that we could see a change in the audience at a certain point . "
Bilinda Butcher 's vocals have been referred to as a trademark of My Bloody Valentine 's sound , alongside Shields ' guitar techniques . On a number of occasions during the recording of Isn 't Anything and Loveless , Butcher was awoken and recorded vocals , which she said " influenced [ her ] sound " by making them " more dreamy and sleepy " . The vocals in most My Bloody Valentine 's recordings are low in the mix as Shields intended for the vocals to be used as an instrument . Critics have often described an androgynous sound to the band 's vocals . My Bloody Valentine 's lyrics are mostly written by Shields . However , Butcher wrote a third of the lyrics on both Isn 't Anything and Loveless , but has referred to a lot of the lyrics as " plain nonsense . " According to Butcher , she " didn 't have a plan and never thought about lyrics until it was time to write them . I just used whatever was in my head for the moment . " Some of her lyrics were written as a result of attempting to interpret rough versions of songs Shields had recorded . Butcher has said : " He [ Shields ] never sang any words on the cassettes I got but I tried to make his sounds into words . " Butcher and Shields would often spend eight to ten hours a night writing lyrics , even though few changes actually resulted , as Shields believed " there 's nothing worse than bad lyrics . " Spin writer Simon Reynolds has noted that the band 's lyrics often contain sexual themes , which are " a paradoxical blend of force and tenderness " .
= = Legacy = =
My Bloody Valentine are regarded as the pioneers of the alternative rock subgenre known as shoegazing , a term coined by Sounds journalists in the late 1980s to describe certain bands " motionless performing style , where they stood on stage and stared at the floor " . The band 's releases on Creation Records influenced other shoegazing acts , including Slowdive , Ride and Lush , and are regarded as providing a platform to allow the bands to become recognised . Following the release of Loveless ( 1991 ) , My Bloody Valentine were " poised for a popular breakthrough " , although never achieved mainstream success . However , the band are noted to have been " profoundly influential in the direction of ' 90s alternative rock " , according to AllMusic .
Several mainstream rock bands have cited My Bloody Valentine as an influence . The Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan was influenced by Isn 't Anything upon its release and attempted to recreate its sound on the band 's debut album Gish ( 1991 ) , particularly the closing track " Daydream " which Corgan described as " a complete rip @-@ off of the My Bloody Valentine sound . " The Smashing Pumpkins two successive studio albums , Siamese Dream ( 1993 ) and Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness ( 1995 ) , were also influenced by the band . Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails praised Loveless ' musical diversity and production , Courtney Love cited the band as an influence on Hole 's third album Celebrity Skin ( 1998 ) and the album has also been said to have made a considerable influence on Radiohead , particularly influencing the band 's textured guitar sound . The Edge , guitarist of U2 , cited Loveless as a major influence on the guitar sound on Achtung Baby ( 1991 ) and referred to My Bloody Valentine as " head and shoulders above a lot of what was going on at the time . "
Isn 't Anything and Loveless have been regarded as among the greatest albums of all time . Isn 't Anything was included in The Guardian 's list of " 1000 Albums to Hear Before You Die " and listed at number 22 on Pitchfork Media 's " Top 100 Albums of the 1980s . " Loveless was named the best album of the 1990s by Pitchfork Media in 1999 and in 2003 , the album was listed as number 219 on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . " In 2008 , both albums were featured on The Irish Times ' " Top 40 Irish Albums of All Time " list , where Isn 't Anything ranked at number 27 and Loveless at number 1 . In 2013 , Loveless placed third in the Irish Independent 's " Top 30 Irish Albums of All Time " list .
= = Members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Isn 't Anything ( 1988 )
Loveless ( 1991 )
MBV ( 2013 )
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= Dolphinarium =
A dolphinarium is an aquarium for dolphins . The dolphins are usually kept in a large pool , though occasionally they may be kept in pens in the open sea , either for research or for public performances . Some dolphinariums consist of one pool where dolphins perform for the public , others are part of larger parks , such as marine mammal parks , zoos or theme parks , with other animals and attractions as well .
While cetaceans have been held in captivity since the 1860s , the first commercial dolphinarium was opened only in 1938 . Their popularity increased rapidly until the 1960s . Since the 1970s , increasing concern for animal welfare led to stricter regulation , which in several countries ultimately resulted in the closure of some dolphinariums . Despite this trend , dolphinariums are still widespread in Europe , Japan and North America .
The most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums is the bottlenose dolphin , as it is relatively easy to train and has a long lifespan in captivity . While trade in dolphins is internationally regulated , other aspects of keeping dolphins in captivity , such as the minimum size and characteristics of pools , vary among countries . Though animal welfare is perceived to have improved significantly over the last few decades , many animal rights groups still consider keeping dolphins captive to be a form of animal abuse .
= = History = =
Though cetaceans have been held in captivity in both North America and Europe since the 1860s , the first being a pair of Beluga Whales in the New York museum , dolphins were first kept for paid entertainment in the Marine Studios dolphinarium founded in 1938 in St. Augustine , Florida . It was here that it was discovered that dolphins could be trained to perform tricks . Recognizing the success of Marine Studios , more dolphinariums began keeping dolphins for entertainment . In the 1960s , keeping dolphins in zoos and aquariums for entertainment purposes increased in popularity after the 1963 Flipper movie and subsequent Flipper television series . In 1966 , the first dolphin was exported to Europe . In these early days , dolphinariums could grow quickly due to a lack of legislation and lack of concern for animal welfare .
New legislation , most notably the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act in the United States , combined with a more critical view on animal welfare , forced many dolphinariums around the world to close . A prominent example is the United Kingdom ; in the early 1970s there were at least 36 dolphinariums and traveling dolphin shows , however , the last dolphinarium closed its doors in 1993 . The last dolphinarium in Hungary was closed in 1992 . In 2005 both Chile and Costa Rica prohibited keeping cetaceans captive . However , around 60 dolphinariums currently exist across Europe , of which 34 are within the EU . Japan , Mexico and the United States are also home to a relatively large number of dolphinariums .
= = Design = =
Many varied designs exist , but basic dolphinarium design for public performances often consists of stands for the public around a semi @-@ circular pool , sometimes with glass walls which allow underwater viewing , and a platform in the middle from which the trainers direct and present the show .
The water in the pools has to be constantly filtered to keep it clean for the dolphins and the spectators , and the temperature and composition of the water has to be controlled to match the conditions dolphins experience in the wild . In the absence of a common international regulation , guidelines regarding the minimum size of the pools vary between countries . To give an indication of pool sizes , the European Association for Aquatic Mammals recommends that a pool for five dolphins should have a surface area of 275 m2 ( 2 @,@ 960 sq ft ) plus an additional 75 m2 ( 810 sq ft ) for every additional animal , have a depth of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) and have a water volume of at least 1 @,@ 000 m3 ( 35 @,@ 000 cu ft ) with an additional 200 m3 ( 7 @,@ 100 cu ft ) for every additional animal . If two of these three conditions are met , and the third is not more than 10 % below standard , the EAAM considers the pool size to be acceptable .
= = Animals = =
= = = Species = = =
Various species of dolphins are kept in captivity as well as several other small whale species such as Harbour Porpoises , Finless Porpoises and Belugas , though in those cases the word dolphinarium may not be fitting as these are not true dolphins . Bottlenose Dolphins are the most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums as they are relatively easy to train , have a long lifespan in captivity and a friendly appearance . Hundreds if not thousands of Bottlenose Dolphins live in captivity across the world , though exact numbers are hard to determine . Orcas are well known for their performances in shows , but the number of Orcas kept in captivity is very small , especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins , with only 44 captive orcas being held in aquaria as of 2012 . Of all Orcas kept in captivity , the majority are located in the various SeaWorld parks in the United States . Other species kept in captivity are Spotted Dolphins , False Killer Whales , Pilot Whales and Common Dolphins , Commerson 's Dolphins , as well as Rough @-@ toothed Dolphins , but all in much lower numbers than the Bottlenose Dolphin . There are also fewer than ten , Amazon River Dolphins , Risso 's Dolphins , Spinner Dolphins , or Tucuxi in captivity . Two unusual and very rare hybrid dolphins known as Wolphins are kept at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii , which are a cross between a Bottlenose Dolphin and a False Killer Whale . Also two Common / Bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity : one at Discovery Cove and the other SeaWorld San Diego .
= = = Trade and capture = = =
In the early days , many Bottlenose dolphins were wild @-@ caught off the coast of Florida . Though the Marine Mammal Protection Act , established in 1972 , allows an exception for the collection of dolphins for public display and research purposes when a permit is obtained , Bottlenose dolphins have not been captured in American waters since 1989 . In most Western countries , breeding programs have been set up to provide the dolphinariums with new animals . To achieve a sufficient birth rate and to prevent inbreeding , artificial insemination ( AI ) is occasionally used . The use of AI also allows dolphinariums to increase the genetic diversity of their population without having to bring in any dolphins from other facilities .
The trade of dolphins is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( also known as the Washington Convention or CITES ) . Endangered dolphin species are included in CITES ’ Appendix I , in which case trade is permitted only in exceptional circumstances . Species considered not to be threatened with extinction are included in Appendix II , in which case trade “ must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival ” . Most cetacean species traded for display in captivity to the public or for use in swimming with dolphins and other interaction programs are listed on Appendix II .
However , live dolphins trade still continues . A live Bottlenose Dolphin is estimated to be worth between a few thousand to several tens of thousands of US dollars , depending on age , condition and prior training . Captures are reported to be on the rise in the South Pacific and the Caribbean , Cuba has also been an exporter of dolphins in recent years , this being organized by the Acuario Nacional de Cuba . In recent years , the Solomon Islands have also allowed the collection and export of dolphins for public display facilities . A 2005 law banned the export of dolphins , however , this ban was seemingly overturned in 2007 when some 28 dolphins were shipped to Dubai . Some , mainly Japanese , dolphinariums obtain their dolphins from local drive hunts , though several other countries in Asia also import dolphins from Japan . Several American dolphinariums had also done so . This practice was halted in 1993 , when the US National Marine Fisheries Service refused a permit for Marine World Africa USA to import four False Killer Whales caught in a Japanese drive hunt .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Animal welfare = = =
Many animal welfare groups such as the World Animal Protection consider keeping dolphins in captivity to be a form of animal abuse . The main arguments are that dolphins do not have enough freedom of movement in pools , regardless of pool size , ( in the wild , dolphins swim hundreds of miles every day ) and do not get enough stimulation . Dolphins often show repetitive behavior in captivity and sometimes become aggressive towards other animals or people . In some cases , the behavior of dolphins in captivity also results in their own death .
The lifespan of dolphins in captivity is another subject of debate . Research has shown that Orcas indeed have a much lower survival rate in captivity ; however , there is no significant difference between wild and captive survival rates for Bottlenose dolphins . This does not , however , reflect a global state of affairs : for example , Bottlenose dolphins in captive facilities in Jamaica suffer from extremely high mortality rates .
Some scientists suggest that the " unusually high " intelligence of dolphins means that they should be recognized as " non @-@ human persons " . In 2013 , the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests prohibited the captivity of dolphins on these grounds , finding it " morally unacceptable to keep them captive for entertainment purpose " .
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= Hadong Ambush =
The Hadong Ambush was an engagement between United States and North Korean forces , occurring on July 27 , 1950 , in the village of Hadong in southern South Korea , early in the Korean War . The fight ended in a North Korean victory following a successful ambush of US forces which resulted in heavy American casualties .
The US Army 's 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , a newly formed unit consisting mostly of inexperienced new arrivals , was ordered to move to the South Korean village of Hadong to hold the pass there from advancing forces of the North Korean People 's Army . Unprepared for combat , the American forces walked into an ambush in which most of the battalion 's command staff was killed in the pass , leaving lower @-@ ranking soldiers to mount a disorganized defence against North Korean troops occupying prepared positions on higher ground .
For three hours the battalion fought , pinned in a crossfire by North Korean soldiers on higher ground . North Korean forces were able to divide the American force and kill most of its commanders , further disorganizing the men . Following the failed operation , the wounded US commander ordered a withdrawal , which quickly became disorganized , resulting in hundreds of casualties . Destroyed after its first engagement , the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment was disbanded and merged with other units as the North Korean forces advanced through the pass and attacked US positions to the east .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , and the subsequent outbreak of the Korean War as a result , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States subsequently sent ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II in 1945 , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , which was headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow follow @-@ on forces to arrive . The division was consequently outnumbered and outgunned for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , and other Eighth Army supporting units to move into position . South Korean forces in the meantime were systematically defeated and forced south along Korea 's east coast , with entire divisions being overrun by the North Koreans ' superior firepower and equipment . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in battles around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th Infantry Division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , being almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces from advancing until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region at around 70 @,@ 000 for each side , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = Replacements arrive = = =
On July 20 , 400 hastily assembled US Army recruits arrived in Okinawa aboard the USS Walker . The inexperienced soldiers were assigned to the 29th Infantry Regiment , 2nd Infantry Division , a command that was preparing other battalions to move into Korea and to relieve the other units of the 24th Infantry Division . The new formations , now consisting mostly of soldiers who had no combat experience and grouped into two battalions , were immediately sent into Pusan . The headquarters of the regiment remained behind to form a new regiment . This regiment would originally be in charge of the defense of Okinawa but would later be rushed into Korea . The two battalions landed in Pusan on July 21 and were assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division , but they retained their designations as the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the 29th Infantry Regiment . Instead of being given time to train and prepare to enter the front lines , the battalions were immediately sent to the regiment 's sector at Chinju . By July 22 the units were on the front lines with new equipment . The equipment , fresh from production lines , was not prepared for combat , despite promises from several commanders that the unit would be given time to do so .
= = Battle = =
American planners believed that the Hadong area was under attack from elements of the North Korean 4th Infantry Division , having just received replacements following its victory at Taejon . However , the soldiers in the area were actually from the North Korean 6th Infantry Division under the command of General Pang Ho San . The two divisions were coordinating to envelop the UN 's left flank and were extremely spread out . Therefore , only groups of a few hundred were advancing through the region , some with small numbers of tanks .
= = = Arrival = = =
Immediately after arrival , the commanding officer of the 19th Infantry Regiment , Colonel Ned D. Moore , ordered the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment to move out and seize the Hadong pass , a road junction 35 miles ( 56 km ) southwest of Chinju , where about 500 North Korean soldiers were reported to be moving . Eighth Army had also received reports that the North Koreans had been fighting South Korean police who were resisting in the village of Hadong , one mile west of the pass . The battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Harold W. Mott , alerted his troops , and at 0030 on July 26 , the battalion departed alone on its mission . It had a strength of 925 men . The battalion was to hold the pass , a southern route into Pusan , from any advancing North Korean forces . Hadong was seen as a significant path into Chinju , despite its lack of defenses .
The North Koreans , in the meantime , advanced to Hadong and captured the village which was lightly defended by a group of South Korean police , as no military was available due to manpower shortages . The Koreans , members of the NK 6th Division , set up in roads east of the village and began sending probes and scout parties to the east . The move was part of a larger coordinated operation by the 6th Division to take Chinju , and then Masan , in hopes of flanking the UN lines at their vulnerable southern limit . Thinking the UN units were disorganized and suffering low morale , NK 6th Division commander General Pang Ho San ordered his forces to aggressively advance to Chinju as quickly as possible .
Accompanying the 3rd Battalion was South Korean Major General Chae Byong Duk , South Korea 's Army Chief of Staff who had been relieved after the fall of Seoul . Having fallen out of favor with the South Korean command , Chae was to be an interpreter and guide for 3rd Battalion on its mission . He accompanied the battalion with only a few of his aides . The battalion was forced to take several detours through Konyang because of impassable roads , and it was delayed in its arrival to Hadong . Shortly before dawn , the troops encountered a truck of 15 South Korean militia who claimed they were the remains of a 400 @-@ man unit that had been wiped out by North Korean forces in the area . Mott sent his executive officer back to the command post to ask Moore for further instructions , and Moore ordered them to proceed with the mission . Because the battalion had no radio equipment it was forced to send a runner to relay this information , and he returned by nightfall , forcing the battalion to encamp in the village of Hoengchon , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Hadong , for the night .
= = = Ambush = = =
At 0845 on July 27 the battalion moved out towards the Hadong pass , arriving within an hour . When it was within 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) of the pass , L Company at the head of the formation spotted a North Korean patrol . The company 's heavy weapons were fired at the patrol , forcing it to withdraw but causing no casualties . L Company then rushed the pass and dug in at 0930 , waiting for a scheduled airstrike on the village of Hadong 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west at 0945 . Behind L Company was the battalion command group , followed by K and M Companies , with I Company covering the rear . The battalion 's command group , including Mott , Chae and most of the senior officers , approached the pass as L Company took cover on the left side of the road . As they approached the pass , a company of North Korean soldiers was spotted up the road , part of a scouting party looking to probe further east . L Company was preparing to ambush the North Koreans when they got closer , but before this could happen , Chae called out to the Koreans demanding they identify themselves . The North Koreans immediately ducked for cover in the ditches on the side of the road , and L Company opened fire on them .
Immediately the American forces were hit with machine gun and mortar fire from the north ridge , where North Korean troops had been dug in . The first burst of machine gun fire killed Chae and wounded most of the other commanders , including Mott . Mott managed to make it to the ditch where American forces dug him a foxhole , but soon after all the Americans in his vicinity were killed or withdrew and he was left alone and unable to communicate with the rest of the battalion . North Korean forces had the US battalion in a crossfire on higher ground , both from the pass and from the ridge . Mortar fire knocked out many parked vehicles , including the radio jeep of a US Air Force tactical air @-@ control party which was to direct airstrikes . During the fight two flights of US aircraft flew over the area trying in vain to contact the party , and when unable to do so , left the area without making any strikes .
The 3rd Battalion had walked into a prepared North Korean ambush , suffering a bombardment of mortar and machine gun fire from prepared and hidden North Korean positions , and almost its entire command group was eliminated within a minute of the first shot being fired . L Company , at the pass , was heavily engaged with the North Korean forces higher on the hill . The company 's 1st Platoon sustained a direct assault on its foxholes , with two members of the company killed by bayonets . L Company was separated from the rest of the battalion by North Korean forces advancing on its position further up the ridge . K Company attempted to move up to relieve it but was unable to do so . However , the company held in place . Meanwhile , I Company began moving up the hill to provide support . North Korean forces were able to cut the battalion into disorganized groups , with L Company engaging forces in the pass and I Company under attack from forces on the north ridge behind them . By noon , the North Korean forces on the higher ground had enveloped the American forces .
= = = American withdrawal = = =
At 1200 , Mott was brought to the position of L Company commander Captain George F. Sharra . Mott ordered Sharra to take command and organize a retreat . Sharra ordered his three platoons to withdraw . A battalion of North Korean soldiers began moving down the pass towards the American positions . Men of I Company were forced to withdraw through rice paddies south of the pass , being strafed by mortar and machine gun fire in the process . They also had to cross a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) -wide stream in the retreat , and some drowned in the process . Most of the Americans were forced to discard weapons , equipment and clothing in the retreat . Many of the men of L Company , as well as some of the wounded , were able to evacuate by truck .
Survivors from 3rd Battalion disengaged from the battle in groups . The largest group of 97 survivors moved 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south to the small port of Noryangjin where a fishing vessel carried them out to a South Korean patrol boat . Other groups of soldiers escaped into the hills while some had to fight their way back to Chinju . Most of the battalion 's officers were casualties in the fight , and the scattered and disorganized retreat destroyed the battalion . Stragglers continued to wander into the 19th Infantry 's lines throughout the rest of the day .
= = Aftermath = =
More than half of the American battalion was lost during its first engagement . Only 354 members of the battalion , including some walking wounded , were able to report for duty the next day . A captured North Korean soldier reported that around 100 men had been captured at Hadong . A later search uncovered 313 American bodies , most along the river and in the rice paddies south of the pass . Official casualties for the Americans in the battle were 242 killed , 135 wounded , 51 captured , and 67 missing , for a total of 495 casualties . However , two of the prisoners died in captivity and all but four of the missing were found dead , leaving the total number killed during the battle at 307 . Over 30 vehicles and practically all of the soldiers ' weapons used by 3rd Battalion were lost . Casualties of North Korean forces could not be estimated by the American units .
The shattered 3rd Battalion traveled back to Chinju to join the 19th Infantry Regiment . There it was disbanded and its remaining men were assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment , which itself had suffered heavy losses . Meanwhile , the 1st Battalion , 29th Infantry was sent to Anui to the north , where it was attacked and pushed back repeatedly by the North Korean 4th Infantry Division . On July 31 , the North Korean 6th Infantry Division struck Chinju , pushing back the 19th Infantry Regiment and the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry , forcing them to withdraw east . This left the southern entries to Pusan open , but the North Korean 6th Division was unable to exploit it due to its extended supply line . The 6th Division eventually advanced further east , attempting to capture the city of Masan , but newly reorganized troops of the US Army repulsed them and inflicted heavy casualties on them less than a week later during the Battle of the Notch .
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= The Boat Race 1859 =
The 16th Boat Race took place on 15 April 1859 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In extremely rough conditions , and after Cambridge 's request for a postponement was rejected , Oxford won as Cambridge sank , the first time in the history of the event that one of the crews did not complete the course .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in the previous year 's race . They led overall with nine wins to Oxford 's six .
For the 1859 race , Oxford instigated a new method of crew selection : trial eights . Prior to this , the selection of crew was made on the recommendations of the College boat club captains . Oxford boat club president John Arkell remarked " it will not do to trust too much the jugdment ( sic ) of the College captains . " Following a race between the two trial eights , the final crew was selected eight weeks prior to the race . Cambridge would not introduce this selection method until the 1868 race . Oxford began training on 14 March with an outing almost every day between then and 13 April . Cambridge , on the other hand , arrived in London six days before the race and made just three outings on the Thames . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
Oxford saw the return of three former Blues in Lane , Risley and Arkell , all of whom rowed in the 1858 race . Cambridge welcomed back five former rowers , including Archibald Levin Smith who had rowed in both the 1857 and 1858 races . Oxford 's crew weighed an average of 11 st 8 @.@ 75 lb ( 73 @.@ 6 kg ) , approximately 3 @.@ 25 pounds ( 1 @.@ 47 kg ) per man more than their opponents .
= = Race = =
The weather was inclement , with the sky overcast by heavy clouds and gale @-@ force winds ; according to a report in The Times , " it would not have been easy to pitch on a more unfavourable day for an eight @-@ oared race " . Although Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourites , they requested a postponement because of the conditions . Oxford refused the request ; Cambridge lost the toss and were handed the Surrey station for the start . The Middlesex station provided Oxford considerable relief from the rough water and wind .
Oxford 's boat was heavily criticised : " it was everything but what was right " , but it became quickly apparent that the Cambridge boat was too light for the conditions , and began taking on water from the moment it left the shore . Oxford made a good start and after the first mile , were two @-@ to @-@ three lengths ahead of Cambridge . Conditions soon worsened : some of the steamboats in the flotilla following the crews looked " bound to capsize " . By Hammersmith Bridge the Cambridge boat was " ankle deep in water " and was sinking under the rough water . Oxford took the opportunity to extend their lead and pulled away from their opponents and the boats following . As Cambridge 's vessel sank opposite The White Hart pub at Mortlake , some crew were picked up by boats , others swam to the shore .
Oxford recorded a winning time of 24 minutes and 4 seconds and took the overall record to 9 – 7 in favour of Cambridge . It was the first time in the event 's history that a boat sank .
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= Number 1 ( Goldfrapp song ) =
" Number 1 " is an electronic – dance song performed by British group Goldfrapp . The song was written and produced by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory for the duo 's third album Supernature ( 2005 ) . The song features a synthesizer and bass arrangement and was written about the importance and meaningfulness that somebody shares with another , despite that it might not necessarily last .
The song was released as the album 's second single in October 2005 to positive reviews from music critics . It was a commercial success , reaching the top forty on the majority of the charts it entered , and topped the U.S. dance chart . The song has been remixed a number of times and was featured in advertising campaigns for the U.S. retail company Target .
= = Background and writing = =
" Number 1 " is a mid @-@ tempo electronic love song about the importance and meaningfulness that somebody shares with another , despite that it might not necessarily last . The song was composed as a collaborative effort between Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory in late 2004 in the countryside of Bath , England . The song was written and recorded while Goldfrapp and Gregory were jamming in the recording studio , bouncing song ideas off each other . According to Goldfrapp , the song 's lyrics are " a little bit more reflective and sensual " than those she had composed on Felt Mountain ( 2000 ) and Black Cherry ( 2003 ) .
" Number 1 " is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form and features instrumentation from synthesizers and a bass guitar . It contains a synth and bass arrangement that the duo would use frequently on the rest of Supernature . Most of the song was composed on an old Roland String synth keyboard because Goldfrapp enjoyed the sounds that it exudes .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Number 1 " was directed by Dawn Shadforth and filmed in London , England in 2005 . The video is set in a plastic surgery clinic where the staff and the patients , except Alison Goldfrapp , have a dog 's head and a human body . The video 's theme is a reference to the song 's lyrics in which Goldfrapp sings " I 'm like a dog to get you " . The video depicts the story of a white poodle who is being operated on by Great Dane and Yorkshire Terrier surgeons ( the receptionist and attendant nurses are saluki ) . Scenes of Alison Goldfrapp acting like a dog and dancing with the clinic 's staff are intercut throughout the video .
The video premiered in the UK in early October 2005 . The complete version of " Number 1 " featured in the music video has been released commercially through CD singles and digital downloads , and some include remixes by Alan Braxe and Fred Falke .
= = Marketing and release = =
In October 2005 , Goldfrapp performed " Number 1 " on British television shows and toured Europe , playing the single and other new songs . The duo performed only one concert in North America at the Nokia Theatre in New York City on 5 December 2005 . The U.S. concert sold out rapidly , which overwhelmed Goldfrapp who did not expect the large turnout . In late 2006 , " Number 1 " was featured in Christmas advertising campaigns for the U.S. retail company Target . The song , along with " Fly Me Away " , was featured in six winter @-@ themed television commercials .
" Number 1 " was released as a various formats throughout the world . While most territories received a CD single and digital download release , the single was released as a vinyl single in November 2005 in the UK . A DVD single was also issued and included the " Postcards from the Summer " music video and a special performance film for " Satin Chic " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Number 1 " received positive reviews from music critics . MusicOMH.com 's Michael Hubbard described it as a " warmer , calmer and cosier " song than previous single " Ooh La La " , and wrote that " it maintains those Numanoid synth riffs that Goldfrapp now do so well " . Allmusic gave the song a strong review , indicating it as a track pick from the album , commenting that " Number 1 " " nails the laid @-@ back sexiness that many of the other slower songs [ on Supernature ] attempt " . Stylus Magazine gave Supernature a C + rating but called the song " refreshing and effective " , while About.com wrote that the track was " a stunning profession of love served up over electronic burbles and bouncy bass . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Number 1 " entered the UK Singles Chart on 7 November 2005 at number nine , remaining on the chart for four weeks . Outside of the UK , the song was also successful . It reached number twenty @-@ nine in Ireland and became Goldfrapp 's second top fifty single on the singles chart . The song reached the top forty in Italy and the top one @-@ hundred in Germany .
In Canada , the song was released on 1 November 2005 , and debuted at number twelve on the singles chart before rising to number seven eighteen weeks later . Although the single sold considerably , " Number 1 " did not chart on the Canadian BDS Airplay chart , receiving most of its sales from its fans in the dance clubs . Due to favourable reception , " Number 1 " was released in the United States . Goldfrapp had previously found success in the dance clubs with " Strict Machine " ( 2003 ) , and " Number 1 " became their second consecutive release to reach the top of the Billboard Dance Chart . The song also reached number one on the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Singles Sales charts .
= = Alternate versions = =
Alan Braxe and Fred Falke made the most well @-@ known remix of the song , titled the " Alan Braxe and Fred Falke Main Mix " , which was included on the CD single . The track , over seven minutes long , uses Goldfrapp 's original vocals and features more prominent beats and synthesizers . The remix received mixed reviews from music critics . Stylus Magazine labeled it one of the " best club mixes " , while Pop Journalism Magazine called the remix " dismal " and a poor choice . Braxe and Falk also created two other remixes , " Alan Braxe and Fred Falke Club Remix " and " Alan Braxe and Fred Falke Instrumental Remix " , which appeared on the UK vinyl single . Icelandic electronic group Múm created the " Múm Remix " , which provided the song with a minimalist ambient sound . The remix was included on Goldfrapp 's remix album We Are Glitter in 2006 , and the home console version of the dancing video game Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2 in 2007 . A cover version by Jont appears on the 2007 compilation album , The Saturday Sessions : The Dermot O 'Leary Show .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Number 1 " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following people contributed to " Number 1 " :
Alison Goldfrapp – lead vocals , backing vocals , synthesizer
Will Gregory – synthesizer
Nick Batt – synthesizer , programming
Dave Bascombe - vocal arrangement
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
Ted Jensen – mastering
= = Charts = =
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= Barryville – Shohola Bridge =
The Barryville – Shohola Bridge is the fifth generation of bridges constructed over the Delaware River at the communities of Shohola Township , Pennsylvania and Barryville , New York . The bridge serves both communities , with two major state legislative highways , Pennsylvania Traffic Route 434 and New York State Touring Route 55 ( along with the co @-@ designation of Sullivan County Route 11 ) . The bridge itself is 812 feet ( 247 m ) long and is 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) wide , using four total spans across the river . It is maintained by the NY – PA Joint Interstate Bridge Commission , which is jointly owned by the states of New York and Pennsylvania .
The area of the bridge itself dates as a ford for Native Americans , mostly the Lenni Lenapi , traveling between from the Wyoming valley and Delaware Valley and present @-@ day Connecticut in the early 18th century ; archaeologists date human habitation and use of the area to 10 @,@ 900 BCE . The river at Shohola , which means " place of peace , " widens perceptibly above the falls , allowing for a natural , shallow crossing . By the early 19th century , a ferry facilitated crossing the river . Due to the construction of the nearby Delaware and Hudson Canal in 1827 , commerce and business boomed in the area . In 1856 , a bridge company , under the leadership of Chauncey Thomas , constructed a span between the two communities , but it was poorly designed and collapsed during a windstorm in 1859 . Thomas then constructed a suspension bridge , but its cables snapped in 1865 .
In 1866 , the bridge was reconstructed as a two @-@ lane , single span wooden suspension structure and remained in use for over seventy years . Ownership changed several times , eventually ending with the bridge in the control of the Joint Delaware River Bridge Commission . The bridge was replaced again in 1941 for $ 174 @,@ 300 ( 1941 USD ( $ 2 @,@ 804 @,@ 200 in 2016 ) ) , with a steel truss span . This structure lasted another sixty @-@ five years , finally deteriorating until the demolition of the structure in 2007 , upon completion of the new bridge .
= = Early history = =
Originally the site of a ford , the area was used by the Lenni Lenape and Delawares on their way to and from the shores of present @-@ day Long Island Sound . The original trail followed the Shohola Creek , where it enters the Delaware , to a location along the eastern bank of the river near Shohola . By the end of the 18th century , European settlers operated a ferry near the current span , crossing between Shohola to a settlement on the opposite bank , that later became Barryville . The 1827 construction of the Delaware and Hudson Canal and the subsequent construction of the Erie Railroad in 1849 ) accentuated the need for a bridge to accommodate the increase in population and business in the area .
= = First two spans ( 1856 – 1865 ) = =
As the need for a bridge from Shohola to Barryville grew , the Shohola and Barryville Bridge Company , formed in 1854 , planned the construction of the first bridge . The company 's president , Chauncey Thomas , attempted to hire John Augustus Robeling , a bridge expert , who was building a bridge in the Niagara region of New York and Canada ( which came to be known as the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge ) , which was to be built as an 821 feet ( 250 m ) two @-@ deck span over the Niagara River , and who had completed successful spans over the rivers in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania .
Roebling declined the offer but gave Thomas verbal and written instructions on its construction during a visit to the Niagara construction site . Thomas returned to Shohola and supervised the construction himself , using some inexperienced local men he hired . A respected historian , John Willard Johnston , who knew Chauncey Thomas personally , visited the bridge and told the owner at the time that Thomas was very inexperienced in bridge construction . The result of the construction was a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide , double @-@ span bridge that was 495 feet ( 151 m ) long but which had no underlying span support . The bridge stood 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) above the waters of the Delaware to avoid flooding , and cost a total of $ 9 @,@ 000 ( 1856 USD ( $ 237 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . The rapid growth of the area due to the construction of the Canal and the Erie Railroad meant the bridge was immediately in heavy use .
Thomas ' wire @-@ rope span bridge was damaged by a severe wind storm on July 2 , 1859 , exactly three years after it opened . The storm , which destroyed almost the entire bridge , was not a singular experience . Wind storms often build in the river valley , bring strong winds down the valley against weaker pressure systems to the south and east . A man and a woman who were crossing the bridge were injured when it collapsed . The local ferry , which had been out of commission for only three years , was still in good condition and re @-@ fitted for use in 1859 , to operate along the remaining abutments and piers that survived the storm .
The bridge was rebuilt quickly , again under the supervision of Thomas , who was still company president . Thomas was able to complete the bridge , and ended up raising a total cost for construction of $ 4 @,@ 000 ( 1859 USD ( $ 105 @,@ 300 in 2016 ) ) ) , an expedient necessitated by the lack of funds in the company treasury . Shortly after the new construction , Thomas was replaced by James E. Gardner as company president ; Gardner died soon after his election , and was succeeded by Napoleon B. Johnson . Johnson ran the bridge company well , and remained as president of the corporation for several years . However , on January 1 , 1865 , the cables snapped under the weight of mules and wagons , and the entire bridge fell into the river , injuring the wagoners , and drowning three of the mules . Once again , ferries filled the needs that were previously fulfilled by the suspension bridge .
= = Third span ( 1866 – 1939 ) = =
With the second span of the Barryville – Shohola Suspension Bridge having fallen into the Delaware River in 1865 , the bridge company that maintained the span fell into a financial depression . After the destruction of the second span , company president Johnson had borrowed money for the company itself that he was unable to pay back . In 1865 , company had no funds to repair the partially collapsed bridge , nor credit to borrow any . The former president Chauncey Thomas bought the bankrupt company in a sheriff 's sale for $ 1 @,@ 979 ( 1865 USD ( $ 30 @,@ 600 in 2016 ) ) . Thomas was now the sole owner of the wrecked bridge .
To repair the bridge , Thomas would need to receive and pay more money , and he did . Along with the complete repair in 1866 , another pier was added to increase the stability of the weak structure . The 1866 construction was considerably stronger , compared to the two previous spans , due to major renovations . The old cables that snapped had been replaced by newer , stronger ones . Thomas also gave the span a new deck floor , a bridge railing and new stringers . The bridge was much better cared for this time around , as it also survived a local flood in 1903 and an icestorm in the early months of spring 1904 .
Chauncey Thomas died at his home in Shohola on October 5 , 1882 , sixteen years after the new bridge was repaired . Since Thomas had never written a will , estate and property were divided between his children and his grandchildren . A friend to the Thomas family , Stephen St. John Gardiner , became the administrator of the estate . With the job , Gardiner was able to buy the bridge . He became controller and majority of the bridge 's stock .
By the start of the 20th century , regional economic conditions changed . The Delaware and Hudson Canal Company had closed , as had local logging and mining companies . Shohola and Barryville had become summer resorts and the now @-@ aging antique bridge had become a local picturesque attraction for out @-@ of @-@ town visitors . On June 26 , 1920 , the suspension bridge was bought by the Joint Bridge Commission of Pennsylvania and New York for $ 22 @,@ 600 @.@ 00 ( 1923 USD ( $ 267 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) ) . Half of the $ 22 @,@ 600 @.@ 00 was to be paid for by the state of New York , the other by Pennsylvania . The toll that was used on the span was removed . The single @-@ lane , aging structure , now owned by the commission , served the local residents well into the new century . However , the old age of the bridge showed on the bridge itself . In 1939 , the commission closed off the structurally deficient bridge to traffic , and began looking into ways to build a new bridge in the area . In 1940 , the bridge was reopened for light , local car traffic. but demolished in 1941 , when the fourth and then @-@ newest span of the bridge was opened .
= = Fourth span ( 1941 – 2007 ) = =
The Joint Bridge Commission of Pennsylvania and New York hired the Whittaker and Diehl Company in early of 1941 to construct a $ 174 @,@ 300 ( 1941 USD ( $ 2 @,@ 804 @,@ 200 in 2016 ) ) steel , two @-@ lane truss bridge to replace the aging structure .
With the construction , there was a tunnel built on the Pennsylvania side for the Erie Railroad line that went nearby . This helped end the constant traffic jams and accidents caused by the railroad crossing . This bridge was slightly downriver from the former spans . The bridge itself was 742 @.@ 12 feet ( 226 @.@ 20 m ) long , consisted of three spans , and was 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide . It had an average daily traffic rate of 1 @,@ 635 people in 2004 . Replacing the fourth bridge , according to the United States Department of Transportation , would cost about $ 5 @,@ 628 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD , $ 6 @,@ 183 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) ) .
The fourth span went into commission just days before Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 . After the United States entered World War II , construction and reconstruction in the area had ended , while the nation transformed into a war economy. and the residents had received their new bridge span just in time . The bridge structure lasted through World War II and several river floods . The bridge lasted for several decades , until the start of the 21st century , when plans were made to replace the deteriorating truss structure .
= = Fifth span ( 2007 – present ) = =
With the deterioration of the fourth span , the bridge commission and the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation started construction on a $ 9 @.@ 38 million ( 2007 USD ( $ 10 @,@ 704 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) ) concrete bridge with steel beams connecting Traffic Route 434 on the Pennsylvania side ( assigned in 1967 ) and Touring Route 55 / Sullivan County Route 11 ( assigned in 1930 ) . The construction began on February 2004 , and since there was no place to perform a groundbreaking ceremony , the construction company hired , Fahs Construction Group of Binghamton , New York performed a " bridge @-@ breaking " ceremony on March 25 , 2004 , taking sledgehammers to the bridge . The bridge was expected to have resemble the Roebling Aqueduct , which lay to the north in Minisink Ford , New York . The bridge was proposed to be 812 feet ( 247 m ) with twin 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) travel lanes and an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) shoulder . It was to also have three balconies facing upstream of the Delaware River , to offer travelers scenic views .
A number of difficulties and unforeseen circumstances delayed construction . First , the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission had been conducting archaeological digs in the area since 1996 , and had found a variety of artifacts dating from the Clovis period , with radio carbon age dating around 10 @,@ 900 BCE , making them one of the oldest sites in the eastern United States ; the sites also includes evidence of food , making it one of the rarer paleolithic finds . The next circumstance was that there was worry that the construction of the bridge might affect the river ecosystem , particularly some of the river water organisms . After some regulations were added and problems were sorted out , the construction continued . The third issue was that the bridge may run into problems with boaters , and therefore , the bridge was given the same regulations as bridges upstream . Finally , the Delaware 's low water level meant that barges could not be used in the construction . When Hurricane Ivan struck in 2004 , the water level rose , allowing for the use of the barges , but destroying several construction items used for the bridge in the process .
The bridge , which had an estimated completion in the autumn of 2006 according to the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , was opened on @-@ time in October 26 , 2006 . This closed the old 1940 structure from use , coned off from Route 434 and Route 55 . Once abutment work was finished , the now Fahs @-@ Rolson Construction Company began demolishing the old structure . However , unfinished paving work was completed in October 2007 . The total cost for the replacement project came out in 2009 at $ 11 @.@ 62 million ( 2007 USD ( $ 12 @,@ 816 @,@ 800 in 2016 ) ) .
The bridge had temporary fencing and new walkways along a six @-@ lane span , with locals saying that the stone structure fitting into the looks of the scenic Delaware River Valley . The old bridge was demolished after construction completed .
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= Ahmed Zayat =
Ahmed Zayat ( born August 31 , 1962 ) is an Egyptian American entrepreneur and owner of Thoroughbred race horses . He currently serves as the CEO of Zayat Stables , LLC , a Thoroughbred horse racing business which bred and owns the 2015 Triple Crown winner American Pharoah . Joe Drape of The New York Times described Zayat as " controversial " and " one of the most successful and flamboyant owners in thoroughbred racing . "
Zayat was born in Cairo , Egypt to a wealthy family , and grew up in an ethnically @-@ diverse neighborhood where he learned to ride horses . At age 18 , he moved to the United States where he attended college and ultimately obtained a master 's degree in business and public health from Boston University . After a brief career in commercial real estate in New York City , he returned to Egypt , and for about a decade ran the Al @-@ Ahram Beverages Company , which he owned as part of an investment group . After the company was purchased by Heineken in 2002 , Zayat stayed on a few more years but also began investing in racehorses and established Zayat Stables in 2005 . Upon returning to the United States for good in 2007 , he made his racing stables his full @-@ time occupation , working with his son , Justin , to build the business .
While generally successful with his race horses , his goal of winning the Kentucky Derby eluded him several times , including three second @-@ place finishes , until his win with American Pharoah . He also filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings in 2010 when a bank called a note due and tried to foreclose on his horses . Zayat Stables successfully completed its Chapter 11 reorganization , but Zayat was next plagued by legal issues related to his penchant for betting large sums of money on horse racing . Nonetheless , Zayat generated considerable positive publicity on social media for his efforts to save his racehorse Paynter from life @-@ threatening health problems , a successful struggle that earned the colt the 2012 NTRA Moment of the Year Award and Secretariat Vox Populi Award .
The Zayat family are Orthodox Jews . He currently lives in Teaneck , New Jersey with his wife , Joanne . They have four children : Ashley , Justin , Benjamin , and Emma . Their eldest son , Justin , helps run the Zayat Stables operation , and their youngest , Emma , inspired the name of Littleprincessemma , dam of American Pharoah .
= = Early career and personal life = =
Ahmed Zayat ( / zə 'jɑːt / ; Arabic : أحمد الزيات ) , also known as Ephraim David Zayat ( Hebrew : אפרים דוד זיאת ) , was born in Egypt in 1962 to an affluent Egyptian Jewish family and grew up an ethnically diverse neighborhood in the Cairo suburb of Maadi . His father , Alaa al @-@ Zayat , was a prominent doctor and professor of medicine , a personal physician to Anwar Sadat . His grandfather , Ahmed Hasan al @-@ Zayyat , was a leading intellectual who established the Egyptian literary magazine al @-@ Risala , described as " the most important intellectual weekly in 1930s Egypt and the Arab world . " Born into what was then a peasant family , the earlier al @-@ Zayyat studied at Al @-@ Azhar University before taking up legal studies in Cairo and Paris ; he taught Arabic literature at American University in Cairo , and for three years in Baghdad , before founding al @-@ Risala in 1933 .
As a young man , Ahmed Zayat learned to ride horses at the local country club . Zayat competed in show jumping during his early teens , winning national titles as a child in the under @-@ 12 and under @-@ 14 age divisions . He moved to the United States at the age of 18 , and earned an undergraduate degree from Yeshiva University . He obtained a master 's degree in public health administration from Boston University . Though the Zayat Stables , LLC website once stated that Zayat attended Harvard University , he did not . After graduation , he worked for Zev Wolfson , a New York City commercial real estate developer and investor . Zayat described Wolfson as " the toughest guy I ever worked for ... such a perfectionist . A great negotiator . "
Zayat returned to Egypt in 1995 and formed an investment group , which purchased the Al @-@ Ahram Beverages Company in 1997 , outbidding Anheuser @-@ Busch and Heineken International . Al @-@ Ahram had been owned by the Egyptian government and Zayat had helped find American investors to take over government @-@ owned businesses that had been nationalized by Gamal Abdel Nasser back in the 1950s . The original beer product was of poor quality , mocked as being able to " power heavy machinery if there was no diesel fuel available . " Under Zayat 's leadership , additional brands of beer were introduced , and he developed a non @-@ alcoholic beer , Fayrouz , designed specifically for the Muslim market . The company was modernized from a run @-@ down operation to a publicly traded business that sold in 2002 to Heineken International for $ 280 million , more than three times its pre @-@ acquisition valuation , in what was then the largest corporate buyout in Egyptian history .
Zayat continued to run Al @-@ Ahram until 2007 , but periodically returned to the United States , where he started buying racehorses and formed Zayat Stables in 2005 . His motivation to return to the US was , in part , to commute less and be more involved with his family and children . Upon leaving Al @-@ Ahram , he declared that he was " retiring " , but as his wife explained , " he can 't be retired for more than 15 seconds , " and he soon expanded his horse operation to include both breeding and racing stock . He still owns other business interests in Egypt , including being the majority shareholder of Misr Glass Manufacturing , which is Egypt 's largest maker of glass containers .
Zayat lives in Teaneck , New Jersey , with his wife , Joanne . The couple have four children : Ashley , Justin , Benjamin and Emma . Justin , a 2015 graduate of New York University , works closely with his father in the Zayat Stables business . While residing primarily in New Jersey , the Zayats also have residences in New York , Egypt and London . The family are Orthodox Jews ; Zayat 's Hebrew name is Ephraim ( אפרים ) , used by family and community . Zayat donates to Jewish schools and charities , including those that help special @-@ needs children . Although The New York Times has stated that Zayat has publicly identified as both Jewish and Muslim at times , his family attends Congregation Bnai Yeshurun in Teaneck , keeps the Jewish Sabbath , and observes kosher laws regarding food . When questioned about his religious affiliation , Zayat stated , " Why is it relevant , and why does it matter ? It 's personal . "
= = Zayat Stables = =
Zayat first began buying Thoroughbred race horses in 2005 . Zayat Stables owns approximately 200 horses at any one time . Zayat made a number of big @-@ ticket sales purchases early on including a horse he named Maimonides , purchased at Keeneland as a yearling in 2006 for $ 4 @.@ 6 million . In addition , Zayat paid $ 1 @.@ 6 million for the highest @-@ priced horse at the 2006 Fasig @-@ Tipton Saratoga select yearling sale , a filly by Empire Maker named Mushka , whom he resold in 2008 for $ 2 @.@ 4 million .
Maimonides was named in honor of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides , who is respected by both Jews and Muslims . At the time , Zayat explained , " If this horse was going to be a superstar , I wanted an appropriate name ... I wanted it to be pro @-@ peace , and about loving your neighbor . " Zayat also had difficulty obtaining the name from the Jockey Club , as it had been reserved by Earle I. Mack , who owned race horses and also happened to be the chairman of the board of Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law , at Zayat 's alma mater , Yeshiva University . After Zayat donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the school to " promote peace , " Mack released his reservation of the name . But , in the first of Zayat 's many racing disappointments , the colt 's promising racing career was cut short by injury after two races .
The horses of Zayat Stables began to earn race purses in 2006 . In 2008 , Zayat was North America 's leading owner by earnings . Zayat Stables ranked second in the nation for earnings in 2007 , third in 2009 , fourth in 2010 and fifth nationally in 2011 . Between 2006 and 2014 , Zayat Stables ranked in the top ten leading owners by purse money won in six of those years and always in the top 20 . Zayat has horses at all stages of the racing process , stallions , broodmares , young horses in training and active racing stock . His daughters were the inspiration for the names of two race horses , stakes @-@ winner Point Ashley , who in turn inspired daughter Ashley 's costume jewelry business name ; and Littleprincessemma , dam of American Pharoah . Race horse Justin Phillip was named for Justin .
The business base for the horse racing operation is Hackensack , New Jersey , but Zayat 's horses live in different locations across the US . His horse breeding stock live mostly in Kentucky , young horses are started in Florida . The racing stock have been in training with multiple trainers including Bob Baffert , Mark Casse , D. Wayne Lukas , Todd Pletcher , Dale Romans and others . Zayat Stables keeps about 30 broodmares and their foals in Kentucky along with roughly 20 yearlings . In 2015 the operation stood 13 breeding stallions at stud . Zayat typically retains a 25 % interest in the stallions he sends to stud , though in the case of Pioneerof the Nile , he kept a 75 % interest .
As of 2015 , Zayat 's horses include American Pharoah and 13 other Grade I winners . These include : 2013 Breeders ' Cup runner and 2012 Haskell Invitational winner Paynter ; 2013 Alfred G. Vanderbilt Handicap winner Justin Phillip ; 2012 Arkansas Derby winner Bodemeister ; Pioneerof the Nile who won the 2008 CashCall Futurity and 2009 Santa Anita Derby ; three @-@ time Grade I winner Zensational . He has entered horses in the Breeders ' Cup races 16 times , with his best result a fourth @-@ place finish in 2007 .
Zayat has experienced significant highs and lows in his quest for Triple Crown classic wins . Three times Zayat 's horses placed second in the Kentucky Derby . In 2009 , Zayat 's homebred Pioneerof the Nile started a streak of Zayat horses finishing second in the Kentucky Derby and other classic races when he was defeated by Mine That Bird . In 2010 , Zayat campaigned Eskendereya , winner of the Wood Memorial and considered the favorite for the Kentucky Derby . On the Sunday prior to the Derby , Eskendereya was withdrawn from the race and subsequently retired to stud due to a soft tissue injury that would have taken at least a year to heal . In 2011 , Zayat entered Nehro , who finished second to Animal Kingdom .
In 2012 , Zayat Stables ' horses Bodemeister and then Paynter ran second in each of the three legs of the Triple Crown . Bodemeister finished a narrow second place in both the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes to I 'll Have Another . Switching horses in the 2012 Belmont Stakes , Zayat 's colt Paynter also finished second . Paynter went on to win the Grade I Haskell Invitational but shortly thereafter developed near @-@ fatal complications from colitis and laminitis . Zayat authorized the highest quality of care for the horse , and following abdominal surgery and several months of rehabilitation , Paynter successfully returned to racing in 2013 . After Zayat and his son Justin began making regular social media updates on Twitter with the hashtag # PowerUpPaynter , the horse developed a significant fan base , and received hundreds of get well cards , many from children . For his struggle to return to health , Paynter won NTRA Moment of the Year Award and Secretariat Vox Populi Award .
Zayat 's Triple Crown race losing @-@ streak was finally broken by American Pharoah , who won the 2015 Kentucky Derby , the 2015 Preakness Stakes , and the 2015 Belmont Stakes , becoming the first horse to win the Triple Crown since 1978 .
= = Litigation and related disputes = =
Zayat has been described as " controversial , " and " one of the most successful and flamboyant owners in thoroughbred racing " by Joe Drape of the New York Times ; his success accompanied by a number of legal controversies . His racing stable survived Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings , and he faced a number of legal issues associated with his penchant for betting large sums of money on horse racing .
= = = Bankruptcy = = =
In December 2009 , Zayat was sued by Fifth Third Bank for an alleged $ 34 million in unpaid loans . He had taken out multiple loans from the bank totaling over $ 38 million between 2007 and 2009 . Fifth Third alleged that Zayat was in default because he failed to make two payments in 2009 . As part of the loan package , the bank had a security interest in Zayat Stables ' horses , prize money , stallion shares and stallion income . Further , the bank added an amended provision to its later loans stating , " if Zayat Stables defaulted on any of the Notes , such default would be considered a default under all of the notes thereby entitling Fifth Third to accelerate the principal balance and all accrued interest due and owing under all of the Notes . " While Zayat paid off some of the money owed , the bank contended that he remained in default on one loan . The bank alleged that Zayat had lost $ 52 million between 2006 and 2008 , that he had not reported a previous Chapter 7 personal bankruptcy he had filed under the name Ephraim David Zayat , and the bank attempted to foreclose on his horses .
Zayat filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy protection in February 2010 . He stated that the problem was that the Lexington branch of the bank worked with the Thoroughbred industry and was willing to restructure his loans , while the bank 's corporate headquarters in Cincinnati wanted to get out of the equine lending business altogether . Stating that Fifth Third was " reneging on its promises , " Zayat filed a countersuit in April 2010 , alleging the bank engaged in deceptive and predatory lending practices . When he thought the bank was willing to restructure its loans , Zayat withdrew 67 horses he intended to sell at Keeneland 's 2009 September and November sales and instead purchased 24 more yearlings . He had also paid Fifth Third $ 4 @.@ 3 million from the proceeds of the sale of breeding rights to Zensational , all of which left him low on cash when the bank called in its loans . Zayat said the bank was using " scorched earth " tactics and accused it of trying to put him out of business , explaining that had he known the bank would not extend his loans , he would have sold enough horses to make his payments .
All cases were resolved with a settlement agreement in July 2010 , seven months after the initial suit was filed . Zayat agreed to pay off his unsecured creditors over two years , without interest , and pay off Fifth Third by 2014 . Zayat Stables ' creditors unanimously approved the repayment plan . Zayat owed about $ 2 @.@ 4 million to the Keeneland Association , and $ 1 @.@ 2 million to other creditors including clinics , horse transport companies , boarding farms , and trainers — among them Bob Baffert . He also owed several horse breeders for stud fees . To settle his debts with Fifth Third , he agreed to annual payments based on a percentage of horse sales and proceeds from claiming races . As part of his reorganization plan , he was to sell a number of horses , including 100 % of his Grade I @-@ winning horse Eskendereya . Ultimately , consistent with Zayat 's tendency to retain a financial interest in his stallions , he sold an undisclosed share in the stallion to Jess Jackson and retained some breeding rights . While the selling percentage and price were confidential , Zayat Stables ' reported income to the bankruptcy court for the month the deal closed was $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Zayat stated , " While Chapter 11 was a necessary step to take ... I look forward to carrying out our reorganization plan , and continuing to develop some of the best horses in the country . " Zayat Stables successfully completed the bankruptcy reorganization plan , in the process his stable went from a high of 285 horses to a census of 118 in 2012 .
= = = Gambling cases = = =
Zayat 's bankruptcy revealed other problems . His bankruptcy documents listed four loans he had made to members of the Jelinsky family . Two members of that family , Michael and Jeffrey Jelinsky , had pleaded guilty in 2009 to illegal bookmaking . As a result , the racing commissions in California and Kentucky opened investigations on Zayat ; racing licensees are not to associate with bookmakers or convicted felons . Zayat claimed that he had no knowledge of the Jelinskys ' illegal acts . He stated that he thought the brothers were professional gamblers and that they had financial need . Further , he said he loaned them money because he knew their father and that the money they owed him was unrelated to gambling ; he stated that some of the money he loaned was to assist one of the brothers with a divorce . He was cleared in both states . Although New York also stated that they were investigating , there were no news reports of any adverse action . Zayat stated that he had been visited by federal agents who played tapes where the Jelinsky brothers discussed how they had cheated Zayat out of money by giving him bad betting advice .
In an unrelated case , Zayat was mentioned in a 2013 lawsuit between Freehold Raceway and the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority . The plaintiffs alleged that Zayat was allowed to bet on credit , which was a violation of state law . Zayat had been betting $ 200 @,@ 000 a week through New Jersey 's online betting system , and the agency allowed him to " float " $ 286 @,@ 000 in credit , " as a courtesy . " Zayat was not a party to the lawsuit and he paid off all debts owed to the Sports Authority . The records containing Zayat 's name were later redacted , but an internal email indicated that Zayat had wagered a total of at least $ 8 @.@ 3 million .
On March 10 , 2014 , a lawsuit against Zayat was filed in the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey . The plaintiff , Howard Rubinsky , was an associate of the Jelinskys who had also pleaded guilty in the illegal betting operation . His suit alleged breach of contract , claiming that Zayat failed to pay off a $ 1 @.@ 65 million line of credit in 2004 . Rubinsky said he extended credit to Zayat with Tradewinds Sportsbook so Zayat could bet on horse races via a gambling website set up in Costa Rica . Zayat 's lawyer described the suit as " a meritless claim " , filed a motion to dismiss in 2015 alleging lack of evidence , and argued that the statute of limitations of six years had run . Zayat stated in court documents that he had met and loaned money to Rubinsky , but said , " I can say unequivocally that I did not give Mr. Rubinsky any money as payment on any debt ... I agreed to give him money because he told me he was ill and broke . " On June 4 , 2015 , a federal judge in Newark , New Jersey , dismissed Rubinsky 's lawsuit , citing both Rubinsky 's difficulty in proving his case and the expired statute of limitations . In a related matter , June 1 , 2015 , days before American Pharoah was to run in the 2015 Belmont Stakes , the New York Times reported that Rubinsky 's lawyer , Joseph Bainton , filed a $ 10 @-@ million libel suit against Zayat for comments to the press , including the characterization of Rubinsky 's other lawsuit as " extortion , a fraud and blackmail . " That suit was dismissed on August 5 , 2015 .
In a post @-@ race press conference after winning the 2015 Belmont Stakes , Zayat stated that he was so anxious about American Pharoah 's upcoming race that he neglected to bet on anything .
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= Edward Puttick =
Lieutenant General Sir Edward Puttick KCB , DSO & Bar ( 26 June 1890 – 25 July 1976 ) was an officer who served with the New Zealand Military Forces during the First and Second World Wars . The first New Zealand @-@ born soldier to reach the rank of lieutenant general , he was Chief of the General Staff of the New Zealand Military Forces from 1941 to 1945 .
Born in 1890 in Timaru , Puttick served in the Territorial Force prior to the First World War . In August 1914 he was part of the Expeditionary Force that occupied German Samoa . He later served with the New Zealand Rifle Brigade during the Senussi Campaign and on the Western Front . He was commanding the 3rd Battalion of the brigade in March 1918 when he was wounded and later repatriated to New Zealand .
Puttick joined the New Zealand Staff Corps in 1919 and held a number of command and staff positions for the next 20 years . During the Second World War , he commanded the 4th Infantry Brigade in the Battle of Greece , for which he was awarded a bar to the Distinguished Service Order he had won in the previous war . Following the Allied evacuation from Greece he commanded the 2nd New Zealand Division during the subsequent Battle of Crete . In September he returned to New Zealand as Chief of General Staff , New Zealand Military Forces , and served in this capacity until late 1945 . He retired from the military the following year and died in 1976 .
= = Early life = =
The son of a railway worker from London , Edward Puttick was born in Timaru , in South Canterbury . He was educated at Waitaki Boys ' High School , after which he joined the Roads Department , as it was then known , as a draughtsman . He joined the newly formed Territorial Force in 1911 , serving as a second lieutenant in the 15th ( North Auckland ) Regiment . The following year he moved to Wellington and was transferred to the 5th ( Wellington ) Regiment .
= = First World War = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , Puttick 's territorial regiment was designated part of the Samoa Expeditionary Force , which was raised for the Occupation of German Samoa in early August 1914 . Now with the rank of captain , he landed at Apia on 29 August . The occupation was achieved without loss of life and he spent the next several months on garrison duty before returning to New Zealand in April 1915 . On his return , he volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) which was then in the Middle East , preparing for the Gallipoli Campaign .
On arrival in Egypt , Puttick was posted to the 1st Battalion , New Zealand Rifle Brigade . He commanded ' B ' Company of the battalion during the Senussi Campaign from January to February 1916 , before being transferred to the 2nd Infantry Brigade of the newly formed New Zealand Division . He was promoted to major and appointed Staff Captain of the brigade , under the command of Brigadier General William Braithwaite . He went with the division to the Western Front in April and remained with the brigade during its settling in period in the Armentieres sector of the front . In July , prior to the start of the Somme Offensive , he was transferred back to the Rifle Brigade , and appointed second @-@ in @-@ command of its 4th Battalion .
Puttick fought in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette in mid @-@ September 1916 and was mentioned in despatches for his leadership and support of his battalion commander , Colonel Charles Melvill , immediately following the battle . In December he temporarily commanded the 4th Battalion while Melvill was briefly commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade . In June 1917 he had an extended period as temporary commander of the battalion when , during the Battle of Messines , Melvill was promoted to command of the 1st Infantry Brigade following the death of its previous commander , Brigadier General Charles Henry Brown . Puttick led the battalion through the Battle of Passchendaele until November 1917 at which time he was given command of the 3rd Battalion , New Zealand Rifle Brigade . Late in the year he was again mentioned in dispatches and on 1 January 1918 , in recognition of his service in the previous six months , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
On 21 March 1918 , the Germans began their Spring Offensive and the New Zealand Division was rushed to plug a gap in the front near Colincamps . On 27 March , Puttick was wounded in the chest while leading his battalion in an action designed to link up with an Australian brigade in the nearby village of Hébuterne . He was evacuated to England for treatment and after recuperating , commanded the New Zealand Rifle Brigade 's training camp in Brocton , Staffordshire . However , his wounds were such that he was eventually repatriated to New Zealand at the end of the war .
= = Interwar period = =
Shortly after Puttick 's return to New Zealand , he married Irene Lillian Dignan in Auckland . The couple would have three daughters . After being discharged from the NZEF in March 1919 , he rejoined the Roads Department . Later that year he applied to join New Zealand 's permanent military forces but was declined . He returned to the Roads Department but was seconded to the military in August 1919 . A few months later he received a commission in the New Zealand Staff Corps as a major .
In 1920 , Puttick was appointed commander of the Fiji Expeditionary Force , which had been raised following a request from the Fijian government for military forces to support local police dealing with striking labourers and farmers . The force , numbering about 55 men , was based in Fiji for two months before returning home . He then served in a number of staff positions . He was sent to England for attachment to the War Office and the same year attended the Imperial Defence College in 1937 , with the rank of colonel . He was also one of New Zealand 's representatives at the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey . In 1938 he was appointed as Adjutant General of the New Zealand Military Forces as well as a second term as Quartermaster General , having previously served in this capacity from 1934 to 1936 .
= = Second World War = =
Puttick was commanding the Central Military District when the Second World War broke out and , as a skilled administrator , played a key role in the raising of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) for service overseas . The 4th Infantry Brigade with Puttick , promoted to temporary brigadier , as its commander was to be the first brigade of the newly formed 2nd New Zealand Division , under the overall command of Major General Bernard Freyberg . The brigade duly departed for the Middle East in January 1940 .
Puttick oversaw the training of the brigade once it settled in its base in Egypt . In June 1940 , Freyberg travelled to England to where the second infantry brigade of the division had been shipped . In his absence , Puttick was temporary commander of the New Zealand forces in Egypt . Anticipating a German invasion of Greece , the division was one of the Allied units transferred to that country . Arriving in April 1941 , he led the brigade competently during the Battle of Greece as it retreated from the Aliakmon Line in northern Greece to the Servia Pass and onto the beaches at Porto Rafti from where it was evacuated on 27 April to Crete . He was later awarded a Bar to his DSO for his " gallantry and devotion to duty " during this period .
On Crete , Puttick was promoted to temporary major general and , following Freyberg 's appointment as the commander of Creforce , took over responsibility for the 2nd New Zealand Division . During the Battle of Crete his failure to pressure James Hargest , one of his brigade commanders , to make a counterattack to support the defenders of Maleme airfield resulted in its eventual loss to the Germans . With reinforcements and supplies landed at the airfield the Germans were able to consolidate the tenuous gains made in the opening days of the invasion . Any meaningful chance of the Allies successfully preventing the capture of the island was lost and the survivors of Creforce were eventually evacuated to Egypt .
On his return to Egypt , Puttick was offered the opportunity to become Chief of the General Staff , effectively the commander of the New Zealand Military Forces , by the visiting New Zealand prime minister , Peter Fraser . He accepted the role and returned to New Zealand in September 1941 . Puttick 's focus was on ensuring the manpower of the 2NZEF in North Africa was adequately maintained by reinforcements . In the face of the increasing threat of the Japanese Empire in the Pacific , he also put considerable effort into improving New Zealand 's defences . After the Japanese entered the war , he considered the actual threat of invasion to be minimal but continued to encourage improvements in home defence as a means of boosting morale .
In April 1942 Puttick was promoted to lieutenant general , the first New Zealand @-@ born soldier to reach this rank . In the 1942 Birthday Honours , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) . As the war progressed he was faced with the difficulty of juggling resources to maintain both the 2nd New Zealand Division in the Middle East and the 3rd New Zealand Division in the Pacific theatre . Later in the war , he was in favour keeping the 2nd Division in Italy to deal with what he considered to be the greater priority , the defeat of Germany , rather than have it be used against the Japanese .
= = Later life = =
Puttick was succeeded as Chief of the General Staff by Major General Norman Weir in late 1945 and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1946 New Year Honours . In June 1946 , he led the New Zealand contingent at the Victory Parade in London . He retired from the military three months later .
In his retirement , Puttick authored one of the volumes of the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939 – 45 , a unit history of the 25th Battalion , which was published in 1960 . His wife died in 1964 and in his later years , he lived in Raglan , a small seaside town on the west coast of the North Island . He died on 25 July 1976 in Hamilton , survived by his three daughters , and was buried at Karori Cemetery in Wellington with military honours .
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= Eazy @-@ E =
Eric Lynn Wright ( September 7 , 1964 – March 26 , 1995 ) , better known by his stage name Eazy @-@ E , was a U.S. American rapper who performed solo and in the hip hop group N.W.A. Wright is affectionately called " The Godfather of Gangsta Rap " . He was born to Richard and Kathie Wright in Compton , California . After dropping out of high school in the tenth grade , he supported himself primarily by selling drugs before founding Ruthless Records and becoming a rapper . Arabian Prince , Eazy @-@ E , Dr. Dre and Ice Cube formed N.W.A. After DJ Yella and MC Ren joined the group , N.W.A released their debut single Panic Zone . In 1988 , they released their most controversial album , Straight Outta Compton . The group released two more albums and then disbanded after Eazy released Dr. Dre from his contract .
Eazy 's main influences included 1970s funk groups , contemporary rappers , and comedians . When reviewing Eazy 's albums , many critics noted his unique overall style , with Steve Huey of the All Music Guide remarking : " While his technical skills as a rapper were never the greatest , his distinctive delivery ... over @-@ the @-@ top lyrics , and undeniable charisma made him a star . "
= = Early life and Ruthless Records investment = =
Eric Wright was born to Richard and Kathie Wright on September 7 , 1964 , in Compton , California , a Los Angeles suburb notorious for gang activity and crime . His father was a postal worker and his mother was a grade school administrator . Wright dropped out of high school in the tenth grade , but later received a high @-@ school general equivalency diploma ( GED ) .
Wright supported himself primarily by selling drugs , introduced to the occupation by his cousin . Wright 's friend Jerry Heller admits that he witnessed Wright selling marijuana , but says that he never saw him sell cocaine . As Heller noted in his book Ruthless : A Memoir , Wright 's " dope dealer " label was part of his " self @-@ forged armor " . Wright was also labeled as a " thug " . Heller explains : " The hood where he grew up was a dangerous place . He was a small guy . ' Thug ' was a role that was widely understood on the street ; it gave you a certain level of protection in the sense that people hesitated to fuck with you . Likewise , ' dope dealer ' was a role that accorded you certain privileges and respect . "
In 1986 , at the age of 22 , Wright had allegedly earned as much as US $ 250 @,@ 000 from dealing drugs . However , after his cousin was shot and killed , he decided that he could make a better living in the Los Angeles hip hop scene , which was growing rapidly in popularity . He started recording songs during the mid @-@ 1980s in his parents ' garage .
The original idea for Ruthless Records came when Wright asked Heller to go into business with him . Wright suggested a half @-@ ownership company , but it was later decided that Wright would get eighty percent of the company 's income , and Heller would only get twenty percent . According to Heller , he told Wright , " Every dollar comes into Ruthless , I take twenty cents . That 's industry standard for a manager of my caliber . I take twenty , you take eighty percent . I am responsible for my expenses , and you 're responsible for yours . You own the company . I work for you . " Along with Heller , Wright invested much of his money into Ruthless Records . Heller claims that he invested the first $ 250 @,@ 000 , and would eventually put up to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 into the company .
= = Musical career = =
= = = N.W.A and Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It ( 1986 – 91 ) = = =
N.W.A 's original lineup consisted of Arabian Prince , Dr. Dre , Eazy @-@ E , and Ice Cube . DJ Yella and MC Ren joined later . The compilation album N.W.A. and the Posse was released on November 6 , 1987 , and would go on to be certified Gold in the United States . The album featured material previously released as singles on the Macola Records label , which was responsible for distributing the releases by N.W.A and other artists like the Fila Fresh Crew , a West Coast rap group originally based in Dallas , Texas .
Eazy @-@ E 's debut album , Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It , was released on September 16 , 1988 , and featured twelve tracks . It was labeled as West Coast hip hop , Gangsta rap , and Golden age hip hop . It has sold over 2 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and reached number forty @-@ one on the Billboard 200 . The album was produced by Dr. Dre and DJ Yella and largely written by MC Ren , Ice Cube , and The D.O.C .. Both Glen Boyd from the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer and MTV 's Jon Wiederhorn claimed that Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It " paved the way " for N.W.A 's most controversial album , Straight Outta Compton . Wright 's only solo in the album was a remix of the song " 8 Ball " , which originally appeared on N.W.A. and the Posse . The album featured Wright 's writing and performing ; he performed on seven songs and helped write four songs .
After the release of Straight Outta Compton , Ice Cube left because of internal disputes , and the group continued as a four @-@ piece ensemble . N.W.A released 100 Miles and Runnin ' and Niggaz4Life in 1991 . A diss war started between N.W.A and Ice Cube when " 100 Miles and Runnin ' " and " Real Niggaz " were released . Ice Cube responded with " No Vaseline " on Death Certificate . Wright performed on seven of the eighteen songs on Niggaz4Life .
In March 1991 Wright accepted an invitation to a lunch benefiting the Republican Senatorial Inner Circle , hosted by then @-@ U.S. President George H. W. Bush . A spokesman for the rapper said that Eazy @-@ E supported Bush because of his performance in the Persian Gulf War .
= = = End of N.W.A and feud with Dr. Dre ( 1991 – 94 ) = = =
N.W.A began to split up after Jerry Heller became the band 's manager . Dr. Dre recalls : " The split came when Jerry Heller got involved . He played the divide and conquer game . Instead of taking care of everybody , he picked one nigga to take care of and that was Eazy . And Eazy was like , ' I 'm taken care of , so fuck it ' . " Dre sent Suge Knight to look into Eazy 's financial situation because he was beginning to grow suspicious of Eazy and Heller . Dre asked Eazy to release him from the Ruthless Records contract , but Eazy refused . The impasse led to what reportedly transpired between Knight and Eazy at the recording studio where Niggaz4life was recorded . After he refused to release Dre , Knight declared to Eazy that he had kidnapped Heller and was holding him prisoner in a van . The rumor did not convince Eazy to release Dre from his contract , and Knight threatened Eazy 's family : Knight gave Eazy a piece of paper that contained Eazy 's mother 's address , telling him , " I know where your mama stays . " Eazy finally signed Dre 's release , officially ending N.W.A.
The feud with Dr. Dre continued after a track on Dre 's The Chronic , " Dre Day " , contained lyrics that insulted Eazy @-@ E. Eazy responded with the EP , It 's On ( Dr. Dre ) 187um Killa , featuring the tracks " Real Muthaphuckkin G 's " and " It 's On " . The album , which was released on October 25 , 1993 , contains pictures of Dre wearing " lacy outfits and makeup " when he was a member of the Electro @-@ hop World Class Wreckin ' Cru .
= = Personal life = =
Wright had a son , Eric Wright Jr . , in 1984 . He also had a daughter named Erin who has legally changed her name to Ebie . Wright also knew that he had at least five other children by five separate women during his lifetime . His oldest son Eric in an interview in 2015 , said that three more children , now adults , were confirmed through DNA testing with Eric Jr 's sister and Eazy @-@ E 's father , to be his as well . He had two children with Tomica Woods , and found out he was dying of AIDS while she was pregnant with their second baby . This brings his total children to at least twelve .
Wright met Tomica Woods at a Los Angeles nightclub in 1991 , and they married in 1995 , twelve days before his death . They had a son named Dominick and a daughter named Daijah ( born six months after Wright 's death ) . After Wright 's death , Ruthless Records was taken over by his wife .
= = Legal issues = =
After Dr. Dre left Ruthless Records , executives Mike Klein and Jerry Heller sought assistance from the Jewish Defense League ( JDL ) . Klein , a former Ruthless Records director of business affairs , said this provided Ruthless Records with leverage to enter into negotiations with Death Row Records over Dr. Dre 's departure . While Knight had sought an outright release from Ruthless Records for Dr. Dre , the JDL and Ruthless Records management negotiated a release in which the record label would continue to receive money and publishing rights from future Dr. Dre projects with Death Row Records , founded by Dr. Dre with Suge Knight . The FBI launched a money @-@ laundering investigation under the assumption that the JDL was extorting money from Ruthless Records to fight their causes . This led to JDL spokesperson Irv Rubin issuing a press release stating " There was nothing but a close , tight relationship " between Eazy @-@ E and the organization .
= = Illness and death = =
On February 24 , 1995 , Wright was admitted to the Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles with what he believed to be asthma due to a recurring cough and wincing that occurred beginning in July of 1994 . Instead , he was diagnosed with AIDS . He announced his illness in a public statement on March 16 , 1995 . Wright allegedly lost his virginity at the age of twelve , and his promiscuous behavior resulted in not only the fatal disease , but also in nine children by seven different women . During the week of March 20 , having already made amends with Ice Cube , Snoop Dogg and Dr. Dre , he drafted a final message to his fans . On March 26 , 1995 , at approximately 6 : 35 p.m. PST , Eazy @-@ E died from complications of AIDS , one month after his diagnosis . He was 31 years old . He was buried on April 7 , 1995 at Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier , California . Over 3 @,@ 000 people attended his funeral , including Jerry Heller and DJ Yella . He was buried in a gold casket , and instead of wearing a suit and tie , Eazy @-@ E was dressed in a flannel shirt , a Compton hat and jeans . On January 30 , 1996 , ten months after Eazy @-@ E 's death , his final album , Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton was released .
= = Musical influences and style = =
Allmusic cites Eazy @-@ E 's influences as Ice @-@ T , Redd Foxx , King Tee , Bootsy Collins , Run @-@ D.M.C. , Richard Pryor , The Egyptian Lover , Schoolly D , Too $ hort , Prince , The Sugarhill Gang , and George Clinton . In the documentary The Life and Timez of Eric Wright , Eazy @-@ E mentions collaborating with many of his influences .
When reviewing Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton , Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted " ... Eazy @-@ E sounds revitalized , but the music simply isn 't imaginative . Instead of pushing forward and creating a distinctive style , it treads over familiar gangsta territory , complete with bottomless bass , whining synthesizers , and meaningless boasts . " When reviewing Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It , Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic said , " In terms of production , Dr. Dre and Yella meld together P @-@ Funk , Def Jam @-@ style hip @-@ hop , and the leftover electro sounds of mid- ' 80s Los Angeles , creating a dense , funky , and thoroughly unique style of their own . " Birchmeier described Eazy 's style as " dense , unique , and funky , " and said that it sounded " absolutely revolutionary in 1988 . "
Several members of N.W.A wrote lyrics for Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It : Ice Cube , The D.O.C. , and MC Ren . The EP 5150 : Home 4 tha Sick features a song written by Naughty By Nature . The track " Merry Muthaphuckkin ' Xmas " features Menajahtwa , Buckwheat , and Atban Klann as guest vocalists , and " Neighborhood Sniper " features Kokane as a guest vocalist . It 's On ( Dr. Dre ) 187um Killa features several guest vocalists , including Gangsta Dresta , B.G. Knocc Out . Kokane , Cold 187um , Rhythum D , and Dirty Red . Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton featured several guest vocalists , including B.G. Knocc Out , Gangsta Dresta , Sylk @-@ E. Fyne , Dirty Red , Menajahtwa , Roger Troutman , and ex @-@ N.W.A members MC Ren and DJ Yella .
= = = Legacy = = =
Eazy @-@ E has been called the godfather of gangsta rap . MTV 's Reid Shaheem said that Eazy was a " rap @-@ pioneer , " and he is sometimes cited by critics as a legend . Steve Huey of AllMusic said that he was " one of the most controversial figures in gangsta rap . " Since his 1995 death , many book and video biographies have been produced , including 2002 's The Day Eazy @-@ E Died and Dead and Gone .
When Eazy was diagnosed with AIDS , many magazines like Jet , Vibe , Billboard , The Crisis , and Newsweek covered the story and released information on the topic . All of his studio albums and EPs charted on the Billboard 200 , and many of his singles — " Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It " , " We Want Eazy " , " Real Muthaphuckkin G 's " , and " Just tah Let U Know " — also charted in the U.S.
In 2012 a Eazy @-@ E documentary was released by Ruthless Propaganda , called Ruthless Memories . The documentary featured interviews from Jerry Heller , MC Ren and B.G. Knocc Out .
In the 2015 film Straight Outta Compton , Eazy @-@ E is played by Jason Mitchell , and the film is dedicated in his honor .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It ( 1988 )
Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton ( 1996 )
Extended Plays
5150 : Home 4 tha Sick ( 1992 )
It 's On ( Dr. Dre ) 187um Killa ( 1993 )
Impact of a Legend ( 2002 )
With N.W.A
N.W.A. and the Posse ( 1987 )
Straight Outta Compton ( 1988 )
100 Miles and Runnin ' ( 1990 )
Niggaz4Life ( 1991 )
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= Poison ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Poison " is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé . It is included on the 2009 deluxe edition of her third studio album , I Am … Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) and the EP titled I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks ( 2009 ) . It was written by Johntá Austin , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen of the production team Stargate and Beyoncé while the production was handled by the later two . The song leaked online in August 2009 prior to the release of the deluxe edition of I Am … Sasha Fierce . During that month , it was included on a mixtape by DJ Haze titled Big R & B Ego .
" Poison " is a slow @-@ tempo song in which the female protagonist talks about a bad relationship that she cannot abandon . It received mostly positive reviews from critics who noted that although the song was cut out of the track @-@ listing of the standard edition of the album , it was a solid track . Following the release of the EP I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks in Korea , the song peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart during the week ending February 7 , 2010 .
= = Background = =
" Poison " was written by Johntá Austin , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen of the production team Stargate and Beyoncé for her third studio album I Am … Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . It was produced by Stargate and Beyoncé while the audio mixing was done by Carlos Otanedel and Damien Lewis at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta . The instrumentation of the song was provided by Stargate at the Roc the Mic studio in New York and the recording was done by Mikkel S. Eriksen . Jim Caruana also worked on the recording of the song .
Prior to the official premiere of the song on I Am ... Sasha Fierce , " Poison " was included on a mixtape by DJ Haze which was called Big R & B Ego . This version was leaked on the Internet in August 2009 . " Poison " was not included on the track @-@ listing of the standard version of I Am ... Sasha Fierce ; it was included on a re @-@ issue of the deluxe edition of the album instead , which was released on November 23 , 2009 . An extended play ( EP ) titled I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks was also released on the same date in several countries featuring new songs including " Poison " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " and a remix of " Video Phone featuring Lady Gaga . " Poison " later became an A @-@ side to the European single release of " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " and an EP release of " Video Phone " both in 2009 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
According to the sheet music published by EMI Music Publishing on the website Musicnotes.com , " Poison " is a slow @-@ tempo song with hundred beats per minute . It was composed using common time in the key of G major . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the low note of G3 to the high note of D5 . In the song , Beyoncé sings about a relationship that she knows is not good for her , but still one that she cannot give up . " Poison " is complete with stuttering beats coupled with the singer 's " liquidy " voice as stated by Sonya Eskridge of Sister 2 Sister magazine .
A writer of Rap @-@ Up magazine noted that the remix of the song which was featured on the mixtape Big R & B Ego was " potent , but not quite fatal " . Eskridge of Sister 2 Sister wrote in her review of the song that " we can 't help but wonder why it would have been cut " . Matthew Richardson of Prefix Magazine noted , " As far as songs that got left in the studio , ' Poison ' actually isn 't that bad . The song 's production isn 't loud enough for this to be a single , but Beyonce sounds fine here . " Nia Beckwith of the website AllHipHop gave a positive review about the song , saying that it was " the most noteworthy " track she heard during the week of its premiere . She wrote ,
The overall theme of the song puts me in the mind of a hit from R & B group Bell Biv Devoe circa 1990 that was also titled Poison , but doesn 't fair the potential to be a number one song like it did close to 20 years ago . Even though the song doesn 't seem like it would be a chart topper it does seem album worthy . It 's something most can relate to if you 've ever been in a relationship . Beyonce sings about a failed relationship that 's no good , but yet is so hard to walk away from and ends up being just like Poison .
Recording artist Nicki Minaj discussed the song during an interview with Rap @-@ Up magazine , saying " When I tell you it gives me life , like , it gives me life . Her voice is effortless . It 's badass , like , ' I know I 'm the best . ' I love the melody , I love the cadence . It 's playful , but it 's just so in @-@ your @-@ face . It 's dope and it 's creative . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the liner notes of the re @-@ issue of the deluxe edition of I Am ... Sasha Fierce .
Written by Beyoncé Knowles , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen
Produced by Stargate and Beyoncé
All instruments by Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen
Recorded by Mikkel S. Eriksen at Roc the Mic , New York
Additional vocals recorded by Jim Caruana at Roc the Mic , New York
Mixed by Phil Tan assisted by Josh Houghkirk
Audio engineering by Carlos Oyanedel and Damien Lewis at Soapbox Studios , Atlanta
= = Charts = =
After the release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks , " Poison " became very popular in Korea and reached the top position of the South Korea Gaon International Chart during the week ending February 7 , 2010 . It was the ninety @-@ eighth best @-@ selling track of 2010 selling 128 @,@ 009 units .
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= 2009 – 10 Calgary Flames season =
The 2009 – 10 Calgary Flames season was the 30th season for the Calgary Flames , and the 38th for the Flames franchise in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Flames entered the season with a new head coach as Brent Sutter replaced Mike Keenan . The year opened with the 2009 NHL Entry Draft on June 26 – 27 , as the Flames selected defenceman Tim Erixon with their first selection . 2009 also marked the debut of the Flames ' new American Hockey League affiliate , the Abbotsford Heat , as the franchise has relocated from the Quad Cities to the British Columbia city .
While the Flames led the Northwest Division early in the season , an extended slump left them in the eighth and final playoff position by the Olympic break . As a result , General Manager Darryl Sutter completed several trades in a bid to improve the team 's fortunes . Dion Phaneuf was one of seven roster players sent to other teams between January 31 and the March 3 trade deadline . The 2010 Winter Olympic tournament interrupted the season during February . Jarome Iginla won his second Olympic gold medal with Team Canada , while Miikka Kiprusoff and Niklas Hagman won bronze medals with the Finnish team . Iginla and Daymond Langkow each played their 1,000th games in February .
The Flames continued to struggle after the Olympic break ; they finished the season in tenth place in the West and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2003 . The result was disappointing for the organization , and led to media and fan speculation regarding the futures of Sutter and Iginla in Calgary .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
The Flames entered the 2009 – 10 campaign with a new head coach after Brent Sutter was named the 18th coach in franchise history . His assistants were promoted from within the organization : former Quad City Flames coach Ryan McGill and Calgary Hitmen coach Dave Lowry joined Sutter 's staff along with former player Jamie McLennan , who became the team 's new goaltender coach . Sutter had spent the previous two seasons as the coach of the New Jersey Devils , but resigned the position over a desire to return closer to his home in Red Deer , Alberta . He joined his brother Darryl , who remained the Flames ' general manager .
Preceding the release of the season schedule , rampant speculation that the Flames were in negotiations to host a second outdoor game for the 2010 NHL Winter Classic were confirmed . The additional game , suggested by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , would have taken place at McMahon Stadium , though negotiations were not successful and the league scheduled only one outdoor game for New Year 's Day .
Training camp had been dominated by the comeback attempt of Theoren Fleury at the age of 41 . Fleury had last played in the NHL in 2003 as a member of the Chicago Blackhawks before his career was halted by drug and alcohol addictions . Fleury , who had been under NHL suspension over his addictions since he last played , was reinstated by the league prior to the opening of camp and subsequently signed a tryout offer . He appeared in the Flames ' second pre @-@ season game , against the New York Islanders , drawing a loud ovation from the fans . He scored the only shootout goal to lead the Flames to a 5 – 4 victory before acknowledging the Saddledome crowd as it chanted " Theo ! Theo ! Theo ! "
Fleury played four exhibition games , scoring four points , before being released by the Flames . General Manager Darryl Sutter expressed his pride in Fleury 's attempt and commended his effort , but decided he was not one of the top six wingers in camp , which Sutter and Fleury had agreed was a condition of the tryout continuing . On September 28 , 2009 , Fleury announced his retirement . He thanked the Flames for allowing him to attempt the comeback , and expressed satisfaction at how his career ended .
The game against the Islanders also featured a devastating open @-@ ice hit by Dion Phaneuf on New York 's Kyle Okposo that saw the young forward taken off on a stretcher and sent to hospital with a concussion . The hit led Pascal Morency to leave his team 's bench to engage Phaneuf as a melee broke out in the aftermath of the check . The league reviewed the incident and suspended Morency ten games for leaving the bench .
= = Regular season = =
The Flames were expected to battle the Vancouver Canucks for top spot in the Northwest Division . The two teams met to open the season , a 5 – 3 victory for Calgary . It was the first time Calgary won a season opening game in seven years , and only the second since 1993 . The Flames won their next three , including two against their arch @-@ rivals , the Edmonton Oilers to open the season at 4 – 0 for the first time since 1993 – 94 . Following a loss to the Dallas Stars , the Flames faced the Chicago Blackhawks , and after scoring five goals in just five minutes , 29 seconds in the first period , went on to give up six consecutive goals to lose the game 6 – 5 in overtime . The six @-@ goal outburst by Chicago tied an NHL record for the largest comeback in league history . Despite a 4 – 1 – 1 start to the season , the loss prompted coach Sutter to question the players ' mental toughness . Although they felt they were not playing up to their expectations , the Flames tied a franchise record for the best start to the season , going 7 – 2 – 1 after ten games .
The Flames were embroiled in a national controversy in early November after it was revealed the team had secured a private clinic from Alberta Health Services ( AHS ) to have all players and their families inoculated against the H1N1 flu pandemic at the same time as many Albertans were growing increasingly frustrated with how the province was running public clinics . The controversy polarized the public and the media , even within individual newspapers . The Calgary Sun 's Michael Platt accused the " millionaire hockey players " of taking vaccinations from " shivering children " , while Eric Francis defended the club by pointing to the millions of dollars and hundreds of hours of volunteer time the team gives to the medical community . The Flames defended their actions , stating they completed an agreement with AHS prior to the Alberta government 's controversial clinics opening and arguing that they did so at a time when the government was encouraging all Albertans to get the vaccinations . AHS responded to the controversy by firing two people , including the most senior staff member involved in permitting the private clinic to go ahead .
Coincidentally , goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff was sidelined by what was suspected to be the flu on the same night the controversy broke . Backup Curtis McElhinney was a surprise starter against the Dallas Stars , and responded with a 38 save performance in a 3 – 2 overtime victory . The victory ended a two @-@ game losing streak that again led Sutter to criticize the efforts of his team , especially captain Jarome Iginla , and prompted the coach to put the players through an intense practice session prior to the game in Dallas . Kiprusoff surrendered only two goals in the Flames next three games as Calgary opened November with four consecutive wins , including a 1 – 0 shutout in Montreal against the Canadiens that was his 200th win as a Flame .
In spite of losing Curtis Glencross to a three @-@ game suspension in early November , and suffering an embarrassing 7 – 1 loss at home to the Blackhawks in which leading scorer Rene Bourque suffered an undisclosed injury , the Flames continued their torrid pace through November . Calgary moved past the Colorado Avalanche , into the division lead late in the month following a 3 – 0 shutout victory over the Detroit Red Wings . Victories over the Columbus Blue Jackets and Nashville Predators saw the Flames finish the month of November with a 10 – 2 – 2 record and tie a franchise record for points in consecutive road games at ten . Jarome Iginla led the Flames offensively in the month , recording 13 goals and 20 points in 12 games and was named the first star of the month of November .
The Flames struggled in December , losing six of seven games during one stretch in the middle of the month that was punctuated with a 5 – 1 loss on home ice to the Canucks that the players described as embarrassing and which briefly dropped the Flames to eighth place in the Western Conference . The loss to Vancouver also began the busiest part of the schedule for the Flames , who ended 2009 in the middle of a five game in seven night stretch and nine games in two weeks . The Flames entered the new year on a three @-@ game winning streak that included two more victories over the Oilers , and were looking forward to putting their disappointing month of December behind them .
Rosters for the 2010 Winter Olympics were announced in December . Olli Jokinen joined Kiprusoff in being named to the Finnish team , while Jarome Iginla was named an alternate captain for Team Canada . Dion Phaneuf , Jay Bouwmeester and Robyn Regehr , whom all attended the summer Olympic camp , were left off the Canadian roster . Jokinen felt that the teams poor December played a role in their being left off , and expressed that the team felt they let the three defencemen down as a result . At the Olympic tournament , Iginla led the tournament with five goals , and assisted on Sidney Crosby 's overtime winning goal in the gold medal final against the United States . Kiprusoff , along with Niklas Hagman , who was acquired from Toronto before the Games , both won bronze medals .
Two wins to begin January extended the Flames ' winning streak to five games . An extended scoring slump led the team to struggle for the rest of the month , culminating in a nine @-@ game losing streak ; the longest the team has endured since an 11 @-@ game losing streak in 1985 – 86 . The Flames finally ended the skid with a 6 – 1 victory , led by Iginla 's four points and Gordie Howe hat trick , over the Oilers , who had their own losing streak extended to 13 games . In doing so , the Flames won all six games against Edmonton , the first time either team has swept the other in the 30 @-@ year history of the rivalry . The following day , on January 31 , Darryl Sutter completed a seven player trade with the Toronto Maple Leafs that saw Dion Phaneuf sent to Toronto . Olli Jokinen and Brandon Prust were then sent to the New York Rangers for Ales Kotalik and Christopher Higgins a day later in a trade that was first rumoured the evening before but was delayed so that Jokinen and Prust could play with the Flames against the Philadelphia Flyers .
Three losses in four games , capped by a 5 – 0 defeat against the Boston Bruins on March 27 left the Flames six points out of the eighth and final playoff spot with seven games remaining . The team also lost second @-@ line centre Daymond Langkow after he was taken off the ice on a stretcher in Minnesota after being struck in the back of the neck by a slapshot . However , a 5 – 3 road victory against the Eastern Conference leading Washington Capitals and a 2 – 1 home win against the Phoenix Coyotes , coupled with the Colorado Avalanche losing six of their final seven games to end the month of March , left the Flames two points behind the Avalanche heading into April .
The Flames struggled on the power play , finishing 30th overall in power @-@ play goals , with 43 . They did , however , tie the Detroit Red Wings for the fewest shorthanded goals allowed , with just 1 .
= = Playoffs = =
Consecutive losses to Chicago and San Jose , coupled with two victories by Colorado eliminated the Flames from playoff contention in the final week of the season . The Flames failed to qualify for the post season for the first time since 2003 . Flames players lamented their inability to score goals at key times as a primary reason for the team 's failure . The dismal result for the Flames led fans and media to question whether the team needed to make significant changes in the off @-@ season . The future of General Manager Darryl Sutter with the team was called into question , while many wondered if it was time to part ways with captain Jarome Iginla , who had been with the team since 1996 . For his part , Iginla accepted responsibility for the failed season , and said he did not wish to leave Calgary , wanting instead to lead the Flames into a rebound season in 2010 – 11 . When pressed by the media , he stated he would be willing to waive his no movement clause if the team asked him to , though Flames management dismissed speculation that they would consider dealing the team 's captain .
With the Flames out of the playoffs , several players were invited to represent their national teams at the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany . Rene Bourque and Mark Giordano played for Team Canada , while Eric Nystrom and David Moss joined Team USA . Mikael Backlund joined the Swedish team after the Abbotsford Heat were eliminated from the American Hockey League playoffs and won a bronze medal .
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Skaters = = =
Note : GP |
= Games played ; G =
Goals ; A |
= Assists ; Pts =
Points ; + / − |
= Plus / Minus ; PIM =
Penalty Minutes
= = = Goaltenders = = =
Note : GP |
= Games Played ; TOI =
Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W |
= Wins ; L =
Losses ; OT |
= Overtime Losses ; GA =
Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV |
= Saves ; Sv % =
Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts
† Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Flames . Stats reflect time with the Flames only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season
Bold / italics denotes franchise record
= = Awards and honours = =
Brett Hull , selected by the Flames 114th overall at the 1984 NHL Entry Draft , was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2009 . Hull Scored 741 goals during his 19 @-@ year career , the third highest total in NHL history . During the season , Iginla and Langkow reached significant career milestones on consecutive nights as they played their 1,000th career games in the NHL . Both players made their debut in the 1995 – 96 season and were both opponents during their Western Hockey League careers and teammates at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . The Flames presented the pair with silver sticks at a joint ceremony to honour them for their achievement .
= = = Awards = = =
= = = Milestones = = =
= = Transactions = =
The Flames completed several trades during the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . They first gained an additional third round selection from the New Jersey Devils for agreeing to swap first round picks . The Flames moved down to the 23rd overall pick and gave the Devils the 20th overall selection . Calgary followed that up by dealing a third round pick to the Florida Panthers , along with the negotiating rights of Free agent defenceman Jordan Leopold in exchange for the negotiating rights of defenceman Jay Bouwmeester . The move proved successful , as Bouwmeester agreed to a five @-@ year contract less than a day before he would have become an unrestricted free agent .
Having already signed Bouwmeester , the Flames were relatively quiet in the first days of the free agent signing period . The team signed a quartet of players in Fredrik Sjostrom , Garth Murray , Riley Armstrong and Staffan Kronwall . They lost team leading scorer Michael Cammalleri after he signed a five @-@ year , $ 30 million contract with the Montreal Canadiens . Adrian Aucoin also moved on , signing with the Phoenix Coyotes . The team was able to retain defenceman Adam Pardy , as he signed a two @-@ year deal to remain in Calgary .
Darryl Sutter engineered a seven player trade at the end of January that sent Dion Phaneuf and Fredrik Sjostrom to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for four players led by Matt Stajan , Ian White and Niklas Hagman . The deal ended weeks of speculation about the Calgary defenceman 's future amid reports that Phaneuf had requested a trade – a claim he had denied . One day later , the Flames sent Olli Jokinen and Brandon Prust to the New York Rangers in exchange for Ales Kotalik and Christopher Higgins . The deals resulted in the change of over one third of the roster in the period of a day , moves that were seen as a sign of panic as the Flames hovered around the final playoff spot . While rumours circulated that Phaneuf was dealt because he was a divisive influence in the locker room , Jokinen later blamed the fans in Calgary for the defenceman 's departure . Jokinen admitted that he was traded because he failed to produce in Calgary , while in Kotalik , the Flames received a player who was having a similarly disappointing season in New York .
The Flames completed three trades at the March 3 deadline . They first sent backup goaltender Curtis McElhinney to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for Vesa Toskala , who became Kiprusoff 's backup . They then sent forward Dustin Boyd to the Nashville Predators in exchange for a draft pick . Despite showing potential at times , the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Boyd had failed to live up to the expectations placed on him in Calgary . The day ended with a minor , but historic , trade that saw Aaron Johnson sent to the Edmonton Oilers along with a draft pick , for fellow defenceman Steve Staios . The deal marked the first time in the 30 @-@ year history of the Battle of Alberta that the two organizations completed a trade with each other .
= = = Trades = = =
= = = Additions and subtractions = = =
= = Draft picks = =
The Flames opened the 2009 NHL Entry Draft in Montreal with the 20th overall selection but moved down three spots following a trade with New Jersey . With the 23rd overall pick , Calgary drafted Tim Erixon , a defenceman from Sweden . Erixon , whose father Jan also played in the NHL , considers himself a two @-@ way defenceman , and hopes to contribute both offensively and defensively for the Flames .
Statistics are updated to the end of the 2014 – 15 NHL season . † denotes player was on an NHL roster in 2014 – 15 .
= = Farm teams = =
After two seasons in Illinois , the Flames ' relocated their American Hockey League franchise , the Quad City Flames to the Fraser Valley of British Columbia . Called as the Abbotsford Heat , the team named former Calgary head coach Jim Playfair their coach . After six seasons , the Flames and the Las Vegas Wranglers of the ECHL ended their affiliation agreement . Replacing the Wranglers , the Flames signed an agreement to place up to four players with the Utah Grizzlies .
Playfair gained notoriety late in the season after video of his wild tantrum against referee Jamie Koharski that involved the coach smashing two sticks went viral . Playfair was upset at what he felt was an excessive penalty given to one of his players , and came as the Heat were struggling to clinch a playoff spot . The Heat finished with a record of 39 – 29 – 5 – 7 , good enough for third place in the North Division , despite losing over 400 man @-@ games to injury . The Heat faced the Rochester Americans in the first round of the playoffs , and overcame a 3 – 1 series deficit to defeat the Americans in seven games . In doing so , they became the first team in AHL history to win games six and seven on the road to win a series . Abbotsford was defeated in six games by the Hamilton Bulldogs in the North Division final to end their season .
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= 1997 Qayen earthquake =
The Qayen earthquake , also known as the Ardekul or Qaen earthquake , struck Northern Iran 's Khorasan Province on May 10 , 1997 at 07 : 57 UTC ( 12 : 57 local time ) . The largest in the area since 1990 , the earthquake measured 7 @.@ 3 on the moment magnitude scale and was centered approximately 270 kilometers ( 170 mi ) south of Mashhad on the village of Ardekul . The third earthquake that year to cause severe damage , it devastated the Birjand – Qayen region , killing 1 @,@ 567 and injuring more than 2 @,@ 300 . The earthquake — which left 50 @,@ 000 homeless and damaged or destroyed over 15 @,@ 000 homes — was described as the deadliest of 1997 by the United States Geological Survey . Some 155 aftershocks caused further destruction and drove away survivors . The earthquake was later discovered to have been caused by a rupture along a fault that runs underneath the Iran – Afghanistan border .
Damage was eventually estimated at $ 100 million , and many countries responded to the emergency with donations of blankets , tents , clothing , and food . Rescue teams were also dispatched to assist local volunteers in finding survivors trapped under the debris . The destruction around the earthquake 's epicenter was , in places , almost total ; this has been attributed to poor construction practices in rural areas , and imparted momentum to a growing movement for changes in building codes . With 1 in 3 @,@ 000 deaths in Iran attributable to earthquakes , a US geophysicist has suggested that a country @-@ wide rebuilding program would be needed to address the ongoing public safety concerns .
= = Background and geology = =
Iran experiences regular earthquakes , with 200 reported in 1996 alone . Like dozens that had preceded it , the 1997 Qayen event was of significant magnitude . It occurred on Saturday , May 10 , 1997 , at 12 : 57 IRST in the Sistan region , one of the most seismically active areas of the country . The first major earthquake in that region since 1979 , it registered 7 @.@ 3 on the moment magnitude scale ( Mw ) , 7 @.@ 2 on the surface wave magnitude scale ( Ms ) , 7 @.@ 7 on the energy magnitude scale ( Me ) , and had a maximum perceived intensity of X , or Extreme on the Mercalli intensity scale .
The earthquake was caused by a rupture along the Abiz Fault , part of the Sistan suture zone of eastern Iran . Located northeast of the main collision zone between the Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates , the Sistan zone marks the eastern boundary of the Iranian microplate where it intersects with the Afghan crustal block . Most of Iran is contained on one microplate , causing seismic activity mainly along its borders . Both the 1968 Dasht @-@ e @-@ Bayez earthquake ( magnitude 7 @.@ 3 , resulting in 12 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 deaths ) and the Qayen earthquake were the results of strike @-@ slip faults , meaning that the crustal blocks on either side of the faults shifted against each other horizontally . The Qayen earthquake was caused by right lateral movement along the Abiz Fault . In addition to the dominant strike @-@ slip displacement , there was also local evidence of reverse faulting . The average displacement of about 2 m indicates a low static stress drop , more consistent with an interplate earthquake than an intraplate event . The maximum horizontal acceleration during the quake was approximately 6 @.@ 9 meters per second — nearly three @-@ quarters of the acceleration an object would have in free fall — and occurred near the earthquake 's epicenter . The crustal layer involved in the rupture was 20 – 25 kilometers ( 12 – 16 mi ) thick . The surface fault that caused the earthquake extended for 110 kilometers ( 68 mi ) , which was longer than would be expected given the earthquake 's magnitude . There were at least 155 aftershocks , reaching a magnitude of up to 5 @.@ 5 on the Richter magnitude scale . Many of the aftershocks occurred along the rupture up to 24 kilometers ( 15 mi ) below the surface .
The earthquake 's epicenter was within the village of Ardekul in South Khorasan Province , which borders Afghanistan . The village is isolated between mountains and hills . Although the Iranian government had distributed more than 800 seismographs throughout the country , few had been placed in the Qayen region due to its desert climate and the remoteness of the area .
As a result of the dry climate , timber — a main component in building earthquake @-@ resistant homes — is scarce in Qayen ; homes are instead constructed of adobe . The inhabitants of the poverty @-@ stricken region rely on subsistence farming , raising livestock and crops such as wheat and saffron . When the earthquake struck , much of the population was already working in the fields ; for the most part , these people survived . Many of those treated for injuries were found to be undernourished .
= = Damage and casualties = =
The earthquake was felt over an area of 500 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 193 @,@ 051 sq mi ) , including in the cities of Mashhad , Kerman and Yazd . Destruction was most severe within a 100 @-@ kilometer ( 60 mi ) strip between the epicenter and Birjand . The tremors triggered landslides across the region and proved highly destructive to the region 's mud @-@ hut buildings . Entire streets were reduced to rubble , and in one village , 110 young girls were killed when their elementary school collapsed .
An initial report in The New York Times claimed that more than 2 @,@ 000 people had died in the worst @-@ affected area , with a further 394 in Birjand and two in the small town of Khavaf . The earthquake was also said to have caused five fatalities in Afghanistan . As rescue efforts proceeded these figures were revised ; the United States Geological Survey states that 1 @,@ 572 people were killed and as many as 2 @,@ 300 injured . As bodies were retrieved , they were buried in mass graves . Officials worried that a temperature fluctuation — from 5 to 29 ° C ( 41 to 84 ° F ) on the day of the earthquake — would cause the corpses to rot more quickly , spreading infection .
Many villages lost both power and water , leaving survivors unable to fend for themselves . The injured were often up to 140 kilometers ( 90 mi ) away from the nearest hospital . One doctor , highlighting the desperate need for physicians to treat the injured , said " I don 't know how many casts I have done today , but it seems like hundreds . " The extensive aftershocks prompted survivors to leave the vicinity of their homes and take to tents . Several days later , another earthquake of magnitude 4 @.@ 8 struck . In the wake of the earthquake and its aftershocks , every one of the 700 houses in the tiny village of Abiz , 90 kilometers ( 56 mi ) east of Qayen , was destroyed , and 400 of its 1200 residents killed .
According to an Iranian radio station report , 200 villages sustained severe damage or were totally destroyed . The United States Geological Survey estimated that 10 @,@ 533 houses were destroyed ; an additional 5 @,@ 474 homes sustained varying degrees of damage . Fifty thousand people were left homeless . Local officials initially estimated the cost of the damage at $ 67 million 1997 US $ ( roughly 89 @.@ 5 million 2008 USD ) . The estimate was later raised to 100 million 1997 USD ( roughly 133 @.@ 6 million 2008 USD ) . One hundred schools and many health centers in the stricken areas were discovered to be in need of repair work .
Many of the more seriously damaged homes were of simple construction , with walls made of mud , adobe , or brick packed 40 – 50 cm ( 16 – 20 in ) thick . These materials are generally more vulnerable to the force of the earthquake . However , some of the traditionally constructed homes sustained little or no damage . This was due to a range of factors , possibly including the height @-@ to @-@ width ratio , the lack of windows , and the quality of the materials used . In general , reinforced concrete @-@ framed homes , built after the 1979 earthquake , were better able to withstand the earthquake . Those near the epicenter still sustained severe damage due to the weight of the roofs and the weak joint connections between major structural elements of the buildings .
= = Relief efforts = =
Several thousand volunteers were brought in to join the search for survivors buried under mounds of brick and cement debris . Many volunteers worked with nothing but their hands . Local organizations , including the Iranian Red Crescent , sent 9 @,@ 000 tents , more than 18 @,@ 000 blankets , canned food , rice , and dates . An additional 80 tons of supplies were sent by the Iranian government to Mashhad , from where the relief efforts were being coordinated .
The United Nations Secretary General , Kofi Annan , pleaded that the international community " respond promptly and with generosity " . France dispatched a cargo plane filled with blankets , tents , clothing , and food , while Swiss authorities sent a rescue team with dogs trained in search @-@ and @-@ rescue . Several aircraft carrying tents , blankets , and kerosene stoves from European and Arab countries arrived in Mashad on May 14 . Representatives from the United States , calling the disaster a " humanitarian issue " , said that despite their strong differences with Iran they would donate supplies and other aid if requested . The Mennonite Central Committee , an American relief agency stationed in Akron , Pennsylvania , redirected to the relief effort 400 metric tons of lentils and cooking oils intended for immigrant refugees . A specialist British disaster rescue organisation , the International Rescue Corps , offered to send a team but were refused visas ( with the reasoning that " enough rescue crews had already arrived at the disaster site " ) and a Swiss offer of additional assistance was also turned down . Several countries within the Persian Gulf political region sent condolences to the families of victims and the government in the area .
Because the affected area is extremely remote , distributing the relief supplies was difficult . Reaching some villages would require a five @-@ hour drive over unpaved roads , some of which had collapsed or had been covered by landslides during the earthquake . Helicopters were used to provide supplies to some otherwise inaccessible areas .
Although aid operations continued for some time , the Iranian government ceased rescue work on May 14 . No more survivors were expected to be found in the rubble .
= = Future threats = =
Iran was listed as " the worst offender " in a 2004 report on countries with poor earthquake engineering . Professor Roger Bilham of the University of Colorado at Boulder , a geophysicist who specializes in earthquake @-@ related deformation and hazards , blames construction practices for the fact that since the start of the 20th century , 1 in 3 @,@ 000 Iranians has died in an earthquake @-@ related incident . Bilham argues that " Most of Iran needs rebuilding . " The United Nations have prepared a Common Country Assessment for Iran , which likewise states that , " While adequate building regulations exist for large cities , it is generally believed that they are not rigorously adhered to ... most of those who have suffered in recent major earthquakes have lived in small towns and villages . Earthquake @-@ proof construction is very rare in those areas and adequate building regulations are not yet in place " . An analysis of the performance of traditional buildings during the earthquake concluded that several factors , including high construction costs , poor materials , a shortage of skills in rural areas , and a lack of building regulations governing traditional construction techniques , have led to a deterioration in the quality of such buildings . The study recommended regulations to govern the construction of traditional arches and domes .
The earthquakes of Iran are a large concern to the populace and are an impediment to economic development . Twelve earthquakes with a Richter magnitude of over seven have occurred within the last century . Three @-@ quarters of the major cities of Iran are in areas prone to major earthquakes . The 1990 Manjil – Rudbar earthquake , with at least 42 @,@ 000 fatalities , cost Iran roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of its Gross National Product ( GNP ) for that year and wiped out two years of economic growth .
In 2007 , the Asian Centre on Seismic Risk Reduction was formed in response to the regular earthquakes experienced by the southern , southwestern , and central Asian areas . This organization exists to " encourage regional and inter @-@ regional networking and partnerships to reduce seismic damage " . Earthquakes account for 73 percent of natural disaster deaths in the area .
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= Ontario Highway 402 =
King 's Highway 402 , commonly referred to as Highway 402 and historically as the Blue Water Bridge Approach , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connects the Blue Water Bridge international crossing near Sarnia to Highway 401 in London . It is one of two vital trade links between Ontario and the Midwestern United States . The controlled access freeway is four @-@ laned for nearly its entire length , except on the approach to the Blue Water Bridge , where it widens .
Although Highway 402 was one of the original 400 @-@ series highways when it was designated in 1953 , it was not completed until 1982 , when the final link between Highway 81 and Highway 2 opened to traffic . The freeway originally did not exit the Sarnia city limits , and merged into Highway 7 near the present Highway 40 interchange . In 1972 , construction began to extend Highway 402 between Sarnia and London ; this work was carried out over a decade . The removal of an intersection at Front Street in Sarnia made the entire route a controlled @-@ access highway .
Motorists crossing into Michigan at the western end have direct access to Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) and Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) into Port Huron ; motorists crossing onto the Canadian side from the east end of I @-@ 69 and I @-@ 94 have access to Toronto via Highway 401 , and onwards to Montreal via A @-@ 20 in Quebec . The only town along Highway 402 between Sarnia and London is Strathroy .
= = Route description = =
The Blue Water Bridge crossing has six lanes of bridge traffic and non @-@ stop freeway access , therefore providing a quicker route than the busier Ambassador Bridge crossing in Windsor , which features over ten traffic lights leading to the bridge , although that situation will be rectified after the planned Gordie Howe International Bridge is constructed . Across the Blue Water Bridge , Highway 402 continues in Michigan as I @-@ 69 and I @-@ 94 . With the exception of the Front Street interchange in Sarnia , which is a hybrid of a diamond and Parclo B @-@ 2 interchange , the freeway uses the Parclo A @-@ 4 design throughout its length . Although the freeway passes through Sarnia , it is not intended to operate as a commuter highway .
The freeway begins on the Canadian side of the Blue Water Bridge , descending over the village of Point Edward . After passing through a customs plaza , it enters Sarnia and travels parallel to and north of Exmouth Street through the city . Near the eastern limits , the freeway curves to the northeast to bypass its original alignment . It crosses the Howard Watson Nature Trail , a mixed @-@ use recreational trail that was converted from a Canadian National Railway ( CNR ) line in 1988 . The highway curves back to its east – west orientation at an interchange with Highway 40 . It exits the city as it passes south of Sarnia Chris Hadfield Airport .
Now parallel and north of London Line , the former route of Highway 7 ( the predecessor route between Sarnia and London ) , the freeway jogs north to travel along the back lot line of farmland fronting London Line and the concession road north of Highway 402 . In this manner , the freeway did not divide any farms when it was constructed , instead running between them . It meets Lambton County Road 21 ( Oil Heritage Road ) , the northern terminus of the Oil Heritage Route , north of the town of Wyoming . The county road is also a former southern extension of Highway 21 , which itself begins as Forest Line 9 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 8 mi ) to the east . Highway 21 is also known as the Bluewater Route , as most of its length is parallel to the shore of Lake Huron .
After passing an interchange with Forest Line , the freeway is crossed by London Line and momentarily diverges from its straight alignment to dip south of Warwick . It continues 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) east through large patches of farmland , then meets with Middlesex County Road 81 ( Victoria Street ) at an interchange as it passes north of Strathroy . Shortly thereafter it curves to the southeast and zig @-@ zags towards London , bisecting farms and dividing woodlands . The freeway passes to the west of the town of Delaware and curves east . It enters London and meets interchanges with Highway 4 south of Lambeth , as well as with Wonderland Road before merging into Highway 401 . Access to westbound and from eastbound Highway 401 is provided via Highway 4 .
= = History = =
Planning for the route that would become Highway 402 began following the completion of the Blue Water Bridge in 1938 . A divided highway was constructed through Sarnia following World War II ; it was completed and designated in 1953 . The Department of Highways announced its intent to extend the route to Highway 401 in 1957 . However , while some preliminary work began in the early 1960s , it would take until 1968 for a preferred route to be announced , and until 1972 for construction to begin . Work was carried out through the remainder of the 1970s , and the freeway was completed and ceremonially opened in late 1982 . Since completion as a four @-@ lane route , expansion work has been concentrated on the portion of the freeway in Sarnia approaching the border crossing .
= = = Construction = = =
Highway 402 is one of the original 400 @-@ series highways . It was numbered in 1953 , a year after Highway 400 and Highway 401 . The short 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) dual highway was built as an approach to the Blue Water Bridge , which itself opened to traffic October 10 , 1938 . As such , the highway was named the Blue Water Bridge Approach . Construction began in 1939 . However , like many other road projects , World War II halted construction . In 1947 , a new survey was undertaken ; construction resumed by 1952 . The approach road was opened in 1953 , at which point the route was designated Highway 402 . It featured an interchange with Christina Street and at @-@ grade intersections with Front Street , Indian Road and Modeland Road ( the Highway 40 Sarnia bypass ) .
Ultimately , Highway 402 was designated with the intent of extending it to Highway 401 . This was formally announced by the Department of Highways in late 1957 . Construction on a new grade @-@ separated intersection with Modeland Road began in 1963 . On February 28 , 1968 , a 98 @-@ kilometre ( 61 mi ) extension towards London was officially announced by Minister of Highways George Gomme . It was decided to construct the extension on a new right @-@ of @-@ way , as had been done with most freeways constructed after Highway 400 . East of the Murphy Road overpass , Highway 402 was re @-@ aligned to bypass the interchange with Highway 40 constructed in 1964 ; Exmouth Street was redirected to connect with Highway 7 ( London Line ) at that junction , and Quinn Street now follows the former route of the highway . For the new Highway 402 , an overpass crossing was required with the then @-@ CNR line ( now the Howard Watson Nature Trail ) and an interchange with the newly twinned Highway 40 just north of the 1964 interchange . Construction east of Highway 40 began in 1972 .
Under two construction contracts , construction of 23 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 4 mi ) of Highway 402 began near Highway 7 in 1974 . A third contract to bridge the gap between that project and Sarnia was awarded in 1975 . On October 13 , 1978 , Highway 402 was opened to traffic between Highway 40 and Highway 21 . By the end of that year , construction was progressing on the section between Highway 21 and Highway 81 near Strathroy , as well as on the section connecting Highway 2 with Highway 401 . The section between Highway 21 and Highway 81 north of Strathroy was the next to be completed ; it was opened to traffic on November 26 , 1979 . On November 17 , 1981 , the section between London and Delaware was completed , including the interchange at Highway 401 . It forced eastbound drivers to exit at Longwoods Road ( Highway 2 ) . Construction was already underway on the final section between Strathroy and Delaware at this point .
The opening of the section between Highways 2 and 81 completed Highway 402 from London to the Blue Water Bridge . In addition , the removal of the Front Street intersection in Sarnia made the entire route a controlled @-@ access highway . Both were completed in time for the official opening in Sarnia on November 10 , 1982 .
= = = Since completion = = =
On Monday , December 13 , 2010 , a whiteout caused by lake @-@ effect snow squalls left an 80 @-@ kilometre ( 50 mi ) stretch of Highway 402 closed for several days . Lambton County officials declared a state of emergency . Although the entire distance between Sarnia and London is subject to occasional snow squalls and whiteout conditions , they usually dissipate or move in less than a day . The exceptional conditions at that time were caused by a snow squall which remained stationary over several days , dropping up to two metres ( 6 ft ) of snow in some parts of the area . Defence Minister Peter MacKay sent two Canadian Forces Griffon helicopters and a C @-@ 130 Hercules to Sarnia to aid in the search @-@ and @-@ rescue efforts . The hospitality of locals in providing shelter for stranded motorists was the primary focus of local media coverage . The highway was reopened to traffic on the morning of December 16 . A single death was reported ; a man succumbed to hypothermia on a nearby county road .
Highway 402 was widened in the Sarnia area from four to six lanes due to extensive traffic backups from the bridge crossing towards the USA ; the westbound lanes were widened by two lanes , while eastbound capacity remains unchanged . The new four @-@ lane roadway is divided into specific lanes for cars , trucks , local traffic , and NEXUS card holders . The new lanes begin just before the Murphy Road overpass with a local lane breaking away for interchange access ; all travelers wishing to exit the highway from this point must be travelling in this lane . Construction began August 4 , 2009 , between the Blue Water Bridge and Lambton County Road 26 ( Mandaumin Road ) and included the reconstruction of several bridges , as well as completely rebuilding the Christina Street exit to accommodate southbound access . Work was completed by the end of 2012 . Between 2004 and 2013 , the speed limit along the westbound lanes from Airport Road westward were reduced from the standard 100 kilometres per hour ( 60 mph ) . However , following the reconstruction , the speed limit was raised between Indian Road and Airport Road on June 20 , 2013 .
On January 5 , 2013 , a temporary vehicular blockade was created at the Blue Water Bridge as part of the " Idle No More " protests by First Nations groups . The blockade was known in advance and was planned to occur during the noon hour . Lambton OPP monitored the protest by walking alongside the protestors . Traffic resumed flowing normally by 1 : 30 p.m. While Highway 402 itself was not closed , the protest did back up traffic onto the highway causing congestion in the areas of Front Street and Christina Street . Later that year , another protest was held west of Strathroy on October 19 , advocating against wind turbine construction due to the health effects experienced by those living near them . The rolling protest of about 150 vehicles , including farm equipment , was monitored by the OPP and required intermittent ramp closures to the westbound lanes .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 402 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Charlie Murder =
Charlie Murder is an action role @-@ playing beat ' em up video game developed by Ska Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios . First revealed in January 2010 as an Xbox Live Indie Games title , the studio announced in May 2010 that the game would undergo a " complete overhaul " and be published in 2012 through Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360 . Charlie Murder was eventually released on 14 August 2013 to positive reviews , with critics praising the game 's soundtrack and hand @-@ illustrated visuals .
The game features five playable characters — all members of the garage punk band Charlie Murder — who fight a demonic army raised by a former band member in attempt to save the world from the apocalypse . Charlie Murder has both single @-@ player and four @-@ player online and offline cooperative gameplay modes . The game was created using Microsoft 's XNA tools .
= = Gameplay = =
Charlie Murder is a side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up game with role @-@ playing game elements . Players select one of five band members to play as ; the lead vocalist and band namesake Charlie Murder , guitarist Lester Deth , bassist Tommy Homicide , backup vocalist Kelly " Skelekitten " Skitten , or drummer The Rexecutioner . Players can complete the game alone , or can team together with up to three other people , through either offline ( with all of the players using the same Xbox 360 ) or online cooperative gameplay ( co @-@ op ) . With each additional player , the number of enemies that appear on screen at once increases . Players can also fight each other in special areas of the game . The game takes place across several different areas , including a construction site , a graveyard , a pirate ship , and a mall . Players are pitted against a large variety of enemies , including zombies , witches , ninjas , giant rats , yetis , and sharks with dynamite strapped to their heads . Interspersed between the normal combat levels are a number of minigames and special levels , including driving and flying levels .
Players fight using two buttons to string together combinations of light and heavy melee attacks . Players can also use grabs , launch enemies into the air , use character @-@ specific special attacks , and pick up and use weapons . In co @-@ op mode , players can also team up to execute highly damaging group attacks . Scattered throughout the game are bosses , unique and challenging enemies that have more health and are more difficult to fight than normal enemies . There are also " minibosses " , enemies that are less challenging than bosses but more challenging than regular enemies . Minibosses have the ability to block and counter players ' attacks , which few other enemies in the game do .
Each of the five band members has a unique character class , which vary from one another mainly by the special magical attacks , called Anar @-@ chi , that they can use . Anar @-@ chi attacks include Tommy Homicide 's ability to summon acid @-@ coated buzzsaws and The Rexecutioner 's ability to summon and use a debris @-@ spitting drum kit . Players are able to use new abilities by visiting an in @-@ game tattoo parlor . Tattoos , and the special abilities that they unlock , are character @-@ specific . Players can also unlock new abilities , including additional combination attacks , group attacks , and the ability to use two weapons at once , by leveling up .
Players use an in @-@ game Windows 8 phone to manage their inventory , level up , read emails that explain game mechanics , and scan QR codes that unlock items and give the character money or followers ( the game 's experience point equivalent ) . Players earn money by defeating enemies , and outside of combat , they can purchase weapons and armor ( all of which is visible on the character ) , stat @-@ boosting food and alcohol , and the aforementioned tattoos from shops .
= = = Plot = = =
The game 's protagonist , Charlie Murder , is a member of a garage punk band of the same name . Charlie kicks one of the founding members , Paul , out of the band , and begins to experience chart @-@ topping success creating music in a new genre with new bandmates . Under the name Lord Mortimer , Paul forms his own band , Gore Quaffer , and makes a pact with a demon , raising an army of demons and undead in order to destroy Charlie Murder . Charlie and his band are killed at the beginning of the game , fight out of hell , and are reborn on Earth amidst an apocalypse caused by Lord Mortimer and his army . In order to stop the apocalypse , Charlie Murder must defeat Gore Quaffer in a Battle of the Bands .
During the game , a series of flashbacks detail the game 's backstory . As Charlie and his new band mates experience success without Paul , the latter becomes increasingly upset , eventually vowing revenge . The flashbacks neither paint Charlie Murder in a wholly positive light , nor Paul in a wholly negative light . Charlie Murder has an in @-@ game talk radio station , which plays in enemy @-@ free areas . Additional information about the band and about the game 's world is presented in the form of people calling into the radio program .
= = Development = =
Charlie Murder was first announced in January 2010 in a Ska Studios blog post as an Xbox Live Indie Games title set for release in March 2010 . The game 's plot was a four @-@ member band 's journey to save Skelekitten ( Murder 's girlfriend ) from a rival metal band . A demo of the game was showcased at PAX East 2010 . In April , Ska Studios founder James Silva announced that the game was in development for an unidentified platform and would no longer be released through Xbox Live Indie Games . Joystiq noted that the demo ran on Microsoft XNA Game Studio 4 @.@ 0 , which is designed for the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows computers , and Windows Phone 7 . Ska Studios announced in May that the game was to undergo a " complete overhaul " , and would be released through Xbox Live Arcade in 2012 . The game was eventually released in August 2013 as part of Summer of Arcade , an annual Xbox Live Arcade promotion known for releasing several of the platform 's most acclaimed games .
Ska Studios ' first games , including the Xbox Live Arcade game The Dishwasher : Dead Samurai ( April 2009 ) , were developed entirely by James Silva . Michelle Juett was a tester for The Dishwasher : Dead Samurai , and the two met in person for the first time at the September 2009 Penny Arcade Expo . They began to date a year later , and Juett eventually left ArenaNet to join Ska Studios , becoming its second employee . Charlie Murder was one of the first games that the two worked on together . Silva did all of the game 's programming work , while Juett handled its marketing . Silva and Juett worked together to design the art and compose the soundtrack . Charlie Murder 's music was produced by Silva and sung by the pair . In an interview with Joystiq , James Silva explained that he used major game conferences , such as PAX East , as public betas . The conferences allowed Silva to expose a large number of people to the game , providing him with the opportunity to solicit feedback and discover issues . The couple also invited friends over for parties in order to test the game while it was in development . Silva proposed to Juett at the Charlie Murder booth at PAX 2011 , using an in @-@ game cutscene built in secret for the occasion .
Charlie Murder was the third Ska Studios game published by Microsoft Studios . During development , Microsoft Studios provided Ska Studios with usability testing and play testing feedback , handled localization , and found and suggested bug fixes . Microsoft required Ska Studios to create picture packs ( Xbox Live account customizations ) , but was not responsible for the Windows Phone 8 game mechanic . Ska Studios had complete creative control over the game itself . Charlie Murder was promoted as a free Xbox download with Microsoft 's Games with Gold program during the month of June 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Charlie Murder received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . The game 's music was highly praised . The game 's hand @-@ illustrated visuals were also praised by reviewers . Critics felt that the music and visual style complemented the game 's punk rock theme , and Official Xbox Magazine 's Cameron Lewis praised the game for being rich in personality and detail without being over @-@ polished .
Reviewers were less enthused about the game 's user interface , and found that many gameplay details went unexplained . IGN 's Jose Otero found the inventory management system , which lacks an easy way to sort items , to be problematic . Chris Carter from Destructoid noted that the game 's intricacies are described in messages on the in @-@ game phone , which he considered difficult to navigate and read , and that the messages were often insufficiently clear and detailed .
Critics compared the game to Ska Studios ' previous side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up games , The Dishwasher : Dead Samurai and The Dishwasher : Vampire Smile . Game Informer noted Charlie Murder 's similarity to the Dishwasher series , and Destructoid 's Chris Carter believed that Charlie Murder was an improvement over the previous games , in both presentation and in the amount of personality that the characters had . There was a consensus among reviewers that the game was more enjoyable in multiplayer , with Hardcore Gamer saying that the game felt designed for cooperative play .
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= Storm Coaster =
Storm Coaster is a Water Coaster located at the Sea World theme park on the Gold Coast , Australia . The ride is designed by German firm Mack Rides and combines the flume and splashdown elements of a log flume , with the chain lift hill and drops of a steel roller coaster .
Original plans for a Water Coaster at Sea World were released by the local council in 2008 ; however , they were put on hold . In 2010 , the Bermuda Triangle ride closed , sitting dormant until mid @-@ 2012 when construction for the Storm Coaster began . After demolition works were completed , track for the Storm Coaster arrived at Sea World , taking five months to erect . Storm Coaster officially opened to the public on 6 December 2013 .
Storm Coaster is themed to the effects of a Category 5 Tropical Cyclone at a coastal shipping port . The 470 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) ride stands 28 metres ( 92 ft ) tall and features a top speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . The ride has been well received , with praise for it being both fun and thrilling .
= = History = =
In January 2008 , the Gold Coast City Council released plans for a Mack Rides Water Coaster at Sea World . The ride would have been located at the front of the park , with the ride 's station situated where the Penguin Encounter exhibit exists and the main track extending out and over the car park . These plans were shelved . In December 2008 , Sea World opened Jet Rescue , an Intamin JetSki Coaster .
In June 2012 , Sea World applied for a permit to demolish the Bermuda Triangle water ride system and the interior of its show building . The Bermuda Triangle had been sitting dormant since its closure in October 2010 and had been earmarked by the park as a site for a future attraction . On 12 July 2012 , Christian von Elverfeldt from Mack Rides revealed Australia would be receiving a water roller coaster in 2013 ; leading to speculation that Sea World might have revived its plans . Further development application filings , and reports by the Roller Coaster DataBase and the Gold Coast Bulletin , confirmed this speculation . In September 2012 , Sea World asked Austrian firm Dynamic Motion Rides ( DyMoRides ) to develop a theming and show design concept for the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ announced Storm Coaster . DyMoRides was ultimately contracted for the full turnkey project in April 2013 . DyMoRides subsequently contracted PEL Creative for creative direction , Full @-@ On Lighting for lighting design , Volume One for audio and visual effects , and Sculpt Studios for theming design .
Prior to the commencement of construction , Sea World announced a new attraction for 2013 and released a promotional image on their Facebook page which read " The storm is building . It 's gonna be a big one . " . Demolition works began in August 2012 . Due to this construction , nearby attractions , including Viking 's Revenge Flume Ride , Jet Rescue and the Skyway , were intermittently closed throughout the latter part of 2012 and into 2013 . The first pieces of ride track arrived on site in April 2013 , with vertical construction commencing in the following month . An official announcement for Storm Coaster made by Sea World in May 2013 detailed the ride would feature 470 metres ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) of track and a series of water and fire effects . Although an opening date of September 2013 was initially set , Sea World later revised this to be Summer 2013 . By September 2013 , the ride 's track was complete , with focus moving towards theming and testing the ride . On 2 December 2013 , Storm Coaster soft opened to the public , with an official opening held four days later .
= = Characteristics = =
Storm Coaster is a Water Coaster designed by Mack Rides . The 470 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) track layout is identical to Skatteøen at Djurs Sommerland in Denmark . The ride stands 28 metres ( 92 ft ) tall and features a top speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . Unlike most roller coasters which have two rails and a wheel assembly to wrap around the track , Storm Coaster features six rails where the wheels run within the track . The ride features six Coast Guard @-@ themed vehicles that each seat eight riders in four rows of two . Riders are restrained through the use of both lap bars and seat belts . Storm Coaster is reported to have cost $ 20 million , making it the single biggest investment in an Australian theme park attraction .
= = Experience = =
Storm Coaster is themed around the effects of a Category 5 Tropical Cyclone at a coastal shipping port . Theming surrounding the ride depicts a path of destruction from the storm , with boats , cars , shipping containers and other debris strewn throughout . However , the port is in the eye of the storm and everyone must evacuate via Coast Guard rescue boats .
Riders enter the queue area by passing through a shipping container with a rusty Storm Coaster sign on it . A short outdoor path leads riders towards a stack of containers . Riders enter the containers through a series of black rubber flaps , before emerging into a warehouse . Once at the station riders board one of the Coast Guard boats .
After departing the station , the boats travel through a short flume section before emerging from the building and ascending a 28 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 92 ft ) chain lift hill . Once at the top of the hill , the track dips and turns 180 degrees to the right , entering a mid @-@ course brake run . A sweeping 180 degree downward turn to the right is followed by an upward turn into another brake run . The ride then drops below ground , passing under the queue path before emerging over an air @-@ time hill , where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness . This hill drops into the hull of an upturned boat and is followed by the ride 's splashdown . On the boat 's return path to the station it passes a variety of lighting , fire , and water effects . Riders exiting Storm Coaster pass alongside the ride 's finale , with the chance to get soaked by other boats in the splashdown area .
= = Reception = =
The reception of Storm Coaster has been positive . Shaya Laughlin of the Gold Coast Bulletin described the air @-@ time hill and indoor splashdown as more thrilling than the rest of the ride . Laughlin concluded that the " Storm Coaster was definitely worth every cent Sea World spent " . Michelle Tapper of Seven News stated the ride was " really fun , but not as scary as [ she ] thought it would be " . Tapper suggested riders might want a spare change of clothes due to the extent of the final splashdown .
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= Western Ganga dynasty =
Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 AD . They are known as ' Western Gangas ' to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga ( modern Odisha ) . The general belief is that the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava empire in South India , a geo @-@ political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of Samudra Gupta . The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 AD , initially ruling from Kolar and later , moving their capital to Talakadu on the banks of the Kaveri River in modern Mysore district .
After the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami , the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi . The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 AD as the dominant power in the Deccan . After a century of struggle for autonomy , the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes , the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur . In the late 10th century , north of Tungabhadra river , the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri river . The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region .
Though territorially a small kingdom , the Western Ganga contribution to polity , culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important . The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage toward Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished . Chavundaraya 's writing , Chavundaraya Purana of 978 AD , is an important work in Kannada prose . Many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant management .
= = History = =
Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty ( prior to the 4th century ) . Some mythical accounts point to a northern origin , while theories based on epigraphy suggest a southern origin . Historians who propose the southern origin have further debated whether the early petty chieftains of the clan ( prior to their rise to power ) were natives of the southern districts of modern Karnataka , the Kongu region in modern Tamil Nadu or of the southern districts of modern Andhra Pradesh . These regions encompass an area of the southern Deccan where the three modern states merge geographically . It is theorised that the Gangas may have taken advantage of the confusion caused by the invasion of southern India by the northern king Samudra Gupta prior to 350 , and carved out a kingdom for themselves . The area they controlled was called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of Mysore , Hassan Chamarajanagar , Tumkur , Kolar , Mandya and Bangalore in Karnataka state . At times , they also controlled some areas in modern Tamil Nadu ( Kongu region starting from the 6th century rule of King Avinita ) and Andhra Pradesh ( Ananthpur region starting from the middle of the 5th century ) . The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who made Kolar his capital around 350 and ruled for about twenty years .
By the time of Harivarma in 390 , the Gangas had consolidated their kingdom with Talakad as their capital . Their move from the early capital Kolar may have been a strategic one with the intention of containing the growing Kadamba power . By 430 they had consolidated their eastern territories comprising modern Bangalore , Kolar and Tumkur districts and by 470 they had gained control over Kongu region in modern Tamil Nadu , Sendraka ( modern Chikkamagaluru and Belur ) , Punnata and Pannada regions ( comprising modern Heggadadevanakote and Nanjangud ) in modern Karnataka . In 529 , King Durvinita ascended the throne after waging a war with his younger brother who was favoured by his father , King Avinita . Some accounts suggest that in this power struggle , the Pallavas of Kanchi supported Avinita 's choice of heir and the Badami Chalukya King Vijayaditya supported his father @-@ in @-@ law , Durvinita . From the inscriptions it is known that these battles were fought in Tondaimandalam and Kongu regions ( northern Tamil Nadu ) prompting historians to suggest that Durvinita fought the Pallavas successfully . Considered the most successful of the Ganga kings , Durvinita was well versed in arts such as music , dance , ayurveda and taming wild elephants . Some inscriptions sing paeans to him by comparing him to Yudhishthira and Manu – figures from Hindu mythology known for their wisdom and fairness .
Politically , the Gangas were feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas . This is attested by inscriptions which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy , the Pallavas of Kanchi . From the year 725 onwards , the Gangavadi territories came to be called as the " Gangavadi @-@ 96000 " ( Shannavati Sahasra Vishaya ) comprising the eastern and western provinces of modern south Karnataka . King Sripurusha fought the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla successfully , bringing Penkulikottai in north Arcot under his control temporarily for which he earned the title Permanadi . A contest with the Pandyas of Madurai over control of Kongu region ended in a Ganga defeat , but a matrimony between a Ganga princess and Rajasimha Pandya 's son brought peace helping the Gangas retain control over the contested region .
In 753 , when the Rashtrakutas replaced the Badami Chalukyas as the dominant force in the Deccan , the Gangas offered stiff resistance for about a century . King Shivamara II is mostly known for his wars with the Rashtrakuta Dhruva Dharavarsha , his subsequent defeat and imprisonment , his release from prison and eventually his death on the battle field . The Ganga resistance continued through the reign of Rashtrakuta Govinda III and by 819 , a Ganga resurgence gained them partial control over Gangavadi under King Rachamalla . Seeing the futility of waging war with the Western Ganga , Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I gave his daughter Chandrabbalabbe in marriage to Ganga prince Butuga I , son of King Ereganga Neetimarga . The Gangas thereafter became staunch allies of the Rashtrakutas , a position they maintained till the end of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta .
After an uneventful period , Butuga II ascended the throne in 938 with the help of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha III ( whose daughter he married ) . He helped the Rashtrakutas win decisive victories in Tamilakam in the battle of Takkolam against the Chola Dynasty . With this victory , the Rashtrakutas took control of modern northern Tamil Nadu . In return for their valour , the Gangas were awarded extensive territories in the Tungabhadra river valley . King Marasimha II who came to power in 963 aided the Rashtrakutas in victories against the Gurjara Pratihara King Lalla and the Paramara kings of Malwa in Central India . Chavundaraya , a minister in the Western Ganga court was a valiant commander , able administrator and an accomplished poet in Kannada and Sanskrit . He served King Marasimha II and his successors ably and helped King Rachamalla IV suppress a civil war in 975 . Towards the end of the 10th century , the Rashtrakutas had been supplanted by the Western Chalukya Empire in Manyakheta . In the south , the Chola Dynasty who were seeing a resurgence of power under Rajaraja Chola I conquered Gangavadi around the year 1000 , bringing the Western Ganga dynasty to an end . Thereafter , large areas of south Karnataka region came under Chola control for about a century .
= = Administration = =
The Western Ganga administration was influenced by principles stated in the ancient text arthashastra . The praje gavundas mentioned in the Ganga records held responsibilities similar to those of the village elders ( gramavriddhas ) mentioned by Kautilya . Succession to the throne was hereditary but there were instances when this was overlooked . The kingdom was divided into Rashtra ( district ) and further into Visaya ( consisting of possibly 1000 villages ) and Desa . From the 8th century , the Sanskrit term Visaya was replaced by the Kannada term Nadu . Examples of this change are Sindanadu @-@ 8000 and Punnadu @-@ 6000 , with scholars differing about the significance of the numerical suffix . They opine that it was either the revenue yield of the division computed in cash terms or the number of fighting men in that division or the number of revenue paying hamlets in that division or the number of villages included in that territory .
Inscriptions have revealed several important administrative designations such as prime minister ( sarvadhikari ) , treasurer ( shribhandari ) , foreign minister ( sandhivirgrahi ) and chief minister ( mahapradhana ) . All of these positions came with an additional title of commander ( dandanayaka ) . Other designations were royal steward ( manevergade ) , master of robes ( mahapasayita ) , commander of elephant corps ( gajasahani ) , commander of cavalry ( thuragasahani ) etc . In the royal house , Niyogis oversaw palace administration , royal clothing and jewellery etc. and the Padiyara were responsible for court ceremonies including door keeping and protocol .
Officials at the local level were the pergade , nadabova , nalagamiga , prabhu and gavunda . The pergades were superintendents from all social classes such as artisans , gold smiths , black smiths etc . The pergades dealing with the royal household were called manepergade ( house superintendent ) and those who collected tolls were called Sunka vergades . The nadabovas were accountants and tax collectors at the Nadu level and sometimes functioned as scribes . The nalagamigas were officers who organized and maintained defence at the Nadu level . The prabhu constituted a group of elite people drawn together to witness land grants and demarcation of land boundaries . The gavundas who appear most often in inscriptions were the backbone of medieval polity of the southern Karnataka region . They were landlords and local elite whom the state utilized their services to collect taxes , maintain records of landownership , bear witness to grants and transactions and even raise militia when required .
Inscriptions that specify land grants , rights and ownership were descriptive of the boundaries of demarcation using natural features such as rivers , streams , water channels , hillocks , large boulders , layout of the village , location of forts ( kote ) if any in the proximity , irrigation canals , temples , tanks and even shrubs and large trees . Also included was the type of soil , the crops meant to be grown and tanks or wells to be excavated for irrigation . Inscriptions mention wet land , cultivable land , forest and waste land . There are numerous references to hamlets ( palli ) belonging to the hunter communities who resided in them ( bedapalli ) . From the 6th century onwards , the inscriptions refer to feudal lords by the title arasa . The arasas were either brahmins or from tribal background who controlled hereditary territories paying periodic tribute to the king . The velavali who were loyal bodyguards of the royalty were fierce warriors under oath ( vele ) . They moved with the royal family and were expected to fight for the master and be willing to lay down their lives in the process . If the king died , the velavali were required to self immolate on the funeral pyre of the master .
= = Economy = =
The Gangavadi region consisted of the malnad region , the plains ( Bayaluseemae ) and the semi @-@ malnad with lower elevation and rolling hills . The main crops of the malnad region were paddy , betel leaves , cardamom and pepper and the semi @-@ malnad region with its lower altitude produced rice , millets such as ragi and corn , pulses , oilseeds and it was also the base for cattle farming . The plains to the east were the flat lands fed by Kaveri , Tungabhadra and Vedavati rivers where cultivations of sugarcane , paddy , coconut , areca nut ( adeka totta ) , betel leaves , plantain and flowers ( vara vana ) were common . Sources of irrigation were excavated tanks , wells , natural ponds and water bodies in the catchment area of dams ( Katta ) . Inscriptions attesting to irrigation of previously uncultivated lands seem to indicate an expanding agrarian community .
Soil types mentioned in records are black soil ( Karimaniya ) in the Sinda @-@ 8000 territory and to red soil ( Kebbayya mannu ) Cultivated land was of three types ; wet land , dry land and to a lesser extent garden land with paddy being the dominant crop of the region . Wet lands were called kalani , galde , nir mannu or nir panya and was specifically used to denote paddy land requiring standing water . The fact that pastoral economies were spread throughout Gangavadi region comes from references to cowherds in many inscriptions . The terms gosahasra ( a thousand cows ) , gasara ( owner of cows ) , gosasi ( donor of cows ) , goyiti ( cowherdess ) , gosasa ( protector of cows ) attest to this . Inscriptions indicate ownership of cows may have been as important as cultivable land and that there may have existed a social hierarchy based on this . Inscriptions mention cattle raids attesting to the importance of the pastoral economy , destructive raids , assaults on women ( pendir @-@ udeyulcal ) , abduction of women by bedas ( hunter tribes ) ; all of which indicate the existing militarism of the age .
Lands that were exempt from taxes were called manya and sometimes consisted of several villages . They were granted by local chieftains without any reference to the overlord , indicating a de @-@ centralised economy . These lands , often given to heroes who perished in the line of duty were called bilavritti or kalnad . When such a grant was made for the maintenance of temples at the time of consecration , it was called Talavritti . Some types of taxes on income were kara or anthakara ( internal taxes ) , utkota ( gifts due to the king ) , hiranya ( cash payments ) and sulika ( tolls and duties on imported items ) . Taxes were collected from those who held the right to cultivate land ; even if the land was not actually cultivated .
Siddhaya was a local tax levied on agriculture and pottondi was a tax levied on merchandise by the local feudal ruler . Based on context , pottondi also meant 1 / 10 , aydalavi meant 1 / 5 and elalavi meant 1 / 7 . Mannadare literally meant land tax and was levied together with shepherds tax ( Kurimbadere ) payable to the chief of shepherds . Bhaga meant a portion or share of the produce from land or the land area itself . Minor taxes such as Kirudere ( due to the landlords ) and samathadere ( raised by the army officers or samantha ) are mentioned . In addition to taxes for maintenance of the local officer 's retinue , villages were obligated to feed armies on the march to and from battles . Bittuvatta or niravari taxes comprised usually of a percentage of the produce and was collected for constructing irrigation tanks .
= = Culture = =
= = = Religion = = =
The Western Gangas gave patronage to all the major religions of the time ; Jainism and the Hindu sects of Shaivism , Vedic Brahminism and Vaishnavism . However scholars have argued that not all Gangas kings may have given equal priority to all the faiths . Some historians believe that the Gangas were ardent Jains . However , inscriptions contradict this by providing references to kalamukhas ( staunch Shaiva ascetics ) , pasupatas and lokayatas ( followers of Pasupatha doctrine ) who flourished in Gangavadi , indicating that Shaivism was also popular . King Madhava and Harivarma were devoted to cows and brahmins , King Vishnugopa was a devout Vaishnava , Madhava III 's and Avinita 's inscriptions describe lavish endowments to Jain orders and temples and King Durvinita performed Vedic sacrifices prompting historians to claim he was a Hindu .
Jainism became popular in the dynasty in the 8th century when the ruler King Shivamara I constructed numerous Jain basadis . King Butuga II and minister Chavundaraya were staunch Jains which is evident from the construction of the Gommateshwara monolith . Jains worshipped the twenty four tirthankars ( Jinas ) whose images were consecrated in their temples . The worship of the footprint of spiritual leaders such as those of Bhadrabahu in Shravanabelagola from the 10th century is considered a parallel to Buddhism . Some brahminical influences are seen in the consecration of the Gomateshwara monolith which is the statue of Bahubali , the son of Tirthankar Adinatha ( just as Hindus worshipped the sons of Shiva ) . The worship of subordinate deities such as yaksa and yaksi , earlier considered as mere attendants of the tirthankars was seen from the 7th century to the 12th century .
Vedic Brahminism was popular in the 6th and 7th centuries when inscriptions refer to grants made to Srotriya Brahmins . These inscriptions also describe the gotra ( lineage ) affiliation to royal families and their adherence of such Vedic rituals as asvamedha ( horse sacrifice ) and hiranyagarbha . Brahmins and kings enjoyed a mutually beneficial relationship ; rituals performed by the brahmins gave legitimacy to kings and the land grants made by kings to brahmins elevated them in society to the level of wealthy landowners . Vaishnavism however maintained a low profile and not many inscriptions describe grants towards its cause . Some Vaishnava temples were built by the Gangas such as the Narayanaswami temples at Nanjangud , Sattur and Hangala in modern Mysore district . The deity Vishnu was depicted with four arms holding a conch ( sanka ) , discus ( cakra ) , mace ( gada ) and lotus ( padma ) .
From the beginning of the 8th century , patronage to Shaivism increased in every section of the society ; the landed elite , landlords , assemblies ( samaya ) , schools of learning ( aghraharas ) and minor ruling families such as the Bana , Nolamba and Chalukya clans . The Shaiva temples contained a Shiva linga ( phallus ) in the sanctum sanctorum along with images of the mother goddess , Surya ( Sun god ) and Nandi ( a bull and attendant of Shiva ) which was normally enshrined in a separate pavilion facing the sanctum . The linga was man made and in some cases had etchings of Ganapati ( son of Shiva ) and Parvati ( consort and wife of Shiva ) on it . Due to the vigorous efforts of priests and ascetics , Shaiva monastic orders flourished in many places such as Nandi Hills , Avani and Hebbata in modern Kolar district .
= = = Society = = =
The Western Ganga society in many ways reflected the emerging religious , political and cultural developments of those times . Women became active in local administration because Ganga kings distributed territorial responsibility to their queens such as the feudal queen Parabbaya @-@ arasi of Kundattur and the queens of King Sripurusha , Butuga II and feudal king Permadi . Inheritance of fiscal and administrative responsibility by the son @-@ in @-@ law , the wife or by the daughter is evident . The position of prime minister of King Ereganga II and position of nalgavunda ( local landlord ) bestowed upon Jakkiabbe , the wife of a fallen hero are examples . When Jakkiabbe took to asceticism , her daughter inherited the position .
The devadasi system ( sule or courtesan ) in temples was prevalent and was modelled after the structures in the royal palace . Contemporaneous literature such a Vaddaradhane makes a mention of the chief queen ( Dharani Mahadevi ) accompanied by lower ranking queens ( arasiyargal ) and courtesans of the women 's royal quarter ( pendarasada suleyargal ) . Some of the courtesans and concubines employed in the harem of the kings and chieftains were well respected , examples being Nandavva at whose instance a local chief made land grant to a Jain temple . Education in the royal family was closely supervised and included such subjects as political science , elephant and horse riding , archery , medicine , poetry , grammar , drama , literature , dance , singing and use of musical instruments . Brahmins enjoyed an influential position in society and were exempt from certain taxes and customs due on land . In turn they managed public affairs such as teaching , local judiciary , functioned as trustees and bankers , managed schools , temples , irrigation tanks , rest houses , collected taxes due from villages and raised money from public subscriptions .
By virtue of a Hindu belief that killing of a brahmin ( Bramhatya ) was a sin , capital punishment was not applicable to them . Upper caste kshatriyas ( satkshatriya ) were also exempt from capital punishment due to their higher position in the caste system . Severe crimes committed were punishable by the severing of a foot or hand . Contemporary literary sources reveal up to ten castes in the Hindu caste system ; three among kshatriya , three among brahmin , two among vaishya and two among shudras . Family laws permitted a wife or daughter or surviving relatives of a deceased person to claim properties such as his home , land , grain , money etc. if there were no male heirs . If no claimants to the property existed , the state took possession of these properties as Dharmadeya ( charitable asset ) . Intercaste marriage , child marriage , marriage of a boy to maternal uncles daughter , Svayamvara marriage ( where the bride garlands her choice of a groom from among many aspirants ) were all in vogue . Memorials containing hero stones ( virkal ) were erected for fallen heroes and the concerned family received monetary aid for maintenance of the memorial .
The presence of numerous Mahasatikals ( or Mastikal – hero stones for a woman who accepted ritual death upon the demise of her husband ) indicates the popularity of Sati among royalty . Ritual death by sallekhana and by jalasamadhi ( drowning in water ) were also practiced . Popular clothing among men was the use of two unrestricted garments , a Dhoti as a lower garment and a plain cloth as upper garment while women wore Saris with stitched petticoats . Turbans were popular with men of higher standing and people used umbrellas made with bamboo or reeds . Ornaments were popular among men and women and even elephants and horses were decorated . Men wore finger rings , necklaces ( honnasara and honnagala sara ) , bracelets ( Kaduga ) and wristlets ( Kaftkina ) . Women wore a nose jewel ( bottu ) , nose ring ( mugutti ) , bangles ( bale or kankana ) and various types of necklaces ( honna gante sara and kati sutra ) . During leisure , men amused themselves with horse riding , watching wrestling bouts , cock fights and ram fights . There existed a large and well organised network of schools for imparting higher education and these schools were known by various names such as agraharas , ghatikas , brahmapura or matha . Inscriptions mention schools of higher education at Salotgi , Balligavi , Talagunda , Aihole , Arasikere and other places .
= = = Literature = = =
The Western Ganga rule was a period of brisk literary activity in Sanskrit and Kannada , though many of the writings are now considered extinct and are known only from references made to them . Chavundaraya 's writing , Chavundaraya Purana ( or Trishashtilakshana mahapurana ) of 978 CE , is an early existing work in prose style in Kannada and contains a summary of the Sanskrit writings , Adipurana and Uttarapurana which were written a century earlier by Jinasena and Gunabhadra during the rule of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I. The prose , composed in lucid Kannada , was mainly meant for the common man and avoided any reference to complicated elements of Jain doctrines and philosophy . His writings seem to be influenced by the writings of his predecessor Adikavi Pampa and contemporary Ranna . The work narrates the legends of a total of 63 Jain proponents including twenty @-@ four Jain Tirthankar , twelve Chakravartis , nine Balabhadras , nine Narayanas and nine Pratinarayanas .
The earliest postulated Kannada writer from this dynasty is King Durvinita of the 6th century . Kavirajamarga of 850 CE , refers to a Durvinita as an early writer of Kannada prose . Around 900 CE , Gunavarma I authored the Kannada works , Sudraka and Harivamsa . His writings are considered extinct but references to these writings are found in later years . He is known to have been patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II . In Sudraka , he has favourably compared his patron to King Sudraka of ancient times . The great Kannada poet Ranna was patronised by Chavundaraya in his early literary days . Ranna 's classic Parashurama charite is considered a eulogy of his patron who held such titles as Samara Parashurama .
Nagavarma I , a brahmin scholar who came from Vengi in modern Andhra Pradesh ( late 10th century ) was also patronised by Chavundaraya . He wrote Chandombudhi ( ocean of prosody ) addressed to his wife . This is considered the earliest available Kannada writing in prosody . He also wrote one of the earliest available romance classics in Kannada called Karnataka Kadambari in sweet and flowing champu ( mixed verse and prose ) style . It is based on an earlier romantic work in Sanskrit by poet Bana and is popular among critics . Gajashtaka ( hundred verses on elephants ) , a rare Kannada work on elephant management was written by King Shivamara II around 800 CE but this work is now considered extinct . Other writers such as Manasiga and Chandrabhatta were known to be popular in the 10th century .
In an age of classical Sanskrit literature , Madhava II ( brother of King Vishnugopa ) wrote a treatise Dattaka Sutravritti which was based on an earlier work on erotics by a writer called Dattaka . A Sanskrit version of Vaddakatha , a commentary on Pāṇini 's grammar called Sabdavathara and a commentary on the 15th chapter of a Sanskrit work called Kiratarjunneya by poet Bharavi ( who was in Durvinita 's court ) are ascribed to Durvinita . King Shivamara II is known to have written Gajamata Kalpana . Hemasena , also known as Vidya Dhananjaya authored Raghavapandaviya , a narration of the stories of Rama and the Pandavas simultaneously through puns . Gayachintamani and Kshatrachudamini which were based on poet Bana 's work Kadambari were written by Hemasena 's pupil Vadeebhasimha in prose style. and Chavundaraya wrote Charitarasara .
= = = Architecture = = =
The Western Ganga style of architecture was influenced by the Pallava and Badami Chalukya architectural features , in addition to indigenous Jain features . The Ganga pillars with a conventional lion at the base and a circular shaft of the pillar on its head , the stepped Vimana of the shrine with horizontal mouldings and square pillars were features inherited from the Pallavas . These features are also found in structures built by their subordinates , the Banas and Nolambas .
The monolith of Gomateshwara commissioned by Chavundaraya is considered the high point of the Ganga sculptural contribution in ancient Karnataka . Carved from fine @-@ grained white granite , the image stands on a lotus . It has no support up to the thighs and is 60 feet ( 18 m ) tall with the face measuring 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) . With the serene expression on the face of the image , its curled hair with graceful locks , its proportional anatomy , the monolith size , and the combination of its artistry and craftsmanship have led it to be called the mightiest achievement in sculptural art in medieval Karnataka . It is the largest monolithic statue in the world . Their free standing pillars called Mahasthambha or Bhrahmasthambha are also considered unique , examples of which are the Brahmadeva pillar and Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar . At the top of the pillar whose shaft ( cylindrical or octagonal ) is decorated with creepers and other floral motifs is the seated Brahma and the base of the pillar normally has engravings of important Jain personalities and inscriptions .
Other important contributions are the Jain basadis ' whose towers have gradually receding stories ( talas ) ornamented with small models of temples . These tiny shrines have in them engravings of tirthankars ( Jain saints ) . Semicircular windows connect the shrines and decorative Kirtimukha ( demon faces ) are used at the top . The Chavundaraya basadi built in the 10th or 11th century , Chandragupta basadi built in the 6th century and the monolithic of Gomateshwara of 982 are the most important monuments at Shravanabelagola . Some features were added to the Chandragupta basadi by famous Hoysala sculptor Dasoja in the 12th century . The decorative doorjambs and perforated screen windows which depict scenes from the life of King Chandragupta Maurya are known to be his creation . The Panchakuta Basadi at Kambadahalli ( five towered Jan temple ) of about 900 with a Brahmadeva pillar is an excellent example of Dravidian art . The wall niches here are surmounted by torana ( lintel ) with carvings of floral motifs , flying divine creatures ( gandharva ) and imaginary monsters ( makara ) ridden by Yaksas ( attendants of saints ) while the niches are occupied by images of tirthankars themselves .
The Gangas built many Hindu temples with impressive Dravidian gopuras containing stucco figures from the Hindu pantheon , decorated pierced screen windows which are featured in the mantapa ( hall ) along with saptamatrika carvings ( seven heavenly mothers ) . Some well known examples are the Arakeshvara Temple at Hole Alur , Kapileswara temple at Manne , Kolaramma temple at Kolar , Rameshvara temple at Narasamangala , Nagareshvara temple at Begur and the Kallesvara temple at Aralaguppe . At Talakad they built the Maralesvara temple , the Arakesvara temple and the Patalesvara temple . Unlike the Jain temples where floral frieze decoration is common , Hindu temples were distinguished by friezes ( slab of stone with decorative sculptures ) illustrating episodes from the epics and puranas . Another unique legacy of the Gangas are the number of virgal ( hero stones ) they have left behind ; memorials containing sculptural details in relief of war scenes , Hindu deities , saptamatrikas , Jain tirthankars and ritual death ( such as the Doddahundi hero stone ) .
= = = Language = = =
The Western Gangas used Kannada and Sanskrit extensively as their language of administration . Some of their inscriptions are also bilingual in these languages . In bilingual inscriptions the formulaic passages stating origin myths , genealogies , titles of Kings and benedictions tended to be in Sanskrit , while the actual terms of the grant such as information on the land or village granted , its boundaries , participation of local authorities , rights and obligations of the grantee , taxes and dues and other local concerns were in the local language . The usage of these two languages showed important changes over the centuries . During the first phase ( 350 – 725 ) , Sanskrit copper plates dominated , indicating the initial ascendancy of the local language as a language of administration and the fact that majority of the records from this phase were brahmadeya grants ( grants to Brahmin temples ) . In the second phase ( 725 – 1000 ) , lithic inscriptions in Kannada outnumbered Sanskrit copper plates , consistent with the patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains who used Kannada as their medium to spread the Jain faith . Recent excavations at Tumbula near Mysore have revealed a set of early copper plate bilingual inscriptions dated 444 . The genealogy of the kings of the dynasty is described in Sanskrit while Kannada was used to describe the boundary of the village . An interesting inscription discovered at Beguru near modern Bangalore that deserves mention is the epigraph dated 890 that refers to a Bengaluru war . This is in Hale Kannada ( old Kannada ) language and is the earliest mention of the name of Bangalore city . The Western Gangas minted coins with Kannada and Nagari legends , the most common feature on their coins was the image of an elephant on the obverse and floral petal symbols on the reverse . The Kannada legend Bhadr , a royal umbrella or a conch shell appeared on top of the elephant image . The denominations are the pagoda ( weighing 52 grains ) , the fanam weighting one tenth or one half of the pagoda and the quarter fanams .
= = Timeline = =
The template below shows the Timeline of Karnataka . Note the extent of time ( around 700 years ) the Ganga kingdom flourished .
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= Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment =
The Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment was an experimental demonstration , reported in 1944 by Oswald Avery , Colin MacLeod , and Maclyn McCarty , that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation , in an era when it had been widely believed that it was proteins that served the function of carrying genetic information ( with the very word protein itself coined to indicate a belief that its function was primary ) . It was the culmination of research in the 1930s and early 1940s at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research to purify and characterize the " transforming principle " responsible for the transformation phenomenon first described in Griffith 's experiment of 1928 : killed Streptococcus pneumoniae of the virulent strain type III @-@ S , when injected along with living but non @-@ virulent type II @-@ R pneumococci , resulted in a deadly infection of type III @-@ S pneumococci . In their paper " Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types : Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III " , published in the February 1944 issue of the Journal of Experimental Medicine , Avery and his colleagues suggest that DNA , rather than protein as widely believed at the time , may be the hereditary material of bacteria , and could be analogous to genes and / or viruses in higher organisms .
= = Background = =
With the development of serological typing , medical researchers were able to sort bacteria into different strains , or types . When a person or test animal ( e.g. , a mouse ) is inoculated with a particular type , an immune response ensues , generating antibodies that react specifically with antigens on the bacteria . Blood serum containing the antibodies can then be extracted and applied to cultured bacteria . The antibodies will react with other bacteria of the same type as the original inoculation . Fred Neufeld , a German bacteriologist , had discovered the pneumococcal types and serological typing ; until Frederick Griffith 's studies bacteriologists believed that the types were fixed and unchangeable from one generation to the next .
Griffith 's experiment , reported in 1928 , identified that some " transforming principle " in pneumococcal bacteria could transform them from one type to another . Griffith , a British medical officer , had spent years applying serological typing to cases of pneumonia , a frequently fatal disease in the early 20th century . He found that multiple types — some virulent and some non @-@ virulent — were often present over the course of a clinical case of pneumonia , and thought that one type might change into another ( rather than simply multiple types being present all along ) . In testing that possibility , he found that transformation could occur when dead bacteria of a virulent type and live bacteria of a non @-@ virulent type were both injected in mice : the mice would develop a fatal infection ( normally only caused by live bacteria of the virulent type ) and die , and virulent bacteria could be isolated from such infected mice .
The findings of Griffith 's experiment were soon confirmed , first by Fred Neufeld at the Koch Institute and by Martin Henry Dawson at the Rockefeller Institute . A series of Rockefeller Institute researchers continued to study transformation in the years that followed . With Richard H.P. Sia , Dawson developed a method of transforming bacteria in vitro ( rather than in vivo as Griffith had done ) . After Dawson 's departure in 1930 , James Alloway took up the attempt to extend Griffith 's findings , resulting in the extraction of aqueous solutions of the transforming principle by 1933 . Colin MacLeod worked to purify such solutions from 1934 to 1937 , and the work was continued in 1940 and completed by Maclyn McCarty .
= = Experimental work = =
Pneumococcus is characterized by smooth colonies and has a polysaccharide capsule that induces antibody formation ; the different types are classified according to their immunological specificity .
The purification procedure Avery undertook consisted of first killing the bacteria with heat and extracting the saline @-@ soluble components . Next , the protein was precipitated out using chloroform and the polysaccharide capsules were hydrolyzed with an enzyme . An immunological precipitation caused by type @-@ specific antibodies was used to verify the complete destruction of the capsules . Then , the active portion was precipitated out by alcohol fractionation , resulting in fibrous strands that could be removed with a stirring rod .
Chemical analysis showed that the proportions of carbon , hydrogen , nitrogen , and phosphorus in this active portion were consistent with the chemical composition of DNA . To show that it was DNA rather than some small amount of RNA , protein , or some other cell component that was responsible for transformation , Avery and his colleagues used a number of biochemical tests . They found that trypsin , chymotrypsin and ribonuclease ( enzymes that break apart proteins or RNA ) did not affect it , but an enzyme preparation of " deoxyribonucleodepolymerase " ( a crude preparation , obtainable from a number of animal sources , that could break down DNA ) destroyed the extract 's transforming power .
Follow @-@ up work in response to criticism and challenges included the purification and crystallization , by Moses Kunitz in 1948 , of a DNA depolymerase ( deoxyribonuclease I ) , and precise work by Rollin Hotchkiss showing that virtually all the detected nitrogen in the purified DNA came from glycine , a breakdown product of the nucleotide base adenine , and that undetected protein contamination was at most 0 @.@ 02 % by Hotchkiss 's estimation .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The experimental findings of the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment were quickly confirmed , and extended to other hereditary characteristics besides polysaccharide capsules . However , there was considerable reluctance to accept the conclusion that DNA was the genetic material . According to Phoebus Levene 's influential " tetranucleotide hypothesis " , DNA consisted of repeating units of the four nucleotide bases and had little biological specificity . DNA was therefore thought to be the structural component of chromosomes , whereas the genes were thought likely to be made of the protein component of chromosomes . This line of thinking was reinforced by the 1935 crystallization of tobacco mosaic virus by Wendell Stanley , and the parallels among viruses , genes , and enzymes ; many biologists thought genes might be a sort of " super @-@ enzyme " , and viruses were shown according to Stanley to be proteins and to share the property of autocatalysis with many enzymes . Furthermore , few biologists thought that genetics could be applied to bacteria , since they lacked chromosomes and sexual reproduction . In particular , many of the geneticists known informally as the phage group , which would become influential in the new discipline of molecular biology in the 1950s , were dismissive of DNA as the genetic material ( and were inclined to avoid the " messy " biochemical approaches of Avery and his colleagues ) . Some biologists , including fellow Rockefeller Institute Fellow Alfred Mirsky , challenged Avery 's finding that the transforming principle was pure DNA , suggesting that protein contaminants were instead responsible . Although transformation occurred in some kinds of bacteria , it could not be replicated in other bacteria ( nor in any higher organisms ) , and its significance seemed limited primarily to medicine .
Scientists looking back on the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment have disagreed about just how influential it was in the 1940s and early 1950s . Gunther Stent suggested that it was largely ignored , and only celebrated afterwards — similarly to Gregor Mendel 's work decades before the rise of genetics . Others , such as Joshua Lederberg and Leslie C. Dunn , attest to its early significance and cite the experiment as the beginning of molecular genetics .
A few microbiologists and geneticists had taken an interest in the physical and chemical nature of genes before 1944 , but the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment brought renewed and wider interest in the subject . While the original publication did not mention genetics specifically , Avery as well as many of the geneticists who read the paper were aware of the genetic implications — that Avery may have isolated the gene itself as pure DNA . Biochemist Erwin Chargaff , geneticist H. J. Muller and others praised the result as establishing the biological specificity of DNA and as having important implications for genetics if DNA played a similar role in higher organisms . In 1945 , the Royal Society awarded Avery the Copley Medal , in part for his work on bacterial transformation .
Between 1944 and 1954 , the paper was cited at least 239 times ( with citations spread evenly through those years ) , mostly in papers on microbiology , immunochemistry , and biochemistry . In addition to the follow @-@ up work by McCarty and others at the Rockefeller Institute in response to Mirsky 's criticisms , the experiment spurred considerable work in microbiology , where it shed new light on the analogies between bacterial heredity and the genetics of sexually @-@ reproducing organisms . French microbiologist André Boivin claimed to extend Avery 's bacterial transformation findings to Escherichia coli , although this could not be confirmed by other researchers . In 1946 , however , Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum demonstrated bacterial conjugation in E. coli and showed that genetics could apply to bacteria , even if Avery 's specific method of transformation was not general . Avery 's work also may have played a role in the continuation of X @-@ ray crystallography studies of DNA by Maurice Wilkins , who faced pressure from his funders to make whole cells , rather than biological molecules , the subject of his research .
Despite the significant number of citations to the paper and positive responses it received in the years following publication , Avery 's work was largely neglected by much of the scientific community . Although received positively by many scientists , the experiment did not seriously affect mainstream genetics research , in part because it made little difference for classical genetics experiments in which genes were defined by their behavior in breeding experiments rather than their chemical makeup . H. J. Muller , while interested , was focused more on physical rather than chemical studies of the gene , as were most of the members of the phage group . Avery 's work was also neglected by the Nobel Foundation , which later expressed public regret for failing to award Avery a Nobel Prize .
By the time of the 1952 Hershey – Chase experiment , geneticists were more inclined to consider DNA as the genetic material , and Alfred Hershey was an influential member of the phage group . Erwin Chargaff had shown that the base composition of DNA varies by species ( contrary to the tetranucleotide hypothesis ) , and in 1952 Rollin Hotchkiss published his experimental evidence both confirming Chargaff 's work and demonstrating the absence of protein in Avery 's transforming principle . Furthermore , the field of bacterial genetics was quickly becoming established , and biologists were more inclined to think of heredity in the same terms for bacteria and higher organisms . After Hershey and Chase used radioactive isotopes to show that it was primarily DNA , rather than protein , that entered bacteria upon infection with bacteriophage , it was soon widely accepted that DNA was the material . Despite the much less precise experimental results ( they found a not @-@ insignificant amount of protein entering the cells as well as DNA ) , the Hershey – Chase experiment was not subject to the same degree of challenge . Its influence was boosted by the growing network of the phage group and , the following year , by the publicity surrounding the DNA structure proposed by Watson and Crick ( Watson was also a member of the phage group ) . Only in retrospect , however , did either experiment definitively prove that DNA is the genetic material .
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= Gomphus clavatus =
Gomphus clavatus , commonly known pig 's ears or violet chanterelle , as is an edible species of fungus in the genus Gomphus , family Gomphaceae native to Eurasia and North America . The fruit body is vase- or fan @-@ shaped with wavy edges to its rim , and grows up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) wide and 17 cm ( 6 3 ⁄ 4 in ) tall . The upper surface or cap is orangish @-@ brown to lilac , while its lower spore @-@ bearing surface , the hymenium , is covered in wrinkles and ridges rather than gills or pores , and is a distinctive purple color . Described by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 , G. clavatus has had several name changes and many alternate scientific names , having been classified as a chanterelle by several authorities , though it is not closely related to them .
Typically found in coniferous forests , G. clavatus is mycorrhizal , and is associated with tree species in a variety of coniferous genera , particularly spruces and firs . It is more common at elevations of greater than 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 600 m ) , in moist , shady areas with plenty of leaf litter . Although widespread , G. clavatus has become rare in many parts of Europe and extinct in Great Britain . It has been placed on the national Red Lists of threatened fungi in 17 European countries and is one of 33 species proposed for international conservation under the Bern Convention .
= = Taxonomy = =
German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described Elvela ( subsequently Helvella ) purpurascens in 1774 . Austrian naturalist Franz Xaver von Wulfen gave it the name Clavaria elveloides in 1781 , reporting that it appeared in the fir tree forests around Klagenfurt in August and was common around Hüttenberg . He recorded that poor people ate it , giving it the local name hare 's ear . In 1796 , mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon described G. clavatus as Merulius clavatus , noting that it grew in grassy locations in woods . He noted it was the same species that Schäffer had described . The specific epithet — derived from the Latin word clava ( club ) and meaning " club @-@ shaped " — refers to the shape of young fruit bodies . In his 1801 Synopsis methodica fungorum , Persoon placed Merulius clavatus ( recognising two varieties — violaceus and spadiceus ) in a section Gomphus within Merulius .
British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray used Persoon 's name , transferring the violet chanterelle to the genus Gomphus in 1821 . As it is the first named member of the genus it became the type species . The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as January 1 , 1821 , to coincide with the date of the works of the ' father of mycology ' , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , which meant the name required sanction by Fries ( indicated in the name by a colon ) to be considered valid . Thus the species was written as Gomphus clavatus ( Pers . : Fr . ) Gray . A 1987 revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature set the starting date at May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus ' work , the Species Plantarum . Hence , the name no longer requires the ratification of Fries ' authority . Persoon followed suit in treating Gomphus as a separate genus in his 1825 work Mycologia Europaea . Here he recognized M. clavatus as the same species as Clavaria truncata described by Casimir Christoph Schmidel in 1796 , calling the taxon Gomphus truncatus .
Fries himself declined to keep the genus separate , instead classifying Gomphus as a tribe within the genus Cantharellus in his 1821 work Systema Mycologicum , the species becoming Cantharellus clavatus . He recognized four varieties : violaceo @-@ spadiceus , carneus , purpurascens and umbrinus . Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan described three taxa — Merulius clavatus carneus , M. clavatus violaceus and M. clavatus purpurascens — in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse . Many of his names have been rejected for nomenclatural purposes because Secretan had a narrow species concept , dividing many taxa into multiple species that were not supported by other authorities , and his works did not use binomial nomenclature consistently . Fries revised his classification in his 1838 book Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum , placing it in a series — Deformes — in the genus Craterellus .
Paul Kummer raised many of Fries ' tribi ( subgenera ) to genus rank in his 1871 work Der Führer in die Pilzkunde , classifying the violet chanterelle in the genus Thelephora . Jacques Emile Doassans and Narcisse Théophile Patouillard placed it in the genus Neurophyllum ( also spelt Nevrophyllum ) in 1886 , removing it from Cantharellus on account of its orange spores . However , Charles Horton Peck discarded the name in 1887 and returned G. clavatus to Cantharellus . In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze published Revisio generum plantarum , his response to what he perceived as poor method in existing nomenclatural practice . He coined the genus Trombetta to incorporate the violet chanterelle , hence giving it the name Trombetta clavata . However , Kuntze 's revisionary program was not accepted by the majority of botanists .
Alexander H. Smith treated Gomphus as a section within Cantharellus in his 1947 review of chanterelles in western North America , as he felt there were no consistent characteristics that distinguished the two genera . In 1966 E.J.H. Corner described a small @-@ spored variety , G. clavatus var. parvispora , from specimens collected in Uganda ; it is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance .
Research combining the use of phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences and more traditional morphology @-@ based characters has resulted in a reshuffling of the species concept in Gomphus ; as a result , G. clavatus is considered the only Gomphus species in North America . Comparison of the DNA sequences of species Gomphus brevipes and Gomphus truncatus has shown them to be genetically identical to G. clavatus , and they may be treated as synonyms .
Gomphus clavatus is commonly known as pig 's ears , alluding to the violet underside and yellowish cap of the fruit bodies , although this vernacular name is also used for Discina perlata . Other English common names for this species include clustered chanterelle and violet chanterelle . Gray coined the name clubbed gomphe . In the Sherpa language of Nepal the fungus is known as Eeshyamo ( " mother @-@ in @-@ law " ) , as its imposing fruit body is reminiscent of a mother @-@ in @-@ law , who has a dominant role in the Sherpa family .
= = Description = =
The basidiocarps , or fruit bodies , of immature Gomphus clavatus are club @-@ shaped and have one cap or pileus , but later spread out and have a so @-@ called merismatoid appearance — several vase @-@ shaped caps rising from a common stem . The fruit body is up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) wide and 17 cm ( 6 3 ⁄ 4 in ) tall , fan @-@ shaped with wavy edges . The upper surfaces of the fruit bodies are covered with brown hyphae that form small , distinct patches towards the margin , but combine to form a continuous felt @-@ like tomentum over the center of the cap . The color of the upper cap surface is orange @-@ brown to violet , but later in age fades to a lighter brown . The cap margins of older mushrooms can be quite ragged . The lower spore @-@ bearing surface — the hymenium — is wrinkled , often with folds and pits , and violet to brown in color . The solid stem , which is continuous with the cap , is 0 @.@ 8 – 3 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 1 ⁄ 8 in ) wide , 4 – 10 cm ( 1 5 ⁄ 8 – 3 7 ⁄ 8 in ) tall , and covered with fine hairs ( tomentum ) that become more coarse ( hispid ) towards the base . It is often compound , with several fruit bodies arising from the basal portion . Fruit bodies may bruise reddish @-@ brown where handled . The flesh can be whitish @-@ pink to lilac or cinnamon @-@ buff . Thick under the center of the cap , it thins out towards the margins . It can be crunchy , though it is softer than that of the chanterelle . The taste and odor are mild . The spore print is yellow to orange @-@ yellow .
Basidiospores are elliptical , wrinkled or slightly warted , and 10 – 14 by 5 – 7 @.@ 5 μm . The spores are nonamyloid , meaning they have a negative color reaction with the iodine in Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing structures , the basidia , are elongated or club @-@ shaped , hyaline ( glassy or translucent ) , and four @-@ spored , with dimensions of 60 – 90 by 8 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 μm . G. clavatus does not contain cystidia , the sterile cells associated with basidia in many species . Clamp connections are present .
= = = Similar species = = =
Gomphus crassipes , found in Spain and North America , can only be reliably distinguished from G. clavatus with the use of a microscope . Its basidiospores are generally longer ( 11 – 17 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 μm ) and have a more finely wrinkled surface . The North American species G. bonarii features a dull orange cap with erect scales , and a stalk with decurrent folds . It associates with conifers . Pseudocraterellus pseudoclavatus ( formerly classified in Gomphus ) is a lookalike species that grow under conifers in the central United States and westward , also differing on microscopic characters and reaction to potassium hydroxide . Turbinellus floccosus and T. kauffmanii are of similar shape but their caps are covered in scales . The edible blue chanterelle ( Polyozellus multiplex ) could be confused with G. clavatus , but has distinctive spores .
= = Habitat , distribution , and conservation = =
Gomphus clavatus grows singly , in clusters or clumps , or even occasionally fairy rings , on the ground , typically in coniferous forests , and with a preference for moist , shady areas with deep leaf litter , or rotten wood debris on the ground . The species is equally common in older or younger stands of trees . Fruit bodies are easily missed because their colors blend with those of the forest floor . It is more common at elevations of greater than 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 600 m ) . Gomphus clavatus has been reported as forming symbiotic ( mycorrhizal ) associations with a variety of trees : Abies alba , Abies cephalonica , Abies firma , Abies nephrolepis , Abies religiosa , Picea species , Pinus densiflora , Pseudotsuga menziesii , and Tsuga heterophylla . It is also reported with beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) in Europe .
In Asia , Gomphus clavatus has been reported from China , Japan , Korea , Malaysia , Nepal , and Pakistan . European countries that have reported the fungus include Austria , the Czech Republic , France , Germany , Greece , Italy , Lithuania , Poland , Romania , Russia , Sweden , Switzerland , and Turkey . In North America , the fungus has been found across Canada , Mexico , and the United States , where it is abundant in the Pacific Northwest .
In Europe , Gomphus clavatus appears on the national Red Lists of threatened fungi in 17 countries and is one of 33 species proposed for international conservation under the Bern Convention . Due to a substantial decline in sightings , Gomphus clavatus became a legally protected species in Hungary on September 1 , 2005 . It also has legal protection in Slovakia and Slovenia . The species formerly occurred in England , but has not been seen since 1927 and is now regarded as extinct . The fungus faces loss and degradation of its habitat ; eutrophication is another potential threat . Gomphus clavatus was selected as the 1998 Pilz des Jahres ( " Mushroom of the Year " ) by the German Mycological Society , partly to highlight its vulnerable status .
= = Edibility = =
Gomphus clavatus is edible ( and rated as choice by some ) , while others find it tasteless . It has an earthy flavor and meaty texture that complements red meat dishes . Like many edible fungi , consumption may cause gastrointestinal distress in susceptible individuals . The flesh becomes bitter with age , and older specimens may be infested with insects . Insect infestation is unlikely if the weather is cool . G. clavatus has been used for cooking for some time — Fries included it in his 1867 book Sveriges ätliga och giftiga svampar ( Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms in Sweden ) . It is highly regarded by the Zapotec people of Ixtlán de Juárez in Oaxaca , and the Sherpa people in the vicinity of Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal .
Extracts prepared from G. clavatus fruit bodies have a high antioxidant activity , and a high concentration of phenolic and flavonoid compounds . Phenolic compounds identified from the fungus include protocatechuic acid , gallic acid , gentisic acid , vanillic acid , syringic acid , cinnamic acid , caffeic acid , ferulic acid , and tannic acid . In a chemical analysis of collections from the South Aegean Region of Turkey , the fungus was shown to have bioaccumulated the toxic metal cadmium to levels exceeding the maximum intake recommended by the European Union Scientific Committee on Food .
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= M @-@ 34 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 34 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the southeastern region of the US state of Michigan . It has a western terminus near Osseo on M @-@ 99 and runs through forest and farm lands to its eastern terminus at Business US Highway 223 ( BUS US 223 ) and M @-@ 52 in Adrian . The highway serves a number of smaller communities in the area and intersects two US Highways while carrying between 4 @,@ 200 and 11 @,@ 300 vehicles on a daily basis .
M @-@ 34 was designated and signed with the beginning of the state highway system around July 1 , 1919 , along a route that extended to either end of its current routing . These western and eastern extensions were added to other highways during the 1920s , shortening M @-@ 34 to roughly its current length . A few more changes were made in the mid @-@ 1950s and 1960s resulting in the modern routing . M @-@ 34 has a short , unsigned sibling , Connector 34 , which is better known as Industrial Drive in the Adrian area .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 34 begins at an intersection with M @-@ 99 just west of Osseo . M @-@ 99 approaches Osseo from the west along Hudson Road and where M @-@ 99 turns south along Pioneer Road , M @-@ 34 continues east along Hudson Road . The highway turns to the southeast to the south of Osseo near Deer Lake and continues towards Pittsford . Hudson Road runs through a mix of forests and local farms . The trunkline passes to the south of the main business district in Pittsford . East of town , the highway turns east and intersects US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) at the Hillsdale – Lenawee county line in Hudson . The trunkline continues eastward through the city of Hudson as Main Street . On the eastern edge of town , it becomes Carleton Road and passes through more farmland . Just south of Clayton , M @-@ 34 has a junction with the northern terminus of M @-@ 156 , a connector highway that runs south into Ohio and US 20 .
Approximately four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of that junction , M @-@ 34 turns north for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along Benner Highway and passes through the community of Cadmus . At the end of its course along Benner Highway , M @-@ 34 turns east towards Adrian on Beecher Road . There are some residential subdivisions along the road on the southwest side of Adrian . M @-@ 34 intersects Industrial Drive and crosses US 223 and Beecher Road becomes Beecher Street in town . The trunkline continues east and terminates at the intersection of Beecher and Main streets where it meets BUS US 223 / M @-@ 52 .
M @-@ 34 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 34 were the 11 @,@ 302 vehicles daily immediately east of the BUS US 223 / M @-@ 52 junction in Adrian ; the lowest counts were the 4 @,@ 166 vehicles per day between Hudson and the M @-@ 156 junction . No section of M @-@ 34 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was signed around July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 34 started in Jonesville at an intersection with M @-@ 23 along the present @-@ day alignment of M @-@ 99 . The highway ran to Adrian along its present route and continued southeasterly along present @-@ day US 223 through Blissfield , where it terminated at the Ohio state line near Sylvania , Ohio . In 1924 , the western terminus of the highway was extended to Homer where it terminated at M @-@ 60 . Just a few years later , in 1926 , the western terminus was truncated , to end at Hillsdale , with the remainder to Jonesville becoming an extension of the M @-@ 64 of the day . At the same time , the eastern segment of M @-@ 34 from Adrian to the border was assumed into the US 127 corridor , therefore , scaling the terminus back to US 127 ( now US 223 ) .
In 1954 , a new US 223 bypass was built around Adrian , resulting in the relocation of M @-@ 34 to end at BUS US 223 / M @-@ 52 . Finally , in 1966 , when a new alignment of M @-@ 99 highway was opened , the western terminus of M @-@ 34 was scaled back to end at the new highway near Osseo . In 2003 , the short connector between M @-@ 34 and US 223 was abandoned and obliterated . Industrial Drive , which is known internally at MDOT as Connector 34 , is a new connector between the two highways that was assumed into the state trunkline system at the same time .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Schizogeny =
" Schizogeny " is the ninth episode of the fifth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 11 , 1998 . It was written by Jessica Scott and Mike Wollaeger , directed by Ralph Hemecker , and featured guest appearances by Bob Dawson , Myles Ferguson , Katharine Isabelle , Chad Lindberg , and Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Schizogeny " earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 9 , being watched by 21 @.@ 37 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to negative reviews , with several critics calling it the worst episode of The X @-@ Files .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully become convinced that a greater evil may be lurking in the community when a teenager is suspected of murdering his father .
" Schizogeny " , written by first @-@ year staff writers Scott and Wollaeger , became humorously known as " The Killer Tree Episode " amongst the cast and crew . Many of the scenes shot for " Schizogeny " were filmed on a real orchard named Hazelgrove Farms near the small town of Fort Langley , British Columbia . The episode utilized various post @-@ production techniques , in order to clear up vocal issues and to censor one line , which Fox 's standards and practices department had issues with .
= = Plot = =
In Coats Grove , Michigan , teenager Bobby Rich is berated by his stepfather Phil for not finishing his lawn work outside the house . Bobby runs into a nearby orchard and Phil gives chase . When Bobby 's mother , Patti , follows them into the orchard , she discovers Phil 's body partially buried , seemingly drowned in mud . Kneeling beside Phil is Bobby , his eyes wide with terror .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are assigned to the case . At the scene , Scully hypothesizes that Bobby dug the pit that trapped his stepfather , and speculates that he had an accomplice . Patti tells Scully that , from her point of view , it appeared as if Bobby was attempting to help Phil out of the orchard pit when he died . She also reveals that her son has anger management issues and has been undergoing therapy for several years . When Mulder and Scully meet with Bobby 's therapist , Karin Matthews , she describes Bobby as the victim of physical abuse . Mulder expresses his belief that Bobby is not to blame for Phil 's death .
Bobby tells a fellow student , Lisa Baiocchi , that she must stand up to her overbearing father just as he had done with Phil . When Lisa returns home , a window explodes and a shadowy , arm @-@ like appendage grabs her father by the throat after he demands she stop seeing Bobby . His lifeless body is discovered lying on the ground outside the house . Though Scully concludes that Mr. Baiocchi died as the result of being pushed out the window , Mulder discovers evidence suggesting he was pulled out by an outside force . Later , the agents learn that Lisa is another one of Karin Matthews ' patients .
Mulder finds a small splinter of fresh wood embedded in Mr. Baiocchi 's neck , and matches the fragment to a tree outside the Baiocchi home . A short time later , the agents are approached by a man named Ramirez , who claims that the trees are all dying because of a " very bad man . " Meanwhile , Karin invites Lisa to stay at her home until her aunt can pick her up the following day . As Lisa listens from her bedroom , she overhears an argument between Karin and a male voice . When she descends into Karin 's root cellar , she discovers the skeletal body of a man . Terrified , Lisa turns towards the door , only to have the door close and lock .
Mulder discovers that Karin 's father was pulled from the mud of an orchard twenty years earlier . Ramirez tells him that the death brought about an end of a blight affecting the trees . Later , Mulder digs up Mr. Matthews ' casket and finds it filled with roots , his body missing . When Lisa 's aunt , Linda , arrives at Karin 's house to retrieve her niece , she is attacked and killed by an unseen force as tree branches sway in the wind above her . Karin enters the root cellar , and is revealed to be the source of the male voice Lisa heard earlier , due to her having Dissociative personality disorder brought on by abuse from her own father .
When Mulder and Scully search Karin 's house , they come upon the corpse — belonging to Karin 's father — in the root cellar . They then find Lisa , frightened but unharmed , in the kitchen . Karin drives to Bobby 's house and chases him into the orchard . Suddenly , Bobby is dragged downward into the mud . While attempting to rescue the teenager , Mulder simultaneously encourages Karin to break the cycle and to fight the voice inside her head . A tendon @-@ like root snakes out of the mud and begins to drag Mulder downward . Ramirez appears , his axe in hand , and decapitates Karin , killing her . Mulder and Bobby are released by the unseen force .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
" Schizogeny " was written by first @-@ year staff writers Jessica Scott and Mike Wollaeger , who had previously worked on The X @-@ Files in non @-@ writing jobs . Due to the episode 's tree @-@ based conceit , it eventually became known as " The Killer Tree Episode " amongst the cast and crew . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz noted that " Schizogeny " underwent an abnormally lengthy writing process and was edited several times . He later said that the episode " went through many , many incarnations and versions . " The title is a reference to the scientific term for asexual reproduction .
= = = Casting = = =
When it came time to cast the character of Bobby Rich , Chad Lindberg , who played a cystic fibrosis sufferer on the medical drama ER , was chosen . Katharine Isabelle , who portrayed Lisa Baiocchi , was the daughter of Graeme Murray , the production designer for The X @-@ Files . Kate Robbins , who portrayed Lisa 's aunt Linda , had previously appeared in the third season episode " D.P.O. "
Several lines in the episode were re @-@ recorded . During post @-@ production , editors feared that Rich 's mumbly voice would make it hard for viewers to understand what he was saying , so he was brought back in to re @-@ record his dialogue , which was then dubbed over the footage . In addition , during the scene wherein Mulder tells Scully that Bobby 's nickname at school , the original version featured Mulder audibly saying " Dickweed . " Fox 's standards and practices department made the show change the name to " Dorkweed , " which required David Duchovny to re @-@ dub his line .
= = = Set and score = = =
Many of the scenes shot for " Schizogeny " were filmed on a real orchard named Hazelgrove Farms near the small town of Fort Langley , British Columbia . Other shots , mostly involving the sinking mud scenes , were shot on a soundstage at Lion 's Gate Studios that was fitted with over 200 hazelnut trees . The mud pit was made out of a large tank filled with peat moss , mud , and water . The mixture was heated so that the actors would not be uncomfortable during the sinking scenes . The shot that called for Karin Matthews ' lifeless body to sink into the mud required a stunt woman to be slowly lowered into the pit . The crew found it necessary to supply her oxygen during the shot because of the depth of the pit . Toby Lindala and her art department created all of the props used in the episode , including the moving tree roots and the skeletal remains of Karin Matthews ' father .
Several of the sets were chosen because of their proximity to large trees . Lisa 's house , for instance , was built next to a large willow . An additional tree limb that was more than twenty feet long was attached to the real tree to give it a more menacing feel . The tree limb that attacked Mulder 's car was a branch of a massive tree that had fallen on a nearby plot of public land . The producers secured permission from the Canadian government and hoisted the tree with a crane and then dropped it onto a former police cruiser . Nigel Habgood , the series car coordinator , was able to refurbish the cruiser and it was later used in the episode " Kill Switch . " Mark Snow , composer for the series , was particularly proud of the music he wrote for the episode , noting that the story was a " dark tale with a wonderful aura about it . " He credits this ominous feel to woodwind instruments .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Schizogeny " premiered on the Fox network on January 11 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 21 @.@ 37 million viewers .
The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics , with several reviewers dubbing it one of the worst episodes of the series . Francis Dass of the New Straits Times Press referred to it as " one of the weaker episodes " of the fifth season . The A.V. Club reviewer Todd VanDerWerff gave " Schizogeny " a D – , and wrote that " ' Schizogeny ' just might be the very worst episode of The X @-@ Files " , noting that " the tone [ of the episode ] is off . " Furthermore , VanDerWerff felt that " the more Scott and Wollaeger try to continue explaining this and tie it into the idea of child abuse , the less it attains any of the power or tragedy they want it to have . " Starpulse , in a run @-@ down of the best and worst episodes and villains of the series , named the killer trees the worst monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and wrote , " [ Schizogeny ] proved that even the X @-@ Files ' writers can come up completely dry on their scary creeps sometimes . " Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode 4 / 10 , and , while praising the " interesting concept " of the episode , concluded that it was filled with " odd inconsistencies , [ and ] is definitely not one of the better episodes of the season . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two wrote positively of the first part of the episode noting that " director Ralph Hemecker [ brings ] the eeriness to the fore , and [ makes ] this a more honest @-@ to @-@ truth scary slice of X @-@ File than has been offered in ages . " Shearman and Pearson , however , argued that the episode 's references to Psycho and its " lack of explanation " result in the episode approaching " nonsense . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She wrote that , " the plot of ' Schizogeny ' is more tangled than the episode 's paranormal root system , but underneath lies some powerful themes . "
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= Defective Premises Act 1972 =
The Defective Premises Act 1972 ( c . 35 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that covers landlords ' and builders ' liability for poorly constructed and poorly maintained buildings , along with any injuries that may result . During the 19th century , the common law principle that a landlord could not be liable for letting a poorly maintained house was established , while a long @-@ running principle was that , in practice , builders could not be sued for constructing defective buildings . The courts began to turn against the first principle during the 20th century , imposing several restrictions on the landlord 's immunity , but the landlord was still largely free from being sued .
The Defective Premises Bill was introduced to the House of Commons as a private member 's bill by Ivor Richard on 1 December 1971 , and given the Royal Assent on 29 June 1972 , coming into force as the Defective Premises Act 1972 on 1 January 1974 . The Act establishes a duty of care builders and their sub @-@ contractors owe to the occupiers of property they construct or modify , and also establishes a duty of care landlords hold towards their tenants and any third parties who might be injured by their failure to maintain or repair property . The Act received a mixed reaction from critics ; while some complimented it on its simple nature compared to the previously complex common rule laws , others felt that it was too limited for what was desired to be achieved , and that the wording used was at times both too vague and too specific .
= = Background = =
Prior to the passing of the Act , builders who constructed defective buildings could not , practically , be sued under tort . At the same time , a landlord who let a dilapidated or defective house could not be sued for injuries suffered by non @-@ tenants , something based first on the " Privity of Tort " principle that was overturned in Donoghue v Stevenson [ 1932 ] AC 562 ( that if A had a contract with B and in the process injured C , C was prevented from suing A because of the contract with B ) and the decision in Robbins v Jones [ 1863 ] 15 CB ( ns ) 221 , where Chief Justice Earl said that " a landlord who lets a house in a dangerous state is not liable for accidents happening during the term ; for , fraud apart , there is no law against letting a tumbledown house " . This immunity was further extended in later cases .
The courts began to turn against this position in the 20th century ; the case of Cunard v Antifyre [ 1933 ] 1 KB 551 established that a landlord could be liable if the source of an injury emanated from property of which he was in possession , even if the injury happened on land he no longer owned or occupied . In Dutton v Bognor Regis Urban District Council [ 1972 ] 1 QB 373 , the courts arguably abolished the immunity of the landlord completely . By 1974 , this immunity excluded situations where the danger came from premises that the landlord occupied and where the landlord actively created a danger , and only included the landlord , not associated people .
The Defective Premises Bill was introduced to the House of Commons as a private member 's bill by Ivor Richard on 1 December 1971 , and was not debated at all in the Commons , something the academic lawyer Peter North called " remarkable " . There was some debate in the House of Lords , with questions and amendments covering Section 1 , but the bill was not substantially amended , something North puts down to the quality of the draft prepared by the Law Commission . The Act was given the Royal Assent on 29 June 1972 , and came into force on 1 January 1974 .
= = Act = =
= = = Duty of care = = =
Section 1 of the Act lays out the duty of care and who it applies to . The duty applies to " A person taking on work for or in connection with the provision of a dwelling ( whether the dwelling is provided by the erection or by the conversion or enlargement of a building ) " , something including not only builders but also electricians , plumbers and other subcontractors . The duty also extends to those who have statutory powers to arrange for the provision of dwellings , and those who do so in the course of business . This duty is owed to two classes of people ; the person ordering the house , and also every person who later takes an equitable and legal interest in the house .
The duty itself is laid out in Section 1 ( 1 ) , and is a duty on the people covered by the act " to see that the work which he takes on is done in a workmanlike or , as the case may be , professional manner , with proper materials and so that as regards that work the dwelling will be fit for habitation when completed " . This is a three @-@ part test , all parts of which must be fulfilled ; if , for example , a house is badly designed but well @-@ built , the architect will be held responsible even though the house is habitable . Those owing a duty can be released from their obligations if they are acting according to the claimant 's instructions , under Section 1 ( 2 ) . If they act completely in accordance with the instructions , the duty of care is fulfilled even though the house may not be properly constructed . However , if the claimant instructs the builder to construct a poorly designed and unstable building , the builder has a duty to warn the claimant . Section 2 of the Act excludes " approved scheme " constructions , such as those run by the National House Building Council .
= = = Disposal of premises = = =
Prior to the passage of the Act , the owner of premises who created a danger there disposed of his duty of care when he disposed of the property by selling or leasing it , something North described as both " bizarre " and " capricious in operation , unjust in the result and indefensible in principle " . Section 3 ( 1 ) of the Act , therefore , establishes that where work is done on premises , whatever duty of care may arise as a result of the work to people affected by defects in the work is not disposed of if the property is sold or let . Section 3 ( 2 ) qualifies this principle by providing exceptions , which are when the property is the subject of a tenancy and when the property has been disposed of ( or is in the process of being disposed of ) before 1 January 1974 , when the Act came into force .
= = = Landlord 's duty of care = = =
Prior to the passage of the Occupiers ' Liability Act 1957 , the general principle was that landlords were not liable for injuries suffered by third parties on their property . The 1957 Act qualified this , providing in Section 4 ( repealed by the Defective Premises Act ) that where a landlord was obligated by his tenant to repair property and he breached this obligation , third parties injured as a result of the breach would be able to claim providing that the tenant could . This provision was limited ; it provided no remedy to the tenant himself , and only applied to lawful visitors , not trespassers . In addition , it only came into effect if the landlord was obliged to repair the property ; if he simply had the option to do so , there was no remedy for an injured third party . Similarly , if a tenant failed to inform the landlord of something needing repair , any resulting injury could not be sued upon .
Section 4 of the Act includes new provisions to cover this sort of situation . Section 4 ( 1 ) establishes a general duty to repair and maintain the property , owed by the landlord to anyone who could reasonably be expected to be harmed by a breach ; this includes tenants , their friends and family and also trespassers . This duty applies when a landlord ought to have known of a defect , not just when he has been informed of a defect . Additionally , a landlord who merely has the right to repair property rather than an obligation to do so may still be found liable , if one of the groups described in Section 4 was harmed by their failure to repair .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
The Act includes a number of miscellaneous points , mainly in Sections 5 and 6 . The Act and its provisions are taken to extend to The Crown , which can be held tortiously liable to the extent laid out in the Crown Proceedings Act 1947 . It repeals Section 4 of the Occupiers ' Liability Act 1957 , replacing it with Section 4 of this Act , and unlike the 1957 Act does not allow any provisions or duties to be excluded or restricted .
= = Commentary and further territorial extent = =
The Act met a mixed review from academics . North praised it , saying that " The Act admirably disposes of confusion , controversy , illogicality and point @-@ less distinctions " , while admitting that the vagueness of much of it left it up to the courts to flesh out the statute . Others were more critical ; academic Vera Bermingham pointed out that the exclusion of liability for " approved scheme " buildings under Section 2 at the time included almost all new houses built within the United Kingdom , although these schemes have been much reduced since the 1980s . At the same time , actions brought under the Act are the subject of a six @-@ year limitation period starting on the date the dwelling is completed , regardless of when the defect is discovered , which is a " significant [ drawback ] in the utility of the [ Act ] " . Academic John Spencer criticised both Section 1 and Section 3 , the former for being too vaguely worded and the latter for being too specific . Spencer argues that , because of limitations imposed by the bill 's sponsors , the original meaning of the draft bill was changed , and the Act itself goes no further than the existing common law .
The Defective Premises ( Northern Ireland ) Order 1975 brought identical provisions into force in Northern Ireland on 1 January 1976 , with the section covering injuries to third parties excluded .
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= Woollen industry in Wales =
The woollen industry in Wales was at times the country 's most important industry , though it often struggled to compete with the better @-@ funded woollen mills in the north of England , and almost disappeared during the 20th century . There is continued demand for quality Welsh woollen products .
Wool processing includes removing the fleece by shearing , classing the wool by quality , untangling , carding and spinning it into yarn , which may be knitted or woven into cloth , then finishing the cloth by fulling , napping and pressing . Spinning and weaving of sheep 's wool dates to prehistoric times in Wales , but only became an important industry when Cistercian monasteries were established in the 12th century . Water @-@ powered fulling mills to finish the cloth enabled rapid expansion of the industry in the 13th century , although spinning and weaving continued to be a cottage industry . In the early 16th century production shifted from south Wales to mid and north Wales . The Shrewsbury Drapers Company in England took a dominant role in distributing Welsh cloth . From the 18th century there was strong demand for cheap , sturdy Welsh material shipped from Bristol , Liverpool or the Welsh ports to clothe slaves in the British colonies of North America and the West Indies .
During the Industrial Revolution the Welsh woollen industry was slow to mechanize compared to the mills of northern England . When railways reached mid Wales in the 1860s they brought a flood of cheap mass @-@ produced products that destroyed the local industry . However , development of the South Wales Coalfield opened a growing market for woollen products from water @-@ powered mills in the south west , which prospered until after World War I. At one time there were more than 300 working wool mills . The industry went into steady decline after World War I , and only a few mills continue to operate .
= = Process = =
Sheep shearing was a major social event on Welsh farms . The fleece would be removed intact , then carefully folded to make it easier to sort out the different grades of wool at the mill . The quality of wool depends on the individual sheep and on the part of the sheep 's body from which the wool has been taken . The common Welsh Mountain sheep are hardy and thrive in the cold and wet conditions of the Welsh highlands . The wool is soft and may have kemp and black , grey or red fibres , which makes it attractive in tweeds and upholstery . Staple length is 5 to 15 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) . Black Welsh Mountain sheep had mutton that was prized for its quality , and produced valuable Cochddu wool with a staple length of 8 to 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) .
After sorting , the raw wool would often be soaked in a 50 – 50 solution of human urine and water , then passed through a willy to untangle it and remove foreign matter . Carding completed the disentangling process , creating rolls of wool called rovings . The fibres in the roving were then spun into woollen yarn . Spinning machines were introduced in the 19th century . The spun fibre would then be woven into cloth , which would be finished by washing and drying , fulling , napping and pressing . Natural dyes were used until the mid @-@ 19th century . The fleece could be " dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool " , the fibre could be dyed after being spun , or the fabric could be dyed after being woven .
= = Prehistoric to early medieval times = =
Sheep farming in Wales dates to prehistoric times . There is evidence of spinning and weaving in late prehistoric houses throughout Britain , particularly in the later first millennium B.C .. Finds include scraps of fabric , loom @-@ weights , spindle @-@ whorls and bone needles , and the arrangement of post @-@ holes may indicate they supported looms . For example , a Bronze Age weaving comb was found in the Ogof yr Esgyrn cave in Glyntawe . The Romans probably imported the white breed characteristic of Welsh sheep today . The sheep at this time would have been much more variable than modern breeds , which have been carefully selected for specific characteristics . In the early days the sheep were not shorn , but the wool was collected when the sheep moulted in the summer , either by plucking it from their fleece or collecting it where it had been rubbed off on a tree or rock .
Excavations have been made at the Dinas Powys hillfort in Glamorgan of what seems to have been the court of an important ruler in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. The bones of sheep were found , but there seems to have been little spinning and weaving . The 6th century writer Gildas , thought by some to have lived in Wales , mentioned " mountains particularly suitable for the alternating pasturage of animals " . This seems to refer to transhumance , or seasonal movement of shepherds with their flocks , and if so is the earliest mention in Britain . The 10th century Welsh laws of King Hywel Dda allocate pigs to the husband and sheep to the wife . In the summer the pigs were kept in the woods while the wife took and sheep and the children to the highlands . The wife also controlled the dairy , and took the milking and cheese making equipment . Divorce remained an option in Wales longer than elsewhere in Britain . It was assumed that the woman deserved a share of the lambs and calves .
= = Medieval period = =
In the Middle Ages sheep were probably kept mainly for their milk and wool rather than their meat . Sheep do not seem to have been important to the Welsh economy before the 12th century , when the first Cistercian monasteries were established in Wales . Tintern Abbey in the Wye valley was founded for monks of the Cistercian order by Walter FitzRichard , lord of Netherwent and Striguil , on 9 May 1131 . All abbeys of the order were to be built in remote rural locations , and had to be simple and unadorned . The order expanded rapidly . Tintern was followed by Whitland ( 1140 ) , its offshoot Strata Florida ( 1164 ) , Strata Marcella ( 1170 ) in Powys Wenwynwyn , Cwmhir ( 1176 ) in Maelienydd , Llantarnam ( 1179 ) near Caerleon , Aberconwy ( 1186 ) in Gwynedd , Cymer ( 1198 ) in Merionethshire and Valle Crucis ( 1202 ) in Powys Fadog . The monks were granted extensive lands for sheep grazing and were the pioneers of the woollen industry in Wales .
The invention of the water @-@ powered fulling mill in the Later Middle Ages caused an industrial revolution in Wales . In the century that preceded the Black Death the monastic landowners and manorial lords built fulling mills in eastern Wales , with up to 80 operating before 1350 . Sometimes a fulling mill and gristmill would share the same building or the same leat and mill pond . There would be a tenter yard outside the fulling mill where the cloth was stretched on frames . Woollen manufacturing became one of the main rural industries in Wales . Most Welsh cottages and farmhouses had a spinning wheel , almost always operated by women , and most parishes had carders , spinners , weavers and fullers . However , most of the production was for personal use rather than sale .
The main centre of the new woollen industry was initially in south east Wales drawing on sheep from the monasteries of Margam , Neath and Tintern and the flocks of the Bohun family , which produced 18 @,@ 500 fleeces in 1372 . Fulling mills were later established elsewhere in Wales , particularly the north east and the Ceiriog valley . In 1380 the lordship of Ruthin in Denbighshire had 36 weavers . However , the period from 1350 to 1400 was difficult , with recurrences of the plague and heavy taxation to pay for the war with France . Between 1350 and 1500 an average of 50 fulling mills were operational . The reduced number was due to the unsettled state of the country before , during and after the Glyndŵr Rising ( 1400 – 15 ) .
The quality of wool depended on the local breeds of sheep . In the 15th century south @-@ east Wales produced particularly high quality wool . Margam in West Glamorgan and Tintern in Monmouthshire were noted for their excellent wool . According to Thomas Fuller 's Church History , Wales specialized in manufacturing friezes . A frieze is a coarse woollen cloth that usually has a nap on one side . It was hard @-@ wearing and well @-@ suited for outer garments , and was popular with working men . Cloth was made in many places in Wales , particularly the south west and the northern and southern borderlands . In 1447 there was a guild of weavers and fullers in the lordship of Ruthin , and in the 1460s at least five fulling mills were operating in this location . The cloth was sold locally , in border town markets and in the yearly Bartholomew Fair in London . Welsh friezes were also exported from Welsh ports or from Bristol .
In the early 16th century cloth for export was mainly produced in south Wales and shipped from the local ports . During that century there was a shift in production to mid @-@ Wales and north Wales , and the woollen production was exported via Shrewsbury in Shropshire . The Shrewsbury Drapers Company tightly controlled the trade . The Welsh cloth makers , who lacked capital , produced poor quality drapery for which there was relatively low demand .
= = Foreign trade = =
In 1660 wool made up two thirds of Welsh exports . Slaveowners in the West Indies and the American colonies found that slaves were more productive if they were clothed . William Lee of Virginia stated that " Good Welch cotton seems upon the whole to answer best " , and others were " light and insufficient . " The main market was at Shrewsbury . The demand for colours was limited . In the 1730s a Charleston merchant ordered " White , Bleue , & Green plains for Negro Clothing . " The South Carolina " Negro Act " of 1735 commended " white Welsh plains " and outlawed rich or colourful materials that might be discarded by the slave masters . In the 1770s one observer said the whole purpose of Welsh woollens was " covering the poor Negroes in the West Indies . "
Before 1800 there were very few factories in Wales , and almost all production was at home . As trans @-@ Atlantic demand for Welsh cloth grew , growing numbers of people in the rural areas of Montgomeryshire and Merionethshire became dependent on the woollen industry , finding that spinning and weaving gave a larger and more stable income than farming . Some hamlets grew into woollen manufacturing centres . For example , Trefeglwys tripled in size during the 18th century . In the last decades of the 18th century there was a great expansion of woollen production . Sales of stockings at Bala rose from £ 10 @,@ 000 to £ 18 @,@ 000 annually , and the annual profit of flannel sales in Montgomeryshire was more than £ 40 @,@ 000 .
At first much of the cloth was shipped via Shrewsbury and London , but later the specialized Atlantic port of Bristol became the main place from which Welsh plains were shipped across the Atlantic . Over time , factors from Liverpool and Bristol took control of the trade away from the Shrewsbury drapers . Instead of the weavers carrying their cloth to the market towns , the factors came to them to buy the cloth . The factors would extend credit to the poorer weavers so they could buy wool . The Shrewsbury Drapers were losing their control of the trade by 1770 . The port of Barmouth exported woollen products worth £ 50 @,@ 000 around the world in the 1770s . An author wrote of Shrewsbury in the 1790s ,
From very early days this place possessed almost exclusively the trade with Wales in a coarse kind of woollen cloth called Welsh webbs , which were brought from Merioneth and Montgomeryshire to a market held here weekly on Thursdays . They were afterwards dressed , that is , the wool raised on one side , by a set of people called Shearmen . At the time of Queen Elizabeth , the trade was so great , that not fewer than 600 persons maintained themselves by this occupation . The cloth was sent chiefly to America to clothe the negroes , or to Flanders , where it is used by the peasants . At present the greatest part of this traffick is diverted into other channels , and not more than four or five hundred thousand yards are brought to the ancient mart . Flannels both coarse and fine are purchased at Welsh @-@ Pool , on every other Monday , by the drapers of Shrewsbury , who now principally enjoy this branch of commerce .
By the end of the century the market in Shrewsbury had almost ceased , and in March 1803 the Company gave up the great room in which the trading had been conducted . In 1804 report by Mr. Evans of his tour through north Wales said ,
The webbs used to be carried to Liverpool or Shrewsbury to market ; but the Liverpool dealers have now persons in pay on the spot , to purchase of the makers ; and to assist the poorer manufacturers with money to carry on their trade ... Since this , the drapers of Shrewsbury are obliged to go up to the country , and purchase the articles in small quantities at farms and cottages . After undergoing the operation of scouring , bleaching , and milling , it is it is packed up in large bales , and sent to Shrewsbury , Liverpool , and London ; and thence exported to Germany , Russia and America .
= = Industrial era = =
= = = North Wales = = =
By the 18th century a transition was under way to textile production in workshops run by businessmen . However , the technological revolution took much longer in Wales than it had in England , with slow adoption of machinery . Until the latter part of the 18th century carding and spinning was done at home , and weaving in the village ty @-@ gwydd ( loom house ) , although fulling was done by machine in fulling mills . A 1799 report said
The chief staple commodities of North Wales , as well as of the nation at large , are those manufactured of wool . ... In Anglesey , the inhabitants buy quantities of the Snowdon coarse wool , at the fairs of Caernarvon , and Bangor ; out of which , mixed with their own wool , they manufacture deep blue coloured cloth , flannels , blankets , & c. a sufficience for home use and no more . ... In Caernarvonshire , they apply themselves somewhat more to spinning and weaving ; for , besides supplying themselves with wearing apparel , they annually send several pieces of blue cloth into Meirionyddshire ... In Flintshire , and the greater part of Denbighshire , they are still less disposed to the exercise of the wheel and the loom . ... In other parts of Denbighshire , in the south west of Meirionyddshire and Montgomeryshire , the inhabitants have imbibed more of the spirit of industry ; and add the profits of manufacture to the value of the raw material ...
Mill owners were not always men . There are records of three women mill owners in Wales in 1840 , Mary Powell with 16 looms and 8 men , Ann Harris with 14 employees including 6 man , and Ann Whiled with 9 employees . Large spinning mills continued to operate in Llangollen in the north throughout the 19th century . For example , the Trefriw Woollen Mills , originally called the Vale of Conwy Woollen Mill , was built in 1820 on the banks of the Afon Crafnant . Thomas Williams purchased the mill in 1859 and expanded the business . Products from the woollen mills were taken to the coast from the quay at Trefiw using the River Conwy . A 36 feet ( 11 m ) diameter overshot wheel powered spinning mules and jennies . The yarn was then woven into cloth on hand looms . A smaller 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wheel powered a fulling mill , which washed the cloth and kneaded it with wooden hammers to thicken and strengthen it . The mill was still in operation ( in a newer building ) as of 2016 .
= = = Mid @-@ Wales = = =
Between 1800 and 1830 many spinning and weaving factories were built in mid @-@ Wales in places where water power was available , particularly in the upper Severn Valley in Powys . Towns such as Welshpool , Newtown and Llanidloes tripled in size and became industrial towns , although they were dwarfed by the English centres of Bradford and Leeds . Due to lack of capital the factories often went bankrupt when trade turned down . When steam power began to be used by the Yorkshire woollen industry the Severn Valley mills were at a disadvantage , since they did not have nearby supplies of coal . In 1835 the Montgomeryshire weaving towns still had only four power looms .
The 1840 Parliamentary Gazetteer wrote of Montgomeryshire that the flannel makers were facing competition from Lancashire imitation flannels , although these were not as good as the Welsh . Hand looms were preferred to power looms for the finer qualities of flannel , and experiments with power looms at Newport and Welshpool had been abandoned . Welsh wool had much improved in quality , but Radnorshire or South Devon wool was still best for flannel manufacture . The farmers , especially around Llanbrynmair , employed their agricultural labourers in spinning and weaving in the winter months . The gazetteer noted that , " the principle of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors has much benefited the weavers in this county : they were formerly notorious for inebriety and improvidence . " In 1838 there were 61 mills in the county , mainly water @-@ powered , employing 507 males and 216 females .
In 1847 Llanidloes was continuing to grow despite competition from Newtown . The Cambrian Mirror reported that , " There are now more than 40 carding engines , 18 fulling mills , and nearly 35 @,@ 000 spindles , constantly in operation in the town and neighbourhood , affording considerable employment to a number of men , who weave the flannel at their own dwellings . Pryce Pryce @-@ Jones of Newtown began a mail @-@ order business in flannels in 1859 , a very innovative move for the time . He was at first extremely successful , and the London and North Western Railway ran a daily service with special vans to carry his products to Euston station in London . Between 1850 and 1870 the mill owners in Llanidloes and Newtown invested heavily in buildings and steam @-@ powered machinery . They hoped that the railway , which reached the towns between 1861 and 1863 , would give them access to new markets . In fact , the railway caused mass @-@ produced goods from northern England to flood into central Wales . Newtown , which once was called the " Leeds of Wales " , went into decline from the 1860s .
There were periods of renewed prosperity . The Cambrian Mills in Newtown was purchased in 1966 by the Cambrian Flannel Company of Newtown and Llanidloes , which modernized the factory so it was the most advanced facility in Wales and diversified into making plain and coloured flannels , shawls , whittles , hose and tweeds . Later the Newtown woollen industry again went into decline . The Pryce @-@ Jones " Welsh " flannel was eventually mostly made in Rochdale , Manchester . After the Cambrian Mills burned down in 1912 Newtown was no longer an important woollen industrial centre and many of the workers moved elsewhere .
Welsh tweed manufacture survived at a much reduced level into the 20th century in Montgomery , where the area around Rhayader retained mills in the villages and small towns . Newtown continued to make flannel , although Rochdale in northwest England took market share with its " real Welch flannel . " J. Geraint Jenkins has speculated that if a railway line had instead connected the Severn Valley to the south Wales coalfield the mid @-@ Wales woollen industry could have been supported by demand for flannel from the miners , as were the woollen mills of the Teifi valley in the later part of the 19th century .
= = = South Wales = = =
During the Industrial Revolution the Teifi Valley between Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire came to employ thousands of weavers , spinners , dyers , knitters , drapers and tailors . The river and its tributaries powered dozens of mills , and sheep in the surrounding grassland supplied fleeces to be made into woollen products . In 1837 a Working Men 's Association was established in the south Wales weaving town of Carmarthen in response to the Chartist campaign for democratic rights . By the summer of 1839 three more towns in the region had founded such societies , and the first Chartist convention had been held .
While manufacturing declined in mid @-@ Wales after the 1860s , the weaving industry grew in villages in south @-@ west Wales , which did well until the 1920s . Skilled workers moved from mid @-@ Wales to the Teifi Valley , mainly to the area around Dre @-@ fach Felindre , Pentrecwrt , Henllan and Llandysul . A railway was opened from Carmarthen to Lampeter in 1864 , and large mills were developed such as the Alltcafan and Derw factories at Pentrecwrt . Dre @-@ fach Felindre was once called " The Huddersfield of Wales " for its wool industry . The Cambrian Mills in this village made blankets , shawls , stockings and other products for local sale and for export .
The water @-@ powered factories in the south west were completely dependent on demand from the nearby South Wales coalfield , whose workers preferred Welsh goods . They could not compete with the mills of northern England in other markets . The Teifi Valley Railway , opened in 1895 , further strengthened the link from the rural south west to the industrial south . The woollen industry flourished in South Wales until the end of World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) , with high prices during the war . At one time there were more than 300 active woollen mills .
The woollen mills of the Teifi valley were hard @-@ hit by the drop in purchasing power of miners during the depression in the coal trade of the 1920s . In the inter @-@ war period ( 1918 – 39 ) most woollen manufacturers did not adapt to changes in fashion and were forced to close . Small clusters of hand loom weaving survived in places such as Lampeter where there were spinners and fullers , making quality goods . A weaver said of this work , " One can make a fair living by it , but a man can never get rich at it . "
The number of active mills dropped from 250 in 1926 to 81 in 1947 and 24 in 1974 , increasingly concentrated in industrial centres . However , the invention of the double weave and light tweeds caused significant growth in demand for Welsh textiles . When Burberry bought the Treorchy plant in the 1980s , 75 % of the workers were women . The plant was closed in March 2007 .
= = Today = =
As of 2013 there were just nine commercial woollen mills still in operation , often run by small families producing traditional Welsh cloth on old looms . Although demand for their products is high , there are few apprentices entering the industry . The Cambrian Woollen Mill at Dre @-@ fach Felindre was acquired by the state in 1976 for the Museum of the Welsh Woollen Industry , now named the National Wool Museum . Water powered woollen mills that were open to the public as of 2016 include Melin Tregwynt , Rock Mill Llandysul , Solva Woollen Mill and Trefriw Woollen Mills . In 2016 the Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales listed the following active woollen mills :
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= 2010 Showtime Southern 500 =
The 2010 Showtime Southern 500 , 61st running of the event , was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series motor race that was held on May 8 , 2010 at Darlington Raceway in Darlington , South Carolina . It was the eleventh race of the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season . The event began at 7 : 30 p.m. EDT . It was televised live in the United States on Fox and its U.S. radio coverage was broadcast on Motor Racing Network starting at 6 p.m. EDT .
The 367 @-@ lap race was won by Denny Hamlin for Joe Gibbs Racing after starting seven positions behind polesitter Jamie McMurray . McMurray finished second in a Chevrolet , and Kurt Busch finished third in a Dodge . The race had a total of 11 cautions and 22 lead changes among 11 different drivers . Kevin Harvick remained the point leader after finishing the race in the sixth position .
= = Background = =
Coming into the race , Richard Childress Racing driver Kevin Harvick led the Drivers ' Championship with 1 @,@ 467 points , with Hendrick Motorsports driver Jimmie Johnson trailing by ten points for second . Behind them in the Drivers ' Championship , Kyle Busch was third with 1 @,@ 358 points , and Matt Kenseth was fourth with 1 @,@ 348 points . Greg Biffle rounded out the top five drivers fourteen points behind Kenseth . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 76 points , eighteen points ahead of their rival Toyota . In the battle for third place , Dodge had 4 points , one ahead of Ford .
= = Practices and qualifying = =
There were two practice sessions the day before the race . In the first practice , A. J. Allmendinger , Dave Blaney , Mike Bliss , Michael McDowell , and Denny Hamlin were the fastest drivers . In the second session , Jamie McMurray , Hamlin , Kurt Busch , Ryan Newman , and Juan Montoya were the top five in speed . During qualifying , McMurray won his second pole position in 2010 and set a new track record , while Jeff Gordon , Brian Vickers , David Reutimann , and Mark Martin also qualified to start in the first five positions , respectively . There were three drivers who entered but did not qualify for the race : Joe Nemechek , Casey Mears , and Mike Bliss .
= = Race summary = =
To begin the pre @-@ race ceremonies , Ken Sandifer , a pastor at First Baptist Church of Darlington , delivered the invocation . John Norman and Kenneth Shelton , from Pope Air Force Base , then sang the national anthem . Next , Michael Waltrip introduced the mothers of the drivers , who commanded , " Sons and gentlemen , start your engines ! "
Jamie McMurray led the drivers to the start of the race , but Jeff Gordon passed him before the first lap ended . Gordon maintained the lead until Brian Vickers overtook him on lap 38 . On the same lap , Dave Blaney went to the garage because of transmission problems . Seven laps later , the first caution was flown when Michael McDowell crashed into the wall in turn 2 . During the pit stops throughout the caution , McMurray made a pit stop quickly , leaving pit road first and leading at the subsequent restart . On lap 53 , Bobby Labonte and Joey Logano both spun sideways , bringing out the second caution . Most drivers did not pit ; McMurray led the drivers to the third green flag of the day . The third caution came out on lap 62 when Paul Menard turned sideways on the back straightaway .
The first 10 drivers did pit under this caution , so McMurray held onto his lead position on the restart . On lap 83 , a multiple car collision brought out the fourth caution . Greg Biffle , Martin Truex , Jr . , and Jimmie Johnson were involved , but all received only minor damage to their cars . After the drivers made pit stops , Tony Stewart took the lead . Three laps later , Gordon reclaimed the lead and led up to the green flag pit stops on laps 121 — 154 . During the pit stops , Denny Hamlin , Kevin Harvick , and Scott Speed led , with Hamlin ultimately emerging in the front . On lap 171 , debris in the second turn , which is situated before the backstretch , brought out the fifth caution . During subsequent pit stops , McMurray came off pit road first , which gave him the lead on the restart .
Two laps later , Kevin Conway collided with the wall , bringing out the sixth caution . On the same lap , A. J. Allmendinger 's brakes failed , allowing him to decide to go down on the track apron ; his car turned sideways , went backwards , and collided into the driver 's door of Johnson 's Impala . Both were uninjured , but the crash put them out of the race . On lap 190 , McMurray brought the drivers to the green flag . 10 laps later , Stewart spun on the backstretch and brought out the seventh caution . McMurray led the restart on lap 204 .
2 laps later , Kyle Busch passed McMurray to lead for the first time . On lap 227 , the eighth caution came out when Labonte crashed into the wall after blowing a tire on the backstretch . All the lead lap cars made pit stops , and David Reutimann was the first off pit road , leading to the green flag on lap 223 . Debris from Truex , Jr . ' s car allowed David Ragan to collide with the wall , bringing out the ninth caution on the next lap . On lap 237 , Jeff Burton led to the green flag but Gordon passed him on lap 261 . 20 laps later , Labonte and Gilliland collided , bringing out the tenth caution . On lap 283 during pit stops , Kyle Busch left pit road in the first position and led on the restart .
On lap 189 , Hamlin passed teammate Kyle Busch and successfully battled Burton for the lead , which he took on lap 341 . The eleventh and final caution came out on the same lap when Logano spun coming out of pit road . After the drivers made pit stops , Hamlin led the restart on lap 347 , maintaining the lead to win both the Nationwide Series and the Sprint Cup Series races for the weekend .
= = Post race = =
Denny Hamlin appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his fourth win . In the subsequent press conference , Hamlin said , " I can 't tell you how excited I am about us winning right now , because I know what our team is capable of by the time we hit Chase time . " Jamie McMurray , who finished second , said that his season " has actually been really good , winning the [ Daytona ] 500 , almost winning at Talladega , running second again tonight . " He continued to say that he and his team have " been able to put ourselves in position to win three races this year . I don 't know that in my career I 've been able to do that , much less in the first eight or ten races . "
The race results left Kevin Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with 1 @,@ 622 points . Johnson , who failed to finish the race , was second with 1 @,@ 512 , three points ahead of Kyle Busch and thirty @-@ seven ahead of Jeff Gordon . Matt Kenseth was fifth with 1 @,@ 472 points . On May 12 , Michael McDowell and Robby Gordon were penalized 25 owner 's and drivers ' points and $ 25 @,@ 000 each for violations , specifically unapproved rear gear and for unapproved door braces , after the race 's final inspection .
= = Results = =
Jamie McMurray started the race on the pole position , and Denny Hamlin won . During the race there were 11 different leaders , 22 lead changes , and 11 cautions . Jeff Gordon led the most laps , with 111 . Hamlin , McMurray , Jeff Burton , Kyle Busch , Brian Vickers , Tony Stewart , David Reutimann , Scott Speed , and Robby Gordon also led laps .
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= Battle of Grand Port =
The Battle of Grand Port was a naval battle between squadrons of frigates from the French Navy and the British Royal Navy . The battle was fought during 20 – 27 August 1810 over possession of the harbour of Grand Port on Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) during the Napoleonic Wars . The British squadron of four frigates sought to blockade the port to prevent its use by the French through the capture of the fortified Île de la Passe at its entrance . This position was seized by a British landing party on 13 August , and when a French squadron under Captain Guy @-@ Victor Duperré approached the bay nine days later the British commander , Captain Samuel Pym , decided to lure them into coastal waters where his superior numbers could be brought to bear against the French ships .
Four of the five French ships managed to break past the British blockade , taking shelter in the protected anchorage , which was only accessible through a series of complicated reefs and sandbanks that were impassable without an experienced harbour pilot . When Pym ordered his frigates to attack the anchored French on August 22 and 23 , his ships became trapped in the narrow channels of the bay : two were irretrievably grounded ; a third , outnumbered by the combined French squadron , was defeated ; and a fourth was unable to close to within effective gun range . Although the French ships were also badly damaged , the battle was a disaster for the British : one ship was captured after suffering irreparable damage , the grounded ships were set on fire to prevent their capture by French boarding parties and the remaining vessel was seized as it left the harbour by the main French squadron from Port Napoleon under Commodore Jacques Hamelin .
The British defeat was the worst the Royal Navy suffered during the entire war , and it left the Indian Ocean and its vital trade convoys exposed to attack from Hamelin 's frigates . In response , the British authorities sought to reinforce the squadron on Île Bourbon under Josias Rowley by ordering all available ships to the region , but this piecemeal reinforcement resulted in a series of desperate actions as individual British ships were attacked by the more powerful and confident French squadron . In December 1810 an adequate reinforcement was collected , with the provision of a strong battle squadron under Admiral Albemarle Bertie , that rapidly invaded and subdued Isle de France .
= = Background = =
During the early nineteenth century , the Indian Ocean formed an essential part of the network of trade routes that connected the British Empire . Heavily laden East Indiamen travelled from British Indian port cities such as Bombay or Calcutta to the United Kingdom carrying millions of pounds worth of goods . From Britain , the ships returned on the same routes , often carrying soldiers for the growing British Indian Army , then under the control of the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) . Following the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 , the British Admiralty had made the security of these routes a priority , and by 1807 the Dutch bases at the Cape of Good Hope and Java had been neutralised by expeditionary forces to prevent their use by enemy raiders . The French Indian Ocean possessions however , principally Île Bonaparte and Isle de France , were a more complicated target , protected from attack not only by the great distances involved in preparing an invasion attempt but also by heavy fortifications and a substantial garrison of French Army soldiers augmented by a large local militia .
The French had recognised the importance of these islands as bases for raiding warships during the French Revolutionary Wars ( 1793 – 1801 ) , but by late 1807 the only naval resources allocated to the region were a few older frigates and a large number of local privateers . Following the reduction of these remaining naval forces on Isle de France during 1808 , by defeat in battle and disarmaments due to age and unseaworthiness , the French naval authorities made a serious attempt to disrupt British trade in the region , ordering five large modern frigates to sail to Isle de France under Commodore Jacques Hamelin . Four of these ships broke through the British blockade of the French coast , arriving in the Indian Ocean in the spring of 1809 , where Hamelin dispersed them into the Bay of Bengal with orders to intercept , attack and capture or destroy the heavily armed but extremely valuable convoys of East Indiamen . The first French success came at the end of the spring , when the frigate Caroline successfully attacked a convoy at the Action of 31 May 1809 , seizing two heavily laden merchant ships .
Commodore Josias Rowley was given command of the British response to the French deployment , a hastily assembled force composed mainly of those ships available at the Cape of Good Hope in early 1809 . Ordered to stop the French raiders , Rowley was unable to spread his limited squadron wide enough to pursue the roving French frigates , instead using his forces to blockade and raid the French Indian Ocean islands in anticipation of Hamelin 's return . In August 1809 , Caroline arrived with her prizes at Saint @-@ Paul on Île Bonaparte and Rowley determined to seize the frigate . He planned a successful invasion of the town , launched on 20 September 1809 , which resulted in the capture of the port 's defences , Caroline and the captured East Indiamen . With his objectives complete , Rowley withdrew five days later . Almost a year later , Rowley returned with a larger task force and made a second landing around the capital of Île Bonaparte , Saint @-@ Denis . Marching on the seat of government , Rowley 's troops rapidly overwhelmed the defences and forced the island 's garrison to surrender , renaming the island Île Bourbon and installing a British governor .
Hamelin had used the British preoccupation with Île Bonaparte to send additional frigates to sea during 1809 and early 1810 , including his flagship Vénus , which captured three East Indiamen at the Action of 18 November 1809 , and Bellone , which took the Portuguese frigate Minerva in the Bay of Bengal a few days later . Minerva , renamed Minerve in French hands , was subsequently involved in the Action of 3 July 1810 , when a further two East Indiamen were captured . The squadron in the latter action was commanded by Guy @-@ Victor Duperré in Bellone , whose ships were so badly damaged that Duperré was forced to spend nearly a month repairing his vessels in the Comoros Islands before they were ready to return to Isle de France .
= = Operations off Grand Port = =
With Île Bourbon secured in July 1810 , the British now occupied a large fortified island base within easy sailing distance of Isle de France . Even before Île Bourbon was completely in British hands , Rowley had detached HMS Sirius from the invasion squadron with orders to restore the blockade of Isle de France . Shortly afterwards , Sirius 's captain Samuel Pym led his men in a raid on a coastal vessel moored off the southern side of the island . Two days after this successful operation , reinforcements arrived in the form of the frigates HMS Iphigenia , HMS Nereide and the small brig HMS Staunch . Nereide carried 100 specially selected soldiers from the 69th and 33rd Regiments and some artillerymen from the garrison at Madras , to be used in storming and garrisoning offshore islands , beginning with Île de la Passe off Grand Port , a well defended islet that protected a natural harbour on the southeastern shore . These fortified islands could be used to block entry to the ports of Isle de France and thus trap Hamelin 's squadron .
Grand Port was an easily defendable natural harbour because the bay was protected from the open sea by a large coral reef through which a complicated channel meandered , known only to experienced local pilots . Île de la Passe was vitally important in the control of Grand Port because it featured a heavy battery that covered the entrance to the channel , thus controlling the passage to the sheltered inner lagoon . The British planned to use the troops on Nereide , under her captain Nesbit Willoughby , to storm Île de la Passe and capture the battery . Willoughby would then use a local man serving on his ship named John Johnson ( known in some texts as " the black pilot " ) , to steer through the channel and land troops near the town , distributing leaflets promising freedom and prosperity under British rule in an attempt to corrode the morale of the defenders .
The first attack on Île de la Passe was launched on the evening of 10 August , with Staunch towing boats carrying over 400 soldiers , Royal Marines and volunteer sailors to the island under cover of darkness , guided by Nereide 's pilot . During the night however , the pilot became lost and the boats were scattered in high winds and had not reassembled by dawn . To distract French attention from the drifting boats , Pym directed Captain Henry Lambert in Iphigenia to sail conspicuously off Port Napoleon , where the main body of the French squadron , led by Hamelin in Vénus , was based . Pym joined Lambert later in the day and the frigates subsequently returned to the waters of Grand Port by different routes , confusing French observers from the shore as to British intentions . By 13 August , the boats originally intended for the attack had still not been assembled and Pym decided that he could not risk waiting any longer without the French launching a counterattack . Launching his own boats at 8pm ( local time ) , guided by the pilot and commanded by Pym 's second in command , Lieutenant Norman , Pym 's marines and sailors landed on the island in darkness under heavy fire from the defenders . Norman was killed in the initial exchange of fire , but his deputy Lieutenant Watling seized the island by storming the fortifications surrounding the battery . Seven British personnel were killed and 18 wounded in the battle , in which the storming party managed to seize intact French naval code books and took 80 prisoners . Willoughby was furious that Pym had assumed command of the operation without his permission and the officers exchanged angry letters , part of an ongoing disagreement between them that engendered mutual distrust .
With Île de la Passe secure , Pym gave command of the blockade of Grand Port to Willoughby and returned to his station off Port Napoleon with Iphigenia . Willoughby used his independent position to raid the coastline , landing at Pointe du Diable on 17 August on the northern edge of Grand Port with 170 men and storming the fort there , destroying 10 cannon and capturing another . Marching south towards the town of Grand Port itself , Willoughby 's men fought off French counterattacks and distributed propaganda pamphlets at the farms and villages they passed . Willoughby re @-@ embarked his troops in the evening but landed again the following day at Grande Rivière to observe the effects of his efforts . Burning a signal station , Willoughby advanced inland , but was checked by the arrival of 800 French reinforcements from Port Napoleon and returned to HMS Nereide . The brief expedition cost the British two men wounded and one missing , to French casualties of at least ten killed or wounded . Willoughby followed the attack on Grande Rivière with unopposed minor landings on 19 and 20 August .
= = Duperré 's arrival = =
Willoughby 's raiding was interrupted at 10 : 00 on 20 August when five ships were sighted , rapidly approaching from the southeast . These ships were Guy @-@ Victor Duperré 's squadron of Bellone , Minerve , corvette Victor and prizes Windham and Ceylon returning from the Comoros Islands . Following a month of repairs on Anjouan , Duperré had sailed for Isle de France without encountering any opposition on his return passage , and was intending to enter Grand Port via the channel protected by Île de la Passe . Duperré was unaware of the British occupation of the island , and Willoughby intended to lure the French squadron into the channel by concealing the British presence off the harbour . Once there , Willoughby hoped to defeat them or damage them so severely that they would be unable to break out unaided , thus isolating Duperré 's squadron from Hamelin 's force in Port Napoleon and containing the French in separate harbours to prevent them from concentrating against the British blockade squadrons . Willoughby brought Nereide close to Île de la Passe to combine their fire and protect his boats , which were carrying 160 men back to Nereide from a raid near Grand Port that morning .
Raising a French tricolour over Île de la Passe and on Nereide , Willoughby transmitted the French code captured on the island : " L 'ennemi croise au Coin de Mire " and received an acknowledgement from Duperré . The use of these signals convinced Duperré , over the objections of Captain Pierre Bouvet on Minerve , that Nereide was Surcouf 's privateer Charles , which was expected from France . The French squadron closed with the harbour during the morning , Victor entering the channel under Île de la Passe at 13 : 40 . As Victor passed Nereide and the fort Willoughby opened fire , Lieutenant Nicolas Morice surrendering the outnumbered corvette after the first volley . Willoughby sent boats to attempt to take possession of Victor , but they were unable to reach the vessel . Behind the corvette , Minerve and Ceylon pushed into the channel and signalled Morice to follow them , exchanging fire with the fort . As Morice raised his colours again and followed Minerve , a large explosion boiled out of Île de la Passe , where the false French flag had ignited on a brazier as it was lowered and set fire to a nearby stack of cartridges , which exploded in the close confines of the fort . Three men were killed and 12 badly burned , six cannon were dismounted and one discharged unexpectedly , killing a British sailor in a boat attempting to board Victor . With the fort out of action and a significant number of her crew scattered in small boats in the channel , Nereide alone was unable to block French entry to Grand Port .
With Willoughby 's ambush plan ruined , the scattered boats sought to rejoin Nereide , passing directly through the French squadron . Although several boats were in danger of being run down by the French ships and one even bumped alongside Minerve , all eventually rejoined Nereide safely . However , the opportunity to cause significant damage to the French in the narrow channel had been lost , Bellone joining the squadron in passing through the channel with minimal resistance . In addition to British losses in the explosion at the fort , two men had been killed and one wounded on Nereide . French losses were more severe , Minerve suffering 23 casualties and Ceylon eight . With both sides recognising that further action was inevitable , Willoughby sent a boat to Sirius requesting additional assistance and Duperré sent a message overland with Lieutenant Morice , requesting support from Hamelin 's squadron ( Morice fell from his horse during the mission and was severely injured ) . Command of Victor passed to Henri Moisson . In the afternoon , Willoughby used mortars on Île de la Passe to shell the French squadron , forcing Duperré to retreat into the shallow harbour at Grand Port and Willoughby subsequently sent officers into Grand Port on 21 August under a flag of truce , demanding the release of Victor , which he insisted had surrendered and should thus be handed over to the blockade squadron as a prize . Duperré refused to consider the request . One French ship had failed to enter the channel off Grand Port : the captured East Indiaman Windham . Early on 21 August , her French commander attempted to shelter in Rivière Noire . Sirius spotted the merchant ship under the batteries there and sent two boats into the anchorage , stormed the ship and brought her out without a single casualty . This success was remarkable as the boarding party had forgotten to take any weapons with them and were only armed with wooden foot @-@ stretchers wielded as clubs .
= = Battle = =
From prisoners captured on Windham , Pym learned of the nature and situation of Duperré 's squadron and sent orders to Port Napoleon with Captain Lucius Curtis in the recently arrived HMS Magicienne for Iphigenia to join Sirius and Nereide off Grand Port . Sirius and Nereide met on the morning of 22 August , Willoughby welcoming Pym with signals describing an " enemy of inferior force " . Although Duperré 's squadron was technically weaker than the four British frigates combined , Willoughby 's signal was misleading as the French had taken up a strong crescent shaped battleline in the bay and could cover the mouth of the channel through which the British ships could only pass one at a time . Duperré also anticipated the arrival of reinforcements from Port Napoleon under Governor Charles Decaen at any time and could call on the support of soldiers and gun batteries on shore . In addition , French launches had moved the buoys marking the channel through the coral reef to confuse any British advance .
= = = British attack = = =
On 22 August at 14 : 40 , Pym led an attack on Duperré 's squadron without waiting for Iphigenia and Magicienne , entering the channel that led to the anchorage at Grand Port . He was followed by Nereide , but Willoughby had refused to allow Pym to embark the harbour pilot : the only person in the British squadron who knew the passage through the reefs . Without guidance by an experienced pilot , Sirius was aground within minutes and could not be brought off until 08 : 30 on the 23 August . Nereide anchored nearby during the night to protect the flagship . At 10 : 00 , Iphigenia and Magicienne arrived and at 14 : 40 , after a conference between the captains as to the best course of action , the force again attempted to negotiate the channel . Although the squadron was now guided by Nereide 's pilot , Sirius again grounded at 15 : 00 and Magicienne 15 minutes later after over @-@ correcting to avoid the reef that Sirius had struck . Nereide and Iphigenia continued the attack , Iphigenia engaging Minerve and Ceylon at close range and Nereide attacking Bellone . Long @-@ range fire from Magicienne was also directed at Victor , which was firing on Nereide .
Within minutes of the British attack , Ceylon surrendered and boats from Magicienne sought but failed to take possession of her . The French crew drove the captured East Indiaman on shore , joined shortly afterwards by Minerve , Bellone and later by Victor , so that by 18 : 30 the entire French force was grounded and all but Bellone prevented from firing their main broadsides by beached ships blocking their arc of fire . Bellone however was ideally positioned to maintain her fire on Nereide from her beached position , and at 19 : 00 a cannon shot cut Nereide 's stern anchor cable . The British frigate swung around , presenting her stern to Bellone and pulling both her broadsides away from the French squadron . Raked by Bellone and desperate to return fire , Willoughby had the bow anchor cable cut , bringing a portion of his ship 's starboard broadside to bear on Bellone . At 20 : 00 , Duperré was seriously wounded in the cheek by shrapnel from a grape shot fired by Nereide ; Ensign Vigoureux concealed his unconscious body under a signal flag and discreetly brought him below decks while Bouvet assumed command of the French squadron on board Bellone , placing Lieutenant Albin Roussin in charge of Minerve . Building an improvised bridge between the French ships and the shore , Bouvet increased the men and ammunition reaching Bellone and thus significantly increased her rate of fire . He also had the rail removed between the foredeck and the quarterdeck of Minerve , and had iron hooks nailed to the freeboard below the starboard gangway as to provide attachment points for additional guns , thus building a continuous second deck on his frigate where he constituted a complete second battery . By 22 : 00 Nereide was a wreck , receiving shot from several sides , with most of her guns dismounted and casualties mounting to over 200 : the first lieutenant was dying , the second was severely wounded and Willoughby 's left eye had been dislodged from its socket by a wooden splinter . Recognising her battered state , Bouvet then diverted fire from Nereide to concentrate on Magicienne .
Refusing to surrender until all options had been exhausted , Willoughby dispatched boats to Sirius , asking Pym if he believed it would be practical to send boats to tow Nereide out of range . Pym replied that with the boats engaged in attempting to tow Sirius and Magicienne off the reef it was not possible to deploy them under fire to tow Nereide . Pym also suggested that Willoughby disembark his men and set fire to his ship in the hope that the flames would spread to the French ships clustered on shore . Willoughby refused this suggestion as it was not practical to disembark the dozens of wounded men aboard Nereide in the growing darkness and refused to personally abandon his men when Pym ordered him to transfer to Sirius . At 23 : 00 , Willoughby ordered a boat to row to Bellone and notify the French commander that he had surrendered . However , Willoughby 's boat had been holed by shot and was unable to make the short journey . The message was instead conveyed by French prisoners from Nereide who had dived over board and reached the shore during the night . Recalling the false flags used on 20 August , Bouvet resolved to wait until morning before accepting the surrender .
= = = Attempted withdrawal = = =
At 01 : 50 on 24 August , Bellone ceased firing on the shattered Nereide . During the remaining hours of darkness , Pym continued his efforts to dislodge Sirius from the reef and sent orders to Lambert , whose Iphigenia had been blocked from firing on the French by Nereide and also prevented from pursuing the Minerve by a large reef blocking access to the beach . With Iphigenia now becalmed in the coastal waters , Pym instructed Lambert to begin warping his ship out of the harbour , using anchors attached to the capstan to drag the ship slowly through the shallow water . Magicienne , like Iphigenia , had been stranded out of range of the beached French ships and so had instead directed her fire against a battery erected on shore , which she had destroyed by 02 : 00 . When daylight rose , it showed a scene of great confusion , with Sirius and Magicienne grounded in the approaches to the harbour , the French ships " on shore in a heap " in the words of Captain Pym , Iphigenia slowly pulling herself away from the French squadron and Nereide lying broken and battered under the guns of Bellone , a Union Flag nailed to her masthead . This flag prompted a fresh burst of cannon fire from Bouvet , and it was not until Willoughby ordered the mizenmast to be chopped down that the French acknowledged the surrender and ceased firing .
At 07 : 00 , Lambert notified Pym that he had cleared the reef separating Iphigenia from the French ships and suggested that if Pym sent reinforcements from Sirius he might be able to board and capture the entire French squadron . Pym refused permission , insisting that Lambert assist him in pulling Sirius off the reef instead . Although Lambert intended to subsequently attack the French alone , Pym forbade him and sent a direct order for Lambert to move out of range of the enemy . At 10 : 00 , Iphigenia reached Sirius and together the ships began firing at French troops ashore , who were endeavouring to raise a gun battery within range of the frigates . Magicienne , irretrievably stuck on the reef , rapidly flooding and with her capstan smashed by French shot , now bore the brunt of long @-@ range French fire from both Bellone and the shore until Pym ordered Curtis to abandon his ship , transferring his men aboard Iphigenia . At 19 : 30 Magicienne was set on fire , her magazines exploding at 23 : 00 . On the shoreline , Duperré had been unable to spare any men to take possession of Nereide until 15 : 00 . A party under Lieutenant Roussin , second in command on Victor and temporarily in command of Minerve , was sent but had orders to return once the ship had been disarmed : freeing the remaining French prisoners , Roussin spiked the guns to prevent their further use , administered basic medical care and returned to shore , recounting that over 100 men lay dead or dying aboard the British frigate .
At 04 : 00 on 25 August , the newly erected French gun battery opened fire on Sirius and Iphigenia , which returned fire as best they could . Accepting that Sirius was beyond repair , Pym removed all her personnel and military supplies , setting fire to the frigate at 09 : 00 , shortly after Iphigenia had pulled beyond the range of the battery , using a cannon as an anchor after losing hers the previous day . French boats attempted to reach Sirius and capture her before she exploded , although they turned back when Pym launched his own boats to contest possession of the wreck . The frigate 's remaining munitions exploded at 11 : 00 . During the morning , Duperré sent an official boarding party aboard Nereide , who wet the decks to prevent any risk of fire from the ships burning in the harbour and removed 75 corpses from the frigate .
= = French response = =
When news of the arrival of Duperré 's squadron reached Decaen at Port Napoleon , he immediately despatched fast couriers to Grand Port and ordered Hamelin 's squadron , consisting of the frigates Vénus , Manche , Astrée and the brig Entreprenant , to make ready to sail in support of Duperré . Hamelin departed Port Napoleon at midnight on 21 August , intending to sail northeast and then south , down the island 's eastern shore . On 23 August , Hamelin 's squadron spotted and captured a British transport ship named Ranger , sent 24 days earlier from the Cape of Good Hope with 300 tons of food supplies and extensive naval stores for Rowley on Île Bourbon . On rounding the northern headlands of Isle de France , however , Hamelin found he could make no progress against the headwinds and reversed direction , passing the western shore of the island and arriving off Grand Port at 13 : 00 on 27 August .
The two extra days Hamelin had spent rounding Isle de France saw activity from the British forces remaining at Grand Port . There had been no strong winds in the bay and Iphigenia was forced to resort to slowly warping towards the mouth of the channel in the hope of escaping the approaching French reinforcements . Boats had removed the crews of Sirius and Magicienne to Île de la Passe , where the fortifications had been strengthened , but supplies were running low and Magicienne 's launch was sent to Île Bourbon to request urgent reinforcement and resupply from Rowley 's remaining squadron . On the morning of 27 August , Lambert discovered the brig Entreprenant off the harbour mouth and three French sail approaching in the distance . Iphigenia was still 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 3 ⁄ 4 mi ) from Île de Passe at the edge of the lagoon and was low on shot and unable to manoeuvre in the calm weather without anchors . Recognising that resistance under such conditions against an overwhelming force was futile , Lambert negotiated with Hamelin , offering to surrender Île de la Passe if Iphigenia and the men on the island were given permission to sail to Île Bourbon unmolested .
= = British surrender = =
On the morning of 28 August , Lambert received a message from Hamelin , promising to release all the prisoners under conditions of parole within one month if Île de la Passe and Iphigenia were both surrendered without resistance . The message also threatened that if Lambert refused , the French would attack and overwhelm the badly outnumbered British force . Recognising that food supplies were low , reinforcements had not arrived and that his ammunition stores were almost empty , Lambert agreed to the terms . Lambert later received a message from Decaen proposing similar terms and notified the French governor that he had surrendered to Hamelin . Decaen was furious that Hamelin had agreed terms without consulting him , but eventually agreed to accept the terms of the surrender as well . The wounded were treated by French doctors at Grand Port and later repatriated , although the remainder of the prisoners were placed in a cramped and unpleasant prison at Port Napoleon from which , despite the terms of the surrender , they were not released until British forces captured the island in December .
Rowley first learned of the operations off Grand Port on 22 August , when Windham arrived off Saint Paul . Eager to support Pym 's attack , Rowley immediately set sail in his frigate HMS Boadicea , with the transport Bombay following with two companies of the 86th Regiment of Foot to provide a garrison on any territory seized in the operation . The headwinds were strong and it was not until 29 August that Rowley arrived off Grand Port , having been notified of the situation there by Magicienne 's launch the previous day . Sighting a cluster of frigates around Île de la Passe , Rowley closed with the island before turning sharply when Vénus and Manche raised their colours and gave chase . Rowley repeatedly feinted towards the French ships and then pulled away , hoping to draw them away from Grand Port in the hope that Bombay might board the now unprotected Iphigenia and capture her . Bombay was thwarted by the reappearance of Astrée and Entreprenant and Rowley was chased by Vénus and Manche back to Saint Denis , anchoring there on 30 August . Rowley attempted a second time to rescue Iphigenia from Grand Port the following week , but by the time he returned Bellone and Minerve had been refloated and the French force was far too strong for Rowley 's flagship to attack alone .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle is noted as the most significant defeat for the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars . Not only had four frigates been lost with their entire crews , but 105 experienced sailors had been killed and 168 wounded in one of the bloodiest frigate encounters of the war . French losses were also heavy , with Duperré reporting 36 killed and 112 wounded on his squadron and among the soldiers firing from the shore .
The loss of such a large proportion of his force placed Rowley at a significant disadvantage in September 1810 , as Hamelin 's squadron , bolstered by the newly commissioned Iphigénie , now substantially outnumbered his own ( the ruined Néréide was also attached to the French squadron , but the damage suffered was so severe that the ship never sailed again ) . Withdrawing to Isle de France , Rowley requested that reinforcements be diverted from other duties in the region to replace his lost ships and to break the French blockade of Île Bourbon , led by Bouvet . These newly arrived British frigates , cruising alone in unfamiliar waters , became targets for Hamelin , who twice forced the surrender of single frigates , only for Rowley to beat his ships away from their prize each time . On the second occasion , Rowley was able to chase and capture Hamelin and his flagship Vénus , bringing an end to his raiding career and to the activities of his squadron , who remained on Isle de France until they were all captured at the fall of the island in December 1810 by an invasion fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Albemarle Bertie .
In France the action was greeted with celebration , and it became the only naval battle commemorated on the Arc de Triomphe . The British response was despondent , although all four captains were subsequently cleared and praised at their courts @-@ martial inquiring into the loss of their ships . The only criticism was of Willoughby , who was accused of giving a misleading signal in indicating that the French were of inferior force on 22 August . Contemporary historian William James described British reaction to the battle as " that the noble behaviour of her officers and crew threw such a halo of glory around the defeat at Grand Port , that , in public opinion at least , the loss of four frigates was scarcely considered a misfortune . " However , he also notes that " No case of which we are aware more deeply affects the character of the Royal Navy than the defeat it sustained at Grand Port . " On 30 December 1899 , a monument was erected at the harbour of Grand Port in the memory of the British and French sailors who were killed in the engagement .
= = In literature = =
The battle attracted the attention of authors from both Britain and France , featuring in the 1843 novel Georges by Alexandre Dumas , and the 1977 novel The Mauritius Command by Patrick O 'Brian .
= = Order of battle = =
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= Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg =
Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg ( 26 June 1760 – 25 March 1799 ) was an Austrian military commander . He achieved the rank of Field Marshal and died at the Battle of Stockach .
The third son of a cadet branch of the House of Fürstenberg , at his birth his chances of inheriting the family title of Fürst zu Fürstenberg were slight ; he was prepared instead for a military career , and a tutor was hired to teach him the military sciences . He entered the Habsburg military in 1777 , at the age of seventeen years , and was a member of the field army in the short War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1778 – 79 ) . His career progressed steadily during the Habsburg War with the Ottoman Empire . In particular he distinguished himself at Šabac in 1790 , when he led his troops in storming the fortress on the Sava River .
During the French Revolutionary Wars , he fought with distinction again for the First Coalition , particularly at Ketsch and Frœschwiller , and in 1796 at Emmendingen , Schliengen and Kehl . He was stationed at key points to protect the movements of the Austrian army . With a force of 10 @,@ 000 , he defended the German Rhineland at Kehl , and reversed a bayonet assault by French troops at Bellheim ; his troops also overran Speyer without any losses . By the end of the War of the First Coalition , at the age of 35 , he had achieved the rank of Field Marshal . During the War of the Second Coalition , he fought in the first two battles of the German campaign , at Ostrach on 21 March 1799 , and at Stockach on 25 March 1799 . At the latter action while leading a regiment of grenadiers , he was hit by French case shot and knocked off his horse . He died shortly afterward .
= = Childhood and early military training = =
As the third son of a cadet ( junior ) branch of the Fürstenberg princely family , Karl Aloys was prepared for a military career . His tutor , Lieutenant Ernst , was in active service in the Habsburg military , and took six @-@ year @-@ old Karl Aloys on maneuvers with him . In this way , he learned as a child the Habsburg military manual , and came into contact with important military men who later furthered his education and career ; he also acquired an honorary rank as Kreis @-@ Obristen , or Colonel of the Imperial Circle , by the time he was ten years old . As a youth , in 1776 , he met the Habsburg war minister Count Franz Moritz von Lacy and Baron Ernst Gideon von Laudon ; he was also invited to dine with Emperor Joseph II . He started his service in 1777 as a Fähnrich ( ensign ) in the Habsburg military organization . He saw his first field service during the War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1777 – 78 ) , although he was not involved in any battles .
In 1780 , at the age of twenty years , he was promoted to captain , and assigned to the 34th Infantry Regiment , also known as the Anton Esterházy , named for Paul II Anton Esterházy , the general of cavalry , field marshal of the Seven Years ' War , and ambassador to Britain . While he was assigned to this unit , he participated in the border conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs , 1787 – 92 , and stormed the fortress at Šabac ( German : Schabatz ) on the Sava River in Serbia on 27 April 1788 . For his action at Šabac , he was personally commended by the Emperor ; on the following day , he was promoted to major and given command of a grenadier battalion .
On 1 January 1790 , at Laudon 's explicit request , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg was promoted to major general ; at the end of June of that year , he received the coveted position of second colonel of the 34th Infantry Regiment Anton Esterhazy , where he served as the executive officer for Antal , Prince Esterházy de Galántha , the 34th Hungarian Regiment 's Colonel and Proprietor . This was a customary appointment in which a less prominent officer completed the day @-@ to @-@ day administrative duties of the Colonel and Proprietor , who was usually a noble and was often posted in a different assignment , sometimes a different staff location . Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg also received the confraternal Order of Saint Hubert from the Duke of Bavaria and married the " elegant " Princess Elisabeth of Thurn und Taxis ( 1767 – 1822 ) , that year .
= = Fight against Revolutionary France = =
While Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg fought for the Habsburg cause in Serbia , in France , a coalition of the clergy and the professional and bourgeois class — the First and Third estates — led a call for reform of the French government and the creation of a written constitution . Initially , the rulers of Europe viewed the French Revolution as an event between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . In 1790 , Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph as emperor and by 1791 , he considered the situation surrounding his sister , Marie Antoinette , and her children , with greater alarm . In August 1791 , in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia , he issued the Declaration of Pilnitz , in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis XVI and his family . They threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family . The French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution . On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In the War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 1797 ) , France opposed most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire .
= = = War of the First Coalition = = =
In the early days of the French Revolutionary Wars , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg remained as brigade commander of a small Austrian corps , approximately 10 @,@ 000 men , under the overall command of Anton , Prince Esterházy . He was stationed in the Breisgau , a Habsburg territory between the Black Forest and the Rhine River . This location between the forested mountains and the river included two important bridgeheads across the river which offered access to southwestern Germany , the Swiss Cantons , or north @-@ central Germany . His brigade defended Kehl , a small village immediately across the Rhine from Strassbourg , but most of the action in 1792 occurred further north , in present @-@ day Belgium , near the cities of Speyer and Trier , and at Frankfurt on the Main River .
In the second year of the war , Fürstenberg was transferred to the cavalry of Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser , in the Army of the Upper Rhine , and placed in charge of the advance guard near Speyer , which was still held by the French . On 30 March , he crossed the Rhine by Ketsch at the head of the advance guard , which included 9 @,@ 000 men . He took the city of Speyer on 1 April , in the absence of the commander of the city , Adam @-@ Philippe de Custine , who was away with most of his troops ; those that remained behind simply abandoned the city . On the following day , Fürstenberg occupied the town of Germersheim . His first combat action of the war occurred on 3 April , when Custine 's infantry attacked him in a bayonet charge near the villages of Bellheim , Hördt and Leimersheim , and afterward at Landau and Lauterburg . During these attacks , he lost all the ground he had gained in the days before . After these events , he was again transferred , this time to the command of the Regiment Count von Kavanagh , where he continued to distinguish himself during the French counter @-@ offensive of October – November 1793 . In the action around Geidertheim , on the Zorn River , he assisted Lieutenant Field Marshal Gabriel Anton , Baron Splény de Miháldy , in repelling a French counter @-@ attack . Shortly afterward , he became very ill and , in December 1793 , was sent to the Hagenau to recover . On 22 December , he rejoined Wurmser 's Corps for the Battle of Froeschwiller against Lazare Hoche and Charles Pichegru . After the French retreated over the Rhine at Hüningen , near Basel , he directed the construction of its new fortifications .
In June 1796 , Fürstenberg commanded a division of four infantry battalions , 13 artillery pieces , and the Freikorps ( Volunteers ) Gyulay and secured the Rhine corridor between Kehl and Rastatt . On 26 June 1796 , the French troops of the Army of the Rhine @-@ and @-@ Moselle crossed the Rhine and chased the Swabian Circle 's military contingent out of Kehl . In June 1796 , Archduke Charles added the contingent to Fürstenberg 's command , making him the Swabian 's Feldzeugmeister , or General of Infantry . Fürstenberg 's troops defended the imperial line at the town of Rastatt until support troops arrived , and they could make an orderly withdrawal into the Upper Danube Valley . The Swabian contingent was demobilized in July , and Fürstenberg returned to the command of Austrian regulars during the Austrian counter @-@ offensive . At the Battle of Emmendingen on 19 October 1796 , his leadership was again instrumental in an Austrian victory . General Jean Victor Marie Moreau 's Army of the Rhine @-@ and @-@ Moselle sought to retain a foothold on the eastern side of the Rhine , following his retreat from southwestern Germany west of the Black Forest . Fürstenberg held Kenzingen , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) north of Riegel on the Elz River . Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg was ordered to feint against Riegel , to protect the primary Austrian positions at Rust and Kappel .
In the Battle of Schliengen ( 24 October 1796 ) , Fürstenberg commanded the second column of the Austrian force , which included nine battalions of infantry and 30 squadrons of cavalry ; with these , he overwhelmed the force of General of Division Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , holding his position to prevent the French force from retreating north on the Rhine . While Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour , engaged the main Austrian force at Kehl , Archduke Charles entrusted to Lieutenant Field Marshal Fürstenberg the command of the forces besieging Hüningen , which included two divisions with 20 battalions of infantry and 40 squadrons of cavalry . Charles ' confidence in his young field marshal was well @-@ placed . On 27 November , Fürstenberg 's chief engineer opened and drained the water @-@ filled moat protecting the French fortifications . Fürstenberg offered the commander of the bridgehead , General of Brigade Jean Charles Abbatucci , the opportunity to surrender , which he declined . In the night of 30 November to 1 December , Fürstenberg 's force stormed the bridgehead twice , but was twice repulsed . In one of these attacks , the French commander was mortally wounded and died on 3 December . Fürstenberg maintained the Siege of Kehl while Archduke Charles engaged the stronger French force to the north of Kehl .
After the French capitulation at Kehl ( 10 January 1797 ) , Fürstenberg received additional forces with which he could end the siege at Hüningen . He ordered the reinforcement of the ring of soldiers surrounding Hüningen and , on 2 February 1797 , the Austrians prepared to storm the bridgehead . General of Division Georges Joseph Dufour , the new French commander , pre @-@ empted what would have been a costly attack , by offering to surrender the bridge . On 5 February , Fürstenberg finally took possession of the bridgehead . Francis II , the Holy Roman Emperor , appointed him as Colonel and Proprietor of the 36th Infantry Regiment , which bore his name until his death in battle in 1799 .
= = = Peace = = =
The Coalition forces — Austria , Russia , Prussia , Great Britain , Sardinia , among others — achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , but in northern Italy , they could neither lift nor escape the siege at Mantua . The efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces to the border of Habsburg lands . Napoleon dictated a cease @-@ fire at Leoben on 17 April 1797 , leading to the formal Treaty of Campo Formio , which went into effect on 17 October 1797 . Austria withdrew from the territories the army had fought so hard to acquire , including the strategic river crossings at Hüningen and Kehl , as well as key cities further north .
When the war ended , Fürstenberg stayed at the Donaueschingen estate of his cousin , Karl Joachim Aloys , who had recently inherited the family title as Fürst zu Fürstenberg . Later in 1797 , he traveled to Prague and remained with his family until May 1798 , when he received a posting to a new division in Linz . His daughter , Maria Anna , was born after he left , on 17 September 1798 .
= = Activities in the Second Coalition = =
Despite the longed @-@ for peace , tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies , either separately or jointly . Ferdinand IV of Naples refused to pay agreed @-@ upon tribute to France , and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion . The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopaean Republic . A republican uprising in the Swiss cantons , encouraged by the French Republic which offered military support , led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic . On his way to Egypt in Spring 1798 , Napoleon had stopped on the Island of Malta and removed the Hospitallers from their possessions . This angered Paul , Tsar of Russia , who was the honorary head of the Order . The ongoing French occupation of Malta angered the British , who dedicated themselves to ejecting the French garrison at Valletta . The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war . Indeed , the weaker the French Republic seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians , and the British actually discussed this possibility .
As winter broke on 1 March 1799 , General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and his 25 @,@ 000 @-@ man Army of the Danube crossed the Rhine at Kehl . The Army of the Danube met little resistance as it advanced through the Black Forest and eventually took a flanking position on the north shore of Lake Constance . Instructed to block the Austrians from access to the Swiss alpine passes , Jourdan planned to isolate the armies of the Coalition in Germany from allies in northern Italy , and prevent them from assisting one another . His was a preemptive strike . By crossing the Rhine in early March , Jourdan acted before Archduke Charles ' army could be reinforced by Austria 's Russian allies , who had agreed to send 60 @,@ 000 seasoned soldiers and their more @-@ seasoned commander , Generalissimo Alexander Suvorov . Furthermore , if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland , they could not only prevent the Austrians from transferring troops between northern Italy and southwestern Germany , but could use the routes to move their own forces between the two theaters .
= = = Battle of Ostrach = = =
At the outbreak of hostilities in March 1799 , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg was with his troops in Bavarian territory , just north of the free and Imperial city of Augsburg . When news reached the Austrian camp that the French had crossed the Rhine , Charles ordered the imperial army to advance west . Fürstenberg moved his troops toward Augsburg , crossing the Lech River .
The French advanced guard arrived in Ostrach on 8 – 9 March , and over the next week skirmished with the Austrian forward posts , while the rest of the French army arrived . Jourdan disposed his 25 @,@ 000 troops along a line from Salem Abbey and Lake Constance to the Danube river , centered in Ostrach . He established his command headquarters at the imperial city of Pfullendorf , overlooking the entire Ostrach valley . Jourdan was expecting Dominique Vandamme 's troops to arrive in time to support his far north flank near the river , but Vandamme had gone to Stuttgart to investigate a rumored presence of Austrian troops there and had not rejoined the main army . Consequently , the French left flank , under command of Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , was thinly manned . Jourdan thought he had more time , expecting Charles would need still three or four days to move his troops across the Lech , and march to Ostrach , but by the middle of Holy Week in 1799 , more than a third of Charles ' army , 48 @,@ 000 mixed troops , was positioned in a formation parallel to Jourdan 's , and his 72 @,@ 000 remaining troops were arrayed with the left wing at Kempten , the center near Memmingen , and the right flank extended to Ulm .
By 21 March , the French and Austrian outposts overlapped , and skirmishing intensified . Charles had divided his force into four columns . Fürstenberg covered the northern flank of the Archduke 's main force . Fürstenberg 's force pushed the French out of Davidsweiler , and then advanced on Ruppersweiler and Einhard , 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) to the northwest of Ostrach . Saint @-@ Cyr did not have the manpower to defend the position , and the entire line fell back to Ostrach , with Fürstenberg 's troops pressuring their withdrawal . Fürstenberg 's persistent pressure on the French left flank was instrumental in the collapse of the northern part of the French line . After their success in driving the French back from Ostrach , and then from the heights of Pfullendorf , the Austrian forces continued to press the French back to Stockach , and then another five miles or so to Engen .
= = = Death at the Battle of Stockach ( 1799 ) = = =
On the morning of what they suspected would be the general engagement , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg sought out the field chaplain , and requested the sacraments because , as he told his aide , anything can happen during a battle . Although Ostrach had been a hard @-@ fought battle , at Engen and Stockach , the Austrian and French forces were far more concentrated — more men in a smaller space — than they had been at Ostrach , where the French forces in particular had been stretched thinly on a long line from Lake Constance to north of the Danube . At Stockach , furthermore , Jourdan had all his troops under his direct control , with the possible exception of Dominique Vandamme , who was maneuvering his small force of cavalry and light infantry into position to attempt a flanking action on the far right Austrian flank .
In the course of the battle , Jourdan 's forces were supposed to engage in simultaneous attacks on the left , center and right of the Austrian line . On the French right , Soulham 's and Ferino 's Corps met with strong resistance and were stopped ; on the French left , Lefebvre 's troops charged with such force that the Austrians were pushed back . Having stopped Soulham 's and Ferino 's assault , Charles had troops available to counter Lefebvre 's force . At that point , Vandamme 's men moved into action . Because Soulham 's assault at the center had been stalled , Charles still had enough men to turn part of his force to fight this new threat , but the Austrians were hard pressed and the action furious . At one point , Charles attempted to lead his eight battalions of Hungarian grenadiers into action , to the dismay of the old soldiers . Fürstenberg reportedly said that while he lived , he would not leave this post ( at the head of the grenadiers ) and the Archduke should not dismount and fight . As Fürstenberg led the Hungarian grenadiers into the battle , he was cut down by a canister and case shot employed by the French . Although he was carried alive off the field , he died almost immediately . Charles ultimately did lead his grenadiers into battle , and reportedly his personal bravery rallied his troops to push back the French . After the battle , someone removed Fürstenberg 's wedding ring and returned it to his wife in Prague , with news of his death ; Fürstenberg was buried at the battlefield cemetery in Stockach , and his cousin erected a small monument there , but in 1857 , his body was moved to the family cemetery , Maria Hof at Neudingen , near Donaueschingen .
= = Family = =
Upon the death of Prosper Ferdinand , Count Fürstenberg , in the War of the Spanish Succession , in 1704 the Fürstenberg inheritance was divided between the count 's two youngest sons , Joseph Wilhelm Ernst and Wilhelm Egon ; the eldest son was an ecclesiastic . The family of Fürstenberg was raised to princely status 2 February 1716 , with the elevation of Joseph Wilhelm Ernst , as the first Prince ( Fürst ) of Fürstenberg ( German : Fürst zu Fürstenberg ) . The first prince had three sons , Joseph Wenzel Johann Nepomuk ( 1728 – 1783 ) , Karl Borromäus Egon ( 1729 – 1787 ) , and Prosper Maria , who died in infancy . The title passed through the line of the first son , Joseph Wenzel Johann Nepomuk ( as second prince ) , to his son Joseph Maria Benedikt Karl ( third prince , who died in 1796 ) and then to another son of the second prince , Karl Joachim Aloys ( fourth prince ) . The last son of Joseph Wilhelm Ernst died in 1803 without male issue . Consequently , the title passed to the male line of first prince 's second son . This son , Karl Borromäus Egon , had died in 1787 .
Karl Borromäus Egon 's oldest son , Joseph Maria Wenzel ( 16 August 1754 – 14 July 1759 ) , died as a small child . The second son , Philipp Nerius Maria ( Prague , 21 October 1755 – 5 June 1790 ) , married in 1779 to his first cousin , Josepha Johanna Benedikta von Fürstenberg ( sister of the third and fourth princes ) , at Donaueschingen . Only one of their sons survived childhood , but died at the age of 15 years . The other children of this second son were all daughters , and thus not eligible to inherit the title Prince of Fürstenberg . Consequently , the title devolved to the agnatic male descendants of Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg .
In 1803 , two of Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg 's children were still living . Karl Egon , as the surviving son , inherited the title Prince of Fürstenberg ; he and his eldest sister lived into adulthood and produced families .
Children of Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg and Elizabeth , Princess of Thurn und Taxis , were :
Marie Leopoldine ( Prague , 4 September 1791 – Kupferzell , 10 January 1844 ) ; married at Heiligenberg , 20 May 1813 to Charles Albert III , Prince of Hohenlohe @-@ Waldenburg @-@ Schillingsfürst ( Vienna , 29 February 1776 – Bad Mergentheim , 15 June 1843 )
Maria Josepha ( 9 September 1792 )
Antonie ( 28 October 1794 – 1 October 1799 )
Karl Egon II ( Prague , 28 October 1796 – Bad Ischl 22 October 1854 ) , succeeded his cousin , Joachim , as the fifth Fürst zu Fürstenberg on 17 May 1804 . He married on 19 April 1818 , to Amalie Christine Karoline , of Baden ( Karlsruhe , 26 January 1795 – Karlsruhe , 14 September 1869 ) .
Maria Anna , 17 September 1798 – 18 July 1799
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= Gliese 876 c =
Gliese 876 c is an exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 876 , taking about 30 days to complete an orbit . The planet was discovered in April 2001 and is the third planet in order of increasing distance from its star .
= = Discovery = =
At the time of discovery , Gliese 876 was already known to host an extrasolar planet designated Gliese 876 b . In 2001 , further analysis of the star 's radial velocity revealed the existence of a second planet in the system , which was designated Gliese 876 c . The orbital period of Gliese 876 c was found to be exactly half that of the outer planet , which meant that the radial velocity signature of the second planet was initially interpreted as a higher eccentricity of the orbit of Gliese 876 b .
= = Orbit and mass = =
Gliese 876 c is in a 1 : 2 : 4 Laplace resonance with the outer planets Gliese 876 b and Gliese 876 e : for every orbit of planet e , planet b completes two orbits and planet c completes four . This leads to strong gravitational interactions between the planets , causing the orbital elements to change rapidly as the orbits precess . This is the second known example of a Laplace resonance , the first being Jupiter 's moons Io , Europa and Ganymede .
The orbital semimajor axis is only 0 @.@ 13 AU , around a third of the average distance between Mercury and the Sun , and is more eccentric than the orbit of any of the major planets of our solar system . Despite this , it is located in the inner regions of the system 's habitable zone , since Gliese 876 is such an intrinsically faint star .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Gliese 876 c is that only a lower limit on the planet 's mass can be obtained . This is because the measured mass value depends on the inclination of the orbit , which is not determined by the radial velocity measurements . However , in a resonant system such as Gliese 876 , gravitational interactions between the planets can be used to determine the true masses . Using this method , the inclination of the orbit can be determined , revealing the planet 's true mass to be 0 @.@ 72 times that of Jupiter .
= = Characteristics = =
Based on its high mass , Gliese 876 c is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface . Since it was detected indirectly through its gravitational effects on the star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . Assuming a composition similar to Jupiter and an environment close to chemical equilibrium , the planet is predicted to have a cloudless upper atmosphere .
Gliese 876 c lies at the inner edge of the system 's habitable zone . While the prospects for life on gas giants are unknown , it might be possible for a large moon of the planet to provide a habitable environment . Unfortunately tidal interactions between a hypothetical moon , the planet , and the star could destroy moons massive enough to be habitable over the lifetime of the system . In addition it is unclear whether such moons could form in the first place .
This planet , like b and e , has likely migrated inward .
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= Lamu Fort =
Lamu Fort is a fortress in the town of Lamu in northeastern Kenya . Originally situated on the waterfront , the fort today it is located in a central position in the town , about 70 metres ( 230 ft ) from the main jetty on the shore . The powerfully built two @-@ story stone building contrasts with the Swahili architecture of the other buildings in the town .
Lamu Fort was built between 1813 and 1821 with Omani assistance . Initially it provided a base from which the Omanis consolidated their control of the East African coast but the town later lost its economic importance . During the British colonial period , and after the independence of Kenya , the fort was used as a prison . Today it houses an environmental museum and library , and is often used for community events .
= = Building = =
Lamu Fort is a defensive structure that was erected at the southeast corner of the old stone town of Lamu . The fort was built beside the Pwani Mosque , the oldest known mosque in Lamu , with origins in the 14th century . The fort originally lay on the waterfront , which then ran along the main street of the town but has since retreated .
Thomas Boteler , who visited Lamu in 1823 , described the fort as " a large square building , with a tower at each corner , but constructed so slightly that in all probability the discharge of its honeycombed ordnance would soon bring the whole fabric to the ground . " It had a " large vaulted entrance ... [ and ] consisted of three stories of balconies , supported inside by arches . Captain W. F. W. Owen , who visited at the same time , noted that the fort was " one hundred yards square , and surrounded by walls from forty to fifty feet high . "
Today the fort is in a central position in the town . It is situated about 70 metres ( 230 ft ) from the main jetty on the shore . The fort today is a massive two @-@ story stone building . The squat and powerful structure contrasts with the elegant Swahili architecture of the other buildings in the town .
= = History = =
Construction of the fort appears to have been started by Fumomadi , Sultan of Pate . The Mazrui leader Abdalla bin Hemed , in an uneasy alliance with Pate , was also involved in the construction . One story was built , but with the death of Funomadi in 1809 construction halted . In 1812 Lamu gained an unexpected victory at the Battle of Shela over the forces of Pate and Mombasa . The continued threat prompted them to call for help from Oman . Said bin Sultan , Sultan of Muscat and Oman ( r . 1804 – 1856 ) , was said to have assisted in the renewed construction , which began in 1813 and was completed around 1821 .
Sultan Sayyid Said bin Sultan sent a governor to Lamu around 1814 . He provided a protective garrison of Baluchi soldiers . According to Boteler , the main guard consisted of " about twenty Muscat soldiers , lounging on the stone benches on either side , with eye intent on vacancy , and armed with their shields , swords and pikes . A large assortment of matchlocks , suspended from the walls above them , resembled those used by the primitive small @-@ arm men in England . " However , the security offered by the fort encouraged construction around it during the 19th century , including a shopfront .
The importance of Lamu in the Lamu Archipelago grew at the expense of Pate in the years that followed the fort 's construction . The Sultan used Lamu Fort as a base for defeating the Mazrui rebels in Mombasa , and for establishing control over the East African coast . He moved the capital of his sultanate to Zanzibar . With its strategic importance lost , Lamu soon declined in economic importance in comparison to Mombasa and Zanzibar .
Lamu Fort was turned into a prison in 1910 by the British colonial administration . In the 1950s Mau Mau detainees were held in the fort . The fort continued to be used as a prison after the independence of Kenya until 1984 . It was then given to the National Museums of Kenya , who converted the fort into a museum with help from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency . The Lamu Fort was declared a scheduled monument on 15 May 1984 . Restoration was undertaken carefully . A temporary exhibition was opened in 1993 .
The fort today includes a museum with an exhibition on the ground floor mainly concerned with environmental conservation . The courtyard is used by the local community for meetings , weddings and public performances . There are offices , laboratories and a workshop on the second floor , and a conference facility that is available for rent . The fort houses a library with an excellent collection of Swahili poetry and reference material on Lamu . The ramparts of the fort give panoramic views of the town .
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= Emin Xhinovci =
Emin Xhinovci ( also spelled Gjinovci , Djinovci and Džinovci ; born c . 1959 ) is a retired Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) insurgent and restaurant owner from Mitrovica known for his striking resemblance to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler .
He immigrated to Germany in 1993 and settled in Düsseldorf , where he started an import @-@ export business . In 1997 , he returned to Kosovo and later joined the KLA with the intention of helping separate the region from Yugoslavia . During his time as a guerrilla , he came to be known by the nickname " Hitler " because of his likeness to the Nazi leader . Following the Kosovo War , he settled in Mitrovica and opened a string of Nazi @-@ themed restaurants that angered some NATO peacekeepers and were quickly closed . Xhinovci firmly believes that he is Hitler reincarnated and resorted to portraying the Nazi leader full @-@ time in his public life , posing for pictures with locals , peacekeepers and tourists and charging between 20 and 80 euros per photograph . He is well known throughout Mitrovica , and his five daughters are referred to by locals as " Hitler 's children " . Xhinovci always carries a copy of Hitler 's autobiographical manifesto Mein Kampf with him and is frequently paid to attend events such as weddings and funerals . He is the subject of a short documentary film directed by independent filmmaker Alban Muja , titled Germans Are a Bit Scared of Me .
= = Early life , emigration and guerrilla activity = =
A Kosovo Albanian , Emin Xhinovci was born in Kosovska Mitrovica in 1959 , in what was then Yugoslavia . In 1993 , he moved to the German city of Düsseldorf , where he started an import @-@ export business . He left Germany in 1997 and returned to Kosovo to " fight for the motherland " as tensions between Albanians and Serbs increased .
Xhinovci joined the Kosovo Liberation Army ( Albanian : Ushtria Çlirimtare e Kosovës ; or KLA ) in 1998 , and fought against the Serb @-@ dominated Yugoslav Army ( Serbian : Vojska Jugoslavije ) with the goal of separating Kosovo from Yugoslavia . Xhinovci earned the reputation of a " fierce fighter " and commanded the respect of local Albanians . His comrades gave him the nickname " Hitler " due to his uncanny resemblance to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler . Xhinovci told journalist Una Hajdari : " People have called me Hitler since my army days . They say I look a lot like him — unlike the English guy who plays him in that movie , " apparently a reference to Charlie Chaplin 's role in The Great Dictator .
Serbian police documents from 1998 indicate that he was suspected of participating in the kidnapping and execution of nine Serb mineworkers at the Belaćevac coal mine , near Obilić . In 1999 , Xhinovci was wounded in battle and airlifted to Germany for treatment . While in hospital , he grew a toothbrush moustache which attracted the attention of hospital staff .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Nazi @-@ themed restaurants and bars = = =
Following his experience with the German hospital staff , Xhinovci realized that he could capitalize on his resemblance to Hitler . He went to great lengths to enhance his physical likeness to the Nazi leader — regularly clipping his moustache , dying his hair jet black and imitating Hitler 's signature hairstyle . When the war in Kosovo ended , Xhinovci returned to Mitrovica and opened a bar called Bar Hit and Jet , known affectionately among Kosovo Albanians as Pizzeria Hitleri ( " Hitler 's Pizzeria " ) . The establishment proved controversial among western peacekeepers who had occupied Kosovo following the withdrawal of Yugoslav security forces in June 1999 . In one instance , French NATO troops took down a sign carrying a swastika from the entrance to Xhinovci 's bar , much to his displeasure . One French commander told reporters that he was disgusted with Xhinovci 's actions and said that his troops were forbidden from entering the bar , which juxtaposed Nazi imagery with portraits of Xhinovci in KLA uniform . Asked why he enjoyed dressing up as Hitler , Xhinovci responded : " Everyone who is against the people who carried out bloodshed against [ Albanians ] is a friend of mine " , apparently referring to the German @-@ led Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , when German forces turned a blind eye to Albanian raids on Serb @-@ populated areas of Kosovo . He conceded that Hitler had gone " too far " by killing women and children , but said that it would be " a good idea to eliminate all those who thirst for our blood " .
Within several years , Xhinovci was forced to close Pizzeria Hitleri because local KLA commanders felt that it would tarnish the organization 's image . Like many in post @-@ war Kosovo , he encountered great financial difficulties and relied on his KLA service pension and financial assistance from relatives in Western Europe . Once his financial situation stabilized , Xhinovci opened a restaurant and named it Jehona after his oldest daughter . All of the restaurant 's receipts were stamped with a black swastika in the upper left corner . The restaurant closed a few years after its opening for reasons unknown .
= = = Hitler impersonator = = =
Following the closure of Pizzeria Hitleri and Jehona , Xhinovci has resorted to walking around Mitrovica dressed as Hitler and posing for pictures with locals , tourists and NATO peacekeepers , charging between 20 and 80 euros per photograph . Some days , he earns as many as 200 euros posing as Hitler . Besides posing for photographs , Xhinovci attends various events , including weddings and funerals , and greets attendees with a Nazi salute . " [ This ] sometimes has an undesirable effect because people who 've come to pay their respects to the deceased often wish to speak with me and take pictures , " Xhinovci explains .
Xhinovci has come to believe that he is Hitler reincarnated since he began dressing as the Nazi leader . He carries numerous pieces of Nazi paraphernalia around with him , including Nazi @-@ era Reichsmarks , swastika @-@ emblazoned buttons , scarves embroidered with swastikas and other Nazi imagery , as well as a copy of Mein Kampf . He has business cards featuring a swastika and the word " Hitler " printed in bold . Locals and peacekeepers alike do not seem to mind Xhinovci 's Hitler impersonations , especially as many Kosovars are too preoccupied with the country 's crippling poverty and rampant corruption to give his actions much thought . On the contrary , many passersby — including some NATO peacekeepers — stop and greet him with the Nazi salute . One local told Vice News : " I have a lot of other things to worry about in my life . I might look at him if he walks by , but that 's it . " Locals apparently believe that his way of earning a living " shows great enterprise " . " People respect me , " Xhinovci explains . " The young and old [ ... ] men , women and children . Everyone greets me with " Heil Hitler " . Xhinovci 's five daughters , referred to locally as " Hitler 's children " , are not bothered by their father 's Hitler impersonations . Xhinovci reportedly attends parent @-@ teacher conferences dressed as Hitler and says that teachers and other parents do not mind his appearance . He says that every time he goes to pick his daughters up from school he is surrounded by children who want to talk with him and take pictures . " Girls like to touch my face . They think it 's a mask . They pull my hair and ask if they can kiss me on the face . When I 'm out of the house with my family , people stop to talk to me . But my wife is not a jealous person — she doesn 't mind . "
Xhinovci is unable to return to Germany because of his appearance , as the country has a series of laws which prohibit Nazi symbols , uniforms , slogans and forms of greeting . He has expressed a great dislike of Serbs , and says that he would have to carry a concealed handgun every time he wished to visit the Serb @-@ held section of Mitrovica . Xhinovci says that he is greatly disappointed with post @-@ war Kosovo , as he believed that reconciliation between Albanians and Serbs would have occurred after the conflict . When asked if it was difficult to portray Hitler , Xhinovci responded : " It is easy . I find myself in Hitler 's character because he fought against my enemy . The enemy of my enemy is my friend . Yes , Serbs are my enemies . " About his physical similarity to Hitler , he says : " I am not a dictator like him , but it is of great financial benefit that I resemble him . "
Xhinovci is a controversial figure in some Kosovar circles . Kosova Aktuell , a Pristina @-@ based German @-@ language newspaper , called his actions " scandalous and unacceptable " .
= = In popular culture = =
In 2013 , Kosovar filmmaker Alban Muja created a short documentary film about Xhinovci titled Germans Are a Bit Scared of Me , which chronicles Xhinovci 's everyday activities and follows him around Mitrovica as he interacts with locals .
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= George VI =
George VI ( Albert Frederick Arthur George ; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952 ) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death . He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth .
Known as Albert until his accession , George VI was born in the reign of his great @-@ grandmother Queen Victoria , and was named after his great @-@ grandfather Albert , Prince Consort . As the second son of King George V , he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his early life in the shadow of his elder brother , Edward . He attended naval college as a teenager , and served in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force during the First World War . In 1920 , he was made Duke of York . He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes @-@ Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters , Elizabeth and Margaret . In the mid @-@ 1920s , he had speech therapy for a stammer , which he never fully overcame .
George 's elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936 . However , later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry the divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson . British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman and remain king . Edward abdicated in order to marry , and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor .
During George 's reign the break @-@ up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated . The parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the country 's constitution on the day of his accession . The following year , a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland and established the office of President . From 1939 , the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany . War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941 , respectively . Though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945 , the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre @-@ eminent world powers and the British Empire declined . After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947 , George remained king of both countries , but the title Emperor of India was abandoned in June 1948 . Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949 , and India became a republic within the Commonwealth the following year . George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth . He was beset by health problems in the later years of his reign . He was succeeded by his elder daughter , Elizabeth .
= = Early life = =
George VI was born at York Cottage , on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk , during the reign of his great @-@ grandmother Queen Victoria . His father was Prince George , Duke of York ( later King George V ) , the second and eldest @-@ surviving son of the Prince and Princess of Wales ( later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra ) . His mother was the Duchess of York ( later Queen Mary ) , the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck .
His birthday ( 14 December 1895 ) was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great @-@ grandfather , Prince Albert , the Prince Consort . Uncertain of how the Prince Consort 's widow , Queen Victoria , would take the news of the birth , the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been " rather distressed " . Two days later , he wrote again : " I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her " . Queen Victoria was mollified by the proposal to name the new baby Albert , and wrote to the Duchess of York : " I am all impatience to see the new one , born on such a sad day but rather more dear to me , especially as he will be called by that dear name which is a byword for all that is great and good " . Consequently , he was baptised " Albert Frederick Arthur George " at St. Mary Magdalene 's Church near Sandringham three months later . As a great @-@ grandson of Queen Victoria , he was known formally as His Highness Prince Albert of York from birth . Within the family , he was known informally as " Bertie " . His maternal grandmother , the Duchess of Teck , did not like the first name the baby had been given , and she wrote prophetically that she hoped the last name " may supplant the less favoured one " .
Albert was fourth in line to the throne at birth , after his grandfather , father and elder brother , Edward . In 1898 , Queen Victoria issued Letters Patent that granted the children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales the style Royal Highness , and at the age of two , Albert became His Royal Highness Prince Albert of York .
He often suffered from ill health and was described as " easily frightened and somewhat prone to tears " . His parents were generally removed from their children 's day @-@ to @-@ day upbringing , as was the norm in aristocratic families of that era . He had a stammer that lasted for many years , and was forced to write with his right hand although he was naturally left @-@ handed . He suffered from chronic stomach problems as well as knock knees , for which he was forced to wear painful corrective splints .
Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901 , and the Prince of Wales succeeded her as King Edward VII . Prince Albert moved up to third in line to the throne , after his father and elder brother .
= = Military career and education = =
From 1909 , Albert attended the Royal Naval College , Osborne , as a naval cadet . In 1911 , he came bottom of the class in the final examination , but despite this he progressed to the Royal Naval College , Dartmouth . When his grandfather , Edward VII , died in 1910 , Albert 's father became King George V. Prince Edward was created Prince of Wales , and Albert was second in line to the throne .
Albert spent the first six months of 1913 on the training ship HMS Cumberland in the West Indies and on the east coast of Canada . He was rated as a midshipman aboard HMS Collingwood on 15 September 1913 , and spent three months in the Mediterranean . His fellow officers gave him the nickname " Mr. Johnson " . One year after his commission , he began service in the First World War . He was mentioned in despatches for his action as a turret officer aboard Collingwood in the Battle of Jutland ( 31 May – 1 June 1916 ) , an indecisive engagement with the German navy that was the largest naval action of the war . He did not see further combat , largely because of ill health caused by a duodenal ulcer , for which he had an operation in November 1917 .
In February 1918 , he was appointed Officer in Charge of Boys at the Royal Naval Air Service 's training establishment at Cranwell . With the establishment of the Royal Air Force two months later and the reassignment of Cranwell from Admiralty to Air Ministry responsibility , Albert transferred from the Royal Navy to the Royal Air Force . He was appointed Officer Commanding Number 4 Squadron of the Boys ' Wing at Cranwell until August 1918 , before reporting to the RAF 's Cadet School at St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea where he completed a fortnight 's training and took command of a squadron on the Cadet Wing . He was the first member of the royal family to be certified as a fully qualified pilot .
Albert was greatly desirous of serving on the Continent while the war was still in progress and was very pleased to be posted to General Trenchard 's staff . On 23 October he flew across the Channel to Autigny . For the closing weeks of the war , he served on the staff of the RAF 's Independent Air Force at its headquarters in Nancy , France . Following the disbanding of the Independent Air Force in November 1918 , he remained on the Continent for two months as a staff officer with the Royal Air Force until posted back to Britain . He accompanied the Belgian monarch King Albert on his triumphal reentry into Brussels on 22 November . Prince Albert qualified as an RAF pilot on 31 July 1919 and gained a promotion to squadron leader on the following day .
In October 1919 , Albert went up to Trinity College , Cambridge , where he studied history , economics and civics for a year , with the historian R. V. Laurence as his " official mentor " . On 4 June 1920 , he was created Duke of York , Earl of Inverness and Baron Killarney . He began to take on more royal duties . He represented his father , and toured coal mines , factories , and railyards . Through such visits he acquired the nickname of the " Industrial Prince " . His stammer , and his embarrassment over it , together with his tendency to shyness , caused him to appear much less impressive than his older brother , Edward . However , he was physically active and enjoyed playing tennis . He played at Wimbledon in the Men 's Doubles with Louis Greig in 1926 , losing in the first round . He developed an interest in working conditions , and was President of the Industrial Welfare Society . His series of annual summer camps for boys between 1921 and 1939 brought together boys from different social backgrounds .
= = Marriage = =
In a time when royals were expected to marry fellow royals , it was unusual that Albert had a great deal of freedom in choosing a prospective wife . An infatuation with the already @-@ married Australian socialite Sheila , Lady Loughborough , came to an end in April 1920 when the King , with the promise of the dukedom of York , persuaded Albert to stop seeing her . That year , he met for the first time since childhood Lady Elizabeth Bowes @-@ Lyon , the youngest daughter of the Earl and Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne . He became determined to marry her . She rejected his proposal twice , in 1921 and 1922 , reportedly because she was reluctant to make the sacrifices necessary to become a member of the royal family . In the words of Lady Elizabeth 's mother , Albert would be " made or marred " by his choice of wife . After a protracted courtship , Elizabeth agreed to marry him .
They were married on 26 April 1923 in Westminster Abbey . Albert 's marriage to someone not of royal birth was considered a modernising gesture . The newly formed British Broadcasting Company wished to record and broadcast the event on radio , but the Abbey Chapter vetoed the idea ( although the Dean , Herbert Edward Ryle , was in favour ) . Lady Elizabeth was styled " Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York " after their marriage .
From December 1924 to April 1925 , the Duke and Duchess toured Kenya , Uganda , and the Sudan , travelling via the Suez Canal and Aden . During the trip , they both went big game hunting .
Because of his stammer , Albert dreaded public speaking . After his closing speech at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on 31 October 1925 , one which was an ordeal for both him and his listeners , he began to see Lionel Logue , an Australian @-@ born speech therapist . The Duke and Logue practised breathing exercises , and the Duchess rehearsed with him patiently . Subsequently , he was able to speak with less hesitation . With his delivery improved , the Duke opened the new Parliament House in Canberra , Australia , during a tour of the empire in 1927 . His journey by sea to Australia , New Zealand and Fiji took him via Jamaica , where Albert played doubles tennis partnered with a black man , which was unusual at the time and taken locally as a display of equality between races .
The Duke and Duchess of York had two children : Elizabeth ( called " Lilibet " by the family ) , and Margaret . The Duke and Duchess and their two daughters lived a relatively sheltered life at their London residence , 145 Piccadilly . They were a close and loving family . One of the few stirs arose when the Canadian Prime Minister , R. B. Bennett , considered the Duke for Governor General of Canada in 1931 — a proposal that King George V rejected on the advice of the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs , J. H. Thomas .
= = Reluctant king = =
King George V had severe reservations about Prince Edward , saying , " I pray God that my eldest son will never marry and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne . " On 20 January 1936 , George V died and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII . In the Vigil of the Princes , Prince Albert and his three brothers took a shift standing guard over their father 's body as it lay in state , in a closed casket , in Westminster Hall .
As Edward was unmarried and had no children , Albert was the heir presumptive to the throne . Less than a year later , on 11 December 1936 , Edward abdicated in order to marry his mistress , Wallis Simpson , who was divorced from her first husband and divorcing her second . Edward had been advised by British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin that he could not remain king and marry a divorced woman with two living ex @-@ husbands . Edward chose abdication in preference to abandoning his marriage plans . Thus Albert became king , a position he was reluctant to accept . The day before the abdication , he went to London to see his mother , Queen Mary . He wrote in his diary , " When I told her what had happened , I broke down and sobbed like a child . "
On the day of the abdication , the Oireachtas , the parliament of the Irish Free State , removed all direct mention of the monarch from the Irish constitution . The next day , it passed the External Relations Act , which gave the monarch limited authority ( strictly on the advice of the government ) to appoint diplomatic representatives for Ireland and to be involved in the making of foreign treaties . The two acts made the Irish Free State a republic in essence without removing its links to the Commonwealth .
Courtier and journalist Dermot Morrah alleged that there was brief speculation as to the desirability of bypassing Albert ( and his children ) and his brother , Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester , in favour of their younger brother Prince George , Duke of Kent . This seems to have been suggested on the grounds that Prince George was at that time the only brother with a son .
= = Early reign = =
Albert assumed the regnal name " George VI " to emphasise continuity with his father and restore confidence in the monarchy . The beginning of George VI 's reign was taken up by questions surrounding his predecessor and brother , whose titles , style and position were uncertain . He had been introduced as " His Royal Highness Prince Edward " for the abdication broadcast , but George VI felt that by abdicating and renouncing the succession Edward had lost the right to bear royal titles , including " Royal Highness " . In settling the issue , George 's first act as king was to confer upon his brother the title and style " His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor " , but the Letters Patent creating the dukedom prevented any wife or children from bearing royal styles . George VI was also forced to buy from Edward the royal residences of Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House , as these were private properties and did not pass to George VI automatically . Three days after his accession , on his 41st birthday , he invested his wife , the new queen consort , with the Order of the Garter .
George VI 's coronation took place on 12 May 1937 , the date previously intended for Edward 's coronation . In a break with tradition , Queen Mary attended the ceremony in a show of support for her son . There was no Durbar held in Delhi for George VI , as had occurred for his father , as the cost would have been a burden to the government of India . Rising Indian nationalism made the welcome that the royal couple would have received likely to be muted at best , and a prolonged absence from Britain would have been undesirable in the tense period before the Second World War . Two overseas tours were undertaken , to France and to North America , both of which promised greater strategic advantages in the event of war .
The growing likelihood of war in Europe dominated the early reign of George VI . The King was constitutionally bound to support Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 's appeasement of Hitler . However , when the King and Queen greeted Chamberlain on his return from negotiating the Munich Agreement in 1938 , they invited him to appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with them . This public association of the monarchy with a politician was exceptional , as balcony appearances were traditionally restricted to the royal family . While broadly popular among the general public , Chamberlain 's policy towards Hitler was the subject of some opposition in the House of Commons , which led historian John Grigg to describe the King 's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as " the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century " .
In May and June 1939 , the King and Queen toured Canada and the United States . From Ottawa , the royal couple were accompanied throughout by Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , to present themselves in North America as King and Queen of Canada . George was the first reigning monarch of Canada to visit North America , although he had been to Canada previously as Prince Albert and as Duke of York . Both Governor General of Canada Lord Tweedsmuir and Mackenzie King hoped that the King 's presence in Canada would demonstrate the principles of the Statute of Westminster 1931 , which gave full sovereignty to the British Dominions . On 19 May , George VI personally accepted and approved the Letter of Credence of the new U.S. Ambassador to Canada , Daniel Calhoun Roper ; gave Royal Assent to nine parliamentary bills ; and ratified two international treaties with the Great Seal of Canada . The official royal tour historian , Gustave Lanctot , wrote " the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality " and George gave a speech emphasising " the free and equal association of the nations of the Commonwealth " .
The trip was intended to soften the strong isolationist tendencies among the North American public with regard to the developing tensions in Europe . Although the aim of the tour was mainly political , to shore up Atlantic support for the United Kingdom in any future war , the King and Queen were enthusiastically received by the public . The fear that George would be compared unfavourably to his predecessor , Edward VIII , was dispelled . They visited the 1939 New York World 's Fair and stayed with President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the White House and at his private estate at Hyde Park , New York . A strong bond of friendship was forged between the King and Queen and the President during the tour , which had major significance in the relations between the United States and the United Kingdom through the ensuing war years .
= = Second World War = =
In September 1939 , Britain and the self @-@ governing Dominions , but not Ireland , declared war on Nazi Germany . George VI and his wife resolved to stay in London , despite German bombing raids . They officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war , although they usually spent nights at Windsor Castle . The first German raid on London , on 7 September 1940 , killed about one thousand civilians , mostly in the East End . On 13 September , the King and Queen narrowly avoided death when two German bombs exploded in a courtyard at Buckingham Palace while they were there . In defiance , the Queen famously declared : " I am glad we have been bombed . It makes me feel we can look the East End in the face " . The royal family were portrayed as sharing the same dangers and deprivations as the rest of the country . They were subject to rationing restrictions , and U.S. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt remarked on the rationed food served and the limited bathwater that was permitted during a stay at the unheated and boarded @-@ up Palace . In August 1942 , the King 's brother , Prince George , Duke of Kent , was killed on active service .
In 1940 , Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister , though personally George would have preferred to appoint Lord Halifax . After the King 's initial dismay over Churchill 's appointment of Lord Beaverbrook to the Cabinet , he and Churchill developed " the closest personal relationship in modern British history between a monarch and a Prime Minister " . Every Tuesday for four and a half years from September 1940 , the two men met privately for lunch to discuss the war in secret and with frankness .
Throughout the war , the King and Queen provided morale @-@ boosting visits throughout the United Kingdom , visiting bomb sites , munitions factories , and troops . The King visited military forces abroad in France in December 1939 , North Africa and Malta in June 1943 , Normandy in June 1944 , southern Italy in July 1944 , and the Low Countries in October 1944 . Their high public profile and apparently indefatigable determination secured their place as symbols of national resistance . At a social function in 1944 , Chief of the Imperial General Staff Sir Alan Brooke , revealed that every time he met Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery he thought he was after his job . The King replied : " You should worry , when I meet him , I always think he 's after mine ! "
In 1945 , crowds shouted " We want the King ! " in front of Buckingham Palace during the Victory in Europe Day celebrations . In an echo of Chamberlain 's appearance , the King invited Churchill to appear with the royal family on the balcony to public acclaim .
In January 1946 , George addressed the United Nations at their first assembly , which was held in London , and reaffirmed " our faith in the equal rights of men and women and of nations great and small " .
= = Empire to Commonwealth = =
George VI 's reign saw the acceleration of the dissolution of the British Empire . The Statute of Westminster 1931 had already acknowledged the evolution of the Dominions into separate sovereign states . The process of transformation from an empire to a voluntary association of independent states , known as the Commonwealth , gathered pace after the Second World War . During the ministry of Clement Attlee , British India became the two independent dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947 . George relinquished the title of Emperor of India , and became King of India and King of Pakistan instead . In 1950 he ceased to be King of India when it became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations , but he remained King of Pakistan until his death and India recognised his new title of Head of the Commonwealth . Other countries left the Commonwealth , such as Burma in January 1948 , Palestine ( divided between Israel and the Arab states ) in May 1948 and the Republic of Ireland in 1949 .
In 1947 , the King and his family toured Southern Africa . The Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa , Jan Smuts , was facing an election and hoped to make political capital out of the visit . George was appalled , however , when instructed by the South African government to shake hands only with whites , and referred to his South African bodyguards as " the Gestapo " . Despite the tour , Smuts lost the election the following year , and the new government instituted a strict policy of racial segregation .
= = Illness and death = =
The stress of the war had taken its toll on the King 's health , exacerbated by his heavy smoking and subsequent development of lung cancer among other ailments , including arteriosclerosis and thromboangiitis obliterans . A planned tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed after the King suffered an arterial blockage in his right leg , which threatened the loss of the leg and was treated with a right lumbar sympathectomy in March 1949 . His elder daughter Elizabeth , the heir presumptive , took on more royal duties as her father 's health deteriorated . The delayed tour was re @-@ organised , with Elizabeth and her husband , the Duke of Edinburgh , taking the place of the King and Queen . The King was well enough to open the Festival of Britain in May 1951 , but on 23 September 1951 , his left lung was removed by Clement Price Thomas after a malignant tumour was found . In October 1951 , Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh went on a month @-@ long tour of Canada ; the trip had been delayed for a week due to the King 's illness . At the State Opening of Parliament in November , the King 's speech from the throne was read for him by the Lord Chancellor , Lord Simonds . His Christmas broadcast of 1951 was recorded in sections , and then edited together .
On 31 January 1952 , despite advice from those close to him , the King went to London Airport to see off Princess Elizabeth , who was going on her tour of Australia via Kenya . On the morning of 6 February , George VI was found dead in bed at Sandringham House in Norfolk . He had died from a coronary thrombosis in his sleep at the age of 56 . His daughter Elizabeth flew back to Britain from Kenya as Queen Elizabeth II .
From 9 February for two days his coffin rested in St. Mary Magdalene Church , Sandringham , before lying in state at Westminster Hall from 11 February . His funeral took place at St. George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , on the 15th . He was interred initially in the Royal Vault until he was transferred to the King George VI Memorial Chapel inside St. George 's on 26 March 1969 . In 2002 , fifty years after his death , the remains of his widow , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother , and the ashes of his younger daughter Princess Margaret , who both died that year , were interred in the chapel alongside him .
= = Legacy = =
In the words of Labour Member of Parliament George Hardie , the abdication crisis of 1936 did " more for republicanism than fifty years of propaganda " . George VI wrote to his brother Edward that in the aftermath of the abdication he had reluctantly assumed " a rocking throne " , and tried " to make it steady again " . He became king at a point when public faith in the monarchy was at a low ebb . During his reign his people endured the hardships of war , and imperial power was eroded . However , as a dutiful family man and by showing personal courage , he succeeded in restoring the popularity of the monarchy .
The George Cross and the George Medal were founded at the King 's suggestion during the Second World War to recognise acts of exceptional civilian bravery . He bestowed the George Cross on the entire " island fortress of Malta " in 1943 . He was posthumously awarded the Ordre de la Libération by the French government in 1960 , one of only two people ( the other being Churchill ) to be awarded the medal after 1946 .
There are a number of geographical features , roads , and institutions named after George VI . These include King George Hospital in London ; King George VI Reservoir in Surrey , United Kingdom ; King George VI Highway and King George Boulevard in Surrey , British Columbia ; Kingsway in Edmonton ; George VI Sound in Antarctica ; and the King George VI Chase , a horse race in the United Kingdom .
Colin Firth won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as George VI in The King 's Speech , a 2010 film that won the Academy Award for Best Picture .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
14 December 1895 – 28 May 1898 : His Highness Prince Albert of York
28 May 1898 – 22 January 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Albert of York
22 January 1901 – 9 November 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Albert of Cornwall and York
9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910 : His Royal Highness Prince Albert of Wales
6 May 1910 – 4 June 1920 : His Royal Highness The Prince Albert
4 June 1920 – 11 December 1936 : His Royal Highness The Duke of York
11 December 1936 – 6 February 1952 : His Majesty The King
George held a number of titles throughout his life , as successively great @-@ grandson , grandson and son of the monarch . As sovereign , he was referred to most often as simply The King or His Majesty . In his position as sovereign , George automatically held the position of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
= = = Arms = = =
As Duke of York , George bore the royal arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent , the centre point bearing an anchor azure — a difference earlier awarded to his father George V when he was Duke of York , and then later awarded to his grandson , Prince Andrew , Duke of York . As king , he bore the royal arms undifferenced .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
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= Wesley Clark =
Wesley Kanne Clark , Sr. ( born December 23 , 1944 ) is a retired General of the United States Army . He graduated as valedictorian of the class of 1966 at West Point and was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to the University of Oxford , where he obtained a degree in Philosophy , Politics and Economics . He later graduated from the Command and General Staff College with a master 's degree in military science . He spent 34 years in the Army , receiving many military decorations , several honorary knighthoods , and the Presidential Medal of Freedom .
Clark commanded Operation Allied Force in the Kosovo War during his term as the Supreme Allied Commander Europe of NATO from 1997 to 2000 .
Clark joined the 2004 race for the Democratic Party presidential nomination as a candidate in 2003 , but withdrew from the primary race in 2004 , after winning the Oklahoma state primary , endorsing and campaigning for the eventual Democratic nominee , John Kerry . Clark leads a political action committee , " WesPAC " , which he formed after the 2004 primaries and used to support Democratic Party candidates in the 2006 midterm elections . Clark was considered a potential candidate for the Democratic nomination in 2008 , but , on September 15 , 2007 , endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton . After Clinton dropped out of the presidential race , Clark endorsed the then @-@ presumptive Democratic nominee , Barack Obama . Clark serves as the co @-@ chairman of Growth Energy , an ethanol lobbying group , and is on the board of directors of BNK Petroleum . Since July 2012 , he also acts as an honorary special advisor to Romanian prime minister Victor Ponta on economic and security matters .
= = Early life and education = =
Clark 's father 's family was Jewish ; his paternal great @-@ grandfather immigrated to the United States from Belarus in response to the Pale of Settlement and anti @-@ Semitic violence from Russian pogroms . Clark 's grandfather , Jacob Kanne , graduated from the Chicago @-@ Kent College of Law and served in the U.S. Naval Reserve as an ensign during World War I , although he was never assigned to a combat mission . Kanne , living in Chicago , became involved with ward politics in the 1920s as a prosecutor and served in local offices . He served as a delegate to the 1932 Democratic National Convention that nominated Franklin D. Roosevelt as the party 's presidential candidate ( though his name does not appear on the published roll of convention delegates ) . His mother was of English ancestry and was a Methodist .
Kanne came from the Kohen family line , and Clark 's son has characterized Clark 's parents ' marriage , between his Methodist mother , Veneta ( née Updegraff ) , and his Jewish father , Benjamin Jacob Kanne , as " about as multicultural as you could 've gotten in 1944 " .
Clark was born Wesley Kanne in Chicago on December 23 , 1944 . His father Benjamin died on December 6 , 1948 ; his mother then moved the family to Little Rock , Arkansas . This move was made for a variety of reasons , including escaping the greater cost of living in a large city such as Chicago , the support Veneta 's family in Arkansas could provide , and her feeling of being an outsider to the remaining Kanne family as she did not share their religion . Once in Little Rock , Veneta married Viktor Clark , whom she met while working as a secretary at a bank . Viktor raised Wesley as his son , and officially adopted him on Wesley 's 16th birthday . Wesley 's name was changed to Wesley Kanne Clark . Viktor Clark 's name actually replaced that of Wesley 's biological father on his birth certificate , something Wesley would later say that he wished they had not done . Veneta raised Wesley without telling him of his Jewish ancestry to protect him from the anti @-@ Semitic activities of the Ku Klux Klan in the South . Although his mother was Methodist , Clark chose a Baptist church after moving to Little Rock and continued attending it throughout his childhood .
He graduated from Hall High School with a National Merit Scholarship . He helped take their swim team to the state championship , filling in for a sick teammate by swimming two legs of a relay . Clark has often repeated the anecdote that he decided he wanted to go to West Point after meeting a cadet with glasses who told Clark ( who wore glasses as well ) that one did not need perfect vision to attend West Point as Clark had thought . Clark applied , and he was accepted on April 24 , 1962 .
= = Military career = =
Clark 's military career began July 2 , 1962 , when he entered the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York . He later said that Douglas MacArthur 's famous " Duty , honor , country " speech was an important influence on his view of the military . The speech was given to the class of 1962 several months before Clark entered West Point , but a recording was played for his class when they first arrived .
Clark sat in the front in many of his classes , a position held by the highest performer in class . Clark participated heavily in debate , was consistently within the top 5 % of his class as a whole ( earning him a " Distinguished Cadet " patch on his uniform ) and graduated as valedictorian of West Point . The valedictorian is first to choose which career field of the Army to serve in , and Clark selected armor . He met Gertrude Kingston , whom he later married , at a USO dance for midshipmen and West Point cadets .
Clark eventually applied for a Rhodes Scholarship and learned in December of his senior year at West Point that he had been accepted . He spent his summer at the United States Army Airborne School at Fort Benning , Georgia . He worked in the Philosophy , Politics , and Economics ( PPE ) program during his Rhodes Scholarship , completing his degree at Magdalen College at the University of Oxford in August 1968 . While he was at Oxford , a Jewish cousin of Clark 's who lived in England telephoned him and informed him of his Jewish heritage , having received permission from Veneta Clark . Clark spent three months after graduation at Fort Knox , Kentucky , going through Armor Officer Basic Course , then went on to Ranger School at Fort Benning . He was promoted to captain and was assigned as commander of the A Company of the 4th Battalion , 68th Armor , 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg , North Carolina .
= = = Vietnam = = =
Clark was assigned a position in the 1st Infantry Division and flew to Vietnam on May 21 , 1969 , during the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . He worked as a staff officer , collecting data and helping in operations planning , and was awarded the Bronze Star for his work with the staff . Clark was then given command of A Company , 1st Battalion , 16th Infantry of the 1st Infantry Division in January 1970 . In February , only one month into his command , he was shot four times by a Viet Cong soldier with an AK @-@ 47 . The wounded Clark shouted orders to his men , who counterattacked and defeated the Viet Cong force . Clark had injuries to his right shoulder , right hand , right hip , and right leg , and was sent to Valley Forge Army Hospital in Phoenixville , Pennsylvania , to recuperate . He was awarded the Silver Star and the Combat Infantryman Badge for his actions during the encounter .
Clark had converted to Catholicism , his wife Gertrude 's religion , while in Vietnam . He saw his son , Wesley Clark , Jr . , for the first time while at the Valley Forge Hospital . Clark commanded C Company , 6th Battalion , 32nd Armor , 194th Armored Brigade , a company composed of wounded soldiers , at Fort Knox . Clark has said this command is what made him decide to continue his military career past the five @-@ year commitment required by West Point , which would have concluded in 1971 . Clark completed his Armor Officer Advanced Course while at Fort Knox , taking additional elective courses and writing an article that won the Armor Association Writing Award . His next posting was to the office of the Army Chief of Staff in Washington , D.C. , where he worked in the " Modern Volunteer Army " program from May to July 1971 . He then served as an instructor in the Department of Social Sciences at West Point for three years from July 1971 to 1974 .
Clark graduated from the Command and General Staff College ( CGSC ) , earning his military Master of Arts degree in military science from the CGSC with a thesis on American policies of gradualism in the Vietnam War . Clark 's theory was one of applying force swiftly , which was being advocated by many soldiers at the time , a concept that would eventually become established as U.S. national security policy in the form of the Weinberger Doctrine and its successor , the Powell Doctrine . Clark was promoted to major upon his graduation from the CGSC .
= = = Post @-@ Vietnam = = =
In 1975 , Clark was appointed a White House Fellow in the Office of Management and Budget ( OMB ) as a special assistant to its director , James Thomas Lynn . He was one of 14 appointed out of 2 @,@ 307 applicants . Lynn also gave Clark a six @-@ week assignment to assist John Marsh , then a counselor to the President . Clark was approached during his fellowship to help push for a memorial to Vietnam veterans . He worked with the movement that helped lead to the creation of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington , D.C. Clark served in two commands with the 1st Armored Division based in Germany from August 1976 to February 1978 , first as S @-@ 3 of the 3rd Battalion 35th Armor and then as S @-@ 3 of the entire 3rd Brigade . Clark 's brigade commander while in the former position said Clark was " singularly outstanding , notably superb . " Regarding his term as brigade commander , one of his battalion commanders called Clark the " most brilliant and gifted officer [ he 'd ] ever known . " He was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal for his work with the division .
The brigade commander had also said that " word of Major Clark 's exceptional talent spread " , and in one case reached the desk of then Supreme Allied Commander Alexander Haig . Haig personally selected Clark to serve as a special assistant on his staff , a post he held from February 1978 to June 1979 . While on staff at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) , Clark wrote policy reports and coordinated two multinational military exercises . As a result of his work on Haig 's staff , Clark was promoted to lieutenant colonel and was awarded the Legion of Merit . After his European post , he moved on to Fort Carson , Colorado , where he served first as the executive officer of the 1st Brigade , 4th Infantry Division from August 1979 to February 1980 , then as the commander of the 1st Battalion , 77th Armor , 4th Infantry Division from February 1980 to July 1982 . According to the American journalist David Halberstam , the commander at Fort Carson , then Major General John Hudacheck , had a reputation of disliking West Point graduates and fast @-@ rising officers such as Clark . After two years of not making the list to rise from battalion commander to brigade commander , Clark attended the National War College . After studying there from June 1982 to 1983 , Clark graduated and was promoted to full colonel in October 1983 .
Following his graduation , Clark worked in Washington , D.C. , from July 1983 to 1984 in the offices of the Chief and Deputy Chiefs of Staff of the United States Army , earning a second Legion of Merit for his work . He then served as the Operations Group commander at the Fort Irwin Military Reservation from August 1984 to June 1986 . He was awarded another Legion of Merit and a Meritorious Service Medal for his work at Fort Irwin and was given a brigade command at Fort Carson in 1986 . He commanded the 3rd Brigade , 4th Infantry Division there from April 1986 to March 1988 . Veneta Clark , Wesley 's mother , fell ill as he began this command and died on Mother 's Day in 1986 . After Fort Carson , Clark returned to the Command and General Staff College to direct and further develop the Battle Command Training Program ( BCTP ) there until October 1989 . The BCTP was created to teach senior officers war @-@ fighting skills , according to the commanding general at the time . On November 1 , 1989 , Clark was promoted to brigadier general .
Clark returned to Fort Irwin and commanded the National Training Center ( NTC ) from October 1989 to 1991 . The Gulf War occurred during Clark 's command , and many National Guard divisional round @-@ out brigades trained under his command . Multiple generals commanding American forces in Iraq and Kuwait said Clark 's training helped bring about results in the field and that he had successfully begun training a new generation of the military that had moved past Vietnam @-@ era strategy . He was awarded another Legion of Merit for his " personal efforts " that were " instrumental in maintaining " the NTC , according to the citation . He served in a planning post after this , as the Deputy Chief of Staff for Concepts , Doctrine , and Developments at Training and Doctrine Command ( TRADOC ) at Fort Monroe , Virginia . While there , he helped the commanding general of TRADOC prepare the army for war and develop new post @-@ Cold War strategies . Clark pushed for technological advancement in the army to establish a digital network for military command , which he called the " digitization of the battlefield . " He was promoted to Major General in October 1992 at the end of this command .
= = = = Fort Hood and the Waco Siege = = = =
Clark 's divisional command came with the 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood , Texas . Clark was in command during three separate deployments of forces from Fort Hood for peacekeeping in Kuwait .
Some critics , such as left @-@ wing CounterPunch and right @-@ wing FrontPageMag.com , have made allegations that Clark was , to some degree , involved in the Waco siege , where David Koresh and 74 Branch Davidian followers were killed during the FBI 's final raid on the group 's compound . Some also suggest that , given the sensitive nature of the materials lent for the operation , Clark had some knowledge of and perhaps a hand in planning the Waco siege . Others , such as James Ridgeway , dismiss the allegations as having " little evidence to substantiate them . "
His Officer Evaluation Report ( OER ) for his command at Fort Hood called him " one of the Army 's best and brightest " . Clark was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at Fort Hood and was promoted to lieutenant general at the end of his command in 1994 . Clark 's next assignment was an appointment as the Director , Strategic Plans and Policy ( J5 ) , on the staff of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ( JCS ) , from April 1994 to June 1996 .
= = = = United States Southern Command = = = =
Army regulations set a so @-@ called " ticking clock " upon the promotion to a three @-@ star general , essentially requiring that Clark be promoted to another post within 2 years from his initial promotion or retire . This deadline ended in 1996 and Clark said he was not optimistic about receiving such a promotion because rumors at the time suggested General Dennis Reimer did not want to recommend him for promotion although " no specific reason was given " . According to Clark 's book , General Robert Scales said that it was likely Clark 's reputation of intelligence within the military was responsible for feelings of resentment against him from other generals . Clark was named to the United States Southern Command ( USSOUTHCOM ) post despite these rumors . Congress approved his promotion to full general in June 1996 , and General John M. Shalikashvili signed the order . Clark said he was not the original nominee , but the first officer chosen " hadn 't been accepted for some reason . "
= = = The Balkans = = =
= = = = Bosnia and Herzegovina = = = =
Clark began planning work for responses to the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina upon his appointment in 1994 as the Director , Strategic Plans and Policy ( J5 ) on the JCS staff . While collecting information to outline military options for resolving the conflict , Clark met with Bosnian Serb military leaders including Ratko Mladić , who was later accused of war crimes and genocide . Clark was photographed exchanging hats with Mladić , and the photo drew controversy in the United States . A Washington Post story was published claiming Clark had made the visit despite a warning from the U.S. ambassador . Some Clinton administration members privately said the incident was " like cavorting with Hermann Göring . " Clark listed the visit in the itinerary he submitted to the ambassador , but he learned only afterwards that it was not approved . He said there had been no warning and no one had told him to cancel the visit , although two Congressmen called for his dismissal regardless . Clark later said he regretted the exchange , and the issue was ultimately resolved as President Clinton sent a letter defending Clark to the Congress and the controversy subsided . Clark said it was his " first experience in the rough and tumble of high visibility ... and a painful few days . " Conservative pundit Robert Novak later referred to the hat exchange in a column during Clark 's 2004 presidential campaign , citing it as a " problem " with Clark as a candidate .
Clark was sent to Bosnia by Secretary of Defense William Perry to serve as the military advisor to a diplomatic negotiating team headed by assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke . Holbrooke later described Clark 's position as " complicated " because it presented him with future possibilities but " might put him into career @-@ endangering conflicts with more senior officers . " While the team was driving along a mountain road during the first week , the road gave way , and one of the vehicles fell over a cliff carrying passengers including Holbrooke 's deputy , Robert Frasure , a deputy assistant Secretary of Defense , Joseph Kruzel , and Air Force Colonel Nelson Drew . Clark and Holbrooke attempted to crawl down the mountain , but were driven back by sniper fire . Once the fire ceased , Clark rappelled down the mountain to collect the bodies of two dead Americans left by Bosnian forces that had taken the remaining wounded to a nearby hospital . Following funeral services in Washington , D.C. , the negotiations continued and the team eventually reached the Dayton Agreement at the Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton , Ohio , and later signed it in Paris on December 14 , 1995 .
Clark returned to the European theater and the Balkans following his USSOUTHCOM position when he was appointed to U.S. European Command in the summer of 1997 by President Clinton . He was , as with SOUTHCOM , not the original nominee for the position . The Army had already selected another general for the post . Because President Clinton and General Shalikashvili believed Clark was the best man for the post , he eventually received the nomination . Shalikashvili noted he " had a very strong role in [ Clark 's ] last two jobs . " Clark noted during his confirmation hearing before the Senate Armed Services committee of the 105th Congress that he believed NATO had shifted since the end of the Cold War from protecting Europe from the Soviet Union to working towards more general stability in the region . Clark also addressed issues related to his then @-@ current command of USSOUTHCOM , such as support for the School of the Americas and his belief that the United States must continue aid to some South American nations to effectively fight the War on Drugs . Clark was quickly confirmed by a voice vote the same day as his confirmation hearing , giving him the command of 109 @,@ 000 American troops , their 150 @,@ 000 family members , 50 @,@ 000 civilians aiding the military , and all American military activities in 89 countries and territories of Europe , Africa , and the Middle East . The position made Clark the Supreme Allied Commander Europe ( SACEUR ) , which granted him overall command of NATO military forces in Europe .
= = = = Kosovo War = = = =
The largest event of Clark 's tenure as SACEUR was NATO 's confrontation with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War . On September 22 , 1998 , the United Nations Security Council introduced Resolution 1199 calling for an end to hostilities in Kosovo , and Richard Holbrooke again tried to negotiate a peace . This process came to an unsuccessful end , however , following the Račak massacre . Then U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright tried to force Yugoslavia into allowing separation of Kosovo with the Rambouillet Agreement , which Yugoslavia refused . Clark was at the Rambouillet talks and tried to convince Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević by telling him " there 's an activation order . And if they tell me to bomb you , I 'm going to bomb you good . " Clark later said Milošević launched into an emotional tirade against Albanians and said that they 'd been " handled " in the 1940s by ethnic cleansing .
Clark started the bombings codenamed Operation Allied Force on March 24 , 1999 , on orders to try to enforce U.N. Resolution 1199 following Yugoslavia 's refusal of the Rambouillet Agreement . However , critics note that Resolution 1199 was a call for cessation of hostilities and does not authorize any organization to take military action . Secretary of Defense William Cohen felt that Clark had powerful allies at the White House , such as President Clinton and Secretary of State Madeleine Albright , who allowed him to circumvent The Pentagon in promoting his strategic ideas . Clark felt , however , that he was not being included enough in discussions with the National Command Authority , leading him to describe himself as " just a NATO officer who also reported to the United States " . This command conflict came to a ceremonial head when Clark was not initially invited to a summit in Washington , D.C. , to commemorate NATO 's 50th anniversary , despite being its supreme military commander . Clark eventually secured an invitation to the summit , but was told by Cohen to say nothing about ground troops , and Clark agreed .
Clark returned to SHAPE following the summit and briefed the press on the continued bombing operations . A reporter from the Los Angeles Times asked a question about the effect of bombings on Serbian forces , and Clark noted that merely counting the number of opposing troops did not show Milošević 's true losses because he was bringing in reinforcements . Many American news organizations capitalized on the remark in a way Clark said " distorted the comment " with headlines such as " NATO Chief Admits Bombs Fail to Stem Serb Operations " in The New York Times . Clark later defended his remarks , saying this was a " complete misunderstanding of my statement and of the facts , " and President Clinton agreed that Clark 's remarks were misconstrued . Regardless , Clark received a call the following evening from Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Hugh Shelton , who said he had been told by Secretary Cohen to deliver a piece of guidance verbatim : " Get your fucking face off the TV . No more briefings , period . That 's it . "
Operation Allied Force experienced another problem when NATO bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade on May 7 , 1999 . The operation had been organized against numerous Serbian targets , including " Target 493 , the Federal Procurement and Supply Directorate Headquarters " , although the intended target building was actually 300 meters away from the targeted area . The embassy was located at this mistaken target , and three Chinese journalists were killed . Clark 's intelligence officer called Clark taking full responsibility and offering to resign , but Clark declined , saying it was not the officer 's fault . Secretary Cohen and CIA Director George Tenet took responsibility the next day . Tenet would later explain in testimony before the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence on July 22 , 1999 , that the targeting system used street addresses , which gave inaccurate positions for air bombings . He also said that the various databases of off @-@ limit targets did not have the up @-@ to @-@ date address for the relatively new embassy location .
The bombing campaign was ended on June 10 , 1999 , on the order of Secretary General of NATO Javier Solana after Milošević complied with conditions the international community had set and Yugoslav forces began to withdraw from Kosovo . United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 was adopted that same day , placing Kosovo under United Nations administration and authorizing a Kosovo peacekeeping force . NATO suffered no combat deaths , although two crew members died in an Apache helicopter crash . A F @-@ 117A was downed near the village of Budjanovici . The bombing resulted in an estimated 495 civilian deaths and 820 wounded , as reported to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia . Yugoslavia estimated that the number of civilians killed is higher than 2 @,@ 000 and that more than 5 @,@ 000 have been wounded . Human Rights Watch estimates the number of civilian deaths due to NATO bombings as somewhere between 488 and 527 .
Milošević 's term in office in Yugoslavia was coming to an end , and the elections that came on September 24 , 2000 , were protested due to allegations of fraud and rigged elections . This all came to a head on October 5 in the so @-@ called Bulldozer Revolution . Milošević resigned on October 7 . The Democratic Opposition of Serbia won a majority in parliamentary elections that December . Milošević was taken into custody on April 1 , 2001 , and transferred to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia on June 28 to face charges of war crimes and genocide . Clark was called to testify in a closed session of Milošević 's trial in December 2003 . He testified on issues ranging from the Srebrenica massacre to conversations Clark had had with Milošević during his career . Some anti @-@ war activist groups also label Clark and Bill Clinton ( along with several others ) as war criminals for NATO 's entire bombing campaign , saying the entire operation was in violation of the NATO charter .
= = = = = Pristina International Airport incident = = = = =
One of Clark 's most debated decisions during his SACEUR command was his attempted operation to attack Russian troops at Pristina International Airport , immediately after the end of the Kosovo War in June 1999 . A joint NATO – Russia peacekeeping operation was supposed to police Kosovo . Russia wanted their peacekeeping force to operate independently of NATO , but NATO refused . British forces were supposed to occupy Pristina International Airport , but a contingent of Russian troops arrived before they did and took control of the airport . Clark called then @-@ Secretary General of NATO Javier Solana , who told him " you have transfer of authority " in the area . General Clark then issued an order for the NATO troops to attack and " overpower " the armed Russian troops .
In response , Captain James Blount ( later a singer known by the stage name James Blunt ) , leading the British troops , refused to obey the order . Blount was supported in that decision by General Mike Jackson , the British commander of the Kosovo Force . Jackson refused to support the attack , reportedly saying " I 'm not going to start the Third World War for you " . Jackson has said he refused to take action because he did not believe it was worth the risk of a military confrontation with the Russians , instead insisting that troops encircle the airfield . After two days of stand @-@ off and negotiations , NATO agreed to an independent Russian peacekeeping force , and Russia relinquished control of the airport .
The refusal was criticized by some senior U.S. military personnel , with General Hugh Shelton calling Jackson 's refusal " troubling " . During hearings in the United States Senate , Senator John Warner suggested that the refusal might have been illegal , and that if it was legal , rules potentially should be changed . British Chief of the Defence Staff Charles Guthrie agreed with Jackson .
= = = Retirement = = =
Clark received another call from General Shelton in July 1999 in which he was told that Secretary Cohen wanted Clark to leave his command in April 2000 , less than three years after he assumed the post . Clark was surprised by this , because he believed SACEURs were expected to serve at least three years . Clark was told that this was necessary because General Joseph Ralston was leaving his post as the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and would need another 4 @-@ star command within 60 days or he would be forced to retire . Ralston was not going to be appointed Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff due to an extramarital affair in his past , and the SACEUR position was said to be the last potential post for him . Clark said this explanation " didn 't wash " ; he believed the legal issues did not necessarily bar him from a full term . Clinton signed on to Ralston 's reassignment , although David Halberstam wrote that the president and Madeleine Albright were angered at Clark 's treatment . Clark spent the remainder of his time as SACEUR overseeing peacekeeper forces and , without a new command to take , was forced into retirement from the military on May 2 , 2000 .
Rumors persisted that Clark was forced out due to his contentious relationship with some in Washington , D.C. ; however , he has dismissed such rumors , calling it a " routine personnel action " . The Department of Defense said it was merely a " general rotation of American senior ranks " . However , a NATO ambassador told the International Herald Tribune that Clark 's dismissal seemed to be a " political thing from the United States " . General Hugh Shelton would say of Clark during his 2004 campaign that " the reason he came out of Europe early had to do with integrity and character issues , things that are very near and dear to my heart . I 'm not going to say whether I 'm a Republican or a Democrat . I 'll just say Wes won 't get my vote . " Shelton never elaborated further on what these issues were .
= = Civilian career = =
Clark set himself three initial goals in civilian life — to earn $ 40 million in the business world and practice philanthropy , to become an adjunct professor , and to become a professional golfer . Clark began a public speaking tour in the summer of 2000 and approached several former government officials for advice on work after life in government , including House Speaker Newt Gingrich , White House Chief of Staff Mack McLarty , and Richard Holbrooke . Clark took McLarty 's advice to move back to Little Rock , Arkansas , and took a position with the Stephens Group , an investment firm headquartered there . He took several other board positions at defense @-@ related firms , and in March 2003 he amicably left the Stephens Group to found Wesley K. Clark & Associates . Clark wrote two books , Waging Modern War and Winning Modern Wars . He also authored forewords for a series of military biographies and a series of editorials . He had amassed only about $ 3 @.@ 1 million towards his $ 40 million goal by 2003 , and he began considering running for public office instead of pursuing his business career .
= = = 2004 presidential campaign = = =
Clark has said that he began to truly define his politics only after his military retirement and the 2000 presidential election , won by George W. Bush . Clark had a conversation with Condoleezza Rice in which she told him that the war in Kosovo would not have occurred under Bush . Clark found such an admission unsettling , as he had been selected for the SACEUR position because he believed more in the interventionist policies of the Clinton administration . He said he would see it as a sign that things were " starting to go wrong " with American foreign policy under Bush . Clark supported the administration 's War in Afghanistan in response to the September 11 , 2001 , attacks but did not support the Iraq War . Clark continued to warn people as a commentator on CNN that he believed the United States was undermanned in Iraq . He said the war was " never [ about ] ... WMD or regime change " and believes " the connection to the War on Terrorism was not shown . "
Clark met with a group of wealthy New York Democrats including Alan Patricof to tell them he was considering running for the presidency in the 2004 election . Patricof , a supporter of Al Gore in 2000 , met with all the Democratic candidates but supported Clark in 2004 . Clark said that he voted for Al Gore and Ronald Reagan , held equal esteem for Dwight D. Eisenhower and Harry S. Truman , and was a registered independent voter throughout his military career . Clark stated that he decided he was a Democrat because " I was pro @-@ affirmative action , I was pro @-@ choice , I was pro @-@ education ... I 'm pro @-@ health care ... I realized I was either going to be the loneliest Republican in America or I was going to be a happy Democrat . " Clark said he liked the Democratic party , which he saw as standing for " internationalism " , " ordinary men and women " , and " fair play . "
A " Draft Clark " campaign began to grow with the launch of DraftWesleyClark.com on April 10 , 2003 . The organization signed up tens of thousands of volunteers , made 150 media appearances discussing Clark , and raised $ 1 @.@ 5 million in pledges for his campaign . A different website , DraftClark2004.com , was the first organization to register as a political action committee in June 2003 to persuade Clark to run . They had presented him with 1000 emails in May 2003 from throughout the country asking him to run . One of DraftClark2004 's founders , Brent Blackaby , said of the draft effort : " Just fifty @-@ two years ago citizens from all over the country were successful in their efforts to draft General Eisenhower . We intend to do the same in 2004 by drafting General Clark . If he runs , he wins . "
In June 2003 , Clark said that he was " seriously consider [ ing ] " running for president in an appearance on Meet the Press . Clark announced his candidacy for the Democratic presidential primary elections from Little Rock on September 17 , 2003 , months after the other candidates . He acknowledged the influence of the Draft Clark movement , saying they " took an inconceivable idea and made it conceivable " . The campaign raised $ 3 @.@ 5 million in the first two weeks . The internet campaign would also establish the Clark Community Network of blogs , which remains in use and made heavy use of Meetup.com , where DraftWesleyClark.com had established the second @-@ largest community of Meetups at the time .
Clark 's loyalty to the Democratic Party was questioned by some as soon as he entered the race . Senator Joe Lieberman called Clark 's party choice a matter of " political convenience , not conviction . " Republican Governor Bill Owens of Colorado and University of Denver president Marc Holtzman have claimed Clark once said " I would have been a Republican if Karl Rove had returned my phone calls . " Clark later claimed he was simply joking , but both Owens and Holtzman said the remark was delivered " very directly " and " wasn 't a joke . " Katharine Q. Seelye wrote that many believed Clark had chosen to be a Democrat in 2004 only because it was " the only party that did not have a nominee . " On May 11 , 2001 , Clark also delivered a speech to the Pulaski County Republican Party in Arkansas saying he was " very glad we 've got the great team in office , men like Colin Powell , Don Rumsfeld , Dick Cheney , Condoleezza Rice , Paul O 'Neill — people I know very well — our president George W. Bush . " U.S. News & World Report ran a story two weeks later claiming Clark had considered a political run as a Republican .
Clark , coming from a non @-@ political background , had no position papers to define his agenda for the public . Once in the campaign , however , several volunteers established a network of connections with the media , and Clark began to explain his stances on a variety of issues . He was , as he had told The Washington Post in October , pro @-@ choice and pro @-@ affirmative action . He called for a repeal of recent Bush tax cuts for people earning more than $ 200 @,@ 000 and suggested providing healthcare for the uninsured by altering the current system rather than transferring to a completely new universal health care system . He backed environmental causes such as promising to reverse " scaled down rules " the Bush administration had applied to the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts and dealing with the potential effects of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles , livestock flatulence and other sources . Clark also proposed a global effort to strengthen American relations with other nations , reviewing the PATRIOT Act , and investing $ 100 billion in homeland security . Finally , he released a budget plan that claimed to save $ 2 @.@ 35 trillion over ten years through a repeal of the Bush tax cuts , sharing the cost of the Iraq War with other nations , and cutting government waste .
Some , such as Clark biographer Antonia Felix , have speculated that Clark 's inexperience at giving " soundbite " answers hurt him in the media during his primary campaign . The day after he launched his campaign , for example , he was asked if he would have voted for the Iraq War Resolution , which granted President Bush the power to wage the Iraq War , a large issue in the 2004 campaign . Clark said , " At the time , I probably would have voted for it , but I think that 's too simple a question , " then " I don 't know if I would have or not . I 've said it both ways because when you get into this , what happens is you have to put yourself in a position — on balance , I probably would have voted for it . " Finally , Clark 's press secretary clarified his position as " you said you would have voted for the resolution as leverage for a UN @-@ based solution . " After this series of responses , although Clark opposed the war , The New York Times ran a story with the headline " Clark Says He Would Have Voted for War " . Clark was repeatedly portrayed as unsure on this critical issue by his opponents throughout the primary season . He was forced to continue to clarify his position and at the second primary debate he said , " I think it 's really embarrassing that a group of candidates up here are working on changing the leadership in this country and can 't get their own story straight ... I would have never voted for war . The war was an unnecessary war , it was an elective war , and it 's been a huge strategic mistake for this country . "
Another media incident started during the New Hampshire primary September 27 , 2003 , when Clark was asked by space shuttle astronaut Jay C. Buckey what his vision for the space program was after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster . Clark responded he was a great believer in the exploration of space but wanted a vision well beyond that of a new shuttle or space plane . " I would like to see mankind get off this planet . I 'd like to know what 's out there beyond the solar system . " Clark thought such a vision could probably require a lifetime of research and development in various fields of science and technology . Then at the end of his remarks , Clark dropped a bombshell when he said " I still believe in E = mc ² . But I can 't believe that in all of human history we 'll never ever be able to go beyond the speed of light to reach where we want to go . I happen to believe that mankind can do it . I 've argued with physicists about it . I 've argued with best friends about it . I just have to believe it . It 's my only faith @-@ based initiative . " These comments prompted a series of derisive headlines , such as " Beam Us Up , General Clark " in The New York Times , " Clark is Light @-@ Years Ahead of the Competition " in The Washington Post , " General Relativity ( Retired ) " on the U.S. News & World Report website , and " Clark Campaigns at Light Speed " in Wired magazine .
Several polls from September to November 2003 showed Clark leading the Democratic field of candidates or as a close second to Howard Dean with the Gallup poll having him in first place in the presidential race at 20 % as late as October 2003 . The John Edwards campaign brought on Hugh Shelton — the general who had said Clark was made to leave the SACEUR post early due to " integrity and character issues " — as an advisor , a move that drew criticism from the Clark campaign . Since Dean consistently polled in the lead in the Iowa caucuses , Clark opted out of participating in the caucuses entirely to focus on later primaries instead . The 2004 Iowa caucuses marked a turning point in the campaign for the Democratic nomination , however , as front @-@ runners Dean and Dick Gephardt garnered results far lower than expected , and John Kerry and John Edwards ' campaigns benefited in Clark 's absence . Clark performed reasonably well in later primaries , including a tie for third place with Edwards in the New Hampshire primary and a narrow victory in the Oklahoma primary over Edwards . However , he saw his third @-@ place finishes in Tennessee and Virginia as signs that he had lost the South , a focus of his campaign . He withdrew from the race on February 11 , 2004 , and announced his endorsement of John Kerry at a rally in Madison , Wisconsin , on February 13 . Clark believed his opting out of the Iowa caucus was one of his campaign 's biggest mistakes , saying to one supporter the day before he withdrew from the race that " everything would have been different if we had [ been in Iowa ] . "
= = = Post @-@ 2004 campaign = = =
Clark continued to speak in support of Kerry ( and the eventual Kerry / Edwards ticket ) throughout the remainder of the 2004 presidential campaign , including speaking at the 2004 Democratic National Convention on the final evening . He founded his current political action committee , WesPAC , in April 2004 . Fox News Channel announced in June 2005 that they had signed General Clark as a military and foreign affairs analyst . He joined the Burkle Center for International Relations at UCLA as a senior fellow . A managing partner of the companies that support the Center , Ronald Burkle , described Clark 's position as " illuminat [ ing ] the center 's research " and " teaching [ the ] contemporary role of the United States in the international community . "
Clark campaigned heavily throughout the 2006 midterm election campaign , supporting numerous Democrats in a variety of federal , statewide , and state legislature campaigns . Ultimately his PAC aided 42 Democratic candidates who won their elections , including 25 who won seats formerly held by Republicans and 6 newly elected veteran members of the House and Senate . Clark was the most @-@ requested surrogate of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee throughout the 2006 campaign , and sometimes appeared with the leadership of the Democratic Party when they commented on security issues .
Clark has opposed taking military action against Iran and in January 2007 he criticized what he called " New York money people " pushing for a war . This led to accusations of antisemitism .
Clark serves on the Advisory Boards of the Global Panel Foundation and the National Security Network . He also chairman of Rodman & Renshaw , a New York investment bank , and Growth Energy .
= = = Speculation of 2008 presidential campaign = = =
Clark was mentioned as a potential 2008 presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket before endorsing Hillary Clinton for President . Before that time , he was ranked within the top Democratic candidates according to some Internet polls . After endorsing Hillary Clinton , Clark campaigned for her in Iowa , New Hampshire , Nevada , and Ohio and in campaign commercials . After Barack Obama secured the Democratic nomination , Clark voiced his support for Obama . Clark was considered to be one of Obama 's possible vice @-@ presidential running mates . Clark , however , publicly endorsed Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius for the position , introducing her as " the next Vice President of the United States " at a June 2008 fundraiser in Texas . Obama eventually chose Joe Biden as his running mate .
= = = McCain military service controversy = = =
On June 29 , 2008 , Clark made comments on Face the Nation that were critical of Republican John McCain , calling into question the notion that McCain 's military service alone had given him experience relevant to being president . " I certainly honor [ McCain 's ] service as a prisoner of war " , Clark said , " but he hasn 't held executive responsibility . That large squadron in the navy that he commanded — it wasn 't a wartime squadron . He hasn 't been in there and ordered the bombs to fall . " When moderator Bob Schieffer noted that Obama had no military experience to prepare him for the presidency nor had he " ridden in a fighter plane and gotten shot down " , Clark responded that , ultimately , Obama had not based his presidential bid on his military experience , as McCain has done throughout his campaign . Clark 's retort , however , is what drew rebuke . In referring to McCain 's military experience , he stated : " Well , I don 't think riding in a fighter plane and getting shot down is a qualification to be president . " Both the McCain and Obama campaigns subsequently released statements rejecting Clark 's comment . However , Clark has received the backing of several prominent liberal groups such as MoveOn.org and military veteran groups such as VoteVets.org ; Obama ultimately stated that Clark 's comments were " inartful " and were not intended to attack McCain 's military service . In the days following the controversial interview , Clark went on several news programs to reiterate his true admiration and heartfelt support for McCain 's military service as a fellow veteran who had been wounded in combat . In each program , Clark reminded the commentator and the viewing public that while he honors McCain 's service , he has serious concerns about McCain 's judgment in matters of national security policy , calling McCain " untested and untried " .
= = = Book on modern wars = = =
In Clark 's book , Winning Modern Wars , published in 2003 , he describes his conversation with a military officer in the Pentagon shortly after 9 / 11 regarding a plan to attack seven Middle Eastern countries in five years : " As I went back through the Pentagon in November 2001 , one of the senior military staff officers had time for a chat . Yes , we were still on track for going against Iraq , he said . But there was more . This was being discussed as part of a five @-@ year campaign plan , he said , and there were a total of seven countries , beginning with Iraq , then Syria , Lebanon , Libya , Somalia , Sudan and finishing off Iran . "
= = Personal life = =
General Clark currently resides in Little Rock , Arkansas . He and his wife , Gertrude ( née Kingston ) have been married since June 1967 . They have one son and two grandchildren , who live in California .
= = Awards and honors = =
Wesley Clark has been awarded numerous honors , awards , and knighthoods over the course of his military and civilian career . Notable military awards include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal with four oak leaf clusters , the Legion of Merit with three oak leaf clusters , the Silver Star , and the Bronze Star with an oak leaf cluster . Internationally Clark has received numerous civilian honors such as the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany and military honors such as the Grand Cross of the Medal of Military Merit from Portugal and knighthoods . Clark has been awarded some honors as a civilian , such as the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2000 . The people of Gjakova , Kosovo , named a street after him for his role in helping their city and country . The city of Madison in Alabama has also named a boulevard after Clark . Municipal approval has been granted for the construction of a new street to be named " General Clark Court " in Virginia Beach , Virginia . He has also been appointed a Fellow at the Burkle Center for International Relations at UCLA . He is a member of the guiding coalition of the Project on National Security Reform . In 2013 , General Clark was awarded the Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award by the Prague Society for International Cooperation .
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= Jacksonville ( Fringe ) =
" Jacksonville " is the 15th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 35th episode overall . In the episode , Olivia is forced to recount her time spent as a child in tests conducted by Walter to regain the ability to see objects that have been influenced by the parallel universe and prevent the deaths of innocents . Though successful , Olivia comes to learn the truth about Peter , that he is from the parallel universe .
The episode was a mid @-@ season finale . It was written by Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz , and directed by filmmaker Charles Beeson . It premiered to mostly positive reviews on February 4 , 2010 in the United States , earning an estimated 7 @.@ 76 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
A localized earthquake in New York City damages only one building , killing nearly all inside . The Fringe team discovers that a second building appeared at the same location as the first , fusing the structure and people inside together . Walter ( John Noble ) realizes that the second building has been pulled from the parallel universe by Thomas Jerome Newton , using the technology that Walter and William Bell had discovered years ago . Walter warns that because of conservation of mass , a building of similar mass will be taken from the prime universe to the parallel one sometime in the next few days .
While Massive Dynamic offers its computing resources to identify possible buildings of similar mass , Walter implores Olivia ( Anna Torv ) to recall her childhood Cortexiphan @-@ induced ability to see objects from the alternate universe , believing she will be able to foresee which building will be affected and warn everyone in time . He takes her to the disused child @-@ care facility in Jacksonville , Florida , where the Cortexiphan trials were performed . Walter first puts Olivia under heavy sedation , and she experiences meeting her younger , frightened self , but is still unable to trigger her ability . Olivia begins to remember the gruesome trials she experienced , including footage from one test where she exhibited pyrokinesis . As Walter 's deadline nears , he realizes that Olivia is no longer frightened and thus she cannot engage her abilities , which were triggered by fear .
They return to New York City as small micro @-@ quakes occur , indicating the onset of the event . Though a few buildings have been identified as possible targets , there are far too many to evacuate without starting a mass panic . Olivia , unable to help , goes off privately , but Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) follows and comforts her . Olivia soon recognizes she is frightened again , and races to a rooftop , seeing a building " shimmer " in the distance . The building , a hotel , is quickly identified from the list of candidates , and it is evacuated in time , moments before it is pulled into the parallel universe .
Agent Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) provides a cover story of an unexpected controlled demolition to explain the disappearance of the hotel . Olivia later meets Peter at his house prior to them going out on a date , but when she arrives , she sees the same shimmer on Peter . Walter quietly asks Olivia not to tell Peter that he is from the other universe .
= = Production = =
Producers Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz co @-@ wrote " Jacksonville " , one of their frequent collaborations . Filmmaker Charles Beeson served as the episode 's director . Prior to the initial broadcast of " Jacksonville " , co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams and showrunners / executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman released a joint statement about its plot , " Along with the usual mystery , suspense , science and general wackiness , the episode contains one big answer , the consequences of which will affect our team for the remainder of the season and beyond . " Stentz later explained in the DVD audio commentary that in " Jacksonville by and large , the fringe event is Olivia . Olivia realizing that even in chasing all of these fringe events , she is the biggest fringe event of them all . " Also in the commentary , Pinkner added that for the episode 's final scene , " We knew it would be in the back third of the season that we would really acknowledge for Olivia that Peter came from the Other Side . The worst circumstance that could happen in is at a moment when they are getting as close together as possible " .
Commenting on Peter 's secret origins affecting their relationship , actress Anna Torv stated in an interview with Digital Spy that " Jacksonville " is " the episode that pushes us forward with a huge amount of momentum towards the end of the season . It all gets mixed up and then you find out what the drive is behind all of this . It 's the big spanner in the works ! The secret definitely has a huge impact on the lives of everyone involved . "
" Jacksonville " was the first episode of Fox 's initiative with Science Olympiad to release lesson plans for grade school students . Each lesson would relate to the week 's particular science ; in " Jacksonville " ' s case , the intention was for " Students [ to ] learn about earthquakes of different magnitudes , as well as their impact on buildings and how it can be mitigated . " Jeff Pinkner commented , " Everything we do is grounded in some version of authentic fringe science and what scientists believe is possible , " and was pleased to be a part of " anything that can help invest kids in learning . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial American broadcast on February 4 , 2010 , " Jacksonville " was watched by an estimated 7 @.@ 76 million viewers , gaining a 2 @.@ 8 ratings share for those aged 18 – 49 . " Jacksonville " was the winter finale for the series , as the next episode did not air until April 1 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Jacksonville " premiered to generally positive reviews . James Poniewozik of Time Magazine called it " fine " and " well @-@ acted " , especially liking John Noble 's performance . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club graded the episode an A- , explaining " I liked ' Jacksonville ' for the way it plunged directly into the heart of the show 's mythology for the first time in a while , and even if it didn 't tell us much we didn 't already know , having the story become more personal for our heroes served to create that unsettled feeling at which Fringe excels " . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly loved " Jacksonville " , believing it to be a " tremendously moving , startling episode " and " one of [ Fringe 's ] finest hours " . AOL TV writer Jane Boursaw particularly praised the scene of Olivia trying to comfort her younger self , and then confronting Walter over it . She also felt Olivia 's loss of memory to be " interesting , " and became " practically gleeful " at her and Peter 's near kiss .
Giving the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 rating , IGN 's Ramsey Isler thought the episode wasn 't " as hard @-@ hitting as most of the previous ' mythology ' episodes , but it still leaves a good impression " . Isler enjoyed the " tense and intriguing " opening and ending of the episode , but kept waiting for more to happen in the middle . SFScope contributor Sarah Stegall called the opening " one of the best in the entire series " and " certainly the best television I 've seen this year . " In addition , Stegall praised Olivia 's dream sequence and subsequent accusation of Walter , the inclusion of Massive Dynamic as allies , Broyles ' role as " support " rather than " the usual role of Plot Obstacle , " and the science behind the episode ( " The very fact that we can have two different yet legitimate quantum physics explanations on a television drama is , in itself , cause for applause . " ) . She concluded her review by noting Anna Torv has made " the most progress " in her performance , evolving from " downright wooden in the first year " to " carrying the role with grace and strength . " Website blogger io9 listed " Jacksonville " as one of the " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show .
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= TouchTone =
TouchTone is a 2015 puzzle video game for iOS devices by Mikengreg , a two @-@ person indie game development team made up of Mike Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . The player monitors phone calls as part of a government surveillance program to find public threats . The player unlocks chains of emails by completing a series of puzzles wherein a beam is reflected around a room to a set destination . TouchTone 's core concept grew from a two @-@ day game jam immediately following their 2012 release of Gasketball , but only found its hacker theme following the mid @-@ 2013 Edward Snowden global surveillance disclosures . The tone of TouchTone 's story grew from satirical to serious over the course of the game 's development .
The game was released on March 19 , 2015 . Review aggregator Metacritic characterized TouchTone 's reviews as generally favorable . Critics praised the game 's visual style and story , but criticized the way the game did not allow players to skip puzzles . Reviewers found the light @-@ bending puzzle premise unoriginal , but appreciated its thematic connection .
= = Gameplay = =
As part of a government surveillance program , the player monitors phone calls to find public threats . Apart from infrequent interaction with their handler , the player is left to solve puzzles in pursuit of one such lead . The puzzles are based on the " reflection puzzle " popularized by role @-@ playing video games wherein the player moves mirrors to reflect a beam of light about a room . In TouchTone , the player swipes the screen to move pieces that redirect incoming beams , symbolic of phone signals , into specific locations . The waveform beams are displayed in different solid colors and must be matched with the destination " node " of the same color by passing through moveable pieces that reflect and split the beam . The pieces do not move individually but as rows and columns in cardinal directions .
The levels are displayed in an overworld with a branching , tree structure . The player must pursue multiple branches to further the story . Optional , side @-@ story branches do not advance the main plot but have the hardest puzzles . The story is told through chains of emails , which are unlocked by completing puzzles . The player assumes the role of an American Muslim National Security Agency agent who determines whether the hacked emails are pertinent to national security . The ethics of government surveillance are a core theme of the game .
= = Development = =
Mikengreg , an indie game developer duo of Mike Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend , released the 2010 Solipskier and 2012 Gasketball together before TouchTone in 2015 . After Gasketball 's release , Boxleiter and Wohlwend planned a celebratory road trip to a game jam in Victoria , British Columbia . Gasketball turned out to be a " financial flop " , and so Boxleiter wanted to use the jam to create " something new , ... something really small and perfect " . By the end of the two @-@ day jam , the core mirror reflection mechanics of TouchTone were in place , though it would take two years of sporadic work to finalize the remainder of the game . During this time , the two also worked separately , and Wohlwend released the well @-@ received Threes with Asher Vollmer in 2014 . Wohlwend tried to fit audio signal elements into TouchTone 's nascent theme of light , lasers , and prisms . They felt this direction was unsuccessful , like a " boring Flash game " , and that the game too closely mimicked " a hacking minigame from a bigger AAA game like BioShock or System Shock " .
TouchTone found its theme following the Edward Snowden global surveillance disclosures in mid 2013 , as Mikengreg felt they could provide satirical commentary through the " hacking " element of the game . The story shed its jocular tone as it and its political content grew deeper and more serious . Boxleiter wrote most of the script , which totaled over 20 @,@ 000 words in length . It was his first effort at professional writing , and it took him five months . He and Wohlwend would conference after each chapter for coherency . Boxleiter wanted the story to explore the " questions ... floating around the national consciousness " rather than be " heavy @-@ handed " and prescriptive . Despite this work , Boxleiter felt that the story and the gameplay " don 't necessarily interact with each other " , with the story serving to drive those less interested in puzzles through the rest of the game . They playtested the game in public at the theater in Logan Square , Chicago , though they acknowledged difficulty in playtesting the story 's private experience . Mikengreg decided against including an option to skip puzzles , which they felt would spoil the game and the player 's capacity to adapt to increasing difficulty . They attribute this game design philosophy to Derek Yu of Spelunky .
TouchTone was released as an iOS universal app for both iPhone and iPad on March 19 , 2015 . It received a front page feature on the iOS App Store upon its release .
= = Reception = =
TouchTone received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It received Pocket Gamer 's silver award .
Reviewers praised the game 's aesthetics and criticized its unoriginal puzzle concept . TouchArcade 's Shaun Musgrave wrote that the game 's " striking " visuals and " politically charged " message were not completely reconciled but were " individually strong " . He described its art style as similar to Wohlwend 's previous work and its political statement as indicative of Mikengreg 's strong opinions . Musgrave praised the game 's writing but thought the actual puzzles were weaker . 148Apps 's Jordan Minor found the " clinical , minimally @-@ colored cyberspace " and 1970s thriller film aesthetic " chillingly appropriate " for the theme 's tension . He also chided the puzzles for not being " a reward unto themselves " and the gameplay 's " monotony " for being similar to that of Papers , Please without serving the same dehumanizing point . Minor called TouchTone " essentially a series of the hacking minigames ... [ from ] BioShock , Deus Ex , or Watch Dogs . " Pocket Gamer 's Craig Grannell appreciate how the game " often forces a kind of upside @-@ down thinking " and compared its message to that of Blackbar . Gamezebo 's Jim Squires said that TouchTone is " perfectly designed for a certain set of mobile gamers " and compared its gameplay to the 1987 Deflektor . Despite the game 's similarity to " countless light @-@ bending puzzle games " , he found Mikengreg 's implementation " fiendishly clever " in the way the player moves rows of tiles rather than one at a time .
Reviewers did not like the inability to skip puzzles . Musgrave wrote that moments of being " stuck on a mandatory stage " detracted from the player 's investment and sense of immersion in the story . Grannell of Pocket Gamer wrote that TouchTone 's linearity was its " only downside " , though he also wished for options to " undo " mid @-@ game choices and to save puzzle progress upon leaving the game . Multiple reviewers appreciated the game 's story . Wired 's Kyle Vanhemert felt that the act of determining whether messages were pertinent to national security was a " powerful experience " . Squires of Gamezebo considered the story one of the game 's strong points , and unusually so for a puzzle game . He wrote that there was sufficient " intrigue " to want to finish the story , and that the reward of more story encouraged him to get through the harder puzzles .
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= Ravenloft ( module ) =
Ravenloft is an adventure module for the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy role @-@ playing game . The American game publishing company TSR , Inc. released it as a standalone adventure booklet in 1983 for use with the first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game . It was written by Tracy and Laura Hickman , and includes art by Clyde Caldwell with maps by David Sutherland III . The plot of Ravenloft focuses on the villain Strahd von Zarovich , a vampire who pines for his lost love . Various story elements , including Strahd 's motivation and the locations of magical weapons , are randomly determined by drawing cards . The player characters attempt to defeat Strahd and , if successful , the adventure ends .
The Hickmans began work on Ravenloft in the late 1970s , intent on creating a frightening portrait of a vampire in a setting that combined Gothic horror with the D & D game system . They play @-@ tested the adventure with a group of players each Halloween for five years before it was published . Strahd has since appeared in a number of D & D accessories and novels . The module has inspired numerous revisions and adaptations , including a campaign setting of the same name and a sequel . In 1999 , on the 25th anniversary of Dungeons & Dragons , two commemorative versions of Ravenloft were released .
Ravenloft has won one award , been included on two " best of " lists , and was generally well received by critics of its era . In 1984 , it won the Strategists ' Club Award for Outstanding Play Aid , and it appeared second in Dungeon magazine 's list of the top 30 D & D adventures . Several reviewers liked the included maps , and White Dwarf magazine gave it 8 out of 10 overall . A Dragon magazine review praised the module , but felt that the D & D elements detracted from the Gothic horror atmosphere .
= = Plot = =
The story involves a party of player characters ( PCs ) who travel to the land of Barovia , a small nation surrounded by a deadly magical fog . The master of nearby Castle Ravenloft , Count Strahd von Zarovich , tyrannically rules the country , and a prologue explains that the residents must barricade their doors each night to avoid attacks by Strahd and his minions . The Burgomaster 's mansion is the focus of these attacks , and , for reasons that are not initially explained , Strahd is after the Burgomaster 's adopted daughter , Ireena Kolyana .
Before play begins , the Dungeon Master ( or DM , the player who organizes and directs the game play ) randomly draws five cards from a deck of six . Two of these cards determine the locations of two magical weapons useful in defeating Strahd : the Holy Symbol and the Sunsword . The next two cards determine the locations of Strahd and the Tome of Strahd , a book that details Strahd 's long @-@ ago unrequited love . In this work , it is revealed that Strahd had fallen in love with a young girl , who in turn loved his younger brother . Strahd blamed his age for the rejection , and made a pact with evil powers to live forever . He then slew his brother , but the young girl killed herself in response , and Strahd found that he had become a vampire . All six possible locations are inside Castle Ravenloft .
The fifth and final card selected determines Strahd 's motivation . There are four possible motivations for Strahd . He may want to replace one of the PCs and attempt to turn the character into a vampire and take on that character 's form . He may desire the love of Ireena , whose appearance matches that of his lost love , Tatyana . Using mind control , Strahd will try to force a PC to attack Ireena and gain her love by " saving " her from the situation he created . Strahd may also want to create an evil magic item , or destroy the Sunsword . If , during play , the party 's fortune is told at the gypsy camp in Barovia , the random elements are altered to match the cards drawn by the gypsy .
As the party journeys through Barovia and the castle , the game play is guided using 12 maps with corresponding sections in the book 's body guide . Example maps and sections include the Lands of Barovia , the Court of the Count , five entries for each level of the Spires of Ravenloft , and the Dungeons and Catacombs . Each location contains treasure and adversaries , including zombies , wolves , ghouls , ghosts , and other creatures . The main objective of the game is to destroy Count Strahd . The DM is instructed to play the vampire intelligently , and to keep him alive as long as possible , making him flee when necessary . In an optional epilogue , Ireena is reunited with her lover . They leave the " mortal world " as Ireena says , " Through these many centuries we have played out the tragedy of our lives . "
= = Publication background = =
Tracy Hickman and Laura Curtis married in 1977 . Soon after , while living in Provo , Utah , they wrote the adventures Pharaoh and Ravenloft . When they began work on Ravenloft , they felt the vampire archetype had become overused , trite , and mundane , and decided to create a frightening version of the creature for the module . They play @-@ tested it with a group of players every Halloween for five years before it was published in 1983 by TSR . The plot combined elements of the horror genre with Dungeons & Dragons conventions for the first time . At the time of Ravenloft 's release , each Dungeons & Dragons module was marked with an alphanumeric code indicating the series to which it belonged . Ravenloft was labeled I6 : the sixth in a series of intermediate @-@ level modules for the first edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) . It consisted of a 32 @-@ page book , with separate maps that detailed locations in the adventure scenario .
Tracy Hickman once ran the adventure as a Dungeon Master . According to him , the experience was like an old scary movie , with " the obligatory castle high on the craggy cliff with the wolves howling in the woods . Sure enough , the vampire was up there in the castle . To most of the players it seemed like a straight forward task : find the vampire and kill him . " One player discovered Strahd 's backstory and was so affected by it that when it came time to kill the vampire at the end of the adventure , despite having a sword capable of dispatching Strahd , he refused , and his companions were forced to complete the task . Afterwards , Hickman asked him why . " He deserved to die better than that , " his friend said , to which Hickman replied " Yes [ ... ] But that is how it is with people who fall from greatness . He chose his end when he first chose to kill his brother . How could it be any different ? "
According to a Wizards of the Coast article , Strahd has become one of the most infamous and well @-@ known villains in the Dungeons & Dragons game , and he has appeared in a number of novels and rulebooks since his debut in Ravenloft . In an introduction to an online edition of Ravenloft II , author John D. Rateliff described Strahd as a then @-@ unusual fusion of a monster with the abilities of a player character class ; that is , a vampire magic @-@ user . This design enables him to combine his own powers with the surrounding environment , making him a difficult opponent to defeat .
To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game in 1999 , two additional versions of the Ravenloft module were released . The first was a reprinting of the original adventure made available in the Dungeons & Dragons Silver Anniversary Collector 's Edition boxed set , with slight modifications to make it distinguishable from the original ( for collecting purposes ) . The second was the silver anniversary edition of Ravenloft that was adapted for use with the second edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( Wizards of the Coast periodically alters the rules of Dungeons & Dragons and releases a new version ) .
= = = Ravenloft II : The House on Gryphon Hill = = =
Ravenloft 's success led to a sequel in 1986 titled Ravenloft II : The House on Gryphon Hill . Although Tracy Hickman was credited in Ravenloft II , he had left TSR before the module was completed . The writing was done by David " Zeb " Cook , Jeff Grubb , Harold Johnson , and Douglas Niles , following the Hickmans ' outline . Each writer pursued a different section of the module in order to meet the deadline . Clyde Caldwell , who had done all of the art for the original Ravenloft module , provided the cover , but interior art was done by Jeff Easley . The adventure is designed for first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons characters of levels 8 – 10 . The adventure was 48 pages , and included a large color map and an outer folder . It shared structural elements with the original , including variable NPC goals and variable locations for key objects , so that Gryphon Hill plays differently each time . The module 's plot features an artifact known as The Apparatus that switches a monster 's personality with that of an ordinary townsperson ; player characters , therefore , are uncertain about the true identity of the people they meet . The module also introduces Azalin the lich , who later became a major character in the Ravenloft campaign setting . This module is playable alone , or as a sequel to the original Ravenloft . It includes descriptions of the town of Mordentshire , as well as some haunted moors , and a manor house , all mapped in perspective like the original module .
= = = Adaptations = = =
In 1986 , Ravenloft was adapted into the gamebook Master of Ravenloft , # 6 in the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Adventure Gamebooks series . In the book , the reader plays the role of Jeren Sureblade , a paladin , who must defeat Count Strahd von Zarovich to save a young girl from becoming one of the undead . The gamebook was written by Jean Blashfield , with cover art by Clyde Caldwell and interior art by Gary Williams .
Ravenloft inspired a campaign setting of the same name , published in 1990 . According to Andria Hayday , the boxed set 's developer , " TSR 's classic AD & D adventure , I6 Ravenloft , inspired this world 's creation . " The Ravenloft : Realm of Terror boxed set was published as part of the second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons and , according to its back cover , it is " rooted in the Gothic tradition " and contains " tips for adding fear to your games " . The setting of the module was expanded ; Ravenloft is now a demiplane ( an alternate dimension ) . The boxed set 's version of Strahd is similar to character in the original adventure , but his abilities were increased and his background explained in more detail . The campaign setting has produced a number of spin @-@ offs , and this new version of Strahd was used as a major character in a number of novels .
The original Ravenloft module has been revised and expanded twice . In 1993 , TSR published House of Strahd ( module code RM4 ) . It was updated to include rules from the second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons . The module credits the original work by the Hickmans , but was revised by Bruce Nesmith , who along with Andria Hayday created the Ravenloft campaign setting . Nesmith introduced some new creatures , developed Strahd 's tactics further , and added a Time @-@ Track Table so that the referee can anticipate the sunset . In October 2006 , Wizards of the Coast released an updated and expanded version of the original module for Dungeons & Dragons version 3 @.@ 5 as a 226 @-@ page hardcover book entitled Expedition to Castle Ravenloft . It was based on the original module , and not the Ravenloft material made in the intervening years . Expedition to Castle Ravenloft is designed to be played as a mini @-@ campaign lasting about 20 game sessions , much longer than the original module , although it contains options for running long 8 @-@ session or short 4 @-@ session adventures . The book also includes suggestions for incorporating the adventure into an existing generic setting , Forgotten Realms , Eberron or d20 Modern campaign . The original module was adapted to the HackMaster game system as Robinloft in 2002 , and its sequel as Robinloft 2 : Tahd 's Legacy in 2004 . Wizards of the Coast released the board game Castle Ravenloft in 2010 .
= = Reception = =
Ravenloft won one award , and was included on two " best of " lists . In 1984 , it won the Strategists ' Club Award for Outstanding Play Aid . The book Dungeon Master For Dummies chose the module as one of the ten best classic adventures , saying it is " perhaps our favorite D & D adventure of all time " , Ravenloft " takes the Dracula legend and gives it a D & D spin " , and praised the detailed yet concise plot and isometric maps . The book also claims that Ravenloft " inspired game designers and Dungeon Masters to take the art of adventure to the next level . "
In 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game , Dungeon magazine ranked the module as the second greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time — behind Queen of the Spiders . The editor of Dungeon praised the placement of treasure , and Strahd 's motivation was described as " a brilliant way to let fate drive the plot and evoke the mystery and mystique of Barovia " . Bill Slavicsek , director of Wizards of the Coast 's RPGs and Miniatures department , noted that it was the first adventure to " mix tone , story , and dungeon crawl " in a module , and game designer Andy Collins agreed . Clark Peterson , president of Necromancer Games , singled out the maps and Strahd for praise , saying the vampire is " perhaps one of the best villains of all time " . Author John Rateliff also applauded the maps and the randomization , as well as Strahd 's duality as a vampire / magic @-@ user . The catacombs , where player characters were teleported away and replaced with undead wights , was singled out at as the adventure 's " defining moment " by the magazine 's editors .
Reviews for Ravenloft were generally positive . In the July 1984 issue of White Dwarf magazine , the module was given 8 out of 10 overall , with the reviewer mentioning its presentation as a positive , and its complexity as a negative . It was likened to a Hammer horror production and praised as enjoyable , although the reviewer said the game 's puns were tedious and detracted from the spooky atmosphere . Reviewer Dave Morris said it " should be a lot of fun – ' light , relief ' of a nerve @-@ wracking and deadly sort . " Morris concluded that Ravenloft is " full of clever touches " , and " features some first @-@ class illustration and graphics " . In a review for the January 1984 issue of Dragon magazine ( published by a subsidiary of TSR ) , game designer Ken Rolston argued that , despite its design innovations , Ravenloft was still in essence a dungeon @-@ style adventure . Rolston praised the randomization , the maps , and the player text ( which is read aloud to the players by the DM ) . He said the player text " consistently develops an atmosphere of darkness and decay . " Despite this , Rolston felt that the adventure has trouble in developing a frightening tone . He singles out its use of common monsters in D & D , an abundance of traps , and frequent combat interludes as elements that detract from the adventure 's spookiness by interrupting the module 's flow . Ultimately , he felt that in " AD & D terms it is a masterpiece " , but not a work of " Gothic horror " . Tracy Hickman stated in 1998 , " I still believe the original Ravenloft modules were perhaps the best that ever had my name on them . "
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= George Cressey =
George Babcock Cressey ( December 15 , 1896 - October 21 , 1963 ) was an American geographer , author , and academic . Born in Tiffin , Ohio , he attended Denison University and then the University of Chicago , where he received a PhD in geology . After receiving his degree , he taught at Shanghai college and traveled widely in China . Upon his return to the United States in 1929 , he completed a pioneering book on the country , China 's Geographic Foundations .
In 1931 , Cressey received a second PhD from Clark University in geography . He then joined the faculty of Syracuse University , where he remained for the rest of his professional career . At Syracuse , Cressey wrote on a variety of subjects , but focused on " population problems as related to the worldwide distribution of land and arable resources , " and primarily studied Asia , though he traveled to 75 countries on six continents ( all but Australia ) , over the course of his career . Cressey also served as chair of the department and helped to develop the geography graduate program at Syracuse into one of the best in the country .
In addition to his academic work , Cressey consulted for the US Department of State , the Board of Economic Warfare , and the Military Intelligence Corps during World War II . After the war , he was also an outspoken advocate of better relations with Communist China and traveled widely in East Asia and the Middle East with a variety of fellowships . Cressey was also highly involved in a number of professional organizations , serving as President of the International Geographical Union , the Association for Asian Studies , and the Association of American Geographers .
= = Early life = =
Cressey was born in Tiffin , Ohio , on December 15 , 1896 . His father , Frank G. Cressey , was a Baptist minister and his mother , Frances Babcock , the first woman to graduate from the University of Chicago , taught Latin at Denison University . After high school , Cressey attended Denison University , graduating in 1919 with a B.S. He then entered the University of Chicago , where he studied under the noted geologist Rollin D. Salisbury , receiving a Master 's degree in 1921 and a PhD in 1923 , both in geology . His dissertation was entitled " A Study of Indiana Sand Dunes . "
After receiving his degree , Cressey went to China with the American Baptist Missionary Union and took a position at Shanghai College in Shanghai , China , teaching both geology and geography . While in China , he met Marion Chatfield , an American missionary , whom he married in 1925 . The two went on to have one son and three daughters . Cressey also used his time in China to travel in East Asia , visiting Mongolia and the Ordos Desert with particular frequency . His trips were often dangerous and took him far from other Westerners ; during one of his trips , in Hebei , he was beaten and robbed by a group of bandits . His travels in China covered more than 30 @,@ 000 miles , and formed the basis of a book he began writing , China 's Geographic Foundations : A Survey of the Land and its Peoples . Cressey finished the book shortly before leaving China and gave the manuscript to the Commercial Press in Shanghai to prepare for publication . In 1932 , however , the press was bombed by the Japanese and the manuscript was lost in the ensuing fire .
= = Second PhD and academic career = =
In 1929 , Cressey left China , returning to the United States for a year of study at Harvard University . In 1931 , he earned a second PhD , in geography , from Clark University , writing his dissertation on the Ordos Desert . The same year , Cressey joined the faculty of Syracuse University as a professor of geography and geology , and soon became chairman of the department . After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in September 1931 , Cressey 's travels in Asia made him a sought @-@ after expert and lecturer on China , and he traveled frequently , giving lectures to academic audiences and the general public . Cressey also began to reconstruct his book , China 's Geographic Foundations , from his original notes , finishing it in 1934 .
In China 's Geographic Foundations , Cressey focused on describing the 15 geographic regions of China , but he also devoted chapters to " history , topography , climate , agriculture , and foreign trade . " Writing in Political Science Quarterly , Grover Clark called the book " a clear , comprehensive and yet comprehensible description of the land and the people 's relation to it . " The book went on to become " the standard work in its field . " Although welcomed by the Kuomintang , the book was " strongly criticized " by the Communist Party of China because of Cressey 's judgment that China lacked the resources to quickly become a great industrial power .
While teaching at Syracuse , Cressey continued his travels , and in 1937 , he visited Moscow , where he was invited to consult on the production of the Great Soviet World Atlas . After his trip to Moscow , Cressey traveled widely in the Soviet Union , and after returning to the United States he spoke of the great economic potential of the country , despite anti @-@ Soviet sentiment . As a result , he earned " the trust and gratitude of his Soviet colleagues , " allowing him access to their knowledge and resources . Cressey also spent the 1930s developing the academic offerings at Syracuse , building " one of the best Master of Arts programs in geography available in the United States . "
= = World War II = =
After the US entry into World War II , Cressey became a consultant to several government bodies , including the US Department of State , the Board of Economic Warfare , and the Military Intelligence Corps . Cressey also taught and lectured on Asia , for the Army 's training program at Syracuse University , and lectured publicly on East Asia throughout the country . In 1943 and 1944 , he served as a special representative in China through the State Department 's cultural exchange program . In that capacity , Cressey worked with the National Academy of Sciences to help establish Chinese universities , and promote better relations with China .
During the war , Cressey also wrote his second book : Asia 's Lands and Peoples : A Geography of One @-@ Third the Earth and Two @-@ Thirds its People , published in 1944 . The book was aimed at the ordinary American as a general overview of Asia in light of rising American interest in the region due to the war . In the book , Cressey also entered into the debate on how to divide Asia from Europe by arguing that Europe was really only one of the six regions of Eurasia , the other five being the Soviet Union , East Asia , Southeast Asia , India , and Southwest Asia . Cressey also made the controversial argument in the book that " the key to enduring peace in eastern Asia is a strong China . " The book was well received , and Dudley Stamp wrote that it had " the sure touch of the man who has been to see for himself . "
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the war , Cressey became chair of the newly independent Department of Geography at Syracuse , and worked to make Syracuse a top institution for the study of Asia . He brought Asian scholars and graduate students to Syracuse , and used his department 's funds to send maps and books to the geography departments within Asian universities . During the years following the war , he was also active within the Association of American Geographers , International Geographical Union and the Association for Asian Studies .
During the 1950s period of McCarthyism , Cressey 's interest in China and his " outspoken comments on the shortcomings of American foreign policy " led to his inclusion on various " lists of scholars suspected of sympathy with the Communists , " but the accusations were baseless and Syracuse University continued to fully support him . Ironically , at the same time that Cressey was accused of communist sympathies , the Chinese government included him on its list of its capitalist enemies .
In 1951 , Cressey retired as chairman of the geography department at Syracuse and became Maxwell Distinguished Professor of Geography , a newly created position . Over the next ten years , he traveled frequently and published prolifically . He also received several honors . From 1949 to 1952 , he served as President of the International Geographical Union and in 1952 he was elected as a Vice President , a position he held until 1956 . That same year , he received the George Davidson Medal of the American Geographical Society and in 1958 he received a distinguished service award from the National Council for Geographic Education . In 1961 @-@ 1962 , he was a Phi Beta Kappa National Visiting Scholar and in 1962 @-@ 1963 he was served as a Department of State Visiting Professor in Asia . Cressey also served as Honorary President of the Association of American Geographers in 1957 and President of the Association for Asian Studies in 1959 and 1960 .
In 1955 and 1956 , Cressey held a Fulbright Fellowship in Iraq and in 1957 and 1958 he served as a Smith @-@ Mundt Professor in Lebanon . From his research and travel during these fellowships , Cressey wrote the book Crossroads : Land and Life in Southwest Asia , which was published in 1960 . In the first section of the book , Cressey dealt with the general geographical features of the Middle East . The next eight chapters dealt with the specific countries of the region from Egypt to Afghanistan , creating a picture of the whole region . Cressey focused in detail on the role of natural resources for the countries of the region , concentrating particular attention on the role of water and water shortages . W.B. Fisher , writing in Geographical Review , called the book " an authoritative and compelling study , " and Leonard Kasdan wrote in the American Anthropologist that the book was the " most useful single compendium of the aspects covered that exists in the literature to date . "
Although he broadened his regional interests in the 1950s , Cressey remained interested in China and his " enduring concern was to restore contact between China and the United States , " after the break in their relations following the Communist victory . He also promoted the study of China , hoping to educate a new generation of geographers with knowledge of China and East Asia .
Cressey died of cancer on October 21 , 1963 at his home in Syracuse , New York .
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= Parsley Peel =
Robert Peel ( 1723 – 12 September 1795 ) , commonly known as Parsley Peel , was an influential cotton mill owner and grandfather to Sir Robert Peel , 2nd Baronet , future prime minister of Great Britain . Peel started life as a yeoman farmer but experimented with calico printing , eventually creating a parsley leaf pattern which would become his trademark . Despite losing a number of machines during riots , Peel 's company became the largest in the textile sector by the time of his death , with 23 factories .
= = Early life = =
Robert Peele was born in 1723 at Peele Fold in Oswaldtwistle to William Peele and Jane Anne Peele . His family were traditionally yeoman farmers , until his grandfather Robert Peele abandoned the trade in favour of making woollen cloth . Parsley 's father , William , attempted to return the family to farming and after his education at Blackburn Grammar School , he initially joined his father in this pursuit . He inherited the woodblocks his grandfather used for printing on wool and started experimenting with them . When his wife 's brother , William Haworth , returned from an apprenticeship to a calico @-@ printer in London , the pair attempted to set up a business in calico printing . They received financial backing from William Yates , the landlord of the local public house and formed Haworth , Peel and Yates in 1750 , consisting of a factory in Blackburn and a warehouse in Manchester . By this point , Peel had dropped the final ' e ' from his surname , his reason being that " it was of no use , as it did not add to the sound " .
= = Calico printing = =
Peel had gained a reputation for trying new methods within the industry , being one of the first textile manufacturers to use carding cylinders . He began experimenting at his home with different forms of printing until , according to family tradition , his young daughter Anne brought him a sprig of parsley and begged him to use it as a pattern . He etched this design onto a pewter plate to allow the printing , which was then finished with an iron by one of the women of the household . There are other versions of the tale , which dispute whether the experiments happened at the farm at Peel Fold or his house in Fish Lane and suggest a poor neighbour , Mrs. Milton , calendered the cloth to finish it .
The exact nature of the discovery made by Peel is unclear . It is likely that it was a new method for using the acetate of lead as a dye @-@ fixer ( mordant ) . Another possibility is the use of metal engraving rather than wooden blocks to create the pattern . However it came to be , the pattern was named " Nancy 's pattern " after Peel 's daughter and was very popular – leading to Robert Peel 's nickname of " Parsley Peel " . The company went on to be one of the first calico printers in Lancashire .
= = Cotton manufacture = =
Peel worked with one of his weavers , James Hargreaves , to investigate new technologies . In 1762 , Peel and Hargreaves set up a carding machine , but decided against using it . When Hargreaves went on to invent the spinning jenny in 1764 , Peel was keen to use the technology . He set them up in his factory at Stanhill where Hargreaves worked . In the spring of 1768 , the spinning jennies at Peel 's factory were blamed for job losses . The factories and Hargreaves ' nearby house were the targets of a riot , destroying the spinning jennies within – along with some of Peel 's own inventions . In reaction , Peel moved his manufacturing away from Lancashire . He decided on Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent where he built three mills , including cutting a canal for one .
In 1779 , Peel 's mill in Altham was caught in series of riots against machinery , specifically the carding machines and spinning jenny . Peel came to see the destruction as fortuitous , as he then turned to Richard Arkwright 's carding " engine " . By 1795 , Peel 's family run company , Peel & Co . , was the largest in the cotton industry with twenty @-@ three mills around the north west of England , fourteen more than their closest competitor .
= = Personal life = =
Peel was described as " a tall robust man " with reddish hair , cautious but shrewd , who led the family to fortune through perseverance and resolve . He married Elizabeth Haworth on 28 August 1744 and they had eight children , including Sir Robert Peel , 1st Baronet . Sir Robert Peel went on to father Sir Robert Peel , 2nd Baronet , the future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , who helped to create the modern concept of a police force . Young Robert would visit Parsley Peel and his wife at their home in Ardwick . Douglas Hurd noted that Parsley Peel was satisfied with his lot and did not expect to rise up the social ladder personally , though he hoped his children would .
John Wesley said of him , " I was invited to breakfast at Bury by Mr Peel , a calico printer who a few years ago began with £ 500 and is now supposed to have gained £ 20 @,@ 000 . Oh , what a miracle if he lose not his own soul . " In 1794 , Parsley Peel obtained the grant of a coat of arms , including a shuttle held by a lion , a bee signifying business and a new family motto Industria .
Towards the end of his life , Peel started to lean heavily on a cane with a golden head . He lived out his final days in Ardwick Green , near his daughter . Peel died on 12 September 1795 , and was buried in St John 's Church , Manchester . His wife survived him by six months ; one of her final wishes was to outlive her husband . He left his estate split equally between his eight children , valued at £ 13 @,@ 000 each ( worth about £ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2013 ) .
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= Svalbard =
Svalbard ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈsʋɑ ( ː ) lbɑːɾ ] ; formerly known by its Dutch name Spitsbergen ) is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean . Situated north of mainland Europe , it is about midway between continental Norway and the North Pole . The islands of the group range from 74 ° to 81 ° north latitude , and from 10 ° to 35 ° east longitude . The largest island is Spitsbergen , followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya .
Administratively , the archipelago is not part of any Norwegian county , but forms an unincorporated area administered by a governor appointed by the Norwegian government . Since 2002 , Svalbard 's main settlement , Longyearbyen , has had an elected local government , somewhat similar to mainland municipalities . Other settlements include the Russian mining community of Barentsburg , the research station of Ny @-@ Ålesund , and the mining outpost of Sveagruva . Svalbard is the northernmost settlement in the world with a permanent civilian population . Other settlements are farther north , but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers ; e.g. Alert , Nunavut — the northernmost year @-@ round community .
The islands were first taken into use as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries , after which they were abandoned . Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century , and several permanent communities were established . The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty , and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway . They also established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone . The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the only mining companies in place . Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries , with the University Centre in Svalbard ( UNIS ) and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault playing critical roles . No roads connect the settlements ; instead snowmobiles , aircraft and boats serve inter @-@ community transport . Svalbard Airport , Longyear serves as the main gateway .
The archipelago features an Arctic climate , although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude . The flora take advantage of the long period of midnight sun to compensate for the polar night . Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds , and also features polar bears , reindeer , the Arctic fox , and certain marine mammals . Seven national parks and twenty @-@ three nature reserves cover two @-@ thirds of the archipelago , protecting the largely untouched , yet fragile , natural environment . Approximately 60 % of the archipelago is covered with glaciers , and the islands feature many mountains and fjords .
Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 2 country code " SJ " . Both areas are administered by Norway , though they are separated by a distance of over 500 nautical miles ( approximately 600 miles or 950 kilometres ) and have very different administrative structures .
= = Geography = =
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 defines Svalbard as all islands , islets and skerries from 74 ° to 81 ° north latitude , and from 10 ° to 35 ° east longitude . The land area is 61 @,@ 022 km2 ( 23 @,@ 561 sq mi ) , and dominated by the island of Spitsbergen , which constitutes more than half the archipelago , followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya . All settlements are located on Spitsbergen , except the meteorological outposts on Bjørnøya and Hopen . The Norwegian state took possession of all unclaimed land , or 95 @.@ 2 % of the archipelago , at the time the Svalbard Treaty entered into force ; Store Norske owns 4 % , Arktikugol owns 0 @.@ 4 % , while other private owners hold 0 @.@ 4 % .
Since Svalbard is located north of the Arctic Circle it experiences midnight sun in summer and polar night in winter . At 74 ° north , the midnight sun lasts 99 days and polar night 84 days , while the respective figures at 81 ° are 141 and 128 days . In Longyearbyen , midnight sun lasts from 20 April until 23 August , and polar night lasts from 26 October to 15 February . In winter , the combination of full moon and reflective snow can give additional light .
Glacial ice covers 36 @,@ 502 km2 ( 14 @,@ 094 sq mi ) or 60 % of Svalbard ; 30 % is barren rock while 10 % is vegetated . The largest glacier is Austfonna ( 8 @,@ 412 km2 or 3 @,@ 248 sq mi ) on Nordaustlandet , followed by Olav V Land and Vestfonna . During summer , it is possible to ski from Sørkapp in the south to the north of Spitsbergen , with only a short distance not being covered by snow or glacier . Kvitøya is 99 @.@ 3 % covered by glacier .
The landforms of Svalbard were created through repeated ice ages , when glaciers cut the former plateau into fjords , valleys and mountains . The tallest peak is Newtontoppen ( 1 @,@ 717 m or 5 @,@ 633 ft ) , followed by Perriertoppen ( 1 @,@ 712 m or 5 @,@ 617 ft ) , Ceresfjellet ( 1 @,@ 675 m or 5 @,@ 495 ft ) , Chadwickryggen ( 1 @,@ 640 m or 5 @,@ 380 ft ) and Galileotoppen ( 1 @,@ 637 m or 5 @,@ 371 ft ) . The longest fjord is Wijdefjorden ( 108 km or 67 mi ) , followed by Isfjorden ( 107 km or 66 mi ) , Van Mijenfjorden ( 83 km or 52 mi ) , Woodfjorden ( 64 km or 40 mi ) and Wahlenbergfjorden ( 46 km or 29 mi ) . Svalbard is part of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province , and experienced Norway 's strongest earthquake on 6 March 2009 , which hit 6 @.@ 5 on the Richter scale .
= = History = =
Scandinavians may have discovered Svalbard as early as the 12th century . There are traditional Norse accounts of a land known as Svalbarð — literally " cold shores " — although this may have referred to Jan Mayen , or a part of eastern Greenland . It was then thought both Svalbard and Greenland were connected to Continental Europe . The archipelago may in that period have been used for fishing and hunting . The Dutchman Willem Barentsz made the first indisputable discovery of the archipelago in 1596 , when he sighted its coast while searching for the Northern Sea Route .
The name Spitsbergen originated with Barentsz , who described the " pointed mountains " he saw on the west coast of the main island , although his 1599 map of the Arctic labels the island as Het Niewe Land ( " The New Land " ) . Barentsz did not recognize that he had discovered an archipelago , and consequently the name Spitsbergen long remained in use both for the main island and for the archipelago as a whole .
The first known landing on the island dates to 1604 , when an English ship landed at Bjørnøya and started hunting walrus ; annual expeditions soon followed , and Spitsbergen became a base for hunting the bowhead whale from 1611 . Because of the lawless nature of the area , English , Danish , Dutch , and French companies and authorities tried to use force to keep out other countries ' fleets .
Smeerenburg was one of the first settlements , established by the Dutch in 1619 . Smaller bases were also built by the English , Danish and French . At first the outposts were merely summer camps , but from the early 1630s , a few individuals started to overwinter . Whaling at Spitsbergen lasted until the 1820s , when the Dutch , British and Danish whalers moved elsewhere in the Arctic . By the late 17th century , Russian hunters arrived ; they overwintered to a greater extent and hunted land mammals such as the polar bear and fox . After British raids into the Barents Sea in 1809 , Russian activity on Svalbard diminished , and ceased by the 1820s . Norwegian hunting — mostly for walrus — started in the 1790s . The first Norwegian citizens to reach Spitsbergen proper were a number of Coast Sámi people from the Hammerfest region , who were hired as part of a Russian crew for an expedition in 1795 . Norwegian whaling was abandoned about the same time as the Russians left , but whaling continued around Spitsbergen until the 1830s , and around Bjørnøya until the 1860s .
= = = 20th century = = =
By the 1890s , Svalbard had become a destination for Arctic tourism , coal deposits had been found and the islands were being used as a base for Arctic exploration . The first mining was along Isfjorden by Norwegians in 1899 ; by 1904 , British interests had established themselves in Adventfjorden and started the first all @-@ year operations . Production in Longyearbyen , by American interests , started in 1908 ; and Store Norske established itself in 1916 , as did other Norwegian interests during the war , in part by buying American interests .
Discussions to establish the sovereignty of the archipelago commenced in the 1910s , but were interrupted by World War I. On 9 February 1920 , following the Paris Peace Conference , the Svalbard Treaty was signed , granting full sovereignty to Norway . However , all signatory countries were granted non @-@ discriminatory rights to fishing , hunting and mineral resources . The treaty took effect on 14 August 1925 , at the same time as the Svalbard Act regulated the archipelago and the first governor , Johannes Gerckens Bassøe , took office . The archipelago has traditionally been known as Spitsbergen , and the main island as West Spitsbergen . From the 1920s , Norway renamed the archipelago Svalbard , and the main island became Spitsbergen . Kvitøya , Kong Karls Land , Hopen and Bjørnøya were not regarded as part of the Spitsbergen archipelago . Russians have traditionally called the archipelago Grumant ( Грумант ) . The Soviet Union retained the name Spitsbergen ( Шпицберген ) to support undocumented claims that Russians were the first to discover the island . In 1928 , Italian explorer Umberto Nobile and the crew of the airship Italia crashed on the icepack off the coast of Foyn Island . The subsequent rescue attempts were covered extensively in the press and Svalbard received short @-@ lived fame as a result .
= = = Second World War = = =
In 1941 , Operation Gauntlet , all Norwegian and Soviet settlements on Svalbard were evacuated , and a German presence was established with a meteorological outpost , although a small Norwegian garrison was kept on Spitsbergen . The German Operation Zitronella took this garrison by force in 1943 , and at the same time destroying the settlements at Longyearbyen and Barentsburg . In September 1944 , together with the supply ship Carl J. Busch , the submarine U @-@ 307 transported the men of Operation Haudegen to Svalbard . Operation Haudegen ( i.e. , swashbuckler ) was the name of a German operation during the Second World War to establish meteorological stations on Svalbard . The station was active from 9 September 1944 to 4 September 1945 . It lost radio contact in May 1945 , and the soldiers were capable of asking for support only in August 1945 . On 4 September 1945 , the soldiers were picked up by a Norwegian seal hunting vessel and surrendered to its captain . This group of men were the last German troops to surrender after the Second World War . After the war , the Soviet Union proposed common Norwegian and Soviet administration and military defence of Svalbard . This was rejected in 1947 by Norway , which two years later joined NATO . The Soviet Union retained high civilian activity on Svalbard , in part to ensure that the archipelago was not used by NATO .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After the war , Norway re @-@ established operations at Longyearbyen and Ny @-@ Ålesund , while the Soviet Union established mining in Barentsburg , Pyramiden and Grumant . The mine at Ny @-@ Ålesund had several fatal accidents , killing 71 people while it was in operation from 1945 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1963 . The Kings Bay Affair , caused by the 1962 accident killing 21 workers , forced Gerhardsen 's Third Cabinet to resign . From 1964 , Ny @-@ Ålesund became a research outpost , and a facility for the European Space Research Organisation . Petroleum test drilling was started in 1963 and continued until 1984 , but no commercially viable fields were found . From 1960 , regular charter flights were made from the mainland to a field at Hotellneset ; in 1975 , Svalbard Airport , Longyear opened , allowing year @-@ round services .
During the Cold War , the Soviet Union retained about two @-@ thirds of the population on the islands ( with a third being Norwegians ) with the archipelago 's population slightly under 4 @,@ 000 . Russian activity has diminished considerably since then , falling from 2 @,@ 500 to 450 people from 1990 to 2010 . Grumant was closed after it was depleted in 1962 . Pyramiden was closed in 1998 . Coal exports from Barentsburg ceased in 2006 because of a fire , but resumed in 2010 . The Russian community has also experienced two air accidents , Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 , which killed 141 people , and the Heerodden helicopter accident .
Longyearbyen remained purely a company town until 1989 when utilities , culture and education was separated into Svalbard Samfunnsdrift . In 1993 it was sold to the national government and the University Centre was established . Through the 1990s , tourism increased and the town developed an economy independent of Store Norske and the mining . Longyearbyen was incorporated on 1 January 2002 , receiving a community council .
= = Population = =
= = = Demographics = = =
In 2012 , Svalbard had an estimated population of 2 @,@ 642 , of whom 439 were Russians and Ukrainian , 10 were Polish and 322 were other non @-@ Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements . The largest non @-@ Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Thailand , Sweden , Denmark , Russia , Iran and Germany .
= = = Settlements = = =
Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on the archipelago , the seat of the governor and the only town to be incorporated . The town features a hospital , primary and secondary school , university , sports center with a swimming pool , library , culture center , cinema , bus transport , hotels , a bank , and several museums . The newspaper Svalbardposten is published weekly . Only a small fraction of the mining activity remains at Longyearbyen ; instead , workers commute to Sveagruva ( or Svea ) where Store Norske operates a mine . Sveagruva is a dormitory town , with workers commuting from Longyearbyen weekly .
Ny @-@ Ålesund is a permanent settlement based entirely around research . Formerly a mining town , it is still a company town operated by the Norwegian state @-@ owned Kings Bay . While there is some tourism there , Norwegian authorities limit access to the outpost to minimize impact on the scientific work . Ny @-@ Ålesund has a winter population of 35 and a summer population of 180 . The Norwegian Meteorological Institute has outposts at Bjørnøya and Hopen , with respectively ten and four people stationed . Both outposts can also house temporary research staff . Poland operates the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund , with ten permanent residents .
Barentsburg is the only permanently inhabited Russian settlement after Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998 . It is a company town : all facilities are owned by Arktikugol , which operates a coal mine . In addition to the mining facilities , Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop , catering for tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen . The village features facilities such as a school , library , sports center , community center , swimming pool , farm and greenhouse . Pyramiden features similar facilities ; both are built in typical post @-@ World War II Soviet architectural and planning style and contain the world 's two most northerly Lenin statues and other socialist realism artwork . As of 2013 , a handful of workers are stationed in the largely abandoned Pyramiden to maintain the infrastructure and run the hotel , which has been re @-@ opened for tourists .
= = = Religion = = =
Most of the population is affiliated with the Church of Norway . Catholics on the archipelago are pastorally served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oslo .
= = Politics = =
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago . The islands are , unlike the Norwegian Antarctic Territory , a part of the Kingdom of Norway and not a dependency . The treaty came into effect in 1925 , following the Svalbard Act . All forty signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination , although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation . The treaty limits Norway 's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard . Therefore , Svalbard has a lower income tax than mainland Norway , and there is no value added tax . There is a separate budget for Svalbard to ensure compliance . Svalbard is a demilitarized zone , as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations . Norwegian military activity is limited to fishery surveillance by the Norwegian Coast Guard as the treaty requires Norway to protect the natural environment .
The Svalbard Act established the institution of the Governor of Svalbard ( Norwegian : Sysselmannen ) , who holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police , as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch . Duties include environmental policy , family law , law enforcement , search and rescue , tourism management , information services , contact with foreign settlements , and judge in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations — albeit never in the same cases as acting as police . Since 2015 , Kjerstin Askholt has been governor ; she is assisted by a staff of 26 professionals . The institution is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police , but reports to other ministries in matters within their portfolio .
Since 2002 , Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality , including utilities , education , cultural facilities , fire department , roads and ports . No care or nursing services are available , nor is welfare payment available . Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities . The hospital is part of University Hospital of North Norway , while the airport is operated by state @-@ owned Avinor . Ny @-@ Ålesund and Barentsburg remain company towns with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol , respectively . Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining , the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway . Svalbard is subordinate to Nord @-@ Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal , both located in Tromsø .
Although Norway is part of the European Economic Area ( EEA ) and the Schengen Agreement , Svalbard is not part of the Schengen Area or the EEA . Non @-@ Norwegian Svalbard residents do not need Schengen visas , but are prohibited from reaching Svalbard from mainland Norway without such . In theory it would be possible to do a visa @-@ free airport transit at Oslo Airport , but this is not allowed by Norway . People without a source of income can be rejected by the governor . No person is required visa or residence permit for Svalbard . Everybody can live and work in Svalbard indefinitely regardless of citizenship . Svalbard Treaty grants treaty nationals equal right of abode as Norwegian nationals . So far , non @-@ treaty nationals were admitted visa @-@ free as well . " Regulations concerning rejection and expulsion from Svalbard " in force . Russia retains a consulate in Barentsburg .
In September 2010 a treaty was made between Russia and Norway fixing the boundary between the Svalbard archipelago and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago . Increased interest in petroleum exploration in the Arctic raised interest in a resolution of the dispute . The agreement takes into account the relative positions of the archipelagos , rather than being based simply on northward extension of the continental border of Norway and Russia .
= = Economy = =
The three main industries on Svalbard are coal mining , tourism , and research . In 2007 , there were 484 people working in the mining sector , 211 people working in the tourism sector and 111 people working in the education sector . The same year , the mining gave a revenue of NOK 2 @.@ 008 billion ( 227 @,@ 791 @,@ 078 USD ) , tourism NOK 317 million ( 35 @,@ 967 @,@ 202 USD ) and research NOK 142 million ( 16 @,@ 098 @,@ 404 USD ) In 2006 , the average income for economically active people was NOK 494 @,@ 700 — 23 % higher than on the mainland . Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees ; there are only a few privately owned houses , most of which are recreational cabins . Because of this , it is nearly impossible to live on Svalbard without working for an established institution .
Since the resettlement of Svalbard in the early 20th century , coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity . Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry , operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen . The former produced 3 @.@ 4 million tonnes in 2008 , while the latter uses 35 % of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station . Since 2007 , there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state @-@ owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg . There have previously been performed test drilling for petroleum on land , but these did not give satisfactory results for permanent operation . The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum activities for environmental reasons , and the land formerly test @-@ drilled on has been protected as natural reserves or national parks . In 2011 , a 20 @-@ year plan to develop offshore oil and gas resources around Svalbard was announced .
Svalbard has historically been a base for both whaling and fishing . Norway claimed a 200 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) exclusive economic zone ( EEZ ) around Svalbard in 1977 , with 31 @,@ 688 square kilometres ( 12 @,@ 235 sq mi ) of internal waters and 770 @,@ 565 square kilometres ( 297 @,@ 517 sq mi ) of EEZ . Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone , and the claims are disputed by Russia . Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered on Longyearbyen . Activities include hiking , kayaking , walks through glacier caves and snowmobile and dog @-@ sled safari . Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic , including both stops by offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard . Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August ; overnights have quintupled from 1991 to 2008 , when there were 93 @,@ 000 guest @-@ nights .
Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny @-@ Ålesund , the most accessible areas in the high Arctic . The treaty grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard , resulting in the Polish Polar Station and the Chinese Arctic Yellow River Station , plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg . The University Centre in Svalbard in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate , graduate and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences , particularly biology , geology and geophysics . Courses are provided to supplement studies at the mainland universities ; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English , with Norwegian and international students equally represented .
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a seedbank to store seeds from as many of the world 's crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible . A cooperation between the government of Norway and the Global Crop Diversity Trust , the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen , keeping it at a natural − 6 ° C ( 21 ° F ) and refrigerating the seeds to − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) .
The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is a 1 @,@ 440 km ( 890 mi ) fibre optic line from Svalbard to Harstad , needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellites through Svalbard Satellite Station and installations in Ny @-@ Ålesund .
One source of income for the area is visiting cruise ships . The Norwegian government has become concerned in recent years about large numbers of cruise ship passengers suddenly landing at small settlements such as Ny @-@ Ålesund , which is conveniently close to the barren @-@ yet @-@ picturesque Magdalena Fjord . With the increasing size of the larger ships , up to 2000 people can potentially appear in a community that normally numbers less than 40 . The government has recently passed legislation , effective from January 2014 , severely restricting the size of cruise ships that may visit .
= = Transport = =
Within Longyearbyen , Barentsburg , and Ny @-@ Ålesund , there are road systems , but they do not connect with each other . Off @-@ road motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground , but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter — both for commercial and recreational activities . Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg ( 45 km or 28 mi ) and Pyramiden ( 100 km or 62 mi ) is possible by snowmobile by winter , or by ship all year round . All settlements have ports and Longyearbyen has a bus system .
Svalbard Airport , Longyear , located 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) from Longyearbyen , is the only airport offering air transport off the archipelago . Scandinavian Airlines has daily scheduled services to Tromsø and Oslo . Low @-@ cost carrier Norwegian Air Shuttle also has a service between Oslo and Svalbard , operating three or four times a week ; there are also irregular charter services to Russia . Finnair has announced to commence service to Helsinki , operating three times a week starting June 1 , 2016 and lasting until 27 August 2016 , but Norwegian authorities did not allow this route as it was not in bilateral agreement on air traffic between Finland and Norway . Lufttransport provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport and Svea Airport for Kings Bay and Store Norske ; these flights are in general not available to the public . There are heliports in Barentsburg and Pyramiden , and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a lesser extent the mining company Arktikugol .
= = Climate = =
The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude , with the average summer temperature at 4 to 6 ° C ( 39 to 43 ° F ) and January averages at − 16 to − 12 ° C ( 3 to 10 ° F ) . The West Spitsbergen Current , the northernmost branch of the North Atlantic Current system , moderates Svalbard 's temperatures , particularly during winter . Winter temperatures in Svalbard are up to − 20 ° C ( − 36 ° F ) higher than similar latitudes in Russia and Canada . The warm Atlantic water keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year . The interior fjord areas and valleys , sheltered by the mountains , have larger temperature differences than the coast , giving about 2 ° C ( 4 ° F ) warmer summer temperatures and 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) colder winter temperatures . On the south of Spitsbergen , the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west . During winter , the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) , and about 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) in summer . Bear Island has average temperatures even higher than the rest of the archipelago .
Svalbard is where cold polar air from the north and mild , wet sea air from the south meet , creating low pressure , changeable weather and strong winds , particularly in winter ; in January , a strong breeze is registered 17 % of the time at Isfjord Radio , but only 1 % of the time in July . In summer , particularly away from land , fog is common , with visibility under 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) registered 20 % of the time in July and 1 % of the time in January , at Hopen and Bjørnøya . Precipitation is frequent , but falls in small quantities , typically less than 400 millimetres ( 16 in ) per year in western Spitsbergen . More rain falls on the uninhabited east side , where there can be more than 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) .
= = Nature = =
In addition to humans , three primarily terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the archipelago : the Arctic fox , the Svalbard reindeer , and accidentally introduced southern voles , which are found only in Grumant . Attempts to introduce the Arctic hare and the muskox have both failed . There are fifteen to twenty types of marine mammals , including whales , dolphins , seals , walruses , and polar bears .
Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Svalbard , and one of the main tourist attractions . While protected , anyone outside of settlements is recommended to carry a firearm to kill polar bears in self @-@ defence , as a last resort , should they attack , and is required to have appropriate means of frightening and chasing off polar bears ; a British schoolboy was killed by a polar bear in 2011 . Svalbard and Franz Joseph Land share a common population of 3 @,@ 000 polar bears , with Kong Karls Land being the most important breeding ground .
The Svalbard reindeer ( R. tarandus platyrhynchus ) is a distinct sub @-@ species ; although it was previously almost extinct , it can be legally hunted ( as can Arctic fox ) . There are limited numbers of domesticated animals in the Russian settlements .
About thirty species of bird are found on Svalbard , most of which are migratory . The Barents Sea is among the areas in the world with most seabirds , with about 20 million individuals during late summer . The most common are little auk , northern fulmar , thick @-@ billed murre and black @-@ legged kittiwake . Sixteen species are on the IUCN Red List . Particularly Bjørnøya , Storfjorden , Nordvest @-@ Spitsbergen and Hopen are important breeding ground for seabirds . The Arctic tern has the furthest migration , all the way to Antarctica . Only two songbirds migrate to Svalbard to breed : the snow bunting and the wheatear . Rock ptarmigan is the only bird to overwinter . Remains of Predator X from the Jurassic period have been found ; it is the largest dinosaur @-@ era marine reptile ever found — a pliosaur estimated to have been almost 15 m ( 49 ft ) long .
Svalbard has permafrost and tundra , with both low , middle and high Arctic vegetation . 165 species of plants have been found on the archipelago . Only those areas which defrost in the summer have vegetations , which accounts for about 10 % of the archipelago . Vegetation is most abundant in Nordenskiöld Land , around Isfjorden and where affected by guano . While there is little precipitation , giving the archipelago a steppe climate , plants still have good access to water because the cold climate reduces evaporation . The growing season is very short , and may last only a few weeks .
There are seven national parks in Svalbard : Forlandet , Indre Wijdefjorden , Nordenskiöld Land , Nordre Isfjorden Land , Nordvest @-@ Spitsbergen , Sassen @-@ Bünsow Land and Sør @-@ Spitsbergen . The archipelago has fifteen bird sanctuaries , one geotopic protected area and six nature reserves — with Nordaust @-@ Svalbard and Søraust @-@ Svalbard both being larger than any of the national parks . Most of the nature reserves and three of the national parks were protected in 1973 , with nearly all the remaining protected occurring in the 2000s . All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected . The protected areas make up 65 % of the archipelago . Svalbard is on Norway 's tentative list for nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
The total Solar eclipse of March 20 , 2015 included only Svalbard and the Faroe Islands in the band of totality . Many scientists and tourists attended .
= = Media = =
News about Svalbard in English and Norwegian is published weekly at svalbardposten.no , while " alternative " news in English is at icepeople.net.
Svalbard makes a prominent appearance in Northern Lights by Philip Pullman and the corresponding movie . In the novel it is used as a prison for important and powerful people . It is inhabited by Panserbjørne , mighty polar bears that wear armor forged from Sky @-@ Iron . One of the primary characters , Lord Asriel , was imprisoned and manages to flee from Svalbard during the novel .
The fictional town of Fortitude , as portrayed in the 2015 TV series Fortitude ( from UK 's Sky Atlantic ) , is situated in Svalbard .
In 2014 the Swedish singer Tove Styrke filmed a music video in Pyramiden for her single Borderline .
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