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= James Whitcomb Riley =
James Whitcomb Riley ( October 7 , 1849 – July 22 , 1916 ) was an American writer , poet , and best @-@ selling author . During his lifetime he was known as the " Hoosier Poet " and " Children 's Poet " for his dialect works and his children 's poetry respectively . His poems tended to be humorous or sentimental , and of the approximately one thousand poems that Riley authored , the majority are in dialect . His famous works include " Little Orphant Annie " and " The Raggedy Man " .
Riley began his career writing verses as a sign maker and submitting poetry to newspapers . Thanks in part to an endorsement from poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , he eventually earned successive jobs at Indiana newspaper publishers during the latter 1870s . Riley gradually rose in prominence during the 1880s through his poetry reading tours . He traveled a touring circuit first in the Midwest , and then nationally , holding shows and making joint appearances on stage with other famous talents . Regularly struggling with his alcohol addiction , Riley never married or had children , and created a scandal in 1888 when he became too drunk to perform . He became more popular in spite of the bad press he received , and as a result extricated himself from poorly negotiated contracts that limited his earnings ; he quickly became very wealthy .
Riley became a bestselling author in the 1890s . His children 's poems were compiled into a book and illustrated by Howard Chandler Christy . Titled the Rhymes of Childhood , the book was his most popular and sold millions of copies . As a poet , Riley achieved an uncommon level of fame during his own lifetime . He was honored with annual Riley Day celebrations around the United States and was regularly called on to perform readings at national civic events . He continued to write and hold occasional poetry readings until a stroke paralyzed his right arm in 1910 .
Riley 's chief legacy was his influence in fostering the creation of a midwestern cultural identity and his contributions to the Golden Age of Indiana Literature . Along with other writers of his era , he helped create a caricature of midwesterners and formed a literary community that produced works rivaling the established eastern literati . There are many memorials dedicated to Riley , including the James Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
James Whitcomb Riley was born on October 7 , 1849 , in the town of Greenfield , Indiana , the third of the six children of Reuben Andrew and Elizabeth Marine Riley . Riley 's father was an attorney , and in the year before Riley 's birth , he was elected a member of the Indiana House of Representatives as a Democrat . He developed a friendship with James Whitcomb , the governor of Indiana , after whom he named his son . Martin Riley , Riley 's uncle , was an amateur poet who occasionally wrote verses for local newspapers . Riley was fond of his uncle who helped influence his early interest in poetry .
Shortly after Riley 's birth , the family moved into a larger house in town . Riley was " a quiet boy , not talkative , who would often go about with one eye shut as he observed and speculated . " His mother taught him to read and write at home before sending him to the local community school in 1852 . He found school difficult and was frequently in trouble . Often punished , he had nothing kind to say of his teachers in his writings . His poem " The Educator " told of an intelligent but sinister teacher and may have been based on one of his instructors . Riley was most fond of his last teacher , Lee O. Harris . Harris noticed Riley 's interest in poetry and reading and encouraged him to pursue it further .
Riley 's school attendance was sporadic , and he graduated from grade eight at age twenty in 1869 . In an 1892 newspaper article , Riley confessed that he knew little of mathematics , geography , or science , and his understanding of proper grammar was poor . Later critics , like Henry Beers , pointed to his poor education as the reason for his success in writing ; his prose was written in the language of common people which spurred his popularity .
= = = Childhood influences = = =
Riley lived in his parents ' home until he was twenty @-@ one years old . At five years old he began spending time at the Brandywine Creek just outside Greenfield . His poems " The Barefoot Boy " and " The Old Swimmin ' Hole " referred back to his time at the creek . He was introduced in his childhood to many people who later influenced his poetry . His father regularly brought home a variety of clients and disadvantaged people to give them assistance . Riley 's poem " The Raggedy Man " was based on a German tramp his father hired to work at the family home . Riley picked up the cadence and character of the dialect of central Indiana from travelers along the old National Road . Their speech greatly influenced the hundreds of poems he wrote in nineteenth century Hoosier dialect .
Riley 's mother frequently told him stories of fairies , trolls , and giants , and read him children 's poems . She was very superstitious , and influenced Riley with many of her beliefs . They both placed " spirit rappings " in their homes on places like tables and bureaus to capture any spirits that may have been wandering about . This influence is recognized in many of his works , including " Flying Islands of the Night . "
As was common at that time , Riley and his friends had few toys and they amused themselves with activities . With his mother 's aid , Riley began creating plays and theatricals which he and his friends would practice and perform in the back of a local grocery store . As he grew older , the boys named their troupe the Adelphians and began to have their shows in barns where they could fit larger audiences . Riley wrote of these early performances in his poem " When We First Played ' Show ' , " where he referred to himself as " Jamesy . "
Many of Riley 's poems are filled with musical references . Riley had no musical education , and could not read sheet music , but learned from his father how to play guitar , and from a friend how to play violin . He performed in two different local bands , and became so proficient on the violin he was invited to play with a group of adult Freemasons at several events . A few of his later poems were set to music and song , one of the most well known being A Short 'nin ' Bread Song — Pieced Out .
When Riley was ten years old , the first library opened in his hometown . From an early age he developed a love of literature . He and his friends spent time at the library where the librarian read stories and poems to them . Charles Dickens became one Riley 's favorites , and helped inspire the poems " St. Lirriper , " " Christmas Season , " and " God Bless Us Every One . "
Riley 's father enlisted in the Union Army during the American Civil War , leaving his wife to manage the family home . While he was away , the family took in a twelve @-@ year @-@ old orphan named Mary Alice " Allie " Smith . Smith was the inspiration for Riley 's poem " Little Orphant Annie " . Riley intended to name the poem " Little Orphant Allie " , but a typesetter 's error changed the name of the poem during printing .
= = = Finding poetry = = =
Riley 's father returned from the war partially paralyzed . He was unable to continue working in his legal practice and the family soon fell into financial distress . The war had a negative physiological effect on him , and his relationship with his family quickly deteriorated . He opposed Riley 's interest in poetry and encouraged him to find a different career . The family finances finally disintegrated and they were forced to sell their town home in April 1870 and return to their country farm . Riley 's mother was able to keep peace in the family , but after her death in August from heart disease , Riley and his father had a final break . He blamed his mother 's death on his father 's failure to care for her in her final weeks . He continued to regret the loss of his childhood home and wrote frequently of how it was so cruelly snatched from him by the war , subsequent poverty , and his mother 's death . After the events of 1870 , he developed an addiction to alcohol which he struggled with for the remainder of his life .
Becoming increasingly belligerent toward his father , Riley moved out of the family home and briefly had a job painting houses before leaving Greenfield in November 1870 . He was recruited as a Bible salesman and began working in the nearby town of Rushville , Indiana . The job provided little income and he returned to Greenfield in March 1871 where he started an apprenticeship to a painter . He completed the study and opened a business in Greenfield creating and maintaining signs . His earliest known poems are verses he wrote as clever advertisements for his customers .
Riley began participating in local theater productions with the Adelphians to earn extra income , and during the winter months , when the demand for painting declined , Riley began writing poetry which he mailed to his brother living in Indianapolis . His brother acted as his agent and offered the poems to the newspaper Indianapolis Mirror for free . His first poem was featured on March 30 , 1872 under the pseudonym " Jay Whit . " Riley wrote more than twenty poems to the newspaper , including one that was featured on the front page .
In July 1872 , after becoming convinced sales would provide more income than sign painting , he joined the McCrillus Company based in Anderson , Indiana . The company sold patent medicines that they marketed in small traveling shows around Indiana . Riley joined the act as a huckster , calling himself the " Painter Poet " . He traveled with the act , composing poetry and performing at the shows . After his act he sold tonics to his audience , sometimes employing dishonesty . During one stop , Riley presented himself as a formerly blind painter who had been cured by a tonic , using himself as evidence to encourage the audience to purchase his product .
Riley began sending poems to his brother again in February 1873 . About the same time he and several friends began an advertisement company . The men traveled around Indiana creating large billboard @-@ like signs on the sides of buildings and barns and in high places that would be visible from a distance . The company was financially successful , but Riley was continually drawn to poetry . In October he traveled to South Bend where he took a job at Stockford & Blowney painting verses on signs for a month ; the short duration of his job may have been due to his frequent drunkenness at that time .
In early 1874 , Riley returned to Greenfield to become a writer full @-@ time . In February he submitted a poem entitled " At Last " to the Danbury News , a Connecticut newspaper . The editors accepted his poem , paid him for it , and wrote him a letter encouraging him to submit more . Riley found the note and his first payment inspiring . He began submitting poems regularly to the editors , but after the newspaper shut down in 1875 , Riley was left without a paying publisher . He began traveling and performing with the Adelphians around central Indiana to earn an income while he searched for a new publisher . In August 1875 he joined another traveling tonic show run by the Wizard Oil Company .
= = Early career = =
= = = Newspaper work = = =
Riley began sending correspondence to the famous American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow during late 1875 seeking his endorsement to help him start a career as a poet . He submitted many poems to Longfellow , whom he considered to be the greatest living poet . Not receiving a prompt response , he sent similar letters to John Townsend Trowbridge , and several other prominent writers askng for an endorsement . Longfellow finally replied in a brief letter , telling Riley that " I have read [ the poems ] in great pleasure , and think they show a true poetic faculty and insight . " Riley carried the letter with him everywhere and , hoping to receive a job offer and to create a market for his poetry , he began sending poems to dozens of newspapers touting Longfellow 's endorsement . Among the newspapers to take an interest in the poems was the Indianapolis Journal , a major Republican Party metropolitan newspaper in Indiana . Among the first poems the newspaper purchased from Riley were " Song of the New Year " , " An Empty Nest " , and a short story entitled " A Remarkable Man " .
The editors of the Anderson Democrat discovered Riley 's poems in the Indianapolis Journal and offered him a job as a reporter in February 1877 . Riley accepted . He worked as a normal reporter gathering local news , writing articles , and assisting in setting the typecast on the printing press . He continued to write poems regularly for the newspaper and to sell other poems to larger newspapers . During the year Riley spent working in Anderson , he met and began to court Edora Mysers . The couple became engaged , but terminated the relationship after they decided against marriage in August .
After a rejection of his poems by an eastern periodical , Riley began to formulate a plot to prove his work was of good quality and that it was being rejected only because his name was unknown in the east . Riley authored a poem imitating the style of Edgar Allan Poe and submitted it to the Kokomo Dispatch under a fictitious name claiming it was a long lost Poe poem . The Dispatch published the poem and reported it as such . Riley and two other men who were part of the plot waited two weeks for the poem to be published by major newspapers in Chicago , Boston , and New York to gauge their reaction ; they were disappointed . While a few newspapers believed the poem to be authentic , the majority did not , claiming the quality was too poor to be authored by Poe . An employee of the Dispatch learned the truth of the incident and reported it to the Kokomo Tribune , which published an expose that outed Riley as a conspirator behind the hoax . The revelation damaged the credibility of the Dispatch and harmed Riley 's reputation .
In the aftermath of the Poe plot , Riley was dismissed from the Democrat , so he returned to Greenfield to spend time writing poetry . Back home , he met Clara Louise Bottsford , a school teacher boarding in his father 's home . They found they had much in common , particularly their love of literature . The couple began a twelve @-@ year intermittent relationship which would be Riley 's longest lasting . In mid @-@ 1878 the couple had their first breakup , caused partly by Riley 's alcohol addiction . The event led Riley to make his first attempt to give up liquor . He joined a local temperance organization , but quit after a few weeks .
= = = Performing poet = = =
Without a steady income , his financial situation began to deteriorate . He began submitting his poems to more prominent literary magazines , including Scribner 's Monthly , but was informed that although he showed promise , his work was still short of the standards required for use in their publications . Locally , he was still dealing with the stigma of the Poe plot . The Indianapolis Journal and other newspapers refused to accept his poetry , leaving Riley desperate for income . In January 1878 on the advice of a friend , Riley paid an entrance fee to join a traveling lecture circuit where he could give poetry readings . In exchange , he received a portion of the profit his performances earned . Such circuits were popular at the time , and Riley quickly earned a local reputation for his entertaining readings .
In August 1878 , Riley followed Indiana Governor James D. Williams as speaker at a civic event in a small town near Indianapolis . He recited a recently composed poem , " A Childhood Home of Long Ago , " telling of life in pioneer Indiana . The poem was well received and was given good reviews by several newspapers .
" Flying Islands of the Night " is the only play that Riley wrote and published . Authored while Riley was traveling with the Adelphians , but never performed , the play has similarities to A Midsummer Night 's Dream , which Riley may have used as a model . Flying Islands concerns a kingdom besieged by evil forces of a sinister queen who is defeated eventually by an angel @-@ like heroine . Most reviews were positive . Riley published the play and it became popular in the central Indiana area during late 1878 , helping Riley to convince newspapers to again accept his poetry . In November 1879 he was offered a position as a columnist at the Indianapolis Journal and accepted after being encouraged by E.B. Matindale , the paper 's chief editor .
Although the play and his newspaper work helped expose him to a wider audience , the chief source of his increasing popularity was his performances on the lecture circuit . He made both dramatic and comedic readings of his poetry , and by early 1879 could guarantee large crowds whenever he performed . In an 1894 article , Hamlin Garland wrote that Riley 's celebrity resulted from his reading talent , saying " his vibrant individual voice , his flexible lips , his droll glance , united to make him at once poet and comedian — comedian in the sense in which makes for tears as well as for laughter . " Although he was a good performer , his acts were not entirely original in style ; he frequently copied practices developed by Samuel Clemens and Will Carleton . His tour in 1880 took him to every city in Indiana where he was introduced by local dignitaries and other popular figures , including Maurice Thompson with whom he began to develop a close friendship .
Developing and maintaining his publicity became a constant job , and received more of his attention as his fame grew . Keeping his alcohol addiction secret , maintaining the persona of a simple rural poet and a friendly common person became most important . Riley identified these traits as the basis of his popularity during the mid @-@ 1880s , and wrote of his need to maintain a fictional persona . He encouraged the stereotype by authoring poetry he thought would help build his identity . He was aided by editorials he authored and submitted to the Indianapolis Journal offering observations on events from his perspective as a " humble rural poet " . He changed his appearance to look more mainstream , and began by shaving his mustache off and abandoning the flamboyant dress he employed in his early circuit tours .
By 1880 his poems were beginning to be published nationally and were receiving positive reviews . " Tom Johnson 's Quit " was carried by newspapers in twenty states , thanks in part to the careful cultivation of his popularity . Riley became frustrated that despite his growing acclaim , he found it difficult to achieve financial success . In the early 1880s , in addition to his steady performing , Riley began producing many poems to increase his income . Half of his poems were written during the period . The constant labor had adverse effects on his health , which was worsened by his drinking . At the urging of Maurice Thompson , he again attempted to stop drinking liquor , but was only able to give it up for a few months .
= = Indianapolis Journal = =
= = = Newspaper poet = = =
Riley moved to Indianapolis at the end of 1879 to begin his employment with the Journal . It was the only metropolitan newspaper in Indianapolis with daily editions , and had wide readership . For the newspaper he wrote a regular society column that often included verses of poetry . Thereafter Riley met many prominent people , and began a close friendship with Eugene V. Debs . Debs enjoyed Riley 's works and often complimented his sentiments . Riley had been using the pseudonym " Jay Whit " since he started authoring poetry , but finally began to write under his own name in April 1881 .
Riley renewed his relationship with Bottsford in 1880 , and the two corresponded frequently . Their relationship remained unstable , but Riley became deeply attached to her . She inspired his poem " The Werewife , " which told of a perfect wife who could suddenly become a demonic monster . Bottsford pressed Riley for marriage several times , but Riley refused . They broke off their relationship a second time in 1881 when she discovered his correspondence with two other women , and found that he had taken a secret vacation to Wisconsin with one of them .
Riley 's alcohol addiction influenced some of his poems during his time working for the Journal , including " On Quitting California , " " John Golliher 's Third Womern , " [ sic ] and " The Dismal Fate of Tit . " Each made references to the delirium caused by drinking . Although Riley rarely published anything controversial , some of his poems published from the same period , including " Afterwhiles " , allude to drug usage and make vague sexual references . During the early 1880s , Riley still made submissions to the elite literary periodicals , but continued to be rejected . Riley found the rejection discouraging , but persevered . He believed he would never be recognized as a true literary figure until one of the prestigious periodicals published his work .
= = = Lyceum circuit = = =
Riley made occasional reading tours around Indiana , and in August 1880 was invited to perform at Asbury University . His performance there so impressed the local Phi Kappa Psi chapter , he was invited to join as an honorary member . Through the fraternity he met Robert Jones Burdette , a writer and minister in the Indianapolis area . Burdette was a member of the Redpath Lyceum Bureau of Boston , a prominent lecture circuit whose regular speakers included Ralph Waldo Emerson . Burdette encouraged Riley to join the circuit through its Chicago branch . Riley 's accumulated debt and low income began causing him trouble in 1881 , and he decided rejoining a lecture circuit would provide much needed funds . His agreement for continued employment with the circuit depended on his ability to draw audiences during the first season , beginning in April 1881 . He succeeded , drawing the largest crowds in Chicago and Indianapolis .
Because of his success in the midwest , the circuit leaders invited him to make an east coast tour , starting in Boston at the Tremont Temple in February 1882 . Riley agreed , signing a ten @-@ year agreement and granting half his receipts to his agent . Before his performance , he traveled to Longfellow 's home in Massachusetts and convinced him to agree to a meeting . Their brief meeting was one of Riley 's fondest memories , and he wrote a lengthy article on it after Longfellow 's death only a month later . Longfellow encouraged Riley to focus on poetry , and gave him advice for his upcoming performance . At the performance , Riley was well received and his poems were greeted with laughter and given praise in the city 's newspaper reviews . Boston was the literary center of the United States at the time , and Riley 's impression on the city 's literary community helped him finally to get his work accepted by prestigious periodicals . The Century Magazine was the first such periodical to accept his work , running " In Swimming @-@ Time " in its September 1883 issue . Until the 1890s , it remained the only major literary magazine to publish Riley 's work . Knowing the high standards of the magazine , Riley reserved his best work each year to submit , including one of his favorites , " The Old Man and Jim " in 1887 .
By the end of 1882 , Riley 's finances began to improve dramatically , thanks largely to the income from his performances . During 1883 he began writing his " Boone County " poems by the pseudonym " Benjamin F. Johnson of Boone . " The poems were almost entirely written in dialect and emphasized topics of rural life during the early nineteenth century , often employing nostalgia and the simplicity of country life as elements . " The Old Swimmin ' -Hole " and " When the Frost Is on the Punkin ' " were the most popular , and helped earn the entire series critical acclaim . The topics were popular with readers , reminding many of them of their childhood . Merrill , Meigs & Company ( later renamed Bobbs @-@ Merrill Company ) approached Riley to compile the poems into a book . Riley agreed and printing of his first book began in August 1883 , titled " The Old Swimmin ' -Hole and ' Leven More Poems " . The book 's popularity necessitated a second printing before the end of the year . During this period Riley determined that his most popular poems were those on topics of rural life , and he began to use that as a common theme throughout his future work .
The income from Riley 's book allowed him to ease his busy work schedule ; he submitted articles to the Journal less frequently and made fewer lecture stops . His poems became fewer but the quality of his poetry improved ; he wrote his most famous poems during the mid @-@ 1880s , including " Little Orphant Annie " [ sic ] . Riley attempted to secure a new job at a periodical and leave the Journal , but the magazines to which he submitted would not hire him unless he was willing to relocate . Riley was steadfast in his refusal to leave Indiana , and told reporters that his rural home was his inspiration and to leave would ruin his poetry .
Riley renewed his relationship with Bottsworth for a third and final time in 1883 . The two corresponded frequently and had secret lovers ' rendezvous . He stopped visiting other women and their relationship became more dedicated and stable . Bottsworth , however , became convinced Riley was seeing another woman , and they terminated their relationship in January 1885 . Riley 's sister , Mary , had become a close friend of Bottsworth and scolded him for his mistreatment of her . Her reputation was tarnished by the affair and she found it difficult to find employment once their relationship ended .
In 1884 , Riley made another tour of the major cities in the eastern United States . Following the lectures , he began compiling a second book of poetry . He completed it during July and Bowen @-@ Merrill published it in December with the title The Boss Girl , A Christmas Story and Other Sketches . The book , which contained humorous poetry and short stories , received mixed reviews . It was popular around Indiana , where the majority of its copies were sold . One reviewer , however , called the poems " weird , nightmarish , and eerie , " and compared them to Edgar Allan Poe 's works .
While Riley was working on his book , he was unexpectedly invited by James B. Pond , the agent for many of the nations major performers , to join a one @-@ hundred nights ' engagement in New York City in a show that included Samuel Clemens and Dudley Warner . Riley , however , was unable to agree with the Redpath Bureau who had to authorize any other performance under the terms of their contract . Riley believed his contract with Redpath Bureau was limiting his opportunities , and his relationship with his agent became strained .
= = = Western Association of Writers = = =
Due partly to the limited success of his latest book outside Indiana , Riley was persuaded to begin working with other midwestern writers to attempt to form an association to promote their work . Popular Indiana writer Lew Wallace , author of Ben @-@ Hur , was a major promoter of the effort . During 1885 , more than one hundred writers joined the group . They held their first meeting in July , naming themselves the Western Association of Writers . At the meeting Maurice Thompson was named president , and Riley vice president . The association never succeeded in its goals of creating a powerful advertising force , but became a social club and a rival literary community to the eastern writing establishment . Riley was disappointed with the shortcomings of the group , but came to depend on its regular meetings as a escape from his normally hectic schedule .
Through the association , Riley became acquainted with most of the notable writers in the midwestern United States , including humorist Edgar Wilson Nye of Chicago . After completing his lecture circuit in 1885 , Riley formed a partnership with Nye and his agent to begin a new tour . The Redpath Bureau agreed to allow Riley to tour with Nye , provided he maintained his financial agreements with them . In addition to touring , Riley and Nye collaborated to write a book , Nye and Riley 's Railway Guide , a collection of humorous anecdotes and poems intended to parody popular tourist literature of the day . Published in 1888 , the book was somewhat successful and had three reprints .
In October 1887 , Riley and the association joined with other writers to petition the United States Congress to attempt to negotiate international treaties to protect American copyrights abroad . The group became known as the International Copyright League and had significant success in its efforts . When traveling to one of the league 's meetings in New York City that year , Riley was struck by Bell 's palsy . He recovered after three weeks , but remained secluded to hide the effects of the sickness which he believed was caused by his alcohol addiction . He made another attempt to stop drinking alcohol with the help of a minister , but again soon returned to his old habit .
After recovering , Riley remained briefly in New York to participate in a show at Chickering Hall with Edgar Nye , Samuel Clemens , and several others . Riley was introduced by James Russell Lowell before his performance , and Lowell gave Riley a glowing endorsement to the crowd . Riley 's poetry brought both tears and laughter according to The New York Sun . Critic Edmund Clarence Stedman , one of the foremost literary critics of the era , was present and wrote that Riley 's dialect poems were the finest he had ever heard , " in which a homely dramatis [ sic ] persona 's heart is laid open by subtle indirect , absolutely sure and tender " poetry . As a result of his New York performance , his name and picture were carried in all the major eastern papers and he quickly became well known throughout the United States . Sales of The Boss Girl increased , resulting in the fifth and largest printing , and Riley finally began to achieve the widespread fame he sought .
Clemens disliked being upstaged by Riley , and thereafter attempted to avoid any future joint performances with him . According to one review , Clemens " shriveled up into a bitter patch of melancholy in the fierce light of Mr. Riley 's humour . "
After returning home from his tour in early 1888 , Riley finished compiling his third book , titled Old @-@ Fashioned Roses . Arranged to appeal to British readers , it included only a few of his dialect poems and consisted mostly of sonnets . The book reprinted many poems Riley had already published , but included some new ones he wrote specifically for the book , including " The Days Gone By , " " The Little White Hearse , " and " The Serenade . " The book was Riley 's favorite because it included his finest works and was published by the prestigious Longmans , Green Publishers in a high quality binding and print .
In late 1888 he finished work on a fourth book , Pipes o ' Pan at Zekesbury which was released to great acclaim in the United States . Based on a fictional town in Indiana , Riley presented many stories and poems about its citizens and way of life . It received mixed reviews among literary critics who wrote of it that Riley 's stories were not of the same quality as his poetry . The book was very popular with the public and went through numerous reprints .
Riley was quickly becoming wealthy from his books and touring , earning nearly $ 20 @,@ 000 in 1888 . He no longer needed his job at the journal , and he left the job near the end of that year . The newspaper had served to earn him fame and had published hundreds of his articles , stories , and poems .
= = National fame = =
= = = Politics = = =
In March 1888 , Riley traveled to Washington , D.C. where he had dinner at the White House with other members of the International Copyright League and President of the United States Grover Cleveland . Riley made a brief performance for the dignitaries at the event before speaking about the need for international copyright protections . Cleveland was enamored by Riley 's performance and invited him back for a private meeting during which the two men discussed cultural topics . In the 1888 Presidential Election campaign , Riley 's acquaintance Benjamin Harrison was nominated as the Republican candidate . Although Riley had shunned politics for most of his life , he gave Harrison a personal endorsement and participated in fund @-@ raising events and vote stumping . The election was exceptionally partisan in Indiana , and Riley found the atmosphere of the campaign stressful ; he vowed never to become involved with politics again .
Upon Harrison 's election , he suggested Riley be named the national poet laureate , but Congress failed to act on the request . Riley was still honored by Harrison and visited him at the White House on several occasions to perform at civic events .
= = = Pay problems and scandal = = =
Riley and Nye made arrangements with James Pond to make two national tours during 1888 and 1889 . The tours were popular and generally sold out , with hundreds having to be turned away . The shows were usually forty @-@ five minutes to an hour long and featured Riley reading often humorous poetry interspersed by stories and jokes from Nye . The shows were informal and the two men adjusted their performances based on their audiences reactions . Riley memorized forty of his poems for the shows to add to his own versatility . Many prominent literary and theatrical people attended the shows . At a New York City show in March 1888 , Augustin Daly was so enthralled by the show he insisted on hosting the two men at a banquet with several leading Broadway theatre actors .
Despite Riley serving as the act 's main draw , he was not permitted to become an equal partner in the venture . Nye and Pond both received a percentage of the net profit , while Riley was paid a flat rate for each performance . In addition , because of Riley 's past agreements with the Redpath Lyceum Bureau , he was required to pay half of his fee to his agent Amos Walker . This caused the other men to profit more than Riley from his own work .
To remedy this situation , Riley hired his brother @-@ in @-@ law Henry Eitel , an Indianapolis banker , to manage his finances and act on his behalf to try and extricate him from his contract . Despite discussions and assurances from Pond that he would work to address the problem , Eitel had no success . Pond ultimately made the situation worse by booking months of solid performances , not allowing Riley and Nye a day of rest . These events affected Riley physically and emotionally ; he became despondent and began his worst period of alcoholism . During November 1889 , the tour was forced to cancel several shows after Riley became severely inebriated at a stop in Madison , Wisconsin .
Walker began monitoring Riley and denying him access to liquor , but Riley found ways to evade Walker . At a stop at the Masonic Temple Theatre in Louisville , Kentucky , in January 1890 , Riley paid the hotel 's bartender to sneak whiskey to his room . He became too drunk to perform , and was unable to travel to the next stop . Nye terminated the partnership and tour in response . The reason for the breakup could not be kept secret , and hotel staff reported to the Louisville Courier @-@ Journal that they saw Riley in a drunken stupor walking around the hotel . The story made national news and Riley feared his career was ruined .
He secretly left Louisville at night and returned to Indianapolis by train . Eitel defended Riley to the press in an effort to gain sympathy for Riley , explaining the abusive financial arrangements his partners had made . Riley however refused to speak to reporters and hid himself for weeks . Much to Riley 's surprise , the news reports made him more popular than ever . Many people thought the stories were exaggerated , and Riley 's carefully cultivated image made it difficult for the public to believe he was an alcoholic . Riley had stopped sending poetry to newspapers and magazines in the aftermath , but they soon began corresponding with him requesting that he resume writing . This encouraged Riley , and he made another attempt to give up liquor as he returned to his public career .
The negative press did not end however , as Nye and Pond threatened to sue Riley for causing their tour to end prematurely . They claimed to have lost $ 20 @,@ 000 . Walker threatened a separate suit demanding $ 1 @,@ 000 . Riley hired Indianapolis lawyer William P. Fishback to represent him and the men settled out of court . The full details of the settlement were never disclosed , but whatever the case , Riley finally extricated himself from his old contracts and became a free agent . The exorbitant amount Riley was being sued for only reinforced public opinion that Riley had been mistreated by his partners , and helped him maintain his image . Nye and Riley remained good friends , and Riley later wrote that Pond and Walker were the source of the problems .
Riley 's poetry had become popular in Britain , in large part due to his book Old @-@ Fashioned Roses . In May 1891 he traveled to England to make a tour and what he considered a literary pilgrimage . He landed in Liverpool and traveled first to Dumfries , Scotland , the home and burial place of Robert Burns . Riley had long been compared to Burns by critics because they both used dialect in their poetry and drew inspiration from their rural homes . He then traveled to Edinburgh , York , and London , reciting poetry for gatherings at each stop . Augustin Daly arranged for him to give a poetry reading to prominent British actors in London . Riley was warmly welcomed by its literary and theatrical community and he toured places that Shakespeare had frequented .
Riley quickly tired of traveling abroad and began longing for home , writing to his nephew that he regretted having left the United States . He curtailed his journey and returned to New York City in August . He spent the next months in his Greenfield home attempting to write an epic poem , but after several attempts gave up , believing he did not possess the ability .
By 1890 , Riley had authored almost all of his famous poems . The few poems he did write during the 1890s were generally less well received by the public . As a solution , Riley and his publishers began reusing poetry from other books and printing some of his earliest works . When Neighborly Poems was published in 1891 , a critic working for the Chicago Tribune pointed out the use of Riley 's earliest works , commenting that Riley was using his popularity to push his crude earlier works onto the public only to make money . Riley 's newest poems published in the 1894 book Armazindy received very negative reviews that referred to poems like " The Little Dog @-@ Woggy " and " Jargon @-@ Jingle " as " drivel " and to Riley as a " worn out genius . " Most of his growing number of critics suggested that he ignored the quality of the poems for the sake of making money .
= = = Last tours = = =
Although Riley was wealthy from his books , he was able to triple his annual income by touring . He found the lure hard to resist and decided to return to the lecture circuit in 1892 . He hired William C. Glass to assist Henry Eitel in managing his affairs . While Eitel handled the finances , Glass worked to organize his lecture tours . Glass worked closely with Riley 's publishers to have his tours coincide with the release of new books , and ensured his tours were geographically varied enough to maintain his popularity in all regions of the nation . He was careful not to book busy schedules ; Riley only performed four times a week and the tours were short , lasting only three months .
During his 1893 tour , Riley lectured mostly in the western United States , and in his 1894 tour in the east . His performances were major events , and generally sold out within days of their announcements . In 1894 he allowed author Douglass Sherley to join his tour . Sherley was a millionaire who published his own books . The literary community had dismissed his work , but Riley was instrumental in helping him to be accepted .
In 1895 Riley made his last tour , making stops in most of the major cities in the United States . Advertised as his final performances , there was incredible demand for tickets and Riley performed before his largest audiences during the tour . He and Sherley continued a show very similar to those that he and Nye had done . Riley often lamented the lack of change in the program , but found when he tried to introduce new material , or left out any of his most popular poems , the crowds would demand encores until he agreed to recite their favorites .
= = = Children 's poet = = =
Following the death of his father in 1894 , Riley began regretting his choice not to marry or have children . To compensate for the lack of his own children , he became a doting uncle , showering gifts on his nieces and nephews . He had repurchased his childhood home in 1893 and allowed his divorced sister , Mary , his widowed sister @-@ in @-@ law , Julia , and their daughters to live in the home . He provided for all their needs and spent the summer months of 1893 living with them . He took his nephew Edmund Eital as a personal secretary and gave him a $ 50 @,@ 000 wedding gift in 1912 . Riley was well loved by his family .
Riley returned to live near Indianapolis later in 1893 , boarding in a private home in the Lockerbie district , then a small suburb . He developed a close friendship with his landlords , the Nickum and Holstein families . The home became a destination for local schoolchildren to whom Riley would regularly recite poetry and tell stories . Riley 's friends frequently visited his home , and he developed a closer relationship with Eugene Debs .
The same year , he began compiling his poems of most interest to children into a new book entitled Rhymes of Childhood . The book was richly illustrated by Howard Chandler Christy and Riley authored a few new poems for the book under the pseudonym " Uncle Sydney . " Rhymes of Childhood became Riley 's best selling book , and sold millions of copies . It has remained in print continually since 1912 , and helped earn Riley the nickname the " Children 's Poet . " Even Riley 's rival , Clemens , commented that the book was " charming " and made him weep for his " lost youth . "
= = Later life = =
= = = National poet = = =
Riley had become very wealthy by the time he ended touring in 1895 , and was earning $ 1 @,@ 000 a week . Although he retired , he continued to make minor appearances . In 1896 , Riley performed four shows in Denver . Most of the performances of his later life were at civic celebrations . He was a regular speaker at Decoration Day events and delivered poetry before the unveiling of monuments in Washington , D.C. Newspapers began referring to him as the " National Poet " , " the poet laureate of America " , and " the people 's poet laureate " . Riley wrote many of his patriotic poems for such events , including " The Soldier " , " The Name of Old Glory " , and his most famous such poem , " America ! " . The 1902 poem " America , Messiah of Nations " was written and read by Riley for the dedication of the Indianapolis Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument .
The only new poetry Riley published after the end of the century were elegies for famous friends . The poetic qualities of the poems were often poor , but they contained many popular sentiments concerning the deceased . Among those he eulogized were Benjamin Harrison , Lew Wallace , and Henry Lawton . Because of the poor quality of the poems , his friends and publishers requested that he stop writing them , but he refused .
In 1897 , Riley 's publishers suggested that he create a multi @-@ volume series of books containing his complete life works . With the help of his nephew , Riley began working to compile the books , which eventually totaled sixteen volumes and were finally completed in 1914 . Such works were uncommon during the lives of writers , attesting to the uncommon popularity Riley had achieved .
His works had become staples for Ivy League literature courses and universities began offering him honorary degrees . The first was Yale in 1902 , followed by a Doctorate of Letters from the University of Pennsylvania in 1904 . Wabash College and Indiana University granted him similar awards . In 1908 he was elected member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters , and in 1912 they conferred upon him a special medal for poetry .
Riley was influential in helping other poets start their careers , having particularly strong influences on Hamlin Garland , William Allen White , and Edgar Lee Masters . He discovered aspiring African American poet Paul Laurence Dunbar in 1892 . Riley thought Dunbar 's work was " worthy of applause " , and wrote him letters of recommendation to help him get his work published .
= = = Declining health = = =
In 1901 , Riley 's doctor diagnosed him with neurasthenia , a nervous disorder , and recommended long periods of rest as a cure . Riley remained ill for the rest of his life and relied on his landlords and family to aid in his care . During the winter months he moved to Miami , Florida , and during summer spent time with his family in Greenfield . He made only a few trips during the decade , including one to Mexico in 1906 . He became very depressed by his condition , writing to his friends that he thought he could die at any moment , and often used alcohol for relief .
In March 1909 , Riley was stricken a second time with Bell 's palsy , and partial deafness , the symptoms only gradually eased over the course of the year . Riley was a difficult patient , and generally refused to take any medicine except the patent medicines he had sold in his earlier years ; the medicines often worsened his conditions , but his doctors could not sway his opinion . On July 10 , 1910 he suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body . Hoping for a quick recovery , his family kept the news from the press until September . Riley found the loss of use of his writing hand the worst part of the stroke , which served only to further depress him . With his health so poor , he decided to work on a legacy by which to be remembered in Indianapolis . In 1911 he donated land and funds to build a new library on Pennsylvania Avenue . By 1913 , with the aid of a cane , Riley began to recover his ability to walk . His inability to write , however , nearly ended his production of poems . George Ade worked with him from 1910 through 1916 to write his last five poems and several short autobiographical sketches as Riley dictated . His publisher continued recycling old works into new books , which remained in high demand .
Since the mid @-@ 1880s , Riley had been the nation 's most read poet , a trend that accelerated at the turn of the century . In 1912 Riley recorded readings of his most popular poetry to be sold by Victor Records . Riley was the subject of three paintings by T. C. Steele . The Indianapolis Arts Association commissioned a portrait of Riley to be created by world famous painter John Singer Sargent . Riley 's image became a nationally known icon and many businesses capitalized on his popularity to sell their products ; Hoosier Poet brand vegetables became a major trade @-@ name in the midwest .
In 1912 , the governor of Indiana instituted Riley Day on the poet 's birthday . Schools were required to teach Riley 's poems to their children , and banquet events were held in his honor around the state . In 1915 and 1916 the celebration was national after being proclaimed in most states . The annual celebration continued in Indiana until 1968 . In early 1916 Riley was filmed as part of a movie to celebrate Indiana 's centennial , the video is on display at the Indiana State Library .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
On July 22 , 1916 , Riley suffered a second stroke . He recovered enough during the day to speak and joke with his companions . He died before dawn the next morning , July 23 . Riley 's death shocked the nation and made front page headlines in major newspapers . President Woodrow Wilson wrote a brief note to Riley 's family offering condolences on behalf the entire nation . Indiana Governor Samuel M. Ralston offered to allow Riley to lie in state at the Indiana Statehouse — Abraham Lincoln being the only other person to have previously received such an honor . During the ten hours he lay in state on July 24 , more than thirty @-@ five thousand people filed past his bronze casket ; the line was still miles long at the end of the day and thousands were turned away . The next day a private funeral ceremony was held and attended by many dignitaries . A large funeral procession then carried him to Crown Hill Cemetery where he was buried in a tomb at the top of the hill , the highest point in the city of Indianapolis .
Within a year of Riley 's death many memorials were created , including several by the James Whitcomb Riley Memorial Association . The James Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children was created and named in his honor by a group of wealthy benefactors and opened in 1924 . In the following years , other memorials intended to benefit children were created , including Camp Riley for youth with disabilities .
The memorial foundation purchased the poet 's Lockerbie home in Indianapolis and it is now maintained as a museum . The James Whitcomb Riley Museum Home is the only late @-@ Victorian home in Indiana that is open to the public and the United States ' only late @-@ Victorian preservation , featuring authentic furniture and decor from that era . His birthplace and boyhood home , now the James Whitcomb Riley House , is preserved as a historical site . A Liberty ship , commissioned April 23 , 1942 , was christened the SS James Whitcomb Riley . It served with the United States Maritime Commission until being scrapped in 1971 .
James Whitcomb Riley High School opened in South Bend , Indiana in 1924 . In 1950 , there was a James Whitcomb Riley Elementary School in Hammond , Indiana , but it was torn down in 2006 . East Chicago , Indiana had a Riley School at one time , as did neighboring Gary , Indiana and Anderson , Indiana . One of New Castle , Indiana 's elementary schools is named for Riley as is the road on which it is located . The former Greenfield High School was converted to Riley Elementary School and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 .
In 1940 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a 10 @-@ cent stamp honoring Riley .
As a lasting tribute , the citizens of Greenfield hold a festival every year in Riley 's honor . Taking place the first or second weekend of October , the " Riley Days " festival traditionally commences with a flower parade in which local school children place flowers around Myra Reynolds Richards ' statue of Riley on the county courthouse lawn , while a band plays lively music in honor of the poet . Weeks before the festival , the festival board has a queen contest . The 2010 – 2011 queen was Corinne Butler . The pageant has been going on many years in honor of the Hoosier poet
According to historian Elizabeth Van Allen , Riley was instrumental in helping form a midwestern cultural identity . The midwestern United States had no significant literary community before the 1880s . The works of the Western Association of Writers , most notably those of Riley and Wallace , helped create the midwest 's cultural identity and create a rival literary community to the established eastern literari . For this reason , and the publicity Riley 's work created , he was commonly known as the " Hoosier Poet . "
= = Critical reception and style = =
Riley was among the most popular writers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , known for his " uncomplicated , sentimental , and humorous " writing . Often writing his verses in dialect , his poetry caused readers to recall a nostalgic and simpler time in earlier American history . This gave his poetry a unique appeal during a period of rapid industrialization and urbanization in the United States . Riley was a prolific writer who " achieved mass appeal partly due to his canny sense of marketing and publicity . " He published more than fifty books , mostly of poetry and humorous short stories , and sold millions of copies .
Riley is often remembered for his most famous poems , including the " The Raggedy Man " and " Little Orphant Annie " . Many of his poems , including those , where partially autobiographical , as he used events and people from his childhood as an inspiration for subject matter . His poems often contained morals and warnings for children , containing messages telling children to care for the less fortunate of society . David Galens and Van Allen both see these messages as Riley 's subtle response to the turbulent economic times of the Gilded Age and the growing progressive movement . Riley believed that urbanization robbed children of their innocence and sincerity , and in his poems he attempted to introduce and idolize characters who had not lost those qualities . His children 's poems are " exuberant , performative , and often display Riley 's penchant for using humorous characterization , repetition , and dialect to make his poetry accessible to a wide @-@ ranging audience . "
Although hinted at indirectly in some poems , Riley wrote very little on serious subject matter , and actually mocked attempts at serious poetry . Only a few of his sentimental poems concerned serious subjects . " Little Mandy 's Christmas @-@ Tree " , " The Absence of Little Wesley " , and " The Happy Little Cripple " were about poverty , the death of a child , and disabilities . Like his children 's poems , they too contained morals , suggesting society should pity the downtrodden and be charitable .
Riley wrote gentle and romantic poems that were not in dialect . They generally consisted of sonnets and were strongly influenced by the works of John Greenleaf Whittier , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , and Alfred , Lord Tennyson . His standard English poetry was never as popular as his Hoosier dialect poems . Still less popular were the poems Riley authored in his later years ; most were to commemorate important events of American history and to eulogize the dead .
Riley 's contemporaries acclaimed him " America 's best @-@ loved poet " . In 1920 , Henry Beers lauded the works of Riley " as natural and unaffected , with none of the discontent and deep thought of cultured song . " Samuel Clemens , William Dean Howells , and Hamlin Garland , each praised Riley 's work and the idealism he expressed in his poetry . Only a few critics of the period found fault with Riley 's works . Ambrose Bierce criticized Riley for his frequent use of dialect . Bierce accused Riley of using dialect to " cover up [ the ] faulty construction " of his poems . Edgar Lee Masters found Riley 's work to be superficial , claiming it lacked irony and that he had only a " narrow emotional range " . By the 1930s popular critical opinion towards Riley 's works began to shift in favor of the negative reviews . In 1951 , James T. Farrell said Riley 's works were " cliched . " Galens wrote that modern critics consider Riley to be a " minor poet , whose work — provincial , sentimental , and superficial though it may have been — nevertheless struck a chord with a mass audience in a time of enormous cultural change . " Thomas C. Johnson wrote that what most interests modern critics was Riley 's ability to market his work , saying he had a unique understanding of " how to commodify his own image and the nostalgic dreams of an anxious nation . "
Among the earliest widespread criticisms of Riley were opinions that his dialect writing did not actually represent the true dialect of central Indiana . In 1970 Peter Revell wrote that Riley 's dialect was more similar to the poor speech of a child rather than the dialect of his region . Revell made extensive comparison to historical texts and Riley 's dialect usage . Philip Greasley wrote that that while " some critics have dismissed him as sub @-@ literary , insincere , and an artificial entertainer , his defenders reply that an author so popular with millions of people in different walks of life must contribute something of value , and that his faults , if any , can be ignored . "
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= Australian Army during World War I =
The Australian Army was the largest service in the Australian military during World War I. The First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) was the Army 's main expeditionary force and was formed from 15 August 1914 with an initial strength of 20 @,@ 000 men , following Britain 's declaration of war on Germany . Meanwhile , the separate , hastily raised 2 @,@ 000 @-@ man Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) , landed near Rabaul in German New Guinea on 11 September 1914 and obtained the surrender of the German garrison after ten days ; it later provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . In addition , small military forces based on the pre @-@ war Permanent Forces and part @-@ time Citizen Forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack .
The AIF initially consisted of one infantry division and one light horse brigade . The first contingent departed Australia by ship for Egypt on 1 November 1914 , where it formed part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) . The infantry division fought during the Gallipoli Campaign between April and December 1915 , reinforced by a second division which was later raised , as well as three light horse brigades . After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions , forming part of the I and II ANZAC Corps , which were committed to the fighting in France and Belgium along the Western Front in March 1916 . Meanwhile , two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign .
Later combined into the Australian Corps in 1917 , the AIF divisions in France and Belgium were often used to spearhead operations , playing a significant role in the defeat of the German Army in 1918 . By the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as a highly effective military force . Following the armistice on 11 November 1918 , a process of demobilisation began , with the last Australian personnel being repatriated in late 1919 . In all , 416 @,@ 809 Australians enlisted during the war and 334 @,@ 000 served overseas . The AIF sustained approximately 210 @,@ 000 casualties , of which 61 @,@ 519 were killed or died of wounds , a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war .
= = Background = =
The Commonwealth of Australia was founded on 1 January 1901 . On 1 March , 29 @,@ 010 colonial soldiers , consisting of 1 @,@ 544 professional soldiers , 16 @,@ 105 paid militia and 11 @,@ 361 unpaid volunteers , were transferred to the new Australian Army . However , the units continued to be administered under the various colonial Acts . Major General Sir Edward Hutton , a former commander of the New South Wales Military Forces , was appointed as the first commander of the Commonwealth Forces . The Defence Act 1903 brought all of the state units under one piece of legislation ; although more significantly , it prevented the raising of standing infantry units , only allowing the establishment of permanent administrative and instructional staff for headquarters , garrison artillery , fortress engineers , submarine mining engineers , and service , medical and ordnance units . It also stipulated that the force could only be maintained by voluntary enlistment and that it could not serve outside Australia . In this it effectively established the pre @-@ eminence of the Citizen Forces , ensuring that the Australian Army would primarily consist of part @-@ time militia and volunteer forces , which would be supported by a small permanent force limited to filling staff , training and garrison roles . It equally ensured that any force sent overseas could only be done so on a voluntary basis .
Yet despite significant reorganisations of the post @-@ Federation Army in 1903 and 1906 , the force @-@ in @-@ being was increasingly seen as dysfunctional and inadequate , suffering from perceived institutional problems regarding structure , command and administration , as well as limited financial resources and poor training . In time this led the government to decide to adopt an entirely new military system . In 1911 , two significant changes followed a report by Lord Kitchener following his inspection of local forces in 1909 . The Royal Military College , Duntroon was established to train staff officers , and a system of universal national service began with boys aged 12 to 18 becoming cadets , and men aged 18 to 26 serving in the Citizen Forces . These reforms were part of a process of raising a large civilian militia to defend the country against a feared attack by Japan . This force was based on conscription , and was intended to be complete in 1920 . The resources devoted to this plan greatly exceeded those allocated to preparations to raise an expeditionary force to serve outside Australia . In total , a peace @-@ time force of around 80 @,@ 000 citizen soldiers , with a war @-@ time establishment of 135 @,@ 000 , was to be raised and would include 84 infantry battalions ( later increased to 92 ) , 28 light horse regiments ( subsequently raised to 31 ) , 49 field batteries and seven howitzer batteries ( total of 224 guns ) , 14 field engineer companies , seven communication companies , and various support troops .
This force was to be organised into brigades , with no divisional headquarters raised , although it was envisioned that up to six divisions could be formed if required . The infantry was planned to be organised into 21 brigades ( later 23 ) of four battalions each , while the light horse would initially form seven brigades ( later eight ) . The field artillery be organised into 14 brigades , while eight of the field batteries would be attached to the light horse brigades , and the howitizer batteries would not be brigaded . A small permanent force of 3 @,@ 200 men would operate in support . The new scheme also entailed reorganisation of the military districts , with the 1st Military District based on Queensland , the 2nd on New South Wales , the 3rd on Victoria , the 4th on South Australia , the 5th on Western Australia and the 6th on Tasmania . The Northern Territory and New Guinea were initially unalloted , but were later incorporated into the 1st Military District .
Steps had also been taken to expand the pre @-@ Federation network of coastal defences to provide protection against raids from Japanese or German warships prior to World War I. In 1912 , these defences were manned by 14 companies of the Australian Garrison Artillery , each of which had a strength of over 100 men . Meanwhile , in September 1912 the government officially approved the formation of an Australian military air arm . In so doing Australia became the first of the Dominions , and one of the few nations outside of Europe , to begin to develop such a capability , even if it was initially only a modest one . The Central Flying School was established at Point Cook , Victoria in 1913 . Flying training did not begin immediately , though , and it was not until 1914 , that the first class of pilots were accepted . No. 1 Flight of the Australian Flying Corps was raised in the 3rd Military District on 14 July 1914 .
Following Britain 's declaration of war on Imperial Germany on 4 August 1914 at the outbreak of the World War I , Australia and the other members of the British Empire were automatically involved , with Prime Minister Joseph Cook stating on 5 August that " ... when the Empire is at war , so also is Australia . " Within days , Brigadier General William Bridges and his staff officer , Major Brudenell White , had completed plans for the creation of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . White proposed an expeditionary force of 18 @,@ 000 men , including 12 @,@ 000 Australians and 6 @,@ 000 New Zealanders . Cook subsequently approved the proposal , although he increased the offer to 20 @,@ 000 men to serve in any destination desired by the British government . On 6 August 1914 , London cabled its acceptance of the force and asked that it be sent as soon as possible . Recruiting offices opened on 10 August and by the end of 1914 , 52 @,@ 561 volunteers had been accepted , despite strict physical fitness guidelines . Meanwhile , after an additional British request for assistance on 6 August 1914 , the Australian government hurriedly prepared another expeditionary force , known as the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) , to destroy the German wireless stations at Yap in the Caroline Islands , Nauru , and Rabaul in New Britain .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Home Army = = =
Despite some progress , by 1914 the Citizen Forces were still incomplete , numbering approximately 45 @,@ 915 men , with many units still to be raised . During the precautionary stage on 2 August 1914 prior to the outbreak of war , Citizen Forces units were called up to guard key infrastructure and essential points and man coastal forts and harbour defences . Militia fortress companies assisted the permanent artillery and engineers in manning defence electric lights at Port Jackson , Port Phillip , Fort Lytton , Fremantle and on the Derwent River . All coastal defence batteries were activated hours before the declaration of war against Germany ( which took place at 9 : 00 am Melbourne time on 4 August ) . The next morning the first Allied shots of the war were fired by the garrison at Fort Nepean , which was located at the opening of Port Phillip Bay , after the examination battery there fired a shell over the bows of the German cargo ship SS Pfalz when the ship failed to stop . In accordance with pre @-@ war plans mines were ready to be laid by the Royal Australian Engineers to protect Port Jackson and Port Phillip ; however , the risk of attack was not considered sufficient to justify the establishment of the minefields and their ongoing maintenance .
After the initial call @-@ up of reservists to man the garrison artillery , the commanding officers of the other militia units were directed to begin preparations to raise an infantry division and a light horse division for home defence tasks . By the end of August 1914 the Government had judged that a force of this size was unnecessary given that Australia was distant from the war zones . Instead , it was decided to maintain only a small number of infantry battalions and light horse regiments on active duty at any one time . By the end of 1914 the home defence force comprised 100 @,@ 000 reservists , of whom 56 @,@ 000 were members of the Citizen Forces and 51 @,@ 000 were rifle club volunteers . Despite fears of sabotage and uprisings by German @-@ Australians , no domestic threat eventuated . From 1915 , only skeleton garrisons were maintained at coastal forts , but the personnel manning them were forbidden to enlist in the AIF . This ban was lifted in April 1915 but the presence of a German commerce raider in Australian waters caused a mobilisation from February to April 1916 , while another occurred in April 1918 for the same reason . In June 1918 , 9 @,@ 215 home service troops were on active duty in Australia , alongside 2 @,@ 476 regular soldiers . Up to 50 @,@ 000 militiamen enlisted in the AIF during the war .
= = = Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force = = =
The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) began forming following a request by the British government on 6 August 1914 . The AN & MEF comprised one battalion of infantry of 1 @,@ 000 men enlisted in Sydney — known as the 1st Battalion , AN & MEF — plus 500 naval reservists and ex @-@ sailors who would serve as infantry . Another battalion of militia from the Queensland @-@ based Kennedy Regiment , which had been hurriedly dispatched to garrison Thursday Island , also contributed 500 volunteers to the force . Under the command of Colonel William Holmes , the AN & MEF departed Sydney on 19 August aboard HMAS Berrima and halted at Palm Island off Townsville until the New Zealand force , escorted by the battlecruiser HMAS Australia , cruiser HMAS Melbourne , and the French cruiser Montcalm , occupied Samoa on 30 August . The AN & MEF then moved to Port Moresby where it met the Queensland contingent aboard the transport TSS Kanowna . The force then sailed for German New Guinea on 7 September but the Kanowna was left behind when her stokers refused to work . The soldiers from the Kennedy Regiment were also left in Port Moresby as Holmes felt that they were not trained or equipped well enough to be committed to the fighting that was expected . Following the capture of German possessions in the region in September , the AN & MEF provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . Holmes returned to Australia in early 1915 and re @-@ enlisted in the AIF , as did most of his men . They were replaced by the 3rd Battalion , AN & MEF , which was known as the " Tropical Force " because it had been specially enlisted for service in the tropics .
= = = First Australian Imperial Force = = =
At the start of the war , Australia 's military forces were focused upon the part @-@ time militia . The small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers , and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence . Due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903 , which precluded sending conscripts overseas , upon the outbreak of war it was realised that a totally separate , all volunteer force would need to be raised . The Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) began forming shortly after the outbreak of war , officially coming into being on 15 August 1914 . Upon formation , the AIF consisted of the 1st Division and the 1st Light Horse Brigade . As part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , the 1st Division subsequently fought alongside the combined New Zealand and Australian Division at Gallipoli between April and December 1915 , being reinforced by the 2nd Division which was later raised , as well as three light horse brigades . After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions , which were committed to the fighting in France and Belgium along the Western Front in March 1916 as part of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) . Meanwhile , two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine , serving with the Egyptian Expeditionary Force . In contrast to the static trench warfare that developed in Europe , the troops in the Middle East mostly experienced a more fluid form of warfare involving manoeuvre and combined arms tactics .
Continuing to grow through the war , the AIF eventually consisted of five infantry divisions , two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units . At the start of the Gallipoli Campaign , the AIF had four infantry brigades with the first three making up the 1st Division . The 4th Brigade was joined with the sole New Zealand infantry brigade to form the New Zealand and Australian Division . The 2nd Division was formed in Egypt in 1915 and was sent to Gallipoli in August to reinforce the 1st Division , doing so without its artillery and having only partially completed its training . After Gallipoli , the infantry underwent a major expansion . The 3rd Division was formed in Australia and sent to France . The New Zealand and Australian Division was broken up with the New Zealand elements forming the New Zealand Division , while the original Australian infantry brigades ( 1st to 4th ) were split in half to form another four brigades which were used to form the 4th and 5th Divisions . This ensured the battalions of the two new divisions had a core of experienced soldiers . Organised into I and II ANZAC Corps , the divisions were subsequently deployed to the Western Front . The 6th Division commenced forming in England in February 1917 , but was never deployed to France and was broken up in September of that year to provide reinforcements to the other five divisions . In November 1917 the five Australian divisions of I and II ANZAC Corps merged to become the Australian Corps .
During the Gallipoli Campaign four light horse brigades had been dismounted and fought alongside the infantry divisions . However , in March 1916 the ANZAC Mounted Division was formed in Egypt ( so named because it contained one mounted brigade from New Zealand ) . Likewise , the Australian Mounted Division — formed in February 1917 — was originally named the Imperial Mounted Division because it contained the British 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades . Each division consisted of three mounted light horse brigades , each of which consisted of three regiments . Following the expansion of the Desert Column in August 1917 these divisions formed part of the Desert Mounted Corps , which consisted of the ANZAC Mounted Division , Australian Mounted Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade ( which included a number of Australian , British and New Zealand camel companies ) . The AIF also included the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , which consisted of four operational squadrons — Nos. 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 , and four training squadrons — Nos. 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 . More than 2 @,@ 000 women served with the AIF , mainly in the Australian Army Nursing Service . In addition , a number of other specialist units were also raised , including tunnelling companies , motor transport units , railway , ordnance , workshops and service units , and hospitals and other specialist medical and dental units . One small armoured unit was also raised .
The AIF was an all volunteer force for the duration of the war . Australia was one of only two belligerents on either side not to introduce conscription during the war ( along with South Africa ) . Although a system of compulsory training had been introduced in 1911 for home service , under Australian law it did not extend to overseas service . In Australia , two plebiscites on using conscription to expand the AIF were defeated in October 1916 and December 1917 , thereby preserving the volunteer status but stretching the AIF 's reserves towards the end of the war . Ultimately , the voluntary system of recruitment proved unable to sustain the force structure of the AIF , failing to provide sufficient replacements for the heavy casualties it sustained and requiring a number of units to be disbanded towards the end of the war . Each infantry battalion originated from a geographical region , with men recruited from that area . New South Wales and Victoria , the most populous states , filled their own battalions ( and even whole brigades ) while the " Outer States " — Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia and Tasmania — often combined to assemble a battalion . The light horse and artillery were also recruited on a territorial basis .
Hastily deployed , the first contingent of AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages . In early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force , with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience . However , many officers and non @-@ commissioned personnel ( NCOs ) had previously served in the pre @-@ war permanent or part @-@ time forces , and a significant proportion of the enlisted personnel had received some basic military instruction as part of Australia 's compulsory training scheme . Predominantly a fighting force based on infantry battalions and light horse regiments , the AIF had a high proportion of close combat troops to support personnel . Nevertheless , the AIF eventually included a large number of logistics and administrative units which were capable of meeting most of the force 's needs , and in some circumstances provided support to nearby allied units . Each division also included a range of combat support and service units , including artillery , machine @-@ gun , mortar , engineer , pioneer , signals , logistic , medical , veterinary and administrative units . Corps troops included light horse , army artillery , and cyclists . Regardless , the AIF mainly relied on the British Army for medium and heavy artillery support and other weapons systems necessary for combined arms warfare that were developed later in the war , including aircraft and tanks .
Although operationally placed at the disposal of the British , the AIF was administered as a separate national force , with the Australian government reserving the responsibility for the promotion , pay , clothing , equipment and feeding of its personnel . The AIF was administered separately from the home @-@ based army in Australia , and a parallel system was set up to deal with non @-@ operational matters including record @-@ keeping , finance , ordnance , personnel , quartermaster and other issues . The AIF also had separate conditions of service , rules regarding promotion and seniority , and graduation list for officers . This responsibility initially fell to Bridges , in addition to his duties as its commander ; however , an Administrative Headquarters was later set up in Cairo in Egypt . Following the redeployment of the Australian infantry divisions to the Western Front it was relocated to London . Additional responsibilities included liaison with the British War Office as well as the Australian Department of Defence in Melbourne , whilst also being tasked with the command of all Australian troops in Britain . A training headquarters was also established at Salisbury .
By the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as a well @-@ trained and highly effective military force , enduring more than two years of costly fighting on the Western Front before playing a significant role in the final Allied victory in 1918 , albeit as a smaller part of the wider British Empire war effort . Like the other Dominion divisions from Canada and New Zealand , the Australians were viewed as being among the best of the British forces in France , and were often used to spearhead operations . The exploits of the AIF at Gallipoli , and then on the Western Front , subsequently became central to the national mythology . Commemorating and celebrating the AIF became an entrenched tradition following World War I , with Anzac Day forming the centrepiece of remembrance of the war . The soldiers who served in the AIF , known colloquially as " Diggers " , in time became " ... one of the paramount Australian archetypes . "
= = Campaigns = =
= = = Occupation of German New Guinea = = =
Following the outbreak of war Australian forces moved quickly to reduce the threat to shipping posed by the proximity of Germany 's Pacific colonies . The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) , a 2000 @-@ man volunteer force — separate from the AIF — and consisting of an infantry battalion plus 500 naval reservists and ex @-@ sailors , was rapidly formed under the command of Colonel William Holmes . The objectives of the force were the wireless stations on Nauru , and those at Yap in the Caroline Islands , and at Rabaul in German New Guinea . The force reached Rabaul on 11 September 1914 and occupied it the next day , encountering only brief resistance from the German and native defenders during fighting at Bita Paka and Toma . German New Guinea surrendered on 17 September 1914 . Australian losses were light , including six killed during the fighting .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
After a period of rudimentary training in Australia , the first contingent of the AIF departed by ship in a single convoy from Albany on 1 November 1914 . Although they were originally bound for England to undergo further training prior to employment on the Western Front , the Australians were instead sent to British @-@ controlled Egypt in order to pre @-@ empt any Turkish attack against the strategically important Suez Canal , and with a view to opening another front against the Central Powers . Aiming to knock Turkey out of the war the British then decided to stage an amphibious lodgement at Gallipoli and following a period of training and reorganisation the Australians were included amongst the British , Indian and French forces committed to the campaign . The combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps — commanded by British general William Birdwood — subsequently landed at Anzac Cove on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915 . Although promising to transform the war if successful , the Gallipoli Campaign was ill @-@ conceived and shortly after the landing a blood stalemate developed . This ultimately lasted eight months before Allied commanders decided to evacuate the troops without having achieved the campaign 's objectives . Australian casualties totalled 26 @,@ 111 , including 8 @,@ 141 killed .
= = = Egypt and Palestine = = =
After the withdrawal from Gallipoli the Australians returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion . In 1916 , the infantry began to move to France while the mounted infantry units remained in the Middle East to fight the Turks . Australian troops of the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , playing a pivotal role in fighting the Turkish troops that were threatening British control of Egypt . The Australians first saw combat during the Senussi Uprising in the Libyan Desert and the Nile Valley , during which the combined British forces successfully put down the primitive pro @-@ Turkish Islamic sect with heavy casualties . The ANZAC Mounted Division subsequently saw considerable action in the Battle of Romani between 3 and 5 August 1916 against the Turks who were eventually pushed back . Following this victory the British forces went on the offensive in the Sinai , although the pace of the advance was governed by the speed by which the railway and water pipeline could be constructed from the Suez Canal . Rafa was captured on 9 January 1917 , while the last of the small Turkish garrisons in the Sinai were eliminated in February .
The advance entered Palestine and an initial , unsuccessful attempt was made to capture Gaza on 26 March 1917 , while a second and equally unsuccessful attempt was launched on 19 April . A third assault occurred between 31 October and 7 November and this time both the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part . The battle was a complete success for the British , overrunning the Gaza – Beersheba line and capturing 12 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers . The critical moment was the capture of Beersheba on the first day , after the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged more than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) . The Turkish trenches were overrun , with the Australians capturing the wells at Beersheba and securing the valuable water they contained along with over 700 prisoners for the loss of 31 killed and 36 wounded . Later , Australian troops assisted in pushing the Turkish forces out of Palestine and took part in actions at Mughar Ridge , Jerusalem and the Megiddo . The Turkish government surrendered on 30 October 1918 . Units of the Light Horse were subsequently used to help put down a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1919 and did so with efficiency and brutality , although they suffered a number of fatalities in the process . Total Australian battle casualties in the campaign were 4 @,@ 851 , including 1 @,@ 374 dead .
= = = Western Front = = =
Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action in France and Belgium , leaving Egypt in March 1916 . I ANZAC Corps subsequently took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentieres on 7 April 1916 and for the next two and a half years the AIF participated in most of the major battles on the Western Front , earning a formidable reputation . Although spared from the disastrous first day of the Battle of the Somme , within weeks four Australian divisions had been committed . The 5th Division , positioned on the left flank , was the first in action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916 , suffering 5 @,@ 533 casualties in a single day . The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July , assaulting Pozieres , and by the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July , they had suffered 5 @,@ 286 casualties . Mouquet Farm was attacked in August , with casualties totalling 6 @,@ 300 men . By the time the AIF was withdrawn from the Somme to reorganise , they had suffered 23 @,@ 000 casualties in just 45 days .
In March 1917 , the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line , capturing the town of Bapaume . On 11 April , the 4th Division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the disastrous First Battle of Bullecourt , losing over 3 @,@ 000 casualties and 1 @,@ 170 captured . On 15 April , the 1st and 2nd Divisions were counter @-@ attacked near Lagnicourt and were forced to abandon the town , before recapturing it . The 2nd Division then took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt , beginning on 3 May , and succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and holding them until relieved by the 1st Division . Finally , on 7 May the 5th Division relieved the 1st , remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid @-@ May . Combined , these efforts cost 7 @,@ 482 Australian casualties .
On 7 June 1917 , II ANZAC Corps — along with two British corps — launched an operation in Flanders in order to eliminate a salient south of Ypres . The attack commenced with the detonation of a million pounds ( 454 @,@ 545 kg ) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge , destroying the German trenches . The advance was virtually unopposed , and despite strong German counterattacks the next day , it succeeded . Australian casualties during the Battle of Messines included nearly 6 @,@ 800 men . I ANZAC Corps then took part in the Third Battle of Ypres in Belgium as part of the campaign to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau , between September and November 1917 . Individual actions took place at Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle and Passchendaele and over the course of eight weeks of fighting the Australians suffered 38 @,@ 000 casualties .
On 21 March 1918 , the German Army launched its Spring Offensive in a last @-@ ditched effort to win the war , unleashing 63 divisions over a 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) front . As the Allies fell back the 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens on the Somme . The offensive lasted for the next five months and all five AIF divisions in France were engaged in the attempt to stem the tide . By late May the Germans had pushed to within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of Paris . During this time the Australians fought at Dernacourt , Morlancourt , Villers @-@ Bretonneux , Hangard Wood , Hazebrouck , and Hamel . At Hamel the commander of the Australian Corps , Lieutenant General John Monash , successfully used combined arms — including aircraft , artillery and armour — in an attack for the first time .
The German offensive ground to a halt in mid @-@ July and a brief lull followed , during which the Australians undertook a series of raids , known as Peaceful Penetrations . The Allies soon launched their own offensive — the Hundred Days Offensive — ultimately ending the war . Beginning on 8 August 1918 the offensive included four Australian divisions striking at Amiens . Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel , significant gains were made on what became known as the " Black Day " of the German Army . The offensive continued for four months , and during the Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons , Etinehem , Proyart , Chuignes , and Mont St Quentin , before their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain . While these actions were successful , the Australian divisions suffered considerable casualties and by September 1918 the average strength of their infantry battalions was between 300 and 400 , which was less than 50 percent of the authorised strength . The AIF was withdrawn for rest and reorganisation following the engagement at Montbrehain , and was subsequently out of the line when the armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . Although , some artillery units continued to support British and American units into November , and the AFC maintained flying operations until the end of the war . Total Australian casualties on the Western Front numbered 181 @,@ 000 , including 46 @,@ 000 of whom died . Another 114 @,@ 000 men were wounded , 16 @,@ 000 gassed , and approximately 3 @,@ 850 were taken prisoners of war .
= = = Other theatres = = =
Small numbers of AIF personnel also served in other theatres . Australian troops from the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron provided communications for British forces during the Mesopotamian Campaign . They participated in a number of battles , including the Battle of Baghdad in March 1917 and the Battle of Ramadi in September that year . Following the Russian Revolution in 1917 , the Caucasus Front collapsed , leaving Central Asia open to the Turkish Army . A special force , known as Dunsterforce after its commander , Major General Lionel Dunsterville , was formed from hand @-@ picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces . Some 20 Australian officers served with Dunsterforce in the Caucasus Campaign and one party under Captain Stanley Savige was instrumental in protecting thousands of Assyrian refugees . Australian nurses staffed four British hospitals in Salonika , and another 10 in India .
= = Leadership = =
The position of Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) had been established in 1909 and was responsible for maintaining the war organisation of the Army , preparing defensive plans , the training and examination of officers , and the collection and interpretation of intelligence . In addition , the incumbent also sat as First Military Member of the Military Board . The Military Board was responsible to the Minister for Defence for the administration of the Australian Military Forces ( AMF ) . Colonel James Gordon Legge was appointed CGS on 1 May 1914 , replacing Brigadier General Joseph Gordon , but was still en route from Britain when war had broken out . With Bridges occupied in organising the AIF , Legge took over the organisation of the AN & MEF for service in New Guinea . After Bridges departed for overseas , Legge took over responsibility for the training of AIF reinforcements .
When originally formed in 1914 the AIF was commanded by Bridges , who also commanded the 1st Division . After Bridges ' death at Gallipoli in May 1915 , the Australian government appointed Legge , a Boer War veteran , to replace Bridges in command of both . However , British Lieutenant General Sir John Maxwell , the commander of British Troops in Egypt , objected to Legge bypassing him and communicating directly with Australia . The Australian government failed to support Legge , who thereafter deferred to Lieutenant General William Birdwood , the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps . When Legge was sent to Egypt to command the 2nd Division , Birdwood made representations to the Australian government that Legge could not act as commander of the AIF , and that the Australian government should transfer Bridges ' authority to him . This was done on a temporary basis on 18 September 1915 . Birdwood was officially confirmed as commander of the AIF on 14 September 1916 , backdated to 18 September 1915 , while also commanding I ANZAC Corps on the Western Front .
Meanwhile , Colonel Godfrey Irving was appointed temporary CGS on 24 May 1915 , replacing Legge . His chief responsibility was overseeing the expansion of the training establishment in Australia to provide reinforcements for the AIF units overseas , and raising and training what would become the 2nd Division . Colonel Hubert Foster took over as CGS in January 1916 . However , following a period of ill @-@ health Legge had been relieved of command his division and returned to Australia . Resuming his post as CGS in October 1917 , he remained in the position until 1920 . In this position Legge 's role was primarily one of dealing with politicians in Australia , and providing reinforcements for the AIF overseas .
Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel , a regular officer who had commanded the 1st Light Horse Brigade upon its formation in 1914 and later the ANZAC Mounted Division , became the first Australian to command a corps , when he took command of the Desert Mounted Corps in 1917 . Birdwood was later given command of the Australian Corps on its formation in November 1917 . Another Australian , Monash , took over command of the corps on 31 May 1918 . Despite being promoted to command the British Fifth Army , Birdwood retained command of the AIF . By this time four of the five divisional commanders were Australian officers . The vast majority of brigade commands were also held by Australian officers . As a result of the policy of appointing officers exclusively from enlisted personnel that was later adopted in the AIF , by 1918 the majority of company and battalion commanders had risen from the ranks . A number of British staff officers were attached to the headquarters of the Australian Corps , and its predecessors , due to a shortage of suitably trained Australian officers .
= = Equipment = =
The weaponry and equipment of the Australian Army had mostly been standardised on that used by the British Army prior to the outbreak of World War I. Meanwhile , in the years prior to the war basic defence industries had been established in Australia for the production of uniforms , webbing , boots , small arms and explosives and ammunition . Despite this , the majority of the equipment initially issued came from British Army stocks until Australian production was able to be increased to meet the demand that resulted from rapid military expansion at the start of the war . These included such items as heliographs , water bottles , bits , stirrups , spurs and shovels , although saddlery and harnesses were provided by a local government manufacturer . Although Australia had a relatively limited industrial base during the war , it was ultimately able to supply the majority of the Army 's more simple requirements ; however , the remainder of the more complex equipment had to be purchased from suppliers in Britain .
During the war the equipment used changed as tactics evolved , and generally followed British developments . The standard issued rifle was the .303 @-@ inch Short Magazine Lee – Enfield Mark III ( SMLE ) , and while a factory had been constructed at Lithgow in New South Wales in 1912 , local production was at first limited to 15 @,@ 000 rifles a year , which proved insufficient . As a result , the AIF was initially equipped from stocks held by the Citizen Forces , until production was increased to 35 @,@ 000 rifles a year by the end of 1914 . A number of Lithgow @-@ made SMLEs were later also supplied to New Zealand forces . Ammunition was supplied from factories in Australia , New Zealand and Britain . Meanwhile , the speed with which the AIF was initially raised meant that it suffered from a range of equipment shortages , especially artillery . These were unable to be rectified prior to the landing at Gallipoli and later impacted on the conduct of the campaign . Artillery was unable to be manufactured in Australia , nor were additional weapons able to be obtained from Britain in the short term . In time though these shortfalls were overcome , and as additional AIF divisions were raised the Australian field artillery was also expanded and was equipped from British Army depots on their arrival in France in 1916 .
The pre @-@ war Australian Army uniform formed the basis of that worn by the AN & MEF and the AIF , which both adopted the broad @-@ brimmed slouch hat and rising sun badge . Infantrymen used 1908 @-@ pattern webbing , while light horsemen used leather bandoliers and load carriage equipment . A large pack was issued as part of marching order . In 1915 , infantrymen were issued with the SMLE and long sword bayonet , while periscope rifles were also used . From 1916 they also used manufactured hand grenades and rodded rifle grenades , both of which had been in short supply at Gallipoli ( necessitating the use of improvised " jam @-@ tin " grenades ) . A grenade discharge cup was issued for fitting to the muzzle of a rifle for the projection of the Mills bomb from 1917 . Machine @-@ guns initially included a small number of Maxim or Vickers medium machine @-@ guns , but subsequently also included the Lewis light machine @-@ gun , the latter two of which were issued in greater numbers as the war continued so as to increase the firepower available to the infantry in response to the tactical problems of trench warfare . Light horse units underwent a similar process , although were issued Hotchkiss guns to replace their Lewis guns in early 1917 .
From 1916 the Stokes light trench mortar was issued to infantry to replace a range of trench catapults and smaller trench mortars , whilst it was also used in a battery at brigade @-@ level to provide organic indirect fire support . In addition , individual soldiers often used a range of personnel weapons including knives , clubs , knuckle @-@ dusters , revolvers and pistols . Snipers on the Western Front used Pattern 1914 Enfield sniper rifles with telescopic sights . Light horsemen also carried bayonets ( as they were initially considered mounted infantry ) , although the Australian Mounted Division adopted cavalry swords in late 1917 . Artillery included 18 @-@ pounders which equipped the field batteries , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers used by the howitzer batteries , and 8 @-@ inch and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzers which equipped the heavy ( siege ) batteries . The 9 @.@ 45 @-@ inch heavy mortar equipped a heavy trench mortar battery , while medium trench mortar batteries were equipped with the 2 @-@ inch medium mortar , and later the 6 @-@ inch mortar . Light Horse units were supported by British and Indian artillery . The main mount used by the light horse was the Waler , while draught horses were used by the artillery and for wheeled transport . Camels were also used , both as mounts and transport , and donkeys and mules were used as pack animals .
= = Training and doctrine = =
In 1914 , the Australian Army mostly copied British Army doctrine , in as much as one existed semi @-@ officially in the form of the Field Service Regulations . Pre @-@ war planning had largely seen the Australian Army focus on defending the continent from invasion with a relatively small force , and as a result any future war was thought to likely be a highly mobile one . This was in contrast to the offensive focus of many British and European theorists of this time , despite their influence on local professional military debate . As a result , there was an emphasis on entrenchments , and whilst there was a recognition of the problems posed by increasing firepower as a result of the continued development of small arms and artillery technology , there was considered to be little requirement for the direct assault of static defensive positions given the room for manoeuvre afforded by the vastness of the Australian continent . Meanwhile , in order to be compatible with British forces , pre @-@ war agreements ensured that Australian Army units were mostly organised , trained and equipped in accordance with British Army doctrine and establishment tables .
Despite the efforts of the compulsory training scheme in the years before the war , very few of the men who served in the AN & MEF had had previous military experience . It had been hastily equipped and received only rudimentary training prior to its departure within days of its formation . During the stop over at Palm Island the men went ashore almost every day , and although the shingle beach , rocky ground and bush made the terrain unsuited to tactical manoeuvres , they were able to practice maintaining contact in dense jungle , a skill which later proved important during the fighting at Bita Paka . Yet , with the force remaining at Palm Island for only a week this training was limited and was unlikely to have adequately prepared the force if it were more seriously tested . Ultimately though this lack of training did not end up being costly as German resistance proved only limited , with the fighting over in less than a day and resulting in fewer than a dozen Australian casualties .
In the early stages of the AIF 's formation training was rudimentary and performed mainly at unit @-@ level . There were no formal schools and volunteers proceeded straight from recruiting stations to their assigned units , which were still in the process of being established . Upon arrival , in makeshift camps the recruits received basic training in drill and musketry from officers and non @-@ commissioned officers , who were not trained instructors and had been appointed mainly because they had previous service in the part @-@ time forces . In some units this training took place over a period of six to eight weeks , although others spent as little as one day on live firing before departing for overseas . Following the embarkation of the initial force to the Middle East , further training was undertaken in the desert . This was more organised than the training provided in Australia , but was still rushed . Individual training was consolidated but progressed quickly into collective training at battalion and brigade @-@ level . Training exercises , marches , drill and musketry practices followed but the standard of the exercises was limited and lacked realism , meaning that commanders did not benefit from handling their troops under battlefield conditions .
Some soldiers had received training through the compulsory training scheme , while others had served as volunteers in the part @-@ time forces before the war or as members of the British Army , but their numbers were limited . In contrast , the majority of officers initially appointed had previous military experience . This was largely through service in the pre @-@ war militia , though , where there had been little to no formal officer training . In addition , there was a small cadre of junior officers who had been trained for the permanent force at the Royal Military College , Duntroon , but their numbers were very small and at the outbreak of the war the first class had to be graduated early in order for them to join the AIF , being placed mainly in staff positions . Other than small numbers of Duntroon graduates , from January 1915 the only means to be commissioned into the AIF was from the ranks of enlisted personnel . While the AIF 's initial senior officers had been members of the pre @-@ war military , few had any substantial experience in managing brigade @-@ sized or larger units in the field as training exercises on this scale had been rarely conducted before the outbreak of hostilities . This inexperience contributed to tactical mistakes and avoidable casualties during the Gallipoli Campaign .
After the AIF was transferred to the European battlefield , the training system was greatly improved . Efforts were made at standardisation , with a formal training organisation and curriculum — consisting of 14 weeks basic training for infantrymen — being established . In Egypt , as the AIF was expanded in early 1916 , each brigade established a training battalion . These formations were later sent to the United Kingdom and were absorbed into a large system of depots that was established on Salisbury Plain by each branch of the AIF including infantry , engineers , artillery , signals , medical and logistics . After completing their initial instruction at depots in Australia and the United Kingdom , soldiers were posted to in @-@ theatre base depots where they received advanced training before being posted as reinforcements to operational units . Like the British Army , the AIF sought to rapidly pass on " lessons learned " as the war progressed , and these were widely transmitted through regularly updated training documents . The experience gained through combat also improved the skills of the surviving officers and men , and by 1918 the AIF was a very well trained and well led force . Indeed , after coming to terms with the conditions on the Western Front the Australians had played a part in the development of new combined arms tactics for offensive operations that occurred throughout the BEF , while in defence they employed patrolling , trench raids , and Peaceful Penetration tactics to dominate no man 's land . In this manner the AIF ultimately developed its own tactical doctrine .
Following the deployment of the AIF a reinforcement system was used to replace wastage . Reinforcements received training in Australia before sailing as drafts and joining their assigned units at the front . To provide officer reinforcements , a series of AIF officer schools , such as that at Broadmeadows , were established in Australia before officer training was eventually concentrated at a school near Duntroon . These schools produced a large number of officers , but they were eventually closed in 1917 due to concerns that their graduates were too inexperienced and after this most replacement officers were drawn from the ranks of the AIF 's deployed units , and candidates attended either British officer training units , or in @-@ theatre schools established in France . After February 1916 , the issue of NCO training was also taken more seriously , and several schools were established , with training initially being two weeks in duration before being increased to two months .
Meanwhile , the Citizen Forces deteriorated during the war as the AIF was given precedence for manpower and other resources . While the size of the force increased during 1915 , a high proportion volunteered for overseas service with the AIF . Many officers were used to train AIF recruits , and camp facilities and equipment were also assigned to the expeditionary force . This greatly disrupted the Citizen Forces training activities , with few units conducting camps during late 1915 or 1916 . While there were intakes of conscripts to the Citizen Forces during 1916 and 1917 , few were ever required to undertake periods of training or active service . In October 1916 approximately 37 @,@ 000 reservists were called up for a short period of compulsory training ahead of the first plebiscite on conscription . By 1918 the Citizen Forces were close to collapse as many of its best members had transferred to the AIF and the remaining personnel were largely untrained . Attempts were made to revive the Citizen Forces during the last months of the war . The initially successful German Spring Offensive , which began in March , led to concerns Japan could attack Australia . In response , regular training camps for militia units were reinstated . A scheme to set up a reserve force manned by returned AIF veterans attracted 17 @,@ 000 volunteers , yet they received no training .
= = Demobilisation = =
After the war , all AIF units went into camp and began the process of demobilisation . The AIF 's involvement in the occupation of former German or Turkish territory was limited as Prime Minister William Hughes requested their early repatriation . The exceptions were No. 4 Squadron , AFC and the 3rd Australian Casualty Clearing Station , which participated in the occupation of the Rhineland . The 7th Light Horse Regiment was also sent to occupy the Gallipoli peninsula for six weeks , along with a New Zealand regiment . At the time of the armistice , there were 95 @,@ 951 soldiers in France and a further 58 @,@ 365 in England , 17 @,@ 255 in the Middle East plus nurses in Salonika and India , all to be transported home . Around 120 Australians decided to delay their departure and instead joined the British Army , serving in Northern Russia during the Russian Civil War , although officially the Australian government refused to contribute forces to the campaign .
By May 1919 , the last troops were out of France , and 70 @,@ 000 were encamped on Salisbury Plain . The men returned home on a " first come , first go " basis , with the process overseen by Monash in Britain and Chauvel in Cairo . Many of the soldiers undertook government @-@ funded training in civilian occupations while awaiting repatriation to Australia . Only 10 @,@ 000 Australian soldiers remained in England by September . Monash , the senior Australian commander , was repatriated on 26 December 1919 . The last transport organised to repatriate troops was H.T. Naldera , which departed London on 13 April 1920 . The AIF officially ceased to exist on 1 April 1921 , and on 1 July 1921 the military hospitals in Australia passed into civilian hands . As a volunteer force , all units were demobilised at the end of the war . Australia 's part @-@ time military force , the Citizen Forces , was subsequently reorganised to replicate the AIF 's divisional structure and the numerical designations of many of its units to perpetuate their identities and battle honours . The AFC remained part of the Australian Army until 1919 , when it was disbanded ; later forming the basis of the Royal Australian Air Force .
Meanwhile , following the end of hostilities in November 1918 the role of the AN & MEF in the former German colonies in New Guinea had become primarily one of civil administration , although it continued to provide a garrison for the next two and a half years . The military government continued until 1921 when Australia received a mandate from the League of Nations to govern the territory . Despite the AN & MEF having seen no further action following the initial seizure of the colony , in the years that followed the climate and a range of tropical diseases , such as malaria , had resulted in dozens of fatalities before the deployment concluded . Although interrupted by Japanese occupation between 1942 – 45 , Australian administration lasted until 1975 when Papua New Guinea gained its independence .
The war exposed deficiencies in Australia 's pre @-@ war military system which had emphasised the creation of a large part @-@ time militia . Indeed , despite the considerable effort and resources expended raising it , the Citizen Forces had not been used during the war as no major threat to Australia had emerged , while an expeditionary force of volunteers had had to be raised from scratch in order to fight overseas . After the war senior military officers advised a range of legislative and organizational reforms ; however , the perceived success of the AIF , war @-@ wariness , a general community antipathy toward military matters and preparedness , distrust of militarism , and funding constraints in the inter @-@ war years meant that they were largely not adopted by the government when the Citizen Forces were re @-@ established . Instead , a similar system remained in place until World War II . This resulted in an inefficient " two army " system which would once again require the raising of a separate volunteer force to serve overseas on the outbreak of hostilities in 1939 .
= = Casualties = =
A total of 416 @,@ 809 men enlisted in the Army during the war and 331 @,@ 781 men were sent overseas to serve as part of the AIF . A further 3 @,@ 011 men served in the AN & MEF . The AIF sustained approximately 210 @,@ 000 casualties , of which 61 @,@ 519 were killed or died of wounds . This represented a total casualty rate of 64 @.@ 8 percent , which was among the highest of any belligerent for the war . About another 4 @,@ 000 men were captured . The majority of casualties occurred among the infantry ( which sustained a casualty rate of 79 percent ) ; however , the artillery ( 58 percent ) and light horse ( 32 percent ) also incurred significant losses .
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= Puncheon Run Connector =
The Puncheon Run Connector is an unnumbered four @-@ lane freeway in Dover , Delaware . It is named after Puncheon Run , a stream it follows . It provides a connection between U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) and the northbound direction of the Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) toll road , with an intermediate interchange at Bay Road . The road is part of the National Highway System and serves as part of a north @-@ south route for traffic crossing the Delmarva Peninsula . Planning for the Puncheon Run Connector began in the 1980s and originally included a freeway upgrade for US 13 south to Woodside . The connector was scaled back to its current routing in 1992 . The freeway was built between 1998 and 2000 at a cost of $ 25 million .
= = Route description = =
The Puncheon Run Connector begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with US 13 in Dover , heading to the northeast as a four @-@ lane freeway . After passing over State Street , the freeway curves to the east and passes between woods to the south and residential and commercial development to the north . The road crosses over the marshy St. Jones River and continues east @-@ northeast , passing between a residential neighborhood to the south and the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) headquarters to the north before coming to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance at Bay Road . Immediately after the Bay Road interchange , the Puncheon Run Connector merges into northbound DE 1 a short distance to the north of Dover Air Force Base .
The Puncheon Run Connector has an annual average daily traffic count of 13 @,@ 406 vehicles . The entire length of the Puncheon Run Connector is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
Planning for the Puncheon Run Connector dates back to the 1980s , when a " Relief Route " was proposed for US 13 between Dover and Wilmington . In 1987 , plans called for the Puncheon Run Connector to be built along its current alignment between US 13 and DE 1 , with an intermediate interchange at US 113 ( Bay Road ) , in addition to US 13 being upgraded to a freeway south to Woodside , with interchanges at Webbs Lane in Dover and DE 10 in Camden . In 1992 , DelDOT held a meeting to discuss proposals for the road , including a possible Far West By @-@ Pass Connector through the western part of Dover . The city of Dover initially opposed the Puncheon Run Connector and favored the Far West By @-@ Pass Connector as the latter would ease traffic congestion caused by development in the western part of the city . Plans for the connector were modified in 1992 to not include the upgrade of US 13 to a freeway between Woodside and Dover . Prior to the construction of the Puncheon Run Connector , a site along Puncheon Run had to be excavated by DelDOT and Louis Berger & Associates as it consisted of Native American artifacts from prehistoric times . The excavation of the site lasted from October 1997 to September 1998 . Construction on the road began in October 1998 . The Puncheon Run Connector was completed and opened to traffic in a ribbon cutting ceremony on December 19 , 2000 . The road was constructed by David A. Bramble , Inc. and G.A. & F.C. Wagman , Inc. at a cost of $ 25 million .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
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= Robert White ( judge ) =
Robert White ( March 29 , 1759 – March 9 , 1831 ) was a distinguished early American military officer , lawyer , judge , and politician in the U.S. state of Virginia .
White represented Frederick County in the Virginia House of Delegates ( 1789 – 1792 ) and served as a judge of the General Court of Virginia ( 1793 – 1831 ) . Prior to his political and law careers , White served in the Virginia militia and Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War .
White was the grandson of Virginia pioneer settler and physician Dr. Robert White ( 1688 – 1752 ) and thus a member of the prominent White political family of Virginia and West Virginia . He was the nephew of United States House Representative Alexander White ( 1738 – 1804 ) and the brother of United States House Representative Francis White ( 1761 – 1826 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert White was born on March 29 , 1759 , in Winchester , Virginia . He was a son of John White , one of the justices serving on the first Bench of Magistrates of the Frederick County court , and his wife , Ann Patton White . White was also a grandson of Dr. Robert White , an early physician and pioneer settler of Frederick County . White received his primary education at a grammar school near Marsh Creek in Pennsylvania under the direction of Reverend Craighead , a Presbyterian minister . At the age of 16 , White undertook a hiatus from his education to serve in the American Revolutionary War .
= = Military career = =
In 1775 , White enlisted as a private in the Virginia militia company under the command of Captain Hugh Stephenson ( or Stevenson ) , which had been organized in Berkeley County , Virginia ( present @-@ day Jefferson County , West Virginia ) . Stephenson 's company departed for the Boston campaign " a few days " before Daniel Morgan 's company departed from Winchester . White , along with Stephenson 's company , departed on June 20 , 1775 , from Morgan 's Spring near Shepherdstown and marched to Boston to reinforce commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Continental Army George Washington 's forces who had besieged the British Army forces there .
While in Boston , White 's " chivalric bearing " received the attention of Washington , who " saw in the boy the germ of that remarkable decision of character " . On March 17 , 1776 , British forces withdrew from Boston , thus ending the Boston campaign . In the summer of 1776 , White was elevated to the rank of ensign . White then fought as a lieutenant at the Battle of Germantown on October 4 , 1777 , under Major William Darke of Berkeley County . Throughout the spring of 1778 , White was engaged in attacking British Army detachments .
Later in 1778 at Short Hills , New Jersey , White suffered a fractured femur caused by a musket ball and received a wound to the head from the stock of a British Army grenadier 's musket . Following the engagement at Short Hills , White was taken as a prisoner of war by the British forces . White had fallen unconscious and was taken to the tent of " an amiable and accomplished " British officer who had rescued him from death . He was later exchanged , and in the autumn of 1778 White returned to Winchester " by slow and painful efforts , exceedingly lame , weak and emaciated by acute and protracted suffering " . His wounds had not yet healed by the time of his return to Winchester , but following the removal of bone fragments , the wound began to close . White remained permanently physically disabled as a result of his injuries .
While " not fully recovered from his wounds " , White received the commission of a captain of cavalry in 1779 . He commenced the recruitment and training of American troops in Philadelphia to fight in the war , but due to the severity of his injuries , he retired from military service at the age of 20 and returned to Winchester . White was inducted as an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati for his military service during the war .
= = Law and political careers = =
Following his military service and return to Winchester in 1779 , White studied jurisprudence under his uncle , Alexander White , one of the most preeminent lawyers practicing in the Shenandoah Valley . During the course of his four years of law studies , White read the legal treatises of William Blackstone and Edward Coke among others while lying on his back or propped up on a couch recovering from his injuries . White was admitted to practice law at Winchester in December 1782 , after which he engaged in the practice of law for eleven years .
White 's health continued to improve , and his law practice was " an extensive and profitable " one . In a May 1837 biographical sketch of White published in the Southern Literary Messenger , White was described as " an able lawyer , clear and cogent in argument , but not eloquent , his voice rather harsh and shrill , and in the impetuosity of debate his enunciation was sometimes affected even to stammering " . White maintained a " lofty eminence " within the Frederick County bar for over a decade . During this time , White served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1789 to 1793 representing the multi @-@ member district of Frederick County . White ran for election against Matthew Page and Joseph Holmes for the seat in 1791 , and won alongside Page with 310 votes to Page 's 335 votes . White ran for election to his seat in 1793 against Page , Thomas Buck , and James Singleton . White received the largest total of votes with a result of 388 .
= = Judicial career and later life = =
White was appointed as the first judge serving Virginia 's tenth judicial district , which was composed of five counties , including Hampshire County . Winchester was chosen by an act of the Virginia General Assembly as the " center point " of this judicial district , where all judicial records were kept . His appointment as a judge of the tenth judicial district paid a meager compensation of 1 @,@ 600 dollars per annum .
White was then appointed a judge of the General Court of Virginia on November 16 , 1793 , and he continued to hold that office until his death in 1831 . In that period , White served as the president of the General Court of Virginia for several years before his death . Serving on the General Court of Virginia required White to travel to Richmond in June and November of each year . Until 1825 , White served as both a judge on the General Court of Virginia and a judge of Virginia 's tenth judicial district .
During the War of 1812 , White took a dislike to the " encroachment of military power " as Winchester began to attract a sizable number of recruits going off to fight in the war . White refused to permit military officers to appear before him in his courtroom with their swords by their sides . Several of White 's judicial opinions became well known as " powerful specimens of sound learning and extensive research " including the Hyers case , in which the defendant was tried for murder , and the Preston case , in which there was a legal question regarding estoppel . From his office , White conducted the teaching of jurisprudence to John Buchanan , a notable Maryland jurist who later served in the Maryland House of Delegates and as an associate justice on the Maryland Court of Appeals .
In the spring of 1825 , White was en route to serve on the court of Loudoun County and stayed the night at a tavern along the Shenandoah River . He was discovered by the proprietor the following morning suffering with paralysis . White remained stricken with paralysis for several weeks and returned to his home in Winchester on a litter . His position as judge of the tenth judicial district was assumed by two judges : William Brockinbough and John Scott . White remained paralyzed for the remainder of his life . On July 1 , 1825 , White gave power of attorney to his son , John Baker White , for the management of his affairs . White later died at his residence in Winchester on March 9 , 1831 .
= = Personal life and family = =
White married Arabella Baker , the daughter of John Baker and his wife , Judith Wood Baker ( born February 15 , 1761 ) , of Shepherdstown , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . White and his wife had three children together :
White and his family resided in Winchester on Washington Street south of Cecil Street " for many years " until White 's death in 1831 . White 's house , one of the " earliest built brick houses " in Winchester , was destroyed by fire , after which George H. Byrd built a residence on the same site . Byrd deeded the property to his brother , Colonel William Byrd ; henceforth that house has been known as the " Byrd House " .
= = Legacy = =
In the 1970s , three restored portraits painted in 1799 of White , his wife Arabella Baker White , and their son Robert Baker White and daughter Juliet White Opie , were donated to the Historical Society of Winchester by Baker Hall of Huntington , West Virginia , and Louisa Tabb Hall of Charles Town , West Virginia . All three portraits were painted by renowned painter Charles Peale Polk , a nephew of the well @-@ known painter Charles Willson Peale .
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= Sooner or Later ( Madonna song ) =
" Sooner or Later " is a song recorded by the American singer Madonna from her soundtrack album I 'm Breathless . Written by American composer Stephen Sondheim and produced by Madonna and Bill Bottrell , the song was used in the parent film , Dick Tracy . " Sooner or Later " was composed to evoke the theatrical nature and style of the film . A 1930s jazz ballad with piano , drum , double bass , and horns , the track conjures up the atmosphere of a smoky nightclub . Madonna sings in her lowest register accompanied by a variable pitch .
Critical response to the track was positive , with reviewers deeming it as an important addition to Madonna 's music catalog . At the 63rd Academy Awards held on March 25 , 1991 , the song won an Oscar for Best Original Song , awarded to Sondheim . Madonna attended the ceremony along with singer Michael Jackson as her date , and performed " Sooner or Later " onstage , being inspired by the look of actress Marilyn Monroe . She later included it in the set list of her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , Madonna was part of the film Dick Tracy starring as Breathless Mahoney — a new role introduced for her — with Warren Beatty playing the title character . Madonna told Premiere magazine that initially she had waited for Beatty to call her for the film . When Beatty did not reciprocate , the singer decided to involve herself voluntarily . She pursued the part of Mahoney , but offered to work for minimum wages to avoid favoritism . Dick Tracy was the ninth @-@ highest grossing film in the US in 1990 , and number twelve globally . The film also received positive reviews from critics . Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times praised the matte paintings , art direction and prosthetic makeup design , stating : " Dick Tracy is one of the most original and visionary fantasies I 've seen on a screen " .
By the 1980s record labels started to release albums that were closely associated with a film , thereby gaining double promotion . These were mostly termed as soundtracks although many of them were not related to the film . After the filming for Dick Tracy was over by May 1989 , Madonna started working on the soundtrack . She had begun recording three songs by Stephen Sondheim for the film — " Sooner or Later " , " More " and " What Can You Lose " — which would be part of the album , but also had to write and develop new songs comparable in style to the previous . She produced the entire album , including the Sondheim songs . " I want people to think of me as a musical comedy actress . That 's what this album is about for me . It 's a stretch . Not just pop music , but songs that have a different feel to them , a theatrical feel " , she said at the time .
= = Composition = =
According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , the harmonic and melodic styles of the songs she developed with Sondheim were more " complex " than her usual recordings , hence Madonna found it difficult and demanding . She spoke about the " wilderness " of the tunes , saying that she was not confident of doing justice to the songs , and neither was Sondheim . But he kept on encouraging the singer so that the recording sessions would not be affected . Madonna also recruited producer Patrick Leonard and engineer Bill Bottrell to help her with the project . She and Leonard toiled to create music that would fit the style and production of the film , set in the era of the Untouchables law enforcement .
" Sooner or Later " was composed as a 1930s jazz ballad with comping piano , brushed drum sounds , double bass and horns . Rooksby described the track as " conjuring the atmosphere of a smoky nightclub " . Madonna sings in her lowest range as the melody shifts continuously . It opens with a " lazy " clarinet solo and portrays the singer as a kind of sexual magnate . " I always get my man " , she sings " If you 're on my list it 's just a question of when " . The song is set in the time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 75 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B ♭ major with Madonna 's voice spanning from F3 to B ♭ 4 . The song follows a basic sequence of B ♭ 9 – B ♭ 6 / F – B ♭ 9 – B ♭ 6 / F as its chord progression . In the film , " Sooner or Later " is the signature song of Breathless and was primarily performed during a montage just after Dick Tracy has placed a microphone in Alphonse " Big Boy " Caprice 's boardroom and operator .
= = Critical reception = =
Lucky Lara from Manila Standard Today listed the Sondheim songs as highlights from the album , commenting how they fit Madonna 's " nasal voice as a glove " , and their addition to Madonna 's catalogue of songs would give her " the edge in future career moves " . According to Lara , with " Sooner or Later " , Madonna " shows off a side to her singing that audiences haven 't heard yet , and what a side it is . She proves to her critics that she isn 't just the glitter and trash of the dance club scene , and that she can belt it out nearly as well as the best of them " . According to Ray Boren from Deseret News " is very much a period piece , with an intimate club feel " . Another positive review came from Mark Coleman from Rolling Stone , who described the song as Madonna 's " breathy emotionality " , observing that Madonna did not whisper the line " I always get my man " , rather sang it aloud , bringing " conviction to a somewhat generic line " . According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , songs including " Sooner or Later " are " typical Sondheim , with agile wordplay and devious chromatic harmonies " .
At the 63rd Academy Awards held on March 25 , 1991 , the song won an Oscar for Best Original Song , awarded to Sondheim who did not attend the ceremony . In the award ceremony the song was listed as " Sooner or Later ( I Always Get My Man ) " .
= = Live performances = =
On the 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , Madonna performed " Sooner or Later " atop of a piano , as a chanteuse with a piano player in a cabaret . The wardrobe for the performance consisted of a green and white couture corset , with conical bra cups , beaded fringing and striped sequined embroidery , designed by Jean Paul Gaultier , underneath a long black robe . On his review of the concert , Richard Harrington from The Washington Post , opined Madonna " acquitted herself quite well on ' Sooner or Later ' " . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
At the 1991 Academy Awards , Madonna appeared with singer Michael Jackson as her date and performed " Sooner or Later " . According to journalist Liz Smith , Madonna had promised to perform at the award show if either " Sooner or Later " or " More " was nominated in the Best Original Song category . She wore a long , tight , white dress designed by Bob Mackie and covered in sequins and pearls . On her neck she wore $ 20 million worth of jewelry from Harry Winston . Taraborrelli recalled that Madonna had appropriated every move and mannerisms of Marilyn Monroe for the performance , making it a tribute to the actress . When she appeared onstage , there was technical difficulty resulting in the mike not appearing from below the ground , and a stage @-@ hand passing it to her . According to Madonna 's brother Christopher Ciccone , she was quite nervous during the performance ; " Had she been singing to an audience of screaming fans , she wouldn 't have been at all nervous . But this time she was performing in an auditorium full of established actors and actresses , a group of people to which she really didn 't belong , who didn 't respect her as an actress but whose respect she desperately wanted to win " .
Janet Maslin from The New York Times criticized Madonna 's performance , saying that the singer " vamped awkwardly through [ the song ] , managing to seem even waxier in action than she did seated beside Michael Jackson in the audience . " In retrospective reviews , Billboard ranked it as the seventh " most awesome " Oscar performance of all time , saying that " Madonna gave a performance that took us back to the glamorous days of old Hollywood . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from I 'm Breathless album liner notes , Sire Records and Warner Bros. Records .
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= No. 82 Squadron RAAF =
No. 82 Squadron RAAF was a Royal Australian Air Force fighter squadron that operated during World War II and its immediate aftermath . It was formed in June 1943 , flying Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks and , initially , Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobras from bases in Queensland and New Guinea . The squadron became operational in September 1944 , and undertook ground attack missions against Japanese targets in the Pacific theatre . Following the end of hostilities , No. 82 Squadron was re @-@ equipped with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs and deployed to Japan , where it formed part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . It remained there until October 1948 , when it was disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
During 1943 , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) received 399 Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter aircraft . Their arrival allowed the service to expand its combat force by forming five new Kittyhawk @-@ equipped squadrons to join the three squadrons that had operated the type in the South West Pacific area since 1942 . No. 82 Squadron was formed at Bankstown , New South Wales , on 18 June 1943 . It was the third of the new Kittyhawk squadrons to be established , following No. 84 Squadron in February and No. 86 Squadron in March ; No. 78 Squadron was formed in July and No. 80 Squadron in September . Commanded by Squadron Leader Stanley Galton , No. 82 Squadron 's original complement was 279 , including fifteen officers . It was to have been equipped wholly with P @-@ 40M Kittyhawks but initially included a flight of Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobras . No. 82 Squadron conducted training at Bankstown until April 1944 , when personnel briefly moved to Hughes Airfield in the Northern Territory , before being redeployed to Townsville , Queensland , for further training .
The squadron transferred to Port Moresby , New Guinea , at the end of August 1944 and then on to Noemfoor Island in mid @-@ September , where it joined Nos. 76 and 77 Squadrons as part of No. 81 Wing under No. 10 Operational Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) . Three of No. 82 Squadron 's Kittyhawks crashed due to engine trouble while staging through Nadzab and Tadji . Operating from Kamiri strip , the squadron flew its first combat mission on 30 September , bombing Samate airstrip with aircraft from No. 77 Squadron . On 18 October , one aircraft was lost to ground fire during an attack on Kai Island , while another was reported missing . No. 82 Squadron found it difficult to remain operational as most of its ground crew remained in Townsville until moving forward the following month ; in the meantime , the pilots took responsibility for arming and refuelling their aircraft . On 23 November , they dive bombed Japanese airfields on Halmahera with aircraft of No. 76 Squadron .
No. 82 Squadron continued to conduct ground attack missions in New Guinea until March 1945 , when it relocated to Morotai Island in the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) . From Morotai , the squadron conducted ground attack missions in the NEI and escorted Allied convoys carrying troops bound for the liberation of Borneo . The relegation of First Tactical Air Force to areas of operation bypassed by the main Allied thrust towards the Philippines and Japan led to poor morale , culminating in the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " of April 1945 . Squadron Leader Bert Grace , commanding officer of No. 82 Squadron , was among eight senior pilots who tended their resignations in protest at what they saw as the waste of resources on targets of dubious military value . The officers were persuaded to continue on operations , and Grace oversaw the squadron 's move to Labuan island in June as part of Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of North Borneo . The Kittyhawks flew in support of Australian Army units until the end of the war . On one such mission on 8 August 1945 , No. 82 Squadron made a 900 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) round trip to attack targets around Kuching in Sarawak . During the first strike two Japanese aircraft were destroyed as they were taking off from the airstrip , while a transport was also destroyed and two more were damaged . The fighters then attacked several barges near Kuching Town and on the Sarawak River . Fourteen members of the squadron were killed on operations during the war .
= = = Occupation of Japan = = =
Shortly after the end of the war , No. 82 Squadron was selected to join the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan . It re @-@ equipped with North American P @-@ 51D Mustang fighters between 12 September and 11 January 1946 , losing two aircraft to accidents in the process . The squadron deployed to Bofu , a former kamikaze base , during 13 – 18 March 1946 , once again as part of No. 81 Wing with Nos. 76 and 77 Squadrons ; Nos. 381 and 481 Squadrons provided logistics and maintenance support , respectively . No. 82 Squadron lost three of its twenty @-@ eight Mustangs , along with an escorting de Havilland Mosquito , in bad weather en route to Bofu , killing all crew members . From April 1946 , the squadron conducted surveillance patrols over Japan as well as participating in routine exercises and flypasts . The Australians found that , far from offering resistance , the Japanese went out of their way to be accommodating . No. 82 Squadron 's commanding officer , Squadron Leader Graham Falconer , remarked following a dinner with Bofu 's mayor , " I felt that we were being treated more as visitors than as an occupying force ! "
No. 81 Wing transferred to Iwakuni in April 1948 , the same month that the Federal government determined to reduce Australia 's contribution to BCOF . As part of this reduction , Nos. 76 and 82 Squadrons were slated for disbandment , leaving No. 77 Squadron as the sole RAAF fighter unit in the country . No. 82 Squadron conducted further training and exercises until September , and was disbanded at Iwakuni on 29 October 1948 .
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= Caribbean reef shark =
The Caribbean reef shark ( Carcharhinus perezii ) is a species of requiem shark , belonging to the family Carcharhinidae . It is found in the tropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Brazil , and is the most commonly encountered reef shark in the Caribbean Sea . With a robust , streamlined body typical of the requiem sharks , this species is difficult to tell apart from other large members of its family such as the dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) and the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) . Distinguishing characteristics include dusky @-@ colored fins without prominent markings , a short free rear tip on the second dorsal fin , and tooth shape and number .
Measuring up to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long , the Caribbean reef shark is one of the largest apex predators in the reef ecosystem , feeding on a variety of fishes and cephalopods . They have been documented resting motionless on the sea bottom or inside caves , unusual behavior for an active @-@ swimming shark . If threatened , it may perform a threat display in which it frequently changes direction and dips its pectoral fins . Like other requiem sharks , it is viviparous with females giving birth to 4 – 6 young every other year . Caribbean reef sharks are of some importance to fisheries as a source of meat , leather , liver oil , and fishmeal , but recently they have become more valuable as an ecotourist attraction . In the Bahamas and elsewhere , bait is used to attract them to groups of divers in controversial " shark feedings " . This species is responsible for a small number of attacks on humans . The shark attacks only happen usually in the spring / summer part of the year .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Caribbean reef shark was originally described as Platypodon perezi by Felipe Poey in 1876 , in the scientific journal Anales de la Sociedad Española de Historia Natural . The type specimens were six individuals caught off the coast of Cuba . The genus Platypodon was synonymized with Carcharhinus by later authors .
Based on morphological similarities , Jack Garrick in 1982 grouped this species with the bignose shark ( C. altimus ) and the sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) , while Leonard Compagno in 1988 placed it as the sister species of the grey reef shark ( C. amblyrhynchos ) . A phylogenetic analysis based on allozyme data , published by Gavin Naylor in 1992 , indicated that the Caribbean reef shark is the sister taxon to a clade formed by the Galapagos shark ( C. galapagensis ) , dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) , oceanic whitetip shark ( C. longimanus ) , and the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . However , more work is required to fully resolve the interrelationships within Carcharhinus .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Caribbean reef shark occurs throughout the tropical western Atlantic Ocean , from North Carolina in the north to Brazil in the south , including Bermuda , the northern Gulf of Mexico , and the Caribbean Sea . However , it is extremely rare north of the Florida Keys . It prefers shallow waters on or around coral reefs , and is commonly found near the drop @-@ offs at the reefs ' outer edges . This shark is most common in water shallower than 30 m ( 98 ft ) , but has been known to dive to 378 m ( 1 @,@ 240 ft ) .
= = Description = =
A heavy @-@ bodied shark with a " typical " streamlined shape , the Caribbean reef shark is difficult to distinguish from other large requiem shark species . It usually measures 2 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long ; the maximum recorded length is 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) and the maximum reported weight is 70 kg ( 150 lb ) . The coloration is dark gray or gray @-@ brown above and white or white @-@ yellow below , with an inconspicuous white band on the flanks . The fins are not prominently marked , and the undersides of the paired fins , the anal fin , and the lower lobe of the caudal fin are dusky .
The snout is rather short , broad , and rounded , without prominent flaps of skin beside the nostrils . The eyes are large and circular , with nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . There are 11 – 13 tooth rows in either half of both jaws . The teeth have broad bases , serrated edges , and narrow cusps ; the front 2 – 4 teeth on each side are erect and the others increasingly oblique . The five pairs of gill slits are moderately long , with the third gill slit over the origin of the pectoral fins . The first dorsal fin is high and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) . There is a low interdorsal ridge running behind it to the second dorsal fin , which is relatively large with a short free rear tip . The origin of the first dorsal fin lies over or slightly forward of the free rear tips of the pectoral fins , and that of the second dorsal fin lies over or slightly forward of the anal fin . The pectoral fins are long and narrow , tapering to a point . The dermal denticles are closely spaced and overlapping , each with five ( sometimes seven in large individuals ) horizontal low ridges leading to marginal teeth .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Despite its abundance in certain areas , the Caribbean reef shark is one of the least @-@ studied large requiem sharks . They are believed to play a major role in shaping Caribbean reef communities . These sharks are more active at night , with no evidence of seasonal changes in activity or migration . Juveniles tend to remain in a localized area throughout the year , while adults range over a wider area .
Caribbean reef sharks are sometimes seen resting motionless on the sea floor or inside caves ; it is the first active shark species in which such a behavior was reported . In 1975 , Eugenie Clark investigated the famed " sleeping sharks " inside the caves at Isla Mujeres off the Yucatan Peninsula , and determined that the sharks were not actually asleep as their eyes would follow divers . Clark speculated that freshwater upwellings inside the caves might loosen parasites on the sharks and produce an enjoyable " narcotic " effect . If threatened , Caribbean reef sharks sometimes perform a threat display , in which they swim in a short , jerky fashion with frequent changes in direction and repeated , brief ( 1 – 1 @.@ 2 second duration ) drops of the pectoral fins . This display is less pronounced than the better @-@ known display of the grey reef shark ( C. amblyrhynchos ) .
Juvenile Caribbean reef sharks are preyed upon by larger sharks such as the tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) and the bull shark ( C. leucas ) . Few parasites are known for this species ; one is a dark variegated leech often seen trailing from its first dorsal fin . Off northern Brazil , juveniles seek out cleaning stations occupied by yellownose gobies ( Elacatinus randalli ) , which clean the sharks of parasites while they lie still on the bottom . Horse @-@ eye jacks ( Caranx latus ) and bar jacks ( Carangoides ruber ) routinely school around Caribbean reef sharks .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Caribbean reef shark feeds on a wide variety of reef @-@ dwelling bony fishes and cephalopods , as well as some elasmobranchs such as eagle rays ( Aetobatus narinari ) and yellow stingrays ( Urobatis jamaicensis ) . It is attracted to low @-@ frequency sounds , which are indicative of struggling fish . In one observation of a 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long male Caribbean reef shark hunting a yellowtail snapper ( Lutjanus crysurus ) , the shark languidly circled and made several seemingly " half @-@ hearted " turns towards its prey , before suddenly accelerating and swinging its head sideways to capture the snapper at the corner of its jaws . Young sharks feed on small fishes , shrimps , and crabs . Caribbean reef sharks are capable of everting their stomachs , which likely serves to cleanse indigestible particles , parasites , and mucus from the stomach lining .
= = = Life history = = =
Reproduction is viviparous ; once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which they receive nourishment from their mother . Mating is apparently an aggressive affair , as females are often found with biting scars and wounds on their sides . At the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas off Brazil , parturition takes place at the end of the dry season from February to April , while at other locations in the Southern Hemisphere , females give birth during the Amazon summer in November and December . The average litter size is four to six , with a gestation period of one year . Females become pregnant every other year . The newborns measure no more than 74 cm ( 29 in ) long ; males mature sexually at 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 7 m ( 59 – 67 in ) long and females at 2 – 3 m ( 79 – 118 in ) .
= = Human interactions = =
Normally shy or indifferent to the presence of divers , the Caribbean reef shark has been known to become aggressive in the presence of food and grows sufficiently large to be considered potentially dangerous . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File lists 27 attacks attributable to this species , 4 of them unprovoked , and none fatal .
This species is taken by commercial and artisanal longline and gillnet fisheries throughout its range . It is valued for meat , leather , liver oil , and fishmeal . The Caribbean reef shark is the most common shark landed in Colombia ( accounting for 39 % of the longline catch by occurrence ) , where it is utilized for its fins , oil , and jaws ( sold for ornamental purposes ) . In Belize , this species is mainly caught as bycatch on hook @-@ and @-@ line intended for groupers and snappers ; the fins are sold to the lucrative Asian market and the meat sold in Belize , Mexico , and Guatemala to make " panades " , a tortilla @-@ like confection . A dedicated shark fishery operated in Belize from the mid @-@ 1900s to the early 1990s , until catches of all species saw dramatic declines . The flesh of this species may contain high levels of methylmercury and other heavy metals .
= = = Shark feeding = = =
A profitable ecotourism industry has arisen around this species involving organized " shark feeds " , in which groups of reef sharks are attracted to divers using bait . Some US $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 is spent annually on shark viewing in the Bahamas , where at some sites a single living Caribbean reef shark has a value between US $ 13 @,@ 000 and US $ 40 @,@ 000 ( compared to a one @-@ time value of US $ 50 – 60 for a dead shark ) . This practice has drawn controversy , as opponents argue that the sharks may learn to associate humans with food , increasing the chances of a shark attack , and that the removal of reef fishes for bait may damage the local ecosystem . Conversely , proponents maintain that shark feeds contribute to conservation by incentivizing the protection of sharks and educating people about them . Thus far , there has been little evidence that shark feeds have increased the risk of attack in the surrounding area . Shark feeding has been outlawed off the coast of Florida , but continues at other locations in the Caribbean .
= = = Conservation = = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the Caribbean reef shark as Near Threatened ; its population has declined off Belize and Cuba from overfishing and exploitation continues in other regions . They are also threatened by the degradation and destruction of their coral reef habitat . Commercial fishing for this species is prohibited in United States waters . They are protected in the Bahamas due to their significance to ecotourism , as well as in a number of Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) off Brazil and elsewhere . However , enforcement against illegal fishing is lacking in some of these reserves , and many areas in which this species is abundant are not protected .
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= Champagne ( wine region ) =
The Champagne wine region ( archaic English : Champany ) is a historic province within the administrative province of Champagne in the northeast of France . The area is best known for the production of the sparkling white wine that bears the region 's name . EU law and the laws of most countries reserve the term " Champagne " exclusively for wines that come from this region located about 100 miles ( 160 km ) east of Paris . The viticultural boundaries of Champagne are legally defined and split into five wine producing districts within the administrative province : Aube , Côte des Blancs , Côte de Sézanne , Montagne de Reims , and Vallée de la Marne . The towns of Reims and Épernay are the commercial centers of the area .
Located at the northern edges of France , the history of the Champagne wine region has had a significant role in the development of this unique terroir . The area 's proximity to Paris promoted the region 's economic success in its wine trade but also put the villages and vineyards in the path of marching armies on their way to the French capital . Despite the frequency of these military conflicts , the region developed a reputation for quality wine production in the early Middle Ages and was able to continue that reputation as the region 's producers began making sparkling wine with the advent of the great Champagne houses in the 17th and 18th centuries . The principal grapes grown in the region include Chardonnay , Pinot noir , and Pinot Meunier . Pinot noir is the most widely planted grape in the Aube region and grows very well in Montagne de Reims . Pinot Meunier is the dominant grape in the Vallée de la Marne region . The Côte des Blancs is dedicated almost exclusively to Chardonnay .
= = Geography and climate = =
The Champagne province is located near the northern limits of the wine world along the 49th parallel . The high altitude and mean annual temperature of 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) creates a difficult environment for wine grapes to fully ripen . Ripening is aided by the presence of forests which helps to stabilize temperatures and maintain moisture in the soil . The cool temperatures serve to produce high levels of acidity in the resulting grape which is ideal for sparkling wine .
During the growing season , the mean July temperature is 18 ° C ( 66 ° F ) . The average annual rainfall is 630 mm ( 25 inches ) , with 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 inches ) falling during the harvest month of September . Throughout the year , growers must be mindful of the hazards of fungal disease and early spring frost .
Ancient oceans left behind chalk subsoil deposits when they receded 70 million years ago . Earthquakes that rocked the region over 10 million years ago pushed the marine sediments of belemnite fossils up to the surface to create the belemnite chalk terrain . The belemnite in the soil allows it to absorb heat from the sun and gradually release it during the night as well as providing good drainage . This soil contributes to the lightness and finesse that is characteristic of Champagne wine . The Aube area is an exception with predominately clay based soil . The chalk is also used in the construction of underground cellars that can keep the wines cool through the bottle maturation process .
= = History = =
The Carolingian reign saw periods of prosperity for the Champagne region beginning with Charlemagne 's encouragement for the area to start planting vines and continuing with the coronation of his son Louis the Pious at Reims . The tradition of crowning kings at Reims contributed to the reputation of the wines that came from this area . The Counts of Champagne ruled the area as an independent county from 950 to 1316 . In 1314 , the last Count of Champagne assumed the throne as King Louis X of France and the region became part of the Crown territories .
= = = Military conflicts = = =
The location of Champagne played a large role in its historical prominence as it served as a " crossroads " for both military and trade routes . This also made the area open to devastation and destruction during military conflicts that were frequently waged in the area . In 451 A.D. near Châlons @-@ en @-@ Champagne Attila and the Huns were defeated by an alliance of Roman legions , Franks and Visigoths . This defeat was a turning point in the Huns ' invasion of Europe .
During the Hundred Years ' War , the land was repeatedly ravaged and devastated by battles . The Abbey of Hautvillers , including its vineyards , was destroyed in 1560 during the War of Religion between the Huguenots and Catholics . This was followed by conflicts during the Thirty Year War and the Fronde Civil War where soldiers and mercenaries held the area in occupation . It was not until the 1660s , during the reign of Louis XIV , that the region saw enough peace to allow advances in sparkling wine production to take place .
= = = History of wine production = = =
The region 's reputation for wine production dates back to the Middle Ages when Pope Urban II , a native Champenois , declared that the wine of Aÿ in the Marne département was the best wine produced in the world . For a time Aÿ was used as a shorthand designation for wines from the entire Champagne region , similar to the use of Beaune for the wines of Burgundy . The poet Henry d 'Andeli 's work La Bataille des Vins rated wines from the towns of Épernay , Hautvillers and Reims as some of the best in Europe . As the region 's reputation grew , popes and royalty sought to own pieces of the land with Pope Leo X , Francis I of France , Charles V of Spain , and Henry VIII of England all owning vineyard land in the region . A batch of wine from Aÿ received in 1518 by Henry VIII 's chancellor , Cardinal Thomas Wolsey , is the first recorded export of wine from the Champagne region to England .
The still wines of the area were highly prized in Paris under the designation of vins de la rivière and vins de la montagne- wines of the river and wines of the mountain in reference to the wooded terrain and the river Marne which carried the wines down to the Seine and into Paris . The region was in competition with Burgundy for the Flemish wine trade and tried to capitalize on Reims ' location along the trade route from Beaune . In the 15th century , Pinot noir became heavily planted in the area . The resulting red wine had difficulty comparing well to the richness and coloring of Burgundy wines , despite the addition of elderberries to deepen the color . This led to a greater focus on white wines .
The Champagne house of Gosset was founded as a still wine producer in 1584 and is the oldest Champagne house still in operation today . Ruinart was founded in 1729 and was soon followed by Chanoine Frères ( 1730 ) , Taittinger ( 1734 ) , Moët et Chandon ( 1743 ) and Veuve Clicquot ( 1772 ) .
The nineteenth century saw an explosive growth in Champagne production going from a regional production of 300 @,@ 000 bottles a year in 1800 to 20 million bottles in 1850 .
= = = = Rivalry with Burgundy = = = =
A strong influence on Champagne wine production was the centuries @-@ old rivalry between the region and Burgundy . From the key market of Paris to the palace of Louis XIV of France at Versailles , proponents of Champagne and Burgundy would compete for dominance . For most of his life , Louis XIV would drink only Champagne wine with the support of his doctor Antoine d 'Aquin who advocated the King drink Champagne with every meal for the benefit of his health . As the King aged and his ailments increased , competing doctors would propose alternative treatments with alternative wines , to sooth the King 's ills . One of these doctors , Guy @-@ Crescent Fagon conspired with the King 's mistress to oust d 'Aquin and have himself appointed as Royal Doctor . Fagon quickly attributed the King 's continuing ailments to Champagne and ordered that only Burgundy wine must be served at the royal table .
This development had a ripple effect throughout both regions and in the Paris markets . Both Champagne and Burgundy were deeply concerned with the " healthiness " reputation of their wines , even to the extent of paying medical students to write theses touting the health benefit of their wines . These theses were then used as advertising pamphlets that were sent to merchants and customers . The Faculty of Medicine in Reims published several papers to refute Fagon 's claim that Burgundy wine was healthier than Champagne . In response , Burgundian winemakers hired physician Jean @-@ Baptiste de Salins , dean of the medical school in Beaune , to speak to a packed auditorium at the Paris Faculty of Medicine . Salins spoke favorably of Burgundy wine 's deep color and robust nature and compared it to the pale red color of Champagne and the " instability " of the wine to travel long distances and the flaws of the bubbles from when secondary fermentation would take place . The text of his speech was published in newspapers and pamphlets throughout France and had a damaging effect on Champagne sales .
The war of words would continue for another 130 years with endless commentary from doctors , poets , playwrights and authors all arguing for their favorite region and their polemics being reproduced in advertisements for Burgundy and Champagne . On a few occasions , the two regions were on the brink of civil war . A turning point occurred when several Champagne wine makers abandoned efforts to produce red wine in favor of focusing on harnessing the effervescent nature of sparkling Champagne . As the bubbles became more popular , doctors throughout France and Europe commented on the health benefits of the sparkling bubbles which were said to cure malaria . As more Champenois winemakers embarked on this new and completely different wine style , the rivalry with Burgundy mellowed and eventually waned .
= = Classifications and vineyard regulations = =
In 1927 , viticultural boundaries of Champagne were legally defined and split into five wine producing districts- The Aube , Côte des Blancs , Côte de Sézanne , Montagne de Reims , and Vallée de la Marne . This area covers 33 @,@ 500 hectares ( 76 @,@ 000 acres ) of vineyards around 319 villages that are home to 5 @,@ 000 growers who make their own wine and 14 @,@ 000 growers who only sell grapes . The region is set to expand to include 359 villages in the near future .
The different districts produce grapes of varying characteristics that are blended by the Champagne houses to create their distinct house styles . The Pinots of the Montagne de Reims that are planted on northern facing slopes are known for their high levels of acid and the delicacy they add to the blend . The grapes on the southern facing slope add more power and character . Grapes across the district contribute to the bouquet and headiness . The abundance of southern facing slopes in the Vallée de la Marne produces the ripest wines with full aroma . The Côte des Blancs grapes are known for their finesse and the freshness they add to blends with the extension of the nearby Côte de Sézanne offering similar though slightly less distinguished traits .
In 1942 , the Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne ( CIVC ) was formed with the purpose of protecting Champagne 's reputation and marketing forces as well as setting up and monitoring regulations for vineyard production and vinification methods . Champagne is the only region that is permitted to exclude AOC or Appellation d 'Origine Contrôlée from their labels .
For each vintage , the CIVC rated the villages of the area based on the quality of their grapes and vineyards . The rating was then used to determine the price and the percentage of the price that growers get . The Grand Cru rated vineyards received 100 percent rating which entitled the grower to 100 % of the price . Premier Crus were vineyards with 90 – 99 % ratings while Deuxième Crus received 80 – 89 % ratings . Under appellation rules , around 4 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 8 @,@ 800 pounds ) of grapes can be pressed to create up to 673 gallons ( either 2 @,@ 550 L or 3 @,@ 060 L ) of juice . The first 541 gallons ( either 2 @,@ 050 L or 2 @,@ 460 L ) are the cuvée and the next 132 gallons ( either 500 L or 600 L ) are the taille . Prior to 1992 , a second taille of 44 gallons ( either 167 L or 200 L ) was previously allowed . For vintage Champagne , 100 % of the grapes must come from that vintage year while non @-@ vintage wine is a blend of vintages . Vintage champagne must spend a minimum of three years of aging but only 9 months on its lees with some of premier Champagne houses keeping their wines on lees for upwards of five to ten years . Non @-@ vintage Champagne must spend a minimum of 15 months of aging but only a minimum of 9 months on the lees . Most of the Champagne houses keep their wines on the lees through the whole time of aging because it is more expense to bottle the wine then age it and finally shipped .
= = = Revision of the Champagne region = = =
The worldwide demand for Champagne has been continuously increasing throughout the 1990s and early 2000s . A record in worldwide shipping of Champagne ( including domestic French consumption ) of 327 million bottles was set in 1999 in anticipation of end of millennium celebrations , and a new record was set in 2007 at 338 @.@ 7 million bottles . Since the entire vineyard area authorized by the 1927 AOC regulations is now planted , various ways of expanding the production have been considered . The allowed yield was increased ( to a maximum of 15 @,@ 500 kg per hectare during an experimental period from 2007 to 2011 ) and the possibility of revising the production region was investigated .
After an extensive review of vineyard conditions in and around the existing Champagne region , INAO presented a proposal to revise the region on March 14 , 2008 . The proposal was prepared by a group of five experts in the subjects of history , geography , geology , phytosociology and agronomy , working from 2005 . The proposal means expanding the region to cover vineyards in 357 rather than 319 villages . This is to be achieved by adding vineyards in forty villages while simultaneously removing two villages in the Marne départment that were included in the 1927 regulations , Germaine and Orbais @-@ l 'Abbaye .
The proposed 40 new Champagne villages are located in four départments :
22 in Marne : Baslieux @-@ les @-@ Fismes , Blacy , Boissy @-@ le @-@ Repos , Bouvancourt , Breuil @-@ sur @-@ Vesle , Bussy @-@ le @-@ Repos , Champfleury , Courlandon , Courcy , Courdemanges , Fismes , Huiron , La Ville @-@ sous @-@ Orbais , Le Thoult @-@ Trosnay , Loivre , Montmirail , Mont @-@ sur @-@ Courville , Peas , Romain , Saint @-@ Loup , Soulanges , and Ventelay .
15 in Aube : Arrelles , Balnot @-@ la @-@ Grange , Bossancourt , Bouilly , Étourvy , Fontvannes , Javernant , Laines @-@ aux @-@ Bois , Macey , Messon , Prugny , Saint @-@ Germain @-@ l 'Épine , Souligny , Torvilliers and Villery .
Two in Haute @-@ Marne : Champcourt and Harricourt .
One , Marchais @-@ en @-@ Brie , in Aisne .
The INAO proposal was to be subject to review before being made into law and was immediately questioned in numerous public comments . The mayor of one the villages to be delisted , Germaine , immediately appealed against INAO 's proposal , with the possibility of additional appeals by vineyard owners . The initial review process is expected to be finished by early 2009 . This will be followed by another review of the specific parcels that will be added or deleted from the appellation . The earliest vineyard plantings are expected around 2015 , with their product being marketed from around 2021 . However , the price of land that are allowed to be used for Champagne production is expected to immediately rise from 5 @,@ 000 to one million euro per hectare .
While some critics have feared the revision of the Champagne region is about expanding production irrespective of quality , British wine writer and Champagne expert Tom Stevenson has pointed out that the proposed additions constitute a consolidation rather than expansion . The villages under discussion are situated in gaps inside the perimeter of the existing Champagne regions rather than outside it .
= = Production other than sparkling wine = =
While totally dominating the region 's production , sparkling Champagne is not the only product that is made from the region 's grapes . Non @-@ sparkling still wines , like those made around the village Bouzy , are sold under the appellation label Coteaux Champenois . There is also a rosé appellation in the region , Rosé des Riceys . The regional vin de liqueur is called Ratafia de Champagne . Since the profit of making sparkling Champagne from the region 's grape is now much higher , production of these non @-@ sparkling wines and fortified wines is very small .
The pomace from the grape pressing is used to make Marc de Champagne , and in this case the production does not compete with that of Champagne , since the pomace is a by @-@ product of wine production .
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= Tropical Depression One @-@ E ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Depression One @-@ E was the earliest known tropical cyclone to impact the Mexican state of Sinaloa . The first system of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season , One @-@ E formed out of an area of disturbed weather on June 18 , 2009 , and initially tracked slowly northwards . Throughout the day , convection developed around the center of circulation and the system was anticipated to become a tropical storm . Late on June 18 , the National Hurricane Center noted that the system was on the verge of becoming a tropical storm ; it would have been named Andres had this occurred . However , the following day , strong wind shear caused the depression to rapidly degenerate into a trough of low pressure before dissipating off the coast of Sinaloa .
Although no longer a tropical cyclone , the remnants of the depression brought moderate rainfall to parts of Sinaloa , Nayarit and Jalisco . High winds accompanied the rainfall and left about 50 @,@ 000 residences without power . Several trees were downed and some structures sustained damage from fresh water flooding . Landslides occurred along major highways and significant structural damage was reported around Mazatlán . However , there was no loss of life or reports of injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Depression One @-@ E originated from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on May 29 . Little convective activity was associated with the system as it traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . On June 10 , the wave crossed Central America and entered the northeastern Pacific basin . Over the following few days , the system gradually became better organized and on June 15 , an area of low pressure developed from the wave . The system continued to organize , and on June 17 the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted the likelihood for tropical cyclogenesis ; although , at the time , the circulation was not well @-@ defined . It organized further , and on June 18 , the NHC initiated advisories on the first tropical depression of the 2009 season about 350 miles ( 565 km ) south @-@ southwest of Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Deep convection persisted near the southern portion of the depression ; however , the northern portion of the depression was partially devoid of convective activity . The depression traveled northward along the periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico and an unusually strong mid to upper @-@ level trough situated over the Baja California Peninsula .
Later on June 18 , forecast models indicated that the system might rapidly degenerate prior to landfall . However , the NHC continued to forecast that the depression would attain tropical storm @-@ status before landfall . Shortly after , the depression became increasingly disorganized as convection separated from the center of circulation due to increasing wind shear . Stable air ahead of the system inhibited the possibility of rapid development as warm waters supported intensification . By the morning of June 19 , the center of circulation was situated along the southern edge of deep convection , indicating that the depression was beginning to degenerate . Despite this , the NHC continued to anticipate intensification prior to landfall . Embedded within an easterly flow ahead of a mid @-@ level trough , the storm turned towards the north @-@ northeast and accelerated slightly . At 11 : 00 am PDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the depression reached its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1003 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 62 inHg ) . Operationally , the depression was considered to be slightly stronger , having a minimum pressure of 1001 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) . Later that day , the depression began to degenerate into an open trough as it was situated underneath cirrus clouds instead of cumulonimbus clouds . Visible satellite imagery showed that the depression became increasingly ill @-@ defined and the NHC estimated that the depression degenerated into a trough of low pressure near the Islas Marías during the afternoon of June 19 . The remnants of the depression were monitored by the United States Naval Research Laboratory for several more hours until the system moved inland over Sinaloa .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When the storm was declared a depression on June 18 , a tropical storm watch was declared by the Mexican Government for the Islas Marías , as well as for areas between Topolobampo and El Roblito in Sinaloa . The captain of the Mazatlán port advised ships to remain at port due to rough seas . A blue alert was declared for Sinaloa due to the possibility of deadly mudslides . Crews throughout the state quickly cleared debris from streams and streets to allow for better drainage . Shelters were prepped for possible evacuees but never opened . Late on June 18 , a tropical storm warning was declared for the Islas Marías and the watch along Sinaloa was extended southward to Cabo Corrientes in Jalisco . The following day , the Government of Mexico discontinued the warning for the Islas Marías and the watch for areas south of El Roblito was also discontinued . Upon the storm 's sudden dissipation later that day , the remaining watch areas were discontinued .
On June 19 , 2 @.@ 44 in ( 62 mm ) of rain fell in Mazatlán , near where the remnants of the depression moved ashore . Rainfall rates in the region exceeded 1 in / h ( 25 mm / h ) at times . High winds in Mazatlán knocked down several trees , cutting power to local residents . Heavy rains also triggered street flooding throughout the city . Several hours after the storm , electric companies reported than an estimated 50 @,@ 000 residences were without power . Following an assessment of damage to the power grid , 20 power poles were found to have been damaged , 15 circuit breakers were damaged and 15 sections of power lines were downed . Numerous villages were flooded , some requiring the evacuation of residents . Around 11 : 00 am PDT ( 1800 UTC ) six people were stranded offshore Sinaloa . High winds caused significant structural damage throughout Mazatlán .
Traffic lights were downed by high winds , causing numerous traffic delays . Landslides along major roadways caused several accidents , one involving a bus that was damaged by rocks . One business was significantly damaged , with at least one main wall collapsing . To speed up the removal of debris , members of the Mexican army were deployed throughout Sinaloa . According to officials in Mexico , Tropical Depression One @-@ E was the first known tropical cyclone to impact the state of Sinaloa during the month of June on record . With the system impacting land on June 19 , it marked the earliest date that a tropical cyclone had impacted the state , with the average date of first impact being August 15 .
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= Northwest Passage ( Fringe ) =
" Northwest Passage " is the 21st episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 41st episode overall . The episode follows Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) as he continues to stay away from Boston after learning his true parallel universe origins ; his travels take him to a small town , where he helps the local police investigate mysterious disappearances .
The episode was written by Ashley Edward Miller , Zack Stentz , Nora Zuckerman , and Lilla Zuckerman . Joe Chappelle served as the episode director . It featured a guest appearance by actress Martha Plimpton . Pearl Jam musician Mike McCready helped write the music for the episode .
" Northwest Passage " first aired in the United States on May 6 , 2010 to an estimated 5 @.@ 82 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews , as many critics praised the writers ' decision to focus on Peter in a new location . Others noted references to the television series Twin Peaks .
= = Plot = =
After learning his true origins in " The Man from the Other Side " , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) leaves Boston and travels to a small town in the state of Washington . At a diner , Peter makes plans for a date with a local woman named Krista , but before they can meet she is kidnapped and murdered . Initially , the police suspects Peter is involved in the disappearance until told he was at his hotel all night . Peter decides to aid them in the investigation after catching a glimpse of Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) , believing the shapeshifters are responsible and are coming after him ; however , he does not wish Walter to be involved , asking Agent Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) to keep his location secret .
During the autopsy , Peter explains to Sheriff Mathis ( Martha Plimpton ) how removing a part of a brain could provide information to the killers . Mathis ' partner , deputy officer Bill Ferguson ( Patrick Gilmore ) , soon disappears . After they go to the scene of Krista 's murder , Peter encounters Newton , but he escapes . Peter becomes suspicious of Mathis when he sees blood on her jacket ; however , he believes her when she shows him her cut from a fall , which is bleeding normal blood , not the mercury typical of shapeshifters ; he then explains the concept of shapeshifters to her .
Peter begins to doubt the shapeshifters ' motives after another body is found , but eventually comes up with an idea to read and track the victims ' adrenaline spikes , which allows him to find where the murders took place : a dairy farm . They find the owner , who confesses to killing the women because they rejected him , and kidnapped and tortured Mathis 's partner when he discovered the culprit . Repeatedly at the hotel , Peter receives calls with static , strange noises , and clicks , which he suspects are coming from Newton . In the end , Peter decides and prepares to head back to Boston , but is approached by Newton , who has brought " Mr. Secretary " , the man from the Other Side , to see Peter . The man is revealed to be his actual father from the parallel universe , " Walternate " .
Meanwhile , back in Boston , a distraught Walter ( John Noble ) suffers a small mental breakdown at a supermarket . Olivia ( Anna Torv ) and Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) escort him home , discovering his house is in disarray . After they ask why he didn 't come to them for help , Walter replies he needs to learn to care for himself if Peter fails to return . He discovers a way to find Peter using his unique energy signature , but changes his mind after worrying that Peter will not forgive him . However , Olivia learns Peter 's whereabouts from Broyles ; they prepare to fly to Washington .
= = Production = =
" Northwest Passage " was co @-@ written by producers Ashley Edward Miller , Zack Stentz , staff writers Lilla Zuckerman and Nora Zuckerman . Co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle served as episode director .
Miller later noted that unlike other episode scenes such as in " Grey Matters " , Walter 's breakdown at the supermarket " came largely out of nowhere . It was a thought experiment that took on a life of its own . " Miller continued that at the time , he and Stentz thought they were writing Olivia @-@ focused episodes , but " In retrospect , we really wrote a four @-@ part story about Walter , his relationship to children , and the struggle between Walter @-@ who @-@ was and Walter @-@ who @-@ is . If you look at it that way , his decision at the end of ' Northwest Passage ' becomes the moment where he reconciles those things . He doesn 't resolve them , but he comes to grips with them . Once again in retrospect , I think that 's what the supermarket breakdown was really about . This happens — you think a scene is about one thing when you 're in the middle of it , and realize it 's something else entirely when you look back . Characters can be sneaky motherfuckers that way . "
A fan of Fringe , Pearl Jam musician Mike McCready talked with series composer Chris Tilton about writing some music for " Northwest Passage " . McCready said he started " throwing ideas back and forth . And I think they just wanted a northwest guy to do it , because they were shooting it in the northwest " . He elaborated that " My role was smaller than someone who wrote all the music for it , but I think I was none the less integral in there . I mean , it was fun . Chris sent me his cues , and I just kind of rearranged them into guitar ideas " .
The episode featured guest actress Martha Plimpton as Sheriff Tracy Mathis . On her role , she later commented " That episode turned out really well ; I was really pleased with it , and where else but on Fringe would I get to play the sheriff of a small town ? "
The crew shot an alternate ending in which Mathis questions Peter about his faith with the FBI . This was available on the DVD special features . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan for grade school children focusing on the science seen in " Northwest Passage " , with the intention of having " students learn about the scientific method and how it can be used to collect data through experimentation and observation in order to formulate and test a hypothesis . "
= = Cultural references = =
Many critics noted the similarities between the episode and the David Lynch television series Twin Peaks , with one reviewer writing there was a " definite Peaks @-@ y vibe to tonight 's episode , from the setting — Noyo County , Washington , home of a diner with " famous pies " — to the off @-@ kilter camera angles and hushed tone " . Twin Peaks was originally titled " Northwest Passage " before its pilot , and both focused on solving a murder mystery in Washington state . Other reviewers felt the " Mulder / Scully " -like investigation and the line " You want to believe " was a homage to The X @-@ Files .
A song by Leonard Cohen , " Anthem " is quoted in this episode . " Anthem " lyrics are : " There is a crack in everything / That 's how the light gets in . " The Sheriff played by Martha Plimpton has a pen with " find the crack " printed on it , she states to Peter Bishop " that 's how the light gets in . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first airing of " Northwest Passage " was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 82 million viewers in the United States . It earned a 3 @.@ 7 / 6 ratings share among all households and a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 share among viewers 18 – 49 . This was a ten percent jump from the previous week . SFScope writer Sarah Stegall speculated that the episode 's " standalone mystery " , combined with the recent Fringe season renewal , helped contribute to the ratings gain .
= = = Reviews = = =
A.V. Club writer Noel Murray graded the episode with a B + , explaining " It was the atmosphere that sold me on " Northwest Passage " , an episode with a fairly middling mystery and only minimal advancement of the master @-@ plot . ( Though the end @-@ point of that advancement was a doozy , and has me eating a little crow . ) At times tonight the show almost felt like a backdoor pilot for a new series , with Peter tooling around the Pacific Northwest meeting local law enforcement and cracking cases . And while that 's a show I 'd definitely watch , I confess I 'm anxious to jump ahead to next week , when there 'll be inter @-@ dimensional conflict and doppelgangers galore " . Murray considered the ending with the appearance of Walternate a " strong finish to a mostly strong episode " . IGN 's Ramsey Isler gave it 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , writing that " Fringe 's sophomore season is building up to an epic 2 @-@ part finale . This episode doesn 't reveal much in terms of overall Fringe mythology until the very awesome ending , and even then it just confirms what we already knew or suspected . Still , this installment deserves credit for using a different formula and giving Joshua Jackson some much @-@ deserved time in the spotlight all by himself " .
SFScope 's Sarah Stegall praised the writers for showcasing Peter , believing Jackson gave " a solid , convincing performance that teaches us more about Peter than we learned in the first half of this season " . She also was pleased with Peter 's reactions to the obstacles thrown in his path , but criticized the writing for having another man behind the murders ( ' Too much coincidence . Way too much coincidence . From a plotting standpoint , it was clumsy ' ) . Stegall concluded her review by praising all of the actors ' performances , explaining that other than the " clumsy " killer plot twist , " I had no complaints at all about this episode . The supporting cast was top notch " . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly enjoyed how the episode mystery was processed from Peter 's point of view , and loved the revelation at the end about Walternate . MTV columnist Josh Wigler praised the episode 's " pretty mature storytelling " for not making Peter " go on an angry rampage " or become " an angsty ball of self @-@ loathing " after the previous episode 's events . He continued , " You can see that he 's hurting , but he 's still not quite sure how to process everything . Excellent work from the writers and Joshua Jackson " .
After trying various science fiction shows after Lost , the Los Angeles Times ' Andrew Hanson felt the episode made " him feel like [ he ] picked a winner " . Like other critics , Hanson loved the twist ending , writing that " Fringe is making it more and more difficult for me to pick my favorite episode " . Television Without Pity called Walternate 's sudden appearance one of 2010 's " Most Memorable TV Moments " , explaining " We knew we 'd meet him eventually , but the way they surprised us with him at the end of a stand @-@ alone episode was a fitting introduction for such an ominous and shadowy character , and we knew even then that it marked a new and improved era for the show . " At the time , TV Fanatic called " Northwest Passage " the best Fringe episode to date , giving the series ' its first " five out of five stars " .
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= Raccoon =
The raccoon ( / rəˈkuːn / or US / ræˈkuːn / , Procyon lotor ) , sometimes spelled racoon , also known as the common raccoon , North American raccoon , northern raccoon and colloquially as coon , is a medium @-@ sized mammal native to North America . The raccoon is the largest of the procyonid family , having a body length of 40 to 70 cm ( 16 to 28 in ) and a body weight of 3 @.@ 5 to 9 kg ( 8 to 20 lb ) . Its grayish coat mostly consists of dense underfur which insulates it against cold weather . Two of the raccoon 's most distinctive features are its extremely dexterous front paws and its facial mask , which are themes in the mythology of several Native American ethnic groups . Raccoons are noted for their intelligence , with studies showing that they are able to remember the solution to tasks for up to three years . The diet of the omnivorous raccoon , which is usually nocturnal , consists of about 40 % invertebrates , 33 % plant foods , and 27 % vertebrates .
The original habitats of the raccoon are deciduous and mixed forests , but due to their adaptability they have extended their range to mountainous areas , coastal marshes , and urban areas , where some homeowners consider them to be pests . As a result of escapes and deliberate introductions in the mid @-@ 20th century , raccoons are now also distributed across mainland Europe , Caucasia , and Japan .
Though previously thought to be solitary , there is now evidence that raccoons engage in gender @-@ specific social behavior . Related females often share a common area , while unrelated males live together in groups of up to four animals to maintain their positions against foreign males during the mating season , and other potential invaders . Home range sizes vary anywhere from 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) for females in cities to 5 @,@ 000 hectares ( 12 @,@ 000 acres ) for males in prairies . After a gestation period of about 65 days , two to five young , known as " kits " , are born in spring . The kits are subsequently raised by their mother until dispersal in late fall . Although captive raccoons have been known to live over 20 years , their life expectancy in the wild is only 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 years . In many areas , hunting and vehicular injury are the two most common causes of death .
= = Etymology = =
The word " raccoon " was adopted into English from the native Powhatan term , as used in the Virginia Colony . It was recorded on Captain John Smith 's list of Powhatan words as aroughcun , and on that of William Strachey as arathkone . It has also been identified as a Proto @-@ Algonquian root * ahrah @-@ koon @-@ em , meaning " [ the ] one who rubs , scrubs and scratches with its hands " .
Similarly , Spanish colonists adopted the Spanish word mapache from the Nahuatl mapachitli of the Aztecs , meaning " [ the ] one who takes everything in its hands " . In many languages , the raccoon is named for its characteristic dousing behavior in conjunction with that language 's term for bear , for example Waschbär in German , orsetto lavatore in Italian , mosómedve in Hungarian and araiguma ( アライグマ ) in Japanese . In French and European Portuguese , the washing behavior is combined with these languages ' term for rat , yielding , respectively , raton laveur and ratão @-@ lavadeiro . The raccoon 's scientific name , Procyon lotor , is neo @-@ Latin , meaning " before @-@ dog washer " , with lotor Latin for " washer " and Procyon Latinized Greek from προ- , " before " and κύων , " dog " .
The colloquial abbreviation coon is used in words like coonskin for fur clothing and in phrases like old coon as a self @-@ designation of trappers . In the 1830s , the U.S. Whig Party used the raccoon as an emblem , causing them to be pejoratively known as ' coons ' by their political opponents , who saw them as too sympathetic to African @-@ Americans . Soon after that it became an ethnic slur , especially in use between 1880 and 1920 ( see coon song ) , and the term is still considered offensive .
= = Taxonomy = =
In the first decades after its discovery by the members of the expedition of Christopher Columbus , who was the first person to leave a written record about the species , taxonomists thought the raccoon was related to many different species , including dogs , cats , badgers and particularly bears . Carl Linnaeus , the father of modern taxonomy , placed the raccoon in the genus Ursus , first as Ursus cauda elongata ( " long @-@ tailed bear " ) in the second edition of his Systema Naturae ( 1740 ) , then as Ursus Lotor ( " washer bear " ) in the tenth edition ( 1758 – 59 ) . In 1780 , Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr placed the raccoon in its own genus Procyon , which can be translated as either " before the dog " or " doglike " . It is also possible that Storr had its nocturnal lifestyle in mind and chose the star Procyon as eponym for the species .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on fossil evidence from France and Germany , the first known members of the family Procyonidae lived in Europe in the late Oligocene about 25 million years ago . Similar tooth and skull structures suggest procyonids and weasels share a common ancestor , but molecular analysis indicates a closer relationship between raccoons and bears . After the then @-@ existing species crossed the Bering Strait at least six million years later in the early Miocene , the center of its distribution was probably in Central America . Coatis ( Nasua and Nasuella ) and raccoons ( Procyon ) have been considered to share common descent from a species in the genus Paranasua present between 5 @.@ 2 and 6 @.@ 0 million years ago . This assumption , based on morphological comparisons of fossils , conflicts with a 2006 genetic analysis which indicates raccoons are more closely related to ringtails . Unlike other procyonids , such as the crab @-@ eating raccoon ( Procyon cancrivorus ) , the ancestors of the common raccoon left tropical and subtropical areas and migrated farther north about 2 @.@ 5 million years ago , in a migration that has been confirmed by the discovery of fossils in the Great Plains dating back to the middle of the Pliocene . Its most recent ancestor was likely Procyon rexroadensis , a large Blancan raccoon from the Rexroad Formation characterized by its narrow back teeth and large lower jaw .
= = = Subspecies = = =
As of 2005 , Mammal Species of the World recognizes 22 subspecies . Four of these subspecies found only on small Central American and Caribbean islands were often regarded as distinct species after their discovery . These are the Bahaman raccoon and Guadeloupe raccoon , which are very similar to each other ; the Tres Marias raccoon , which is larger than average and has an angular skull ; and the extinct Barbados raccoon . Studies of their morphological and genetic traits in 1999 , 2003 and 2005 led all these island raccoons to be listed as subspecies of the common raccoon in Mammal Species of the World 's third edition . A fifth island raccoon population , the Cozumel raccoon , which weighs only 3 to 4 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 to 8 @.@ 8 lb ) and has notably small teeth , is still regarded as a separate species .
The four smallest raccoon subspecies , with a typical weight of 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ( 4 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 0 lb ) , are found along the southern coast of Florida and on the adjacent islands ; an example is the Ten Thousand Island raccoon ( Procyon lotor marinus ) . Most of the other 15 subspecies differ only slightly from each other in coat color , size and other physical characteristics . The two most widespread subspecies are the eastern raccoon ( Procyon lotor lotor ) and the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon ( Procyon lotor hirtus ) . Both share a comparatively dark coat with long hairs , but the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon is larger than the eastern raccoon . The eastern raccoon occurs in all U.S. states and Canadian provinces to the north of South Carolina and Tennessee . The adjacent range of the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon covers all U.S. states and Canadian provinces to the north of Louisiana , Texas and New Mexico .
The taxonomic identity of feral raccoons inhabiting Eurasia is unknown , as the founding populations consisted of uncategorized specimens from zoos and fur farms .
= = Description = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
Head to hindquarters , raccoons measure between 40 and 70 cm ( 16 and 28 in ) , not including the bushy tail which can measure between 20 and 40 cm ( 8 and 16 in ) , but is usually not much longer than 25 cm ( 10 in ) . The shoulder height is between 23 and 30 cm ( 9 and 12 in ) . The body weight of an adult raccoon varies considerably with habitat , making the raccoon one of the most variably sized mammals . It can range from 2 to 14 kilograms ( 4 to 30 lb ) , but is usually between 3 @.@ 5 and 9 kilograms ( 8 and 20 lb ) . The smallest specimens are found in southern Florida , while those near the northern limits of the raccoon 's range tend to be the largest ( see Bergmann 's rule ) . Males are usually 15 to 20 % heavier than females . At the beginning of winter , a raccoon can weigh twice as much as in spring because of fat storage . The largest recorded wild raccoon weighed 28 @.@ 4 kg ( 62 @.@ 6 lb ) and measured 140 cm ( 55 in ) in total length , by far the largest size recorded for a procyonid .
The most characteristic physical feature of the raccoon is the area of black fur around the eyes , which contrasts sharply with the surrounding white face coloring . This is reminiscent of a " bandit 's mask " and has thus enhanced the animal 's reputation for mischief . The slightly rounded ears are also bordered by white fur . Raccoons are assumed to recognize the facial expression and posture of other members of their species more quickly because of the conspicuous facial coloration and the alternating light and dark rings on the tail . The dark mask may also reduce glare and thus enhance night vision . On other parts of the body , the long and stiff guard hairs , which shed moisture , are usually colored in shades of gray and , to a lesser extent , brown . Raccoons with a very dark coat are more common in the German population because individuals with such coloring were among those initially released to the wild . The dense underfur , which accounts for almost 90 % of the coat , insulates against cold weather and is composed of 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) long hairs .
The raccoon , whose method of locomotion is usually considered to be plantigrade , can stand on its hind legs to examine objects with its front paws . As raccoons have short legs compared to their compact torso , they are usually not able either to run quickly or jump great distances . Their top speed over short distances is 16 to 24 km / h ( 10 to 15 mph ) . Raccoons can swim with an average speed of about 5 km / h ( 3 mph ) and can stay in the water for several hours . For climbing down a tree headfirst — an unusual ability for a mammal of its size — a raccoon rotates its hind feet so they are pointing backwards . Raccoons have a dual cooling system to regulate their temperature ; that is , they are able to both sweat and pant for heat dissipation .
Raccoon skulls have a short and wide facial region and a voluminous braincase . The facial length of the skull is less than the cranial , and their nasal bones are short and quite broad . The auditory bullae are inflated in form , and the sagittal crest is weakly developed . The dentition — 40 teeth with the dental formula : 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 2 — is adapted to their omnivorous diet : the carnassials are not as sharp and pointed as those of a full @-@ time carnivore , but the molars are not as wide as those of a herbivore . The penis bone of males is about 10 cm ( 4 in ) long and strongly bent at the front end . Juvenile males are distinguished from mature males by the shape and extrusibility of their penis bones . Seven of the thirteen identified vocal calls are used in communication between the mother and her kits , one of these being the birdlike twittering of newborns .
= = = Senses = = =
The most important sense for the raccoon is its sense of touch . The " hyper sensitive " front paws are protected by a thin horny layer which becomes pliable when wet . The five digits of the paws have no webbing between them , which is unusual for a carnivoran . Almost two @-@ thirds of the area responsible for sensory perception in the raccoon 's cerebral cortex is specialized for the interpretation of tactile impulses , more than in any other studied animal . They are able to identify objects before touching them with vibrissae located above their sharp , nonretractable claws . The raccoon 's paws lack an opposable thumb ; thus , it does not have the agility of the hands of primates . There is no observed negative effect on tactile perception when a raccoon stands in water below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) for hours .
Raccoons are thought to be color blind or at least poorly able to distinguish color , though their eyes are well @-@ adapted for sensing green light . Although their accommodation of 11 dioptre is comparable to that of humans and they see well in twilight because of the tapetum lucidum behind the retina , visual perception is of subordinate importance to raccoons because of their poor long @-@ distance vision . In addition to being useful for orientation in the dark , their sense of smell is important for intraspecific communication . Glandular secretions ( usually from their anal glands ) , urine and feces are used for marking . With their broad auditory range , they can perceive tones up to 50 – 85 kHz as well as quiet noises , like those produced by earthworms underground .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Zoologist Clinton Hart Merriam described raccoons as " clever beasts " , and that " in certain directions their cunning surpasses that of the fox . " The animal 's intelligence gave rise to the epithet " sly coon " . Only a few studies have been undertaken to determine the mental abilities of raccoons , most of them based on the animal 's sense of touch . In a study by the ethologist H. B. Davis in 1908 , raccoons were able to open 11 of 13 complex locks in fewer than 10 tries and had no problems repeating the action when the locks were rearranged or turned upside down . Davis concluded they understood the abstract principles of the locking mechanisms and their learning speed was equivalent to that of rhesus macaques . Studies in 1963 , 1973 , 1975 and 1992 concentrated on raccoon memory showed they can remember the solutions to tasks for up to three years . In a study by B. Pohl in 1992 , raccoons were able to instantly differentiate between identical and different symbols three years after the short initial learning phase . Stanislas Dehaene reports in his book The Number Sense raccoons can distinguish boxes containing two or four grapes from those containing three .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social behavior = = =
Studies in the 1990s by the ethologists Stanley D. Gehrt and Ulf Hohmann suggest that raccoons engage in gender @-@ specific social behaviors and are not typically solitary , as was previously thought . Related females often live in a so @-@ called " fission @-@ fusion society " , that is , they share a common area and occasionally meet at feeding or resting grounds . Unrelated males often form loose male social groups to maintain their position against foreign males during the mating season — or against other potential invaders . Such a group does not usually consist of more than four individuals . Since some males show aggressive behavior towards unrelated kits , mothers will isolate themselves from other raccoons until their kits are big enough to defend themselves . With respect to these three different modes of life prevalent among raccoons , Hohmann called their social structure a " three class society " . Samuel I. Zeveloff , professor of zoology at Weber State University and author of the book Raccoons : A Natural History , is more cautious in his interpretation and concludes at least the females are solitary most of the time and , according to Erik K. Fritzell 's study in North Dakota in 1978 , males in areas with low population densities are solitary as well .
The shape and size of a raccoon 's home range varies depending on age , sex , and habitat , with adults claiming areas more than twice as large as juveniles . While the size of home ranges in the inhospitable habitat of North Dakota 's prairies lie between 7 and 50 km2 ( 3 and 20 sq mi ) for males and between 2 and 16 km2 ( 1 and 6 sq mi ) for females , the average size in a marsh at Lake Erie was 0 @.@ 5 km2 ( 0 @.@ 19 sq mi ) . Irrespective of whether the home ranges of adjacent groups overlap , they are most likely not actively defended outside the mating season if food supplies are sufficient . Odor marks on prominent spots are assumed to establish home ranges and identify individuals . Urine and feces left at shared raccoon latrines may provide additional information about feeding grounds , since raccoons were observed to meet there later for collective eating , sleeping and playing .
Concerning the general behavior patterns of raccoons , Gehrt points out that " typically you 'll find 10 to 15 percent that will do the opposite " of what is expected .
= = = Diet = = =
Though usually nocturnal , the raccoon is sometimes active in daylight to take advantage of available food sources . Its diet consists of about 40 % invertebrates , 33 % plant material and 27 % vertebrates . Since its diet consists of such a variety of different foods , Zeveloff argues the raccoon " may well be one of the world 's most omnivorous animals " . While its diet in spring and early summer consists mostly of insects , worms , and other animals already available early in the year , it prefers fruits and nuts , such as acorns and walnuts , which emerge in late summer and autumn , and represent a rich calorie source for building up fat needed for winter . Contrary to popular belief , raccoons only occasionally eat active or large prey , such as birds and mammals . They prefer prey that is easier to catch , specifically fish , amphibians and bird eggs . When food is plentiful , raccoons can develop strong individual preferences for specific foods . In the northern parts of their range , raccoons go into a winter rest , reducing their activity drastically as long as a permanent snow cover makes searching for food impossible .
= = = Dousing = = =
One aspect of raccoon behavior is so well known that it gives the animal part of its scientific name , Procyon lotor ; " lotor " is neo @-@ Latin for " washer " . In the wild , raccoons often dabble for underwater food near the shore @-@ line . They then often pick up the food item with their front paws to examine it and rub the item , sometimes to remove unwanted parts . This gives the appearance of the raccoon " washing " the food . The tactile sensitivity of raccoons ' paws is increased if this rubbing action is performed underwater , since the water softens the hard layer covering the paws . However , the behavior observed in captive raccoons in which they carry their food to water to " wash " or douse it before eating has not been observed in the wild . Naturalist Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon , believed that raccoons do not have adequate saliva production to moisten food thereby necessitating dousing , but this hypothesis is now considered to be incorrect . Captive raccoons douse their food more frequently when a watering hole with a layout similar to a stream is not farther away than 3 m ( 10 ft ) . The widely accepted theory is that dousing in captive raccoons is a fixed action pattern from the dabbling behavior performed when foraging at shores for aquatic foods . This is supported by the observation that aquatic foods are doused more frequently . Cleaning dirty food does not seem to be a reason for " washing " . Experts have cast doubt on the veracity of observations of wild raccoons dousing food .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Raccoons usually mate in a period triggered by increasing daylight between late January and mid @-@ March . However , there are large regional differences which are not completely explicable by solar conditions . For example , while raccoons in southern states typically mate later than average , the mating season in Manitoba also peaks later than usual in March and extends until June . During the mating season , males restlessly roam their home ranges in search of females in an attempt to court them during the three- to four @-@ day period when conception is possible . These encounters will often occur at central meeting places . Copulation , including foreplay , can last over an hour and is repeated over several nights . The weaker members of a male social group also are assumed to get the opportunity to mate , since the stronger ones cannot mate with all available females . In a study in southern Texas during the mating seasons from 1990 to 1992 , about one third of all females mated with more than one male . If a female does not become pregnant or if she loses her kits early , she will sometimes become fertile again 80 to 140 days later .
After usually 63 to 65 days of gestation ( although anywhere from 54 to 70 days is possible ) , a litter of typically two to five young is born . The average litter size varies widely with habitat , ranging from 2 @.@ 5 in Alabama to 4 @.@ 8 in North Dakota . Larger litters are more common in areas with a high mortality rate , due , for example , to hunting or severe winters . While male yearlings usually reach their sexual maturity only after the main mating season , female yearlings can compensate for high mortality rates and may be responsible for about 50 % of all young born in a year . Males have no part in raising young . The kits ( also called " cubs " ) are blind and deaf at birth , but their mask is already visible against their light fur . The birth weight of the about 10 cm ( 4 in ) -long kits is between 60 and 75 g ( 2 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 6 oz ) . Their ear canals open after around 18 to 23 days , a few days before their eyes open for the first time . Once the kits weigh about 1 kg ( 2 lb ) , they begin to explore outside the den , consuming solid food for the first time after six to nine weeks . After this point , their mother suckles them with decreasing frequency ; they are usually weaned by 16 weeks . In the fall , after their mother has shown them dens and feeding grounds , the juvenile group splits up . While many females will stay close to the home range of their mother , males can sometimes move more than 20 km ( 12 mi ) away . This is considered an instinctive behavior , preventing inbreeding . However , mother and offspring may share a den during the first winter in cold areas .
= = = Life expectancy = = =
Captive raccoons have been known to live for more than 20 years . However , the species ' life expectancy in the wild is only 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 years , depending on the local conditions in terms of traffic volume , hunting , and weather severity . It is not unusual for only half of the young born in one year to survive a full year . After this point , the annual mortality rate drops to between 10 % and 30 % . Young raccoons are vulnerable to losing their mother and to starvation , particularly in long and cold winters . The most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population is distemper , which can reach epidemic proportions and kill most of a local raccoon population . In areas with heavy vehicular traffic and extensive hunting , these factors can account for up to 90 % of all deaths of adult raccoons . Due to a broad range of range overlap with these predators , the most important natural predators of the raccoon are bobcats , coyotes , and great horned owls , the latter mainly preying on young raccoons but capable of killing adults in some cases . In Florida , they have been reported to fall victim to larger carnivores like American black bear and cougars and these species may also be a threat on occasion in other areas . Also in the southeast , they are among the favored prey for adult American alligators . On occasion , both bald and golden eagles will prey on raccoons . In rare cases of overlap , they may fall victim from carnivores ranging from species averaging smaller than themselves such as fishers to those as large and formidable as jaguars in Mexico . In their introduced range in the former Soviet Union , their main predators are wolves , lynxes and eagle owls . However , predation is not a significant cause of death , especially because larger predators have been exterminated in many areas inhabited by raccoons .
= = Range = =
= = = Habitat = = =
Although they have thrived in sparsely wooded areas in the last decades , raccoons depend on vertical structures to climb when they feel threatened . Therefore , they avoid open terrain and areas with high concentrations of beech trees , as beech bark is too smooth to climb . Tree hollows in old oaks or other trees and rock crevices are preferred by raccoons as sleeping , winter and litter dens . If such dens are unavailable or accessing them is inconvenient , raccoons use burrows dug by other mammals , dense undergrowth or tree crotches . In a study in the Solling range of hills in Germany , more than 60 % of all sleeping places were used only once , but those used at least ten times accounted for about 70 % of all uses . Since amphibians , crustaceans , and other animals found around the shore of lakes and rivers are an important part of the raccoon 's diet , lowland deciduous or mixed forests abundant with water and marshes sustain the highest population densities . While population densities range from 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 animals per square kilometer ( 1 @.@ 3 to 8 @.@ 3 animals per square mile ) in prairies and do not usually exceed 6 animals per square kilometer ( 15 @.@ 5 animals per square mile ) in upland hardwood forests , more than 20 raccoons per square kilometer ( 51 @.@ 8 animals per square mile ) can live in lowland forests and marshes .
= = = Distribution in North America = = =
Raccoons are common throughout North America from Canada to Panama , where the subspecies Procyon lotor pumilus coexists with the crab @-@ eating raccoon ( Procyon cancrivorus ) . The population on Hispaniola was exterminated as early as 1513 by Spanish colonists who hunted them for their meat . Raccoons were also exterminated in Cuba and Jamaica , where the last sightings were reported in 1687 . When they were still considered separate species , the Bahamas raccoon , Guadeloupe raccoon and Tres Marias raccoon were classified as endangered by the IUCN in 1996 .
There is evidence that in pre @-@ Columbian times raccoons were numerous only along rivers and in the woodlands of the Southeastern United States . As raccoons were not mentioned in earlier reports of pioneers exploring the central and north @-@ central parts of the United States , their initial spread may have begun a few decades before the 20th century . Since the 1950s , raccoons have expanded their range from Vancouver Island — formerly the northernmost limit of their range — far into the northern portions of the four south @-@ central Canadian provinces . New habitats which have recently been occupied by raccoons ( aside from urban areas ) include mountain ranges , such as the Western Rocky Mountains , prairies and coastal marshes . After a population explosion starting in the 1940s , the estimated number of raccoons in North America in the late 1980s was 15 to 20 times higher than in the 1930s , when raccoons were comparatively rare . Urbanization , the expansion of agriculture , deliberate introductions , and the extermination of natural predators of the raccoon have probably caused this increase in abundance and distribution .
= = = Distribution outside North America = = =
As a result of escapes and deliberate introductions in the mid @-@ 20th century , the raccoon is now distributed in several European and Asian countries . Sightings have occurred in all the countries bordering Germany , which hosts the largest population outside of North America . Another stable population exists in northern France , where several pet raccoons were released by members of the U.S. Air Force near the Laon @-@ Couvron Air Base in 1966 . Furthermore , raccoons have been known to be in the area around Madrid since the early 1970s . In 2013 the city authorized " the capture and death of any specimen " found . It is also present in Italy , with one reproductive population in Lombardy .
About 1 @,@ 240 animals were released in nine regions of the former Soviet Union between 1936 and 1958 for the purpose of establishing a population to be hunted for their fur . Two of these introductions were successful — one in the south of Belarus between 1954 and 1958 , and another in Azerbaijan between 1941 and 1957 . With a seasonal harvest of between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 animals , in 1974 the estimated size of the population distributed in the Caucasus region was around 20 @,@ 000 animals and the density was four animals per square kilometer ( 10 animals per square mile ) .
= = = = Distribution in Japan = = = =
In Japan , up to 1 @,@ 500 raccoons were imported as pets each year after the success of the anime series Rascal the Raccoon ( 1977 ) . In 2004 , the descendants of discarded or escaped animals lived in 42 of 47 prefectures . The population of raccoons in Japan grew from 17 prefectures in 2000 to all 47 prefectures in 2008 .
= = = = Distribution in Germany = = = =
In Germany — where the raccoon is called the Waschbär ( literally , " wash @-@ bear " or " washing bear " ) due to its habit of " dousing " food in water — two pairs of pet raccoons were released into the German countryside at the Edersee reservoir in the north of Hesse in April 1934 by a forester upon request of their owner , a poultry farmer . He released them two weeks before receiving permission from the Prussian hunting office to " enrich the fauna . " Several prior attempts to introduce raccoons in Germany were not successful . A second population was established in eastern Germany in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped from a fur farm at Wolfshagen , east of Berlin , after an air strike . The two populations are parasitologically distinguishable : 70 % of the raccoons of the Hessian population are infected with the roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis , but none of the Brandenburgian population has the parasite . The estimated number of raccoons was 285 animals in the Hessian region in 1956 , over 20 @,@ 000 animals in the Hessian region in 1970 and between 200 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 animals in the whole of Germany in 2008 . By 2012 it was estimated that Germany now had more than a million raccoons .
The raccoon was a protected species in Germany , but has been declared a game animal in 14 states since 1954 . Hunters and environmentalists argue the raccoon spreads uncontrollably , threatens protected bird species and supersedes domestic carnivorans . This view is opposed by the zoologist Frank @-@ Uwe Michler , who finds no evidence a high population density of raccoons has negative effects on the biodiversity of an area . Hohmann holds that extensive hunting cannot be justified by the absence of natural predators , because predation is not a significant cause of death in the North American raccoon population .
= = = = Distribution in the former USSR = = = =
Experiments in acclimatising raccoons into the USSR began in 1936 , and were repeated a further 25 times until 1962 . Overall , 1 @,@ 222 individuals were released , 64 of which came from zoos and fur farms ( 38 of them having been imports from western Europe ) . The remainder originated from a population previously established in Transcaucasia . The range of Soviet raccoons was never single or continuous , as they were often introduced to different locations far from each other . All introductions into the Russian Far East failed ; melanistic raccoons were released on Petrov Island near Vladivostok and some areas of southern Primorsky Krai , but died . In Middle Asia , raccoons were released in Kyrgyzstan 's Jalal @-@ Abad Province , though they were later recorded as " practically absent " there in January 1963 . A large and stable raccoon population ( yielding 1000 – 1500 catches a year ) was established in Azerbaijan after an introduction to the area in 1937 . Raccoons apparently survived an introduction near Terek , along the Sulak River into the Dagestani lowlands . Attempts to settle raccoons on the Kuban River 's left tributary and Kabardino @-@ Balkaria were unsuccessful . A successful acclimatization occurred in Belarus , where three introductions ( consisting of 52 , 37 and 38 individuals in 1954 and 1958 ) took place . By January 1 , 1963 , 700 individuals were recorded in the country .
= = = Urban raccoons = = =
Due to its adaptability , the raccoon has been able to use urban areas as a habitat . The first sightings were recorded in a suburb of Cincinnati in the 1920s . Since the 1950s , raccoons have been present in metropolitan areas like Washington , DC , Chicago , and Toronto . Since the 2010s , a nuisance population of raccoons has been present in Albuquerque , New Mexico . Since the 1960s , Kassel has hosted Europe 's first and densest population in a large urban area , with about 50 to 150 animals per square kilometer ( 130 to 390 animals per square mile ) , a figure comparable to those of urban habitats in North America . Home range sizes of urban raccoons are only 3 to 40 hectares ( 7 @.@ 5 to 100 acres ) for females and 8 to 80 hectares ( 20 to 200 acres ) for males . In small towns and suburbs , many raccoons sleep in a nearby forest after foraging in the settlement area . Fruit and insects in gardens and leftovers in municipal waste are easily available food sources . Furthermore , a large number of additional sleeping areas exist in these areas , such as hollows in old garden trees , cottages , garages , abandoned houses , and attics . The percentage of urban raccoons sleeping in abandoned or occupied houses varies from 15 % in Washington , DC ( 1991 ) to 43 % in Kassel ( 2003 ) .
= = Health = =
Raccoons can carry rabies , a lethal disease caused by the neurotropic rabies virus carried in the saliva and transmitted by bites . Its spread began in Florida and Georgia in the 1950s and was facilitated by the introduction of infected individuals to Virginia and North Dakota in the late 1970s . Of the 6 @,@ 940 documented rabies cases reported in the United States in 2006 , 2 @,@ 615 ( 37 @.@ 7 % ) were in raccoons . The U.S. Department of Agriculture , as well as local authorities in several U.S. states and Canadian provinces , has developed oral vaccination programs to fight the spread of the disease in endangered populations . Only one human fatality has been reported after transmission of the rabies virus strain commonly known as " raccoon rabies " . Among the main symptoms for rabies in raccoons are a generally sickly appearance , impaired mobility , abnormal vocalization , and aggressiveness . There may be no visible signs at all , however , and most individuals do not show the aggressive behavior seen in infected canids ; rabid raccoons will often retire to their dens instead . Organizations like the U.S. Forest Service encourage people to stay away from animals with unusual behavior or appearance , and to notify the proper authorities , such as an animal control officer from the local health department . Since healthy animals , especially nursing mothers , will occasionally forage during the day , daylight activity is not a reliable indicator of illness in raccoons .
Unlike rabies and at least a dozen other pathogens carried by raccoons , distemper , an epizootic virus , does not affect humans . This disease is the most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population and affects individuals of all age groups . For example , 94 of 145 raccoons died during an outbreak in Clifton , Ohio , in 1968 . It may occur along with a following inflammation of the brain ( encephalitis ) , causing the animal to display rabies @-@ like symptoms . In Germany , the first eight cases of distemper were reported in 2007 .
Some of the most important bacterial diseases which affect raccoons are leptospirosis , listeriosis , tetanus , and tularemia . Although internal parasites weaken their immune systems , well @-@ fed individuals can carry a great many roundworms in their digestive tracts without showing symptoms . The larvae of the Baylisascaris procyonis roundworm , which can be contained in the feces and seldom causes a severe illness in humans , can be ingested when cleaning raccoon latrines without wearing breathing protection .
While not endemic , the Trichinella worm does infect raccoons , and undercooked raccoon meat has caused trichinosis in humans .
Trematode Metorchis conjunctus can also infect raccoons .
= = Raccoons and humans = =
= = = Conflicts = = =
The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has resulted in diverse reactions in humans , ranging from outrage at their presence to deliberate feeding . Some wildlife experts and most public authorities caution against feeding wild animals because they might become increasingly obtrusive and dependent on humans as a food source . Other experts challenge such arguments and give advice on feeding raccoons and other wildlife in their books . Raccoons without a fear of humans are a concern to those who attribute this trait to rabies , but scientists point out this behavior is much more likely to be a behavioral adjustment to living in habitats with regular contact to humans for many generations . Raccoons usually do not prey on domestic cats and dogs , but individual cases of killings have been reported . Attacks on pets may also target their owners .
While overturned waste containers and raided fruit trees are just a nuisance to homeowners , it can cost several thousand dollars to repair damage caused by the use of attic space as dens . Relocating or killing raccoons without a permit is forbidden in many urban areas on grounds of animal welfare . These methods usually only solve problems with particularly wild or aggressive individuals , since adequate dens are either known to several raccoons or will quickly be rediscovered . Loud noises , flashing lights and unpleasant odors have proven particularly effective in driving away a mother and her kits before they would normally leave the nesting place ( when the kits are about eight weeks old ) . Typically , though , only precautionary measures to restrict access to food waste and den sites are effective in the long term .
Among all fruits and crops cultivated in agricultural areas , sweet corn in its milk stage is particularly popular among raccoons . In a two @-@ year study by Purdue University researchers , published in 2004 , raccoons were responsible for 87 % of the damage to corn plants . Like other predators , raccoons searching for food can break into poultry houses to feed on chickens , ducks , their eggs , or feed .
Since raccoons in high mortality areas have a higher rate of reproduction , extensive hunting may not solve problems with raccoon populations . Older males also claim larger home ranges than younger ones , resulting in a lower population density .
= = = Mythology , arts , and entertainment = = =
In the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the Americas , the raccoon is the subject of folk tales . Stories such as " How raccoons catch so many crayfish " from the Tuscarora centered on its skills at foraging . In other tales , the raccoon played the role of the trickster which outsmarts other animals , like coyotes and wolves . Among others , the Dakota Sioux believe the raccoon has natural spirit powers , since its mask resembled the facial paintings , two @-@ fingered swashes of black and white , used during rituals to connect to spirit beings . The Aztecs linked supernatural abilities especially to females , whose commitment to their young was associated with the role of wise women in their society .
The raccoon also appears in Native American art across a wide geographic range . Petroglyphs with engraved raccoon tracks were found in Lewis Canyon , Texas ; at the Crow Hollow petroglyph site in Grayson County , Kentucky ; and in river drainages near Tularosa , New Mexico and San Francisco , California . A true @-@ to @-@ detail figurine made of quartz , the Ohio Mound Builders ' Stone Pipe , was found near the Scioto River . The meaning and significance of the Raccoon Priests Gorget , which features a stylized carving of a raccoon and was found at the Spiro Mounds , Oklahoma , remains unknown .
In Western culture , several autobiographical novels about living with a raccoon have been written , mostly for children . The best @-@ known is Sterling North 's Rascal , which recounts how he raised a kit during World War I. In recent years , anthropomorphic raccoons played main roles in the animated television series The Raccoons , the computer @-@ animated film Over the Hedge , the live action film Guardians of the Galaxy and the video game series Sly Cooper .
= = = Hunting and fur trade = = =
The fur of raccoons is used for clothing , especially for coats and coonskin caps . At present , it is the material used for the inaccurately named " sealskin " cap worn by the Royal Fusiliers of Great Britain . Historically , Native American tribes not only used the fur for winter clothing , but also used the tails for ornament . The famous Sioux leader Spotted Tail took his name from a raccoon skin hat with the tail attached he acquired from a fur trader . Since the late 18th century , various types of scent hounds , called " coonhounds " , which are able to tree animals have been bred in the United States . In the 19th century , when coonskins occasionally even served as means of payment , several thousand raccoons were killed each year in the United States . This number rose quickly when automobile coats became popular after the turn of the 20th century . In the 1920s , wearing a raccoon coat was regarded as status symbol among college students . Attempts to breed raccoons in fur farms in the 1920s and 1930s in North America and Europe turned out not to be profitable , and farming was abandoned after prices for long @-@ haired pelts dropped in the 1940s . Although raccoons had become rare in the 1930s , at least 388 @,@ 000 were killed during the hunting season of 1934 / 35 .
After persistent population increases began in the 1940s , the seasonal hunt reached about one million animals in 1946 / 47 and two million in 1962 / 63 . The broadcast of three television episodes about the frontiersman Davy Crockett and the film Davy Crockett , King of the Wild Frontier in 1954 and 1955 led to a high demand for coonskin caps in the United States , although it is unlikely either Crockett or the actor who played him , Fess Parker , actually wore a cap made from raccoon fur . The seasonal hunt reached an all @-@ time high with 5 @.@ 2 million animals in 1976 / 77 and ranged between 3 @.@ 2 and 4 @.@ 7 million for most of the 1980s . In 1982 , the average pelt price was $ 20 . As of 1987 , the raccoon was identified as the most important wild furbearer in North America in terms of revenue . In the first half of the 1990s , the seasonal hunt dropped to 0 @.@ 9 from 1 @.@ 9 million due to decreasing pelt prices .
While primarily hunted for their fur , raccoons were also a source of food for Native Americans and early American settlers . According to Ernest Thompson Seton , young specimens killed without a fight are palatable , whereas old raccoons caught after a lengthy battle are inedible . Raccoon meat was extensively eaten during the early years of California , where it was sold in the San Francisco market for $ 1 – 3 apiece . American slaves occasionally ate raccoon at Christmas , but it was not necessarily a dish of the poor or rural . The first edition of The Joy of Cooking , released in 1931 , contained a recipe for preparing raccoon , and US President Calvin Coolidge 's pet raccoon Rebecca was originally sent to be served at the White House Thanksgiving Dinner . Although the idea of eating raccoons seems repulsive to most mainstream consumers since they see them as endearing , cute , and / or vermin , several thousand raccoons are still eaten each year in the United States .
= = = Pet raccoons = = =
Raccoons are sometimes kept as pets , which is discouraged by many experts because the raccoon is not a domesticated species . Raccoons may act unpredictably and aggressively and it is usually impossible to teach them to obey commands . In places where keeping raccoons as pets is not forbidden , such as in Wisconsin and other U.S. states , an exotic pet permit may be required .
Their propensity for unruly behavior exceeds that of captive skunks , and are even less trustworthy when allowed to roam freely . Because of their intelligence and nimble forelimbs , even inexperienced raccoons are easily capable of unscrewing jars , uncorking bottles and opening door latches , with more experienced specimens having been recorded to open door knobs . Sexually mature raccoons often show aggressive natural behaviors such as biting during the mating season . Neutering them at around five or six months of age decreases the chances of aggressive behavior developing . Raccoons can become obese and suffer from other disorders due to poor diet and lack of exercise . When fed with cat food over a long time period , raccoons can develop gout . With respect to the research results regarding their social behavior , it is now required by law in Austria and Germany to keep at least two individuals to prevent loneliness . Raccoons are usually kept in a pen ( indoor or outdoor ) , also a legal requirement in Austria and Germany , rather than in the apartment where their natural curiosity may result in damage to property .
When orphaned , it is possible for kits to be rehabilitated and reintroduced to the wild . However , it is uncertain whether they readapt well to life in the wild . Feeding unweaned kits with cow 's milk rather than a kitten replacement milk or a similar product can be dangerous to their health .
= = = Local and indigenous names = = =
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= Vince 's Devils =
Vince 's Devils ( originally known as Ladies in Pink ) was a villainous alliance of female professional wrestlers in World Wrestling Entertainment on its Raw brand . It consisted of Divas Candice Michelle , Torrie Wilson , and Victoria . The women formed their alliance in August 2005 after Wilson and Michelle were traded to Raw from SmackDown ! . Vince 's Devils , named after WWE Chairman Vince McMahon , helped each other in their matches and rivalries until tension began growing between Wilson and Candice Michelle over the latter 's April 2006 Playboy pictorial . The group had officially split by March 2006 .
= = History = =
= = = Debut = = =
In August 2005 , in a trade un @-@ aired on television , SmackDown ! Divas Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle were traded to Raw for Raw Divas Stacy Keibler and Christy Hemme , who were moved to SmackDown ! . During their debut , the duo of Torrie and Candice began a new storyline when they called Diva Search 2005 winner Ashley Massaro to ringside to congratulate her for winning the competition , but instead they taunted and attacked her , becoming villains in the process . The next week , Torrie and Candice recruited the evil Victoria to join them , and the three began harassing Massaro on a regular basis . They also taunted and embarrassed her during matches .
= = = Feuds = = =
When Trish Stratus made her return from a legitimate back injury on September 12 , she became a fan favorite by joining forces with Massaro . At Unforgiven , Victoria and Wilson lost a match against Stratus and Massaro . At WWE Homecoming , they lost again in a Bra and Panties Handicap match when they were stripped by their opponents .
For several weeks afterward , Wilson was absent from television due to personal issues she had to attend to off @-@ screen . On November 28 , Wilson returned to the group to participate in a six @-@ woman tag team match . Wilson 's dog Chloe became an official member of the group on December 26 when she interfered in one of Victoria 's matches and became the first dog to have her own WWE.com profile . At Taboo Tuesday in November , Candice Michelle was eliminated from the Fulfill Your Fantasy Battle Royal for the WWE Women 's Championship by former rival Ashley Massaro .
On the January 2 episode of Raw , the Ladies in Pink turned their attention to backstage announcer Maria Kanellis , blaming her for Victoria 's loss in a match . Victoria announced to Maria that they had a match scheduled that night and proceeded to attack her before the bell . Although Victoria seemed to have the advantage in the match , which included interference from Wilson and Chloe , Victoria was pinned after she attempted an offensive maneuver but missed and ran into the turnbuckle , allowing Maria to pin her . After the match , Candice Michelle , Wilson , and Victoria attacked Maria until Ashley Massaro ran down to the ring to assist Maria . The conflict between the Divas caused the Chairman , Vince McMahon , to make a Bra and Panties Gauntlet match at New Year 's Revolution , which Massaro won when she eliminated Victoria by removing her shorts . The next night on Raw , the Ladies in Pink announced that they had changed the name of their alliance to Vince 's Devils . The storyline rivalry with Massaro continued on the January 23 episode of Raw , when Victoria and Candice Michelle were defeated by Trish Stratus and Massaro in a tag team match . At the Royal Rumble on January 30 , the three women were shown in backstage segments flirting with McMahon .
= = = Split = = =
By February , Candice Michelle had announced that she was going to be on the cover of the April edition of Playboy magazine , and tension began to grow between Candice Michelle and Torrie Wilson . After winning a number one contender 's Diva battle royal on Raw in which she first eliminated Wilson and then Mickie James and Ashley at the same time , Candice Michelle received her first singles WWE Women 's Championship match , but she lost to champion Trish Stratus on February 27 . After the match , Candice Michelle slapped Wilson , blaming her , in storyline , for the loss . As a result of the tension between the women , Wilson became a fan favorite , while Candice Michelle and Victoria continued to act as villains on @-@ screen .
On March 13 , during Victoria 's Women 's Championship match , Wilson ran down and gave Victoria a facebuster costing her the victory . Later in the broadcast , it had appeared that Candice Michelle and Victoria may have gotten their revenge as Trish Stratus found an unconscious Wilson laid out in the Divas ' Locker room with Candice 's Playboy magazine lying across Wilson . At WrestleMania 22 , Wilson gained revenge by defeating the evil Candice Michelle in a Playboy Pillow Fight match . On the June 12 episode of Raw , Wilson defeated Candice Michelle in the first ever Wet and Wild match , a wrestling match involving water balloons and squirt guns , in which the winner of the match would be on the cover of the WWE 2006 Summer Special magazine . After the match , the feuds and alliances between the women ended , and they continued to appear together in television segments with no mention of their time as former allies and enemies . On the July 17 episode of Raw , Candice was the Special Guest Referee during a tag team match of Stratus and Wilson against Victoria and Mickie . James entered the match without being tagged in , so Candice threw her out of the ring . Afterwards , Victoria tried to clothesline Candice , but she ducked out of the way , allowing Stratus to perform a Stratusfaction for the victory . As a result of her participation in the match , Candice became a face . Their allies between Candice and Victoria came to an end .
= = In wrestling = =
Double team finishing moves
Wilson and Michelle
Double DDT – performed by Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle
Wilson 's finishing moves
Nose Job ( Sitout facebuster )
Victoria 's finishing moves
Widow 's Peak ( Gory neckbreaker )
Michelle 's finishing moves
Forward Russian legsweep
Michelle 's signature moves
Candylicious ( Hanging figure four necklock ) – performed by Candice Michelle
Chloe 's signature moves
Chloe Tush Push ( Stinkface )
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= John Berry ( administrator ) =
Morrell John Berry ( born February 10 , 1959 ) is the United States Ambassador to Australia . He used to be director of the United States Office of Personnel Management .
Berry was born in Montgomery County , Maryland , to parents who worked for the federal government . He completed degrees at the University of Maryland , College Park and Syracuse University and worked in local government and as a legislative aide in state government from 1982 to 1985 . From 1985 to 1994 , he worked as legislative director for U.S. Representative Steny Hoyer . He held posts in the U.S. Treasury Department , the Smithsonian Institution , and the U.S. Department of the Interior until 2000 , and worked as director of the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and the National Zoological Park until 2009 , when he was nominated by President Barack Obama as director of the United States Office of Personnel Management . Berry took office after being confirmed by the United States Senate in April 2009 .
In June 2013 , President Obama nominated Berry to replace Jeff Bleich as US ambassador to Australia . He was confirmed by unanimous consent of the US Senate in August 2013 .
= = Early life and education = =
Berry was born February 10 , 1959 , in Rockville , Montgomery County , Maryland , United States . His father served in the U.S. Marine Corps , his mother worked for the U.S. Census Bureau , and he has a brother and a sister . Berry graduated from high school in 1977 and finished a Bachelor of Arts in government and politics from the University of Maryland , College Park in 1980 . In 1981 , Berry graduated from Syracuse University with a Master of Public Administration .
= = Career = =
Berry served in management for the Montgomery County government from 1982 to 1984 and as staff director of the Maryland Senate Finance Committee from 1984 to 1985 . From 1985 to 1994 , he was legislative director for U.S. Representative Steny Hoyer , and associate staffer on the House Appropriations Committee . Berry assisted Hoyer on employment issues of the federal government , and played a leading role in negotiations that led to the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 , which established the locality pay system . From 1994 to 1995 , Berry served as Deputy Assistant Secretary and acting Assistant Secretary for Law Enforcement in the U.S. Treasury Department . From 1995 to 1997 , Berry worked as director of government relations and as senior policy advisor at the Smithsonian Institution .
= = Department of the Interior = =
Berry was appointed Assistant Secretary for Policy , Management and Budget at the U.S. Department of the Interior during the Clinton administration , serving from 1997 to 2001 . At the Interior Department , Berry improved credit union and continuing education options , oversaw the expansion of department programs to improve employees ' work @-@ life balance , and held town hall meetings with Interior employees and used their suggestions to upgrade a cafeteria and health center . These changes were partly funded through partnerships with federal employees , unions and other agencies to reduce costs for the department . Berry worked to create a complaint procedure for employees who experience discrimination because of their sexual orientation , to expand relocation benefits and counseling services to domestic partners of employees , to establish a liaison to gay and lesbian workers , and to eliminate discriminatory provisions of the National Park Service 's law enforcement standards . He helped establish an office supply store for Interior employees , which he staffed with disabled workers . Berry oversaw one of the largest budgetary increases in the department 's history .
In 2000 , Berry became director of the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation , where he worked with Interior Inspector General Earl Devaney to reconcile twenty years of financial records , improve management , and conserve wildlife habitat through public @-@ private partnerships . Berry was appointed from October 1 , 2005 , to serve as director of the National Zoo , which had been found to have shortcomings in record keeping and maintenance . Berry created a strategic planning and modernization process for the zoo . This included a twenty @-@ year capital plan , securing $ 35 million in funding to provide for fire protection , and beginning renovations to animal houses .
The Berry Bastion , an Antarctic mountain , was named in his honor .
= = Office of Personnel Management = =
In 2008 , Berry was mentioned as a possible nominee for U.S. Secretary of the Interior , a position obtained by Ken Salazar . President Barack Obama announced his intention to nominate Berry as director of the Office of Personnel Management on March 3 , 2009 , and did so on March 4 . The nomination hearing before the Senate Homeland Security Committee on March 26 , 2009 , led to expectation of easy confirmation for Berry , despite opposition from conservative activists based on Berry 's homosexuality . In the hearing Berry stated he supported any effective employee compensation system , but that the federal government had the obligation to give employees with comparable job performances similar pay and treatment . He pledged to preserve veterans preference and supplement it with training programs to prepare veterans for federal jobs , and promised reviews of proposals to improve the security clearance and hiring processes . Berry emphasized the importance for agencies to use all recruitment tools , citing relocation benefits that could keep agencies competitive with the private sector , and stated he would create a strategic plan and set performance goals for the Office of Personnel Management . Berry had stated support for benefits for same @-@ sex partners of federal employees and a repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act .
The Senate confirmed Berry on April 3 , 2009 , and he was sworn in April 13 as the first agency director in the Obama administration with all senior staff in place . The ceremonial swearing in on April 23 was attended by First Lady Michelle Obama . Berry has been , according to the Human Rights Campaign , the highest @-@ ranking openly gay official to serve in the executive branch in any U.S. administration .
= = U.S. Ambassador to Australia = =
In June 2013 , President Obama nominated Berry to be the US ambassador to Australia , the first openly gay U.S. ambassador to a G @-@ 20 nation . On August 1 , 2013 , the United States Senate confirmed Berry by unanimous consent . Australian media coverage of Berry 's appointment has been overwhelmingly positive with a video he posted to the US Embassy website being described as the " friendliest introduction video in diplomatic history " while Berry himself was described as " modest " , with an " impressive record " . Federal News Radio , in the US , reported that , " more than 200 people had posted responses " to the video , " most of which were warm and cordial " .
= = Personal life = =
Before being appointed as ambassador to Australia Berry lived in Washington , D.C. Berry is openly gay . On August 10 , 2013 , he married Curtis Yee , his partner for 17 years , at St Margaret 's Episcopal Church in Washington .
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= The Iron Giant =
The Iron Giant is a 1999 American animated science fiction comedy @-@ drama film using both traditional animation and computer animation , produced by Warner Bros. Feature Animation and directed by Brad Bird in his directorial debut . It is based on the 1968 novel The Iron Man by Ted Hughes ( which was published in the United States as The Iron Giant ) and is scripted by Tim McCanlies . The film stars Eli Marienthal , Christopher McDonald , Jennifer Aniston , Harry Connick , Jr . , John Mahoney , and Vin Diesel . Set during the Cold War in 1957 , the film is about a young boy named Hogarth Hughes who discovers a giant metallic robot who fell from space . With the help of a beatnik artist named Dean McCoppin , they have to stop the U.S. military and a paranoid federal agent named Kent Mansley from finding and destroying the Giant .
The film 's development phase began in 1994 as a musical with the involvement of The Who 's Pete Townshend , though the project took root once Bird signed on as director and hired McCanlies to write the screenplay in 1996 . The film was created traditionally , with computer @-@ generated imagery used to animate the title character and other effects . The understaffed crew of the film completed it with half of the time and budget of other animated features . Michael Kamen produced the film 's score , recorded with the Czech Philharmonic .
Upon its release , the film saw wide critical acclaim from critics and audiences . It was nominated for several awards , winning nine Annie Awards . Despite this acclaim , the film significantly under @-@ performed at the box office , making $ 31 @.@ 3 million worldwide against a budget of $ 70 – 80 million , which was blamed on an unusually poor marketing campaign . Through home video releases and television syndication , the film gathered a cult following and is now widely regarded as a modern animated classic . In 2015 , an extended , remastered version of the film was re @-@ released theatrically .
= = Plot = =
In October 1957 , shortly after the Russian satellite Sputnik is put into orbit , an enormous robot from outer space crashes into the ocean near Rockwell , Maine . The robot makes its way inland and wanders into the forest . Nine @-@ year @-@ old Hogarth Hughes discovers the robot one night as it begins eating the powerlines of an electrical substation and electrocutes itself . Hogarth shuts down the power , saving the robot , and returns home . Several days later , Hogarth makes it his mission to find the robot and take a picture . After hours of waiting , the robot surprises Hogarth , who soon befriends him . Suffering amnesia , the Iron Giant accompanies Hogarth wherever he goes . When they come across a railroad , the Giant starts eating the rails . Hearing an oncoming train , Hogarth tells the Giant to repair the tracks . As he does , the train collides , breaking him into pieces . The Giant 's parts start to reassemble , and Hogarth hides the damaged robot in his house 's barn , where the parts can repair themselves .
Later , after dinner with his widowed mother Annie , Hogarth reads comic books to the Giant . The Giant is impressed with Superman , but discovers the comic ' Atomo the Metal Menace . ' Hogarth reassures the Giant , " you are who you choose to be " . In the meantime , U.S. government agent Kent Mansley arrives , discovering possible evidence of the Giant . Finding Hogarth 's BB gun near the substation , Mansley takes a room for rent at Hogarth 's home and follows the boy around , hoping to learn more . Hogarth evades Mansley and takes the Giant to the junkyard of Dean McCoppin , a beatnik who had earlier befriended Hogarth , for shelter . Hogarth soon had to discuss " death " with the Giant after they witness hunters shoot a stag in the forest . Paranoid about alien invasion , Mansley alerts the U.S. Army to the presence of the Giant . When he and General Kenneth Rogard , backed by Army troops , force the investigation , Dean reveals the robot disguised as his scrap @-@ metal artwork . Rogard admonishes Mansley and leaves . Later , Hogarth plays with the Giant using a toy gun , which automatically activates the Giant 's weaponry . Dean saves Hogarth and demands the Giant to leave . Thinking the Giant never meant any harm , Hogarth runs after him . Dean finds the toy gun and realizes the Giant was only reacting defensively . He catches Hogarth with his motorbike as the Giant reaches town .
In Rockwell , the Giant saves two boys from falling to their death , to the amazement of witnesses . The Army troops see the Giant , return , and attack while requesting Navy and Air Force support . The Giant flies away with Hogarth and even though being attacked by a USAF F @-@ 86 , the Giant kept his original programming from taking over . However , after he was shot down , the Giant mistakenly believes the unconscious Hogarth is dead . The Giant becomes both saddened and enraged over Hogarth 's death . He activates his energy weapons and battles the completely outmatched Army . Mansley lies to Rogard that the Giant killed Hogarth and suggests he can be destroyed at sea with a nuclear missile from the USS Nautilus . Hogarth wakes up and calms the Giant , causing him to deactivate his weapons . As Mansley keeps telling Rogard to attack , Dean says the Giant never harmed anyone . Seeing Hogarth alive , Rogard has the Army stand down , but before he can tell the Nautilus the same thing , a panicked Mansley grabs the walkie talkie and orders the missile launch without thinking . Furious , Rogard reminds Mansley that the missile , currently targeted on the Giant , will also kill them and everyone in Rockwell . When Mansley cowardly attempts to flee , the Giant stops him and the Army forces Mansley to stay and die with them . Hogarth tells the Giant of Rockwell 's impending fate and the Giant makes the decision to fly off , smiling to himself that he chooses to be Superman . The Giant intercepts the missile , causing a massive explosion high in the atmosphere . The townspeople and soldiers are all very relieved to have survived , but are saddened by the Giant 's apparent selfless sacrifice .
Sometime later , Annie and Dean are dating and Dean has built a statue in the park to honor the Giant . Hogarth receives a package from Rogard , a small bolt , the only piece of the Giant ever found . That night , Hogarth hears a familiar beeping coming from the bolt , which is trying to get out of the window . He opens the window to let the bolt out . Somewhere on the Langjökull Glacier in Iceland , parts of the Giant approach where his head rests . The Giant wakes up and smiles .
= = Voice cast = =
Eli Marienthal as Hogarth Hughes , an energetic and curious boy with an active imagination . Marienthal 's performances were videotaped and given to animators to work with , which helped develop expressions and acting for the character .
Christopher McDonald as Kent Mansley , a government agent sent to investigate sightings of the Iron Giant . The logo on his official government car says he is from the " Bureau of Unexplained Phenomena " .
Harry Connick , Jr. as Dean McCoppin , a beatnik artist and junkyard owner . Bird felt it appropriate to make the character a member of the beat generation , as they were viewed as mildly threatening to small @-@ town values during that time . An outsider himself , he is among the first to recognize the Giant as no threat .
Jennifer Aniston as Annie Hughes , the widow of a military pilot and Hogarth 's widow mother .
Vin Diesel as The Iron Giant , a fifty @-@ foot , metal @-@ eating robot . Created for an unknown purpose , the Giant involuntarily reacts defensively if he recognizes anything as a weapon , immediately attempting to destroy it . The Giant 's voice was originally to be electronically modulated but the filmmakers decided they " needed a deep , resonant and expressive voice to start with , " and were about to hire Peter Cullen , due to his history with voice acting robot characters , but due to Cullen 's unavailability at the time , Vin Diesel was hired instead .
John Mahoney as General Kenneth Rogard , the military leader in Washington , D.C. who strongly dislikes Mansley .
M. Emmet Walsh as Earl Stutz , a sailor and the first man to see the robot .
James Gammon as Marv Loach , a foreman who follows the robot 's trail after it destroys the power station .
Cloris Leachman as Mrs. Tensedge , Hogarth 's schoolteacher .
Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas as the train engineers . Johnston and Thomas were animators and members of Disney 's Nine Old Men . Bird cited them as inspirations for his career and incorporated their voices and likenesses into the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The origins of the film lie in the book The Iron Man ( 1968 ) , by poet Ted Hughes , who wrote the novel for his children . In the 1980s , rock musician Pete Townshend chose to adopt the book for a concept album ; it was released as The Iron Man : A Musical in 1989 . In 1991 , Richard Bazley , who later became the film 's lead animator , pitched a version of The Iron Man to Don Bluth while working at his studio in Ireland . He created a story outline and character designs but Bluth passed on the project . After a stage musical was mounted in London , Des McAnuff , who had adapted Tommy with Townshend for the stage , believed that The Iron Man could translate to the screen , and the project was ultimately acquired by Warner Bros. Entertainment .
In late 1996 , while developing the project on its way through , the studio saw the film as a perfect vehicle for Brad Bird , who at the time was working for Turner Feature Animation developing Ray Gunn . Turner Entertainment had recently merged with Warner Bros. parent company Time Warner , and Bird was allowed to transfer to the Warner Bros. Animation studio to direct The Iron Giant . After reading the original Iron Man book by Hughes , Bird was impressed with the mythology of the story and in addition , was given an unusual amount of creative control by Warner Bros. This creative control involved introducing two new characters not present in the original book , Dean and Kent , setting the film in America , and discarding Townshend 's musical ambitions ( who did not care either way , reportedly remarking , " Well , whatever , I got paid " ) . Bird 's pitch to Warner Bros. was based around the idea " What if a gun had a soul ? " He expanded upon his desire to set the film in America in the 1950s in a later interview :
Ted Hughes , the original story 's author , died before the film 's release . His daughter , Frieda Hughes , did see the finished film on his behalf and loved it . Pete Townshend , who this project originally started with , enjoyed the final film as well .
= = = Writing and direction = = =
Tim McCanlies was hired to write the script , though Bird was somewhat displeased with having another writer on board , as he wanted to write the screenplay himself . He later changed his mind after reading McCanlies ' then @-@ unproduced screenplay for Secondhand Lions . In Bird 's original story treatment , America and the USSR were at war at the end , with the Giant dying . McCanlies decided to have a brief scene displaying his survival , stating , " You can 't kill E.T. and then not bring him back . " McCanlies finished the script within two months . McCanlies was given a three @-@ month schedule to complete a script , and it was by way of the film 's tight schedule that Warner Bros. " didn 't have time to mess with us " as McCanlies said . The question of the Giant 's backstory was purposefully ignored as to keep the story focused on his relationship with Hogarth . Bird considered the story difficult to develop due to its combination of unusual elements , such as " paranoid fifties sci @-@ fi movies with the innocence of something like The Yearling . " Hughes himself was sent a copy of McCanlies ' script and sent a letter back , saying how pleased he was with the version . In the letter , Hughes stated , " I want to tell you how much I like what Brad Bird has done . He ’ s made something all of a piece , with terrific sinister gathering momentum and the ending came to me as a glorious piece of amazement . He ’ s made a terrific dramatic situation out of the way he ’ s developed The Iron Giant . I can ’ t stop thinking about it . "
Bird combined his knowledge from his years in television to direct his first feature . He credited his time working on Family Dog as essential to team @-@ building , and his tenure on The Simpsons as an example of working under strict deadlines . He was open to others on his staff to help develop the film ; he would often ask crew members their opinions on scenes and change things accordingly . One of his priorities was to emphasize softer , character @-@ based moments , as opposed to more frenetic scenes — something Bird thought was a problem with modern filmmaking . " There has to be activity or sound effects or cuts or music blaring . It 's almost as if the audience has the remote and they 're going to change channels , " he commented at the time . Storyboard artist Teddy Newton played an important role in shaping the film 's story . Newton 's first assignment on staff involved being asked by Bird to create a film within a film to reflect the " hygiene @-@ type movies that everyone saw when the bomb scare was happening . " Newton came to the conclusion that a musical number would be the catchiest alternative , and the " Duck and Cover sequence " came to become one of the crew members ' favorites of the film . Nicknamed " The X @-@ Factor " by story department head Jeffery Lynch , the producers gave him artistic freedom on various pieces of the film 's script .
= = = Animation = = =
The financial failure of Warner 's previous animated effort , Quest for Camelot , which made the studio reconsider animated films , helped shape The Iron Giant 's production considerably . " Three @-@ quarters " of the animation team on that team helped craft The Iron Giant . By the time it entered production , Warner Bros. informed the staff that there would be a smaller budget as well as time @-@ frame to get the film completed . Although the production was watched closely , Bird commented " They did leave us alone if we kept it in control and showed them we were producing the film responsibly and getting it done on time and doing stuff that was good . " Bird regarded the trade @-@ off as having " one @-@ third of the money of a Disney or DreamWorks film , and half of the production schedule , " but the payoff as having more creative freedom , describing the film as " fully @-@ made by the animation team ; I don 't think any other studio can say that to the level that we can . " A small part of the team took a weeklong research trip to Maine , where they photographed and videotaped five small cities . They hoped to accurately reflect its culture down to the minutiae ; " we shot store fronts , barns , forests , homes , home interiors , diners , every detail we could , including the bark on trees , " said production designer Mark Whiting .
Bird stuck to elaborate scene planning , such as detailed animatics , to make sure there were no budgetary concerns . The team initially worked with Macromedia 's Director software , before switching to Adobe After Effects full @-@ time . Bird was eager to use the then @-@ nascent software , as it allowed for storyboard to contain indications of camera moves . The software became essential to that team — dubbed " Macro " early on — to help the studio grasp story reels for the film . These also allowed Bird to better understand what the film required from an editing perspective . In the end , he was proud of the way the film was developed , noting that " We could imagine the pace and the unfolding of our film accurately with a relatively small expenditure of resources . " The group would gather in a screening room to view completed sequences , with Bird offering suggestions by drawing onto the screen with a marker . Lead animator Bazley suggested this led to a sense of camaraderie among the crew , who were unified in their mission to create a good film . Bird cited his favorite moment of the film 's production as occurring in the editing room , when the crew gathered to test a sequence in which the Giant learns what a soul is . " People in the room were spontaneously crying . It was pivotal ; there was an undeniable feeling that we were really tapping into something , " he recalled .
He opted to give the film 's animators portions to animate entirely , rather than the standard process of animating one character , in a throwback to the way Disney 's first features were created . The exception were those responsible for creating the Giant himself , who was created using computer @-@ generated imagery due to the difficulty of creating a metal object " in a fluid @-@ like manner . " They had additional trouble with using the computer model to express emotion . The Giant was designed by filmmaker Joe Johnston ( best known for designing the Star Wars trilogy ) , which was refined by production designer Mark Whiting and Steve Markowski , head animator for the Giant . Using software , the team would animate the Giant " on twos " ( every other frame , or twelve frames per second ) when interacting with other characters , to make it less obvious it was a computer model . Bird brought in students from CalArts to assist in minor animation work due to the film 's busy schedule . He made sure to spread out the work on scenes between experienced and younger animators , noting , " You overburden your strongest people and underburden the others [ if you let your top talent monopolize the best assignments ] . " Hiroki Itokazu designed all of the film 's CGI props and vehicles , which were created in a variety of software , including Alias Systems Corporation 's Maya , Alias ' PowerAnimator , a modified version of Pixar 's RenderMan , Cambridge Animation 's Animo ( now part of Toon Boom Animation ) , Avid Elastic Reality , and Adobe Photoshop .
The art of Norman Rockwell , Edward Hopper and N.C. Wyeth inspired the design . Whiting strove for colors both evocative of the time period in which the film is set but also representative of its emotional tone ; for example , Hogarth 's room is designed to reflect his " youth and sense of wonder . " That was blended with a style reminiscent of 1950s illustration . Animators studied Chuck Jones , Hank Ketcham , Al Hirschfeld and Disney films from that era , such as 101 Dalmatians , for inspiration in the film 's animation .
= = = Music = = =
The score for the film was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen . Bird 's original temp score , " a collection of Bernard Hermann cues from 50 's and 60 's sci @-@ fi films , " initially scared Kamen . Believing the sound of the orchestra is important to the feeling of the film , Kamen " decided to comb eastern Europe for an " old @-@ fashioned " sounding orchestra and went to Prague to hear Vladimir Ashkenazy conduct the Czech Philharmonic in Strauss 's An Alpine Symphony . " Eventually , the Czech Philharmonic was the orchestra used for the film 's score , with Bird describing the symphony orchestra as " an amazing collection of musicians . " The score for The Iron Giant was recorded in a rather unconventional manner , compared to most films : recorded over one week at the Rudolfinum in Prague , the music was recorded without conventional uses of syncing the music , in a method Kamen described in a 1999 interview as " [ being able to ] play the music as if it were a piece of classical repertoire . " Kamen 's score for The Iron Giant won the Annie Award for Music in an Animated Feature Production on November 6 , 1999 .
= = = Editing = = =
Bird opted to produce The Iron Giant in widescreen — specifically the wide 2 @.@ 39 : 1 CinemaScope aspect ratio — but was warned against doing so by his advisers . He felt it was appropriate to use the format , as many films from the late 1950s were produced in such widescreen formats . He hoped to include the CinemaScope logo on a poster , partially as a joke , but 20th Century Fox , owner of the trademark , refused .
Bird later recalled that he clashed with executives who wished to add characters , such as a sidekick dog , set the film in the present day , and include a soundtrack of hip hop . This was due to concerns that the film was not merchandisable , to which Bird responded , " If they were interested in telling the story , they should let it be what it wants to be . " The film was also initially going to feature the Warner Bros. Family Entertainment logo at the beginning of the movie , featuring mascot Bugs Bunny in a tuxedo . Bird was against this for a multitude of reasons , and eventually got confirmation that executives Bob Daley and Terry Semel agreed . Instead , Bird and his team developed another version of the logo to resemble the classic studio logo in a circle , famously employed in Looney Tunes shorts . He credited executives Lorenzo di Bonaventura and Courtney Vallenti with helping him achieve his vision , noting that they were open to his opinion .
According to a report from the time of its release , The Iron Giant cost $ 50 million to produce with an additional $ 30 million going towards marketing , though Box Office Mojo later calculated its budget as $ 70 million . It was regarded as a lower @-@ budget film , in comparison to the films distributed by Walt Disney Pictures .
= = Themes = =
The film is set in 1957 during a period of the Cold War characterized by escalation in tension between the United States and the Soviet Union . In 1957 , Sputnik was launched , raising the possibility of nuclear attack from space . Anti @-@ communism and the potential threat of nuclear destruction cultivated an atmosphere of fear and paranoia which also led to a proliferation of films about alien invasion . In one scene , Hogarth 's class is seen watching an animated film named Atomic Holocaust , based on Duck and Cover , an actual film that offered advice on how to survive if the USSR bombed the USA .
The film also deals with the concepts of nonviolence and individualism . When the Iron Giant sees a deer get killed by hunters , the Iron Giant notices two rifles discarded by the deer 's body . The Iron Giant 's eyes turn red showing hostility to any gun . It is repeated throughout the film , " Guns kill . " and " You 're not a gun . " Despite the anti @-@ war and anti @-@ gun themes , the film avoids demonizing the military ( one scene depicts Hogarth next to a picture of his late father , a fighter pilot , while wearing his father 's flight helmet ) , and presents General Rogard as an essentially rational and sympathetic figure , in contrast to the power @-@ hungry civilian Mansley . Hogarth 's message to the giant , " You are who you choose to be " , played a pivotal role in the film . In a deleted scene , the robot dreams of seeing many robots like it marching through a war zone on an alien world , suggesting that the robot was created to be a weapon in a long @-@ ago war .
Writer McCanlies commented that " At a certain point , there are deciding moments when we pick who we want to be . And that plays out for the rest of your life . " McCanlies said that movies can provide viewers with a sense of right and wrong , and expressed a wish that the movie would " make us feel like we 're all part of humanity [ which ] is something we need to feel . " Some film critics compared the film to E.T. : The Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( 1982 ) , including Roger Ebert . In response to the E.T. parallels , Bird said , " E.T. doesn 't go kicking ass . He doesn 't make the Army pay . Certainly you risk having your hip credentials taken away if you want to evoke anything sad or genuinely heartfelt . "
= = Marketing = =
The Iron Giant was largely a theatrical failure due in part to poor promotion from Warner Bros. This was largely attributable to the reception of Quest for Camelot ; after its release , Warner would not give Bird and his team a release date for their film until April 1999 . After wildly successful test screenings , the studio were shocked by the response : the test scores were their highest for a film in 15 years , according to Bird . They had neglected to prepare a successful marketing strategy for the film — such as cereal and fast food tie @-@ ins — with little time left before its scheduled release . Bird remembered that the studio only produced one teaser poster for the film , which became its eventual poster . Brad Ball , who had been assigned the role of marketing the film , was candid after its release , noting that the studio did not commit to a planned Burger King toy plan . In an interview with IGN , Bird stated that it was " a mis @-@ marketing campaign of epic proportions at the hands of Warner Bros. , they simply didn 't realize what they had on their hands . "
The studio needed an $ 8 million opening to ensure success , but they were unable to properly promote it preceding the release . They nearly delayed the film by several months to better prepare . " They said , ' we should delay it and properly lead up to its release , ' and I said ' you guys have had two and a half years to get ready for this , ' " recalled Bird . Press outlets took note of its absence of marketing , with some reporting that the studio had spent more money on marketing intended summer blockbuster Wild , Wild West instead . To perhaps soften the potential blow , Warner Bros. scheduled Sunday sneak preview screenings for the film prior to its release , as well as a preview of the film on the online platform Webcastsneak .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Iron Giant premiered at Mann 's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles on July 31 , 1999 , with a special ceremony preceding the screening in which a concrete slab bearing the title character 's footprint was commemorated . The film opened in Los Angeles and New York on August 4 , 1999 , with a wider national release occurring on August 6 in the United States . It opened in 2 @,@ 179 theaters in the U.S. , ranking at number nine at the box office accumulating $ 5 @,@ 732 @,@ 614 over its opening weekend . It was quick to drop out of the top ten ; by its fourth week , it had only accumulated $ 18 @.@ 9 million — far under its reported $ 70 million budget . According to Dave McNary of the Los Angeles Daily News , " Its weekend per @-@ theater average was only $ 2 @,@ 631 , an average of $ 145 or perhaps 30 tickets per showing " — leading theater owners to quickly discard the film . At the time , Warner Bros. was shaken by the resignations of executives Bob Daly and Terry Semel , making the failure much worse . T.L. Stanley of Brandweek cited it as an example of how media tie @-@ ins were now essential to guaranteeing a film 's success .
The film went on to gross $ 23 @,@ 159 @,@ 305 domestically and $ 8 @,@ 174 @,@ 612 internationally for a total of $ 31 @,@ 333 @,@ 917 worldwide . Analysts deemed it a victim of poor timing and " a severe miscalculation of how to attract an audience . " Lorenzo di Bonaventura , president of Warner Bros. at the time , explained , " People always say to me , ' Why don 't you make smarter family movies ? ' The lesson is , Every time you do , you get slaughtered . "
= = = Critical response = = =
The Iron Giant received widespread critical acclaim from both critics and audiences . Based on 132 reviews collected by the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , The Iron Giant received an overall 96 % approval rating ; the average score is 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The consensus reads : " Engaging , endearing , affecting and charmingly retro , The Iron Giant tackles touchy subjects and complex relationships with a steady hand and beautiful animation direction from Brad Bird . " On Metacritic , the film achieved an average score of 85 out of 100 based on 27 reviews , signifying " universal acclaim " . In addition to its response from film critics , CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an " A " grade . The Reel Source forecasting service calculated that " 96 – 97 % " of audiences that attended recommended the film . As of 2015 , Rotten Tomatoes ranks it the third most @-@ acclaimed animated film made in the 1990s .
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called it " straight @-@ arrow and subversive , [ and ] made with simplicity as well as sophistication , " writing , " it feels like a classic even though it 's just out of the box . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times compared it , both in story and animation , to the works of Japanese director Hayao Miyazaki , summarizing the film as " not just a cute romp but an involving story that has something to say . " The New Yorker reviewer Michael Sragow dubbed it a " modern fairy tale , " writing , " The movie provides a master class in the use of scale and perspective — and in its power to open up a viewer ’ s heart and mind . " Time 's Richard Schickel deemed it " a smart live @-@ and @-@ let @-@ live parable , full of glancing , acute observations on all kinds of big subjects — life , death , the military @-@ industrial complex . " Lawrence Van Gelder , writing for the New York Times , deemed it a " smooth , skilled example of animated filmmaking . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal felt it " beautiful , oh so beautiful , as a work of coherent art , " noting , " be assured that the film is , before anything else , deliciously funny and deeply affecting . "
Both Hollywood trade publications were positive : David Hunter of The Hollywood Reporter predicted it to be a sleeper hit and called it " outstanding , " while Lael Loewenstein of Variety called it " a visually appealing , well @-@ crafted film [ ... ] an unalloyed success . " Bruce Fretts of Entertainment Weekly commented , " I have long thought that I was born without the gene that would allow me to be emotionally drawn in by drawings . That is , until I saw The Iron Giant . " Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed that the storytelling was far superior to other animated films , and cited the characters as plausible and noted the richness of moral themes . Jeff Millar of the Houston Chronicle agreed with the basic techniques as well , and concluded the voice cast excelled with a great script by Tim McCanlies . Amid the positive reviews , a negative review came from The Washington Post 's Stephen Hunter , who opined , " The movie — as beautifully drawn , as sleek and engaging as it is — has the annoyance of incredible smugness . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The Hugo Awards nominated The Iron Giant for Best Dramatic Presentation , while the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America honored Brad Bird and Tim McCanlies with the Nebula Award nomination . The British Academy of Film and Television Arts gave the film a Children 's Award as Best Feature Film . In addition The Iron Giant won nine Annie Awards and was nominated for another six categories , with another nomination for Best Home Video Release at The Saturn Awards . IGN ranked The Iron Giant as the fifth favorite animated film of all time in a list published in 2010 .
The American Film Institute nominated The Iron Giant for its Top 10 Animated Films list .
= = = Home media and television syndication = = =
Stung by criticism that it mounted an ineffective marketing campaign for its theatrical release , Warner Bros. revamped its advertising strategy for the video release of the film , including tie @-@ ins with Honey Nut Cheerios , AOL and General Motors and secured the backing of three U.S. congressmen ( Ed Markey , Mark Foley and Howard Berman ) . Awareness of the film was increased by its February 2000 release as a pay @-@ per @-@ view title , which also increased traffic to the film 's web site .
The Iron Giant was released on VHS and DVD on November 23 , 1999 , with a laserdisc release following on December 6 . The VHS edition came in three versions — pan and scan , pan and scan with an affixed Giant toy to the clamshell case , and a widescreen version . All of the initial widescreen home video releases were in 1 @.@ 85 : 1 , the incorrect aspect ratio for the film . In 2000 , television rights to the film were sold to Cartoon Network and TNT for three million dollars . The networks marketed the film as an overlooked but acclaimed film . Cartoon Network showed the film continuously for 24 consecutive hours in the early 2000s for such holidays as the Fourth of July and Thanksgiving .
The Special Edition DVD was released on November 16 , 2004 . In 2014 , Brad Bird went to Warner Bros. to talk about the possibility of releasing The Iron Giant on Blu @-@ ray . " WB & I have been talking . But they want a bare bones disc . I want better , " Bird said on his Twitter account . He also said that fans can log on to their Twitter accounts and post a tweet on the Twitter homepage of Warner Bros. Home Entertainment , demanding a Collector 's Edition Blu @-@ ray for the film .
= = Legacy = =
The film has since then gathered a cult following .
= = = Signature Edition = = =
A remastered and extended cut of the film , named the Signature Edition , was released for a limited time on September 30 , 2015 , and later October 4 , 2015 . The edition is approximately two minutes longer than the original cut , and features a brief scene with Annie and Dean and the sequence of the Giant 's dream . Aside from the additional scene , it also showcases other ideas that weren 't able to be used , like a nod to Disney via Tomorrowland commercial and a joke of the film being shot on CinemaScope cameras . Both scenes were storyboarded by Bird during the production on the original film but never finished due to time and budget constraints . Before they were fully completed for this new version , they were available as deleted storyboards on the 2004 DVD bonus features . They were animated in 2015 by Duncan Studio , which employed several animators that worked on the original film . The film 's Signature Edition was released on DVD and for digital download on February 16 , 2016 . An official Blu @-@ ray release will be available on September 6 , 2016 .
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= Alto 's Adventure =
Alto 's Adventure is a 2015 endless runner snowboarding video game by Snowman . The player @-@ character automatically moves to the right of the screen through procedurally generated landscapes . The player taps the screen to jump and perform tricks , and works towards goals , competitive high scores , and upgrades . Snowman , a Toronto @-@ based , three @-@ person indie development team , previously worked on productivity apps before Alto 's Adventure . The game was made to emulate the ethereal atmosphere of snowboarding , and was inspired by Journey ( 2012 ) , Monument Valley ( 2014 ) , Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 2 ( 2000 ) , and Windosill ( 2009 ) .
The game was released in February 19 , 2015 initially in iOS devices . In September that year , Snowman announced that Alto 's Adventure will be launched in Android and Kindle Fire . The game was finally released in Android on February 11 , 2016 . On July 8 , 2016 the game was also released for the Windows platform .
The game received what was described on review score aggregator Metacritic as universal acclaim . Reviewers praised its art style and sense of atmosphere , but criticized its gameplay as unoriginal . Pocket Gamer awarded the game their Gold Award .
= = Gameplay = =
Alto 's Adventure is a side @-@ scrolling endless runner snowboarding game . The player character moves automatically through procedurally generated landscapes towards the right side of the screen and the player can only control when to jump . The player taps the screen once to jump and holds the screen midair to perform tricks . While the character moves across the landscape , the player can complete some of the game 's 180 goals , though they are given only three at a time . Goals include such things as traveling a set distance , rescuing runaway llamas , crossing dangerous gaps , grinding across the rooftops of villages , and outsmarting the mountain elders . The player receives awards from completing goals , and can also collect coins , which can be used to purchase upgrades . Players perform tricks in quick succession , or combos , to earn points towards a competitive high score . The game also tracks distance traveled and trick combos . Later in the game , players can use a wingsuit , which changes some elements of the game . The environments of Alto 's Adventure change in lighting as time passes through the cycle of the day , and also incorporate weather effects . Player progress syncs between iPads and iPhones over iCloud , and the game uses Game Center leaderboards .
= = Development = =
Alto 's Adventure was built in collaboration between Snowman , an indie development studio based in Toronto , and lead artist and programmer Harry Nesbitt , based in Devon , England . The developers intended the game to " capture the flow and feeling of snowboarding " and the way " everything else sort of just disappears " when " in rhythm with the mountain " , unlike other snowboarding games . Snowman also sought to address how other mobile games emphasize video game console @-@ type elements with on @-@ screen controls , which co @-@ founder Ryan Cash felt were largely not designed with the mobile platform in mind .
Alto 's Adventure was inspired by Journey ( 2012 ) , Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 2 ( 2000 ) , and Windosill ( 2009 ) . Snowman 's co @-@ founders , Ryan Cash and Jordan Rosenberg , wanted to bring the essence of the Tony Hawk games of their youth into Alto 's Adventure , including " fun , positive goals " and an " easy to learn , hard to master " trick system . They avoided goals from other endless runners that they considered negative , uninteresting , or repetitive . As inspired by Monument Valley ( 2014 ) , the developers chose to charge above average for the game as a trade @-@ off for not including offsets like in @-@ game advertisements or in @-@ app purchases . Snowman has said any new content would be as an expansion along the lines of Monument Valley 's " Forgotten Shores " . The game was released for iOS on February 19 , 2015 .
A port for Android and Kindle Fire was announced on September later that year . However , it was not until February the following year that a definite release date was announced , and the app was finally released for those platforms on February 11 . Snowman collaborated with Noodlecake Studios to make an Android port . Additionally , unlike the iOS version , which is launched as a " premium app " ( which requires user to pay $ 2 @.@ 99 to download ) , the Android version will be free to download . In an exclusive interview with The Verge , Ryan Cash of Snowman explained that their decision to make the Android Alto 's is due to iOS and Android being on a " completely different ecosystem " , and mainly because of the bigger piracy issues on Android apps . Additionally , he said that those using the Android port will have the same experience as those playing Alto 's in the iOS .
= = Reception = =
The game received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers had high praise for its art style and aesthetics but criticized its gameplay as unoriginal . Pocket Gamer awarded the game their Gold Award .
The Verge 's Andrew Webster wrote that the game was a " supremely laid back " and " incredibly relaxing experience " . He wrote that this " next great iPad game " was already one of his mobile favorites , and is set apart from others by its " style " and " achingly beautiful " mountain landscape . Webster found Alto 's Adventure to be part art game and part " fun little time waster " , and compared it to a combination of Sword & Sworcery and Tiny Wings . TouchArcade 's Jared Nelson likened its art style to Journey and its gameplay to Ski Safari . While he didn 't find the game challenging , he enjoyed the " incredible " visuals : " tons of tiny details " , like the character animations and changes in lighting and weather , contributed . Nelson also characterized TouchArcade readers ' impressions as " highly positive " .
Eric Ford , also of TouchArcade , found the gameplay " basic " as well — " not much here that truly innovates within the genre " — but felt that the game was worth experiencing for its " excellent visual style and soundtrack " . He also compared the gameplay to Ski Safari and additionally wrote that while the game 's power @-@ ups , quest objectives , currency , and score were " pretty standard " , the trick system was praiseworthy and gave even easy tricks a sense of " accomplishment " . Ford was not enticed by the available upgrades and wrote that he played not for the upgrades but for the game 's " whole look and feel " that was made to feel like more than a game with its " awesome " , " mellow " , and " soothing " soundtrack . Ford added that the game earned " its hype " from its " amazing art style and visual effects " rather than from its gameplay . He was impressed with how much the dynamic weather changed the feel of the game even while the gameplay went unchanged . Ford predicted that players would respond to Alto 's Adventure either in appreciation of its " sheer amount of artistic integrity and nuanced visuals " , or in disappointment by its similarity to previous endless runners .
Harry Slater of Pocket Gamer thought the game was " pretty special " and " among the best on the App Store " . He thought its " stunningly simple " gameplay to be a " compulsive and engaging experience " and " bloody good fun " , though he found its core mechanics unoriginal . Eli Cymet of GameZebo said he wanted to live in the game 's world and praised its " total , uncompromising dedication to atmosphere " and how every choice felt " made to preserve experiential authenticity " .
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= Battle of Long Khanh =
The Battle of Long Khanh ( 6 – 7 June 1971 ) was fought during the Vietnam War between elements of 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) and the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army during Operation Overlord . The fighting saw Australian infantry from 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) attack a heavily fortified communist base camp in Long Khanh Province , while Centurion tanks providing close support crushed many bunkers and their occupants . Regardless , the Viet Cong fought hard to delay the Australian advance and although the bunker system was subsequently captured , along with a second system further south , the Australians suffered a number of casualties and the loss of a UH @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopter . With the Australians unable to concentrate sufficient combat power to achieve a decisive result , the bulk of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese force successfully withdrew intact , although they likely sustained heavy casualties in the process .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of the overall allied strategy of Vietnamization and with the Australian government keen to reduce its own commitment to the war , 8 RAR was not replaced at the end of its tour of duty in December 1970 . 1 ATF was again reduced to just two infantry battalions , albeit with significant armour , artillery and aviation support remaining . The Australian area of operations ( AO ) remained the same however , with the reduction in forces only adding further to the burden on the remaining battalions . Regardless , following a sustained effort by 1 ATF in Phuoc Tuy Province between September 1969 and April 1970 , the bulk of communist forces had become inactive and had left the province to recuperate .
Accordingly , the Australians shifted focus , turning their attention to denying the Viet Cong the chance to resupply by close ambushing around villages and towns , such as Dat Do and Hoa Long . Although not always successful , such operations yielded significant results and by the end of 1970 South Vietnamese forces were increasingly responsible for the security of major population centres . Indeed , the major battles of earlier years were now seen as a thing of the past in Phuoc Tuy . However , in May 1971 , following a request from Brigadier Bruce McDonald — the task force commander — the Australian AO was extended a further 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) north across the border into Long Khanh Province . Several reconnaissance patrols from the Special Air Service Regiment ( SASR ) were subsequently inserted in the vicinity of the Courtenay rubber plantation , and later on the other side of Route 2 . These patrols were highly successful , detecting the presence of a substantial communist force , while a number of Viet Cong were also killed .
= = Prelude = =
Intelligence reports in June , in conjunction with the invaluable information gathered by the SASR , located D445 VC Battalion and 3 / 33 NVA Regiment east of Route 2 along the border between Phuoc Tuy and Long Khanh in an area 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of the Australian base at Nui Dat . These reports indicated that the communists were attempting to disrupt the continuing pacification program , and were also using the area to rest , retrain and refit . In response the 1 ATF commander , McDonald , launched a brigade @-@ sized ' search and clear ' operation , known as Operation Overlord . Named after the D @-@ Day landings during the Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944 , the operation was scheduled to begin on the same day , 27 years later . Notably , there was some trepidation among the Australian sub @-@ unit commanders with the use of this name for operational security reasons , as it was felt that it might telegraph their intentions .
The concept of operations called for a significant blocking force to be inserted , with 4 RAR / NZ ( ANZAC ) deployed along the line of Suoi Ran river , A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment to their west and 2 / 8th Battalion , 3rd US Cavalry Regiment to the north @-@ east . Meanwhile , 3 RAR — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Peter Scott — and the Centurion tanks from C Squadron , 1st Armoured Regiment were tasked with driving the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese into these positions . A number of fire support bases would be established , with A Field Battery and 104 Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery providing indirect fire support in conjunction with American gunners , while 3 RAR would search its AO — belatedly designated as AO Gwenda — with three rifle companies ( A , B , and C ) , while D Company would be held in reserve . The plan envisioned movement by road of both troops and equipment using Route 2 , as well as air insertion . The terrain in the new AO was thickly wooded with some areas of secondary growth beneath the 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) high canopy , as well as numerous water courses , spurs and re @-@ entrants .
= = Battle = =
The operation commenced on 5 June with the insertion of blocking forces consisting of Australian , New Zealand and US troops , followed by the aerial insertion of 3 RAR . The Landing Zone ( LZ ) was clear of large trees to about 200 metres ( 220 yd ) and was secured by the APCs from A Squadron . As A Company landed it was suddenly engaged by intense fire , which also targeted the unsecured B Company LZ 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 1 @,@ 400 yd ) to the south @-@ west . The firing eased after a few minutes however , thereby allowing the insertion of the remaining companies . The Australians subsequently began patrolling and it soon became apparent that they had been dropped within 500 metres ( 550 yd ) of an extensive bunker system .
Signs of a strong Viet Cong and North Vietnamese presence were detected almost as soon as 3 RAR began its sweep , while the blocking elements also had a number of sightings , and a few contacts with small parties moving north . Possibly alerted by allied air and road movements , the communists seemed to be avoiding open combat . Late on the afternoon of 6 June 5 Platoon , B Company located what was thought to be the main communist position , however with nightfall approaching , it was decided not to press the attack that night . During the evening a few shots were exchanged between the Australians and Viet Cong , and the Australian platoon subsequently withdrew into a night harbour .
At 06 : 00 artillery commenced bombarding the position , and following a half @-@ hour of preparation , 5 Platoon resumed its advance expecting the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese to have vacated the position during the night , as they had done numerous times in the past . However , after having proceeded only 90 metres ( 98 yd ) the Australians came under heavy fire from the front and both flanks , suffering several casualties in the initial volleys . It soon became apparent that the platoon was pinned down on the edge of a strongly defended and well @-@ concealed bunker system , with the platoon commander calling for assistance from helicopter gunships , as well as indirect mortar fire rather than risking further casualties by withdrawing .
Moving to support the platoon in contact , Scott ordered D Company to conduct an assault against the flank and rear of the bunker complex , mounted in APCs with tanks in support . Two troops of Centurions spearheaded the assault through the jungle from the north , and they soon began receiving heavy small arms fire and rocket @-@ propelled grenades , one of which subsequently suffered external damage . Realising that the bunker system was larger than previously estimated , the tanks were forced to halt while the infantry were brought up to begin the assault .
Meanwhile , 5 Platoon was in dire straits and was beginning to run low of ammunition , while a number of its M60 machine @-@ guns were also beginning to fail because of the prolonged firing . Moving to outflank the heavily outnumbered Australians , Viet Cong were observed emerging from their bunkers . Indeed , only heavy indirect fire and effective suppressing fire from helicopter gunships prevented them from being overrun . Attempting to gain a better position to direct the fire , the B Company Forward Observer , Lieutenant Ian Mathers , moved forward to 5 Platoon , and was killed almost immediately . However , by 09 : 15 the remainder of B Company was able to link up with the beleaguered platoon , and after an aerial resupply of ammunition , stabilised the situation temporarily .
At 11 : 00 , however , a second attempt to resupply B Company resulted in an Australian Iroquois helicopter being shot down by heavy ground fire , and exploding on impact . Two crew members were killed and another two injured , while another soldier was injured on the ground . With ammunition exploding among the burning wreckage a number of Australians rushed to aid the injured , scrambling through the debris and removing the unexploded ammunition and pulling the survivors to safety . Subsequently , another winch point was established to the rear of the Australian positions for casualty evacuation and resupply .
By mid @-@ afternoon , D Company had finally moved into position and commenced an assault , pushing through the bunker system from the north @-@ east with the Centurion tanks in close support crushing many bunkers and their occupants with their tracks . The progress of the Australian assault was slowed by thick vegetation and the size of the position , even as the resistance slackened and volume of fire diminished . Indeed , the bunker system was later found to cover nearly a square kilometre and was wider than the front of the assaulting company . Painstakingly the Australians searched each bunker systematically . With the action now over , D Company and the tanks subsequently linked up with B Company and established a night defensive position .
During the final assault , C Company , located to the south , had uncovered a second bunker system which was subsequently captured by the Australians after being hastily abandoned . More than 16 @,@ 000 rounds of M60 ammunition had been fired during the fighting , along with 6 @,@ 000 rounds of M16 ammunition . The artillery had fired over 1 @,@ 453 rounds of 105 mm and 200 rounds of 155 mm high explosive in support . Over the next six days Australian pioneer and engineer demolition teams proceeded to destroy the remaining bunkers .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite significantly underestimating the size of the position they faced , the Australians had succeeded in the pushing D445 VC Battalion and 3 / 33 NVA Regiment out of a valuable base area intended for long @-@ term use . Regardless , there were few other tangible results to show for the casualties they had incurred as , although numerous blood trails and body parts scattered around the battlefield indicated that communist casualties had been heavy , the majority of their dead had either been removed from the battlefield or were entombed in the bunkers that had been crushed by the Australian tanks . The battle had cost the Australians three killed and six wounded , while only five Viet Cong bodies were recovered .
The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese had defended strongly in order to allow an orderly evacuation of personnel and stores , and with the Australians unable to concentrate sufficient combat power rapidly enough to ensure a decisive result , they were largely able to achieve this objective . Unfazed by the loss of their base @-@ camps , the bulk of the communist force remained intact and later carried out a highly successful ambush by 274 VC Main Force Regiment on 12 June . Seven Australians were killed and three wounded from the HQ 1 ATF Defence and Employment Platoon in this subsequent action , with the bulk of the casualties occurring when an RPG @-@ 7 exploded on a box of M18A1 Claymores sitting atop an M113 Armoured Personnel Carrier , igniting them with catastrophic consequences . Operations in Long Khanh continued however , and the Australians established a number of ambushes on possible withdrawal routes , although little contact subsequently occurred .
Operation Overlord finally ended on 14 June and 1 ATF returned to Nui Dat . Overall , despite the heavy contact experienced early on , it had yielded little for the Australians although neither D445 or 33 NVA Regiment were encountered in Phuoc Tuy again . Overlord was one of the larger task force operations of the war , while it was also the last joint US @-@ Australian battalion @-@ sized operation . Indeed , although the fighting continued , Australian operations began to wind down . On 18 August 1971 , Prime Minister William McMahon announced that 1 ATF would cease operations in October , commencing a phased withdrawal . Ultimately , the last Australian forces were withdrawn from Vietnam by 1973 .
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= Grand Guignol Orchestra =
Grand Guignol Orchestra ( Japanese : 人形宮廷楽団 , Hepburn : Guignol Kyūtei Gakudan ) is a gothic horror shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga series written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki . Appearing as a monthly serial in the Japanese manga magazine Bessatsu Hana to Yume from the August 2008 issue to the June 2010 issue , the eighteen chapters of Grand Guignol Orchestra were collected into five bound volumes by Hakusensha — together with Yuki 's romantic one @-@ shot manga " Camolet Garden " , which had appeared in the April 2008 issue — and published from February 2009 to August 2010 . Set in a world where a worldwide epidemic of a virus has turned part of the population into guignols ( zombies which resemble marionettes ) , Grand Guignol Orchestra focuses on singer Lucille and his orchestra , which destroys the guignols through music .
At the 2009 New York Anime Festival , Viz Media announced that it had licensed the series for an English @-@ language translation . It published the series under its Shojo Beat imprint , from October 2010 to December 2011 . The series has also been translated into other languages , such as German and Mandarin . Grand Guignol Orchestra has been positively received by English @-@ language readers , with three volumes placing on the list of the top 300 bestselling graphic novels . The series has received a range of reviews from English @-@ language critics . Yuki 's illustrations and premise were generally well @-@ received , with criticism of the series focused on the narrative and page layouts .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Manga artist Kaori Yuki has described the setting of Grand Guignol Orchestra as the " Middle Ages ( sort of ) with a French air . " The series takes place in a fictional universe , where an worldwide epidemic of a virus , the Galatea Syndrome ( ガラテイア症候群 , Garateia Shoukougun ) , has turned part of the population into guignols ( ギニョール , Giniyōru ) , zombies which resemble marionettes . Certain types of music can restore humanity and memories to the guignols while speeding up their destruction ; the queen 's Grand Orchestra destroys guignols through music , as does the much smaller , unofficial Grand Orchestra . If an area becomes more than seventy percent infected by the virus , the queen sends her Divine Lightning ( 神雷 , Kami Kaminari ) to destroy the area and keep the virus from spreading . The virus , however , originates from the first queen , whose father transformed her into a guignol ; subsequent queens and their potential successors are grown from her cells . Opposed to the queen 's rule is Le Sénat : consuls Richter ( リチテライツ , Richiteraitu ) and Valentine ( バレンチナイツ , Barentinaitu ) , chancellor Meerschaum ( ミアシャム , Miatsuyamu ) , and regent Jasper ( ジャスパー , Jayasupā ) , all of whom have been governing for a century .
= = = Story = = =
The plot follows the unofficial Grand Orchestra led by singer Lucille ( ルチル , Ruchiru ) , who searches for a way to rescue his younger sister Cordierite " Cordie " ( コーディアライト , Kodiaraito ) — who now despises him as the cold @-@ hearted Queen Gemsilica , convinced that he tricked her into becoming queen in his place . The other members include the violence @-@ prone violinist Kohaku ( コハク ) , who was bitten by a guignol ; and cellist Gwindel " Gwin " ( グィンデル , Guwinderu ) , a former sculptor of guignols who keeps his daughter 's hedgehog with him . They are soon joined by pianist Celestite " Celes " ( セレスタイト , Seresutaito ) , who has lived under the identity of her twin brother , Elestial " Eles " ( エレスチャル , Eresutiaru ) after a guignol attack left her the only surviving child in her town . They periodically encounter Berthier ( ベルチェ , Beruchie ) , the unofficial orchestra 's former pianist whose violence drove his beloved , Lucille , away and who was resurrected by Le Sénat after his suicide . Other reoccurring characters include Spinel ( スピネル , Supineru ) , a spy for the queen who can manipulate her voice and whom Lucille befriended when she snuck into the all @-@ male monastery as a child .
The unofficial orchestra visits infected towns and destroys the guignols there for a fee . Eventually , they obtain the Black Oratorio ( 黒の聖譚曲 , Kuro no Hijiri Tan Kyoku ) , rumoured to be able to destroy the queen and neutralize the virus when performed . Having left Eles behind for her own protection and unaware that she took the Black Oratorio out of fear of its effects on the orchestra , Lucille and his orchestra confront Queen Gemsilica , and find Berthier with a kidnapped Eles and the Black Oratorio . Queen Gemsilica is fatally wounded by their servant Cookiete " Cook " ( クーク石 , Kukitu ) . Secretly the host of the original king , Cook is responsible for the manipulation that caused her to become queen instead of Lucille . Berthier , persuaded to return the Black Oratorio , kills Cook as he attempts to escape , and the music of the Black Oratorio is broadcast throughout the world by the satellites formerly used for Divine Lightning . Upon hearing the music , the guignols sing along and are destroyed . Separated from Lucille and the orchestra , Eles realizes that she can live as herself now . Later , she joyfully reunites with Lucille , and rejoins the unofficial orchestra , all of whom have been affected by the neutralization of the virus .
= = Development = =
Yuki noted that the title of the series was potentially misleading , as the orchestra is not composed of guignols ; she chose the word " guignol " — which describes hand puppets , not marionettes — for its sound . Page limitations affected the roles of Kohaku and Carnelian , Lucille 's castrato rival , although she felt that the story still ended as she had planned it . She also faced difficulty with Berthier 's character design . Initially , she planned to have him appear in a " full @-@ body animal suit " costume , but decided against the idea as " too comical . " One of his early character designs was used for a minor character , an assassin for Le Sénat .
Included with the bound @-@ volume release of Grand Guignol Orchestra is " Camolet Garden " , Yuki 's 92 @-@ page romantic one @-@ shot manga originally published in the April 2008 issue of the monthly shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga magazine Bessatsu Hana to Yume . It focuses on Ryū , who finds himself in a boys ' dormitory , where its inhabitants have ranks corresponding to a deck of playing cards . He struggles to solve the mystery of the boys ' dormitory , closed off from the outside world and where death only results in rebirth . In it , Yuki made allusions to the Victorian poem " The Lady of Shalott " by the English poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson . In retrospective , she felt that its setting was " not really the best , " and the many characters presented some difficulty in remembering .
= = Release = =
Written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki , Grand Guignol Orchestra appeared as a serial in Bessatsu Hana to Yume from the August 2008 issue , to the June 2010 issue . Hakusensha collected the eighteen chapters into five bound volumes , and released them from 19 February 2009 , to 19 August 2010 .
At the 2009 New York Anime Festival , Viz Media announced that it had licensed the series and would publish the series under its Shojo Beat imprint . Viz Media published the series from 5 October 2010 , to 6 December 2011 . It also released a digital version of the series . The series is distributed by Madman Entertainment in Australasia ( Australia and New Zealand ) . It has also been translated into other languages , among them German , Italian , French , and Mandarin .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Reception = =
Grand Guignol Orchestra was positively received by English @-@ language readers . Three volumes appeared on the list of the 300 bestselling graphic novels . The first volume sold 464 copies and appeared at the 256th spot on October 2010 ; it reached the fifteenth spot in BookScan 's list of the twenty bestselling graphic novels for September 2011 . The second volume sold an estimated 334 copies , and appeared at the 265th spot for February 2011 . The fifth volume sold an estimated 297 copies , and appeared at the 267th spot .
Writing for School Library Journal 's blog Good Comics for Kids , Snow Wildsmith reviewed the first volume positively , and wrote , " The elements her fans adore are all there : beautiful characters , gender ambiguity , horror themes , blood and gore , and , of course , gorgeous costumes . " According to Wildsmith , the unexplained aspects of the plot helped to create interest for the readers . David Welsh of Comic World News had more mixed feelings about the first volume ; although he praised the aesthetic , premise , translation , and guignols , he wrote that Yuki 's work would be more appealing " if she could just strike that balance between creative focus and intellectual abandon and emotional shamelessness . " About.com 's Deb Aoki reviewed it negatively , criticizing its plot . Aoki wrote that it would only appeal to fans of Yuki . While finding aspects of the setting and costume design historically confusing and trying on the reader 's suspension of disbelief , Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network wrote that the Gwin 's backstory , the quick pacing , Yuki 's detailed art , and her frightening portrayal of zombies made the third volume " a winning entry in an already fascinating series . " Silverman had mixed feelings about the dense page layouts : according to her , they contributed to the narrative suspense , although they affected the reader 's ability to easily read the volume in places . In her review of the fourth volume , Silverman praised the character development and Yuki 's ability to create mysteries , although she wrote that not all readers would enjoy the numerous plot twists . She also suggested the possibility of a metaphor for the French Revolution in the series . Another reviewer for Anime News Network , Carlo Santos gave the third volume a C- ; while he praised Yuki 's illustrations and ability to create " dramatic revelations , " he wrote that it was overshadowed by the confusing and cluttered narrative .
Sequential Tart 's Sheena McNeil reviewed the series positively , with Yuki 's art , characterization , and storytelling a source of praise . She , however , expressed her feelings of annoyance and frustration with the conclusion of the fourth volume , which saw the female characters left behind on purpose by the male members of the orchestra and then Eles ' kidnapping by Berthier . She also wrote that Yuki 's inclusion of a happy ending felt surprising compared to the rest of the story . Reviewing " Camelot Garden " , she enjoyed it less than Grand Guignol Orchestra , and wrote that the short story contained an implicit reference to Lewis Carroll 's children 's novel Through the Looking Glass ( 1871 ) and its character , the ever @-@ sleeping Red King .
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= 2015 Tour of Oman =
The 2015 Tour of Oman was the sixth edition of the Tour of Oman cycling stage race . It was rated as a 2.HC event on the UCI Asia Tour , and was held from 17 to 22 February 2015 , in Oman . The race was organised by the municipality of Muscat , in collaboration with ASO ( the organisers of the Tour de France ) and Paumer . Chris Froome , the defending champion from 2013 and 2014 , was not present to defend his title .
The decisive stage in this as in past editions was the climb of Jebel Akhdar . That stage was won by Rafael Valls of Lampre – Merida , who went on to defend his overall race lead to the finish in Muscat . This was aided by the controversial events of stage 5 , which was eventually cancelled due to extreme weather conditions . Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) finished second ( as he had in 2014 ) and Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) finished third .
The points competition was won by Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) , who won the first stage of the race . Louis Meintjes ( MTN – Qhubeka ) was the best young rider , while Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) won the combativity prize after participating in the breakaway on every stage of the race . BMC Racing Team was the winner of the teams classification .
= = Teams = =
18 teams were selected to take part in the event , including 12 UCI Pro Tour teams .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The Tour of Oman is the third of a trio of stage races in the Middle East that come early in the road cycling season , following the Dubai Tour and the Tour of Qatar , in 2015 won by Mark Cavendish and Niki Terpstra respectively . The distinctive feature of the Tour of Oman is the annual inclusion of the climb of Jebel Akhdar , the Green Mountain , which means the general classification is generally won by climbers . Many Grand Tour contenders start their seasons racing in Oman for this reason .
In 2013 and 2014 , the race was won by Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) as the beginning of his preparation for the Tour de France . In 2015 , however , Froome opted to begin his season at the Vuelta a Andalucía and so missed the Tour of Oman . The race was therefore expected to be contested between other Grand Tour riders , such as Tour de France champion Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) , Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) , Thibault Pinot ( FDJ ) , Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Leopold König ( Team Sky ) .
Although the general classification was expected to be contested by climbers , many riders ride the Tour of Oman with other aims . Spring classics riders use them as a last block of racing before the European classics season starts with the Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , while sprinters aim to win stages . Notable sprinters at the 2015 race included Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , who won three stages in the 2014 Tour of Qatar , Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) and Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . Stages 1 , 3 and 6 were predicted to be suited for the pure sprinters , while stages 2 and 5 were expected to suit riders who could cope with some climbing .
= = Route = =
The 2015 event was scheduled to have six stages , including four flat stages , one medium @-@ mountain stage and one mountain stage .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
The first stage was a 161 km ( 100 mi ) route from Bayt al Naman Castle to Al Wuttayah on the outskirts of Muscat . It was a fairly flat course , with an uphill finish . Temperatures exceeded 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .
The early breakaway was formed by Johan van Zyl ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Patrick Konrad ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Simone Andreetta ( Bardiani – CSF ) and Jef van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , who built a lead of up to five minutes . The chasing peloton was led for most of the day by Team Katusha , in support of their leader Alexander Kristoff , for whom the uphill finish was ideal . Movistar Team and Trek Factory Racing aided in the chase .
Van Zyl put in an attack with 85 km ( 53 mi ) remaining , leaving his breakaway companions behind . This group was soon caught by the peloton after Konrad suffered a puncture ; Van Zyl was caught with 32 km ( 20 mi ) remaining . Team Katusha continued to lead the peloton until the final kilometres . At this point , Etixx – Quick @-@ Step led out the sprint in support of Tom Boonen . However , they misjudged the difficulty towards the finish line : there was a 2 @-@ 3 % incline and a headwind . This caused the team to mistime the sprint : Boonen 's lead @-@ out man Matteo Trentin was only able to support him until there were 200 m ( 660 ft ) remaining . Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) was supported by his teammate Borut Božič and was then able to follow Boonen and come past him in the final 50 m ( 160 ft ) to take his first victory of 2015 . Matteo Pelucchi ( Lampre – Merida ) took third place .
Guardini therefore took over the red jersey of overall leader . Van Zyl , Konrad and Andreeta all finished on the same time as Guardini and so moved into the top ten thanks to bonus seconds won at intermediate sprints .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
Stage 2 was a 195 km ( 121 mi ) route ( the longest of the race ) from Al Hazm Castle to Al Bustan . It was classified as a flat stage , but there were two notable climbs within the last 25 km ( 16 mi ) , presenting the opportunity for riders to attack close to the finish .
The early breakaway was formed by Gatis Smukulis ( Team Katusha ) , Preben Van Hecke , Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( both Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , and Enrico Barbin ( Bardiani – CSF ) . The chase was led by Astana , defending the red jersey of Andrea Guardini . After about 50 km ( 31 mi ) , Barbin suffered a puncture ; he was dropped by the remaining three riders and was then caught by the peloton . As the stage progressed , Tinkoff – Saxo took control of the peloton in support of Peter Sagan . Their strong pace meant that the main group was soon catching the breakaway , but the peloton itself began to split , with riders including Edvald Boasson Hagen ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) among the riders temporarily distanced from the front of the race .
The breakaway had a two @-@ minute lead with 25 km ( 16 mi ) remaining , as they approached the climbs at the end of the stage . Smukulis attacked on the first climb , Al Hamriyah , and had a 30 @-@ second lead at the summit , with the peloton a little over a minute behind . Guardini was among the riders who were dropped from the peloton , with Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) and Thibault Pinot ( FDJ ) also in difficulty . Smukulis was caught soon afterwards , with 16 @.@ 5 km ( 10 mi ) remaining , under continued impetus from Tinkoff – Saxo .
On the second climb , Al Jissah , there was an attack from Jakob Fuglsang ( Astana ) , Ben Hermans ( BMC Racing Team ) , Julián Arredondo ( Trek Factory Racing ) , and Louis Meintjes ( MTN – Qhubeka ) . Pinot , Rodriguez and Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) were all dropped by the peloton , now reduced to a small group . This group , made up of 14 riders , was able to catch the breakaway soon after the climb . Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) , Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) and Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) all made attacks in the final 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) , but were unable to stay away and the race came down to a sprint .
Movistar Team did much of the pace @-@ setting in support of Valverde , before BMC Racing Team attempted to set up Greg Van Avermaet for the uphill sprint at the finish . Despite these efforts , Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) was able to sprint to victory . Valverde was second , with Van Avermaet in third place . This victory meant that Cancellara took over the lead of both the general classification and the points competition . It was his first race victory since the 2014 Tour of Flanders the previous spring .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
Stage 3 was a 158 @.@ 5 km ( 98 mi ) route that started and ended at Al Mussanah Sports City . The route was mostly flat with no significant climbs and the roads at the finish were wide and straight , so the stage was likely to end in a bunch sprint .
Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) was again in the breakaway , along with his teammate Preben Van Hecke and Alessandro Tonelli ( Bardiani – CSF ) . Initially there was a lack of agreement in the peloton about who should lead the chase . Trek Factory Racing were supporting race leader Fabian Cancellara , but they wanted the sprinters ' teams to support the chase . The breakaway was therefore allowed a lead that reached nine minutes , but eventually agreement between the chasing teams brought control and the lead was reduced to six minutes . The breakaway was eventually caught with 15 km ( 9 mi ) remaining .
In the final 10 km ( 6 mi ) many teams , including Astana , Movistar Team , MTN – Qhubeka and Tinkoff – Saxo , sought to lead out their sprinters . In the confusion , Matteo Trentin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) crashed and was forced to abandon the race . Team Katusha moved up in the final 5 km ( 3 mi ) in support of Alexander Kristoff . Kristoff 's lead out train was strong and positioned him well for the final sprint .
In the finishing straight , there was a significant headwind , and , when Danny van Poppel ( Trek Factory Racing ) opened his sprint too early , Kristoff was able to follow him and come round to take his fourth victory of the season , just ahead of Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) . Cancellara retained his overall lead in the race .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
Stage 4 was the queen stage of the race , with a summit finish at the climb of Jabal al Akhdar ( the Green Mountain ) . The stage was a 189 km ( 117 mi ) route from the Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque to Jabal al Akhdar . There were no significant climbs in the route until the final 5 @.@ 7 km ( 4 mi ) , which had an average gradient of 10 @.@ 5 % .
An early breakaway was formed of Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) ( the leader of the combativity award and in the breakaway for the fourth consecutive stage ) , his teammate Gijs Van Hoecke , Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and points classification leader Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) . Guardini and Van Meirhaeghe contested the intermediate sprint after 18 @.@ 5 km ( 11 mi ) , taking points for their respective classifications , then sat up and were caught by the peloton . Vandenbergh and Van Hoecke were allowed to build a lead of nearly 15 minutes , before the peloton increased its speed . The breakaway was caught with less than 10 km ( 10 mi ) to go .
BMC Racing Team led the peloton hard into the early slopes of Jabal al Akhdar . This caused many riders , including race leader Fabian Cancellara , to be dropped , and a group of 20 riders formed . Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) put in two attacks , causing the group to be reduced further , in support of Jakob Fuglsang . More riders , including Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) were dropped , leaving a group of three riders in the lead with 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) to go : Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) and Rafael Valls ( Lampre – Merida ) . Majka unable to follow Van Garderen 's attacks , but Valls was able to stay in his wheel . Valls was then able to put in his own attack and pass Van Garderen in the final part of the stage , going on to win by five seconds . It was his first victory in five years and gave him a 19 @-@ second lead in the overall standings . Van Garderen was frustrated after the stage , having also finished second on the same stage in the 2014 race behind Chris Froome . He said afterwards that he had " underestimated " Valls , who had not been considered among the favourites for stage victory .
Louis Meintjes ( MTN – Qhubeka ) was eighth on the stage and moved into the white jersey as the best young rider .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
Stage 5 was scheduled to be a 151 @.@ 5 km ( 94 mi ) route , beginning at Al Sawadi Beach . The planned route then went along the coast and included four laps of a circuit before finishing at the Ministry of Housing . Each lap of the circuit included the climb of Bousher al Amerat , a difficult climb . Equivalent stages in the 2013 and 2014 editions had been highly selective , and the stage was considered an opportunity for Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) to attempt to attack race leader Rafael Valls ( Lampre – Merida ) .
Extreme weather conditions , however , made the stage impossible . There was a sandstorm at the starting point on Al Sawadi Beach , so the decision was taken to transport the riders to the finishing circuit , shortening the stage to 95 km ( 59 mi ) . When the riders arrived at the finishing circuit , however , they were now faced with very high temperatures , approximately 41 ° C ( 106 ° F ) . They started racing , but found themselves with problems due to the extreme heat . Several riders suffered punctures , especially during the fast descents , and problems with their brakes and the riders took the decision to neutralise the stage and took shelter under a bridge . The race organisers , led by race director Eddy Merckx , tried to persuade the riders to carry on , and at one point it was suggested that the cancellation of the stage could mean the end of the Tour of Oman altogether . It was eventually agreed , however , that the riders would take a short flat route to the stage finish .
With the stage cancelled , the standings in all the classifications remained unchanged .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
Stage 6 was a 133 @.@ 5 km ( 83 @.@ 0 mi ) route starting at the headquarters of Oman Air on the edge of Muscat International Airport . The route first followed the coast west , before turning inland and heading east . The race crossed two classified climbs on the edge of Muscat , before finishing on the corniche at Muttrah with three laps of a finishing circuit . The weather conditions were much more suitable for racing , with grey skies and the temperature approximately 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) lower than the previous day .
The first riders to break away , were Iljo Keisse ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Jef Van Meirhaeghe ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . Van Meirhaeghe was in the breakaway for the fifth time in the race : he had participated in the breakaway on every stage except the aborted stage 5 . After his efforts earlier in the week , he struggled initially to stay with Keisse . The pair were joined , however , by Danny Pate ( Team Sky ) and Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) , and Van Meirhaeghe was able to stay with the group . Jelle Wallays , Van Meirhaeghe 's team mate , attempted to bridge across to the leading riders , but he was not able to make it across in the crosswinds and was caught by the main peloton . Lampre – Merida were happy to allow the breakaway a large lead as none of the riders posed any threat to Rafael Valls in the general classification , and they had a nine @-@ minute lead with approximately 65 km ( 40 mi ) remaining .
The sprinters ' teams attempted to chase the breakaway down . Principally this was led by Cofidis , who were hoping to set up Nacer Bouhanni for the stage win . However , the hills close to the finish made this difficult , as the breakaway were able to maintain their advantage on the technical descents . Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) was dropped on the last of these climbs .
In the leading group , Pate made the first attack on the unclassified climb on the finishing circuit , but Brändle covered the move and passed him . Brändle was then able to hold off the chase of Keisse – the faster sprinter – and finished the stage with a four @-@ second advantage . Van Meirhaeghe finished third with Pate fourth . In the peloton , Peter Sagan won the bunch sprint , over a minute behind Brändle .
Rafael Valls was therefore able to secure the overall win , nine seconds ahead of Van Garderen , to take the first professional stage race win of his career .
= = Classification leadership = =
There were five principal classifications in the 2015 Tour of Oman .
The first and most important was the general classification ; the winner of this is considered the overall winner of the race . It is calculated by adding together each rider 's times on each stage , then applying bonuses . Bonuses are awarded for coming in the top three on a stage ( 10 seconds for the winner , 6 seconds for the second placed rider and 4 seconds for the rider in third ) or at intermediate sprints ( 3 seconds , 2 seconds and 1 second for the top three riders ) . The rider in the lead of the general classification wears a red jersey .
The second competition is the points classification . This is calculated by awarding points for the top 10 riders at the finish of each stage ( 15 points to the winner down to 1 point for the rider in tenth place ) and to the top three at intermediate sprints ( 3 points , 2 points and 1 point ) . The rider with the highest points total is the leader of the classification and wears a green jersey .
The young rider classification is open to those born on or after 1 January 1990 . The young rider ranked highest in the general classification is the leader of the young rider classification and wears a white jersey .
The combativity classification is based on points won at intermediate sprints and classified climbs along the route . Points are awarded to the top three riders across each sprint or climb ( 3 points , 2 points and 1 point ) . The rider with the most accumulated points is the leader of the classification and wears a white jersey with red and green sections .
The final competition is the team classification . On each stage , each team is awarded a time based on the cumulative time of its top three riders . The times for each stage are then added together and the team with the lowest total time is the leader of the team classification . There is no jersey awarded for this classification .
= = Classification standings = =
= = = Team classification = = =
= = Controversy over stage 5 = =
The 2015 race included one significant controversy : the conditions on stage 5 that led to the stage 's cancellation . After a sandstorm had caused the start of the race to be relocated , very high temperatures ( somewhere between 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) and 49 ° C ( 120 ° F ) ) caused several riders ' tyres to puncture . This was especially the case on the neutralised descents , as the slow speeds and consequent frequent braking led to higher tyre temperatures and more punctures . Many riders had concerns for their safety on the descents , and a rider protest brought the race to a halt .
Riders engaged in a lengthy discussion with the race organisers , who were represented by Eddy Merckx , considered one of the greatest cyclists ever , who was part @-@ owner of the race . The Omani organisers , led by Salim bin Mubarak Al Hassani , put pressure on the riders to continue racing , but they refused to do so . The riders were led by Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , who cited the danger of continuing to race in the conditions , suggesting that their lives were at risk . The stage was eventually neutralised and the riders returned to the finish line by a flat route .
After the race , Merckx publicly dismissed the riders ' complaints . In particular , he made comparisons with the dangers that are accepted by the riders , such as those faced when riding Paris – Roubaix or descending on wet days in the Tour de France . Merckx also said that he was worried about the future of the race , as the local organisers were angry at the cancellation of the stage and had wanted to cancel stage 6 as well . He was also concerned about the renewal of the contract to run the Tour of Oman , after it expired in 2016 . Before the final stage – which did go ahead – he had agreed with the local authorities that the race would continue in 2016 . It was suggested , however , that the local organisers may refuse to invite certain teams back to future editions of the race . These teams possibly included Etixx – Quick @-@ Step and Trek Factory Racing since their riders were central to the rider protest .
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= Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well =
Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well is a book of poems by American author Maya Angelou , published by Random House in 1975 . It is Angelou 's second volume of poetry , written after her first two autobiographies and first volume of poetry were published . Angelou considers herself a poet and a playwright , but is best known for her seven autobiographies , especially her first , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , although her poetry has also been successful . She began , early in her writing career , alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Although her poetry collections have been best @-@ sellers , they have not received serious critical attention .
Oh Pray is divided into five parts and consists of 36 poems . The volume is dedicated to " Paul " . Like many of Angelou 's poems , the poetry in the volume has been characterized as light verse . They contain identifications with ordinary objects and universal identifications . Oh Pray has received mixed reviews from critics ; one critic states that the poems in it are best if read aloud . They focus on themes of love , insight , and tension , and on overcoming difficulties . Angelou writes about ordinary objects and experiences , and with deep feelings , about a variety of racial themes and concerns .
= = Background = =
Oh Pray My Wings are Gonna Fit Me Well is Maya Angelou 's second volume of poetry . She studied and began writing poetry at a young age . After her rape at the age of eight , as recounted in her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , she dealt with her trauma by memorizing and reciting great works of literature , including poetry , which helped bring her out of her self @-@ imposed muteness . Angelou 's film Georgia , Georgia , produced by a Swedish film company and filmed in Sweden , was the first screenplay written by a Black woman , and was released in 1972 . Angelou married Welsh carpenter and ex @-@ husband of Germaine Greer , Paul du Feu , in San Francisco in 1973 .
Although Angelou considered herself a playwright and poet when her editor Robert Loomis challenged her to write Caged Bird , she has been best known for her autobiographies . Many of Angelou 's readers identify her as a poet first and an autobiographer second , but like Lynn Z. Bloom , many critics consider her autobiographies more important than her poetry . Critic William Sylvester agrees , and states that although her books have been best @-@ sellers , her poetry has " received little serious critical attention " . Bloom also believes that Angelou 's poetry is more interesting when she recites it . Bloom calls Angelou 's performances " characteristically dynamic " , and says that she " moves exuberantly , vigorously to reinforce the rhythms of the lines , the tone of the words . Her singing and dancing and electrifying stage presence transcend the predictable words and phrases " .
Angelou began , early in her writing career , alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Her first volume of poetry , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , which was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize , followed her first autobiography , and Oh Pray followed the publication of her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) . Her publisher , Random House , placed the poems in Oh Pray in her first collection of poetry , The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou ( 1994 ) , perhaps to capitalize on her popularity following her reading of her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration in 1993 . Also in the 1994 collection was Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie and two more published after Oh Pray , And Still I Rise ( 1978 ) and Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? ( 1983 ) . Angelou 's publisher placed four more poems in a smaller volume , entitled Phenomenal Woman , in 1995 .
= = Themes = =
Many of Angelou 's poems can be characterized as light verse . For example , Hagen characterizes " On Reaching Forty " as a light rumination about growing older . Angelou expresses sadness about having already reaching milestones in her youth , and ends the poem unexpectedly by humorously and ironically expressing admiration for those who die early . In this volume and in others , Angelou pairs poems together ( " America " and " Africa " ; " Communication I " and Communication II " ) to strengthen her themes .
The poems in this volume , like her poems in other volumes and contexts , contain universal identifications with ordinary objects . For example , " The Telephone " describes her relationship with an object , and how it has intruded upon the silence and solitude of her life . In this poem , which is three structured stanzas long , Angelou demands that the telephone ring , despite her resentment of its intrusion and her dependency upon it . She uses familiar and feminine metaphors , and themes also found in blues songs , such as the colors black and blue and weekend loneliness . In the poem " Poor Girl " , Angelou uses the vernacular to express universal themes , in the voice of a teenage girl who has lost her boyfriend .
Scholar Yasmin Y. DeGout cites " The Couple " as an example of Angelou 's practice of subtly including more than one level of meaning in her poems , of her ability to translate her personal experience into political discourse , and her placement of themes of racism and liberation . Angelou combines liberation ideology and poetic technique to challenge society 's concepts of gender identity , especially in how it affects women . She varies the length of the poem 's lines , beginning in the first stanza and continuing throughout the poem , to convey ambiguity and doubt , and to demand that the reader question their perceptions of gender and power . " The Couple " , starting in its second stanza , attacks class @-@ based ideals of masculinity in society . The poem ends by demanding that the social constructs surrounding gender and class end , and insists that human survival depends upon recognizing shared emotions and experience , regardless of one 's gender or position in society .
= = Poems = =
Oh Pray My Wings are Gonna Fit Me Well is divided into five parts , and consists of 36 poems . The volume is dedicated to " Paul " .
= = Critical response = =
Kathryn Gibbs Harris , in her review in Library Journal , states that the poems in Oh Pray , like " Child Dead in Old Seas " , are good heritage ballads with excellent lyrics . She calls " This Winter Day " colorful and pleasant , and states that it reminds her of a genre painting . She , like many critics about much of Angelou 's poetry , says , " The poems work best read aloud " . The critic in Booklist considers the way in which the poems are organized distracting , but says that it " does not diminish the street @-@ wise soundings infused with a particular pain and pride " . According to the review , the rhyme in " Here 's to Adhering " is simple , but its structure is deceptively complex . The critic also says , " The sardonic quality of ' On Reaching Forty ' reduces age to a minor milestone ; nationhood is elevated to a higher yet deeper plane in ' Africa ' and in ' America . ' ' The Pusher ' is a typical Angelou acceleration , but it is ' Chicken @-@ Licken ' that causes a dead halt " . Poetry critic Sandra Gilbert says that Angelou 's poems , " when they 're not awkward or stilted , are corny " .
According to a reviewer in Choice , the poems in Oh Pray focus on themes of love , insight , and tension . They also focus on " the black condition celebrated triumphant over difficulties " . The reviewer finds some poems uneven , sometimes banal , also best if read aloud , and meant to " be reread and laughed over and thought about " . Reviewer James Finn Cotter states that this volume suffers from " the dangers of success " that happen when poets gain too much fame too soon . Gilbert blames Angelou 's publishers for capitalizing on her success as an autobiographer , stating that Oh Pray " ... is such a painfully untalented collection of poems that I can 't think of any reason other than the Maya myth for it to be in print " . Writer Lyman B. Hagen responds to Gilbert 's criticism by stating that Angelou had been a poet long before she began writing prose and that Angelou 's audience is comfortable with her sparse lines . He insists that Angelou 's critics have missed the power of her poems ' message in her apparently simple lines . Hagen calls Angelou 's poetry light verse . He states that she writes about ordinary objects and experiences , and with deep feelings , about a variety of racial themes and concerns .
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= Islands ( The xx song ) =
" Islands " is a song recorded by English indie pop band The xx for their self @-@ titled debut studio album . Written by band @-@ members Jamie Smith , Oliver Sim , Romy Madley Croft and then @-@ member Baria Qureshi , " Islands " is a dark and simple indie pop track . It also contains influences from house music and features instrumentation from guitars and synthesizers . Croft and Sim , who provided vocals in the track , sing about themes related to loyalty and love . " Islands " was released on 26 October 2009 as the third single from the album by Young Turks in 7 @-@ inch single and digital download formats . In March 2010 , the song was re @-@ released as a 12 @-@ inch single .
Upon its release , " Islands " received critical acclaim from music critics , many of whom praised Croft and Sim 's vocal delivery . It was ranked at number 28 by music publication NME on their list of " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " . The song became the band 's highest peaking single in the United Kingdom after it reached number 34 on the UK Singles Chart . It also peaked at number three on the UK Indie Chart . An accompanying music video for " Islands " was directed by Saam Farahmand , and consists of numerous tracking shots that show six dancers performing a dance routine around the members of the band . Every different shot features a slight change in the expression , gestures , and movement of the dancers and band @-@ members . Critics complimented the concept of the video , and felt it was representative of The xx 's musical style . The band performed the song live at the iTunes Festival in 2010 and it was also included on the setlist of their 2010 and 2013 tour .
A cover version of " Islands " was recorded by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira for inclusion in her ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . The cover followed a very similar instrumentation to the original version , but featured a faster tempo and more house elements . Shakira performed the cover live at the 2010 Glastonbury Festival in Pilton , Somerset .
= = Background and composition = =
" Islands " was written by The xx band @-@ members Jamie Smith , Oliver Sim , Romy Madley Croft and then @-@ member Baria Qureshi , for the English indie pop band 's self @-@ titled debut album ( 2009 ) . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , the song is composed in the key of C # minor and has a metronome of 123 beats per minute . Sim and Croft provide vocals in the track , and their range spans from G # 3 to E4 . Similar to the band 's usual style of production , " Islands " is dark and " nocturnal " in nature and follows a " simple , effective " beat . It features instrumentation from guitars which " twirl like dance floor partners in the background " and synthesisers that " play like a musical shadow " . According to BBC Music 's Lou Thomas , the song features house rhythms and a melody similar to that of Tom Petty 's 1989 song " I Won 't Back Down " . Lyrically , " Islands " is a " psycho @-@ geographical love song " and contains themes of loyalty , which are heard in lines like " I am yours now , so I don ’ t ever have to leave " . The duo 's vocals were described as " girl @-@ boy " , with Croft 's vocal delivery taking on a " pleasant soft @-@ pop vibe " . Sim momentarily interrupts the verses with " four short thumbings " . A " typically heartfelt and bed @-@ cuddly " refrain " I am yours now " is repeated throughout the song , and UK @-@ based online publication Muso 's Guide regarded it as " the closest thing The xx has produced to a hook " .
The song was released as the third single from xx on 26 October 2009 by Young Turks in 7 @-@ inch single and digital download formats . A minimalistic and " sexy " track named " Do You Mind ? " was included as the B @-@ side to " Islands " , and is composed of " untypically brash drums " . On 15 March 2010 , Young Turks released a 12 @-@ inch single version " Islands " , which contained various remixes of the song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song received critical acclaim . Lou Thomas from BBC Music said there is a " sense of quiet triumph " in what he felt was a musical reference to " I Won 't Back Down " by Tom Petty in the song 's melody , " despite the incongruity " . The Muso 's Guide review of " Islands " approved of the song 's release as a single and complimented Croft and Sim 's vocal delivery , saying they " provide a superb introduction to what the band is all about " . They particularly appreciated its " I am yours now " refrain , naming it " a typically heartfelt and bed @-@ cuddly line that makes The xx the perfect alternative lovers band " . Emily Mackay from NME called the song " gorgeous " and felt it was " the perfect soundtrack for wandering aimlessly along rainy London streets " . Andrew Gaerig from Pitchfork Media chose " Islands " as one of the highlights from the album and complimented Croft 's vocals and Sim 's involvement . In 2011 , NME ranked " Islands " at number 28 on their list of " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " , naming it the band 's " finest moment thus far " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United Kingdom , " Islands " reached number 34 on the singles chart and is The xx 's highest @-@ peaking single in the region to date . Its total stay inside the top 40 of the chart lasted for eight weeks . " Islands " was more successful on the UK Indie chart and peaked at number three . The song also peaked at number 16 on Ultratop chart of the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , and stayed on the chart for a total of two weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Islands " was directed by Saam Farahmand , who had previously worked with artists like Simian Mobile Disco and Klaxons . It premiered on MTV on 21 April 2010 . Composed of a series of tracking shots , the video shows Croft , Sim , and Smith " listlessly " sitting on a couch with six dancers performing a choreographed dance routine behind them . The dancers carry out the same routine with every next tracking shot , but a slight change in their expressions , gestures , and movement takes place . Similarly , the band @-@ members repeatedly change their positions and facial expressions " with differing fervour " . Near to the end of the video , the pattern begins modifying and " the comfortable habits get broken up / break up " as the dancers and band @-@ members leave one by one . The backdrop , which consists of several small " X " letters , also catches fire .
= = = Reception = = =
The video received positive reviews from critics . Katie Hasty from HitFix praised the choreography , calling it " eye @-@ popping " , and labelled the video as " classy , contained , and borderline claustrophobic " . She complimented Farahmand for directing a risky concept and commented that the tracking shots were like " an inhale and exhale with each new take " . Furthermore , she felt that the video was representative of The xx 's sound , calling it " morose and hypnotic , just like the band , the aural equivalent of a mumblecore movie " , and opined that the end of the video showed how " love goes " . Chris Ryan from MTV also found the video similar to the band 's musical style , and commented that the slight changes in its pattern " suggest unrest under the surface -- much like the band 's pristine , subtly menacing sound " . He also noted that while " it 's often hard to imagine what visuals would go well " with The xx 's songs , the music video for " Islands " " trumps anything we could have ever imagined " .
= = Live performances and usage in media = =
On 2 October 2009 , The xx performed " Islands " live on British music television show Later ... with Jools Holland , along with " Night Time " . The song was included on the setlist of their 2010 tour , and was also performed at the ITunes Festival held at The Roundhouse in London in the same year ; the band later released a digital EP of their performance . " Islands " was also included on the setlist of the band 's 2013 tour , and a more rock @-@ oriented version of the song was performed .
" Islands " was played during the closing monologue of the fourteenth episode of the sixth season of American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , entitled " Valentine 's Day Massacre " . It was also a part of the soundtrack of the tenth episode of the second season of comedy @-@ drama television series Parenthood , entitled " Happy Thanksgiving " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Shakira cover = =
Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira recorded a cover version of " Islands " for inclusion in her ninth studio album Sale el Sol , which was released on October 19 , 2010 . Although there was initial speculation that the cover would be entitled " Explore " , it appeared on the final tracklist of the album using its original name . In comparison to the original version , Shakira 's cover of " Islands " follows a largely similar and " fairly faithful " instrumentation , but features a faster tempo , " hopeful @-@ sounding " vocals , and " pseudo @-@ house " elements . Prior to Shakira recording the cover of " Islands " , Croft had briefly met her at the London BBC Studios ; the former talked about her meeting , saying " We were sitting on a wall outside the BBC and she came up and her bodyguards parted and it was little Shakira , and she says , " Hi ! " And I was like , Wow ! I found out recently that she ’ s a big fan of The Cure and stuff " .
Shakira 's cover of " Islands " drew generally favourable reception from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt it was a highlight on the album , and commented that Shakira " finds warmth within the art pop of The xx , whose " Islands " is a shimmering peak here " . Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly appreciated the cover , and opined that " [ Shakira ] discovers the beating heart inside that band 's subdued electro @-@ goth jam " . Becky Bain from Idolator called Shakira 's version of " Islands " " sunnier than the original " and regarded it as " brilliantly subdued " , complimenting the singer 's overall reworking of the original track . In 2011 , Stereogum included the cover on their list of " The 10 Best xx Covers " . Shakira 's cover of " Islands " appeared on the US Billboard Latin Digital Songs chart , peaking at number 39 for one week .
In June 2010 , Shakira performed the cover live at the Glastonbury Festival in Pilton , Somerset . Alex Needham from The Guardian called the performance " a slinky cover " that " is a nod to the indie kids " . Maria Schurr from PopMatters felt the performance was " less intimate than the original " , but " managed to amplify the tremendous pop sensibilities embedded beneath Romy Madley Croft " s and Oliver Sim 's hushed coos " . She concluded by saying that " as great as The xx are , it ’ s probably safe to say that Shakira can cut a rug better " .
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= Ascall mac Ragnaill =
Ascall mac Ragnaill meic Torcaill ( died 1171 ) , also known as Ascall Mac Torcaill , was the last Norse @-@ Gaelic King of Dublin . He was a member of the Meic Torcaill , a Dublin family of significance since the early twelfth century .
Control of the wealthy coastal kingdom was bitterly contested during Ascall 's floruit , with members of his immediate family , as well as Islesmen and Irishmen , all securing power for brief periods of time . Throughout much of this period , however , the overlord of Dublin was Diarmait Mac Murchada , King of Leinster . In 1166 , after the death of his close ally Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , High King of Ireland , Mac Murchada was beset by his enemies . At this critical point of his reign , Mac Murchada lost the support of the Dubliners , which contributed to his expulsion from Ireland that year . Not long afterwards , however , he made his return with significant military assistance from mercenary English adventurers . In the latter half of 1170 , Dublin itself fell to the combined forces of Mac Murchada and the powerful English magnate Richard de Clare , Earl of Pembroke .
With the collapse of the Norse @-@ Gaelic kingdom , Ascall and the Dublin elite were forced to flee into what one source calls the " northern islands " , a reference to either the Kingdom of the Isles or the Earldom of Orkney . About a year later , not long after Mac Murchada 's death , Ascall attempted to regain his patrimony from the English . Unfortunately for himself , his invasion of Dublin ended in utter failure , and he was executed by the English governor of the town . Immediately following his fall , Dublin was besieged by a combined force of Irishmen and Islesmen . The town , however , remained firmly in the hands of the English ; and before the end of the year , Dublin passed into the direct control of Henry II , King of England , who converted it into an English royal town .
= = Background = =
Ascall 's father was Ragnall mac Torcaill ( died 1146 ) , a man who may well have ruled as King of Dublin . The men were members of the Meic Torcaill , a substantial landholding kindred in the kingdom . Several members of this Norse @-@ Gaelic family held the kingship in the twelfth century . One such man was Ascall 's uncle , Brodar mac Torcaill , King of Dublin , who was slain in 1160 .
At the midpoint of the twelfth century , the kingdom was under the overlordship of Diarmait Mac Murchada , King of Leinster ( died 1171 ) . The latter 's ultimate overking , however , was Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1166 ) . The year after Brodar 's death , numerous sources indicate that Mac Murchada , with a force of Dubliners in tow , formally rendered submission to Mac Lochlainn . In 1162 , the Annals of Ulster reveals that Mac Murchada gained an almost @-@ unprecedented authority over Dublin . There is reason to suspect that his success stemmed from assistance received from Mac Lochlainn . The latter , for example , is recorded by the same source to have laid siege to the town within the year . In fact , this military campaign may have been undertaken to counter the Dubliners ' attempt to install Gofraid mac Amlaíb , King of the Isles ( died 1187 ) to the kingship of Dublin , as recounted by the Chronicle of Mann .
The record of events during the mid part of the twelfth century suggests that Leinster @-@ based overkings of Dublin enjoyed the cooperation of the indigenous leaders of Dublin , and the emergence of the Meic Torcaill during this period may well fit into such a context . When an indigenous ruler was not to be found , however , the Dubliners seem to have sought leadership from the Isles , rather than endure a non @-@ Leinster overking , as evidenced by the aforesaid episode concerning Gofraid . Mac Murchada 's considerable authority in Dublin at this point is apparent through several ecclesiastical grants , foundations , and appointments . Furthermore , two major military operations undertaken by Dublin 's forces in 1164 and 1165 were almost certainly conducted under Mac Murchada 's authority . The former campaign , recorded by Brut y Tywysogion and Brenhinedd y Saesson , concerned naval manoeuvres off Wales , in the service of Henry II , King of England ( died 1189 ) . The latter campaign , recorded by the Annals of Ulster , consisted of involvement in the ill @-@ fated invasion of mainland Scotland , launched by Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , King of the Isles ( died 1164 ) .
= = Fall of Mac Murchada and rise of Ua Conchobair = =
Mac Lochlainn was slain in 1166 , leaving Mac Murchada to fend off his own enemies alone . Other than Mac Murchada himself , another man making a bid for the high @-@ kingship was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht ( died 1198 ) . Within the same year as Mac Lochlainn 's demise , Ua Conchobair and his allies expulsed Mac Murchada from not only Dublin , but Ireland altogether ; and Ua Conchobair himself was duly recognised as High King of Ireland .
According to the Annals of the Four Masters , he had secured the cooperation of Dublin , and perhaps gained the kingship of the town itself , through a stipend of 4 @,@ 000 cows . In consequence , Dubliners formed part of Ua Conchobair 's forces when he marched to Drogheda and Leinster , where he forced the submissions of the kings of Airgialla and Leinster respectively . In fact , Dublin appears to have formed a key part of Ua Conchobair 's arsenal , and it is apparent that Mac Murchada was doomed without the support of this coastal @-@ kingdom . Certainly , the Song of Dermot and the Earl relates that Ascall ( " MacTurkyl de Diveline " ) had abandoned his former overlord , and the Annals of Inisfallen specify that Mac Murchada was only expulsed from Ireland after the Leinstermen and Dubliners had turned against him . Although Ua Conchobair appears to have allowed Mac Murchada to retain his patrimonial lordship of Uí Chennselaig , the Annals of the Four Masters reveals that the Leinstermen and Dubliners assisted Tigernán Ua Ruairc , King of Bréifne ( died 1172 ) in forcing Mac Murchada from this final vestige of authority and into exile .
The following year , Ua Conchobair convened a great assembly at Athboy . The Annals of the Four Masters states that 13 @,@ 000 horsemen attended the meeting — 1 @,@ 000 of which were supplied from Dublin . One of the many rulers recorded to have attended this gathering is a certain Ragnall mac Ragnaill , styled tigerna Gall ( " lord of the foreigners " ) . The latter 's name and title suggest that he was either an otherwise unattested brother of Ascall , or else an annalist 's mistake for Ascall himself . Meanwhile , after his expulsion from Ireland , Mac Murchada sought out Henry on the Continent , and gained permission to recruit military aid from the latter 's subjects . In the autumn of 1167 , Mac Murchada and his English allies arrived in Ireland , where they established themselves at Ferns . Ua Conchobair responded by penetrating Uí Chennselaig in a campaign , recounted by the Annals of Tigernach , that included military support from Dublin . With Mac Murchada temporally kept in check , a preoccupied Ua Conchobair allowed him to hold onto at least part of his patrimony .
= = Arrival of the English and Dublin 's fall = =
The situation in Ireland remained relatively unchanged until the arrival of a significant force of mercenaries in the summer of 1169 , after which some of Mac Murchada 's former vassals began to come over to his side . According to the Song of Dermot and the Earl , however , the kings of Uí Fáeláin and Osraige , and Ascall — described by this source as the " lord " of Dublin — stubbornly refused to support Mac Murchada 's cause . In an apparent show of force that may have been designed to keep the Dubliners onside , the Annals of the Four Masters states that Ua Conchobair led an army to Tara , where he was joined by the forces of the kings of Ulaid and Airgialla , after which the combined army marched upon Dublin . The following year , however , saw the arrival of even more English support for Mac Murchada ; and in August 1170 , Richard de Clare , Earl of Pembroke ( died 1176 ) landed in Ireland and took Waterford by storm . Soon after , Clare married Mac Murchada 's daughter , Aífe , and effectively became heir to kingship of Leinster and the overlordship of Dublin . Unsurprisingly , later in September , the combined forces of Mac Murchada and Clare marched on Dublin , where they confronted Ua Conchobair and his forces .
If the account of the Annals of the Four Masters is to be believed , the Dubliners switched sides at this point , deserted the cause of Ua Conchobair , and further suffered an act of divine justice as their town went up in flames . On the other hand , Expugnatio Hibernica specifies that , whilst negotiations were under way between the forces of Ua Conchobair and the coalition of Mac Murchada and Clare , an English force under the command of Miles de Cogan and Raymond le Gros ( died 1189 × 1192 ) successfully assaulted the town , and caused considerable carnage amongst the inhabitants . Although the Annals of the Four Masters specifies that the Dubliners were slaughtered in their fortress , after which the English carried off their cattle and goods , Expugnatio Hibernica instead states that the majority of the Dubliners escaped the massacre and retained most of their possessions . The same source states that Ascall and the Dubliners managed to escape into the " northern islands " . This term could well refer to Orkney . On the other hand , it is also possible that the term refers to the Hebrides or Mann ; if so , this source would appear to be evidence that the Dubliners had retained close links with the Isles . According to the version of events preserved by the Song of Dermot and the Earl , the coalition 's conquest of Dublin took place on 21 September .
= = Final defeat and death = =
Within weeks of Mac Murchada 's death at the beginning of May , Expugnatio Hibernica reveals that Ascall made his return to Dublin . The account of events recorded by Expugnatio Hibernica and the Song of Dermot and the Earl indicate that Ascall 's forces consisted of heavily armoured Islesmen and Norwegians . The former source numbers Ascall 's forces at sixty ships , whilst the latter gives one hundred . According to both sources , Ascall 's followers included a notable warrior named " John the Mad " , a figure who may or may not be identical to the Orcadian saga @-@ character Sveinn Ásleifarson .
According to the Song of Dermot and the Earl , the invaders made landfall at the " Steine " , located on the southern bank of the River Liffey , and proceeded to encamp themselves outside the town 's walls . Expugnatio Hibernica relates that they assaulted the walls of the eastern gate , a location that corresponds to St Mary 's Gate , the focus of assault identified by the Song of Dermot and the Earl . Unfortunately for Ascall , the operation was an utter failure that resulted in his capture and death . Both sources relate that the town 's defenders , led by Cogan and his brother Richard , successfully repulsed the invaders , slew John , and captured Ascall as he fled to his fleet . Although Expugnatio Hibernica reveals that Ascall 's life had originally been reserved for ransom , both this source , and the Song of Dermot and the Earl , report that he was soon beheaded on account of his recalcitrance .
The successive deaths of Mac Murchada and Ascall appear to have left a power vacuum in Dublin that others strived to fill . Immediately after Ascall 's fall , Ua Conchobair had the English @-@ controlled town besieged . Expugnatio Hibernica records that he and Lorcán Ua Tuathail , Archbishop of Dublin ( died 1180 ) sent for Gofraid and others in the Isles , asking them to blockade Dublin by sea . According to the aforesaid source , " the threat of English domination , inspired by the successes of the English , made the men of the Isles act all the more quickly , and with the wind in the north @-@ west they immediately sailed about thirty ships full of warriors into the harbour of the Liffey " . Unfortunately for the Irish , Islesmen , and Dubliners , the blockade was ultimately a failure , and Dublin remained firmly in the hands of the English . Ascall was the last Norse @-@ Gaelic King of Dublin ; and before the end of the year , Clare relinquished possession to his own liege lord , Henry , who converted it into an English royal town .
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= Leonid Brezhnev =
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev ( / ˈbrɛʒnɛf / ; Russian : Леони ́ д Ильи ́ ч Бре ́ жнев ; IPA : [ lʲɪɐˈnʲid ɪˈlʲjitɕ ˈbrʲɛʐnʲɪf ] ; Ukrainian : Леоні ́ д Іллі ́ ч Бре ́ жнєв , 19 December 1906 ( O.S. 6 December ) – 10 November 1982 ) was the General Secretary of the Central Committee ( CC ) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) , presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982 . His eighteen @-@ year term as General Secretary was second only to that of Joseph Stalin in duration . During Brezhnev 's rule , the global influence of the Soviet Union grew dramatically , in part because of the expansion of the Soviet military during this time . His tenure as leader was marked by the beginning of an era of economic and social stagnation in the Soviet Union .
Brezhnev was born in Kamenskoe into a Russian worker 's family . After graduating from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum , he became a metallurgical engineer in the iron and steel industry , in Ukraine . He joined Komsomol in 1923 , and in 1929 became an active member of the CPSU . He was drafted into immediate military service during World War II and left the army in 1946 with the rank of major general . In 1952 Brezhnev became a member of the Central Committee , and during 1964 , Brezhnev succeeded Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary , while Alexei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev in his post as Soviet premier .
As a leader , Brezhnev took care to consult his colleagues before acting , but his attempt to govern without meaningful economic reforms led to a national decline by the mid @-@ 1970s , a period referred to as the Era of Stagnation . A significant increase in military expenditure , which by the time of Brezhnev 's death stood at approximately 12 @.@ 5 % of the country 's GNP , and an aging and ineffective leadership set the stage for a dwindling GNP compared to Western nations . While at the helm of the USSR , Brezhnev pushed for détente between the Eastern and Western countries . At the same time he presided over the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to stop the Prague Spring , and he sent the Soviet military to Afghanistan in an attempt to save the fragile regime , which was fighting a war against the mujahideen . However , in December 1981 he decided not to militarily intervene in Poland , instead allowing the country 's government to impose martial law , and effectively marking the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine .
After years of declining health , Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982 and was quickly succeeded in his post as General Secretary by Yuri Andropov . Brezhnev had fostered a cult of personality , although not nearly to the same degree as Stalin . Mikhail Gorbachev , who would lead the USSR from 1985 to 1991 , denounced his legacy and drove the process of liberalisation of the Soviet Union . In spite of this , opinion polls in Russia show Brezhnev to be the most popular Russian leader of the 20th century .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Origins and education = = =
Brezhnev was born on 19 December 1906 in Kamenskoye ( now Dniprodzerzhynsk in Ukraine ) , to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev and his wife , Natalia Denisovna Mazalova . His parents used to live in Brezhnevo ( Kursky District , Kursk Oblast , Russia ) before moving to Kamenskoe . Brezhnev 's ethnicity was specified as Ukrainian in some documents , including his passport , and Russian in others . Like many youths in the years after the Russian Revolution of 1917 , he received a technical education , at first in land management where he started as a land surveyor and then in metallurgy . He graduated from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum in 1935 and became a metallurgical engineer in the iron and steel industries of eastern Ukraine .
= = = Political development = = =
Brezhnev joined the Communist Party youth organisation , the Komsomol , in 1923 , and the Party itself in 1929 . In 1935 and 1936 , Brezhnev served his compulsory military service , and after taking courses at a tank school , he served as a political commissar in a tank factory . Later in 1936 , he became director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum ( technical college ) . In 1936 , he was transferred to the regional center of Dnipropetrovsk and , in 1939 , he became Party Secretary in Dnipropetrovsk , in charge of the city 's important defence industries . As a survivor of Stalin 's Great Purge of 1937 – 39 , he was able to advance quickly as the purges created numerous openings in the senior and middle ranks of the Party and state governments .
= = = World War II = = =
When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 , Brezhnev was , like most middle @-@ ranking Party officials , immediately drafted . He worked to evacuate Dnipropetrovsk 's industries to the east of the Soviet Union before the city fell to the Germans on 26 August , and then was assigned as a political commissar . In October , Brezhnev was made deputy of political administration for the Southern Front , with the rank of Brigade @-@ Commissar ( Colonel ) .
When Ukraine was occupied by the Germans in 1942 , Brezhnev was sent to the Caucasus as deputy head of political administration of the Transcaucasian Front . In April 1943 , he became head of the Political Department of the 18th Army . Later that year , the 18th Army became part of the 1st Ukrainian Front , as the Red Army regained the initiative and advanced westward through Ukraine . The Front 's senior political commissar was Nikita Khrushchev , who had supported Brezhnev 's career since the pre @-@ war years . Brezhnev had met Khrushchev in 1931 , shortly after joining the Party , and before long , as he continued his rise through the ranks , he became Khrushchev 's protégé . At the end of the war in Europe , Brezhnev was chief political commissar of the 4th Ukrainian Front , which entered Prague in May 1945 , after the German surrender .
= = = Immediate post war = = =
Brezhnev temporarily left the Soviet Army with the rank of Major General in August 1946 . He had spent the entire war as a political commissar rather than a military commander . After working on reconstruction projects in Ukraine , he again became General Secretary in Dnipropetrovsk . In 1950 , he became a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union , the Soviet Union 's highest legislative body . Later that year he was appointed Party First Secretary in Moldavia . In 1952 , he had a meeting with Stalin after which Stalin promoted Brezhnev to the Communist Party 's Central Committee as a candidate member of the Presidium ( formerly the Politburo ) .
Stalin died in March 1953 , and in the reorganisation that followed , the Presidium was abolished and a smaller Politburo reconstituted . Although Brezhnev was not made a Politburo member , he was appointed head of the Political Directorate of the Army and the Navy with the rank of Lieutenant @-@ General , a very senior position . Brezhnev 's patron Khrushchev succeeded Stalin as General Secretary , while Khrushchev 's opponent Malenkov succeeded Stalin as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . Brezhnev sided with Khrushchev against Malenkov , but only for several years . On 7 May 1955 , Brezhnev was made General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR . On the surface , his brief was simple : to make the new lands agriculturally productive . In reality , Brezhnev became involved in the development of the Soviet missile and nuclear arms programs , including the Baykonur Cosmodrome . The initially successful Virgin Lands Campaign soon became unproductive and failed to solve the growing Soviet food crisis . Brezhnev was recalled to Moscow in 1956 . The harvest in the years following the Virgin Lands Campaign was disappointing , which would have hurt his political career had he remained in Kazakhstan .
In February 1956 , Brezhnev returned to Moscow , was made candidate member of the Politburo assigned in control of the defense industry , the space program including the Baykonur Cosmodrome , heavy industry , and capital construction . He was now a senior member of Khrushchev 's entourage , and in June 1957 , he backed Khrushchev in his struggle with Malenkov 's Stalinist old guard in the Party leadership , the so @-@ called " Anti @-@ Party Group " . Following the defeat of the Stalinists , Brezhnev became a full member of the Politburo . Brezhnev became Second Secretary of the Central Committee in 1959 , and in May 1960 was promoted to the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , making him the nominal head of state , although the real power resided with Khrushchev as First Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party . In 1962 , Brezhnev became an honorary citizen of Belgrade .
= = = Removal of Khrushchev = = =
Until about 1962 , Khrushchev 's position as Party leader was secure ; but as the leader aged , he grew more erratic and his performance undermined the confidence of his fellow leaders . The Soviet Union 's mounting economic problems also increased the pressure on Khrushchev 's leadership . Outwardly , Brezhnev remained loyal to Khrushchev , but became involved in a 1963 plot to remove the leader from power , possibly playing a leading role . Also in 1963 , Brezhnev succeeded Frol Kozlov , another Khrushchev protégé , as Secretary of the Central Committee , positioning him as Khrushchev 's likely successor . Khrushchev made him Second Secretary , literally deputy party leader , in 1964 .
After returning from Scandinavia and Czechoslovakia in October 1964 , Khrushchev , unaware of the plot , went on holiday in Pitsunda resort on the Black Sea . Upon his return , his Presidium officers congratulated him for his work in office . Anastas Mikoyan visited Khrushchev , hinting that he should not be too complacent about his present situation . Vladimir Semichastny , head of the KGB , was a crucial part of the conspiracy , as it was his duty to inform Khrushchev if anyone was plotting against his leadership . Nikolay Ignatov , who had been sacked by Khrushchev , discreetly requested the opinion of several Central Committee members . After some false starts , fellow conspirator Mikhail Suslov phoned Khrushchev on 12 October and requested that he return to Moscow to discuss the state of Soviet agriculture . Finally Khrushchev understood what was happening , and said to Mikoyan , " If it 's me who is the question , I will not make a fight of it . " While a minority headed by Mikoyan wanted to remove Khrushchev from the office of First Secretary but retain him as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers , the majority , headed by Brezhnev , wanted to remove him from active politics altogether .
Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny appealed to the Central Committee , blaming Khrushchev for economic failures , and accusing him of voluntarism and immodest behavior . Influenced by the Brezhnev allies , Politburo members voted to remove Khrushchev from office . In addition , some members of the Central Committee wanted him to undergo punishment of some kind . But Brezhnev , who had already been assured the office of the General Secretary , saw little reason to punish his old mentor further . Brezhnev was appointed First Secretary , but at the time was believed to be a transition leader of sorts , who would only " keep the shop " until another leader was appointed . Alexei Kosygin was appointed head of government , and Mikoyan was retained as head of state . Brezhnev and his companions supported the general party line taken after Joseph Stalin 's death , but felt that Khrushchev 's reforms had removed much of the Soviet Union 's stability . One reason for Khrushchev 's ousting was that he continually overruled other party members , and was , according to the plotters , " in contempt of the party 's collective ideals " . Pravda , a newspaper in the Soviet Union , wrote of new enduring themes such as collective leadership , scientific planning , consultation with experts , organisational regularity and the ending of schemes . When Khrushchev left the public spotlight , there was no popular commotion , as most Soviet citizens , including the intelligentsia , anticipated a period of stabilisation , steady development of Soviet society and continuing economic growth in the years ahead .
= = Leader ( 1964 – 1982 ) = =
= = = Consolidation of power = = =
As Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as the new General Secretary of the Communist Party , he held ultimate political authority as the leader of the Soviet Union . However , he shared collective leadership with Nikolai Podgorny ( the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet and nominal head of state ) and Alexsei Kosygin , the Premier . Brezhnev soon would maximize his grip on power and would be the dominating authority in the collective leadership . Early policy reforms were seen as predictable . In 1964 , a plenum of the Central Committee forbade any single individual to hold the two most powerful posts of the country ( the office of the General Secretary and the Premier ) . Former Chairman of the State Committee for State Security ( KGB ) Alexander Shelepin disliked the new collective leadership and its reforms . He made a bid for the supreme leadership in 1965 by calling for restoration of " obedience and order " . Shelepin failed to gather support in the Presidium and Brezhnev 's position was fairly secure ; he was able to remove Shelepin from office in 1967 .
Khrushchev was removed mainly because of his disregard of many high @-@ ranking organisations within the CPSU and the Soviet government . Throughout the Brezhnev era , the Soviet Union was controlled by a collective leadership ( officially coined " Collectivity of leadership " ) at least through the late 1960s and 1970s . The consensus within the party was that the collective leadership prevailed over the supreme leadership of one individual . T.H. Rigby argued that by the end of the 1960s , a stable oligarchic system had emerged in the Soviet Union , with most power vested around Brezhnev , Kosygin and Podgorny . While the assessment was true at the time , it coincided with Brezhnev 's strengthening of power by means of an apparent clash with Central Committee Secretariat Mikhail Suslov . American Henry A. Kissinger , in the 1960s , mistakenly believed Kosygin to be the dominant leader of Soviet foreign policy in the Politburo . During this period , Brezhnev was gathering enough support to strengthen his position within Soviet politics . In the meantime , Kosygin was in charge of economic administration in his role as Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Kosygin 's position was weakened when he proposed an economic reform in 1965 , which was widely referred to as the " Kosygin reform " within the Communist Party . The reform led to a backlash , and party conservatives continued to oppose Kosygin after witnessing the results of reforms leading up to the Prague Spring . His opponents then flocked to Brezhnev , and they helped him in his task of strengthening his position within the Soviet system .
Brezhnev was adept at the politics within the Soviet power structure . He was a team player and never acted rashly or hastily ; unlike Khrushchev , he did not make decisions without substantial consultation from his colleagues , and was always willing to hear their opinions . During the early 1970s , Brezhnev consolidated his domestic position . In 1977 , he forced the retirement of Podgorny and became once again Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union , making this position equivalent to that of an executive president . While Kosygin remained Premier until shortly before his death in 1980 ( replaced by Nikolai Tikhonov as Premier ) , Brezhnev was the dominant driving force of the Soviet Union from the mid @-@ 1970s to his death in 1982 .
= = = Domestic policies = = =
= = = = Repression = = = =
Brezhnev 's stabilisation policy included ending the liberalising reforms of Khrushchev , and clamping down on cultural freedom . During the Khrushchev years , Brezhnev had supported the leader 's denunciations of Stalin 's arbitrary rule , the rehabilitation of many of the victims of Stalin 's purges , and the cautious liberalisation of Soviet intellectual and cultural policy . But as soon as he became leader , Brezhnev began to reverse this process , and developed an increasingly conservative and regressive attitude .
The trial of the writers Yuli Daniel and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966 — the first such public trials since Stalin 's day — marked the reversion to a repressive cultural policy . Under Yuri Andropov the state security service ( in the form of the KGB ) regained some of the powers it had enjoyed under Stalin , although there was no return to the purges of the 1930s and 1940s , and Stalin 's legacy remained largely discredited among the Soviet intelligentsia .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , there were an estimated 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 political and religious prisoners across the Soviet Union , living in grievous conditions and suffering from malnutrition . Many of these prisoners were considered by the Soviet state to be mentally unfit and were hospitalised in mental asylums across the Soviet Union . Under Brezhnev 's rule , the KGB infiltrated most , if not all , anti @-@ government organisations , which ensured that there was little to no opposition against him or his power base . However , Brezhnev refrained from the all @-@ out violence seen under the rule of Stalin .
= = = = Economics = = = =
= = = = = Economic growth until 1973 = = = = =
Between 1960 and 1970 , Soviet agriculture output increased by 3 % annually . Industry also improved ; during the Eighth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1966 – 1970 ) , the output of factories and mines increased by 138 % , compared to 1960 . While the Politburo became aggressively anti @-@ reformist , Kosygin was able to convince both Brezhnev and the politburo to leave the reformist communist leader János Kádár of the People 's Republic of Hungary alone because of an economic reform entitled New Economic Mechanism ( NEM ) , which granted limited permission for the establishment of retail markets . In the People 's Republic of Poland , another approach was taken in 1970 under the leadership of Edward Gierek ; he believed that the government needed Western loans to facilitate the rapid growth of heavy industry . The Soviet leadership gave its approval for this , as the Soviet Union could not afford to maintain its massive subsidy for the Eastern Bloc in the form of cheap oil and gas exports . The Soviet Union did not accept all kinds of reforms , an example being the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response to Alexander Dubček 's reforms . Under Brezhnev , the Politburo abandoned Khrushchev 's decentralisation experiments . By 1966 , two years after taking power , Brezhnev abolished the Regional Economic Councils , which were organized to manage the regional economies of the Soviet Union .
The Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan delivered a change : for the first time industrial consumer products out @-@ produced industrial capital goods . Consumer goods such as watches , furniture and radios were produced in abundance . The plan still left the bulk of the state 's investment in industrial capital @-@ goods production . This outcome was not seen as a positive sign for the future of the Soviet state by the majority of top party functionaries within the government ; by 1975 consumer goods were expanding 9 % slower than industrial capital @-@ goods . The policy continued despite Brezhnev 's commitment to make a rapid shift of investment to satisfy Soviet consumers and lead to an even higher standard of living . This did not happen .
During 1928 – 1973 , the Soviet Union was growing economically at a pace that would eventually catch up with the United States and Western Europe . This was true despite the advantage the United States had — the USSR was hampered by the effects of World War II , which had left most of Western USSR in ruins . In 1973 , the process of catching up with the rest of the West came to an abrupt end , and 1973 was seen by some scholars as the start of the Era of Stagnation . The beginning of the stagnation coincided with a financial crisis in Western Europe and the U.S. By the early 1970s , the Soviet Union had the world 's second largest industrial capacity , and produced more steel , oil , pig @-@ iron , cement and tractors than any other country . Before 1973 , the Soviet economy was expanding at a rate faster , by a small margin , than that of the United States . The USSR also kept a steady pace with the economies of Western Europe . Between 1964 and 1973 , the Soviet economy stood at roughly half the output per head of Western Europe and a little more than one third that of the U.S.
= = = = = Agricultural policy = = = = =
Brezhnev 's agricultural policy reinforced the conventional methods for organising the collective farms . Output quotas continued to be imposed centrally . Khrushchev 's policy of amalgamating farms was continued by Brezhnev , because he shared Khrushchev 's belief that bigger kolkhozes would increase productivity . Brezhnev pushed for an increase in state investments in farming , which mounted to an all @-@ time high in the 1970s of 27 % of all state investment – this figure did not include investments in farm equipment . In 1981 alone , 33 billion U.S. dollars ( by contemporary exchange rate ) was invested into agriculture .
Agricultural output in 1980 was 21 % higher than the average production rate between 1966 and 1970 . Cereal crop output increased by 18 % . These improved results were not encouraging . In the Soviet Union the criterion for assessing agricultural output was the grain harvest . The import of cereal , which began under Khrushchev , had in fact become a normal phenomenon by Soviet standards . When Brezhnev had difficulties sealing commercial trade agreements with the United States , he went elsewhere , such as to Argentina . Trade was necessary because the Soviet Union 's domestic production of fodder crops was severely deficient . Another sector that was hitting the wall was the sugar beet harvest , which had declined by 2 % in the 1970s . Brezhnev 's way of resolving these issues was to increase state investment . Politburo member Gennady Voronov advocated for the division of each farm 's work @-@ force into what he called " links " . These " links " would be entrusted with specific functions , such as to run a farm 's dairy unit . His argument was that the larger the work force , the less responsible they felt . This program had been proposed to Joseph Stalin by Andrey Andreyev in the 1940s , and had been opposed by Khrushchev before and after Stalin 's death . Voronov was also unsuccessful ; Brezhnev turned him down , and in 1973 he was removed from the Politburo .
Experimentation with " links " was not disallowed on a local basis , with Mikhail Gorbachev , the then First Secretary of the Stavropol Regional Committee , experimenting with links in his region . In the meantime , the Soviet government 's involvement in agriculture was , according to Robert Service , otherwise " unimaginative " and " incompetent " . Facing mounting problems with agriculture , the Politburo issued a resolution titled ; " On the Further Development of Specialisation and Concentration of Agricultural Production on the Basis of Inter @-@ Farm Co @-@ operation and Agro @-@ Industrial Integration " . The resolution ordered kolkhozes close to each other to collaborate in their efforts to increase production . In the meantime , the state 's subsidies to the food @-@ and @-@ agriculture sector did not prevent bankrupt farms from operating : rises in the price of produce were offset by rises in the cost of oil and other resources . By 1977 , oil cost 84 % more than it did in the late 1960s . The cost of other resources had also climbed by the late 1970s .
Brezhnev 's answer to these problems was to issue two decrees , one in 1977 and one in 1981 , which called for an increase in the maximum size of privately owned plots within the Soviet Union to half a hectare . These measures removed important obstacles for the expansion of agricultural output , but did not solve the problem . Under Brezhnev , private plots yielded 30 % of the national agricultural production when they only cultivated 4 % of the land . This was seen by some as proof that de @-@ collectivisation was necessary to prevent Soviet agriculture from collapsing , but leading Soviet politicians shrank from supporting such drastic measures due to ideological and political interests . The underlying problems were the growing shortage of skilled workers , a wrecked rural culture , the payment of workers in proportion to the quantity rather than the quality of their work , too large farm machinery for the small collective farms and the roadless countryside . In the face of this , Brezhnev 's only options were schemes such as large land reclamation and irrigation projects , or of course , radical reform .
= = = = = Economic stagnation = = = = =
The Era of Stagnation , a term coined by Mikhail Gorbachev , was seen as the result of a compilation of factors , including the ongoing " arms race " between the two superpowers , the Soviet Union and the United States ; the decision of the Soviet Union to participate in international trade ( thus abandoning the idea of economic isolation ) while ignoring the changes occurring in Western societies ; the increasing harshness of its policies , such as sending Soviet tanks to crush the Prague Spring in 1968 ; the intervention in Afghanistan ; the stifling domestic bureaucracy overseen by a cadre of elderly men ; the lack of economic reform ; the political corruption , supply bottlenecks , and other unaddressed structural problems with the economy under Brezhnev 's rule . Social stagnation domestically was stimulated by the growing demands of unskilled workers , labour shortages and a decline in productivity and labour discipline . While Brezhnev , albeit " sporadically " , through Alexei Kosygin , attempted to reform the economy in the late 1960s and 1970s , he ultimately failed to produce any positive results . One of these reforms was the economic reform of 1965 , initiated by Kosygin , though its origins are often traced back to the Khrushchev Era . The reform was cancelled by the Central Committee , though the Committee admitted that economic problems did exist .
In 1973 , the Soviet economy slowed , and began to lag behind that of the West due to the high level of expenditure on the armed forces and too little spending on light industry and consumer goods . Soviet agriculture could not feed the urban population , let alone provide for the rising standard of living , which the government promised as the fruits of " mature socialism " , and on which industrial productivity depended . One of the most prominent critics of Brezhnev 's economical policies was Mikhail Gorbachev who , when leader , called the economy under Brezhnev 's rule " the lowest stage of socialism " . Soviet GNP growth rates began to decrease in the 1970s from the level it held in the 1950s and 1960s ; its growth rates began to lag behind Western Europe and the United States . The GNP growth rate was slowing to 1 % to 2 % per year , and with Soviet technology falling ever farther behind that of the West , the Soviet Union was facing economic stagnation by the early 1980s . During Brezhnev 's last years in power , the CIA monitored the Soviet Union 's economic growth , and reported that the Soviet economy peaked in the 1970s , calculating that it had then reached 57 % of the American GNP . The development gap between the two nations widened , with the United States growing an average of 1 % per year above the growth rate of the Soviet Union .
The last significant reform undertaken by the Kosygin government , and some believe the pre @-@ perestroika era , was a joint decision of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers named " Improving planning and reinforcing the effects of the economic mechanism on raising the effectiveness in production and improving the quality of work " , more commonly known as the 1979 reform . The reform , in contrast to the 1965 reform , sought to increase the central government 's economic involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries . With Kosygin 's death in 1980 , and due to his successor Nikolai Tikhonov 's conservative approach to economics , very little of the reform was actually carried out .
The Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan of the Soviet Union delivered a disappointing result : a change in growth from 5 to 4 % . During the earlier Tenth Five @-@ Year Plan , they had tried to meet the target of 6 @.@ 1 % growth , but failed . Brezhnev was able to defer economic collapse by trading with Western Europe and the Arab World . The Soviet Union still out @-@ produced the United States in the heavy industry sector during the Brezhnev era . Another dramatic result of Brezhnev 's rule was that certain Eastern Bloc countries became more economically advanced than the Soviet Union .
= = = = Society = = = =
Over the eighteen years that Brezhnev ruled the Soviet Union , average income per head increased by half ; three @-@ quarters of this growth came in the 1960s and early 1970s . During the second half of Brezhnev 's reign , average income per head grew by one @-@ quarter . In the first half of the Brezhnev period , income per head increased by 3 @.@ 5 % per annum ; slightly less growth than what it had been the previous years . This can be explained by Brezhnev 's reversal of most of Khrushchev 's policies . Consumption per head rose by an estimated 70 % under Brezhnev , but with three @-@ quarters of this growth happening before 1973 and only one @-@ quarter in the second half of his rule . Most of the increase in consumer production in the early Brezhnev era can be attributed to the Kosygin reform .
When the USSR 's economic growth stalled in the 1970s , the standard of living and housing quality improved significantly . Instead of paying more attention to the economy , the Soviet leadership under Brezhnev tried to improve the living standard in the Soviet Union by extending social benefits . This led to an increase , though a minor one , in public support . The standard of living in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) had fallen behind that of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic ( GSSR ) and the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic ( ESSR ) under Brezhnev ; this led many Russians to believe that the policies of the Soviet Government were hurting the Russian population . The state usually moved workers from one job to another , which ultimately became an ineradicable feature in Soviet industry . Government industries such as factories , mines and offices were staffed by undisciplined personnel who put a great effort into not doing their jobs ; this ultimately led , according to Robert Service , to a " work @-@ shy workforce " . The Soviet Government had no effective counter @-@ measure because of the country 's lack of unemployment .
While some areas improved during the Brezhnev era , the majority of civilian services deteriorated and living conditions for Soviet citizens fell rapidly . Diseases were on the rise because of the decaying healthcare system . The living space remained rather small by First World standards , with the average Soviet person living on 13 @.@ 4 square metres . Thousands of Moscow inhabitants became homeless , most of them living in shacks , doorways and parked trams . Nutrition ceased to improve in the late 1970s , while rationing of staple food products returned to Sverdlovsk for instance .
The state provided recreation facilities and annual holidays for hard @-@ working citizens . Soviet trade unions rewarded hard @-@ working members and their families with beach vacations in Crimea and Georgia .
Social rigidification became a common feature of Soviet society . During the Stalin era in the 1930s and 1940s , a common labourer could expect promotion to a white @-@ collar job if he studied and obeyed Soviet authorities . In Brezhnev 's Soviet Union this was not the case . Holders of attractive positions clung to them as long as possible ; mere incompetence was not seen as a good reason to dismiss anyone . In this way , too , the Soviet society Brezhnev passed on had become static .
= = = Foreign and defence policies = = =
= = = = Soviet – U.S. relations = = = =
During his eighteen years as Leader of the USSR , Brezhnev 's only major foreign policy innovation was détente . This did not differ much from the Khrushchev Thaw , a domestic and foreign policy relaxation started by Nikita Khrushchev . Historian Robert Service sees détente simply as a continuation of Khrushchev 's foreign policy . Despite some increased tension under Khrushchev , East – West relations had generally improved , as evidenced by the Partial Test Ban Treaty , and the installation of the red telephone line between the White House and the Kremlin . But Brezhnev 's détente policy differed from that of Khrushchev in two ways . The first was that it was more comprehensive and wide @-@ ranging in its aims , and included signing agreements on arms control , crisis prevention , East – West trade , European security and human rights . The second part of the policy was based on the importance of equalising the military strength of the United States and the Soviet Union . Defence spending under Brezhnev between 1965 and 1970 increased by 40 % , and annual increases continued thereafter . In the year of Brezhnev 's death in 1982 , 15 % of GNP was spent on the military .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , it had become clear that Henry Kissinger 's policy of détente towards the Soviet Union had failed . The détente had rested on the assumption that a " linkage " of some type could be found between the two countries , with the U.S. hoping that the signing of SALT I and an increase in Soviet – U.S. trade would stop the aggressive growth of communism in the third world . This did not happen , and the Soviet Union started funding the communist guerillas who fought actively against the U.S. during the Vietnam War . The U.S. ended the Vietnam War in a stalemate and lost Cambodia , Laos and Vietnam to communism . After Gerald Ford lost the presidential election to Jimmy Carter , American foreign policies became more hostile towards the Soviet Union and the communist world , though attempts were also made to stop funding for some repressive anti @-@ communist governments the United States supported . While at first standing for a decrease in all defense initiatives , the later years of Carter 's presidency would increase spending on the U.S. military .
In the 1970s , the Soviet Union reached the peak of its political and strategic power in relation to the United States . The first SALT Treaty effectively established parity in nuclear weapons between the two superpowers , the Helsinki Treaty legitimised Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe , and the United States defeat in Vietnam and the Watergate scandal weakened the prestige of the United States . Brezhnev and Nixon also agreed to pass the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty , which banned both countries from designing systems that would intercept incoming missiles so that neither the U.S. or the Soviet Union would be tempted to strike the other without the fear of retaliation . The Soviet Union extended its diplomatic and political influence in the Middle East and Africa .
= = = = = The Vietnam War = = = = =
Nikita Khrushchev had initially supported North Vietnam out of " fraternal solidarity " , but as the war escalated he had urged the North Vietnamese leadership to give up the quest of liberating South Vietnam . He continued by rejecting an offer of assistance made by the North Vietnamese government , and instead told them to enter negotiations in the United Nations Security Council . After Khrushchev 's ousting , Brezhnev resumed aiding the communist resistance in Vietnam . In February 1965 , Kosygin travelled to Hanoi with a dozen Soviet air force generals and economic experts . During the Soviet visit , President Lyndon B. Johnson had authorised U.S. bombing raids on North Vietnamese soil in retaliation for a recent attack by the Viet Cong . Johnson privately suggested to Brezhnev that he would guarantee an end to South Vietnamese hostility if Brezhnev would guarantee a North Vietnamese one . Brezhnev was interested in this offer initially , but after being told by Andrei Gromyko that the North Vietnamese government was not interested in a diplomatic solution to the war , Brezhnev rejected the offer . The Johnson administration responded to this rejection by expanding the American presence in Vietnam , but later invited the USSR to negotiate a treaty concerning arms control . The USSR simply did not respond , initially because Brezhnev and Kosygin were fighting over which of them had the right to represent the USSR abroad , but later because of the escalation of the " dirty war " in Vietnam . In early 1967 , Johnson offered to make a deal with Ho Chi Minh , and said he was prepared to end U.S. bombing raids in North Vietnam if Ho ended his infiltration of South Vietnam . The U.S. bombing raids halted for a few days and Kosygin publicly announced his support for this offer . The North Vietnamese government failed to respond , and because of this , the U.S. continued its raids in North Vietnam . The Brezhnev leadership concluded from this event that seeking diplomatic solutions to the ongoing war in Vietnam was hopeless . Later in 1968 , Johnson invited Kosygin to the United States to discuss ongoing problems in Vietnam and the arms race . The summit was marked by a friendly atmosphere , but there were no concrete breakthroughs by either side .
In the aftermath of the Sino – Soviet border conflict , the Chinese continued to aid the North Vietnamese regime , but with the death of Ho Chi Minh in 1969 , China 's strongest link to Vietnam was gone . In the meantime , Richard Nixon had been elected President of the United States . While having been known for his anti @-@ communist rhetoric , Nixon said in 1971 that the U.S. " must have relations with Communist China " . His plan was for a slow withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam , while still retaining the government of South Vietnam . The only way he thought this was possible was by improving relations with both Communist China and the USSR . He later made a visit to Moscow to negotiate a treaty on arms control and the Vietnam war , but on Vietnam nothing could be agreed . On his visit to Moscow , Nixon and Brezhnev signed the SALT I , marking the beginning of the " détente " era , which would be proclaimed a " new era of peaceful coexistence " that would replace the hostility that existed during the Cold War .
= = = = Sino – Soviet relations = = = =
Soviet foreign relations with the People 's Republic of China quickly deteriorated after Nikita Khrushchev 's attempts to reach a rapprochement with more liberal Eastern European states such as Yugoslavia and the west . When Brezhnev consolidated his power base in the 1960s , China was descending into crisis because of Mao Zedong 's Cultural Revolution , which led to the decimation of the Communist Party of China and other ruling offices . The Brezhnev leadership who promoted the idea of " stabilisation " , could not comprehend why Mao would start such a " self @-@ destructive " drive to finish the socialist revolution , according to himself . At the same time , Brezhnev had problems of his own , the Czechoslovakian leadership were also deviating from the Soviet model . In the aftermath of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia , the Soviet leadership proclaimed the Brezhnev doctrine , which said the USSR had the right to intervene in any fraternal communist state that did not follow the Soviet model . This doctrine increased tension not only with the Eastern Bloc , but also the Asian communist states . By 1969 relations with other communist countries had deteriorated to a level where Brezhnev was not even able to gather five of the fourteen ruling communist parties to attend an international conference in Moscow . In the aftermath of the failed conference , the Soviets concluded , " there were no leading center of the international communist movement . "
Later in 1969 , Chinese forces started the Sino – Soviet border conflict . The Sino – Soviet split had chagrined Premier Alexei Kosygin a great deal , and for a while he refused to accept its irrevocability ; he briefly visited Beijing in 1969 due to the increase of tension between the USSR and China . By the early 1980s , both the Chinese and the Soviets were issuing statements calling for a normalisation of relations between the two states . The conditions given to the Soviets by the Chinese were the reduction of Soviet military presence in the Sino – Soviet border and the withdrawal of Soviets troops in Afghanistan and the Mongolian People 's Republic and to end their support for the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia . Brezhnev responded in his March 1982 speech in Tashkent where he called for the normalisation of relations . Full Sino – Soviet normalisations of relations would prove to take years , until the last Soviet ruler , Mikhail Gorbachev came to power .
= = = = Intervention in Afghanistan = = = =
After the communist revolution in Afghanistan in 1978 , authoritarian actions forced upon the populace by the Communist regime led to the Afghan civil war , with the mujahideen leading the popular backlash against the regime . The Soviet Union was worried that they were losing their influence in Central Asia , so after a KGB report claimed that Afghanistan could be taken in a matter of weeks , Brezhnev and several top party officials agreed to a full intervention in Afghanistan .
Parts of the Soviet military establishment were opposed to any sort of active Soviet military presence in Afghanistan , believing that the Soviet Union should leave Afghan politics alone . President Carter , following the advice of his National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski , denounced the intervention , describing it as the " most serious danger to peace since 1945 " . The U.S. stopped all grain exports to the Soviet Union and boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow . The Soviet Union responded by boycotting the 1984 Summer Olympics held in Los Angeles .
= = = = Eastern Europe = = = =
The first crisis for Brezhnev 's regime came in 1968 , with the attempt by the Communist leadership in Czechoslovakia , under Alexander Dubček , to liberalise the Communist system ( Prague Spring ) . In July , Brezhnev publicly criticised the Czechoslovak leadership as " revisionist " and " anti @-@ Soviet " , and in August he orchestrated the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia , and Dubček 's removal . The invasion led to public protests by dissidents in various Eastern Bloc countries . Brezhnev 's assertion that the Soviet Union had the right to interfere in the internal affairs of its satellites to " safeguard socialism " became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine , although it was really a restatement of existing Soviet policy , as enacted by Khrushchev in Hungary in 1956 . In the aftermath of the invasion , Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers ' Party on 13 November 1968 :
When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism , it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned , but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries .
When the situation in Czechoslovakia was discussed with the Politburo , Brezhnev was not the one pushing hardest for the use of military force . Brezhnev was aware of the dire situation he was in , and if he had abstained or voted against Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia he may have been faced with growing turmoil — domestically and in the Eastern Bloc . Archival evidence suggests that Brezhnev was one of the few who was looking for a temporary compromise with the reform @-@ friendly Czechoslovak government when their relationship was at the brink . Significant voices in the Soviet leadership demanded the re @-@ installation of a so @-@ called ' revolutionary government ' . After the military intervention in 1968 , Brezhnev met with Czechoslovak reformer Bohumil Simon , then a member of the Politburo of the Czechoslovak Communist Party , and said , " If I had not voted for Soviet armed assistance to Czechoslovakia you would not be sitting here today , but quite possibly I wouldn 't either . "
In 1980 a political crisis emerged in Poland with the emergence of the Solidarity mass movement . By the end of October , Solidarity had 3 million members , and by December , had 9 million . In a public opinion poll organised by the Polish government , 89 % of the respondents supported Solidarity . With the Polish leadership split on what to do , the majority did not want to impose martial law , as suggested by Wojciech Jaruzelski . The Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc was unsure how to handle the situation , but Erich Honecker of East Germany pressed for military action . In a formal letter to Brezhnev , Honecker proposed a joint military measure to control the escalating problems in Poland . A CIA report suggested the Soviet military were mobilising for an invasion .
In 1980 @-@ 81 representatives from the Eastern Bloc nations met at the Kremlin to discuss the Polish situation . Brezhnev eventually concluded on 10 December 1981 that it would be better to leave the domestic matters of Poland alone , reassuring the Polish delegates that the USSR would intervene only if asked to . This effectively marked the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine . With domestic matters escalating out of control in Poland , Wojciech Jaruzelski imposed a state of war , the Polish version of martial law , on 12 December 1981 .
= = = Cult of personality = = =
The last years of Brezhnev 's rule were marked by a growing personality cult . His love of medals ( he received over 100 ) , was well known , so in December 1966 , on his 60th birthday , he was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union . Brezhnev received the award , which came with the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star , three more times in celebration of his birthdays . On his 70th birthday he was awarded the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union – the highest military honour in the Soviet Union . After being awarded the medal , he attended an 18th Army Veterans meeting , dressed in a long coat and saying ; " Attention , Marshal 's coming ! " He also conferred upon himself the rare Order of Victory in 1978 — the only time the decoration was ever awarded outside of World War II . ( This medal was posthumously revoked in 1989 for not meeting the criteria for citation . )
Brezhnev 's weakness for undeserved medals was proven by his poorly written memoirs recalling his military service during World War II , which treated the little @-@ known and minor Battle of Novorossiysk as the decisive military theatre . Despite the apparent weaknesses of his memoirs , they were awarded the Lenin Prize for Literature and were met with critical acclaim by the Soviet press . The book was followed by two other books , one on the Virgin Lands Campaign . Brezhnev 's vanity made him the victim of many political jokes . Nikolai Podgorny warned him of this , but Brezhnev replied , " If they are poking fun at me , it means they like me . " It is now believed by Western historians and political analysts that the books were written by some of his " court writers " .
In keeping with traditional socialist greetings , Brezhnev kissed many politicians during his career , the most memorable instance being the Erich Honecker kiss .
= = = Health problems = = =
Brezhnev 's personality cult was growing outrageously at a time when his health was in rapid decline . His physical condition was deteriorating ; he was a lifelong heavy smoker , he had become addicted to sleeping pills , and had begun drinking to excess . Over the years he had become overweight . From 1973 until his death , Brezhnev 's central nervous system underwent chronic deterioration and he had several minor strokes as well as insomnia . In 1975 he suffered his first heart attack . When receiving the Order of Lenin , Brezhnev walked shakily and fumbled his words . According to one American intelligence expert , United States officials knew for several years that Brezhnev had suffered from severe arteriosclerosis and believed he had suffered from other unspecified ailments as well . In 1977 American intelligence officials publicly suggested that Brezhnev had also been suffering from gout , leukemia and emphysema . He was reported to have been fitted with a pacemaker to control his heart rhythm abnormalities . Yevgeniy Chazov , the Chief of the Fourth Directorate of the Ministry of Health , had to keep doctors by Brezhnev 's side at all times , and Brezhnev was brought back from near @-@ death on several occasions . At this time , most senior officers of the CPSU wanted to keep Brezhnev alive , even if such men as Mikhail Suslov , Dmitriy Ustinov and Andrei Gromyko , among others , were growing increasingly frustrated with his policies . They did not want to risk a new period of domestic turmoil that might be caused by his death . At about this time First World commentators started guessing Brezhnev 's heirs apparent . The most notable candidates were Suslov and Andrei Kirilenko , who were both older than Brezhnev , and Fyodor Kulakov and Konstantin Chernenko , who were younger ; Kulakov died of natural causes in 1978 .
= = = Last years and death = = =
For the last two years Brezhnev was only a figurehead . His health worsened in the winter of 1981 – 82 . In the meantime , the country was governed by Andrei Gromyko , Dmitriy Ustinov , Mikhail Suslov and Yuri Andropov while crucial Politburo decisions were made in his absence . While the Politburo was pondering the question of who would succeed , all signs indicated that the ailing leader was dying . The choice of the successor would have been influenced by Suslov , but he died at the age of 79 in January 1982 . Andropov took Suslov 's seat in the Central Committee Secretariat ; by May , it became obvious that Andropov would try to make a bid for the office of the General Secretary . He , with the help of fellow KGB associates , started circulating rumours that political corruption had become worse during Brezhnev 's tenure as leader , in an attempt to create an environment hostile to Brezhnev in the Politburo . Andropov 's actions showed that he was not afraid of Brezhnev 's wrath .
Brezhnev rarely appeared in public during 1982 . The Soviet government claimed that Brezhnev was not seriously ill , but admitted that he was surrounded by doctors . He suffered a severe stroke in May 1982 , but refused to relinquish office . On 7 November 1982 , despite his failing health , Brezhnev was present standing on Lenin 's Mausoleum during the annual military parade and demonstration of workers commemorating the anniversary of the October Revolution . The event would also mark Brezhnev 's final public appearance before dying three days later after suffering a heart attack . He was honoured with a state funeral , which was followed with a five @-@ day period of nationwide mourning . He was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis in Red Square . National and international statesmen from around the globe attended his funeral . His wife and family attended ; his daughter Galina Brezhneva outraged spectators by not showing up in sombre garb . Brezhnev on the other hand was dressed for burial in his Marshal 's uniform , along with all his medals .
= = Legacy = =
Brezhnev presided over the Soviet Union for longer than any other person except Joseph Stalin . He is often criticised for the prolonged Era of Stagnation , in which fundamental economic problems were ignored and the Soviet political system was allowed to decline . During Mikhail Gorbachev 's tenure as leader there was an increase in criticism of the Brezhnev years , such as claims that Brezhnev followed " a fierce neo @-@ Stalinist line " . The Gorbachevian discourse blamed Brezhnev for failing to modernise the country and to change with the times , although in a later statement Gorbachev made assurances that Brezhnev was not as bad as he was made out to be , saying , " Brezhnev was nothing like the cartoon figure that is made of him now . " The intervention in Afghanistan , which was one of the major decisions of his career , also significantly undermined both the international standing and the internal strength of the Soviet Union . In Brezhnev 's defence , it can be said that the Soviet Union reached unprecedented and never @-@ repeated levels of power , prestige , and internal calm under his rule .
Brezhnev has fared well in opinion polls when compared to his successors and predecessors in Russia . In the West he is most commonly remembered for starting the economic stagnation that triggered the dissolution of the Soviet Union . In an opinion poll by VTsIOM in 2007 the majority of Russians chose to live during the Brezhnev era rather than any other period of 20th century Soviet history . In a Levada Center poll conducted in 2013 , Brezhnev beat Vladimir Lenin as Russia 's favourite leader in the 20th century with 56 % approval . In another poll in 2013 , Brezhnev was voted the best Russian leader of the 20th century .
= = Personality traits and family = =
Brezhnev 's vanity became a problem during his reign . For instance , when Moscow City Party Secretary Nikolay Yegorychev refused to sing his praises , he was shunned , forced out of local politics and given only an obscure ambassadorship . Brezhnev 's main passion was driving foreign cars given to him by leaders of state from across the world . He usually drove these between his dacha and the Kremlin with , according to historian Robert Service , flagrant disregard for public safety .
Brezhnev lived at 26 Kutuzovsky Prospekt , Moscow . During vacations , he lived in his Gosdacha in Zavidovo . He was married to Viktoria Brezhneva ( 1908 – 1995 ) . During her final four years she lived virtually alone , abandoned by everybody . She had suffered for a long time from diabetes and was nearly blind in her last years . He had a daughter , Galina , and a son , Yuri . Galina in her later life became an alcoholic who together with a circus director started a gold @-@ bullion fraud gang in the later years of the Soviet Union .
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= Special Air Service Regiment =
The Special Air Service Regiment , officially abbreviated SASR though commonly known as the SAS , is an elite special operations force of the Australian Army . Formed in 1957 , it was originally modelled on the British SAS sharing the motto , " Who Dares Wins " , and draws on the experiences of Australian Services Reconnaissance Department , independent companies , Coastwatchers and M and Z Special Units during World War II . Based at Campbell Barracks , in Swanbourne , a suburb of Perth , Western Australia , the regiment is a direct command unit of the Special Operations Command . It has been involved in operations in Borneo during the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation , the Vietnam War , Somalia , Kuwait , East Timor , Iraq and Afghanistan , as well as many other peacekeeping missions . It also provides a counter @-@ terrorist capability , and has been involved in a number of domestic security operations .
= = Role = =
= = = Tasks and capabilities = = =
A direct command unit of Special Operations Command , the Special Air Service Regiment ( SASR ) is a special forces unit of the Australian Army and " is tasked to provide special @-@ operations capabilities in support of the Australian Defence Force . This includes providing unique capabilities to support sensitive strategic operations , special recovery operations , advisory and training assistance , special reconnaissance , precision strike and direct action " . The SASR is primarily structured to conduct covert long @-@ range reconnaissance and surveillance in small teams in enemy @-@ controlled territory , while commando units are utilised to conduct raids in larger groups . In addition to warfighting during conventional conflicts , the regiment is also tasked with maintaining a specialist counter @-@ terrorist capability . Other capabilities include training local or indigenous forces , recovery of Australian citizens and humanitarian assistance . The SASR is also trained in counter @-@ insurgency operations .
= = = Warfighting and special reconnaissance = = =
In the long @-@ range reconnaissance role , the SASR typically operates in small patrols of between five and six operators with the task of infiltrating enemy @-@ held territory and providing intelligence on enemy activities and capabilities . During such tasks the SASR seeks to evade rather than confront the enemy . SASR soldiers also direct fire support including air strikes to destroy enemy installations and disrupt or kill enemy forces whenever possible . SASR reconnaissance patrols can be inserted by air ( either by helicopter , standard parachute or HALO ) , land ( on foot or by vehicle ) or sea ( including by submarine , small boats , canoes or closed @-@ circuit breathing apparatus ) and have proven capable of covering large distances and staying concealed in jungle , desert and mountain terrain . SASR patrols may also conduct sabotage and short @-@ duration raids on high @-@ value targets , including headquarters , airfields and communications nodes .
= = = Counter @-@ terrorism and special recovery = = =
One of the primary roles of the regiment is to provide a counter @-@ terrorist capability , with an element of the SASR forming Australia 's domestic Tactical Assault Group ( West ) , while the 2nd Commando Regiment provides Tactical Assault Group ( East ) . TAG West maintains a short @-@ notice capability to conduct military operations beyond the scope of state and federal police tactical groups . Offensive counter @-@ terrorist operations may include direct action and hostage recovery . A capability to board ships whilst underway and off @-@ shore oil platforms is also maintained . The TAG is kept at high readiness for a period of 12 months , before being replaced by another squadron in this role .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The SASR draws on the experiences of the Australian Services Reconnaissance Department , independent companies , Coastwatchers and M and Z Special Units which operated in the South West Pacific Area against the Japanese during World War II . These units had been disbanded soon after the war as part of the demobilisation of the Australian military ; however , after observing the operations of the British Special Air Service during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s the Australian Army decided to raise its own SAS unit . The 1st Special Air Service Company was established on 25 July 1957 at Swanbourne , a suburb of Perth , Western Australia , with a strength of 16 officers and 144 other ranks . In 1960 , the company became part of the Royal Australian Regiment ( RAR ) and was given the responsibility for commando and special forces operations . As part of the pentropic organisation adopted by the Australian Army at the time , the regiment 's primary wartime role was divisional @-@ level reconnaissance . On 20 August 1964 , the SAS gained regimental status and was expanded to two sabre squadrons and a headquarters , severing the link with the RAR . The raising of a third squadron was approved on 30 April 1965 as part of an overall expansion of the Australian Army .
= = = Borneo = = =
The SASR first saw action in 1965 as part of the British Commonwealth force stationed in north Borneo during the Indonesian Confrontation . The Australian SASR troopers operated alongside their British and New Zealand counterparts in operations aimed at stopping Indonesian infiltration into Malaysia , taking part in Operation Claret . 1 Squadron conducted reconnaissance patrols in Sarawak from February to July 1965 , and conducted cross @-@ border operations between May and July . They suffered their first fatality on 2 June when a soldier was gored by an elephant . 1 Squadron completed operations on 1 August and returned to Australia . 2 Squadron arrived in Borneo in January 1966 for a four @-@ month deployment , and despite the suspension of Claret operations it also conducted reconnaissance patrols and cross @-@ border operations , undertaking a total of 45 patrols on both sides of the border . On 19 March two soldiers drowned during a river crossing . On 21 July , 2 Squadron was relieved by a British SAS squadron and returned to Australia in August . Despite often being deployed in the reconnaissance role , the SASR killed at least 20 Indonesian soldiers in a series of ambushes and contacts . Three SASR soldiers were killed during these operations .
= = = Vietnam = = =
Based in Nui Dat the SASR was responsible for providing intelligence to both the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) and US forces , operating throughout Phuoc Tuy Province as well as Bien Hoa , Long Khanh and Binh Tuy provinces . From 1966 SASR squadrons rotated through Vietnam on year @-@ long deployments , with each of the three Sabre Squadrons completing two tours before the last squadron was withdrawn in 1971 . Missions included medium range reconnaissance patrols , observation of enemy troop movements , and long range offensive operations and ambushing in enemy dominated territory . Operating in small groups of four to six men they moved slower than conventional infantry through jungle or bushland and were heavily armed , employing a high rate of fire to simulate a larger force on contact and to support their withdrawal . The primary method of deployment was by helicopter , with the SASR working closely with No. 9 Squadron RAAF which regularly provided rapid and precise insertion and extraction of patrols into jungle landing zones at tree top height . On occasion SAS patrols would also be deployed by M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers ( APCs ) with a method devised to deceive the Viet Cong as to their insertion and the location of their drop @-@ off point despite the noise they made moving through the jungle . An operational parachute jump was also undertaken .
A fourth squadron was raised in mid @-@ 1966 , but was later disbanded in April 1967 . The SASR operated closely with the New Zealand SAS , with a troop being attached to each Australian squadron from late 1968 . Completing its final tour in October 1971 , 2 Squadron was disbanded on return to Australia , with Training Squadron raised in its place . During its time in Vietnam the SASR proved highly successful , with members of the regiment known to the Viet Cong as Ma Rung or " phantoms of the jungle " due to their stealth . In a six @-@ year period the Australian and New Zealand SAS in Vietnam conducted nearly 1 @,@ 200 patrols and inflicted heavy casualties on the Viet Cong , including 492 killed , 106 possibly killed , 47 wounded , 10 possibly wounded and 11 prisoners captured . Their own losses totalled one killed in action , one died of wounds , three accidentally killed , one missing and one death from illness . Twenty @-@ eight men were wounded . During the period of its deployment 580 men served in the SASR in Vietnam . The remains of the last Australian soldier who went missing in action in 1969 after falling into the jungle during a suspended rope extraction were found in August 2008 . Australian SASR personnel also worked with US Army Special Forces in Vietnam , and provided instructors to the MACV Recondo School , and then to the LRRP Training Wing at the AATTV @-@ operated Van Kiep Training Centre from 1967 . Some members of the regiment also served with MACV @-@ SOG units , with soldiers often serving on exchange with American Special Forces .
= = = Defence of Australia and counter @-@ terrorism = = =
The Australian withdrawal from Vietnam brought to an end the doctrine of ' forward defence ' through involvement in Southeast Asian wars . Instead , the Australian military 's new focus was on the defence of continental Australia against external attack . In line with this change , the SASR took the lead in developing the Australian Army 's capability to conduct patrol operations in Northern Australia , although this role was later taken over by the Army 's three Regional Force Surveillance Units following their formation in the early 1980s . During this time the SASR also continued to train overseas with other special forces units . On one such exercise in the Philippines , a US special forces C @-@ 130 Hercules crashed into the South China Sea shortly after take @-@ off from Subic Bay on 26 February 1981 , killing 23 passengers including three Australians from the SASR , as well as a number of Americans , Filipinos , and New Zealanders . Meanwhile , following the Sydney Hilton bombing in February 1978 , the SASR was given responsibility for providing Australia 's military counter @-@ terrorism response force , for which 2 Squadron was raised again in 1982 . In addition to being able to respond to terrorist attacks in Australian cities , the SASR counter @-@ terrorism unit was required to develop a capability to board ships underway and off @-@ shore oil platforms . In May 1987 a squadron from the SASR was alerted for a possible deployment to Fiji as part of Operation Morris Dance , but did not leave Australia . The regiment was not involved in operations during the Gulf War in 1991 although two troops were again placed on standby for deployment at short notice , while other elements remained on high alert to respond to a terrorist incident in Australia if required .
= = = Peacekeeping = = =
The first SASR units to deploy on active service after the Vietnam War did so as part of Australian peacekeeping deployments . Small numbers of SAS personnel were involved in Operation Habitat in Turkey and Northern Iraq as medics to assist Kurdish refugees between May and June 1991 . Personnel were also provided by the regiment as part of the Australian contribution to the UN Special Commission established to oversee the destruction of Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction between 1991 and 2000 . SASR medics deployed with some of the weapons inspection teams , and at times were also employed as drivers and for " personal protection " tasks . Several SAS signallers from 152 Signal Squadron also deployed to the Western Sahara between September 1991 and May 1994 as part of the Australian contingent there . Contrary to some reports , the SASR did not provide a security team for service in Cambodia although some SASR @-@ qualified signals sergeants from 152 Signal Squadron were deployed as part of the Australian military contribution to the United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia ( UNAMIC ) and Force Communications Unit between 1991 and 1993 . A small number of members of the regiment served on exchange with the British SAS and Special Boat Service ( SBS ) in Bosnia in the early 1990s , including a sergeant who commanded an SBS detachment in April 1993 .
In April 1994 , a 10 @-@ man SASR team from J Troop was attached to Australian forces in Somalia to provide an elite response , VIP protection and force protection to the Australian Service Contingent in Mogadishu . Known as " the Gerbils " , the small team operated from Toyota Landcruisers and Datsun utility vehicles and two M @-@ 113 APCs . They were subsequently involved in a number of actions , including an incident on 21 May when they were flown to the scene of a downed Canadian civilian helicopter 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of Mogadishu to protect the crew , and another on 16 August when they were involved in a skirmish during a convoy which resulted in two Somalis being killed after one of them aimed an AK @-@ 47 at the Australians . They returned to Australia in November 1994 . SASR @-@ qualified medical sergeants were also deployed as part of the contribution to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda , some of whom were present during the Kibeho Massacre in April 1995 , for which one SAS soldier and two other Australians were awarded the Medal of Gallantry for their actions . In addition , individual members of the SASR have been attached to a wide range of Australian peacekeeping deployments as observers , including in Kashmir , Lebanon and in the Sinai .
= = = Blackhawk accident = = =
Deaths during training accidents make up the majority of the SASR 's fatalities . The worst accident in the regiment 's history occurred on the evening of 12 June 1996 when two S @-@ 70 @-@ A9 Blackhawk helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment carrying SASR troopers collided during a live @-@ fire counter @-@ terrorism / special @-@ recovery operation exercise at Fire Support Base Barbara in the High Range Training Area near Townsville , Queensland . This activity was part of Exercise Day Rotor 96 and took place on the second day of the exercise , sometime after 18 : 30 , requiring the pilots to use night vision goggles . Six aircraft had been approaching the target area when , 30 seconds from the landing zone , one of the helicopters veered to the right , clipping the tail rotor of another helicopter . One Blackhawk crashed immediately killing 12 personnel on board , while the other was able to make a crash landing but burst into flames , killing six . Crash survivors , soldiers from the other helicopters and exercise staff risked the flames and exploding ammunition to rescue their comrades and retrieve the bodies of the dead . Fifteen members of the SASR and three from the 5th Aviation Regiment lost their lives in the accident . Fourteen personnel were later officially recognised for their part in the rescue and evacuation operation .
= = = Cambodia and Bougainville = = =
In July 1997 an eight @-@ man SASR team deployed at short notice to Butterworth in Malaysia to provide close protection and communications to the Australian ambassador and embassy staff in Cambodia if required , in preparation for the evacuation of Australian nationals in the wake of civil unrest which occurred following a coup in that country . The evacuation operation was subsequently completed successfully , with RAAF C @-@ 130s supported by Airfield Defence Guards and other military personnel evacuating 455 Australians and other nationals from Cambodia as part of Operation Vista . Later , following the agreement of a truce in October 1997 which ended the conflict in Bougainville , Australian personnel were deployed as part of the New Zealand @-@ led Truce Monitoring Group , with an SASR officer being included in the reconnaissance party and later serving on its headquarters . In April 1998 , Australia took over leadership of the mission , which was renamed the Peace Monitoring Group . Numerous SASR personnel served in Bougainville over a four @-@ year period as part of Operation Bel Isi , both in headquarters positions and as part of the monitoring teams .
= = = Kuwait = = =
In 1998 , the SASR made its first squadron @-@ strength deployment since Vietnam when 1 Squadron , with an attached New Zealand SAS troop , was deployed to Kuwait in February as part of the American @-@ led Operation Desert Thunder . The force , known as Anzac Special Operations Force ( ANZAC SOF ) , was fully integrated , with the New Zealanders providing the squadron 's third troop . While the crisis was resolved peacefully , if military action had been taken the SASR would have been used in the Combat Search and Rescue ( CSAR ) role to recover aircrew shot down by Iraqi air defences . The force returned to Australia in June 1998 . Regardless , the operation represented the first time that SASR tactical headquarters had been deployed outside of Australia .
= = = East Timor = = =
The SASR played a key role in the Australian @-@ led international peacekeeping force ( INTERFET ) in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2000 . Initially involved in the operation to evacuate Australian and UN personnel from East Timor as a result of violence in the lead up to the referendum for independence , the SASR was subsequently involved in intelligence gathering tasks prior to the landings , and provided the initial forces to secure the point of entry at Dili airport . 3 Squadron , along with Allied Special Forces elements from the NZ SAS and British SBS , then made up INTERFET 's special forces element , known as Response Force ( RESPFOR ) . The SASR spearheaded most operations conducted by the international force during the early days of the intervention in East Timor and , as in Vietnam , served as the eyes and ears of the force , patrolling extensively through militia @-@ controlled areas in vehicles and on foot as INTERFET expanded to take control of the rest of East Timor . During operations in East Timor the SASR was involved in a number of significant contacts with pro @-@ Indonesian militia , including at Suai on 6 October 1999 during which two SASR soldiers were wounded , and later at Aidabasalala on 16 October 1999 . Other tasks included VIP protection and other special forces tasks as required by the task force commander . 3 Squadron was later awarded a Meritorious Unit Citation on 25 March 2000 . 1 Squadron replaced 3 Squadron in December 1999 , and completed its tour in February 2000 .
= = = Domestic security and controversy = = =
The regiment formed a key element of the security force in place for the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000 , and in the lead @-@ up to the event the regiment underwent a period of modernisation , acquiring new equipment and capabilities , including the ability to respond to chemical , biological and radiological threats , as well as developing techniques for the clandestine boarding of moving ships at night . During the Games two SASR squadrons were available for counter @-@ terrorist operations , with one designated to respond to incidents in Sydney and Canberra , while the other was on standby for incidents elsewhere . The domestic security role increased in prominence after the terrorist attacks in the United States on 11 September 2001 , and the SASR has since formed part of the security force for events such as the 2003 Rugby World Cup , 2006 Commonwealth Games , and other international events . The SASR currently provides one of Australia 's two elite Tactical Assault Groups , designated TAG ( West ) , the other TAG being provided by the 2nd Commando Regiment .
In April 2001 the fishing vessel South Tomi was detected poaching Patagonian toothfish near Heard and McDonald Islands in the Southern Ocean . Following a 6 @,@ 100 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @,@ 800 mi ) pursuit , the Togo @-@ flagged vessel was boarded by an SASR troop off the southern tip of Africa . In August 2001 , the SASR was involved in the Tampa affair when its counter @-@ terrorist squadron was ordered to Christmas Island and to board the MV Tampa once it illegally entered Australian waters . While the members of the SASR involved did what they could to improve conditions on the Tampa , the use of an elite military unit to prevent asylum seekers landing in Australia was not supported by all members of the regiment and remains controversial . Less controversial was the SASR 's involvement in the boarding of a North Korean freighter , the MV Pong Su — which was suspected of drug smuggling — off Newcastle on 20 April 2003 .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
In October 2001 , the Australian government announced that it was sending a special forces task group built around an SASR squadron to participate in the campaign against al @-@ Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan designated Operation Slipper . After staging through Kuwait , 1 Squadron arrived in Afghanistan in December 2001 with the other SASR squadrons rotating in at approximately six @-@ monthly intervals . The SASR 's main role in Afghanistan was to conduct reconnaissance and surveillance of al @-@ Qaeda and Taliban positions , activities and capabilities . SASR force elements also conducted some offensive operations . After arriving at FOB Rhino , the SASR initially operated in southern Afghanistan with US Marines from Task Force 58 , conducting long @-@ range vehicle mounted patrols over several hundred kilometres around Kandahar and into the Helmand Valley near the Iranian @-@ border . On 16 February 2002 Sergeant Andrew Russell was killed when the Long Range Patrol Vehicle ( LRPV ) he was travelling in hit a land mine during an operation in the Helmand Valley . Two other soldiers were wounded in the incident . Later the SASR operated under command of Task Force 64 .
The SASR then moved to eastern Afghanistan where it played a key role in Operation Anaconda in March 2002 . During the operation SASR teams were to provide on @-@ location , in @-@ depth operational intelligence and reconnaissance after they infiltrated the Shahi @-@ Kot Valley ten days prior to the operation , and also saved the lives of 24 soldiers of the US 75th Ranger Regiment after their helicopter was shot down , by providing sniper overwatch and guiding in precise air strikes to end the enemy advance as they attempted to overrun the isolated Americans . Up to 300 al Qaeda fighters were later estimated to have been killed as a result of the airstrikes they called @-@ in . Two SASR advisory and liaison officers were attached with the US 10th Mountain Division to help plan the division 's air assault operations , and were subsequently involved in heavy fighting after the unit they were with became pinned down and took a number of casualties . Supported by heavy close air support they were evacuated by helicopter that evening .
Four days into the operation , SASR elements identified a potential escape route for the al @-@ Qaeda leadership . Other coalition special forces had attempted to establish observation posts , but had quickly been discovered by shepherds or villagers . The Australians inserted a patrol undetected to monitor the escape route . From more than 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) high on a mountain , the patrol spotted a group of al @-@ Qaeda figures dressed in Russian camouflage and wearing black balaclavas . They carried more advanced weapons than normal insurgents , and appeared to be guarding a white @-@ robed older man with a cane as they fled the battlefield . US intelligence at first believed it was Osama bin Laden but later revised the identification to his second @-@ in @-@ command , Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri . An airstrike was called in ; however , there was later doubt about whether it was successful . Australian forces later uncovered a number of arms caches and destroyed an anti @-@ aircraft piece , while other elements were tasked with screening possible escape routes to the south and killed a number of fighters as they attempted to withdraw . The initial task group was replaced by another squadron in March and April 2002 , while a third squadron rotated into Afghanistan in August 2002 . The SASR withdrew from Afghanistan in November 2002 after all three sabre squadrons had served in the country .
A Special Forces Task Group ( SFTG ) was deployed to Afghanistan in August or September 2005 , operating in the southern province of Uruzgan . The SFTG consisted of elements from the SASR , 4 RAR ( Commando ) , the Incident Response Regiment ( IRR ) and logistic support personnel . Two CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment were deployed to Afghanistan in March 2006 to support the SFTG . A forward operating base was subsequently established at Tarin Kowt . This task group was withdrawn in September 2006 , after a year of operations working closely with special forces from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . During this period the task group was on patrol for 306 days , involved in 139 contacts , and sustained 11 soldiers wounded . The SFTG was replaced by a Reconstruction Taskforce made up of engineers and conventional infantry .
A 300 @-@ strong Special Operations Task Group ( SOTG ) was redeployed to Afghanistan to support the Reconstruction Taskforce in April 2007 , including an SASR squadron , commando company group , and an integral combat service support team . The commando element was mostly used to conduct direct action tasks , with the SASR returning to conducting strategic reconnaissance . On 16 January 2009 , Trooper Mark Donaldson was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia , the highest award for gallantry in the Australian honours system , for gallant acts performed whilst serving with the SASR in Afghanistan on 2 September 2008 when his patrol was ambushed , resulting in the wounding of nine Australians . In addition to the SASR 's contribution to the SOTG , the regiment also provided " Defence Support Teams " to protect Australian Secret Intelligence Service ( ASIS ) agents in Afghanistan .
On 23 January 2011 , Corporal Ben Roberts @-@ Smith was awarded the Victoria Cross for single @-@ handedly neutralising two machine @-@ gun positions during an operation in Tizak on 11 June 2010 . On 26 March 2013 , it was announced that Special Operations Command would receive the Australian Army 's first battle honour since the end of the Vietnam War for outstanding performance during the Shah Wali Kot Offensive in Afghanistan from May to June 2010 . The battle honour , titled " Eastern Shah Wali Kot " , was awarded in recognition of the operational actions of the SASR and 2nd Commando Regiment from the Australian Special Operations Task Group Rotation XII . The SASR has also been collectively awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation and Unit Citation for Gallantry for its actions in Afghanistan .
During an operation in April 2013 an SASR corporal cut the right hands from the corpses of three insurgents after being told by a military lawyer that this would be an acceptable way of obtaining fingerprints . After this incident was reported to the senior Australian command at Tarin Kowt the SOTG was withdrawn from operations for a week @-@ long " operational pause " . One soldier remained under investigation for this incident in August 2015 . The bulk of SOTG was withdrawn from Afghanistan in late 2013 as part of the Australian drawdown , although some special forces remain as part of the small Australian force in the country . SASR casualties in Afghanistan include five soldiers killed in action .
= = = Iraq = = =
The SASR provided the majority of the ground @-@ force element of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , known as Operation Falconer , moving in quickly and successfully , thus enhancing Australia 's standing amongst its allies . The Australian Special Forces Task Group was built around 1 Squadron , with a platoon from the 4 RAR ( Commando ) and a troop from the IRR available to support the SASR . 1 Squadron operated in western Iraq where it was successful in securing its area of operations . Elements of the SAS Squadron crossed the Iraqi border on the night of 19 March by vehicle , penetrating 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) before being engaged in one of the first actions of the war . Other patrols were inserted by helicopter more 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) from their staging areas and subsequently fought a number of actions over the following month . Australian patrols were the closest coalition elements to Baghdad for a number of days , observing key roads and facilities . Towards the conclusion of the 42 @-@ day campaign the SAS secured the huge but undefended Al Asad air base , approximately 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) west of Baghdad , capturing more than 50 aircraft . 1 Squadron was withdrawn from Iraq without replacement shortly after the end of the war , and was subsequently awarded a Unit Citation for Gallantry .
Yet some members of the SASR continued to operate in Iraq over the next few years in a number of roles . In 2004 claims appeared in the media that Australian special forces were involved in counter @-@ insurgency operations inside Iraq , although this was denied by the government . An SASR team was deployed to Iraq in May and June 2005 as part the effort to free Douglas Wood , an Australian engineer kidnapped in Baghdad ; however , he was later recovered alive by US and Iraqi forces . In 2007 , British media reports suggested that SASR elements were still operating in Iraq , along the southern border with Iran , targeting arms smugglers . Later , a small number of SASR personnel were deployed to Iraq in June 2014 to protect the Australian embassy when the security of Baghdad was threatened by the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive , while others were reported to have been tasked with providing security to Royal Australian Air Force aircrew aboard transport aircraft delivering arms and munitions to forces in Kurdish @-@ controlled northern Iraq during September 2014 .
= = = Timor Leste , the Philippines and Fiji = = =
An SASR troop was deployed to Timor Leste in May 2006 as part of Operation Astute , operating alongside a Commando Company Group as part of the Special Forces Component following renewed unrest there . On 4 March 2007 , along with the commandos , SASR personnel took part in the Battle of Same during which five rebels were killed during an unsuccessful attempt to apprehend the rebel leader , Alfredo Reinado . It was reported in October 2006 that 20 SASR operators were in the southern Philippines , supporting Filipino operations against the Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah Islamiah terrorist groups , but this was denied by the Department of Defence . Meanwhile , following tensions in Fiji between the military and the government the Australian Government dispatched three naval vessels in November and December 2006 as part of Operation Quickstep , in preparation for a potential evacuation of Australian citizens . On 29 November 2006 , a Blackhawk helicopter from the 171st Aviation Squadron carrying four crew and six soldiers from the SASR crashed while attempting to land on HMAS Kanimbla and sank in international waters off Fiji . The helicopter 's pilot and a soldier from SASR were killed in the crash .
= = = Africa = = =
In March 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald claimed that operators from 4 Squadron — reportedly reformed in 2005 and based at Swan Island in Victoria — had been operating in Africa , specifically Zimbabwe , Nigeria and Kenya , gathering intelligence on terrorism and developing plans to rescue kidnapped Australian civilians . Professor Hugh White from the Australian National University was quoted as saying that , as soldiers , they would not have the legal cover ASIS would have if caught . The Herald also reported that the then Minister for Foreign Affairs Kevin Rudd had argued for 4 Squadron to be used in Libya during the civil war , but was overruled by the Minister for Defence , Stephen Smith , and the Chief of the Defence Force , General David Hurley . Smith denied SASR personnel were operating " at the outer reaches of Australian and international law " but did not confirm or deny the operation in Africa .
= = Organisation = =
The size of the SASR is classified and its reported strength varies , with figures of between 500 and 700 personnel appearing in different sources . Based at Campbell Barracks in Swanbourne , it is a battalion @-@ sized element and is known to be made up of a regimental headquarters , four sabre squadrons , an operational support squadron , a base squadron and a signals squadron . Two sabre squadrons maintain the regiment 's warfighting capability and train for operational contingencies , while a third squadron is maintained on rotation for counter terrorist or recovery operations in support of State or Federal police forces . The existence of the SASR 's fourth sabre squadron has been reported in the media but has never been officially acknowledged . The regiment is currently believed to be organised as follows :
Regimental headquarters
1 Squadron
2 Squadron
3 Squadron
4 Squadron
Base Squadron
Operation Support Squadron
152 Signal Squadron
Each sabre squadron is approximately 90 @-@ strong and is divided into three troops ( Water Troop , Free @-@ Fall Troop and Land Troop ) . A troop comprises four patrols with five or six operators in each patrol , and is commanded by a captain with each patrol commanded by a sergeant . For surveillance operations the SASR usually operates in patrols ; however , for CT operations it usually employs larger force elements . Support personnel include signallers , mechanics and technicians , medical staff , storemen , drivers , caterers and various specialists . It was reported in 2012 that six female soldiers were being trained in the United States for their work with 4 Squadron . As of 2003 , 152 Signal Squadron comprised four troops . Military dogs , designated Special Operations Military Working Dog ( SOMWD ) , are new members of the SASR since 2005 , seeing service in Afghanistan and have their own memorial .
While the SASR is a regular army unit , it also has a pool of Army Reserve personnel . These soldiers are former regular Army members of the SASR or specialists .
= = Uniform and equipment = =
The standard dress of the regiment is the new Multicam @-@ design camouflage which became standard issue to special forces troops in 2012 , and is now being introduced to all other Australian Army soldiers in Afghanistan and will eventually become the standard Operational Combat Uniform ( OCU ) . Although SASR parade , working and field uniforms are generally the same as those used by the rest of the Australian Army , special uniforms — including black coveralls — are used depending on the tactical situation . Qualified SASR members wear a sandy @-@ coloured beret with a metal , gold and silver badge , depicting the sword Excalibur , with flames issuing upwards from below the hilt , with a scroll across the front of blade inscribed with the regimental motto " Who Dares Wins " , on a black shield . This differs from the British Special Air Service , which wears a woven cloth cap badge of the same design . SAS ' Ibis ' -style parachute wings ( rounded at the bottom and straight on top ) are worn on the right shoulder on general duty , ceremonial and mess dress uniforms only . A garter blue lanyard is worn . Members of the regiment often dispense with rank , use first names , and wear long hair and beards on operations or when in the field .
Soldiers are armed with a variety of weapons systems depending on what the mission dictates . These include the M4A1 carbine ( designated as the M4A5 in Australia ) , which is used as their primary weapon . The shortened version of the M4 , known as the Mk 18 CQBR , is also used . Primary weapons are complemented with the two issued sidearms , the Hk USP Tactical and the Glock 19 . For medium to long range engagements the Heckler & Koch HK417 , SR @-@ 25 marksman rifle , and Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle are also used . Support weapons used include the Mk48 Maximi Modular , MAG 58 and the Para Minimi . The regiment also uses a number of direct and indirect fire support weapons including the 66 mm M72 rockets , 84 mm M3 MAAWS , FGM @-@ 148 Javelin , M2 @-@ QCB Browning .50 calibre machine guns , Mk 19 grenade launcher , and mortars .
A range of different vehicles are used , including the Supacat High Mobility Transporter ( HMT ) Extenda purchased in 2008 designated the Special Operations Vehicle @-@ Special Reconnaissance ( SOV @-@ SR ) , named " Nary " after a SASR warrant officer killed during pre @-@ deployment training in 2005 , which due to technical problems did not enter service until 2011 replacing the Long Range Patrol Vehicle ( LRPV ) which had seen extensive service in Afghanistan and Iraq . New SOV @-@ Logistics trucks are being acquired to replace the Mercedes @-@ Benz Unimog for supply , support and recovery of the SOV @-@ SR . A lighter , less protected vehicle , more akin to the LRPV — the Polaris Defense DAGOR ( Deployable Advanced Ground Off @-@ road ) — was being trialled in 2015 . Motorcycles are also used for long range strategic reconnaissance seeing service in Afghanistan . Polaris six @-@ wheel all @-@ terrain vehicles are also used , seeing service in Afghanistan . Heavily modified up @-@ armoured Toyota Land Cruiser four wheel drive vehicles designated SOV @-@ Support are used for domestic counter @-@ terrorism and special recovery .
= = Selection and training = =
The SASR regiment has high personnel standards , and selection into the regiment is considered the most demanding of any entry test in the Australian Army . Members of the SASR are required to work in small teams for extended periods and often without support , and are specially selected for their ability to work in this environment , rather than as individuals . Selection is open to all serving Australian Defence Force personnel . After initial screening candidates must complete the " Special Forces Barrier Test " , which tests their physical fitness . About 80 to 85 percent of applicants pass this phase . Successful candidates then continue on to the 21 @-@ day SASR selection course conducted at Bindoon , Western Australia which assesses both the individual 's strength and endurance ( mental and physical ) , as well as overall fitness , ability to remain calm in combat , and to work effectively in small teams . The course is conducted by staff from the Special Forces Training Centre , which was established in 1998 . Only 25 to 30 percent pass selection . These candidates then progress onto the 18 month reinforcement cycle , during which they will complete a range of courses including weapons , basic patrolling , parachuting , combat survival , signaller / medic , heavy weapons , demolitions , method of entry , and urban combat , before posting to a sabre squadron if successful . Officers must complete additional courses to qualify as an officer in the regiment , with requisite expertise in operations , administration and command . Most candidates are generally in their late @-@ 20s and are on average older than most soldiers . Despite a possible reduction in rank , SASR operators receive significant allowances , which make them among the highest @-@ paid soldiers in the Australian Defence Force , with a trooper ( equivalent to a private ) earning about $ 100 @,@ 000 per annum .
All members of the SASR are parachute qualified , and each member of a patrol has at least one specialisation , including medic , signaller , explosive expert or linguist . Each of the three sabre squadrons works on a three @-@ year training and operational cycle , although the system is flexible and can be accelerated or varied depending on operational requirements and deployments . In the first year new members of the regiment develop their individual skills and practice the new techniques they have been taught , while more experienced members undertake advanced courses . In the second year mission skill sets for conventional warfare are trained , while in the third year clandestine tasks are practiced and the squadron becomes the online counter terrorist squadron . Counter terrorist training includes close quarters battle ( CQB ) , explosive entry , tubular assault ( in vehicles such as in buses , trains and aircraft ) and in high rise buildings , as well as room and building clearance . This training is conducted in a range of advanced facilities , including electronic indoor and outdoor CQB ranges , outdoor sniper range , and urban training facilities at Swanbourne . Additional facilities include a special urban complex , vertical plunging range , method of entry house , and simulated oil rig and aircraft mock @-@ ups in order to provide realistic training environments for potential operational scenarios . SASR personnel also provide training in weapons handling and the use of explosives to intelligence agents and members of elite police units at Swan Island in Victoria .
The SASR maintains close links with special forces from the United States , United Kingdom and New Zealand , regularly participating in joint exercises and individual personnel exchange programs with the British SAS and SBS , as well as the New Zealand SAS , US Navy SEALs and United States Special Forces . The regiment also regularly conducts exercises with and trains soldiers from South East Asian nations , and participates in exercises with regional special forces . From 1992 this has included close links with the Indonesian Kopassus , a relationship which has at times been politically controversial . Since its formation the SASR has lost more men in training than in combat , due to the nature of the training regime . In 2014 , the regiment celebrated its 50th anniversary . During this period 48 soldiers have been killed during operations or in training accidents , while another 20 died in " other circumstances " . More than 200 have been wounded . The names of those killed are recorded on a plaque on a memorial made of a large piece of granite outside the SASR headquarters at Campbell Barracks , known as " The Rock " .
= = Alliances = =
United Kingdom – Special Air Service
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= Mountaineer ( train ) =
The Mountaineer was a passenger train operated by Amtrak between Norfolk , Virginia , and Chicago , Illinois , via Cincinnati , Ohio . It was the first train to use the Norfolk and Western Railway 's tracks since the creation of Amtrak in 1971 and followed the route of the Pocahontas , the N & W 's last passenger train . Service began in 1975 and ended in 1977 . A new train , the Hilltopper , operated over much of the Mountaineer 's route but was itself discontinued in 1979 .
= = History = =
The Norfolk and Western Railway was one of the twenty railroads which joined Amtrak in 1971 but in the first four years hosted no passenger service over its route , the centerpiece of which was its main line between Norfolk and Cincinnati which passed through the state of West Virginia . The main driving force behind the establishment of the Mountaineer was then @-@ United States Senator Robert Byrd ( D @-@ West Virginia ) , who wanted additional rail service for his constituents and pressured the Department of Transportation to add the route .
The Mountaineer operated in conjunction with the Chicago – Washington / Newport News James Whitcomb Riley between Chicago and Cincinnati . Beyond Cincinnati , at a Chesapeake & Ohio Railway ( C & O ) yard in Ashland , Kentucky , the two trains were decoupled and then proceeded separately to Catlettsburg , Kentucky and points east , with the Mountaineer roughly twenty @-@ five minutes behind the Riley . Westbound the procedure was reversed .
The first trains ran on March 24 , 1975 , marking the return of rail passenger service to the Norfolk & Western . Amtrak guaranteed two years of operation , while warning that the train would " habitually lose money . " Amtrak president Paul Reistrup projected costs of $ 4 @.@ 5 million / year while taking in $ 900 @,@ 000 in the first year . To make the run viable the Mountaineer would need to carry 150 – 300 people daily between Norfolk and Cincinnati .
In 1976 Amtrak announced several possible changes to the Mountaineer , including a later schedule through West Virginia and combined operation west of Cincinnati with both the Riley and an unnamed ( and never implemented ) Washington – Denver train . Under this plan the Mountaineer would receive new Amfleet equipment but lose its sleeping car . The schedule changes never took place , but Amtrak was forced to re @-@ equip the Mountaineer after a harsh winter damaged many of its old steam @-@ heated coaches and locomotives . The Mountaineer was one of eight routes suspended in January 1977 , and it returned with an all @-@ Amfleet consist , minus the sleeping car .
Ridership on the Mountaineer over its two @-@ year probationary period was disappointing : 58 @,@ 991 in 1975 and 53 @,@ 400 in 1976 . Averaged over a 365 @-@ day year , this was 161 passengers per day in 1975 and 146 in 1976 . By 1977 daily ridership had dwindled to 35 . Monetary losses were far higher than expected : $ 5 @.@ 7 million in FY1975 and $ 14 @.@ 9 million in FY1976 . After a brief respite , Amtrak discontinued the Mountaineer on May 31 , 1977 . A new train , the Hilltopper , operated over much of the same route until 1979 .
= = Stations = =
None of the fourteen stations east of Cincinnati had seen Amtrak service before . Catlettsburg , also known as " Tri @-@ State Station " ( for the states of Kentucky , Ohio and West Virginia ) , replaced an existing stop at Ashland , Kentucky . Amtrak built new stations at Roanoke and Bluefield . The remaining stops all used existing Norfolk & Western stations , with varying degrees of refurbishment and renovation . Two cities , Petersburg and Lynchburg , Virginia , had additional rail service at different stations . Amtrak 's Florida @-@ bound trains used the ex @-@ Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Petersburg station , while the Southern Railway 's remaining trains used Kemper Street station in Lynchburg .
= = Equipment = =
The Mountaineer 's typical consist ( at first ) was five cars : a baggage @-@ dormitory , two coaches , a grill diner and a 10 @-@ roomette 6 @-@ bedroom ( 10 @-@ 6 ) sleeping car . When available , one of the coaches was a dome car . Starting in January 1977 Amtrak ran a consist of three new Amfleet cars , typically two coaches and a cafe .
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= Christ Church , Newton =
Christ Church , Newton , also known as Christ Episcopal Church , is a Christian house of worship located on the corner of Church Street and Main Street ( U.S. Route 206 ) in Newton , New Jersey . It is a parish overseen by the Episcopal Diocese of Newark , a diocese of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America . The congregation first met on 28 December 1769 and was granted a charter by New Jersey 's last Royal Governor William Franklin on behalf of Britain 's King George III . Christ Church is the oldest church in Newton and the third oldest parish in the Diocese of Newark .
The current church building , erected in 1868 – 1869 , is the second structure built at the site , and is an example of the Broken Ashlar or Rustic mode of Gothic Revival architecture patterned after medieval English parish churches . The interior nave features several stained @-@ glass windows depicting scenes from the life of Jesus of Nazareth fabricated by J & R Lamb Studios . On 24 September 1992 , Christ Church , Newton was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places as part of the Newton Town Plot Historic District which was approved and entered on the National Register of Historic Places on 12 November 1992 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
In a 1770 letter , the Rev 'd Dr Thomas B. Chandler , rector of St John 's Church in the provincial capital Elizabethtown ( now Elizabeth ) , reported that he had visited Sussex County in the northwestern part of the province of New Jersey in November 1769 and found that there were 50 families belonging to the Church of England in the region . Chandler reported that " they frequently assemble in private houses and read the Liturgy " and that an Anglican clergyman " had never been in those parts before . " Many of these families met at Newton , the county seat of Sussex County , on 28 December 1769 , to establish an Anglican parish .
On 15 August 1774 , Christ Church was formally incorporated as The Rector , Church Wardens , and Vestrymen of Christ 's Church at New Town , in the county of Sussex and province of New Jersey . The colony 's last royal governor , William Franklin , granted and signed a charter on behalf of Britain 's King George III . The congregation petitioned the East Jersey Board of Proprietors , a colonial land agency , asking for their assistance to establish a church . The board granted a warrant for 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of land yet unappropriated in Sussex County to serve as an income @-@ generating glebe to support the church . The tract chosen by the congregation was located approximately 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) south of Newton ( in present @-@ day Fredon Township , then part of Hardwick Township ) and conveyed to the church on 16 December 1774 by the colony 's last royal attorney general , Cortlandt Skinner , and John Johnston . Jonathan Hampton ( 1716 – 1777 ) , a landowner , coachmaker , and merchant from Elizabethtown , deeded lands from his surveyed town plot to the congregation on 14 December 1774 " for the encouragement of the Episcopal religion ... and toward the maintenance & support of a parson officiating in said church " .
= = = Early history ( 1769 – 1869 ) = = =
The congregation called for a clergyman , and the Rev 'd Uzal Ogden , Jr . ( 1744 – 1822 ) was sent as a missionary lay reader and catechist in 1770 to the area on behalf of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel . He would become rector in 1773 after his ordination . According to local historian Kevin Wright , the parsonage was built circa 1770 by local land agent John Pettit . During his tenure , Ogden held services at Newton on the third Sunday each month as he served an area of roughly 2 @,@ 000 square miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km2 ) and divided other Sundays among congregations in Roxbury , Knowlton , and Hackettstown . Services were held in the County Court House ( built 1762 – 1765 ) , which he described in 1771 as " very commodious and serves us to perform Divine Service in " . During the Revolution , Ogden supported the cause of American independence , and according to tradition quartered sheep in the parsonage basement for the use of the Continental Army . Ogden left Christ Church in 1784 to become an assistant at Trinity Church in New York City , and later served as rector of Trinity Church , Newark , where his father served as warden .
Although Ogden was listed as Christ Church 's rector until as late as 1792 and preached infrequently in the area , the rectorate in Newton remained without a clergyman until the appointment of the Rev 'd Clarkson Dunn in 1820 . During the 36 years , services were held irregularly , at the court house ; this was an era described as " a long period of discouragement , almost of dissolution . " The congregation reported only six communicants during this time . Dunn would operate a school at the rectory beginning in December 1823 . Assisted by William Rankin , an English teacher , Dunn taught Classics . Dunn remained in this charge until 1857 when his son @-@ in @-@ law , the Rev 'd Nathaniel Pettit , assumed the pulpit .
The congregation 's first church building was erected beginning in May 1823 and consecrated a few months later on 19 November 1823 by the Rt Rev 'd John Croes , Bishop of New Jersey . This building was located at the corner of Church and Main streets , on a tract of land conveyed to the congregation by William T. Anderson , a local attorney . The Gothic structure was described as small ; it accommodated 250 worshipers . Toward the end of Pettit 's tenure , the congregation was compelled to build a new church building as their current building had become unstable and unsafe . During the construction , the congregation met at the county courthouse and at Rinker 's Hall , a building located near the courthouse on the Newton Town Green .
= = = Current church ( 1869 – present ) = = =
According to Snell , during the forty @-@ five @-@ year tenures of Dunn and Pettit as rectors , " parochial statistics from 1820 to 1867 show an aggregate of 510 baptisms , 241 confirmations , 334 marriages , and 468 funerals " . The growth in membership necessitated a new , larger edifice . To fund the construction of a new church building , the congregation sought the permission of the state legislature to sell the lands granted to it by warrant . Permission was given in 1867 . The congregation sold this property on 10 May 1868 for $ 15 @,@ 579 . The congregation also sold its parsonage and accompanying lands for $ 17 @,@ 600 to prominent lawyer , Levi Shepherd in October . A loan to support the construction was provided by Robert Hamilton ( 1809 – 1878 ) , a vestryman and warden and generous financial contributor to the parish . Hamilton was a prominent political figure , serving in the New Jersey General Assembly in 1863 and 1864 , the latter year as Speaker , and from 1873 to 1877 , he represented the New Jersey 's 4th congressional district ( covering northwestern New Jersey ) in the United States House of Representatives . In 1879 , a year after Hamilton 's death , his widow Sarah forgave the loan , which left the church debt free after the construction .
Local historian Frank Greenagel writes that " the Episcopal church formalized its adherence to the English Gothic style in the late 1840s under the influence of a powerful bishop , George Washington Doane " , and that the parish at Newton among many in the state adhere to that style . The vestry and diocese contracted " for the building of a new church ... for $ 23 @,@ 000 " on the site of the old church building by contractor Isaac L. Overton of Newark , New Jersey from a design by architect Jonathan V. Nichols . The first service was held on 11 July 1869 , and the building was consecrated by the Bishop of New Jersey , the Rt Rev 'd , William Henry Odenheimer ( 1817 – 1879 ) on 20 October 1869 . Today the structure boasts a three @-@ story bell tower , but previously the tower was topped by a 108 @-@ foot high spire surmounted by a 12 @-@ foot high cross . This spire was removed after being struck by lightning on three occasions .
A rectory , built in 1868 – 1869 , was used for that purpose for thirty years before being renovated for activity space for church organizations and fellowship . In October 1901 , the Vestry of Christ Church authorised purchase of a new rectory located on Liberty Street . Holley Hall , the central facility for parish activities , was constructed with a 1965 bequest from the estate of Alice Herbert Holley , daughter @-@ in @-@ law of the Rev 'd William Welles Holley , fourth rector , who was the first to reside in the former rectory after its completion in 1869 .
= = Architecture , furnishings and fittings = =
On 24 September 1992 , Christ Church , Newton was placed on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places as part of the Newton Town Plot Historic District which was approved and entered on the National Register of Historic Places on 12 November 1992 . The 17 @.@ 2 @-@ acre ( 7 @.@ 0 ha ) historic district comprises 56 contributing structures which were built on Jonathan Hampton 's surveyed town plot for the town of Newton ( then Sussex Court House ) .
Designed by architect Jonathan V. Nichols , the current church building was erected 1868 – 1869 and is an example of the Broken Ashlar or Rustic mode of Gothic Revival architecture . It was designed in a " simple basilican style of nave flanked by shed aisles ( no clerestory ) " , that was " patterned upon medieval English parish churches " . The cornerstone was laid on 21 August 1868 and the building was constructed of native blue limestone , with trimmings in Newark sandstone , with a roof of patterned or traceried black slate that was quarried in Newton .
Christ Church 's contribution to the historic district includes the church building and a Gothic Revival style rectory , built in 1868 . The site also includes an eighteenth @-@ century Federal @-@ style townhouse that was the home of Colonel Thomas Anderson ( c.1743 – 1805 ) , deputy assistant quartermaster general of the Continental Army during the American Revolution , one of the parish 's original vestrymen ( elected in 1769 ) and warden of Christ Church from 1784 to 1794 . A Newton attorney with statewide prominence , Anderson was the first Surrogate of Sussex County ( appointed in 1768 ) and also served as County Clerk from 1770 to 1777 . His home , built about 1785 , was originally located on Park Place one @-@ half block to the north of the church property and faced Newton 's town green before being relocated adjacent to the church property at 62 Main Street in 1896 . In 1965 , it was purchased by Christ Church and serves as the parish office . The Anderson House in 1958 was marked with an historical plaque by the Society of Daughters of Colonial Wars in New Jersey .
When completed in 1869 , the church 's interior could accommodate 400 parishioners , and featured a tint @-@ glass chancel window by Fredericks of Brooklyn . Today , the interior is adorned with a Tiffany @-@ style window above the altar , dedicated in 1919 , and several pictorial stained @-@ glass windows ( dedicated in 1968 ) around the nave featuring scenes associated with the life of Jesus of Nazareth . The nave windows are the works of the United States ' oldest continuously @-@ run decorative arts firm , J & R. Lamb Studios , and include work designed by stained @-@ glass artist Heinrich Jan Van de Burgh . They including depictions of :
= = Rectors = =
Eighteen clergymen have served as rector of Christ Church , Newton . The first , Uzal Ogden , Jr . , was the son of Newark merchant and churchwarden . Ogden began to serve in northwestern New Jersey in 1770 and , in addition to Newton , covered an area of 2 @,@ 000 square miles including St James Episcopal Church in Knowlton Township , New Jersey ( founded in 1769 ) . Because of the lack of a bishop in Britain 's North American colonies , Ogden traveled to England to be ordained by the Rt Rev 'd Richard Terrick , the Bishop of London , who had jurisdiction over all parishes of the Church of England in North America . After his departure in 1784 , the pulpit remained unfilled until 1823 . During this time , several clergymen , including the Reverend John Croes ( 1762 – 1832 ) , later the first Bishop of New Jersey , officiated on occasion .
The second rector , Clarkson Dunn , served both the Newton congregation and St James in Knowlton . Dunn , who died in 1870 , was honored by the town of Newton with the naming of two streets , Clarkson Street and Dunn Place , which frame the property of the parish 's old parsonage . After a ten @-@ year tenure , Dunn 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Nathaniel Pettit , resigned in 1867 to become Sussex County 's first Superintendent of Schools . Moffett , who served as rector for fifteen years , resigned from the pulpit to accept an appointment from President Grover Cleveland to become the American minister ( essentially ambassador ) to Greece in 1885 .
The current rector , Robert T. Griner , received a bachelor 's degree in Psychology from Drew University and studied at the University of Oxford before completing a Master of Divinity degree at Yale University .
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= Bridgeport Harbor Light =
The Bridgeport Harbor Light , later the Bridgeport Harbor Lighthouse , was a lighthouse in Bridgeport , Connecticut , United States . It is located on the west side of the Bridgeport Harbor entrance and the north side of Long Island Sound . Originally constructed in 1851 and rebuilt in 1871 with a dwelling , it had a red @-@ fixed light throughout its service life . The builder and first keeper of the light was Abraham A. McNeil who is also credited as improvising the first light for the Bridgeport Harbor in 1844 . By 1953 , the lighthouse was in poor condition and the United States Coast Guard opted to build a skeleton tower in its place . In the 2014 edition of the Light List Volume 1 , the skeleton tower is marked as " Light 13A " with a height of 57 feet ( 17 m ) and a visual marker of a square green dayboard with a green reflective border . The lighthouse was sold and an attempt was made to move it to serve as a monument for Connecticut 's maritime history , but it was later decided to scrap the structure . The lighthouse caught fire and was destroyed during the dismantling in 1953 .
= = 1851 light = =
According to Waldo 's History of Bridgeport and Vicinity , Volume 1 , Abraham A. McNeil first set a light atop a mast to mark the Bridgeport Harbor in 1844 . The next day Captain John Brooks Jr. set up his own improvised light with another boat . Constructed in 1851 , the first Bridgeport Harbor Light was an octagonal tower on a box @-@ like structure stood on iron piles . The exact details of its construction are not recorded and there is no complete description , but it is known to have had a fixed red light . Waldo identifies Abraham A. McNeil as the builder of the light . The light had no keeper 's quarters and was only accessible by boat . By 1870 , a new lighthouse was needed , partly because of the increased maritime traffic .
= = 1871 lighthouse = =
Completed in 1871 , the rebuilt light had a dwelling with the attached tower containing a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens . It retained the original fixed red light , but also included a fog bell . In 1900 , the lighthouse was identified in the Light List as having a red screw @-@ pile structure , a white tower and dwelling with a slate @-@ gray Mansard roof topped with a black lantern . The lighthouse had a fog signal that sounded every 15 seconds and was operated by machinery . Although the focal height of the light is unlisted , the center of the light stood 34 ft ( 10 m ) above the ground .
In 1873 , a request for $ 5 @,@ 500 , equivalent to $ 109 @,@ 000 in 2015 was submitted to Congress for the " additional protection " of the " screw @-@ pile light house " . During the first session of the 43rd Congress , the $ 5 @,@ 500 was appropriated for the lighthouse . In 1898 , during the Spanish – American War the lighthouse was equipped with 10 @-@ inch guns to ward off enemy attacks , making it one of the few armed American lighthouses in history . These guns never saw action as there was no attack on the coast . In 1920 , $ 5925 was estimated to be needed for riprap protection .
By 1953 , the lighthouse was in poor condition and the U.S. Coast Guard opted to replace it with a skeleton tower . The lighthouse was sold to the Fairfield Dock Company , which initially planned to move it ashore , but it was later decided to dismantle and scrap it . A plan existed to move the lighthouse ashore to a city park as a monument to Connecticut 's maritime heritage , but the location could not be agreed upon .
= = Skeleton tower = =
The skeleton tower constructed from 1953 continues to serve Bridgeport Harbor . In the 2014 edition of the Light List Volume 1 , the skeleton tower is marked as " Light 13A " with a height of 57 feet ( 17 m ) and a visual marker of a square green dayboard with a green reflective border .
= = List of keepers = =
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= Chartjackers =
Chartjackers is a British documentary series , produced by Hat Trick Productions and commissioned by BBC Switch . It documents the lives of four teenage video bloggers over the course of ten weeks , as they attempt to write , record and release a pop song for charity , with the goal to " sell an estimated 25 @,@ 000 singles to achieve their dream of a number one single " . It premiered in the UK on 12 September 2009 on BBC Two , and ran for a single series of eleven weekly episodes . When first broadcast , the programme ran in real time : its first ten episodes documented the events of the previous seven days , while the final episode was an extended compilation that summarised all ten weeks .
The Chartjackers single was written entirely through crowdsourcing , with the song 's title , lyrics , melody , singers , band , production , cover art and music video all being solicited from the global online community . The crowdsourcing took the format of the four bloggers — Alex Day , Johnny Haggart , Jimmy Hill and Charlie McDonnell — posting videos to a dedicated YouTube channel named ChartJackersProject , where they invited viewers to suggest various ideas for the final song . After receiving advice from industry experts such as Charlie Simpson and David and Carrie Grant , the completed Chartjackers single , entitled " I 've Got Nothing " , was released through the iTunes Store at the end of the ten @-@ week period on 9 November . The track received mainly negative reviews from music critics and sold approximately 8 @,@ 400 copies in the UK , earning it a peak position of number 36 on the UK Singles Chart .
Chartjackers garnered a viewing figures peak of almost half a million with its final episode and was critically panned by reviewers . Some commentators felt that the programme 's concept was ridiculous and doomed from the start , others felt that the series showed a contempt for music and the general public , and other critics questioned whether the point of the project was to raise money for charity or for the four bloggers to promote themselves . The show was nominated for a 2010 Broadcast Digital Award in the Best Multi @-@ Platform Project category , but lost out to The Operation ... Surgery Live .
= = Production = =
= = = Concept = = =
Chartjackers was devised in 2009 by Jonathan Davenport and Andy Mettam of the British production company Hat Trick Productions . It was commissioned by Geoffrey Goodwin and Jo Twist of the television brand BBC Switch , and was featured as part of a season of multi @-@ platform content intended to appeal to teenagers . The show was billed as a " YouTube X Factor " , with its main focus being its direct link to the 2009 annual appeal for the British charity Children in Need – profits from sales of the completed single were donated to the charity . Chartjackers was executively produced by Davenport , Hat Trick 's digital department head , who had previously worked on similar cross @-@ platform projects that incorporated both television and online media , such as the video podcast of Have I Got News For You and the YouTube @-@ based series Bryony Makes a Zombie Movie . Digital agency Fish in a bottle were commissioned to provide creative content for the online platforms , such as the YouTube channel and Twitter account .
= = = Casting = = =
As a cross @-@ platform project that incorporated YouTube , it was important that the video bloggers cast for the leading team already had a large fanbase – the four bloggers chosen had a combined YouTube subscriber total of over 200 @,@ 000 . They were selected for their familiarity to young British YouTube viewers and to " act as Pied Pipers to the teen audience " . Miranda Chartrand and Adam Nichols , the vocalists who sang on the completed Chartjackers single , were cast halfway through the programme 's series as part of an audition process and were featured in the remainder of the episodes .
= = = Filming locations = = =
Although much of Chartjackers was filmed in and around London — such as a gathering at music venue 93 Feet East during episode nine and the music video for " I 've Got Nothing " during episode seven — various locations were featured throughout the series . Vocalist auditions in episode five took place at the Wellfield Working Men 's Club in Rochdale , and the single itself was recorded at the University of Wales in Newport . During episode nine , some of the team visited the Three Ways School in Bath , Somerset .
= = Series overview = =
Chartjackers documented the lives of Day , Haggart , Hill and McDonnell as they attempted to write , record and release a charity single through crowdsourcing . The series was shown in real time , with each of the first ten episodes detailing the events of the previous seven days . On 5 September 2009 , one week before the programme 's first episode aired , the group announced on the YouTube channel ChartJackersProject their intention to release a number one single within their ten @-@ week time frame . A different task would be undertaken each week , so that , by the end of the project , the song would be completed .
The first episode of Chartjackers documented the events of the first week of the project and explained what its ultimate goal was . To generate potential lyrics , viewers were asked each to post one line as a comment to a video on ChartJackersProject . Viewers posted more than 4 @,@ 000 comments , from which were selected the winning lines . These lyrics were posted to the Internet the following episode , with the chorus having been composed by YouTube user blakeisno1 and the repeated phrase " I 've Got Nothing " chosen for the song 's title . ChartJackersProject viewers were then asked to create a melody for the lyrics and submit it in a video response , so that one could be selected for the single .
Out of a total of 51 melodies that had been sent in , the winning entry by Jonny Dark was chosen from them during episode three . It was also revealed that a band would be put together to perform the Chartjackers single and that any potential members should apply by submitting video auditions . Episode four documented some of the hundreds of auditions that had been sent in – the group reviewed these auditions and selected from them their ten favourites to go through as finalists . These ten finalists performed for the four boys during episode five , where Chartrand , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old au pair from Stroud , Gloucestershire , and Nichols , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old musician from Essex , were selected to sing on the official release . During episode six , " I 've Got Nothing " was recorded in Newport by record producer Marc Dowding , and the group received advice from video director Corin Hardy on how to film the official music video .
Taking Hardy 's advice , the music video for " I 've Got Nothing " was filmed during the seventh episode of Chartjackers . To begin promoting its release , the team also petitioned 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM and BBC Radio 1 to try to get the radio coverage for the single , but it was not playlisted and received no airplay . The boys feared that the song would not chart at all , so , during episode eight , they urged viewers to spam the Twitter feeds of radio DJs who could play the single on their shows . In the next episode , a gathering took place at 93 Feet East in London on 4 November , where the single was performed live for the first time by Chartrand and Nichols . During the tenth episode , " I 've Got Nothing " was released online . The midweek charts placed the single at Number 39 , but its sales increased after comedian Stephen Fry — who provides an outro for McDonnell 's YouTube videos — was convinced to promote it on his Twitter profile . Episode eleven , the final compilation episode , revealed on The Radio 1 Chart Show that " I 've Got Nothing " had reached number 36 on the UK Singles Chart , which disappointed the boys .
= = = Celebrity guests = = =
Over the course of the series , several figures from both the music and entertainment industry made an appearance on Chartjackers , usually to offer advice or encouragement to the four boys . The first celebrity to feature on the show was former pop star Chesney Hawkes , who remarked that he felt that the team had " every experience between [ them ] to actually pull [ their aim of reaching number one ] off " . During the fourth episode , vocal coaches David and Carrie Grant offered advice to the group on what criteria to use when judging the submitted video auditions , and indie rock band The Young Knives sent in a video message , wishing the team success . The following episode , Charlie Simpson of Fightstar explained to the boys the differences between releasing music through major and independent labels . During episode six , the team met with Peter Oakley , who spoke about his own chart success as part of The Zimmers , and Hardy , who advised ways in which the music video could be filmed . The next episode , the group received advice from celebrity stylist Hannah Sandling , who suggested how Chartrand and Nichols should be styled for the video , and entertainment journalist Rav Singh , who discussed how to get airplay for " I 've Got Nothing " through publicity stunts .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction to Chartjackers was overwhelmingly negative . Although radio stations , newspapers and magazines were all canvassed , the show was largely ignored by the mainstream media and received generally negative reviews . It was misrepresented in an article on The Times 's website , which mistook the four boys for a new boy band . Fraser McAlpine of BBC Radio 1 's Chart Blog said that the project showed a basic " contempt for music " and " the public at large " . James Masterton of Yahoo ! Music called Chartjackers " something of a failure " and its charting " lacklustre " . He did not mention it at all in his weekly chart podcast . Neither Reggie Yates nor Scott Mills , two of the DJs whose Twitter feeds were spammed during episode eight , were impressed by the way that the Chartjackers team had tried to get their attention .
Similarly negative reviews came from Eammon Forde of Music Week , who said the decision to release the single without management was " ridiculous " and that the campaign was " doomed " , and Pocket @-@ lint , who described the show as a " car crash " . In the week of the single 's release , Irish television personality Stephen Byrne questioned on his Twitter profile whether the main motivation for the project really was " charity " – British comedian David Bass agreed with him . The project was quickly overshadowed by a similar , more successful campaign to get " Killing in the Name " by American metal band Rage Against the Machine to top the UK Singles Chart for Christmas 2009 .
= = = Awards = = =
Chartjackers received one nomination at the 2010 Broadcast Digital Awards , a British awards event commemorating success and creativity in digital television . The show was submitted in the Best Multi @-@ Platform Project category , but was beaten by The Operation : Surgery Live . It was not nominated for any further awards .
= = Distribution = =
Chartjackers was distributed both on television and online . It ran for a single series of eleven episodes : the first ten episodes lasted for five minutes each , with the final compilation episode running for half an hour and gaining a viewership peak of half a million . Chartjackers premiered on BBC Two on 12 September 2009 at 12 : 50 p.m. , as part of the channel 's two @-@ hour @-@ long BBC Switch segment – it was uploaded to the YouTube channel BBCSwitch the same day . This practice of broadcasting an episode on BBC Two and uploading it to the BBCSwitch channel the same day continued throughout the series . Episodes were also streamed online through BBC iPlayer to UK residents for seven days after their initial broadcast . The show was not broadcast outside of the UK and , as of 20 September 2013 , is not available on DVD .
= = I 've Got Nothing = =
The completed Chartjackers single was released worldwide exclusively through the iTunes Store at midnight on 9 November 2009 . Each copy was sold for £ 0 @.@ 79 in the UK and $ 0 @.@ 99 in the US . Just under 8 @,@ 400 copies were downloaded in the UK , giving " I 've Got Nothing " a chart placing of number 36 in the UK Singles Chart . The song sold approximately 20 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , but did not make the singles chart in any other country .
Like the series from which it originated , " I 've Got Nothing " was poorly received by critics . Some called the effort " very bad " and others predicted that it was " unlikely to make much of a top 40 impact " . The music video for " I 've Got Nothing " featured footage of Chartrand and Nichols singing the song in a London park , along with an actor dressed as Children in Need mascot Pudsey Bear . This footage , along with clips of viewers miming to the song , was then used to construct the final music video for the single , which McDonnell edited .
" I 've Got Nothing " was performed live twice . The first occasion was at the 93 Feet East gathering on 4 November 2009 , during the promotion of the single 's release . The gathering featured performances from other YouTube users and was headlined by Hawkes . The second occurrence was four days later at Switch Live 2009 , an awards show organised by BBC Switch at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo , where a performance of " I 've Got Nothing " opened the event .
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= Clackline Bridge =
Clackline Bridge is a road bridge in Clackline , Western Australia , 77 kilometres ( 48 mi ) east of Perth in the Shire of Northam , that carried the Great Eastern Highway until 2008 . It is the only bridge in Western Australia to have spanned both a waterway and railway , the Clackline Brook and the former Eastern Railway alignment . The mainly timber bridge has a unique curved and sloped design , due to the difficult topography and the route of the former railway . The bridge was designed in 1934 to replace two dangerous rail crossings and a rudimentary water crossing . Construction began in January 1935 , and was completed relatively quickly , with the opening ceremony held in August 1935 . The bridge has undergone various improvement and maintenance works since then , including widening by three metres ( 10 ft ) in 1959 – 60 , but remained a safety hazard , with increasing severity and numbers of accidents through the 1970s and 1980s . Planning for a highway bypass of Clackline and the Clackline Bridge began in the 1990s , and it was constructed between January 2007 and February 2008 . The local community had been concerned that the historic bridge would be lost , but it remains in use as part of the local road network , and has been listed on both the Northam Municipal Heritage Inventory and the Heritage Council of Western Australia 's Register of Heritage Places .
= = Description = =
Clackline Bridge is a timber bridge spanning the Clackline Brook and the former Eastern Railway alignment , in the Shire of Northam , 77 kilometres ( 48 mi ) east of Perth . Constrained by the topography of the site , the route of the Eastern Railway tracks , and the previous alignment of Great Eastern Highway , the bridge has a unique curved and sloping design . It has 18 spans over a 126 @-@ metre ( 413 ft ) length , with a 1 in 20 slope and a horizontal curve radius of 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . There are 18 numbered piers , starting from pier 1 at the eastern end . The double tracks of the Eastern Railway , which linked Perth and Northam until its removal in 1981 , passed between piers 16 and 17 . Piers 14 to 17 are parallel to that former railway , at an angle of approximately 40 degrees to the bridge . This resulted in spans of various lengths : 7 @.@ 6 metres ( 25 ft ) heading out from the western abutment , then a 14 @-@ metre ( 46 ft ) span between piers 16 and 17 , followed by a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ( 16 ft ) length , two 5 @.@ 2 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 17 ft ) spans , and 13 spans of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) .
The bridge has undergone multiple alterations , but the original piers remain . They were constructed as " four rounded braced wandoo piles supported from horizontal 450mm timber sills , adzed to 400mm , fixed to concrete footings " , with the footings designed to bear on foundation rocks one and a half metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) beneath the surface . The bridge 's original spans were made up of seven rounded timber wandoo stringers , of at least 400 millimetres ( 16 in ) diameter , bearing on jarrah corbels , supported by jarrah half caps 600 by 150 millimetres ( 23 @.@ 6 by 5 @.@ 9 in ) in size . The 14 @-@ metre ( 46 ft ) span over the railway alignment was originally supported on four 610 @-@ by @-@ 190 @-@ millimetre ( 24 @.@ 0 by 7 @.@ 5 in ) steel beams , weighing 41 kilograms ( 90 lb ) each .
Various aspects of Clackline Bridge have since been modified . Originally five and a half metres ( 18 ft ) wide , with a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ metre @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 5 ft ) footpath , the bridge was widened by three metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , with two additional piles installed at each pier . At the same time the railway span was strengthened , with eight additional steel beams installed , and steel plates welded to the flanges of the existing girders . The approaches to the bridge were also widened , over a length of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) to the west , and 60 metres ( 200 ft ) to the east . The timber decking was upgraded to a concrete slab that has been repaired a number of times , especially around pier 13 . Some of the connecting bolts in the structure have been replaced , and a concrete approach slab was installed at the western end . In 2008 , the bridge was assessed as being in a well @-@ maintained condition .
Main Roads Western Australia identifies Clackline Bridge as Structure Number 0608 . As of 2014 , the bridge dimensions are recorded as 133 @.@ 6 metres ( 438 ft ) in length and 8 @.@ 98 metres ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) in width , with a distance of 8 @.@ 75 metres ( 28 @.@ 7 ft ) between kerbs , a deck area of 119 @.@ 73 square metres ( 1 @,@ 288 @.@ 8 sq ft ) , and maximum span length of 14 @.@ 2 metres ( 47 ft ) . As of 2008 , it is the only bridge in Western Australia to have crossed both a railway line and a waterway .
= = History = =
The settlement of Clackline began as a stopping point on the Spencers Brook to Northam section of the Eastern Railway line , which opened on 13 October 1886 . It was also the point where the road to Newcastle ( now Toodyay ) departed the Perth to Kalgoorlie road . Both the road and railway crossed the adjacent Clackline Brook . In 1926 , the newly formed Main Roads Department 's Engineer for Roads and Bridges , A. Fotheringham , described the majority of the Wooroloo to Clackline road as " simply a bush track widened out from time to time by the traffic " . The road crossed the railway line twice , and Clackline Brook via a small bedlog bridge , in the vicinity of the town , but the rail crossings were " awkwardly and dangerously situated in regard to road traffic , owing to limited visibility " , and the water crossing was described in 1935 as " a primitive and inadequate culvert " .
Though the need to improve this section of road was recognised in 1926 , funding was limited . Only part of the required improvement work was undertaken , and included rerouting the highway along Lockyer Road , resuming several town lots , and resurfacing the road , at a cost of ₤ 8000 . In March 1934 , torrential rain caused widespread flooding in the Wheatbelt , affecting Northam , Toodyay , York , Beverley , and surrounding areas . Rail services were disrupted , and main roads were cut off at many points , including at Clackline . Some cars managed to bypass the flooded road by driving along the railway line , but such practice was described by the Royal Automobile Club as " highly dangerous " and " against the railway regulations " . The Main Roads Department had been considering completing the remaining improvements in November 1933 , but the flooding made the situation more urgent . It prompted Albert Hawke , MLA for Northam , to write to the Commissioner for Main Roads , E. W. Tindale , urging that the Clackline works commence , especially since works at nearby Northam had almost been finished .
= = = Design and construction = = =
Main Roads engineer Ernest Godfrey completed a design for the Clackline Deviation , a single bridge over the waterway and railway , in August 1934 . Godfrey was the first bridge engineer for Main Roads , and is credited with introducing concrete and steel bridges into Western Australia ; however , for Clackline Bridge , he proposed using timber – the standard material for the preceding hundred years – with steel construction only for the longer span over the railway . He also suggested that a footpath be included on the bridge , so that schoolchildren and other pedestrians would have a safer railway crossing . The cost was estimated at ₤ 8500 , plus an additional ₤ 700 for the footpath . The initial design was moved 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) south , to satisfy the Railways Department 's requirement that the route not be too close to the Toodyay railway line ( a spur line off the Eastern Railway ) that ran parallel to the highway . This shift increased the curve radius , but required " the destruction of some well developed pine trees inside the old boundary fence of the [ Clackline School ] playground " .
Construction was undertaken by Main Roads Department day labourers , starting in January 1935 , as part of an unemployment relief works program . The Western Australian Government Railways ( WAGR ) was involved in various aspects of the project – some railway land acquisition was required , and WAGR supplied and supervised a five @-@ ton crane , used to erect the railway span girders . The bridge was completed less than one year after construction began , which would later be described as " a considerable achievement of the management and workforce for such a complex structure " . Clackline Bridge was opened on 30 August 1935 by Acting Minister for Works H. Millington , having cost £ 9000 . The first vehicle to cross the bridge was Millington 's car , carrying himself and Albert Hawke on the front bumper , and a small boy who decided to take a ride on the rear bumper . Afterwards , there was an official lunchtime party in Northam , hosted by the Northam Roads Board .
= = = Safety concerns and upgrades = = =
Within two decades the bridge was considered a safety hazard , due to increased traffic volume , speed , and truck sizes . The primary concerns were deficiency in the width and curve radius . The bridge was strengthened as well as widened in 1959 – 60 . Removing the footpath and using that space for the road had been suggested , but instead the structure itself was widened by ten feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , leaving the footpath intact . The approaches to the bridges were widened , new piers were erected either side of the railway span , and eight new girders were installed – six of which were part of the previous Causeway structure . The work was undertaken from a suspended platform , which had to be quickly pulled up when trains went past . The widening , designed by Main Road 's second bridge engineer Gilbert Marsh , cost approximately ₤ 20 @,@ 000 .
Clackline Bridge continued to be a safety concern , with several accidents occurring in the 1970s . The narrow road and small curve radius were considered major factors in the accidents , and there was roughness in the road surface between the original and widened sections . A reinforced concrete overlay was installed on the bridge in 1978 , initially with a single coat surface , but then upgraded to a 40 @-@ millimetre @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) bituminous concrete surface in 1987 . The 1980s saw the closure and removal of the Perth – Northam railway line , as well a number of major and sometimes fatal accidents involving prime movers . There were also several car accidents , and the " screaming brakes of cars and hiss of airbrakes " were often heard at night in Clackline . After each accident , damaged sections of the bridge – usually the guardrails , handrails , or bridge entry section – needed to be repaired . A 1989 prime mover accident severely damaged the footpath . Rather than repair the narrow footpath , and given that the railway had been removed , a new pedestrian path was constructed on the ground below the bridge .
A bushfire burnt through the area in December 1993 , destroying the former railway 's bridge over Clackline Brook . Clackline Bridge survived , weakened but in a reasonable condition . The damage included internal expansion joints that had failed , split bedlogs , and other deteriorated timbers . Steel props were installed to support the bridge , and the substructure was repaired in 1995 , which mainly involved replacing connecting bolts . A concrete approach slab was installed adjacent to the western abutment in 1998 , and in 2013 the concrete deck near pier 13 was repaired . Clackline Bridge was the crossing point for Great Eastern Highway until the highway 's bypass of Clackline opened in February 2008 . The bridge remains open to traffic , as part of the local road network . In July 2012 it once more carried highway traffic , excluding heavy vehicles , when an accident temporarily closed Great Eastern Highway at Spencers Brook Road .
= = Replacement = =
In the wake of the accidents of the 1970s and 1980s , replacement of Clackline Bridge seemed inevitable ; however , both Main Roads and the Shire of Northam received letters from residents asking for the bridge to be kept . In 1988 , the Shire requested that Main Roads note the preservation value of the bridge , and retain it in any plans for road realignment . A decade later , in 1998 , the bridge was placed on the Northam Municipal Heritage Inventory , in category C – " conserve if possible " . In that same year , it was included in an Institute of Engineers survey of the state 's large timber structures , as a current structure with " very high heritage value " . By this time Great Eastern Highway 's bypass of Clackline was being planned , but maintenance works continued to be undertaken as needed . The bypass was eventually constructed , with works beginning in January 2007 , and the project completed in February 2008 . The Clackline community welcomed the bypass , but there were still concerns that the historic Clackline Bridge would be lost . The bridge has since received a permanent entry on the Heritage Council of Western Australia 's Register of Heritage Places , in November 2008 . The new highway alignment crosses Clackline Brook on a large box culvert , giving vehicles a safer crossing than Clackline Bridge .
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= 1973 CECAFA Cup =
The 1973 CECAFA Cup was the inaugural edition of the CECAFA Cup , and was held in Uganda . The CECAFA Cup is considered Africa 's oldest football tournament , and involves teams from Central and Southern Africa . The matches in the 1973 tournament were played from 22 September 1973 until 29 September 1973 . The tournament was originally the Gossage Cup , contested by the four nations of Kenya , Uganda , Tanzania , and Zanzibar , running from 1929 until 1965 . In 1967 , this became the East and Central African Senior Challenge Cup , often shortened to simply the Challenge Cup , which was competed for five years , until 1971 , before the CECAFA Cup was introduced in 1973 . Uganda , the hosts , won the Cup , beating Tanzania 2 – 1 in the final . The tournament lacked a third @-@ place play @-@ off , so the runners @-@ up in the group stages , Kenya and Zambia , shared third place . After Uganda and Zambia drew in the group stages with the same number of points , goals conceded and goals scored , a play @-@ off occurred , which Uganda won . The tournament has been expanded , and the modern @-@ day tournament consists of 12 different teams ( Ethiopia , South Sudan , Burundi , Rwanda , Sudan , and Eritrea have joined since 1973 ) .
= = Participants = =
Six nations competed : the original four teams from the Gossage Cup , plus two more teams :
= = Group stages = =
The group stage began on 22 September and ended on 28 September with Group A 's play @-@ off . The matchdays alternated between group A and group B throughout the week , finishing with the group A play @-@ off . After the end of the scheduled matches in group A , Uganda and Zanzibar were level on the traditional deciders listed below , so to decide which team qualified for the final a play @-@ off was arranged , won by Uganda .
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= Release ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Release " is the seventeenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode originally aired on the Fox network on May 5 , 2002 . The teleplay for the episode was written by David Amann , from a story by John Shiban and Amann , and was directed by Kim Manners . The episode helps to explore one of the show 's story arc involving John Doggett finding the truth behind his son 's murder . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 1 , being watched by 5 @.@ 38 million households , and 7 @.@ 8 million viewers in its initial broadcast . The episode received largely positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett stumbles upon a case that may hold a connection to the murder of his son . With the help of an FBI cadet named Rudolph Hayes ( Jared Poe ) , Doggett acquires information to help his current case as well as establish the link between the present , his Jane Does , and the past — his son , Luke . The link is a man named Nicholas Regali , an organized crime participant who has an association with Bob Harvey , the only suspect in Luke 's case . Though the cadet , Hayes , is not who he says he is , his information proves invaluable in Doggett 's search for release from his son 's death .
The idea for " Release " was developed by Shiban , who handed the script over to Amann . The character of Rudolph Hayes was crafted to be an ambiguous character : either he was a genius who was adept at solving crime , comparable to Sherlock Holmes , or he was a criminal mastermind , like Professor Moriarty . The final scene , featuring Doggett scattering his son 's ashes , was difficult for Patrick to film , but thanks to Manners ' help , he was able to achieve the desired effect .
= = Plot = =
In Mendota , Minnesota , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) arrives at an abandoned apartment building after getting a tip , and sees a figure bolt out of one of the rooms during the night . He hears a scratching sound and claws away at the fresh plaster wall until blood begin streaming downward . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) performs an autopsy on the body Doggett found and one of her FBI cadets , Rudolph Hayes , accurately guesses that the victim hooked up with a psychotic killer at a bar . Hayes 's suggestions lead Scully to connect this murder to another killing two weeks earlier . In the meantime , Doggett wonders why anyone tipped him of the murder , since it is not an X @-@ File .
Doggett and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) try to get more help from Hayes . He tells them that the killer they are looking for is a criminal linked to organized crime . The two agents later meet up with Nicholas Regali , a former mobster who claims he is looking for a job in the area . They later find out that Hayes 's intuition about Regali was correct . Meanwhile , Hayes returns to his apartment complex where walls are covered with crime scene photos related to the death of Luke Doggett . Eventually , Doggett asks Hayes for help solving the case about his son 's death . Hayes tells Doggett that he believes that Robert Harvey was behind the kidnapping of Luke , but that Regali killed him .
Looking for help , Doggett approaches FBI Assistant Director Brad Follmer ( Cary Elwes ) for help on the case . Doggett 's ex @-@ wife , Barbara Doggett , meets up for a lineup at a police station . Barbara does not recognize Regali or anyone else on the lineup . Scully finds some similarities between Luke and the two dead bodies , but no forensic proof . Doggett comes to realize that Regali has had help from someone within the FBI all along . Follmer informs Reyes and Doggett that Cadet Hayes is really Stuart Mimms , a former mental patient . He also informs them that Mimms lived in New York City during the year of Luke 's murder , hinting that Mimms is the murderer and not Regali . Doggett and Reyes assemble a SWAT team to raid Mimms apartment . Mimms is taken into police custody and at a new lineup , Barbara recognizes Mimms .
At a meeting between Follmer and Regali , Follmer says he is finished consorting with him , but Regali reminds him he was being bribed , and threatens to blackmail him . In the meantime , Mimms tells Scully that he first noticed the case of Luke Doggett when he read it in a newspaper . He further stated that he lied about his name so that he could help solve the case . At the end , he still pushes that Regali is the real murderer of Doggett 's son , and not him . Later on , Doggett approaches Regali . Regali tells him a " hypothetical " story about how a pedophile took a young boy to his home . A " businessman " then walked in on the incident , realized that the boy has seen his face , and feared that the boy might associate him with the crime . The businessman then found a solution to the boy seeing his face : he murdered him . Regali then walks away and Doggett , filled with rage , unholsters his gun and follows . But a gunshot rings out and when Doggett gets outside , he sees Regali has been killed by Follmer . Later , Doggett and Barbara scatter Luke 's ashes into the ocean , finally achieving the release he has sought .
= = Production = =
The story for " Release " was developed by John Shiban and David Amman ; the teleplay was written by Amann . Kim Manners helmed the directing of the episode . " Release " was originally going to be written by Shiban alone , but he later turned the script over to Amann because he was needed elsewhere at the time . Shiban had been desiring to write a story like " Release " for a while . The character of Hayes was crafted as an ambitious character , inspired by the works of Arthur Conan Doyle : he was written to be either a " brilliant guy who 's solving crimes with his amazing intuition " , comparable to Sherlock Holmes , or " a guy who 's actually doing those crimes and playing a game " , like Professor Moriarty . Shiban and Amman came up with a story wherein Scully encounters a " genius " from her classes at the FBI Academy at Quantico . Later on , they extrapolated on the story , allowing the " genius " crime solver to help John Doggett find out what happened to his son , Luke Doggett .
The final scene wherein Doggett and his ex @-@ wife scatter Luke 's remains was called " difficult " by Robert Patrick . He later noted that Manners " was there to guide us along ; I can think of no worst [ sic ] nightmare for a parent than to lose their child . " The episode was written to create closure to Doggett 's story . Patrick later said that , if the series had continued for a tenth season , he would have liked to see his character develop a relationship with Reyes , because " I think Doggett was very attracted to Reyes [ … ] I would have liked to see the relationship with Reyes explored more . " Gish agreed , noting that the show 's ending never allowed the idea to be fleshed out , but that Reyes " would have definitely gone further with their relationship . "
= = Reception = =
" Release " first aired in the United States on May 5 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on March 9 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 38 million households , and 7 @.@ 8 million viewers . It ranked as the fifty @-@ fifth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending May 5 . " Release " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's estimated households .
Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A – grade . In a season review , Michelle Kung from Entertainment Weekly called the episode " worthy " , but noted that it was overshadowed by the show 's " ludicrous conspiracy plots " . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk concluded that " Release " was a " good episode " because it " presented conclusions to [ one of the ] long running stories in the series [ in that it ] featured the conclusion to John Doggett 's personal trial , his quest for closure with his son 's murder . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a glowing review and rated it five stars out of five . The two argued that , because of the " minimal emphasis " Doggett 's son 's murder was given in the show , the episode " packs [ a ] punch " . Shearman and Pearson saw similarities between Doggett 's trials and those of Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . They noted that while " Mulder was always identified by his quest for his sister [ Samantha ] " , Doggett " carried the loss of his son as a private grief . " They concluded that this structuring made the entry " emotionally powerful " and " moving " . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , complimented the " lyrical style " of the episode , calling it " gorgeously shot " and " well acted " . Other reviews were not as glowing . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a negative review and awarded it a 4 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode made about as much sense as ' Underneath ' or ' Jump the Shark ' . It was entirely inappropriate for John Doggett ’ s struggle to end with someone else ’ s actions . If this is the way the series is going to end , then I have to say , my hopes for a rousing finale are dwindling . "
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= Community of Royalist People 's Party =
The Community of Royalist People 's Party ( Khmer : គណបក ្ សសង ្ គមរាស ្ រ ្ តរាជាធិបតេយ ្ យ ; CRPP ) was a Cambodian political party that lasted from March 2014 until January 2015 . It was founded and led by Norodom Ranariddh , who had been ousted from FUNCINPEC back in 2006 . Ideologically a royalist party , the CRPP drew its inspiration from the political legacy of the former King of Cambodia , Norodom Sihanouk , and competed for its voter base with both FUNCINPEC and the Cambodia National Rescue Party ( CNRP ) . In January 2015 , the CRPP was dissolved when Ranariddh returned to FUNCINPEC .
= = History = =
On 25 February 2014 , former First Prime Minister of Cambodia Norodom Ranariddh , who was ousted from FUNCINPEC in 2006 , announced plans to return to politics and lead the formation the Community of Royalist People 's Party . The Cambodian Interior Ministry reportedly received a request from the party to be formally registered as a political party . In March 2014 , Ranariddh hosted the party 's official launching ceremony at the Phnom Penh Sunway Hotel , where he revealed the party logo and signed registration papers for the party . In April 2014 , the CRPP 's registration was officially approved by the Interior Ministry . A month later , CRPP appointed a new chief @-@ of @-@ cabinet Nop Sothearith , and the party also made an in @-@ advance registration with the Interior Ministry to run for general elections scheduled to be held in 2018 . In June 2014 , the CRPP held a party to mark its official launch , and opened its headquarters at the Russey Keo District in Phnom Penh .
In October 2014 , a public spate arose between Ranariddh and his personal secretary , Noranarith Anandayath . Ranariddh accused Noranarith of badmouthing him , which prompted the latter to resign from the CRPP . Two months later , in December 2014 , the Phnom Penh Post reported that several high @-@ ranking FUNCINPEC officials defected to the CRPP , which included a former secretary of state , former provincial governor and former deputy national police chief . On 2 January 2015 , Ranariddh announced his plan to return to FUNCINPEC , after being ousted from the party in 2006 . The announcement was made after a private meeting with Prime Minister Hun Sen who had urged Ranariddh to rejoin his former party . The CRPP was subsequently dissolved when Ranariddh returned to FUNCINPEC later in the latter part of January 2015 .
= = Ideology and political positions = =
The CRPP was a royalist party , and Ranariddh stated in February 2015 that the party aligns itself to the political legacy of Norodom Sihanouk . The CRPP also stated that it directly competed for the voter base from the CNRP and FUNCINPEC , but not with the Cambodian People 's Party ( CPP ) . At the party 's launching ceremony in March 2014 , Ranariddh added that the CRPP would not seek to align itself with the CPP or CNRP . Ranariddh also expressed interest to resolve socioeconomic problems such as poverty , low wages and corruption , which he claimed were worsened by the effects of the political protests as a result of political differences between the CPP and CNRP . In June 2014 , Ranariddh outlined several reform proposals at a party meeting for youths , such as reviewing 99 @-@ year land leases to identify illegal land concessions and helping more youths to seek employment locally .
The CRPP maintained frosty relations with FUNCINPEC , which had earlier ousted Ranariddh as its president in 2006 . When Ranariddh announced plans to form the party in February 2014 , several FUNCINPEC leaders including Nhek Bun Chhay , Keo Puth Rasmey and Sisowath Sirirath questioned Ranariddh 's leadership abilities and past political track record . Ranariddh was particularly critical of the CNRP and in March 2014 , he denied accusations by CNRP leader Sam Rainsy that the CRPP was formed with the aim of splitting the opposition voter base . Ranariddh also charged that the Rainsy would end Cambodia 's status as a constitutional monarchy if they were elected to power . In May 2014 , Ranariddh called on the CPP and CNRP to form a unity government and proposed that the CRPP was keen to act as a mediator between the two parties .
= = Logo = =
The CRPP 's party logo had a circular design , and bears Ranariddh 's initials in the Khmer language . The logo also includes the number " 9 " , which represents power according to brahmin tradition . Around the logo were three circles ; one was yellow , representing the monarchy , another was white , representing peace , and the third was green , representing water . On Ranariddh 's return to the party in January 2015 , FUNCINPEC adopted a new logo that was inspired by that of the defunct CRPP 's party logo .
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= Iron Man ( 2008 film ) =
Iron Man is a 2008 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character of the same name , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures.1 It is the first film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by Jon Favreau , with a screenplay by Mark Fergus & Hawk Ostby and Art Marcum & Matt Holloway . It stars Robert Downey Jr . , Terrence Howard , Jeff Bridges , Shaun Toub and Gwyneth Paltrow . In Iron Man , Tony Stark , an industrialist and master engineer , builds a powered exoskeleton and becomes the technologically advanced superhero Iron Man .
The film had been in development since 1990 at Universal Pictures , 20th Century Fox , or New Line Cinema at various times , before Marvel Studios reacquired the rights in 2006 . Marvel put the project in production as its first self @-@ financed film , with Paramount Pictures as its distributor . Favreau signed on as director , aiming for a naturalistic feel , and he chose to shoot the film primarily in California , rejecting the East Coast setting of the comics to differentiate the film from numerous superhero films set in New York City @-@ esque environments . During filming , the actors were free to create their own dialogue because pre @-@ production was focused on the story and action . Rubber and metal versions of the armors , created by Stan Winston 's company , were mixed with computer @-@ generated imagery to create the title character .
Iron Man premiered in Sydney on April 14 , 2008 , and was released in theaters on May 2 , 2008 . The film was a critical and commercial success , grossing over $ 585 million and garnering widespread critical acclaim , with Downey 's performance as Tony Stark particularly praised . The American Film Institute selected the film as one of the ten best of the year , it was also nominated for two Academy Awards for the Best Sound Editing and the Best Visual Effects . A sequel , Iron Man 2 , was released on May 7 , 2010 , and another sequel , Iron Man 3 , was released on May 3 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Genius , billionaire , and playboy Tony Stark , who has inherited the defense contractor Stark Industries from his father , is in war @-@ torn Afghanistan with his friend and military liaison , Lieutenant Colonel James Rhodes to demonstrate the new " Jericho " missile . The convoy is ambushed and Stark is critically wounded by one of his own rocket @-@ propelled grenades . He is captured and imprisoned in a cave by a terrorist group , the Ten Rings , and an electromagnet is grafted into his chest by fellow captive Yinsen to keep the shrapnel shards that wounded him from reaching his heart and killing him . Ten Rings leader Raza offers Stark freedom in exchange for building a Jericho missile for the group , but Tony and Yinsen agree Raza will not keep his word .
Stark and Yinsen quietly build a powerful electric generator called an arc reactor to power Stark 's electromagnet and a suit of powered armor to aid in their escape . Although they keep the suit hidden almost to completion , the Ten Rings attack the workshop when they discover their hostages ' intentions . Yinsen sacrifices himself to divert them while the suit powers up . The armored Stark battles his way out of the cave to find the dying Yinsen , then in anger burns the Ten Rings weapons and flies away , crashing in the desert and destroying the suit . After being rescued by Rhodes , Stark returns home and announces that his company will no longer manufacture weapons . Obadiah Stane , his father 's old partner and the company 's manager , advises Stark that this may ruin Stark Industries and his father 's legacy . In his home workshop , Stark builds a sleeker , more powerful version of his improvised armor suit , as well as a more powerful arc reactor for his chest . Personal assistant Pepper Potts places the original reactor inside a small glass showcase . Though Stane requests details , Stark keeps his work to himself .
At a charity event held by Stark Industries , reporter Christine Everhart informs Stark that his company 's weapons , including the Jericho , were recently delivered to the Ten Rings and are being used to attack Yinsen 's home village , Gulmira . Stark also learns Stane is trying to replace him as head of the company . Enraged by these revelations , Stark dons his new armor and flies to Afghanistan , where he saves Yinsen 's village . While flying home , Stark is shot at by two F @-@ 22 Raptor fighter jets . He reveals his secret identity to Rhodes over the phone in an attempt to end the attack . Meanwhile , the Ten Rings gather the pieces of Stark 's prototype suit and meet with Stane , who subdues Raza and has the rest of the group killed . Stane has a massive new suit reverse engineered from the wreckage . Seeking to find any other weapons delivered to the Ten Rings , Stark sends Pepper to hack into the company computer system from Stane 's office . She discovers Stane has been supplying the terrorists and hired the Ten Rings to kill Stark , but the group reneged . Potts meets with Agent Phil Coulson of S.H.I.E.L.D. , a counter @-@ terrorism agency , to inform him of Stane 's activities .
Stane 's scientists cannot duplicate Stark 's arc reactor , so Stane ambushes Stark at his home and takes the one from his chest . Stark manages to get to his original reactor to replace the taken one . Potts and several S.H.I.E.L.D. agents attempt to arrest Stane , but he dons his suit and attacks them . Stark fights Stane , but is outmatched without his new reactor to run his suit at full capacity . The fight carries Stark and Stane to the top of the Stark Industries building , and Stark instructs Potts to overload the large arc reactor powering the building . This unleashes a massive electrical surge that causes Stane and his armor to fall into the exploding reactor , killing him . The next day , at a press conference , Stark defies suggestions from S.H.I.E.L.D. and publicly admits to being the superhero the press has dubbed " Iron Man " .
In a post @-@ credits scene , S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Nick Fury visits Stark at home , telling him that Iron Man is not " the only superhero in the world " , and explaining that he wants to discuss the " Avenger Initiative " .
= = Cast = =
Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man :
An industrialist , genius inventor , and consummate playboy , he is CEO of Stark Industries and a chief weapons manufacturer for the U.S. military . Favreau had planned to cast a newcomer in the role , but ultimately chose Downey , a fan of the comic , because he felt the actor 's past made him an appropriate choice for the part , explaining " The best and worst moments of Robert 's life have been in the public eye . He had to find an inner balance to overcome obstacles that went far beyond his career . That 's Tony Stark . Robert brings a depth that goes beyond a comic book character who is having trouble in high school , or can 't get the girl . " Favreau felt Downey could make Stark a " likable asshole , " but also depict an authentic emotional journey once he won over the audience . Downey had an office next to Favreau during pre @-@ production , which allowed him greater involvement in the screenwriting process . He brought a deeper sense of humor to the film not present in previous drafts of the script . Downey explained , " What I usually hate about these [ superhero ] movies [ is ] when suddenly the guy that you were digging turns into Dudley Do @-@ Right , and then you 're supposed to buy into all his ' Let 's go do some good ! ' That Eliot Ness @-@ in @-@ a @-@ cape @-@ type thing . What was really important to me was to not have him change so much that he 's unrecognizable . When someone used to be a schmuck and they 're not anymore , hopefully they still have a sense of humor . " To prepare , Downey spent five days a week weight training and practiced martial arts to get into shape , which he said benefited him because " it 's hard not to have a personality meltdown [ ... ] after about several hours in that suit . I 'm calling up every therapeutic moment I can think of to just get through the day . "
Terrence Howard as Lt. Colonel James " Rhodey " Rhodes :
A friend of Stark 's , and the liaison between Stark Industries and the United States Air Force in the department of acquisitions , specifically weapons development . Favreau cast Howard because he felt he could play War Machine in a sequel . Howard prepared for the role by visiting Nellis Air Force Base on March 16 , 2007 , where he ate with the pilots and observed HH @-@ 60 Pave Hawk rescue helicopters and F @-@ 22 Raptors . While Rhodes is roguish in the comics after he met Stark , his earlier disciplinarian character forms a dynamic with Stark , and he is unsure whether or not Stark 's actions are acceptable . " Rhodey is completely disgusted with the way Tony has lived his life , but at a certain point he realizes that perhaps there is a different way , " Howard said . " Whose life is the right way ; is it the strict military life , or the life of an independent ? " Howard and his father are Iron Man fans , partly because Rhodes was one of the few black superheroes when he was a child . He was a Downey fan since he saw him in Weird Science , and the two competed physically on set .
Jeff Bridges as Obadiah Stane :
Stark 's business second @-@ in @-@ command , mentor and friend who turns on him to overtake the company , eventually building a giant exosuit to fight Stark . Bridges read the comics as a boy and liked Favreau 's modern , realistic approach . He shaved his head , something he had wanted to do for some time , and grew a beard for the role . Bridges googled the Book of Obadiah , and was surprised to learn retribution is a major theme in that particular book of the Bible , something which Stane represents . Many of Stane 's scenes were cut to focus more on Stark , but the writers felt Bridges 's performance allowed the application of " less is more " .
Shaun Toub as Yinsen :
Stark 's fellow captive , who grafts an electromagnet to Stark 's chest " to keep the shrapnel shell shards that wounded him from reaching his heart and killing him " , and who helps Stark build the first Iron Man suit .
Gwyneth Paltrow as Pepper Potts :
Stark 's personal assistant and budding love interest . Paltrow asked Marvel to send her any comics they would consider relevant to her understanding of the character , who she considered to be very smart , levelheaded , and grounded . She said she liked " the fact that there 's a sexuality that 's not blatant . " Favreau wanted Potts ' and Stark 's relationship to be reminiscent of a 1940s comedy , something which Paltrow considered to be fun in a sexy , yet innocent way .
Additionally , Faran Tahir appears as Raza , the leader of the Ten Rings ; Paul Bettany voices J.A.R.V.I.S. , Stark 's personal AI system ; Leslie Bibb portrays Christine Everhart , a reporter for Vanity Fair ; and Clark Gregg appears as Phil Coulson , an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D .. Will Lyman provides the voiceover during the opening award ceremony . Samuel L. Jackson cameos as Nick Fury , director of S.H.I.E.L.D. , in a post @-@ credits scene . Jackson 's face was previously used as the model for the Ultimate Marvel imprint version of Nick Fury . Other cameos in the film include : Stan Lee as himself , being mistaken for Hugh Hefner by Stark at a party ; director Jon Favreau as Happy Hogan , Stark 's bodyguard and chauffeur ; Tom Morello , who also provides additional guitar music for the film , as a terrorist guard ; and Jim Cramer as himself . Ghostface Killah had a cameo in a scene where Stark briefly stays in Dubai , but the scene was cut from the theatrical release for pacing reasons .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 1990 , Universal Studios bought the rights to develop Iron Man for the big screen , with Stuart Gordon to direct a low @-@ budget film based on the property , but by February 1996 , 20th Century Fox had acquired the rights from Universal . In January 1997 , Nicolas Cage expressed interest in portraying the character , while in September 1998 , Tom Cruise expressed interest in producing as well as starring in an Iron Man film . Jeff Vintar and Iron Man co @-@ creator Stan Lee co @-@ wrote a story for Fox , which Vintar adapted into a screenplay . It included a new science @-@ fiction origin for the character , and featured MODOK as the villain . Tom Rothman , President of Production at Fox , credited the screenplay with finally making him understand the character . In May 1999 , Jeffrey Caine was hired to rewrite Vintar and Lee 's script . That October , Quentin Tarantino was approached to write and direct the film . Fox sold the rights to New Line Cinema the following December , reasoning that although the Vintar / Lee script was strong , the studio had too many Marvel superheroes in development , and " we can 't make them all . "
By July 2000 , the film was being written for New Line by Ted Elliott , Terry Rossio , and Tim McCanlies . McCanlies ' script used the idea of a Nick Fury cameo to set up his own film . In June 2001 , New Line entered talks with Joss Whedon , a fan of the character , to direct , and in December 2002 , McCanlies had turned in a completed script . In December 2004 , the studio attached director Nick Cassavetes to the project for a target 2006 release . Screenplay drafts were written by Alfred Gough , Miles Millar , and David Hayter , and pitted Iron Man against his father Howard Stark , who becomes War Machine . After two years of unsuccessful development , and the deal with Cassavetes falling through , New Line Cinema returned the film rights to Marvel .
In November 2005 , Marvel Studios worked to start development from scratch , and announced Iron Man as their first independent feature , as the character was their only major one not already depicted in live action . According to associate producer Jeremy Latcham , " we went after about 30 writers and they all passed " , saying they were uninterested in the project due to both the relative obscurity of the character and it being a solely Marvel production . Even the rewrites when the film had a script led to many refusals . In order to gain more awareness for Iron Man to the general public , and put him on the same level of popularity as Spider @-@ Man or Hulk , Marvel conducted focus groups to help remove the general thought that the character was a robot , despite a man being inside the armor . After the groups proved successful , the information Marvel received helped them formulate a plan to " build awareness ahead of the movie 's release " , which included three animated short films called " Iron Man Advertorials " , which were produced by Tim Miller and Blur Studio .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Jon Favreau was hired in April 2006 to direct the film . Favreau had wanted to work with Marvel producer Avi Arad on another film after they both worked on Daredevil . Favreau celebrated getting the job by going on a diet , and lost seventy pounds . The director found the opportunity to create a politically ambitious " ultimate spy movie " in Iron Man , citing inspiration from Tom Clancy , James Bond , and RoboCop . Favreau described his approach as similar to an independent film — " [ i ] f Robert Altman had directed Superman " — and also cited Batman Begins as an inspiration . He wanted to make Iron Man a story of an adult man literally reinventing himself after discovering the world is far more complex than he originally believed . Favreau changed the Vietnam War origin of the character to Afghanistan , as he did not want to do a period piece . Art Marcum & Matt Holloway were hired to write the script , while Mark Fergus & Hawk Ostby wrote another version , with Favreau compiling both team 's scripts , and John August then ' polishing ' the combined version . Comic book staff Mark Millar , Brian Michael Bendis , Joe Quesada , Tom Brevoort , Axel Alonso , and Ralph Macchio were also called upon by Favreau to give advice on the script . Favreau , as he prepared to film Iron Man in a complex that once belonged to Hughes Aircraft , got a tour with Robert Downey Jr. of SpaceX from Elon Musk , Downey said " Elon was someone Tony probably hung out with and partied with , or more likely they went on some weird jungle trek together to drink concoctions with the shamans . "
Choosing a villain was difficult , because Favreau felt Iron Man 's archnemesis , the Mandarin , would not feel realistic , especially after Mark Millar gave his opinion on the script . He felt only in a sequel , with an altered tone , would the fantasy of the Mandarin 's rings be appropriate . The decision to push him into the background is comparable to Sauron in The Lord of the Rings , or Palpatine in Star Wars . Favreau also wanted Iron Man to face a giant enemy . The switch from Mandarin to Obadiah Stane was done after Bridges was cast , with Stane originally intended to become a villain in the sequel . The Crimson Dynamo was also a villain in early drafts of the script . Favreau felt it was important to include intentional inside references for fans of the comics , such as giving the two fighter jets that attack Iron Man the call signs of " Whiplash 1 " and " Whiplash 2 , " a reference to the comic book villain Whiplash , and including Captain America 's shield in Stark 's workshop . The post @-@ credits sequence that introduces Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury was written by comics writer Brian Michael Bendis .
= = = Filming = = =
Production was based in the former Hughes Company soundstages in Playa Vista , Los Angeles , California . Howard Hughes was one of the inspirations for the comic book , and the filmmakers acknowledged the coincidence that they would film Iron Man creating the flying Mark III where the Hughes H @-@ 4 Hercules was built . Favreau rejected the East Coast setting of the comic books because many superhero films had already been set there . Filming began on March 12 , 2007 , with the first few weeks spent on Stark 's captivity in Afghanistan . The cave where Stark is imprisoned was a 150- to 200 @-@ yard ( 150 – 200 m ) long set , which had movable forks in the caverns to allow greater freedom for the film 's crew . Production designer J. Michael Riva saw footage of a Taliban fighter in Afghanistan , and saw the cold breath as he spoke : realizing remote caves are actually very cold , Riva placed an air conditioning system in the set . He also sought Downey 's advice about makeshift objects in prison , such as a sock being used to make tea . Afterwards , Stark 's capture was filmed at Lone Pine , and other exterior scenes in Afghanistan were filmed at Olancha Sand Dunes , where the crew endured two days of 40 to 60 @-@ mile per hour ( 60 to 100 km / h ) winds . Filming at Edwards Air Force Base began in mid @-@ April , and ended on May 2 . Exterior shots of Stark 's home were digitally added to footage of Point Dume in Malibu , while the interior was built at Playa Vista , where Favreau and Riva aimed to make Stark 's home look less futuristic and more " grease monkey " . Filming concluded on June 25 , 2007 , at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas , Nevada . Favreau , a newcomer to action films , remarked , " I 'm shocked that I [ was ] on schedule . I thought that there were going to be many curveballs " . He hired " people who are good at creating action " , so " the human story [ felt ] like it belongs to the comic book genre " .
There was much improvisation in dialogue scenes , because the script was not completed when filming began ( the filmmakers had focused on the story making sense and planning the action ) . Favreau acknowledged that improvisation would make the film feel more natural . Some scenes were shot with two cameras to capture lines said on the spot . Multiple takes were done , as Downey wanted to try something new each time . It was Downey 's idea to have Stark hold a news conference on the floor , and he created the speech Stark makes when demonstrating the Jericho weapon . Brian Michael Bendis wrote three pages of dialogue for the Nick Fury cameo scene , with the filmmakers choosing the best lines for filming . The cameo was filmed with a skeleton crew in order to keep it a secret , but rumors appeared on the Internet only days later . Marvel Studios 's Kevin Feige subsequently had the scene removed from all preview prints in order to maintain the surprise and keep fans guessing .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Favreau wanted the film to be believable by showing the construction of the suit in its three stages . Stan Winston , a fan of the comic book , and his company built metal and rubber versions of the armors . They had previously worked on Favreau 's Zathura . Favreau 's main concern with the effects was whether the transition between the computer @-@ generated and practical costumes would be too obvious . Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) was hired to create the bulk of the visual effects , with additional work being completed by The Orphanage and The Embassy ; Favreau trusted ILM after seeing Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End and Transformers . The Mark I design was intended to look like it was built from spare parts . The back is less armored than the front , because Stark would use his resources for a forward attack . It also foreshadows the design of Stane 's armor . A single 90 @-@ pound ( 41 kg ) version was built , causing concern when a stuntman fell over inside it , though both the stuntman and the suit were unscathed . The armor was also designed to only have its top half worn at times . The Embassy created a digital version of the Mark I. Stan Winston Studios built a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , 800 @-@ pound ( 360 kg ) animatronic version of " Iron Monger " ( Obadiah Stane ) , a name which Obadiah Stane calls Tony Stark and himself earlier in the film as a reference , but is never actually used for the suit itself in the film . The animatronic required five operators for the arm , and was built on a gimbal to simulate walking . A scale model was used for the shots of it being built .
The Mark II resembles an airplane prototype , with visible flaps . Iron Man comic book artist Adi Granov designed the Mark III with illustrator Phil Saunders . Granov 's designs were the primary inspiration for the film 's , and he came on board the film after he recognized his work on Jon Favreau 's MySpace page . Saunders streamlined Granov 's concept art , making it stealthier and less cartoonish in its proportions . Sometimes , Downey would only wear the helmet , sleeves and chest of the costume over a motion capture suit . For shots of the Mark III flying , it was animated to look realistic by taking off slowly , and landing quickly . To generate shots of Iron Man and the F @-@ 22 Raptors battling , cameras were flown in the air to provide reference for physics , wind and frost on the lenses . For further study of the physics of flying , skydivers were filmed in a vertical wind tunnel . Phil Saunders created concept art for the War Machine armor and said that it was originally intended to be used in the film but was " cut from the script about halfway through pre @-@ production . " Saunders said that the War Machine armor " was going to be called the Mark IV armor and would have had weaponized swap @-@ out parts that would be worn over the original Mark III armor , " and that it " would have been worn by Tony Stark in the final battle sequence . "
= = Music = =
Composer Ramin Djawadi , an Iron Man fan who still has issues of the comic from the late 1970s , has also been into heavy metal music since the early 1990s . While he normally composes after watching an assembly cut , Djawadi began work after seeing the teaser trailer . Favreau clearly envisioned a focus on " heavy " guitar in the score , and Djawadi composed the music on that instrument before arranging it for orchestra . The composer said Downey 's performance inspired the several Iron Man themes ( for his different moods ) , as well as Stark 's playboy leitmotif . Djawadi 's favorite of the Iron Man themes is the " kickass " because of its " rhythmic pattern that is a hook on its own . Very much like a machine . " The other themes are " not so much character based but rather plot based that carry you through the movie " . Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave contributed additional guitar work to the film 's soundtrack .
= = Release = =
The premiere was held at the Greater Union theater at George Street , Sydney , on April 14 , 2008 . The film was released in the United States on May 2 , 2008 , while the international release was pushed up to April 30 , 2008 .
= = = Marketing = = =
Marvel and Paramount modeled their marketing campaign for Iron Man on that of Transformers . In May 2008 , Sega released an official tie @-@ in video game based on the film on multiple gaming platforms . Downey , Howard and Taub reprise their roles from the film . A 30 @-@ second spot for the film aired during a Super Bowl XLII break . 6 @,@ 400 7 @-@ Eleven stores in the United States helped promote the film , and LG Group also made a deal with Paramount . Hasbro created figures of armors from the film , as well as Titanium Man ( who appears in the video game ) and the armor from the World War Hulk comics . Worldwide , Burger King and Audi promoted the film . Jon Favreau was set to direct a commercial for the fast @-@ food chain , as Michael Bay did for Transformers . In the film , Tony Stark drives an Audi R8 , and also has an " American cheeseburger " from Burger King after his rescue from Afghanistan , as part of the studio 's product placement deal with the respective companies . Three other vehicles , the Audi S6 sedan , Audi S5 sports coupe and the Audi Q7 SUV , also appear in the film . Audi created a tie @-@ in website , as General Motors did for Transformers . Oracle Corporation also promoted the film on its site . Several tie @-@ in comics were released for the film .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 30 , 2008 , in North America , and October 27 , 2008 in Europe . DVD sales were very successful , selling over 4 million copies the first week and generating a gross of over US $ 93 million . There were a total of 9 million copies sold and an accumulated total sales of over $ 160 million ( not including Blu @-@ ray ) . For the home releases of the film , the image on the newspaper Stark reads before he announces he is Iron Man had to be altered because of amateur photographer Ronnie Adams filing a lawsuit against Paramount and Marvel for using his on @-@ location spy photo in the scene . A Wal @-@ Mart @-@ exclusive release included a preview of Iron Man : Armored Adventures .
The film was also collected in a 10 @-@ disc box set titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase One – Avengers Assembled " which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on April 2 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Iron Man earned $ 318 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 266 @.@ 8 million in other territories , for a worldwide gross of $ 585 @.@ 1 million .
= = = = North America = = = =
In its opening weekend , Iron Man grossed $ 98 @,@ 618 @,@ 668 in 4 @,@ 105 theaters in the United States and Canada , ranking No. 1 at the box office , giving it the eleventh biggest @-@ opening weekend at the time , ninth @-@ widest release in terms of theaters , and the third highest @-@ grossing opening weekend of 2008 behind Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and The Dark Knight . It grossed $ 35 @.@ 2 million on its first day , giving it the thirteenth biggest @-@ opening day at the time . Iron Man had the second @-@ best premiere for a non @-@ sequel , behind Spider @-@ Man , and the fourth biggest @-@ opening for a superhero film . Iron Man was also the No. 1 film in the U.S. and Canada in its second weekend , grossing $ 51 @.@ 1 million , giving it the twelfth @-@ best second weekend and the fifth @-@ best for a non @-@ sequel . On June 18 , 2008 , Iron Man became that year 's first film to pass the $ 300 million mark for the domestic box office .
= = = Critical response = = =
In May 2008 , Iron Man was identified as the " best @-@ reviewed film of the year so far " by Jen Yamato of review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , with the site reporting that at that time the film had received a rating of 95 % based on 107 reviews , a rating that held its place to January 2010 . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 94 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 266 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Director Jon Favreau and star Robert Downey make this smart , high impact superhero movie one that even non @-@ comics fans can enjoy . " On Metacritic , the film achieved an average score of 79 out of 100 , based on 38 critics , signifying " generally favorable reviews " .
Among the major trade journals , Todd McCarthy of Variety called the film an " expansively entertaining special effects extravaganza " with " fresh energy and stylistic polish " , while Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film , while nonetheless finding " disappointment [ in ] a climatic [ sic ] battle between different Iron Man prototypes [ ... ] how did Tony 's nemesis learn how to use the suit ? " In one of the first major @-@ daily newspaper reviews , Frank Lovece of Newsday lauded the film 's " emotional truth [ ... ] pitch @-@ perfect casting and plausibly rendered super @-@ science " that made it " faithful to the source material while updating it – and recognizing what 's made that material so enduring isn 't just the high @-@ tech cool of a man in a metal suit , but the human condition that got him there " . A. O. Scott of The New York Times called the film " an unusually good superhero picture . Or at least – since it certainly has its problems – a superhero movie that 's good in unusual ways . " Among the specialty press , Garth Franklin of Dark Horizons commended the " impressive sets and mechanics that combine smoothly with relatively seamless CG " , and said , " Robert Downey Jr . , along with director Jon Favreau [ ... ] help this rise above formula . The result is something that , whilst hardly original or groundbreaking , is nevertheless refreshing in its earnestness to avoid dark dramatic stylings in favor of an easy @-@ going , crowd @-@ pleasing action movie with a sprinkle of anti @-@ war and redemption themes " .
Among major metropolitan weeklies , David Edelstein of New York magazine called the film " a shapely piece of mythmaking [ ... ] Favreau doesn 't go in for stylized comic @-@ book frames , at least in the first half . He gets real with it – you 'd think you were watching a military thriller " , while conversely , David Denby of The New Yorker put forth a negative review , claiming " a slightly depressed , going @-@ through @-@ the @-@ motions feel to the entire show [ ... ] Gwyneth Paltrow , widening her eyes and palpitating , can 't do much with an antique role as Stark 's girl Friday , who loves him but can 't say so ; Terrence Howard , playing a military man who chases around after Stark , looks dispirited and taken for granted " . IGN 's Todd Gilchrist recognized Downey as " the best thing " in a film that " functions on autopilot , providing requisite story developments and character details to fill in this default ' origin story ' while the actors successfully breathe life into their otherwise conventional roles " . Noting the cultural elements of the film , Cristobal Giraldez Catalan of Bright Lights Film Journal wrote , " Iron Man is far more than playboy fantasy ; it is American foreign policy realized without context [ ... and ] with narrative and directorial precision , once again provides the high @-@ fidelity misogyny and anti @-@ Muslim rhetoric Hollywood is known for . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Roger Ebert and Richard Corliss named Iron Man as among their favorite films of 2008 . It was selected by the American Film Institute as one of the ten best films of the year , and by Empire magazine as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . Tony Stark was also selected by Empire as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time , and on their list of the 100 Greatest Fictional Characters , Fandomania.com ranked him at number 37 .
= = Sequels = =
= = = Iron Man 2 = = =
The sequel , Iron Man 2 , was released in the United States on May 7 , 2010 with Jon Favreau and Robert Downey Jr. returning as director and lead , respectively , with a screenplay by Justin Theroux . Don Cheadle replaces Terrence Howard in the role of Colonel Rhodes , who is also seen as War Machine . Also starring is Gwyneth Paltrow as Pepper Potts ; Mickey Rourke as villain Ivan Vanko ; Sam Rockwell as Justin Hammer ; Scarlett Johansson as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Natasha Romanoff ; and Samuel L. Jackson as S.H.I.E.L.D. director Nick Fury .
= = = Iron Man 3 = = =
Disney , Marvel Studios , and Paramount Pictures announced a May 3 , 2013 release date for Iron Man 3 . Favreau said in December 2010 that he would not direct Iron Man 3 , opting to direct Magic Kingdom , but reprised his role as Happy Hogan . Shane Black directed Iron Man 3 , from a screenplay by Drew Pearce . Robert Downey Jr. returned as Tony Stark , as did Gwyneth Paltrow as Pepper Potts and Don Cheadle as Colonel Rhodes , who uses the moniker Iron Patriot . Guy Pearce starred as Aldrich Killian and Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery .
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= Kepler @-@ 6b =
Kepler @-@ 6b is an extrasolar planet in the orbit of the unusually metal @-@ rich Kepler @-@ 6 , a star in the field of view of the NASA @-@ operated Kepler spacecraft , which searches for planets that cross directly in front of , or transit , their host stars . It was the third planet to be discovered by Kepler . Kepler @-@ 6 orbits its host star every three days from a distance of .046 AU . Its proximity to Kepler @-@ 6 inflated the planet , about two @-@ thirds the mass of Jupiter , to slightly larger than Jupiter 's size and greatly heated its atmosphere .
Follow @-@ up observations led to the planet 's confirmation , which was announced at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society on January 4 , 2010 along with four other Kepler @-@ discovered planets .
= = Discovery and naming = =
NASA 's Kepler satellite trails the Earth and continually observes a portion of the sky between the constellations Cygnus and Lyra . It is devised to search for and discover planets that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars with respect to Earth by measuring small and generally periodic variations in a star 's brightness . Kepler recognized a potential transit event around a star that was designated KOI @-@ 017 , which was named Kepler @-@ 6 after the confirmation of Kepler @-@ 6b . The star was designated " 6 " because it was the sixth planet to be observed ( but the third planet to be discovered ) by the Kepler satellite .
After the initial detection of a transit signal by Kepler , follow @-@ up observations were taken to confirm the planetary nature of the candidate . Speckle imaging by the WIYN Telescope was used to determine the amount of light from nearby , background stars that was present . If not accounted for , this light would have made Kepler @-@ 6 appear brighter than it actually was . Consequently , the size of Kepler @-@ 6b would have been underestimated . Radial velocity data was taken by HIRES at the Keck I telescope in order to determine the mass of the planet . Independently , observations were made with the Spitzer Space Telescope at infrared wavelengths of 3 @.@ 6 and 4 @.@ 5 micrometres . Along with additional data taken by Kepler , these observations detected the occultation and phase curves of Kepler @-@ 6b behind its star .
The confirmation of Kepler @-@ 6b was announced at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society with the discoveries of planets Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 5b , Kepler @-@ 7b , and Kepler @-@ 8b on January 4 , 2010 .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 6 is a sunlike star in the Cygnus constellation . It is approximately 20 @.@ 9 % more massive than and 39 @.@ 1 % larger than the Sun . With an effective temperature of 5647 K , Kepler @-@ 6 is cooler than the Sun . It is predicted to be 3 @.@ 8 billion years old , compared to the Sun 's age of 4 @.@ 6 billion years . It is most notable for its unusually high metallicity for an exoplanet @-@ bearing star ; with an [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 34 , Kepler @-@ 6 has 2 @.@ 18 times more iron than the Sun does . Kepler @-@ 6b is the only planet that has been discovered in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 6 .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 6b is a hot Jupiter , having a mass 0 @.@ 669 times that of Jupiter , but an average distance of only 0 @.@ 046 AU from its star and , thus , an orbital period of 3 @.@ 23 days . It is almost 10 times closer to its star than Mercury is from our Sun . As a result , Kepler @-@ 6b is strongly irradiated by its star , heating its atmosphere to a temperature of 1660 K and puffing it up to a size 1 @.@ 3 times that of Jupiter . It may also be the case that Kepler @-@ 6b has a thermal inversion of its atmosphere , where temperature increases with increasing distance from the center of the planet . However , additional observations are required to confirm or refute this possibility .
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= Tennessee Walking Horse =
The Tennessee Walking Horse or Tennessee Walker is a breed of gaited horse known for its unique four @-@ beat running @-@ walk and flashy movement . It was originally developed in the southern United States for use on farms and plantations . It is a popular riding horse due to its calm disposition , smooth gaits and sure @-@ footedness . The Tennessee Walking Horse is often seen in the show ring , but is also popular as a pleasure and trail riding horse using both English and Western equipment . Tennessee Walkers are also seen in movies , television shows and other performances .
The breed first developed in the late 18th century when Narragansett Pacers and Canadian Pacers from the eastern United States crossed with gaited Spanish Mustangs from Texas . Other breeds were later added , and in 1886 a foal named Black Allan , now considered the foundation sire of the breed , was born . In 1935 the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' Association was formed , and the studbook closed in 1947 . In 1939 , the first Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration was held , an annual event that in recent years has attracted considerable attention and controversy .
The two basic categories of Tennessee Walking Horse show competition are called " flat @-@ shod " and " performance " , differentiated by desired leg action . Flat @-@ shod horses , wearing regular horseshoes , exhibit less exaggerated movement , while performance horses wear built @-@ up pads or " stacks " along with other weighted action devices , creating the so @-@ called " Big Lick " style . Stacks and action devices are prohibited at shows sanctioned by the United States Equestrian Federation and some breed organizations . The Tennessee Walking Horse is the breed most affected by the Horse Protection Act of 1970 , which prohibits the practice of soring , abusive practices used to enhance the Big Lick movement prized in the show ring , which still occur today despite the law . The controversy over continuing soring practices has led to a split within the breed community , criminal charges against a number of individuals , and the creation of several separate breed organizations .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The modern Tennessee Walking Horse is described as " refined and elegant , yet solidly built " . It is a tall horse with a long neck . The head is well @-@ defined , with small , well @-@ placed ears . The breed averages 14 @.@ 3 to 17 hands ( 59 to 68 inches , 150 to 173 cm ) high and 900 to 1 @,@ 200 pounds ( 410 to 540 kg ) . The shoulders and hip are long and sloping , with a short back and strong coupling . The hindquarters are of " moderate thickness and depth " , well @-@ muscled , and it is acceptable for the hind legs to be slightly over @-@ angulated , cow @-@ hocked or sickle @-@ hocked .
They are found in all solid colors , and several pinto patterns . Common colors such as bay , black and chestnut are found , as are colors caused by dilution genes such as the dun , champagne , cream and silver dapple genes . Pinto patterns include overo , sabino and tobiano . The Tennessee Walking Horse has a reputation for having a calm disposition and a naturally smooth riding gait . While the horses are famous for flashy movement , they are popular for trail and pleasure riding as well as show .
The Tennessee Walking Horse is best known for its running @-@ walk . This is a four @-@ beat gait with the same footfall pattern as a regular , or flat , walk , but significantly faster . While a horse performing a flat walk moves at 4 to 8 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 to 12 @.@ 9 kilometres per hour ) , the running walk allows the same horse to travel at 10 to 20 miles per hour ( 16 to 32 kilometres per hour ) . In the running walk , the horse 's rear feet overstep the prints of its front feet by 6 to 18 inches ( 15 to 46 centimetres ) , with a longer overstep being more prized in the Tennessee Walking Horse breed . While performing the running walk , the horse nods its head in rhythm with its gait . Besides the flat and running walks , the third main gait performed by Tennessee Walking Horses is the canter . Some members of the breed perform other variations of lateral ambling gaits , including the rack , stepping pace , fox trot and single @-@ foot , which are allowable for pleasure riding but penalized in the show ring . A few Tennessee Walking Horses can trot , and have a long , reaching stride .
= = History = =
The Tennessee Walker originated from Narragansett Pacer and Canadian Pacer horses brought to Kentucky starting in 1790 , crossed with gaited Spanish Mustangs imported from Texas . These horses were bred on the limestone pastures of central Tennessee , and originally known as " Tennessee Pacers " . Originally used as all @-@ purpose horses on farms and plantations , they were used for riding , pulling and racing . They were known for their smooth gaits and sure @-@ footedness on the rocky Tennessee terrain . Morgan , Standardbred , Thoroughbred and American Saddlebred blood was also added to the breed .
In 1886 , Black Allan ( later known as Allan F @-@ 1 ) was born . By the stallion Allendorf ( from the Hambletonian family of Standardbreds ) and out of a Morgan mare named Maggie Marshall , he became the foundation sire of the Tennessee Walking Horse breed . A failure as a trotting horse , due to his insistence on pacing , he was instead used for breeding . From his line , a foal named Roan Allen was born in 1904 . Able to perform several ambling gaits , Roan Allen became a successful show horse , and in turn sired several famous Tennessee Walking Horses .
The Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' Association was formed in 1935 , with the name changed to the current Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' and Exhibitors ' Association ( TWHBEA ) in 1974 . The stud book was closed in 1947 , meaning that since that date every Tennessee Walker must have both parents registered to be eligible for registration . In 1950 , the United States Department of Agriculture recognized the Tennessee Walking Horse as a distinct breed . In 2000 , the Tennessee Walking Horse was named the official state horse of the US state of Tennessee . It is the third most common breed in Kentucky , behind the Thoroughbred and the American Quarter Horse . As of 2005 , 450 @,@ 000 horses have been registered over the life of the TWHBEA , with annual registrations of 13 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 new foals . While the Tennessee Walking Horse is most common in the southern and southeastern US , it is found throughout the country .
= = Uses = =
The Tennessee Walker is noted for its appearance in horse show events , particularly performances in saddle seat @-@ style English riding equipment , but is also a very popular trail riding horse . Some are used for endurance riding , and to promote this use the TWHBEA maintains an awards program in conjunction with the American Endurance Ride Conference . The breed has also been seen in television , movies and other performing events . The Lone Ranger 's horse " Silver " was at times played by a Tennessee Walker , and " Trigger , Jr . " , the successor to the original " Trigger " made famous by Roy Rogers , was played by a Tennessee Walker named Allen 's Gold Zephyr . The position of mascot of the University of Southern California Trojans , Traveler , was held at various times by a purebred Tennessee Walking Horse , and by a Tennessee Walker / Arabian cross . In the 20th century , the Tennessee Walking Horse was crossed with Welsh ponies to create the American Walking Pony , a gaited pony breed .
= = Horse shows = =
The two basic categories of Tennessee Walking Horse show competition are called " flat @-@ shod " and " performance " . Flat @-@ shod horses compete in many different disciplines under both western and English tack . At shows where both divisions are offered , the flat @-@ shod " plantation pleasure " division is judged on brilliance and show presence of the horses while still being well mannered , balanced , and manageable . " Park pleasure " is the most animated of the flat @-@ shod divisions . Flat @-@ shod horses are shown in ordinary horseshoes , and are not allowed to use pads or action devices , though their hooves are sometimes trimmed to a slightly lower angle with more natural toe than seen on stock horse breeds . Performance horses , sometimes called " padded " or " built up " , exhibit a very flashy and animated gaits , lifting their forelegs high off the ground with each step . This exaggerated action is sometimes called the " Big Lick " . Horses and riders show in saddle seat attire and tack . Horses are shod in double and triple @-@ nailed pads , which are sometimes called " stacks " . This form of shoeing is prohibited at shows governed by the National Walking Horse Association ( NWHA ) , and the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) .
Horses in western classes wear equipment similar to that used by other breeds in western pleasure classes , and exhibitors may not mix English and Western @-@ style equipment . Riders must wear a hat or helmet in western classes . Tennessee Walkers are also shown in both pleasure and fine harness driving classes , with grooming similar to the saddle seat horses . Tennessee Walking Horses are typically shown with a long mane and tail . Artificially set tails are seen in " performance " classes , on full @-@ grown horses in halter classes , and in some harness classes , but generally are not allowed in pleasure or flat @-@ shod competition .
In classes where horses are turned out in saddle seat equipment , it is typical for the horse to be shown in a single curb bit with a bit shank under 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 24 cm ) , rather than the double bridle more common to other saddle seat breeds . Riders wear typical saddle seat attire . Hats are not always mandatory , but use of safety helmets is allowed and ranges from strongly encouraged to required in some pleasure division classes .
= = = Horse Protection Act = = =
The showing , exhibition and sale of Tennessee Walking Horses and some other horse breeds is governed by the Horse Protection Act of 1970 ( HPA ) due to concerns about the practice of soring , which developed during the 1950s and became widespread in the 1960s , resulting in a public outcry . Congress passed the Horse Protection Act in 1970 , declaring the practice " cruel and inhumane " . The Act prohibits anyone from entering a sored horse into a show , sale , auction or exhibition , and prohibits drivers from transporting sored horses to a sale or show . Congress delegated statutory responsibility for enforcement to the management of sales and horse shows , but placed administration of the act with the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) of the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) . Violations of the HPA may result in criminal charges , fines and prison sentences . The USDA certifies certain Horse Industry Organizations ( HIOs ) to train and license Designated Qualified Persons ( DQPs ) to complete inspections . APHIS inspection teams , which include inspectors , investigators , and veterinary medical officers , also conduct unannounced inspections of some horse shows , and have the authority to revoke the license of a DQP who does not follow the standards of the Act .
Soring is defined by the HPA with four meanings : " ( 3 ) ( A ) an irritating or blistering agent has been applied , internally or externally , by a person to any limb of a horse , ( B ) any burn , cut , or laceration has been inflicted by a person on any limb of a horse , ( C ) any tack , nail , screw , or chemical agent has been injected by a person into or used by a person on any limb of a horse , or ( D ) any other substance or device has been used by a person on any limb of a horse or a person has engaged in a practice involving a horse , and , as a result of such application , infliction , injection , use , or practice , such horse suffers , or can reasonably be expected to suffer , physical pain or distress , inflammation , or lameness when walking , " Action devices , which remain legal but are often used in conjunction with illegal soring practices , are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations as " any boot , collar , chain , roller , or other device which encircles or is placed upon the lower extremity of the leg of a horse in such a manner that it can either rotate around the leg , or slide up and down the leg so as to cause friction , or which can strike the hoof , coronet band or fetlock joint " . Between 1978 and 1982 , research was undertaken by Auburn University as to the effect of applications of chemical and physical irritants to the legs of Tennessee Walking Horses . The study found that chains of any weight used in combination with chemical soring produced lesions and pain in horses . However , chains of 6 ounces or lighter , used on their own , produced no pain , tissue damage or thermographic changes .
Soring can be detected by observing the horse for lameness , assessing its stance and palpating the lower legs . Some trainers trick inspectors by training horses not to react to the pain that palpation may cause , often by severely punishing the horse for flinching when the sored area is touched . The practice is sometimes called " stewarding " , in reference to the horse show steward . Some trainers use topical anesthetics , which are timed to wear off before the horse goes into the show ring . Pressure shoeing is also used , eliminating use of chemicals altogether . Trainers who sore their horses have been observed leaving the show grounds when they find that the more stringent federal inspection teams are present . Although illegal under federal law for over 40 years , soring is still practiced and criminal charges have been filed against people who violate the Act . Enforcement of the HPA is difficult , due to limited inspection budgets and problems with lax enforcement by inspectors who are hired by the shows they were to police . As a result , while in 1999 there were eight certified HIOs , by 2010 , only three organizations remained certified as HIOs , all known to be actively working to end soring .
In 2013 , legislation to amend and strengthen the HPA was introduced in Congress . The President and executive committee of the TWHBEA voted to support this legislation , but the full board of directors chose not to . The bill , H.R. 1518 , was sponsored by Representative Ed Whitfield ( R @-@ KY ) , and Representative Steve Cohen ( D @-@ TN ) , with 216 co @-@ sponsors . On November 13 , 2013 a hearing was held . Supporters included the American Horse Council , the American Veterinary Medical Association , members of the TWHBEA , the International Walking Horse Association , and Friends of Sound Horses . Opponents included members of the Performance Horse Show Association , and the Tennessee Commissioner of Agriculture .
= = = Show rules and organizations = = =
Controversies over shoeing rules , concerns about soring and the breed industry 's compliance with the Horse Protection Act has resulted in the development of multiple governing organizations . The breed registry is kept by the TWHBEA which promotes all riding disciplines within the breed , but does not sanction horse shows . The USEF does not currently recognize or sanction any Tennessee Walking Horse shows . In 2013 it also banned the use of action devices and stacks at any time in any class .
Another organization , the Tennessee Walking Horse Heritage Society , is a group dedicated to the preservation of the original Tennessee Walker bloodlines , mainly for use as trail and pleasure horses , rather than for showing . Horses listed by the organization descend from the foundation bloodstock registered by the TWHBEA , and pedigrees may not include horses shown with stacks post @-@ 1976 .
Two organizations have formed to promote the exhibition of flat @-@ shod horses . The NWHA promotes only naturally @-@ gaited horses in its sanctioned horse shows , has its own rule book , and is the official USEF affiliate organization for the breed . The NWHA sanctions horse shows and licenses judges , and is an authorized HIO . The NWHA was in the process of building its own " tracking registry " to document both pedigree and performance achievements of horses recorded there . These included the Spotted Saddle Horse and Racking Horse breeds as well as the Tennessee Walker . However , the NWHA was sued by the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders & Exhibitors Association ( TWHBEA ) , which eventually won some concessions regarding the use of the TWHBEA ’ s copyrighted registry certificates by the NWHA . While the judgment did not prohibit the NWHA from continuing its registry service , it is no longer actively advertised on the NWHA website .
The other organization , Friends of Sound Horses ( FOSH ) , also promotes exhibition of flat @-@ shod and barefoot horses , licenses judges for both pleasure classes and gaited dressage , promotes use of gaited horses in distance riding and sport horse activities , and is an authorized HIO .
Two organizations promulgate rules for horse shows where action devices are allowed : the Walking Horse Owners Association ( WHOA ) and " S.H.O.W. " ( " Sound horses , Honest judging , Objective inspections , Winning fairly " ) which regulates the Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration . The Celebration , in Shelbyville , Tennessee , has been held each August since 1939 , and is considered the showcase competition for the breed . However , in recent years the Celebration has attracted large amounts of attention and controversy due to the concerns about violations of the Horse Protection Act .
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= Marvel Cinematic Universe =
The Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) is an American media franchise and shared fictional universe that is centered on a series of superhero films , independently produced by Marvel Studios and based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics . The franchise has expanded to include comic books , short films , and television series . The shared universe , much like the original Marvel Universe in comic books , was established by crossing over common plot elements , settings , cast , and characters . Clark Gregg has appeared the most in the franchise , portraying Phil Coulson , a character original to the MCU .
The first film released in the MCU was Iron Man ( 2008 ) , which began the first phase of films culminating in the crossover film Marvel 's The Avengers ( 2012 ) . Phase Two began with Iron Man 3 ( 2013 ) , and concluded with Ant @-@ Man ( 2015 ) . The films are currently in Phase Three , which began with the release of Captain America : Civil War ( 2016 ) . Marvel Television expanded the universe further , first to network television with Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on ABC in the 2013 – 14 television season , followed by online streaming with Marvel 's Daredevil on Netflix in 2015 , and then to cable television with Marvel 's Cloak and Dagger , which is scheduled to air in 2017 on Freeform . The MCU also includes tie @-@ in comics published by Marvel Comics , while Marvel Studios has also produced a series of direct @-@ to @-@ video short films and a viral marketing campaign for its films and the universe with the faux news program WHIH Newsfront .
The franchise has been seen as an impressive and groundbreaking success in terms of a multimedia shared universe , though critics have found that some of its films and television series have suffered in service of the wider universe . It has inspired other film and television studios with comic book character adaptation rights to attempt to create similar shared universes . The MCU has also been the focus of other media , outside of the shared universe , including attractions at Disneyland and Discovery Times Square , two television specials , guidebooks for each film , a Lego video game , and a commercial with Coca @-@ Cola .
= = Development = =
= = = Films = = =
By 2005 , Marvel Entertainment began planning to independently produce its own films and distribute them through Paramount Pictures . Previously , Marvel had co @-@ produced several superhero films with Sony Pictures Entertainment , New Line Cinema and others , including a seven @-@ year development deal with 20th Century Fox . Marvel made relatively little profit from its licensing deals with other studios and wanted to get more money out of its films while maintaining artistic control of the projects and distribution . Avi Arad , head of Marvel 's film division , was pleased with Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man films at Sony , but was less pleased about others . As a result , they decided to form Marvel Studios , Hollywood 's first major independent movie studio since DreamWorks .
Arad 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Kevin Feige , realized that unlike Spider @-@ Man and the X @-@ Men , whose film rights were licensed to Sony and Fox respectively , Marvel still owned the rights to the core members of The Avengers . Feige , a self @-@ professed fanboy , envisioned creating a shared universe just as creators Stan Lee and Jack Kirby had done with their comic books in the early 1960s . To raise capital , the studio secured funding from a seven @-@ year , $ 525 million revolving credit facility with Merrill Lynch . Marvel 's plan was to release individual films for their main characters and then merge them together in a crossover film . Arad , who doubted the strategy yet insisted that it was his reputation that helped secure the initial financing , resigned the following year .
In 2007 , at 33 years old , Feige was named studio chief . In order to preserve its artistic integrity , Marvel Studios formed a six @-@ person creative committee with people familiar with its comic book lore that included Feige , Marvel Studios co @-@ president Louis D 'Esposito , Marvel Comics ' president of publishing Dan Buckley , Marvel 's chief creative officer Joe Quesada , writer Brian Michael Bendis , and Marvel Entertainment president Alan Fine , who oversaw the committee . Feige initially referred to the shared narrative continuity of these films as the " Marvel Cinema Universe " , but later used the term " Marvel Cinematic Universe " . Marvel has designated the Marvel Cinematic Universe as Earth @-@ 199999 within the continuity of the company 's multiverse , a collection of fictional alternate universes .
In November 2013 , Feige said that " in an ideal world " releases each year would include one film based on an existing character and one featuring a new character , saying it 's " a nice rhythm " in that format . While not always the case , as evident by the 2013 releases of Iron Man 3 and Thor : The Dark World , he said it is " certainly something to aim for . " Feige expanded on this in July 2014 , saying , " I don 't know that we 'll keep to [ that model ] every year , " but we 're doing that in 2014 and 2015 , " so I think it would be fun to continue that sort of thing . " In February 2014 , Feige stated that Marvel Studios wants to mimic the " rhythm " that the comic books have developed , by having the characters appear in their own films , and then come together , much like " a big event or crossover series , " with Avengers films acting as " big , giant linchpins . " After the reveal of multiple release dates for films through 2019 in July 2014 , Feige stated , " I think if you look at some of those dates that we 've announced , we 're going to three in a few of those years . Again , not because there 's a number cruncher telling us to go to three , do more than two pictures a year , but because of the very reason just laid out : It is about managing [ existing ] franchises , film to film , and when we have a team ready to go , why tell them to go away for four years just because we don 't have a slot ? We 'd rather find a way to keep that going . " After the titles were revealed in October 2014 , Feige said , " the studio ’ s firing on all cylinders right now ... which made us comfortable for the first time ... to increase to three films a year [ in 2017 and 2018 ] instead of just two , without changing our methods . "
On expanding the characters in the universe and letting individual films breathe and work on their own , as opposed to having Avenger team @-@ ups outside of Avengers films , Feige stated , it ’ s about " teaching the general movie going audience about the notion of the characters existing separately , coming together for specific events and going away and existing separately in their own worlds again . Just like comic readers have been doing for decades and decades ... People sort of are accepting that there 's just a time when they should be together and there ’ s a time when they ’ re not . " In April 2014 , Feige revealed that Edgar Wright 's pitch for Ant @-@ Man in 2006 helped shape the early films of the Marvel Cinematic Universe , saying , " We changed , frankly , some of the MCU to accommodate this version of Ant @-@ Man . Knowing what we wanted to do with Edgar and with Ant @-@ Man , going years and years back , helped to dictate what we did with the roster for Avengers the first time . It was a bit of both in terms of his idea for the Ant @-@ Man story influencing the birth of the MCU in the early films leading up to Avengers . "
In October 2014 , Marvel held a press event to announce the titles of their Phase Three films . The event , which drew comparisons to Apple 's Worldwide Developers Conference , was done because all the information was ready . As Feige explained , " We wanted to do this at [ San Diego ] Comic @-@ Con this year . Things were not set ... So the plan has been , since a few weeks before Comic @-@ Con when we realized we weren ’ t going to be able to do everything we wanted to do , is to decide ' let 's do either something we haven ’ t done in a long time , or something we 've never done . ' Which is a singular event , just to announce what we have when it 's ready . I thought that might be early August , or mid @-@ September , it ended up being [ at the end of October ] . "
In September 2015 , after Marvel Studios was integrated into The Walt Disney Studios with Feige reporting to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn instead of Marvel Entertainment CEO Isaac Perlmutter , it was reported that the studios ' creative committee would have " nominal " input on the films moving forward , though would continue to consult on Marvel Television productions , which remained under Perlmutter 's control . All key film decisions going forward will be made by Feige , D 'Esposito and Victoria Alonso . At the end of the month , on how much story is developed for future films of the universe , Feige said there are " broad stroke " though sometime " super @-@ specific things . But for the most part , in broad strokes that are broad enough and loose enough that , if through the development of four of five movies before we get to the culmination ... we still have room to sway and to move and to go and to surprise ourselves in places that we end up . So that all the movies , hopefully when they 're finished , will feel like they 're all interconnected and meant to be and planned far ahead , but really can live and breathe enough as individual movies to be satisfying each and of themselves . " The studio also has various contingency plans for the direction of all of their films , in the event they are unable to secure a certain actor to reprise a role , or require the film rights to a character , such as was done in February 2015 with Spider @-@ Man .
In April 2016 , on moving the universe to Phase Four and reflecting on the first three , Feige said , " I think there will be a finality to moments of Phase Three , as well as new beginnings that will mark a different , a very different , a distinctively different chapter in what will someday be a complete first saga made up of three phases . " Joe Russo added , " You build things up and people enjoy the experiences you 've built up . But then you kind of reach an apex or you reach a climax , a moment where you go , ‘ This structure is really going to start to be repetitious if we do this again , so what do we do now ? ’ So now , you deconstruct it . We ’ re in the deconstruction phase with [ Captain America : ] Civil War and leading into [ Avengers : ] Infinity War , which are the culmination films . " On the potential for " superhero fatigue " , Feige stated , " This year , we ’ ve got Civil War and we ’ ve got Doctor Strange in November , two completely different movies . To me , and to all of Marvel Studios , that ’ s what keeps it going . As long as we ’ re surprising people , as long as we ’ re not falling into things becoming too similar ... next year , [ Guardians of the Galaxy Vol . 2 ] , [ Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming ] , Thor : Ragnarok . Those are three totally different movies ... as long as the only shared thing is they come from the same source material and they ’ ve got our Marvel logo in front of the movies . Other than that they can be very distinct . What other studios do , what other properties , nothing we can do about it . "
= = = = Distributors = = = =
Over time , the distribution rights to Marvel Studios ' films changed hands on multiple occasions . In November 2006 , Universal Pictures announced that it would distribute The Incredible Hulk , in an arrangement separate from Marvel 's 2005 deal with Paramount , which was distributing Marvel 's other films . In September 2008 , after the international success of Iron Man , Paramount signed a deal to have worldwide distribution rights for Iron Man 2 , Iron Man 3 , Thor , Captain America : The First Avenger , and The Avengers .
In late December 2009 , The Walt Disney Company purchased Marvel Entertainment for $ 4 billion . In October 2010 , Walt Disney Studios bought the distribution rights for Marvel 's The Avengers and Iron Man 3 from Paramount Pictures , with Paramount 's logo remaining on the films , as well as for promotional material and merchandise , although Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures is the only studio credited at the end of these films . Disney has distributed all subsequent Marvel Studios films . In July 2013 , Disney purchased the distribution rights to Iron Man , Iron Man 2 , Thor and Captain America : The First Avenger from Paramount . The Incredible Hulk was not part of the deal , due to an agreement between Marvel and Universal , where Marvel owns the film rights and Universal owns the distribution rights , for this film as well as the right of first refusal to distribute future Hulk films . According to The Hollywood Reporter , a potential reason why Marvel has not bought the film distribution rights to the Hulk as they did with Paramount for the Iron Man , Thor , and Captain America films is because Universal holds the theme park rights to several Marvel characters that Disney wants for its own theme parks .
In February 2015 , Sony Pictures Entertainment and Marvel Studios announced a licensing deal that would allow Spider @-@ Man to appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , with the character first appearing in Captain America : Civil War . Marvel Studios also explored opportunities to integrate other characters of the Marvel Cinematic Universe into future Spider @-@ Man films financed , distributed , and controlled by Sony Pictures , with Robert Downey , Jr. the first confirmed to reprise his role as Tony Stark / Iron Man in Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming . In June 2015 , Feige clarified that the initial Sony deal does not apply to the MCU television series , as it was " very specific ... with a certain amount of back and forth allowed . "
= = = Television = = =
In June 2010 , Marvel Television was launched with Jeph Loeb as head . By July 2012 , the division had entered into discussions with ABC to create a show set in the MCU , and in August , ABC ordered a pilot for a show called S.H.I.E.L.D. , with The Avengers writer / director Joss Whedon involved . Later renamed Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , the series was soon joined by several others at ABC .
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. executive producer Jeffrey Bell stated at the show 's 2014 PaleyFest panel that the producers and the writers are able to read the screenplays for upcoming MCU films to know where the universe is heading , which allowed them to form a general plan for the show through the end of a third season . He noted that since the films have to be " big " and move " quickly through a lot of huge pieces " , it is beneficial for the films to have the television series fill in any " gaps " for them . His fellow executive producer Jed Whedon explained that each Marvel project is intended to standalone first before there is any interweaving , and noted that the series has to work with the film division and be aware of their plans so as not to interfere when introducing someone or something to the universe . Bell elaborated that this was preferable so that people who do not watch the films can still follow the series , and vice versa . Joss Whedon noted that this process " unfortunately just means the TV show gets , you know , leftovers . " He stated that , for example , the series ' creative team initially wanted to use Loki 's scepter from The Avengers but were unable due to Whedon 's plans for it in Avengers : Age of Ultron .
By October 2013 , Marvel was preparing four drama series and a miniseries , totaling 60 episodes , to present to video on demand services and cable providers , with Netflix , Amazon , and WGN America expressing interest . In November 2013 , it was announced that Disney would provide Netflix with live @-@ action series based on Daredevil , Jessica Jones , Iron Fist , and Luke Cage , leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders . Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Netflix was chosen to air the shows , " when Disney realized it could use the streaming service as a way to grow the popularity of the characters " . He added that , if the characters prove popular , they could become feature films . Quesada confirmed that the series are set within the MCU , and that , beyond connecting to themselves , would connect with the films and other television series .
In December 2014 , Loeb explained that " Within the Marvel universe there are thousands of heroes of all shapes and sizes , but the Avengers are here to save the universe and Daredevil is here to save the neighborhood ... It does take place in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It ’ s all connected . But that doesn 't necessarily mean that we would look up in the sky and see [ Iron Man ] . It ’ s just a different part of New York that we have not yet seen in the Marvel movies . " In April 2015 , Loeb explained that " In the world of Marvel Comics , Jessica Jones , and Matt Murdock , and Danny Rand , and Luke Cage all had a previous existing relationship and all grew up on the same kind of stoop in New York . So it lent itself to a world . Does that mean these shows are going to be the same ? No . They can 't be . The characters have different issues , different problems , different feelings about them . While I don 't think they 'll be as varied , the example that I continually give is that I cannot think of two films that are more different in tone than The Winter Soldier and Guardians of the Galaxy . And yet , if you watch them back to back , they feel very Marvel . They feel very much like , ' Oh , it is still the same universe that I 'm in . ' "
In October 2014 , Feige said the opportunity " certainly " exists for characters in the Netflix series to appear in Avengers : Infinity War . In March 2015 , Loeb spoke on the ability for the Netflix series to crossover with the films and the ABC series , saying , " As it is now , in the same way that our films started out as self @-@ contained and then by the time we got to The Avengers , it became more practical for Captain America to do a little crossover into Thor 2 and for Bruce Banner to appear at the end of Iron Man 3 . We have to earn that . The audience needs to understand who all of these characters are and what the world is before you then start co @-@ mingling " . In September 2015 , Feige elaborated on the films referencing the television series , saying " I think that 's inevitable at some point ... The schedules do not always quite match up to make that possible . It 's easier for [ the shows ] . They 're more nimble and faster and produce things quicker than we do , which is one of the main reasons you see the repercussions of Winter Soldier or [ Avengers : Age of Ultron ] in the show ... by the time we start doing a movie , they 'd be mid @-@ way through a season . By the time our movie comes out , they 'd be [ starting the next season ] . So finding the timing on that is not always easy .
While talking about Marvel potentially making comedy series , Loeb said in January 2016 that Marvel always feels humor should be a part of anything they produce , despite possibly fitting more within a darker genre , as Daredevil and Jessica Jones do , while also staying " grounded and real " . He added , " There are moments of levity that are in life that you need to bring to the table , or else it just becomes overwhelmingly oppressive ... If you 're going to [ explore comic book elements ] , it 's always a good idea to make sure that the audience is aware that , yeah , it 's funny [ too ] . " Also in January , Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos talked about the release schedule of the Marvel Netflix series , saying that they " are produced at the scale of a major film , so there are long production times and long post times . In some case , when we have character crossover , it makes it more difficult to manage production . It ’ s not the goal to put out more than one or two [ each ] year ... The complex one is really The Defenders . The Defenders ' production schedule will determine a lot of the season 2 and 3 output of those shows . " He also noted on potential spin @-@ offs that " all the characters in the universe could also spin out " into their own series at some point , with Netflix ordering Marvel 's The Punisher , a spin @-@ off from Daredevil , that April .
Also in April , the ABC @-@ owned cable network Freeform announced Marvel 's Cloak and Dagger , based on the characters of the same name , with a straight @-@ to @-@ series order for 2017 . The network confirmed that the series would be " its first venture into the Marvel Cinematic Universe " , and described the show as a " superhero love story " , a premise that Variety called " a seamless fit for Freeform " given the network 's target audience of " Becomers " ( the 14 @-@ 34 age demographic ) .
= = = Other media = = =
In 2008 , the first official tie @-@ in comic was released . Quesada outlined his plan to expand the MCU into comic books , saying , " The MCU [ comics ] are going to be stories set within movie continuity . [ They are ] not necessarily direct adaptations of the movies , but maybe something that happened off screen and was mentioned in the movie ... Kevin Feige is involved with these and in some cases maybe the writers of the movies would be involved [ as well . ] " Marvel Comics worked with Brad Winderbaum , Jeremy Latcham , and Will Corona Pilgrim at Marvel Studios to decide which concepts should be carried over from the Marvel Comics Universe to the Marvel Cinematic Universe , what to show in the tie @-@ in comics , and what to leave for the films . Marvel has clarified which of the tie @-@ in comics are considered official canonical MCU stories , with the rest merely inspired by the MCU , " where we get to show off all the characters from the film in costume and in comic form . "
In August 2011 , Marvel announced a series of direct @-@ to @-@ video short films called Marvel One @-@ Shots , the name derived from the label used by Marvel Comics for their one @-@ shot comics . Co @-@ producer Brad Winderbaum said " It 's a fun way to experiment with new characters and ideas , but more importantly it 's a way for us to expand the Marvel Cinematic Universe and tell stories that live outside the plot of our features . " Each short film is designed to be a self @-@ contained story that provides more backstory for characters or events introduced in the films . In July 2012 , D 'Esposito stated that Marvel was considering the idea of introducing established characters who may not yet be ready to carry their own feature films in future One @-@ Shots , stating , " There ’ s always a potential to introduce a character . We have 8 @,@ 000 of them , and they can ’ t all be at the same level . So maybe there are some that are not so popular , and we introduce them [ with a short ] – and they take off . I could see that happening . "
In March 2015 , Marvel 's Vice President of Animation Development and Production , Cort Lane , stated that animated tie @-@ ins to the MCU were " in the works " . That July , Marvel Studios partnered with Google to produce the faux news program WHIH Newsfront with Christine Everhart , a series of in @-@ universe YouTube videos serving as the center of a viral marketing campaign to promote the films and universe .
= = = Business practices = = =
Marvel Studios developed specific business practices to create its shared universe , including choosing filmmakers that were considered " out @-@ of @-@ left @-@ field " , given their previous work . Feige remarked , " You don 't have to have directed a big , giant visual @-@ effects movie to do a big , giant visual @-@ effects movie for us . You just have to have done something singularly sort of awesome , " adding " It 's worked out well for us when we 've taken people [ such as Jon Favreau , Joss Whedon , Kenneth Branagh , and the Russo brothers , ] that have done very , very good things . Very rarely are one of those good things a big giant blockbuster superhero movie . " When hiring directors , the studio usually has " a kernel of an idea of what we want , " which is presented to potential directors over the course of several meetings to discuss and further expand . " And if over the course of three or four or five meetings they make it way better than what we initially were spewing to them , they usually get the job , " according to Feige .
Joe and Anthony Russo discussed the specific process they went through to join Marvel for Captain America : The Winter Soldier , explaining that they met with the studio four times over two months before they were hired , during which they " kept getting more and more specific about what our vision was " , putting together " reference videos , storyboards , script pages , you name it . We did like a 30 @-@ page book that had everything that we ’ d do with the character , from the theme of the movie to the tone of the film to the fighting style to what we liked about the character and what we didn ’ t like " . This meant that by the time they were hired they had already " figured the movie out " .
When the studio hired Kenneth Branagh and Joe Johnston to direct Thor and Captain America : The First Avenger , respectively , it made sure both directors were open to the idea of a shared universe , and that they would have to include Avengers set @-@ up scenes in their films . Joe Russo stated , " That 's the exciting component of [ incorporating references to the larger universe ] . ' What can we set up for the future ? ' You 're constantly pitching out ideas that not only affect your movie , but may have a ripple effect that affects other films ... It 's a weird sort of tapestry of writers and directors working together to create this universe that 's sort of organic . " Anthony added , " The great thing about the Marvel [ Cinematic Universe ] , just like the publishing [ arm ] , it ’ s a very vast , inter @-@ connected universe , where characters will have their rise and fall , so to speak , and hand off to other characters . As the cinematic universe moves forward , you may start to see the cinematic universe adopt that same pattern , as the publishing has , where there ’ s closure with some characters and new beginnings with other characters . How those hand @-@ offs are made is always part of the fun . ” Anthony also said , that in order for directors to " fit " in at Marvel , they must " understand how [ to ] take a larger story and wrangle in [ sic ] into a moment , yet keep [ it ] connected . "
On allowing directors and writers to work within Marvel 's shared universe concept , Joe Russo said , " I think the way Kevin [ Feige ] does it is there are big pieces that he knows he wants to build towards , but the way that you get there is open to interpretation and improv a little bit . That ’ s defined by who gets involved with the project , the writers and directors involved in the project . " For the Russos in The Winter Soldier , they had to deal with the idea of S.H.I.E.L.D. being infiltrated by Hydra and thus subsequently falling , with Joe saying , " how we get there is all up to us . And I think why Marvel has been so successful is because it ’ s been such a clear plan , that everything is interconnected and they ’ re building emotional capital with each movie that you can then trade off of in the next film . " Joe later elaborated that once each film 's creative team " come up with conceptually what we want to do " for a film , then we will ask questions about whether this would interfere with a storyline in another movie . Or , what ’ s going on in that film , can we pull some of that into this film ? That ’ s where you start looking for the interconnectedness , but it ’ s very important early on that the concept be created in a bubble because you have to protect the idea , it has to be driven by storytelling . Kevin ’ s very good about just attacking each movie as they come and then figuring out what the movies are after that . Because if you get ahead of yourself two things can happen . One is you take your eye off the ball and you make a mess of a movie , and then the second thing that would happen is then you don ’ t get to make any more movies . So he ’ s always in the mindset of “ let ’ s just make this movie now and worry about the next movie when it comes . "
Marvel Studios also began contracting their actors for multiple films , including signing actor Samuel L. Jackson to a then " unprecedented " nine @-@ movie contract . In July 2014 , Feige said that the studio has all actors sign contracts for multiples films , with the norm being for 3 or more , and the 9 or 12 film deals " more rare " . Actor 's contracts also feature clauses that allows Marvel to use up to three minutes of an actor 's performance from one film for another , which Marvel describes as " bridging material " . At Marvel Television , actors such as Charlie Cox ( Matt Murdock / Daredevil in Daredevil ) and Adrianne Palicki ( Bobbi Morse / Mockingbird in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ) are contractually obliged to appear in a Marvel film if asked . In August 2014 , Vincent D 'Onofrio ( Wilson Fisk / Kingpin in Daredevil ) said , " The thing about Marvel is ... they ’ re looking for artists that are willing to take chances and are willing to create characters , even if that character has been around for years and years in comic books , they still are depending on us to create something and take it somewhere else . "
In August 2012 , Marvel signed Joss Whedon to an exclusive contract through June 2015 for film and television . With the deal , Whedon would " contribute creatively " on Phase Two of the MCU and develop the first television series set in the universe . In March 2013 , Whedon expanded on his consulting responsibilities , saying , " I understand what Kevin [ Feige ] is going for and where he ’ s heading , and I read the scripts and watch cuts and talk to the directors and writers and give my opinion . Occasionally there could be some writing . But I ’ m not trying to get in anybody ’ s soup , I ’ m just trying to be helpful . " Whedon later elaborated that " Since the story has already been approved and everybody knows what we 're doing with Avengers 2 , we can really lay it out . It 's not like anyone 's saying " well I don 't know , what if I need that ? " It 's like " doing this is troublesome for us , whereas doing this will actually help us . " It 's a dance , but I had to do it on [ The Avengers ] too . You want to honor the events of the last movie but you don 't want to be beholden to them , because some people will see Avengers [ : Age of Ultron ] who did not see any of the movies in between or even Avengers 1 . " He also found working in television and script doctoring to be " great training ground [ s ] for dealing with this ... because you 're given a bunch of pieces and told to make them fit — even if they don 't . " For the Russo brothers and writers Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely working on Avengers : Infinity War and Phase Three , they saw " a through line from Winter Soldier , through Civil War , right to Infinity War " , with films like Doctor Strange and Thor : Ragnarok laying groundwork for the " culmination " in Infinity War . Subsequently , they talked " to the directors and writers of the other Phase 3 movies on an almost weekly basis , to make sure everything lines up right . "
= = Feature films = =
= = Television series = =
= = Short films = =
= = Comic books = =
= = Viral marketing = =
In July 2015 , Marvel Studios and Google began a viral marketing campaign to promote Ant @-@ Man , centering on a series of in @-@ universe YouTube videos depicting a faux news program , WHIH Newsfront with Christine Everhart . The videos star Leslie Bibb as Christine Everhart , reprising her role from the Iron Man films , who reports on and discusses issues from the MCU . The campaign is an extension of the fictional news network WHIH World News , which is seen reporting on major events in many MCU films and television series , and returned in April 2016 as part of a similar marketing campaign for Captain America : Civil War . The videos feature a news ticker that contains multiple references and easter eggs to the wider MCU , and are supported by ongoing in @-@ universe social media posts that also reference the MCU 's characters and events . The marketing campaign has been called " one of the more well @-@ produced campaigns " as far as viral marketing goes , and " one of the cannier bits of marketing that Marvel have come up with " .
= = Recurring cast and characters = =
List indicator ( s )
This table includes characters who have appeared in multiple MCU media .
A dark grey cell indicates the character has not appeared in that medium .
A P indicates a new appearance in onscreen photographs only .
Additionally , Paul Bettany was the first actor to portray two main characters within the universe , voicing Tony Stark 's artificial intelligence J.A.R.V.I.S. in the Iron Man and Avengers films , and portraying Vision in Avengers : Age of Ultron and Captain America : Civil War . Stan Lee , creator or co @-@ creator of many of the characters seen in the MCU , has cameo appearances in all of the feature films and television series .
= = Reception = =
Jim Vorel of Herald & Review called the Marvel Cinematic Universe " complicated " and " impressive " , but said , " As more and more heroes get their own film adaptations , the overall universe becomes increasingly confusing . " Kofi Outlaw of Screen Rant stated that while The Avengers was a success , " Marvel Studios still has room to improve their approach to building a shared movie universe " . Some reviewers criticized the fact that the desire to create a shared universe led to films that did not hold as well on their own . In his review of Thor : The Dark World , Forbes critic Scott Mendelson likened the MCU to " a glorified television series " , with The Dark World being a " ' stand @-@ alone ' episode that contains little long @-@ range mythology . " Collider 's Matt Goldberg considered that while Iron Man 2 , Thor and Captain America : The First Avenger were quality productions , " they have never really been their own movies " , feeling that the plot detours to S.H.I.E.L.D. or lead @-@ ups to The Avengers dragged down the films ' narratives .
The metaphor of the MCU as " the world 's biggest TV show " was discussed again , after the release of Captain America : Civil War , by Todd VanDerWerff of Vox , who felt that film in particular highlighted Marvel 's success with the model , saying , " Viewed in complete isolation , the plot of Captain America : Civil War makes little to no sense ... [ but ] when you think about where [ Captain America ] has been in earlier Marvel films ... his leeriness about being subject to oversight makes a lot more sense . " VanDerWerff continued that when thinking about the MCU as a television series , many " common criticisms people tend to level at it take on a new context " such as complaints that the films are formulaic , lack " visual spark " , or " shoehorn in story elements " that " are necessary to set up future films " , all characteristics that " are fairly typical on television , where a director 's influence is much lower than that of the showrunner " , in this case , Feige . Comparing the films to the series Game of Thrones specifically , VanDerWerff noted that each solo film checks " in on various characters and their individual side stories , before bringing everyone together in the finale ( or , rather , an Avengers film ) " , with Guardians of the Galaxy being equivalent to the character Daenerys Targaryen — " both separated by long distances from everybody else . " He noted that this format was an extension of early " TV @-@ like " film franchises such as Star Wars , as well as the format of the comics upon which the films are based . " I say all of this not to suggest that film franchises resembling TV series is necessarily a good trend , " VanDerWerff concluded , " For as much as I generally enjoy the Marvel movies , I 'm disheartened by the possibility that their particular form might take over the film industry ... But I also don 't think it 's the end of the world if Marvel continues on ... there 's a reason TV has stolen so much of the cultural conversation over the past few decades . There 's something legitimately exciting about the way the medium tells stories when it 's good , and if nothing else , Marvel 's success shows the film world could learn from that . "
Following the conclusion of season one of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , Mary McNamara at the Los Angeles Times praised the connections between that series and the films , stating that " never before has television been literally married to film , charged with filling in the back story and creating the connective tissue of an ongoing film franchise ... [ Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ] is now not only a very good show in its own right , it 's part of Marvel 's multiplatform city @-@ state . It faces a future of perpetual re @-@ invention , and that puts it in the exhilarating first car of television 's roller @-@ coaster ride toward possible world domination . " Terri Schwartz of Zap2it agreed with this sentiment , stating that " the fact that [ Captain America : The Winter Soldier ] so influenced the show is game @-@ changing in terms of how the mediums of film and television can be interwoven " , though " the fault there seems to be that Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. had to bide time until The Winter Soldier 's release " , which led to much criticism .
In January 2015 , Michael Doran of Newsarama and Graeme McMillian of The Hollywood Reporter had a " point @-@ counterpoint " debate in response to the first Ant @-@ Man trailer . Doran stated , " Marvel has raised the bar sooo high that as opposed to just allowing another film to finish under the [ MCU ] bar , we 're all overly and perhaps even eager to overreact to the first thing that doesn 't clear it " . McMillian responded , " at this point , Marvel 's brand is such that I 'm not sure it can offer up something like [ the trailer ] without it seeming like a crushing disappointment ... part of Marvel 's brand is that it doesn 't offer the kind of run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill superhero movie that you 're talking about , that it 's ... at least different enough to tweak and play with the genre somehow ... The fact that there 's such upset about this trailer being ... well , okay ... suggests to me that the audience is expecting something to knock their socks off . " Doran concluded , " That does seem to be the point here — the expectations fans now have for everything Marvel Studios ... [ and ] Marvel is going to eventually falter . "
After seeing the portrayal of Yellowjacket in Ant @-@ Man , the antagonist of the film , McMillian noted ,
It 's hardly a secret that Marvel Studios has a bit of a problem when it comes to offering up exciting characters for their heroes to fight against ... [ their ] villains generally fall into one of two camps . There 's the Unstoppable Monster ... or there 's the Professional White Guy In A Suit With An Ego ... No matter which of the groups the above villains fall into , they share one common purpose : evil . The motivations for evil likely differ — although , invariably , they fall under the umbrella of ' misguided belief in a greater good that doesn 't exist ' — but that really doesn 't matter , because without fail , there will be so little time in the movie to actually properly explore those motivations , meaning that to all intents and purposes , the villain is being evil for reasons of plot necessity and little else ... The strange thing about this is that Marvel 's comic books offer a number of wonderful , colorful bad guys who could step outside the above parameters and offer an alternative to the formulaic villains audiences have gotten used to ( and arguably bored with ) ... In future movies , we can only hope [ they are ] treated in such a way that their freak flags are allowed to fly free .
Following the release of Jessica Jones , David Priest at c | net wrote about how the series rescues " Marvel from itself ... Jessica Jones takes big steps forward in terms of theme , craft and diversity . It 's a good story first , and a superhero show second . And for the first time , the MCU seems like it matters . Our culture needs stories like this . Here 's hoping Marvel keeps them coming . " For Paul Tassi and Erik Kain of Forbes , watching the series made them question the MCU , with Kain feeling that the " morally complex , violent , dark world of Jessica Jones has no place in the MCU ... right now , the MCU is holding back shows like Jessica Jones and Daredevil , while those shows are contributing absolutely nothing to the MCU . " Tassi went so far as to wonder what " the point of the Marvel Cinematic Universe " is , lamenting the lack of major crossovers in the franchise since the Winter Soldier reveal on Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , and saying that Jessica Jones is " so far removed from the world of The Avengers , it might as well not be in the same universe at all ... [ I ] really don 't understand the point of [ the MCU ] if they 're going to keep everything within it separated off in these little boxes " . Conversely , Eric Francisco of Inverse called Jessica Jones 's lack of overt connections to the MCU " the show 's chief advantage . Besides demonstrating how physically wide open the MCU 's scope really is , Jessica Jones also proves the MCU 's thematic durability . "
In April 2016 , Marvel Studios revealed that Alfre Woodard would appear in Captain America : Civil War , having already been cast as Mariah Dillard in Luke Cage the previous year . This " raised hopes that Marvel could be uniting its film and Netflix universes " , with " one of the first and strongest connections " between the two . However , Civil War writers Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely revealed that Woodard would instead be portraying Miriam Sharpe in the film , explaining that she had been cast on the suggestion of Robert Downey , Jr . , and they had not learnt of her casting in Luke Cage until afterwards . This was not the first instance of actors being cast in multiple roles in the MCU , but this casting was called more " significant " , and seen by many as a " disappointing " indication of " the growing divide " and " lack of more satisfying cooperation " between Marvel Studios and Marvel Television following the September 2015 corporate reshuffling of Marvel Entertainment .
= = Cultural impact = =
In September 2014 , the University of Baltimore announced a course beginning in the 2015 spring semester revolving around the Marvel Cinematic Universe , to be taught by Arnold T. Blumberg . " Media Genres : Media Marvels " examines " how Marvel 's series of interconnected films and television shows , plus related media and comic book sources and Joseph Campbell 's monomyth of the ' hero 's journey ' , offer important insights into modern culture " as well as Marvel 's efforts " to establish a viable universe of plotlines , characters , and backstories . "
= = = Other studios = = =
After the release of The Avengers in May 2012 , Tom Russo of Boston.com noted that aside from the occasional " novelty " such as Aliens vs. Predator ( 2004 ) , the idea of a shared universe was virtually unheard of in Hollywood . Since that time , the shared universe model created by Marvel Studios has begun to be replicated by other film studios that held rights to other comic book characters . In April 2014 , Tuna Amobi , a media analyst for Standard & Poor ’ s Equity Research Services , stated that in the previous three to five years , Hollywood studios began planning " megafranchises " for years to come , opposed to working one blockbuster at a time . Amobi added , " A lot of these superhero characters were just being left there to gather dust . Disney has proved that this [ approach and genre ] can be a gold mine . " However , with additional studios now " playing the megafranchise game " , Doug Creutz , media analyst for Cowen and Company , feels the allure will eventually die for audiences : " If Marvel 's going to make two or three films a year , and Warner Brothers is going to do at least a film every year , and Sony 's going to do a film every year , and Fox [ is ] going to do a film every year , can everyone do well in that scenario ? I 'm not sure they can . "
= = = = DC Entertainment and Warner Bros. = = = =
In October 2012 , following its legal victory over Joe Shuster 's estate for the rights to Superman , Warner Bros. announced that it planned to move ahead with its long @-@ awaited Justice League film , uniting such DC Comics superheroes as Batman , Superman , and Wonder Woman . The company was expected to take the opposite approach to Marvel , releasing individual films for the characters after they have appeared in a team @-@ up film . The release of Man of Steel in 2013 was intended to be the start of a new shared universe for DC , " laying the groundwork for the future slate of films based on DC Comics . " In 2014 , Warner Bros. announced that slate of films , similarly to Disney and Marvel claiming dates for films years in advance . That year , DC CCO Geoff Johns stated that the television series Arrow and The Flash were set in a separate universe from the new film one , later clarifying that " We look at it as the multiverse . We have our TV universe and our film universe , but they all co @-@ exist . For us , creatively , it 's about allowing everyone to make the best possible product , to tell the best story , to do the best world . Everyone has a vision and you really want to let the visions shine through ... It 's just a different approach [ to Marvel 's ] . "
Discussing the apparent failure of the cinematic universe 's first team @-@ up film , Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice , to establish a successful equivalent to the MCU , Todd VanDerWerff noted that where the MCU has a television @-@ like " showrunner " in Feige , " the visionary behind Marvel 's entire slate " , the DCEU has director Zack Snyder , whose DC films " seemingly start from the assumption that people have come not to see an individual story but a long series of teases for other ones . It 's like he knows what he needs to do but can 't focus on the task at hand . TV certainly isn 't immune to that problem , but shows that get caught up in high @-@ concept premises and big @-@ picture thinking before doing the necessary legwork to establish characters and their relationships tend to be canceled . " Subsequently , in May 2016 , Warner Bros. gave oversight of the DCEU to Johns and executive Jon Berg in an attempt to " unify the disparate elements of the DC movies " and emulate Marvel 's success . The two were made producers on the Justice League films , on top of Johns ' involvement in several " solo " films , such as the post @-@ production process of Suicide Squad or the writing process of a standalone Batman film .
= = = = 20th Century Fox = = = =
In November 2012 , 20th Century Fox announced plans to create their own shared universe , consisting of Marvel properties that it holds the rights to including the Fantastic Four and X @-@ Men , with the hiring of Mark Millar as supervising producer . Millar said , " Fox are thinking , ' We 're sitting on some really awesome things here . There is another side of the Marvel Universe . Let 's try and get some cohesiveness going . ' So they brought me in to oversee that really . To meet with the writers and directors to suggest new ways we could take this stuff and new properties that could spin out of it . " X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , released in 2014 , was Fox 's first step towards expanding their stable of Marvel properties and creating this universe , ahead of the release of a Fantastic Four reboot film the next year . However , in May 2014 , Days of Future Past and Fantastic Four screenwriter Simon Kinberg stated that the latter film would not take place in the same universe as the X @-@ Men films , explaining that " none of the X @-@ Men movies have acknowledged the notion of a sort of superhero team — the Fantastic Four . And the Fantastic Four acquire powers , so for them to live in a world where mutants are prevalent is kind of complicated , because you 're like , ' Oh , you 're just a mutant . ' Like , ' What 's so fantastic about you ? ' ... they live in discrete universes . " In July 2015 , X @-@ Men director Bryan Singer said that there was still potential for a crossover between the X @-@ Men and Fantastic Four franchises , if reaction to Fantastic Four and X @-@ Men : Apocalypse warranted it .
Feeling that Singer 's efforts in Apocalypse to establish a larger world , similar to the MCU , did not meet the standards established by Marvel , VanDerWerff noted that unlike Feige 's ability to serve as " pseudo @-@ showrunner " , Singer is instead " steeped in film and the way movie stories have always been told " , so " when it comes time to have Apocalypse dovetail with story threads from the earlier X @-@ Men : First Class ( which was directed by someone else entirely ) , both Singer 's direction and Simon Kinberg 's script rely on hackneyed devices and clumsy storytelling " , indicating a lack of " the kind of big @-@ picture thinking this sort of mega franchise requires " .
= = = = Sony Pictures = = = =
In November 2013 , Sony Pictures Entertainment Co @-@ Chairman Amy Pascal announced that the studio intended to expand their universe created within the Marc Webb Amazing Spider @-@ Man series , with spin @-@ off adventures for supporting characters , in an attempt to replicate Marvel and Disney 's model . The next month , Sony announced Venom and Sinister Six films , both set in the Amazing Spider @-@ Man universe . With this announcement , IGN stated that the spin @-@ offs are " the latest example of what we can refer to as " the Avengers effect " in Hollywood , as studios work to build interlocking movie universes . " Sony chose not to replicate the Marvel Studios model of introducing individual characters first before bringing them together in a team @-@ up film , instead making the Spider @-@ Man adversaries the stars of future films . However , in February 2015 , Sony Pictures and Marvel Studios announced that the Spider @-@ Man franchise would be retooled , with a new film co @-@ produced by Feige and Pascal being released in July 2017 , and the character being integrated into the MCU . Sony Pictures would continue to finance , distribute , own , and have final creative control of the Spider @-@ Man films . With this announcement , sequels to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 were canceled , and by November 2015 the Venom and Sinister Six films , as well as spin @-@ offs based on female characters in the Spider @-@ Man universe , were no longer moving forward . By March 2016 , the Venom film had itself been retooled , to start its own franchise unrelated to the MCU Spider @-@ Man .
After Sony canceled their shared universe plans and started sharing the Spider @-@ Man character with Marvel Studios , multiple critics discussed their failure at replicating the MCU . Scott Meslow of The Week noted the perceived flaws of the first Amazing Spider @-@ Man film , outside of its lead performances , and how the sequel " doubles down on all the missteps of the original while adding a few of its own . … We now have a textbook example of how not to reboot a superhero franchise , and if Sony and Marvel are wise , they 'll take virtually all those lessons to heart as they chart Spider @-@ Man 's next course . " Scott Mendelson noted that The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 " was sold as less a sequel to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man than a backdoor pilot for Spider @-@ Man vs. the Sinister Six . … Had Sony stuck with the original plan of a scaled @-@ down superhero franchise , one that really was rooted in romantic drama , they would have at least stuck out in a crowded field of superhero franchises . When every superhero film is now going bigger , Amazing Spider @-@ Man could have distinguished itself by going small and intimate . " This would have saved Sony " a boatload of money " , and potentially reversed the film 's relative financial failure .
= = Outside media = =
= = = Live attractions = = =
After the acquisition by Disney in 2009 , Marvel films began to be marketed at the Innoventions attraction in Tomorrowland at Disneyland . For Iron Man 3 , the exhibit , entitled Iron Man Tech Presented by Stark Industries , features the same armor display that was shown at the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , with the Marks I @-@ VII and the new Mark XLII . In addition , there is a simulator game , titled " Become Iron Man , " that uses Kinect @-@ like technology to allow the viewer to be encased in an animated Mark XLII armor and take part in a series of " tests , ” in which you fire repulsor rays and fly through Tony Stark 's workshop . The game is guided by J.A.R.V.I.S. , who is voiced again by Paul Bettany . The exhibit also has smaller displays that include helmets and chest pieces from the earlier films and the gauntlet and boot from an action sequence in Iron Man 3 . The exhibit for Thor : The Dark World is called Thor : Treasures of Asgard , and features displays of Asgardian relics and transports guests to Odin 's throne room , where they are greeted by Thor . Captain America : The Winter Soldier 's exhibit , Captain America : The Living Legend and Symbol of Courage , features a meet and greet experience . At San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2016 , it was revealed that the Tower of Terror at Disney California Adventure would be replaced by a new attraction , Guardians of the Galaxy - Mission : Breakout ! . Chris Pratt , Zoe Saldana , Dave Bautista and Benicio del Toro all filmed exclusive footage for the attraction , reprising their roles as Peter Quill / Star @-@ Lord , Gamora , Drax and Taneleer Tivan / The Collector , respectively .
= = = = Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. = = = =
In May 2014 , the Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. ( Scientific Training and Tactical Intelligence Operative Network ) exhibit opened at the Discovery Times Square center . The exhibit features replica set pieces , as well as actual props from the films , mixed with interactive technology and information , crafted through a partnership with NASA and other scientists . Titus Welliver also provides a " debrief " to visitors , reprising his role as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Felix Blake . Created by Victory Hill Exhibits , Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. cost $ 7 @.@ 5 million to create , and ran through early September 2015 .
The exhibit also opened in Korea at the War Memorial of Korea in April 2015 , in Paris at Esplanade de La Défense a year later , and in Las Vegas at the Treasure Island Hotel and Casino in June 2016 . The Las Vegas version of the exhibit featured updated character details and corresponding science to incorporate the Marvel films that have released since the original exhibit in New York . Additionally , the Las Vegas version features Colbie Smulders reprising her role as Maria Hill to " debrief " visitors , replacing Welliver .
= = = Television specials = = =
= = = = Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe ( 2014 ) = = = =
On March 18 , 2014 , ABC aired a one @-@ hour television special titled Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe , which documented the history of Marvel Studios and the development of the Marvel Cinematic Universe , and included exclusive interviews and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from all of the films , One @-@ Shots and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , and sneak peeks of Avengers : Age of Ultron , Captain America : The Winter Soldier , Guardians of the Galaxy , unaired episodes of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , and Ant @-@ Man . Brian Lowry of Variety felt the special , " contains a pretty interesting business and creative story . While it might all make sense in hindsight , there was appreciable audacity in Marvel ’ s plan to release five loosely connected movies from the same hero @-@ filled world , beginning with the cinematically unproven Iron Man and culminating with superhero team The Avengers . As such , this fast @-@ moving hour qualifies as more than just a cut @-@ and @-@ paste job from electronic press kits , although there ’ s an element of that , certainly . " The special was released on September 9 , 2014 on the home media for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. season 1 .
= = = = Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! ( 2014 ) = = = =
In September 2014 , Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. executive producer Jeffrey Bell stated that in order to meet production demands and avoid having to air repeat episodes , ABC would likely air a Marvel special in place of a regular installment at some point during the first ten episodes of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s second season . In October , the special was revealed to be Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! , which was hosted by Emily VanCamp , who portrays Agent 13 in Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and aired on November 4 , 2014 . The special features behind the scenes footage from Avengers : Age of Ultron and Ant @-@ Man , as well as footage from the Agent Carter television series previously screened at New York Comic @-@ Con. Brian Lowry of Variety felt an hour for the special did not " do the topic justice " adding , " For anyone who has seen more than one Marvel movie but would shrug perplexedly at the mention of Jack Kirby or Steve Ditko , Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp To Pop ! should probably be required viewing . Fun , fast @-@ paced and encompassing many of the company ’ s highlights along with a few lowlights , it ’ s a solid primer on Marvel ’ s history , while weaving in inevitable self @-@ promotion and synergistic plugs . " Eric Goldman of IGN also wished the special had been longer , adding , " Understandably , the more you already know about Marvel , the less you 'll be surprised by Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! , but it 's important to remember who this special is really made for – a mainstream audience who have embraced the Marvel characters , via the hugely successful movies , in a way no one could have imagined . "
= = = Books = = =
In September 2015 , Marvel announced the Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe , named as a nod to the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe . Each guidebook is compiled by Mike O 'Sullivan and the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe team , with cover art from Mike Del Mundo and Pascal Campion , and features facts about the MCU films , film @-@ to @-@ comic comparisons , and production stills . Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Iron Man , Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Incredible Hulk / Marvel 's Iron Man 2 , Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Thor , and Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Captain America : The First Avenger released each month from October 2015 to January 2016 , respectively .
= = = Lego Marvel 's Avengers = = =
The video game Lego Marvel 's Avengers is centered on events from The Avengers and Avengers : Age of Ultron , with the game 's developer , TT Games , reordering scenes from both films to make a cohesive story . The game also features content from Captain America : The First Avenger , Iron Man 3 , Thor : The Dark World and Captain America : The Winter Soldier , as well as additional references to other MCU properties , locations and characters . TT Games uses lines of dialogue directly from the films in the game ( thus having many actors reprise their roles ) , with Hayley Atwell , Clark Gregg , Colbie Smulders and Ashley Johnson recording new material specifically for the game as their characters Peggy Carter , Phil Coulson , Maria Hill and Beth , the waitress in The Avengers , respectively . Downloadable content ( DLC ) for the game , exclusive initially for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 , adds content and characters from Ant @-@ Man and Captain America : Civil War . Additional DLC features content for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. The Ant @-@ Man DLC features Michael Peña reprising his role as Luis , recording new dialogue that acts as a narration of the level , while Ming @-@ Na Wen reprised her role as Melinda May with new dialogue in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. DLC . Lego Marvel 's Avengers released on a variety of video game platforms on January 26 , 2016 .
= = = A Mini Marvel = = =
In February 2016 , a commercial for Coca @-@ Cola mini cans aired during Super Bowl 50 . A Mini Marvel was created by Wieden + Kennedy for Coca @-@ Cola through a partnership with Marvel , and was directed by the Russo brothers . In the ad , Ant @-@ Man ( voiced by Paul Rudd , reprising his role ) and the Hulk first fight , and then bond , over a Coke mini can . Luma Pictures provided visual effects for the spot , having worked previously with the two characters in MCU films . For the Hulk , Luma redefined its previous muscular system and simulation process to create and render the character , while Ant @-@ Man received new motion capture . The Super Bowl campaign extended to " limited @-@ edition Coke mini cans [ six packs ] that are emblazoned with images of Marvel characters , including Hulk , Ant @-@ Man , Black Widow , [ Falcon , Iron Man ] and Captain America . " Consumers had the opportunity to purchase the cans by finding hidden clues in the commercial , though " if the program goes well , Coke will consider making the cans available in stores . " The ad had the third most social media activity of all the film @-@ related trailers that aired during the game .
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= Italian War of 1542 – 46 =
The Italian War of 1542 – 46 was a conflict late in the Italian Wars , pitting Francis I of France and Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII of England . The course of the war saw extensive fighting in Italy , France , and the Low Countries , as well as attempted invasions of Spain and England . The conflict was inconclusive and ruinously expensive for the major participants .
The war arose from the failure of the Truce of Nice , which ended the Italian War of 1536 – 38 , to resolve the long @-@ standing conflict between Charles and Francis — particularly their conflicting claims to the Duchy of Milan . Having found a suitable pretext , Francis once again declared war against his perpetual enemy in 1542 . Fighting began at once throughout the Low Countries ; the following year saw the Franco @-@ Ottoman alliance 's attack on Nice , as well as a series of maneuvers in northern Italy which culminated in the bloody Battle of Ceresole . Charles and Henry then proceeded to invade France , but the long sieges of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and Saint @-@ Dizier prevented a decisive offensive against the French .
Charles came to terms with Francis by the Treaty of Crépy in late 1544 , but the death of Francis 's younger son , the Duke of Orléans — whose proposed marriage to a relative of the Emperor was the foundation of the treaty — made it moot less than a year afterwards . Henry , left alone but unwilling to return Boulogne to the French , continued to fight until 1546 , when the Treaty of Ardres finally restored peace between France and England . The deaths of Francis and Henry in early 1547 left the resolution of the Italian Wars to their successors .
= = Prelude = =
The Truce of Nice , which ended the Italian War of 1536 – 38 , provided little resolution to the long conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of France ; although hostilities had ended , giving way to a cautious entente , neither monarch was satisfied with the war 's outcome . Francis continued to harbor a desire for the Duchy of Milan , to which he held a dynastic claim ; Charles , for his part , insisted that Francis comply at last with the terms of the Treaty of Madrid , which had been forced on the French king during his captivity in Spain after the Italian War of 1521 – 26 . Other conflicting claims to various territories — Charles 's to Burgundy and Francis 's to Naples and Flanders , among others — remained a matter of contention as well .
Negotiations between the two powers continued through 1538 and into 1539 . In 1539 , Francis invited Charles — who faced a rebellion in the Low Countries — to travel through France on his way north from Spain . Charles accepted , and was richly received ; but while he was willing to discuss religious matters with his host — the Protestant Reformation being underway — he delayed on the question of political differences , and nothing had been decided by the time he left French territory .
In March 1540 , Charles proposed to settle the matter by having Maria of Spain marry Francis 's younger son , the Duke of Orléans ; the two would then inherit the Netherlands , Burgundy , and Charolais after the Emperor 's death . Francis , meanwhile , was to renounce his claims to the duchies of Milan and Savoy , ratify the treaties of Madrid and Cambrai , and join an alliance with Charles . Francis , considering the loss of Milan too large a price to pay for future possession of the Netherlands and unwilling to ratify the treaties in any case , made his own offer ; on 24 April , he agreed to surrender the Milanese claim in exchange for immediate receipt of the Netherlands . The negotiations continued for weeks , but made no progress , and were abandoned in June 1540 .
Francis soon began gathering new allies to his cause . William , Duke of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg , who was engaged in the Guelderian Wars , a dispute with Charles over the succession in Guelders , sealed his alliance with Francis by marrying Francis 's niece , Jeanne d 'Albret . Francis sought an alliance with the Schmalkaldic League as well , but the League demurred ; by 1542 , the remaining potential French allies in northern Germany had reached their own understandings with the Emperor . French efforts farther east were more fruitful , leading to a renewed Franco @-@ Ottoman alliance ; Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire , seeking to distract Charles from Ottoman advances in Hungary , encouraged the Franco @-@ Imperial rift .
On 4 July 1541 , however , the French ambassador to the Ottoman court , Antoine de Rincon , was killed by Imperial troops as he was travelling near Pavia . In response to Francis 's protests , Charles denied all responsibility , promising to conduct an inquiry with the assistance of the Pope ; he had by now formed plans for a campaign in North Africa , and wished to avoid further entanglements in Europe .
By the end of September 1541 , Charles was in Majorca , preparing an attack on Algiers ; Francis , considering it impolitic to attack a fellow Christian who was fighting the Muslims , promised not to declare war for as long as the Emperor was campaigning . The Imperial expedition , however , was entirely unsuccessful ; storms scattered the invasion fleet soon after the initial landing , and Charles had returned to Spain with the remainder of his troops by November . On 8 March 1542 , the new French ambassador , Antoine Escalin des Eymars , returned from Constantinople with promises of Ottoman aid in a war against Charles . Francis declared war on 12 July , naming various injuries as the causes ; among them was Rincon 's murder , which he proclaimed " an injury so great , so detestable and so strange to those who bear the title and quality of prince that it cannot be in any way forgiven , suffered or endured " .
= = Initial moves and the Treaty of Venlo = =
The French immediately launched a two @-@ front offensive against Charles . In the north , the Duke of Orléans attacked Luxembourg , briefly capturing the city ; in the south , a larger army under Claude d 'Annebault and Francis 's eldest son , the Dauphin Henry , unsuccessfully besieged the city of Perpignan in northern Spain . Francis himself was meanwhile in La Rochelle , dealing with a revolt caused by popular discontent with a proposed reform of the gabelle tax .
By this point , relations between Francis and Henry VIII were collapsing . Henry — already angered by the French refusal to pay the various pensions , which were owed to him under the terms of past treaties — was now faced with the potential of French interference in Scotland , where he was entangled in the midst of an attempt to marry his son to Mary , Queen of Scots , that would develop into the open warfare of the " Rough Wooing " . He had intended to begin a war against Francis in the summer of 1543 , but negotiating a treaty to that effect with the Emperor proved difficult ; since Henry was , in Charles 's eyes , a schismatic , the Emperor could not promise to defend him against attack , nor sign any treaty which referred to him as the head of the Church — both points upon which Henry insisted . Negotiations continued for weeks ; finally , on 11 February 1543 , Henry and Charles signed a treaty of offensive alliance , pledging to invade France within two years . In May 1543 , Henry sent Francis an ultimatum threatening war within twenty days ; and , on 22 June , at last declared war .
Hostilities now flared up across northern France . On Henry 's orders , Sir John Wallop crossed the Channel to Calais with an army of 5 @,@ 000 men , to be used in the defense of the Low Countries . The French , under Antoine de Bourbon , Duke of Vendôme , had captured Lillers in April ; by June , d 'Annebault had taken Landrecies as well . Wilhelm of Cleves openly joined the war on Francis 's side , invading Brabant , and fighting began in Artois and Hainaut . Francis inexplicably halted with his army near Rheims ; in the meantime , Charles attacked Wilhelm of Cleves , invading the Duchy of Jülich and capturing Düren .
Concerned about the fate of his ally , Francis ordered the Duke of Orléans and d 'Annebault to attack Luxembourg , which they took on 10 September ; but it was too late for Wilhelm , as he had already surrendered on 7 September , signing the Treaty of Venlo with Charles . By the terms of this treaty , Wilhelm was to concede the overlordship of the Duchy of Guelders and County of Zutphen to Charles , and to assist him in suppressing the Reformation . Charles now advanced to besiege Landrecies , seeking battle with Francis ; the French defenders of the town , commanded by Martin du Bellay , repulsed the Imperial attack , but Francis withdrew to Saint @-@ Quentin on 4 November , leaving the Emperor free to march north and seize Cambrai .
= = Nice and Lombardy = =
On the Mediterranean , meanwhile , other engagements were underway . In April 1543 , the Sultan had placed Hayreddin Barbarossa 's fleet at the disposal of the French king . Barbarossa left the Dardanelles with more than a hundred galleys , raided his way up the Italian coast , and in July arrived in Marseilles , where he was welcomed by François de Bourbon , Count of Enghien , the commander of the French fleet . On 6 August , the joint Franco @-@ Ottoman fleet anchored off the Imperial city of Nice and landed troops at Villefranche ; a siege of the city followed . Nice fell on 22 August , although the citadel held out until the siege was lifted on 8 September .
Barbarossa was by this point becoming a liability ; on 6 September , he had threatened to depart if he were not given the means with which to resupply his fleet . In response , Francis ordered that the population of Toulon — except for " heads of households " — be expelled , and that the city then be given to Barbarossa , who used it as a base for his army of 30 @,@ 000 for the next eight months . Yet Francis , increasingly embarrassed by the Ottoman presence , was unwilling to help Barbarossa recapture Tunis ; so the Ottoman fleet — accompanied by five French galleys under Antoine Escalin des Aimars — sailed for Istanbul in May 1544 , pillaging the Neapolitan coast along the way .
In Piedmont , meanwhile , a stalemate had developed between the French , under the Sieur de Boutières , and the Imperial army , under Alfonso d 'Avalos ; d 'Avalos had captured the fortress of Carignano , and the French had besieged it , hoping to force the Imperial army into a decisive battle . During the winter of 1543 – 44 , Francis significantly reinforced his army , placing Enghien in command . D 'Avalos , also heavily reinforced , advanced to relieve Carignano ; and , on 11 April 1544 , Enghien and d 'Avalos fought one of the few pitched battles of the period at Ceresole . Although the French were victorious , the impending invasion of France itself by Charles and Henry forced Francis to recall much of his army from Piedmont , leaving Enghien without the troops he needed to take Milan . D 'Avalos 's victory over an Italian mercenary army in French service at the Battle of Serravalle in early June 1544 brought significant campaigning in Italy to an end .
= = France invaded = =
On 31 December 1543 , Henry and Charles had signed a treaty pledging to invade France in person by 20 June 1544 ; each was to provide an army of no less than 35 @,@ 000 infantry and 7 @,@ 000 cavalry for the venture . Against this Francis could muster about 70 @,@ 000 men in his various armies . The campaign could not begin , however , until Henry and Charles had resolved their personal conflicts with Scotland and the German princes , respectively . On 15 May , Henry was informed by Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford , that , after his raids , Scotland was no longer in a position to threaten him ; he then began to make preparations for a personal campaign in France — against the advice of his council and the Emperor , who believed that his presence would be a hindrance . Charles had meanwhile reached an understanding with the princes at the Diet of Speyer , and the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg had agreed to join his invasion of France .
By May 1544 , two Imperial armies were poised to invade France : one , under Ferrante Gonzaga , Viceroy of Sicily , north of Luxemburg ; the other , under Charles himself , in the Palatinate . Charles had gathered a combined force of more than 42 @,@ 000 for the invasion , and had arranged for another 4 @,@ 000 men to join the English army . On 25 May , Gonzaga captured Luxembourg and moved towards Commercy and Ligny , issuing a proclamation that the Emperor had come to overthrow " a tyrant allied to the Turks " . On 8 July , Gonzaga besieged Saint @-@ Dizier ; Charles and the second Imperial army soon joined him .
Henry , meanwhile , had sent an army of some 40 @,@ 000 men to Calais under the joint command of Thomas Howard , Duke of Norfolk , and Charles Brandon , Duke of Suffolk . While Henry continued to squabble with the Emperor over the goals of the campaign and his own presence in France , this massive army moved slowly and aimlessly into French territory . Finally , Henry decided that the army was to be split . Norfolk , ordered to besiege Ardres or Montreuil , advanced towards the latter ; but he proved unable to mount an effective siege , complaining of inadequate supplies and poor organization . Suffolk was ordered to attack Boulogne ; on 14 July , Henry crossed to Calais and moved to join him . A siege of Boulogne began on 19 July — despite the protests of the Emperor , who insisted that Henry should advance towards Paris .
Charles himself , on the other hand , was still delayed at Saint @-@ Dizier ; the city , fortified by Girolamo Marini and defended by Louis IV de Bueil , Count of Sancerre , continued to hold out against the massive Imperial army . On 24 July , Charles captured Vitry @-@ le @-@ François , from which French forces had harassed his supply lines ; finally , on 8 August , the defenders of Saint @-@ Dizier , running low on supplies , sought terms . On 17 August , the French capitulated , and were permitted by the Emperor to leave the city with banners flying ; their resistance for 41 days had broken the Imperial offensive . Some of Charles 's advisers suggested withdrawing , but he was unwilling to lose face and continued to move towards Châlons , although the Imperial army was prevented from advancing across the Marne by a French force waiting at Jâlons . The Imperial troops marched rapidly through Champagne , capturing Épernay , Châtillon @-@ sur @-@ Marne , Château @-@ Thierry , and Soissons .
The French made no attempts to intercept Charles . Troops under Jacques de Montgomery , Sieur de Lorges , sacked Lagny @-@ sur @-@ Marne , whose citizens had allegedly rebelled ; but no attempt was made to engage the advancing Imperial army . Paris was gripped by panic , although Francis insisted that the population had nothing to fear . Charles finally halted his advance and turned back on 11 September . Henry , meanwhile , was personally directing the besiegers at Boulogne ; the town fell in early September , and a breach was made into the castle on 11 September . The defenders finally surrendered a few days later .
= = Treaty of Crépy = =
Charles , short on funds and needing to deal with increasing religious unrest in Germany , asked Henry to continue his invasion or to allow him to make a separate peace . By the time Henry had received the Emperor 's letter , however , Charles had already concluded a treaty with Francis — the Peace of Crépy — which was signed by representatives of the monarchs at Crépy in Picardy on 18 September 1544 . The treaty had been promoted at the French court by the Emperor 's sister , Queen Eleanor , and by Francis 's mistress , the Duchess of Étampes . By its terms , Francis and Charles would each abandon their various conflicting claims and restore the status quo of 1538 ; the Emperor would relinquish his claim to the Duchy of Burgundy and the King of France would do the same for the Kingdom of Naples , as well as renouncing his claims as suzerain of Flanders and Artois . The Duke of Orléans would marry either Charles 's daughter Mary or his niece Anna ; the choice was to be made by Charles . In the first case , the bride would receive the Netherlands and Franche @-@ Comté as a dowry ; in the second , Milan . Francis , meanwhile , was to grant the duchies of Bourbon , Châtellerault , and Angoulême to his son ; he would also abandon his claims to the territories of the Duchy of Savoy , including Piedmont and Savoy itself . Finally , Francis would assist Charles against the Ottomans — but not , officially , against the heretics in his own domains . A second , secret accord was also signed ; by its terms , Francis would assist Charles with reforming the church , with calling a General Council , and with suppressing Protestantism — by force if necessary .
The treaty was poorly received by the Dauphin , who felt that his brother was being favored over him , by Henry VIII , who believed that Charles had betrayed him , and also by the Sultan . Francis would fulfill some of the terms ; but the death of the Duke of Orléans in 1545 rendered the treaty moot .
= = Boulogne and England = =
The conflict between Francis and Henry continued . The Dauphin 's army advanced on Montreuil , forcing Norfolk to raise the siege ; Henry himself returned to England at the end of September 1544 , ordering Norfolk and Suffolk to defend Boulogne . The two dukes quickly disobeyed this order and withdrew the bulk of the English army to Calais , leaving some 4 @,@ 000 men to defend the captured city . The English army , outnumbered , was now trapped in Calais ; the Dauphin , left unopposed , concentrated his efforts on besieging Boulogne . On 9 October , a French assault nearly captured the city , but was beaten back when the troops prematurely turned to looting . Peace talks were attempted at Calais without result ; Henry refused to consider returning Boulogne , and insisted that Francis abandon his support of the Scots . Charles , who had been appointed as a mediator between Francis and Henry , was meanwhile drawn into his own disputes with the English king .
Francis now embarked on a more dramatic attempt to force Henry 's hand — an attack on England itself . For this venture , an army of more than 30 @,@ 000 men was assembled in Normandy , and a fleet of some 400 vessels prepared at Le Havre , all under the command of Claude d 'Annebault . On 31 May 1545 , a French expeditionary force landed in Scotland . In early July , the English under John Dudley , Viscount Lisle , mounted an attack on the French fleet , but had little success due to poor weather ; nevertheless , the French suffered from a string of accidents : d 'Annebault 's first flagship burned , and his second ran aground . Finally leaving Le Havre on 16 July , the massive French fleet entered the Solent on 19 July and briefly engaged the English fleet , to no apparent effect ; the major casualty of the skirmish , the Mary Rose , sank accidentally . The French landed on the Isle of Wight on 21 July , and again at Seaford on 25 July , but these operations were abortive , and the French fleet soon returned to blockading Boulogne . D 'Annebault made a final sortie near Beachy Head on 15 August , but retired to port after a brief skirmish .
= = Treaty of Ardres = =
By September 1545 , the war was a virtual stalemate ; both sides , running low on funds and troops , unsuccessfully sought help from the German Protestants . Henry , Francis , and Charles attempted extensive diplomatic maneuvering to break the deadlock ; but none of the three trusted the others , and this had little practical effect . In January 1546 , Henry sent the Earl of Hertford to Calais , apparently preparing for an offensive ; but one failed to materialize .
Francis could not afford to resume a large @-@ scale war , and Henry was concerned only for the disposition of Boulogne . Negotiations between the two resumed on 6 May . On 7 June 1546 , the Treaty of Ardres — also known as the Treaty of Camp — was signed by Claude d 'Annebault , Pierre Ramon , and Guillaume Bochetel on behalf of Francis , and Viscount Lisle , Baron Paget and Nicholas Wotton on behalf of Henry . By its terms , Henry would retain Boulogne until 1554 , then return it in exchange for two million écus ; in the meantime , neither side would construct fortifications in the region , and Francis would resume payment of Henry 's pensions . Upon hearing the price demanded for Boulogne , the Imperial ambassador told Henry that the city would remain in English hands permanently .
During the treaty negotiations , two Protestant mediators — Han Bruno of Metz and Johannes Sturm — were concerned that Henry 's war in Scotland was a stumbling block . The sixteenth article of the treaty made Scotland a party to the new peace , and Henry pledged not to attack the Scots again without cause . This gave Scotland a respite from the War of the Rough Wooing , but the fighting would recommence 18 months later .
= = Aftermath = =
Exorbitantly expensive , the war was the costliest conflict of both Francis 's and Henry 's reigns . In England , the need for funds led to what Elton terms " an unprecedented burden of taxation " , as well as the systematic debasement of coinage . Francis also imposed a series of new taxes and instituted several financial reforms . He was not , therefore , in a position to assist the German Protestants , who were now engaged in the Schmalkaldic War against the Emperor ; by the time any French aid was to be forthcoming , Charles had already won his victory at the Battle of Mühlberg . As for Suleiman , the conclusion of the Truce of Adrianople in 1547 brought his own struggle against the Habsburgs to a temporary halt .
Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547 ; on 31 March , Francis followed . Henry 's successors continued his entanglements in Scotland . When , in 1548 , friction with the Scots led to the resumption of hostilities around Boulogne , they decided to avoid a two @-@ front war by returning the city four years early , in 1550 . The causes of the war themselves — chiefly , the contested dynastic claims in Italy — remained unresolved until the Peace of Cateau @-@ Cambrésis ended the Italian War of 1551 – 59 and six decades of conflict .
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= April 2014 lunar eclipse =
A total lunar eclipse took place on April 15 , 2014 . It was the first of two total lunar eclipses in 2014 , and the first in a tetrad ( four total lunar eclipses in a series ) . Subsequent eclipses in the tetrad are those of October 8 , 2014 , April 4 , 2015 , and September 28 , 2015 .
The eclipse was visible in the Americas and the Pacific Ocean region , including Australia and New Zealand . During the 5 hour , 44 minute @-@ long eclipse , the Moon passed south of the center of the Earth 's shadow . As a result , the northern part of the Moon was noticeably darker than the southern part . Totality lasted for 1 hour 18 minutes . The eclipse occurred during the ascending phase of the Moon 's orbit , part of lunar saros 122 . Mars was near opposition .
This is the 56th member of Lunar Saros 122 . The previous event was the April 1996 lunar eclipse . The next event will be April 2032 lunar eclipse .
= = Background = =
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes within Earth 's umbra ( shadow ) . As the eclipse begins , the Earth 's shadow first darkens the Moon slightly . Then , the shadow begins to " cover " part of the Moon , turning it a dark red @-@ brown color ( typically - the color can vary based on atmospheric conditions ) . The Moon appears to be reddish because of Rayleigh scattering ( the same effect that causes sunsets to appear reddish ) and the refraction of that light by the Earth 's atmosphere into its umbra .
The following simulation shows the approximate appearance of the Moon passing through the Earth 's shadow . The Moon 's brightness is exaggerated within the umbral shadow . The northern portion of the Moon was closest to the center of the shadow , making it darkest , and most red in appearance .
= = Description = =
On April 15 , 2014 , the Moon passed through the southern part of the Earth 's umbral shadow . It was visible over most of the Western Hemisphere , including east Australia , New Zealand , the Pacific ocean , and the Americas . In the western Pacific , the first half of the eclipse occurred before moonrise . In Europe and Africa , the eclipse began just before moonset . Mars , which had just passed its opposition , appeared at magnitude -1.5 about 9 @.@ 5 ° northwest of the Moon . Spica was 2 ° to the west , while Arcturus was 32 ° north . Saturn was 26 ° east and Antares 44 ° southeast .
The Moon entered Earth 's penumbral shadow at 4 : 54 UTC and the umbral shadow at 5 : 58 . Totality lasted for 1 hour 18 minutes , from 7 : 07 to 8 : 25 . The moment of greatest eclipse occurred at 7 : 47 . At that point , the Moon 's zenith was approximately 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) southwest of the Galápagos Islands . The Moon left the umbra shadow at 9 : 33 and the penumbra shadow at 10 : 38 .
The peak umbral magnitude was 1 @.@ 2907 , at which moment the northern part of the moon was 1 @.@ 7 arc @-@ minutes south of the center of Earth 's shadow , while the southern part was 40 @.@ 0 arc @-@ minutes from center . The gamma of the eclipse was -0.3017 .
The eclipse was a member of Lunar Saros 122 . It was the 56th such eclipse .
= = Timing = =
* The penumbral phase of the eclipse changes the appearance of the Moon only slightly and is generally not noticeable .
† The Moon was not visible during this part of the eclipse in this time zone .
The timing of total lunar eclipses are determined by its contacts :
P1 ( First contact ) : Beginning of the penumbral eclipse . Earth 's penumbra touches the Moon 's outer limb .
U1 ( Second contact ) : Beginning of the partial eclipse . Earth 's umbra touches the Moon 's outer limb .
U2 ( Third contact ) : Beginning of the total eclipse . The Moon 's surface is entirely within Earth 's umbra .
Greatest eclipse : The peak stage of the total eclipse . The Moon is at its closest to the center of Earth 's umbra .
U3 ( Fourth contact ) : End of the total eclipse . The Moon 's outer limb exits Earth 's umbra .
U4 ( Fifth contact ) : End of the partial eclipse . Earth 's umbra leaves the Moon 's surface .
P4 ( Sixth contact ) : End of the penumbral eclipse . Earth 's penumbra no longer makes contact with the Moon .
= = Viewing events = =
Many museums and observatories planned special events for the eclipse . The United States National Park Service sponsored events at Great Basin National Park and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . The University of Hawaii 's Institute for Astronomy held events at two locations on the islands . The Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles , California streamed the eclipse live on the Internet .
NASA hosted two live question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions online . The first happened roughly 12 hours before the eclipse via Reddit 's Ask Me Anything . The second was a web chat hosted on NASA 's site just before the eclipse began . NASA also streamed the eclipse live on their website . NASA TV provided 3 hours of live coverage beginning at 2 a.m. EDT .
= = Gallery = =
= = Relation to prophecy = =
Starting in 2008 , Christian pastors John Hagee and Mark Biltz began teaching " blood moon prophecies " : Biltz said the Second Coming of Jesus would occur at the end of the tetrad that began with the April 2014 eclipse , while Hagee said only that the tetrad is a sign of something significant . The idea gained popular media attention in the United States , and prompted a response from the scientific radio show Earth & Sky . According to Christian Today , only a " small group of Christians " saw the eclipse as having religious significance , despite the attention .
= = = Related eclipses = = =
The April 15 eclipse was the first eclipse in a tetrad ; that is , four consecutive total eclipses with no partial eclipses in between . There will be another eclipse every six lunar cycles during the tetrad – on October 8 , 2014 , April 4 , 2015 , and September 28 , 2015 . The lunar year series repeats after 12 cycles , or 354 days , causing a date shift when compared to the solar calendar . This shift means the Earth 's shadow will move about 11 degrees west in each subsequent eclipse .
This tetrad started during the ascending node of the Moon 's orbit . It is the first tetrad since the 2003 – 04 series , which started in May . The next series will be from 2032 to 2033 , starting in April .
= = = Half @-@ Saros cycle = = =
A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5 @.@ 5 days ( a half saros ) . This lunar eclipse is related to two hybrid total / annualar solar eclipses of solar saros 129 .
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= No. 4 Operational Training Unit RAAF =
No. 4 Operational Training Unit ( No. 4 OTU ) was an operational conversion unit of the Royal Australian Air Force during World War II . It was formed at Williamtown , New South Wales , in October 1942 to train pilots and wireless air gunners to operate Vultee Vengeance dive bombers . The school was equipped with Vengeances and CAC Wirraway aircraft . Accidents were common in operational conversion units , and No. 4 OTU suffered several fatal crashes during its existence . It was disbanded in April 1944 , handing Williamtown over to No. 5 Operational Training Unit .
= = History = =
During World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established eight operational training units ( OTUs ) to convert recently graduated air crews from advanced trainers to combat aircraft , and to add fighting ability to the flying skills they had already learned . No. 4 Operational Training Unit was formed on 1 October 1942 at Williamtown , New South Wales , to convert crews to the Vultee Vengeance dive bomber , 400 of which had been ordered by the RAAF ( 344 were eventually delivered ) . No. 4 OTU 's inaugural commanding officer was Wing Commander E.G. Fyfe . The first pilots and wireless air gunner trainees arrived from No. 12 Squadron on 28 October 1942 , and undertook a Vengeance conversion course that ran until 25 November . By the end of the month , No. 4 OTU 's strength stood at seven Vengeances . These were augmented in January 1943 by the unit 's first CAC Wirraway , which students flew before commencing their Vengeance conversion course .
OTUs , employing as they did warplanes that were more advanced and more powerful than trainers , and teaching combat techniques that often carried high risk , generally suffered higher accident rates than other flying training schools . On 3 March 1943 , a Wirraway of No. 4 OTU crashed near Williamtown , killing both crewmen . Two others died when their Vengeance crashed and burned near Goulburn during a cross @-@ country exercise on 4 August . On 16 August , a Vengeance flew into trees after apparently pulling out late from a dive , resulting in two fatalities . A Vengeance blew up in flight during dive @-@ bombing practice at Williamtown on 14 September , killing both crewmen . On 5 October , a Vengeance on a dive @-@ bombing exercise crashed into the sea near Newcastle ; both crewmen were reported as missing , believed killed . No. 4 OTU suffered two more fatalities when a Vengeance struck a hill near Braidwood during a cross @-@ country flight on 26 November 1943 . Another Vengeance hit the water and exploded in Nelson Bay on 7 April 1944 after failing to recover from a dive , killing the two @-@ man crew .
On 1 December 1943 , Squadron Leader R.E. Bell took over command of No. 4 OTU on a temporary basis , handing over to Flight Lieutenant R. Tuel @-@ Wilkinson on 27 April 1944 . The Vengeances had meanwhile been withdrawn from operations in the South West Pacific theatre , having flown their last combat mission on 8 March . No. 4 OTU disbanded on 30 April 1944 ; a small detachment remained to hand over the Williamtown base to an advance party of No. 5 Operational Training Unit the following day . The rest of No. 5 OTU transferred from Tocumwal to Williamtown during July . By the time No. 4 OTU disbanded , the school 's Vengeances had accumulated 7 @,@ 593 flying hours and the Wirraways 7 @,@ 646 hours .
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= HMS Hermes ( 95 ) =
HMS Hermes was an aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy . The ship began construction during World War I and finished after the war ended . She was the world 's first ship to be designed as an aircraft carrier , although the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Hōshō was the first to be commissioned and launched . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes in her design after she was laid down . After she was launched , her shipyard closed and her construction was suspended . Most of the changes were made to optimise her design in light of the results of experiments with the existing carriers .
Commissioned in 1924 , Hermes served briefly with the Atlantic Fleet before spending the bulk of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and the China Station . In the Mediterranean , she worked with other carriers developing multi @-@ carrier tactics . While showing the flag at the China Station , she helped to suppress pirates in Chinese waters . Hermes returned home in 1937 and was placed in reserve before becoming a training ship in 1938 .
When World War II began in September 1939 , the ship was briefly assigned to the Home Fleet and conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols in the Western Approaches . She was transferred to Dakar in October to cooperate with the French Navy in hunting down German commerce raiders and blockade runners . Aside from a brief refit , Hermes remained there until Vichy France was established at the end of June 1940 . Supported by several cruisers , the ship then blockaded Dakar and attempted to sink the French battleship Richelieu by exploding depth charges underneath her stern , as well as sending Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers to attack her at night . While returning from this mission , Hermes rammed a British armed merchant cruiser in a storm and required several months of repairs in South Africa , then resumed patrolling for Axis shipping in the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean .
In February 1941 , the ship supported Commonwealth forces in Italian Somaliland during the East African Campaign and did much the same two months later in the Persian Gulf during the Anglo @-@ Iraqi War . After that campaign , Hermes spent most of the rest of the year patrolling the Indian Ocean . She refitted in South Africa between November 1941 and February 1942 and then joined the Eastern Fleet at Ceylon .
Hermes was berthed in Trincomalee on 8 April when warning of an approaching Japanese fleet was received and sailed that day for the Maldives with no aircraft on board . She was spotted on 9 April near Batticaloa by a Japanese scout plane and attacked by several dozen dive bombers shortly afterwards . With no air cover , the carrier was quickly sunk by the Japanese aircraft . Most of the survivors were rescued by a nearby hospital ship , although 307 men from Hermes were lost in the sinking .
= = Development = =
Like Hōshō , Hermes was based on a cruiser @-@ type hull and she was initially designed to carry both wheeled aircraft and seaplanes . The ship 's design was derived from a 1916 seaplane carrier design by Gerard Holmes and Sir John Biles , but was considerably enlarged by Sir Eustace d 'Eyncourt , the Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , in his April 1917 sketch design . Her most notable feature was the seaplane slipway that comprised three sections . The seaplanes would taxi onto the rigid submerged portion aft and dock with a trolley that would carry the aircraft into the hangar . A flexible submerged portion separated the rear section from the rigid forward portion of the slipway to prevent the submerged part from rolling with the ship 's motion . The entire slipway could be retracted into the ship , and a gantry crane ran the length of the slipway to help recover the seaplanes . The design showed two islands with the full @-@ length flight deck running between them . Each island contained one funnel ; a large net could be strung between them to stop out @-@ of @-@ control aircraft . Aircraft were transported between the hangar and the flight deck by two aircraft lifts ( elevators ) ; the forward lift measured 30 by 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) and the rear 60 by 18 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 by 5 @.@ 5 m ) . This design displaced 9 @,@ 000 long tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) and accommodated six large Short Type 184 seaplanes and six smaller Sopwith Baby seaplanes . The ship 's armament consisted of six 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns .
The DNC produced a detailed design in January 1918 that made some changes to his original sketch , including the addition of a rotating bow catapult to allow the ship to launch aircraft regardless of wind direction , and the ship was laid down that month to the revised design . Progress was slow , as most of the resources of the shipyard were being used to finish the conversion of Eagle from a battleship to an aircraft carrier . The leisurely pace of construction allowed for more time with which to rework the ship 's design . By mid @-@ June the slipway had been deleted from the design and the ship 's armament had been revised to consist of eleven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns and only a single anti @-@ aircraft gun . By this time , the uncertainty about the best configuration for an aircraft carrier had increased to the point that the Admiralty forbade the builder from working above the hangar deck without express permission . Later that year the ship 's design was revised again to incorporate a single island , her lifts were changed to a uniform size of 44 by 20 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and her armament was altered to ten 6 @-@ inch guns and four 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns . These changes increased her displacement to 10 @,@ 110 long tons ( 10 @,@ 270 t ) .
Construction was suspended after Hermes was launched in September 1919 as the Admiralty awaited the results of flight trials with Eagle and Argus . Her design was modified in March 1920 with an island superstructure and funnel to starboard , and the forward catapult was removed . The logic behind placing the island to starboard was that pilots generally preferred to turn to port when recovering from an aborted landing . A prominent tripod mast was added to house the fire @-@ control systems for her guns .
The last revisions were made to the ship 's design in May 1921 , after the trials with Argus and Eagle . The lifts were moved further apart to allow for more space for the arresting gear and they were enlarged to allow the wings of her aircraft to be spread in the hangar . Her anti @-@ ship armament was reduced to six 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) guns and her flight deck was faired into the bow .
= = = Description = = =
Hermes had an overall length of 600 feet ( 182 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 70 feet 3 inches ( 21 @.@ 4 m ) , and a draught of 23 feet 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She displaced 10 @,@ 850 long tons ( 11 @,@ 020 t ) at standard load . Each of the ship 's two sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one propeller shaft at a speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . Steam was supplied by six Yarrow boilers operating at a pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . The turbines were designed for a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , but they produced 41 @,@ 318 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 811 kW ) during her sea trials , and gave Hermes a speed of 26 @.@ 178 knots ( 48 @.@ 482 km / h ; 30 @.@ 125 mph ) . The ship carried 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 160 mi ) at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
The ship 's flight deck was 570 feet ( 173 @.@ 7 m ) long and her lifts ' dimensions were 36 by 36 @.@ 6 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 by 11 @.@ 2 m ) . Her hangar was 400 feet ( 121 @.@ 9 m ) long , 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) wide and 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high . Hermes was fitted with longitudinal arresting gear . A large crane was positioned behind the island . Because of her size , the ship was only able to carry about 20 aircraft . Bulk petrol storage consisted of 7 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 32 @,@ 000 l ; 8 @,@ 400 US gal ) . The ship 's crew totalled 33 officers and 533 men , exclusive of the air group , in 1939 .
For self @-@ defence against enemy warships , Hermes had six BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns , three on each side of the ship . All four of her QF Mk V 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were positioned on the flight deck . The ship 's waterline belt armour was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick and her flight deck , which was also the ship 's strength deck , was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick . Hermes had a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 9 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) and handled well in heavy weather . However , she had quite a large surface area exposed to the wind and required as much as 25 to 30 degrees of weather helm at low speed when the wind was blowing from the side .
= = Service = =
Hermes was laid down by Sir W. G. Armstrong @-@ Whitworth and Company at Walker on the River Tyne on 15 January 1918 as the world 's first purpose @-@ designed aircraft carrier , and was launched on 11 September 1919 . She was christened by Mrs. A. Cooper , daughter of the First Lord of the Admiralty , Walter Long . The shipyard was scheduled to close at the end of 1919 and the Admiralty ordered the ship towed to Devonport , where she arrived in January 1920 for completion .
= = = 1920s = = =
Captain Arthur Stopford was appointed as the ship 's commanding officer in February 1923 and the ship began her sea trials in August . After fitting @-@ out , Hermes was commissioned on 19 February 1924 and later assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . She conducted flying trials with the Fairey IIID reconnaissance biplanes for the next several months . Hermes participated in the fleet review conducted by King George V on 26 July in Spithead . Afterwards she was refitted until November and then transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . She arrived at Malta on 22 November and needed some repairs to fix storm damage suffered en route . At this time the ship embarked No. 403 Flight with Fairey Flycatcher fighters and 441 Flight with Fairey IIIDs . Hermes conducted flying exercises with Eagle and the rest of the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1925 before she began a seven @-@ week refit in Malta on 27 March , then sailed for Portsmouth where she arrived on 29 May after her aircraft had flown ashore .
Hermes sailed for the China Station on 17 June with 403 and 441 Flights aboard , but made a lengthy pause en route in the Mediterranean during which Captain Stopford was replaced by Captain C. P. Talbot . She arrived at Hong Kong on 10 August 1925 . The ship made her first foreign port visit to Amoy in November . Hermes returned to the Mediterranean in early 1926 and was refitted at Malta between April and June . 441 Flight was transferred to Eagle at this time in exchange for 440 Flight which flew aboard in September . 442 Flight also joined the ship at this time ; both flights were equipped with Fairey IIIs . The ship exercised with the Mediterranean Fleet after her refit was completed and Captain R. Elliot relieved Captain Talbot on 14 August . Hermes returned to Hong Kong on 11 October and conducted routine training until she sailed to the naval base at Wei Hai Wei on 27 July 1927 to escape the summer heat . The ship rendezvoused in September with Argus , which was to replace her on the China Station . Before she departed the area , however , both ships attacked the pirate base at Bias Bay and their fleet of junks and sampans . Hermes reached the United Kingdom on 26 October and began a refit at Chatham Dockyard at the beginning of November . One of her 4 @-@ inch guns was removed at this time . Sometime after this refit , the ship was provided with two single 1 @.@ 57 @-@ inch ( 40 mm ) 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ pom " AA guns .
Captain Eliot was relieved by Captain G. Hopwood on 2 December and the ship sailed for the China Station on 21 January 1928 . The Fairey IIIDs of 440 Flight had been replaced by IIIFs , and the ship kept the same three flights for this deployment . En route to Hong Kong , Hermes stopped at Bangkok , Siam , in March for four days and was inspected by King Rama VII . She reached Hong Kong on 18 March , relieving Argus . The ship spent a month in the port of Chefoo in May and then the following three weeks in Wei Hai Wei . While visiting Chinwangtao in July , one of her Fairey IIIF seaplanes made a forced landing outside the port ; the Italian destroyer Muggia rescued the pilot and towed the aircraft back to the carrier . During the rest of the year , the ship visited Shanghai , Manila , as well as Kudat and Jesselton in Borneo . She began a refit in Hong Kong in January 1929 and Captain J. D. Campbell assumed command on 28 March . After refit was completed in April , Hermes conducted flying training before sailing up the Yangtze River to visit Nanking the following month . Afterwards she spent the next four months at Wei Hei Wei . She made visits to Tsingtao and Japan before returning to Hong Kong on 29 October where she remained for the rest of the year .
= = = 1930s = = =
On 28 January 1930 , Hermes transported the British Minister to China , Sir Miles Lampson , to Nanking for talks with the Chinese Government over the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and she remained there until she sailed downriver to Shanghai on 2 March . By the end of the month , the carrier was back in Hong Kong and remained there until June when she returned to Wei Hai Wei for her annual summer visit . The ship briefly returned to Hong Kong before departing for Great Britain on 7 August . Hermes reached Portsmouth on 23 September , but only remained there for six days before transferring to Sheerness . Captain E. J. G. MacKinnon relieved Captain Campbell there on 2 October . She was given a brief refit at Chatham Dockyard before sailing for the China Station . The ship had aboard only 403 and 440 Flights on this deployment and transported six Blackburn Ripons to deliver to Malta and HMS Eagle . Hermes departed Portsmouth on 12 November and reached Hong Kong on 2 January 1931 . En route to her summer refuge at Wei Hai Wei , the ship received a report on 9 June that the submarine Poseidon had been sunk there while on exercise . Captain MacKinnon took command of the rescue effort when Hermes arrived at the accident site an hour afterwards . Eight of the submarine 's crewmen managed to escape through the forward torpedo hatch , but only six of those reached the surface where they were picked up and treated in Hermes 's sickbay ; two of those six subsequently died .
The ship remained at Wei Hai Wei until the end of August when she sailed up the Yangtze River for Hankow . She reached the inland port on 5 September and dispatched armed guards to put down unrest on several British @-@ owned merchant ships . Her primary purpose , though , was to aid the Chinese government 's survey of the massive flooding in the area . Charles Lindbergh and his wife , Anne Morrow Lindbergh , were also in the city to survey the flooding with their Lockheed Sirius float @-@ plane and they were invited to use the carrier as their base . Unfortunately , their aircraft was flipped on the morning of 2 October by a strong current as it was being hoisted out by Hermes 's crane . They were quickly rescued by a boat from the carrier , but their aircraft was damaged . Captain MacKinnon offered to take them and their aircraft to Shanghai where it could be repaired and the ship departed the next day . She remained in Shanghai until 2 November , when she sailed for Hong Kong . Hermes received a distress message on 3 November from a Japanese merchantman , SS Ryinjin Maru , that had run aground on the Tan Rocks near the Chinese mainland at the mouth of the Taiwan Strait . The ship managed to rescue nine crew members before she was relieved by the Japanese destroyer Nashi and could proceed to Hong Kong . She reached the city on 7 November and remained in the area until April 1932 .
Captain MacKinnon took sick the next month and he was relieved by Captain W. B. Mackenzie on 25 February . After a short refit , the carrier , escorted by the destroyer Whitehall , made a brief visit to Amoy in late April before sailing for Wei Hai Wei where she stayed until 17 September . On that day , Hermes sailed for the Japanese city of Nagasaki and then spent four weeks in Shanghai . The ship did not return to Hong Kong until 28 October and spent the next few months there . In January 1933 , the carrier visited the Philippines for several weeks before returning to Hong Kong where she was given a brief refit . After short visits to Tsingtao and Wei Hai Wei , Hermes departed Hong Kong in mid @-@ June for Great Britain . She reached Sheerness on 22 July , but the ship was transferred shortly afterwards to Chatham Dockyard and opened to the public during Navy Week in early August . She sailed the next month for Devonport Dockyard for a thorough refit . Transverse arresting gear was fitted and her machinery was thoroughly overhauled . Sometime in 1932 , the two single 2 @-@ pounders were replaced by two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Mark III machine gun mounts .
Captain the Honourable G. Fraser was appointed on 15 August 1934 as the new commanding officer and the ship began trials of the new equipment in early November . At the same time the nine Fairey Seal torpedo bombers of 824 Squadron joined the ship . Hermes left Portsmouth on 18 November for the China Station and arrived at Hong Kong on 4 January 1935 . The Hawker Osprey reconnaissance biplanes of 803 Squadron were transferred aboard from Eagle before that ship left Hong Kong . Pirates captured a British @-@ owned merchant ship , SS Tungchow , with 90 British and American children on board on 29 January and Hermes was ordered to search for the ship when she failed to arrive at Chefoo at her scheduled time . Three Seals spotted her in Bias Bay on 1 February and the pirates abandoned the ship when it was found , leaving the passengers unharmed . Hermes remained in the vicinity of Hong Kong until mid @-@ May when she steamed to Wei Hai Wei . There she remained until 12 September when the Admiralty decided to transfer her to Singapore where she was closer to East Africa in case a military response to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia was deemed necessary . The ship arrived on 19 September and remained in the area for the next five months .
The ship 's aircraft were detailed to search for the missing Lady Southern Cross of Sir Charles Kingsford Smith when it failed to arrive at Singapore on 8 November during an attempt to set a new speed record between Britain and Australia . No sign was found of either the aircraft or its crew despite a month @-@ long search . Hermes returned to Hong Kong at the beginning of March 1936 before beginning a tour of Japan on 21 April , escorted by the destroyers Duncan and Delight . She summered at Wei Hai Wei and did not return to Hong Kong until the end of October . For most of January 1937 , the carrier , accompanied by the heavy cruiser Dorsetshire and the destroyers Duncan and Diana , toured the Dutch East Indies . The ship 's torpedo bombers practised torpedo attacks on the cruisers Cumberland and Dorsetshire in February , working with the Royal Air Force 's torpedo bombers based at RAF Seletar , Singapore . Hermes left Singapore on 17 March , leaving 803 Squadron behind , and reached Plymouth on 3 May 1937 . Following the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May for King George VI , she was assigned to the Reserve Fleet . On 16 July 1938 , Hermes was transferred from the Reserve Fleet and became a training ship at Devonport .
Plans were made in 1937 to replace Hermes 's three single 4 @-@ inch guns with two twin 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns , one forward and another aft of the island , as well as two octuple 2 @-@ pounder mounts . A single High @-@ Angle Control System would have been fitted to control these guns , but the dockyard was overwhelmed with other work and couldn 't begin to design the changes until July 1938 . They were scheduled to be installed between September and December 1939 , but the beginning of the war intervened and nothing was done . The ship 's petrol storage was to be increased to 13 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 59 @,@ 000 l ; 16 @,@ 000 US gal ) in April 1940 , but this also does not seem to have occurred .
= = = World War II = = =
The ship was given a brief refit in early August 1939 and Captain F. E. P. Hutton assumed command on 23 August . She was recommissioned the following day , and 12 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 814 Squadron flew aboard on 1 September . Hermes conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols in mid @-@ September in an effort to find and destroy U @-@ boats in the Western Approaches . On 18 September , the day after the fleet carrier Courageous was sunk on one such patrol , Hermes located a submarine , but attacks by her escorting destroyers , Isis and Imogen , were ineffective . The carrier was then ordered to return to Devonport where she was fitted with degaussing gear during another brief refit . On 7 October , the ship rendezvoused with the French battleship Strasbourg and they arrived at Dakar in French West Africa on 16 October . Designated as Force X , they began searching for German ships in the Atlantic on 25 October . Hermes performed these patrols with no sightings until the end of December when she escorted a convoy to Britain where she could be refitted from 9 January to 10 February 1940 ; the ship then returned to Dakar and resumed her patrols for German commerce raiders and blockade runners .
Captain Richard F. J. Onslow relieved Captain Hutton on 25 May and Hermes continued her fruitless patrols . After returning from one such patrol on 29 June , the ship was ordered to leave harbour only nine hours after her arrival and to begin a blockade of Dakar as the Governor of French Senegal had declared the colony 's allegiance to the Vichy French regime . On the night of 7 / 8 July , a boat from Hermes attempted to drop four depth charges underneath the Richelieu 's stern in conjunction with a torpedo attack by the Swordfish of 814 Squadron . The boat was successful in reaching the French ship , but the depth charges failed to detonate . The torpedo attack was more successful as one of the battleship 's propellers was damaged . French aircraft attacked the British forces several times in retaliation , but without success . While returning to Freetown after the attack , Hermes accidentally rammed the armed merchant cruiser HMS Corfu during a rainstorm in the dark on 10 July . The impact injured three of the carrier 's crew , one of whom subsequently died of his injuries , but no one from Corfu 's crew was injured . The two ships were locked together so that Corfu 's crew could walk from one to the other when Captain Onslow ordered most of her crew to be evacuated onto Hermes . They were pulled apart by a combination of the carrier 's turbines at full speed astern and blowing of ballast tanks on board Corfu to lighten that ship forward . Hermes had crumpled the forward 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of her bow , mostly above water , and was able to proceed to Freetown at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , but Corfu had to be towed stern first to Freetown where she arrived three days later . The carrier joined a convoy to South Africa on 5 August and began repairs at Simonstown 12 days later . They were completed on 2 November and the ship arrived back at Freetown on 29 November after working up .
The ship was joined by the light cruiser Dragon on 2 December to search for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic . They mostly operated from Saint Helena during the month and were later joined by the armed merchant cruiser Pretoria Castle to search for the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer without success . The force sailed for Simonstown on 31 December and Hermes was dispatched to search off the South African coast for Vichy French blockade runners . One such ship was spotted on 26 January , but she returned to Madagascar . On 4 February , the ship headed north to rendezvous with the heavy cruisers Shropshire and Hawkins to blockade the Somali port of Kismayo which was under siege by Commonwealth forces . Hawkins captured three Italian merchantmen and Hermes captured one on 12 February .
On 22 February , the carrier was one of the ships tasked to search for Admiral Scheer after she was spotted by an aircraft from the light cruiser Glasgow , but the pocket battleship successfully broke contact . Hermes arrived in Colombo , Ceylon , on 4 March and continued to search for Axis shipping . She was sent to the Persian Gulf in April to support British operations in Basra , Iraq , and remained there until mid @-@ June when she returned to patrolling the Indian Ocean between Ceylon and the Seychelles Islands . The ship continued to patrol until 19 November when she arrived in Simonstown for a refit that was not completed until 31 January 1942 . Hermes was assigned to the Eastern Fleet and arrived at Colombo on 14 February . She put to sea on 19 February to receive the Swordfish of 814 Squadron and to rendezvous with the destroyer HMAS Vampire to conduct an anti @-@ submarine patrol . The squadron was disembarked on 25 February after the ships arrived in Trincomalee Harbour . The two ships were ordered to Fremantle , Australia , in mid @-@ March to join the Allied naval forces headquartered there , but they were recalled after three days and assigned to Force B of the Eastern Fleet .
After the raid on Colombo by the Japanese aircraft carriers on 5 April , Hermes and Vampire were sent to Trincomalee to prepare for Operation Ironclad , the British invasion of Madagascar , and 814 Squadron was sent ashore . After advance warning of a Japanese air raid on 9 April 1942 , they left Trincomalee and sailed south down the Ceylon coast before it arrived . They were spotted off Batticaloa , however , by a Japanese reconnaissance plane from the battleship Haruna . The British intercepted the spot report and ordered the ships to return to Trincomalee with the utmost dispatch and attempted to provide fighter cover for them . The Japanese launched 85 Aichi D3A dive bombers , escorted by nine Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , at the two ships . At least 32 attacked them and sank them in quick order despite the arrival of six Fairey Fulmar II fighters of No. 273 Squadron RAF . Another six Fulmars from 803 and 806 Squadrons arrived after Hermes had already sunk . The rest of the Japanese aircraft attacked other ships further north , sinking the RFA Athelstone of 5 @,@ 571 gross register tonnage ( GRT ) , her escort , the corvette Hollyhock , the oil tanker SS British Sergeant and the Norwegian ship SS Norviken of 2 @,@ 924 GRT .
Hermes sank at coordinates 7 ° 35 ′ 28 @.@ 392 ″ N 82 ° 05 ′ 55 @.@ 089 ″ E with the loss of 307 men , including Captain Onslow . Vampire 's captain and seven crewmen were also killed . Most of the survivors of the attack were picked up by the hospital ship Vita . Japanese losses to all causes were four D3As lost and five more damaged , while two Fulmars were shot down .
= = = = Two HMS Hermes = = = =
The merchant ship SS Mamari III was converted to resemble Hermes as a decoy ship to confuse the Axis where Hermes was actually operating . The superstructure was mainly a wooden mock @-@ up . She was a part of the phantom fleet of mock @-@ up British warships designated as Fleet Tender C. On 4 June 1941 , when she was sailing down the east coast of England to Chatham Dockyard in Kent to be converted back to a merchant ship , the decoy Hermes hit a submerged wreck and ran aground off Norfolk during a German aerial attack . Before being refloated she was totally disabled by German E @-@ boats . The Germans initially thought they had sunk an aircraft carrier .
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= Australian magpie =
The Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) is a medium @-@ sized black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea . Although once considered to be three separate species , it is now considered to be one , with nine recognised subspecies . A member of the Artamidae , the Australian magpie is classified in the butcherbird genus Cracticus and is most closely related to the black butcherbird ( C. quoyi ) . It is not , however , related to the European magpie , which is a corvid . The adult Australian magpie is a fairly robust bird ranging from 37 to 43 cm ( 14 @.@ 5 to 17 in ) in length , with distinctive black and white plumage , gold brown eyes and a solid wedge @-@ shaped bluish @-@ white and black bill . The male and female are similar in appearance , and can be distinguished by differences in back markings . With its long legs , the Australian magpie walks rather than waddles or hops and spends much time on the ground .
Described as one of Australia 's most accomplished songbirds , the Australian magpie has an array of complex vocalisations . It is omnivorous , with the bulk of its varied diet made up of invertebrates . It is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range . Common and widespread , it has adapted well to human habitation and is a familiar bird of parks , gardens and farmland in Australia and New Guinea . This species is commonly fed by households around the country , but in spring a small minority of breeding magpies ( almost always males ) become aggressive and swoop and attack those who approach their nests . Magpies were introduced into New Zealand in the 1860s but have subsequently been accused of displacing native birds and are now treated as a pest species . Introductions also occurred in the Solomon Islands and Fiji , where the birds are not considered an invasive species . The Australian magpie is the mascot of several Australian sporting teams , most notably the Collingwood Magpies .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Australian magpie was first described by English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as Coracias tibicen , the type collected in the Port Jackson region . Its specific epithet derived from the Latin tibicen " flute @-@ player " or " piper " in reference to the bird 's melodious call . An early recorded vernacular name is piping poller , written on a painting by Thomas Watling , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter , sometime between 1788 and 1792 . Tarra @-@ won @-@ nang , or djarrawunang , wibung , and marriyang were names used by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin . Booroogong and garoogong were Wiradjuri words , and carrak was a Jardwadjali term from Victoria . Among the Kamilaroi , it is burrugaabu , galalu , or guluu . It was known as Warndurla among the Yindjibarndi people of the central and western Pilbara . Other names used include piping crow @-@ shrike , piper , maggie , flute @-@ bird and organ @-@ bird . The term bell @-@ magpie was proposed to help distinguish it from the European magpie but failed to gain wide acceptance .
The bird was named for its similarity in colouration to the European magpie ; it was a common practice for early settlers to name plants and animals after European counterparts . However , the European magpie is a member of the Corvidae , while its Australian counterpart is placed in the Artamidae family ( although both are members of a broad corvid lineage ) . The Australian magpie 's affinities with butcherbirds and currawongs were recognised early on and the three genera were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature . American ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between woodswallows and the butcherbirds in 1985 , and combined them into a Cracticini clade , which became the family Artamidae . The Australian magpie had been placed in its own genus Gymnorhina , but several authorities , Storr in 1952 and later authors including Christidis and Boles in their 2008 official checklist , place it in the butcherbird genus Cracticus , giving rise to its current binomial name , arguing that its adaptation to ground @-@ living is not enough to consider it a separate genus . Evidence confirming this was published in a 2013 molecular study , which showed that it was the sister taxon to the black butcherbird ( C. quoyi ) . The ancestor to the two species is thought to have split from the other butcherbirds between 8 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 2 million years ago , during the late Miocene to early Pliocene , while the two species themselves diverged sometime during the Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 0 million years ago ) .
The Australian magpie was subdivided into three species in the literature for much of the twentieth century — the black @-@ backed magpie ( C. tibicen ) , the white @-@ backed magpie ( C. hypoleuca ) , and the western magpie ( C. dorsalis ) . They were later noted to hybridise readily where their territories crossed , with hybrid grey or striped @-@ backed magpies being quite common . This resulted in them being reclassified as one species by Julian Ford in 1969 , with most recent authors following suit .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are currently thought to be nine subspecies of the Australian magpie , although there are large zones of overlap with intermediate forms between the taxa . There is a tendency for birds to become larger with increasing latitude , the southern subspecies being larger than those further north , except the Tasmanian form which is small . The original form known , as the black @-@ backed magpie and classified as Gymnorhina tibicen , has been split into four black @-@ backed races :
C. tibicen tibicen , the nominate form , is a large subspecies found in southeastern Queensland , from the vicinity of Moreton Bay through eastern New South Wales to Moruya , New South Wales almost to the Victorian border . It is coastal or near @-@ coastal and is restricted to east of the Great Dividing Range .
C. tibicen terraereginae , found from Cape York and the Gulf Country southwards across Queensland to the coast between Halifax Bay in the north and south to the Mary River , and central and western New South Wales and into northern South Australia , is a small to medium @-@ sized subspecies . The plumage is the same as that of subspecies tibicen , although the female has a shorter black tip to the tail . The wings and tarsus are shorter and the bill proportionally longer . It was originally described by Gregory Mathews in 1912 , its subspecies name a Latin translation , terra " land " reginae " queen 's " of " Queensland " . Hybridisation with the large white @-@ backed subspecies tyrannica occurs in northern Victoria and southeastern New South Wales ; intermediate forms have black bands of varying sizes in white @-@ backed area . Three @-@ way hybridisation occurs between Bega and Batemans Bay on the New South Wales south coast .
C. tibicen eylandtensis , the Top End magpie , is found from the Kimberley in northern Western Australia , across the Northern Territory through Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt and into the Gulf Country . It is a small subspecies with a long and thinner bill , with birds of Groote Eylandt possibly even smaller than mainland birds . It has a narrow black terminal tailband , and a narrow black band ; the male has a large white nape , the female pale grey . This form was initially described by H. L. White in 1922 . It intergrades with subspecies terraereginae southeast of the Gulf of Carpentaria .
C. tibicen longirostris , the long @-@ billed magpie , is found across northern Western Australia , from Shark Bay into the Pilbara . Named in 1903 by Alex Milligan , it is a medium @-@ sized subspecies with a long thin bill . Milligan speculated the bill may have been adapted for the local conditions , slim fare meaning the birds had to pick at dangerous scorpions and spiders . There is a broad area of hybridisation with the western dorsalis in southern central Western Australia from Shark Bay south to the Murchison River and east to the Great Victoria Desert .
The white @-@ backed magpie , originally described as Gymnorhina hypoleuca by John Gould in 1837 , has also been split into races :
C. tibicen tyrannica , a very large white @-@ backed form found from Twofold Bay on the New South Wales far south coast , across southern Victoria south of the Great Dividing Range through to the Coorong in southeastern South Australia . It was first described by Schodde and Mason in 1999 . It has a broad black tail band .
C. tibicen telonocua , found from Cowell south into the Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas in southern South Australia , as well as the southwestern Gawler Ranges . Described by Schodde and Mason in 1999 , its subspecific name is an anagram of leuconota " white @-@ backed " . It is very similar to tyrannica , differing in having a shorter wing and being lighter and smaller overall . The bill is relatively short compared with other magpie subspecies . Intermediate forms are found in the Mount Lofty Ranges and on Kangaroo Island .
C. tibicen hypoleuca now refers to a small white @-@ backed subspecies with a short compact bill and short wings , found on King and Flinders Islands , as well as Tasmania .
The western magpie , C. tibicen dorsalis was originally described as a separate species by A. J. Campbell in 1895 and is found in the fertile south @-@ west corner of Western Australia . The adult male has a white back and most closely resembles subspecies telonocua , though it is a little larger with a longer bill and the black tip of its tail plumage is narrower . The female is unusual in that it has a scalloped black or brownish @-@ black mantle and back ; the dark feathers there are edged with white . This area appears a more uniform black as the plumage ages and the edges are worn away . Both sexes have black thighs .
The New Guinean magpie , C. tibicen papuana , is a little @-@ known subspecies found in southern New Guinea . The adult male has a mostly white back with a narrow black stripe , and the female a blackish back ; the black feathers here are tipped with white similar to subspecies dorsalis . It has a long deep bill resembling that of subspecies longirostris .
= = Description = =
The adult magpie is a fairly solid , sturdy bird ranging from 37 to 43 cm ( 14 @.@ 5 to 17 in ) in length with a 65 – 85 cm ( 25 @.@ 5 – 33 @.@ 5 in ) wingspan , and weighing 220 – 350 g ( 7 @.@ 8 – 12 @.@ 3 oz ) . Its robust wedge @-@ shaped bill is bluish @-@ white bordered with black , with a small hook at the tip . The black legs are long and strong . The plumage is pure glossy black and white ; both sexes of all subspecies have black heads , wings and underparts with white shoulders . The tail has a black terminal band . The nape is white in the male and light greyish @-@ white in the female . Mature magpies have dull red eyes , in contrast to the yellow eyes of currawongs and white eyes of Australian ravens and crows . The main difference between the subspecies lies in the " saddle " markings on the back below the nape . Black @-@ backed subspecies have a black saddle and white nape . White @-@ backed subspecies have a wholly white nape and saddle . The male Western Australian subspecies dorsalis is also white @-@ backed , but the equivalent area in the female is scalloped black .
Juveniles have lighter greys and browns amidst the starker blacks and whites of their plumage ; two- or three @-@ year @-@ old birds of both sexes closely resemble and are difficult to distinguish from adult females . Immature birds have dark brownish eyes until around two years of age . Australian magpies generally live to around 25 years of age , though ages of up to 30 years have been recorded . The reported age of first breeding has varied according to area , but the average is between the ages of three and five years .
Well @-@ known and easily recognisable , the Australian magpie is unlikely to be confused with any other species . The pied butcherbird has a similar build and plumage , but has white underparts unlike the former species ' black underparts . The magpie @-@ lark is a much smaller and more delicate bird with complex and very different banded black and white plumage . Currawong species have predominantly dark plumage and heavier bills .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
One of Australia 's most highly regarded songbirds , the Australian magpie has a wide variety of calls , many of which are complex . Pitch may vary over up to four octaves , and the bird can mimic over 35 species of native and introduced bird species , as well as dogs and horses . Magpies have even been noted to mimic human speech when living in close proximity to humans . Its complex , musical , warbling call is one of the most familiar Australian bird sounds . In Denis Glover 's poem " The Magpies " , the mature magpie 's call is described as quardle oodle ardle wardle doodle , one of the most famous lines in New Zealand poetry , and as waddle giggle gargle paddle poodle , in the children 's book Waddle Giggle Gargle by Pamela Allen .
When alone , a magpie may make a quiet musical warbling ; these complex melodious warbles or subsongs are pitched at 2 – 4 KHz and do not carry for long distances . These songs have been recorded up to 70 minutes in duration and are more frequent after the end of the breeding season . Pairs of magpies often take up a loud musical calling known as carolling to advertise or defend their territory ; one bird initiates the call with the second ( and sometimes more ) joining in . Often preceded by warbling , carolling is pitched between 6 and 8 kHz and has 4 – 5 elements with slurring indistinct noise in between . Birds will adopt a specific posture by tilting their heads back , expanding their chests , and moving their wings backwards . A group of magpies will sing a short repetitive version of carolling just before dawn ( dawn song ) , and at twilight after sundown ( dusk song ) , in winter and spring .
Fledgling and juvenile magpies emit a repeated short and loud ( 80 dB ) , high @-@ pitched ( 8 kHz ) begging call . Magpies may indulge in beak @-@ clapping to warn other species of birds . They employ several high pitched ( 8 – 10 kHz ) alarm or rallying calls when intruders or threats are spotted . Distinct calls have been recorded for the approach of eagles and monitor lizards .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Australian magpie is found in the Trans @-@ Fly region of southern New Guinea , between the Oriomo River and the Princess Mariane Strait , and across most of Australia , bar the tip of Cape York , the Gibson and Great Sandy Deserts , and southwest of Tasmania . Birds taken mainly from Tasmania and Victoria were introduced into New Zealand by local Acclimatisation Societies of Otago and Canterbury in the 1860s , with the Wellington Acclimatisation Society releasing 260 birds in 1874 . White @-@ backed forms are spread on both the North and eastern South Island , while black @-@ backed forms are found in the Hawke 's Bay region . Magpies were introduced into New Zealand to control agricultural pests , and were therefore a protected species until 1951 . They are thought to affect native New Zealand bird populations such as the tui and kererū , sometimes raiding nests for eggs and nestlings , although studies by Waikato University have cast doubt on this , and much blame on the magpie as a predator in the past has been anecdotal only . Introductions also occurred in the Solomon Islands and Sri Lanka , although the species has failed to become established . It has become established in western Taveuni in Fiji , however .
The Australian magpie prefers open areas such as grassland , fields and residential areas such as parks , gardens , golf courses , and streets , with scattered trees or forest nearby . Birds nest and shelter in trees but forage mainly on the ground in these open areas . It has also been recorded in mature pine plantations ; birds only occupy rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the vicinity of cleared areas . In general , evidence suggests the range and population of the Australian magpie has increased with land @-@ clearing , although local declines in Queensland due to a 1902 drought , and in Tasmania in the 1930s have been noted ; the cause for the latter is unclear but rabbit baiting , pine tree removal , and spread of the masked lapwing ( Vanellus miles ) have been implicated .
= = Behaviour = =
The Australian magpie is almost exclusively diurnal , although it may call into the night , like some other members of the Artamidae . Natural predators of magpies include various species of monitor lizard and the barking owl . Birds are often killed on roads or electrocuted by powerlines , or poisoned after killing and eating house sparrows or mice , rats or rabbits targeted with baiting . The Australian raven may take nestlings left unattended .
On the ground , the Australian magpie moves around by walking , and is the only member of the Artamidae to do so ; woodswallows , butcherbirds and currawongs all tend to hop with legs parallel . The magpie has a short femur ( thigh bone ) , and long lower leg below the knee , suited to walking rather than running , although birds can run in short bursts when hunting prey .
The magpie is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range , living in groups occupying a territory , or in flocks or fringe groups . A group may occupy and defend the same territory for many years . Much energy is spent defending a territory from intruders , particularly other magpies , and different behaviours are seen with different opponents . The sight of a raptor results in a rallying call by sentinel birds and subsequent coordinated mobbing of the intruder . Magpies place themselves either side of the bird of prey so that it will be attacked from behind should it strike a defender , and harass and drive the raptor to some distance beyond the territory . A group will use carolling as a signal to advertise ownership and warn off other magpies . In the negotiating display , the one or two dominant magpies parade along the border of the defended territory while the rest of the group stand back a little and look on . The leaders may fluff their feathers or caroll repeatedly . In a group strength display , employed if both the opposing and defending groups are of roughly equal numbers , all magpies will fly and form a row at the border of the territory . The defending group may also resort to an aerial display where the dominant magpies , or sometimes the whole group , swoop and dive while calling to warn an intruding magpie 's group .
A wide variety of displays are seen , with aggressive behaviours outnumbering pro @-@ social ones . Crouching low and uttering quiet begging calls are common signs of submission . The manus flutter is a submissive display where a magpie will flutter its primary feathers in its wings . A magpie , particularly a juvenile , may also fall , roll over on its back and expose its underparts . Birds may fluff up their flank feathers as an aggressive display or preceding an attack . Young birds display various forms of play behaviour , either by themselves or in groups , with older birds often initiating the proceedings with juveniles . These may involve picking up , manipulating or tugging at various objects such as sticks , rocks or bits of wire , and handing them to other birds . A bird may pick up a feather or leaf and flying off with it , with other birds pursuing and attempting to bring down the leader by latching onto its tail feathers . Birds may jump on each other and even engage in mock fighting . Play may even take place with other species such as blue @-@ faced honeyeaters and Australasian pipits .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Australian magpie is omnivorous , eating various items located at or near ground level including invertebrates such as earthworms , millipedes , snails , spiders and scorpions as well as a wide variety of insects — cockroaches , ants , beetles , moths and caterpillars and other larvae . Insects , including large adult grasshoppers , may be seized mid @-@ flight . Skinks , frogs , mice and other small animals as well as grain , tubers , figs and walnuts have also been noted as components of their diet . It has even learnt to safely eat the poisonous cane toad by flipping it over and consuming the underparts . Predominantly a ground feeder , the Australian magpie paces open areas methodically searching for insects and their larvae . One study showed birds were able to find scarab beetle larvae by sound or vibration . Birds use their bills to probe into the earth or otherwise overturn debris in search of food . Smaller prey are swallowed whole , although magpies rub off the stingers of bees and wasps before swallowing .
= = = Breeding = = =
Magpies have a long breeding season which varies in different parts of the country ; in northern parts of Australia they will breed between June and September , but not commence until August or September in cooler regions , and may continue until January in some alpine areas . The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure made of sticks and lined with softer material such as grass and bark . Near human habitation , synthetic material may be incorporated . Nests are built exclusively by females and generally placed high up in a tree fork , often in an exposed position . The trees used are most commonly eucalypts , although a variety of other native trees as well as introduced pine , Crataegus , and elm have been recorded . Other bird species , such as the yellow @-@ rumped thornbill ( Acanthiza chrysorrhoa ) , willie wagtail ( Rhipidura leucophrys ) , southern whiteface ( Aphelocephala leucopsis ) , and ( less commonly ) noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) , often nest in the same tree as the magpie . The first two species may even locate their nest directly beneath a magpie nest , while the diminutive striated pardalote ( Pardalotus striatus ) has been known to make a burrow for breeding into the base of the magpie nest itself . These incursions are all tolerated by the magpies . The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) is a notable brood parasite in eastern Australia ; magpies will raise cuckoo young , which eventually outcompete the magpie nestlings .
The Australian magpie produces a clutch of two to five light blue or greenish eggs , which are oval in shape and about 30 by 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 by 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The chicks hatch synchronously around 20 days after incubation begins ; like all passerines , the chicks are altricial — they are born pink , naked , and blind with large feet , a short broad beak and a bright red throat . Their eyes are fully open at around 10 days . Chicks develop fine downy feathers on their head , back and wings in the first week , and pinfeathers in the second week . The black and white colouration is noticeable from an early stage . Nestlings are fed exclusively by the female , though the male magpie will feed his partner . The Australian magpie is known to engage in cooperative breeding , and helper birds will assist in feeding and raising young . This does vary from region to region , and with the size of the group — the behaviour is rare or nonexistent in pairs or small groups .
Juvenile magpies begin foraging on their own three weeks after leaving the nest , and mostly feeding themselves by six months old . Some birds continue begging for food until eight or nine months of age , but are usually ignored . Birds reach adult size by their first year . The age at which young birds disperse varies across the country , and depends on the aggressiveness of the dominant adult of the corresponding sex ; males are usually evicted at a younger age . Many leave at around a year old , but the age of departure may range from eight months to four years .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Swooping = = =
Magpies are ubiquitous in urban areas all over Australia , and have become accustomed to people . A small percentage of birds become highly aggressive during breeding season from late August to early October , and will swoop and sometimes attack passersby . The percentage has been difficult to estimate but is significantly less than 9 % . Almost all attacking birds ( around 99 % ) are male , and they are generally known to attack pedestrians at around 50 m ( 160 ft ) from their nest , and cyclists at around 100 m ( 330 ft ) . There appears to be some specificity in choice of attack targets , with the majority of individuals specializing on either pedestrians or cyclists . Attacks begin as the eggs hatch , increase in frequency and severity as the chicks grow , and tail off as the chicks leave the nest .
These magpies may engage in an escalating series of behaviours to drive off intruders . Least threatening are alarm calls and distant swoops , where birds fly within several metres from behind and perch nearby . Next in intensity are close swoops , where a magpie will swoop in from behind or the side and audibly " snap " their beaks or even peck or bite at the face , neck , ears or eyes . More rarely , a bird may dive @-@ bomb and strike the intruder 's ( usually a cyclist 's ) head with its chest . A magpie may rarely attack by landing on the ground in front of a person and lurching up and landing on the victim 's chest and peck at the face and eyes .
Magpie attacks can cause injuries , typically wounds to the head , and being unexpectedly swooped while cycling can result in loss of control of the bicycle , which may cause injury .
If it is necessary to walk near the nest , wearing a broad @-@ brimmed or legionnaire 's hat or using an umbrella will deter attacking birds , but beanies and bicycle helmets are of little value as birds attack the sides of the head and neck .
Magpies prefer to swoop at the back of the head ; therefore , keeping the magpie in sight at all times can discourage the bird . A basic disguise such as sunglasses worn on the back of the head may fool the magpie as to where a person is looking . Eyes painted on hats or helmets will deter attacks on pedestrians but not cyclists .
Cyclists can deter attack by attaching a long pole with a flag to a bike , and the use of cable ties on helmets has become common and appears to be effective .
Magpies are a protected native species in Australia , so it is illegal to kill or harm them . However , this protection is removed in some Australian states if a magpie attacks a human , allowing for the bird to be destroyed if it is considered particularly aggressive ( such a provision is made , for example , in section 54 of the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act ) . More commonly , an aggressive bird will be caught and relocated to an unpopulated area . Magpies have to be moved some distance as almost all are able to find their way home from distances of less than 25 km ( 16 mi ) . Removing the nest is of no use as birds will breed again and possibly be more aggressive the second time around .
Some claim that swooping can be prevented by hand @-@ feeding magpies . Magpies will become accustomed to being fed by humans , and although they are wild , will return to the same place looking for handouts . The idea is that humans thereby appear less of a threat to the nesting birds . Although this has not been studied systematically , there are reports of its success .
= = = Cultural references = = =
The Australian magpie featured in aboriginal folklore around Australia . The Yindjibarndi people of the Pilbara in the northwest of the country used the bird as a signal for sunrise , frightening them awake with its call . They were also familiar with its highly territorial nature , and it features in a song in their Burndud , or songs of customs . It was a totem bird of the people of the Illawarra region south of Sydney .
Under the name piping shrike , the white @-@ backed magpie was declared the official emblem of the Government of South Australia in 1901 by Governor Tennyson , and has featured on the South Australian flag since 1904 . The magpie is a commonly used emblem of sporting teams in Australia , and its brash , cocky attitude has been likened to the Australian psyche . Such teams tend to wear uniforms with black and white stripes . The Collingwood Football Club adopted the magpie from a visiting South Australian representative team in 1892 . The Port Adelaide Magpies would similarly adopt the black and white colours and Magpie name in 1902 . Other examples include Brisbane 's Souths Logan Magpies , and Sydney 's Western Suburbs Magpies . Disputes over who has been the first club to adopt the magpie emblem have been heated at times . Another club , Glenorchy Football Club of Tasmania , was forced to change uniform design when placed in the same league as another club ( Claremont Magpies ) with the same emblem .
In New Zealand , the Hawke 's Bay Rugby Union team , from Napier , New Zealand , is also known as the magpies . One of the best @-@ known New Zealand poems is " The Magpies " by Denis Glover , with its refrain " Quardle oodle ardle wardle doodle " , imitating the sound of the bird – and the popular New Zealand comic Footrot Flats features a magpie character by the name of Pew .
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= Flame robin =
The flame robin ( Petroica phoenicea ) is a small passerine bird native to Australia . It is a moderately common resident of the coolest parts of south @-@ eastern Australia , including Tasmania . Like the other two red @-@ breasted Petroica robins — the scarlet robin and the red @-@ capped robin — it is often simply called the robin redbreast . Like many brightly coloured robins of the Petroicidae , it is sexually dimorphic . Measuring 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , the flame robin has dark brown eyes and a small thin black bill . The male has a brilliant orange @-@ red chest and throat , and a white patch on the forehead above the bill . Its upper parts are iron @-@ grey with white bars , and its tail black with white tips . The female is a nondescript grey @-@ brown . Its song has been described as the most musical of its genus .
The position of the flame robin and its Australian relatives on the passerine family tree is unclear ; the Petroicidae are not closely related to either the European or American robins but appear to be an early offshoot of the Passerida group of songbirds . The flame robin is predominantly insectivorous , pouncing on prey from a perch in a tree , or foraging on the ground . A territorial bird , the flame robin employs song and plumage displays to mark out and defend its territory . Classified by BirdLife International as Near Threatened , the species has suffered a marked decline in the past 25 years .
= = Taxonomy = =
The flame robin was first described by the French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard in 1830 as Muscicapa chrysoptera . The specific epithet , " chrysoptera " , is derived from the Ancient Greek words chrysos " golden " , and pteron " feather " .
John Gould placed the flame robin in its current genus as Petroica phoenicea in his 1837 description , and it was this latter binomial name that has been used since that time . Given this , Quoy and Gaimard 's name was declared a nomen oblitum . The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words petros " rock " and oikos " home " , from the birds ' habit of sitting on rocks . The specific epithet is also derived from Ancient Greek , from the adjective phoinikes " red " . It is one of five red- or pink @-@ breasted species colloquially known as " red robins " , as distinct from the " yellow robins " of the genus Eopsaltria . Although named after the European robin , is not closely related to it or the American robin . The Australian robins were placed in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae , and the whistler family Pachycephalidae , before being classified in their own family Petroicidae , or Eopsaltridae . Sibley and Ahlquist 's DNA @-@ DNA hybridisation studies placed the robins in a Corvida parvorder comprising many tropical and Australian passerines including pardalotes , fairy @-@ wrens and honeyeaters as well as crows . However , subsequent molecular research ( and current consensus ) places the robins as a very early offshoot of the Passerida , or " advanced " songbirds , within the songbird lineage .
No subspecies are recognised , and the degree of geographic variation is unclear . Adult male birds which breed on the mainland have been reported as having lighter upperparts and underparts than their Tasmanian relatives , and females are said to be browner , but these differences may also result from worn plumage . Furthermore , migration across the Bass Strait by some birds obfuscates the issue . Mainland and Tasmanian birds are the same size . Ornithologists Richard Schodde and Ian Mason argued that the poor quality of museum collections and partially migratory habits meant that discrete subspecies could not be distinguished on the basis of the observed variation within the species .
Flame @-@ breasted robin was the common name formerly used for the species , and it was gradually abbreviated to flame robin . Other names recorded include bank robin , redhead , and ( inaccurately ) robin redbreast . " Flame Robin " is the preferred vernacular name of the International Ornithological Congress .
= = Description = =
The largest of the red robins , the flame robin is 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long . It has a more slender build than other members of the genus Petroica , with relatively long wings and neck and small head . The male is easily distinguished by the bright orange @-@ red plumage of the throat , breast and abdomen . The crown , nape , ear coverts , hindneck , and sides of neck are dark grey , and lores and chin are a grey @-@ black . The grey feathers of the sides of the crown may be suffused with dull orange . The rest of the upperparts , comprising the wings , back and tail , are dark grey . There is a small white frontal spot above the bill , and the wing bar and outer tail shafts are white . The feathers of the posterior belly , flanks and vent are white with grey @-@ black bases . The female is plainly coloured — pale brown overall , and a lighter buff underneath . The posterior belly , flanks and vent are off @-@ white . As in the male , feathers on the side of the crown may be suffused with a dull orange , and this may also occur with breast feathers . There are small off @-@ white marks on the wings and above the bill . The bill , legs , feet and claws are black , and the eyes dark brown . A flame robin with an all lemon @-@ yellow breast and otherwise female plumage was observed in a small flock of flame robins near Swansea in eastern Tasmania in September 1950 .
Nestlings have dark grey or brown down , cream to grey bills , cream gapes and orange throats . The plumage of juvenile birds in their first moult resembles that of the adult female , but the head and upperparts are streaked and slightly darker . Soon after fledging , juveniles moult into their first immature plumage , and more closely resemble the adult female . The breasts of male birds may have some orange feathers . Birds in their second year moult into a second immature phase , some males of which may resemble adult males , while others retain a more immature brown plumage . Determining the age and sex of birds in brown plumage can be very difficult . Information on exact timing of moulting is lacking , but the replacement of primary feathers takes place over the summer months between December and February .
The colour alone is not a reliable guide to determine the species , as some scarlet robins ( P. boodang ) take on an orange hue , but while male scarlet and red @-@ capped robins ( P. goodenovii ) have red breasts and black throats , the flame robin 's breast plumage extends right up to the base of the bill . It is also a little slimmer and has a smaller head than the scarlet robin , and is clearly larger than the red @-@ capped . Females of the respective species are harder to tell apart . Those of red @-@ capped , rose and pink robins are all smaller , with wing lengths less than 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) , smaller than the smallest flame robin . The female scarlet robin has a more pronounced red flush to the breast and the spot on the crown above the bill is more prominent and white rather than off @-@ white .
The flame robin 's calls are grouped into louder and quieter calls ; the former can be heard from 150 m ( 490 ft ) away , the latter , which are often briefer , from 30 m ( 98 ft ) . Loud songs make up almost 90 % of calls in spring , summer and autumn , but less than 50 % of calls from May to July . Males sing rarely during this time , although they do so to defend their territories . Their song is more varied and complex than that of the scarlet robin , and has been described as the most musical of the red robins . A series of descending notes in groups of three , the musical song has been likened to the phrases , " you @-@ may @-@ come , if @-@ you @-@ will , to @-@ the @-@ sea " or " you @-@ are @-@ not a @-@ pretty @-@ little @-@ bird like @-@ me " . Both males and females sing this song , often perched from a vantage point such as a stump or fence . This loud song is used to attract the attention of a potential mate , and to announce the bringing of food to its mate or young . The softer call has been described as a tlip , terp or pip and is used as a contact call in the vicinity of the nest . The female makes a hissing sound if approached while on the nest , and the male has been recorded making a wheezing call when displaying around the nest .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The flame robin is found in temperate regions of southeastern Australia and all over Tasmania , although it is less common in the southwest and west . In Victoria , it is more common in uplands than lower altitudes . It ranges from the Adelaide and Murray Plains around the mouth of the Murray River in southeastern South Australia , across Victoria and into the South West Slopes and southern regions of New South Wales . Further north , it is found along the Great Dividing Range and its western slopes , with a few records from southeast Queensland . Within its range , it is generally migratory , moving from alpine and subalpine regions to lowlands in winter , although the breeding and non @-@ breeding ranges overlap . There is some evidence that male birds migrate several days before females . It is unclear what proportion of Tasmanian birds cross Bass Strait to winter in Victoria . Birds which remain in Tasmania move away from breeding areas and are found in paddocks in loose flocks of up to fourteen birds . They have left these areas by August , and immature birds appear to disperse earlier . A field study in the outer Melbourne suburb of Langwarrin showed that climate did not influence peak abundance of Flame Robins there . The international organization BirdLife International has regraded it from Least Concern to Near Threatened in 2004 due to its population decline over the previous 25 years . The Australian Government had classified it as Least Concern , but noted evidence of decline at the edges of its non @-@ breeding range ; it has become rare in South Australia and Victoria . Flame robins are not rare in Victoria . They are frequently encountered at high elevations on the Great Dividing Range , especially in sparser snow gum woodland and similar habitat , and during the summer breeding season are one of the most reliably observed species around the summit of Mount Macedon , NW of Melbourne .
In spring and summer , the flame robin is more often found in wet eucalypt forest in hilly or mountainous areas , particularly the tops and slopes , to an elevation of 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . It generally prefers areas with more clearings and less understory . In particular it prefers tall forests dominated by such trees as snow gum ( Eucalyptus pauciflora ) , mountain ash ( E. regnans ) , alpine ash ( E. delegatensis ) , manna gum ( E. viminalis ) , messmate stringybark ( E. obliqua ) , black gum ( E. aggregata ) , white mountain gum ( E. dalrympleana ) , brown barrel ( E. fastigata ) , narrow @-@ leaved peppermint ( E. radiata ) , and black peppermint ( E. amygdalina ) . It is occasionally encountered in temperate rainforest . In the autumn and winter , birds move to more open areas such as grasslands and open woodlands , such as those containing river red gum ( E. camaldulensis ) , Blakely 's red gum ( E. blakelyi ) , yellow box ( E. melliodora ) , grey box ( E. microcarpa ) , and mugga ironbark ( E. sideroxylon ) , at lower altitude .
Flame robins often become more abundant in areas recently burnt by bushfires , but move away once the undergrowth regrows . They may also move into logged or cleared areas in forests . However , a field study in the Boola Boola State Forest in central Gippsland revealed they are not found in areas where the regrowth after logging is dense .
= = Behaviour = =
The flame robin mostly breeds in and around the Great Dividing Range , the Tasmanian highlands and islands in Bass Strait . With the coming of cooler autumn weather , most birds disperse to lower and warmer areas , some travelling as far as eastern South Australia , southern Queensland , or ( in the case of some Tasmanian birds ) across Bass Strait to Victoria . Birds breeding in the warmer climates north of the Blue Mountains in New South Wales tend to retain their highland territories all year round . Outside the breeding season , birds may congregate in loose flocks , but they are most usually encountered throughout the year singly or in pairs , the latter more commonly in breeding season .
When perched or between bouts of foraging on the ground , the flame robin holds itself in a relatively upright pose , with its body angled at 45 ° or less from the vertical , and its wings held low below its tail . It impresses as nervous and twitchy , flicking its wings alternately when still . The flame robin 's flight is fast , with a markedly undulating character .
The flame robin is territorial , defending its territory against other members of its species and also scarlet robins where they co @-@ occur . In Nimmitabel in southern New South Wales , migratory flame robins invaded and eked out their territories from amid existing scarlet robin territories . Once settled , however , no species dominated over the other and stable boundaries emerged . The flame robin deploys a number of agonistic displays , including a breast @-@ puffing display where it puffs its breast feathers and a white spot display where it puffs its feathers to accentuate its frontal white crown , white wing markings or white outer tail feathers . They may also fly at intruders or sing to defend their territory .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like all Australasian robins , the flame robin is a perch and pounce hunter , mainly eating insects , and often returning to a favourite low perch several times to stand erect and motionless , scanning the leaf @-@ litter for more prey . They are typically seen in pairs ( during the spring and summer breeding season ) or in loose companies in more open country in winter , when they more commonly feed on the ground . A field study in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales found no significant difference in foraging behaviour between male and female flame robins . Birds have been recorded foraging for insects in furrows in freshly ploughed fields . In Deniliquin , a flame robin was observed holding one foot forward and pattering the ground repeatedly to disturb ground @-@ dwelling insects , and then watching and snapping up any which emerged ; this behaviour is otherwise seen in waders .
Compared with the scarlet robin , the flame robin eats a higher proportion of flying insects . Biologist Doug Robinson has proposed that scarcity of flying insects in winter is a reason why the flame robin migrates . They have been seen in mixed @-@ species flocks with other small insectivorous passerines , such as scarlet robins , hooded robins ( Melanodryas cucullata ) , white @-@ fronted chats ( Epthianura albifrons ) , and Australasian pipits ( Anthus novaeseelandiae ) .
Among the types of insects consumed are many families of beetles , wasps and ants , flies ( families Tabanidae and Asilidae ) , bugs , and caterpillars . Other invertebrates eaten include spiders , millipedes and earthworms . The flame robin consumes small prey items whole , and bashes larger victims against a hard surface repeatedly to break up before eating . The latter group constitute only 0 @.@ 5 % of prey over time — seasonally varying from a peak of 1 @.@ 8 % in autumn to a low of 0 @.@ 2 % of prey caught in winter .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
Several courtship behaviours have been recorded . Males have been recorded feeding females . A male flame robin either lands next to and moves a female off her perch , or flies in front of her . Courting males also run to and fro in front of a female , in a crouch with wings and head lowered and hiding their breast feathers . In both displays , the male proceeds to chase the female . Pairs are generally monogamous , and remain together unless one bird perishes , although " divorces " have been recorded .
The breeding season is August to January with one or two broods raised . The male proposes suitable nest sites to the female by hopping around the area . Unlike other robins , the female sometimes initiates the site selection . A pair spends anywhere from one to five days looking before finding a suitable site . The female constructs the nest alone . Eucalypts are generally chosen , but birds have been recorded nesting in Pinus radiata on Mount Wellington in Tasmania . The flame robin is more versatile in its selection of nesting sites than other robins , and has even been recorded nesting in sheds .
The nest is a neat deep cup made of soft dry grass , moss and bark . Spider webs , feathers and fur are used for binding / filling , generally in a tree fork or crevice , or cliff or riverbank ledge , typically within a few metres of the ground . The clutch generally numbers three or four dull white eggs , which are laid on consecutive days . They are tinted bluish , greyish or brownish and splotched with dark grey @-@ brown , and measure 18 mm x 14 mm . A field study in open eucalypt forest at Nimmitabel found that flame robins and scarlet robins chose different sites to breed , the former in tree hollows and bark crevices , most commonly of Eucalyptus viminalis around 4 m ( 13 ft ) off the ground , and the latter more commonly in forks or on branches of E. pauciflora around 7 m ( 23 ft ) above the ground . Flame robins , which were migratory at the site , were more successful in raising young , but the success rate of scarlet robins in the area appeared to be poor compared with other sites .
Incubation has been recorded as averaging around 17 days . Like all passerines , the chicks are altricial ; they are born blind and naked , and start to develop down on their heads on day two . Their eyes open around day six , and they begin developing their primary flight feathers around day nine or ten . For the first three days after hatching , the mother feeds the nestlings alone , with food brought to her by the father . The father feeds them directly from the fourth day onwards , with the mother brooding them afterwards until day seven . Flies , butterflies , moths , caterpillars and beetles predominate in the food fed to the young birds . Flame robins fed a higher proportion of flying insects to their young at Nimmitabel than did scarlet robins , which may have been due to their later start to breeding . Both parents participate in removing faecal sacs from the nest . Parents have been observed feeding young up to five weeks after leaving the nest .
The fan @-@ tailed cuckoo ( Cacomantis flabelliformis ) and pallid cuckoo ( C. pallidus ) have been recorded as brood parasites of the flame robin ; female cuckoos lay their eggs in robin nests , which are then raised by the robins as their own . One fan @-@ tailed cuckoo was recorded ejecting baby robins before being raised by its foster parents . Other nest predators recorded include the grey shrikethrush ( Colluricincla harmonica ) , pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) , and eastern brown snake ( Pseudonaja textilis ) .
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= Jill Biden =
Jill Tracy Biden ( née Jacobs , previously Stevenson ; born June 3 , 1951 ) is an American educator who is married to the 47th and current Vice President of the United States , Joe Biden , making her the Second Lady of the United States since 2009 .
She was born in Hammonton , New Jersey , and grew up in Willow Grove , Pennsylvania . She married Joe Biden in 1977 , and became stepmother to his two young sons from his first marriage , Beau and Hunter , whose mother and baby sister died in a car accident . Joe and Jill Biden have a daughter , Ashley , born in 1981 .
Jill Biden has a bachelor 's degree from the University of Delaware , master 's degrees from West Chester University and Villanova University , and a doctoral degree from the University of Delaware . She taught English and reading in high schools for 13 years , and also taught adolescents with emotional disabilities at a psychiatric hospital . From 1993 to 2008 , she was an English and writing instructor at Delaware Technical & Community College . Since 2009 , she has been a professor of English at Northern Virginia Community College and is thought to be the first Second Lady to hold a paying job while her husband is Vice President . She is the founder of the Biden Breast Health Initiative non @-@ profit organization , co @-@ founder of the Book Buddies program , is active in Delaware Boots on the Ground , and is co @-@ founder of Joining Forces with First Lady Michelle Obama .
= = Early life = =
Jill Tracy Jacobs was born on June 3 , 1951 in Hammonton , New Jersey . Moving several times while very young , she and her four younger sisters spent the majority of their childhood in Willow Grove , Pennsylvania . Her father , Donald C. Jacobs ( 1927 – 1999 ) , was a bank teller who became head of a savings and loan in the Chestnut Hill neighborhood of Philadelphia . His family name had originally been Giacoppa before her Italian grandfather anglicized it . Her mother , Bonny Jean ( Godfrey ) Jacobs ( 1930 – 2008 ) , was a homemaker . The family was not particularly religious , but in ninth grade , Jacobs independently took classes in order to join the Presbyterian church .
Jacobs always intended to have her own career . She began working at age 15 , which included waitressing at the Jersey Shore . She attended Upper Moreland High School , where she was somewhat rebellious and enjoyed her social life , but always liked English class . She graduated in 1969 .
= = Education and career , marriage and family = =
Jacobs enrolled in a junior college in Pennsylvania to study fashion merchandising , but soon found it unsatisfying . She married Bill Stevenson , a former college football player , in February 1970 . Within a couple of years he opened the Stone Balloon in Newark , Delaware , near the University of Delaware . It became one of the most successful college bars in the nation .
She enrolled at the University of Delaware , where she declared English as her major . She then took a year off from college and did some modelling work for a local agency in Wilmington . She and Stevenson drifted apart .
Subsequently , she returned to college and met Senator Joe Biden as a senior at Delaware in March 1975 . They met on a blind date set up by Joe 's brother , though Biden had seen her photograph in a local advertisement . She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Delaware later in 1975 . She began her career teaching high school English . Meanwhile , she was going through turbulent divorce proceedings with Stevenson ; the court case ended in 1976 , with her not getting the half @-@ share in the Stone Balloon she had wanted .
She and Joe Biden were married by a Catholic priest on June 17 , 1977 , at the Chapel at the United Nations in New York City . This was four and a half years after his first wife and infant daughter died in a motor vehicle accident ; Joe had proposed several times before she accepted , hesitant to take on the commitment of raising his two young sons who had survived the accident . She continued to teach and then , while pregnant , received a Master of Education with a specialty in Reading from West Chester University in 1981 . The Bidens ' daughter Ashley Blazer was born on June 8 , 1981 , and Jill stopped working for two years while raising the three children .
She then returned to work , teaching English , acting as a reading specialist , and teaching history to emotionally disturbed students . She taught in the adolescent program at the Rockford Center psychiatric hospital for five years in the 1980s . In 1987 , Biden received a second Master of Arts degree , this one in English from Villanova University . During her husband 's 1988 bid for the Presidency , she said she would continue her job of teaching emotionally disturbed children even if she became First Lady . In all , she spent 13 years teaching in public high school , including 3 years at Claymont High School .
From 1993 through 2008 , Biden was an instructor at the Stanton / Wilmington campus of Delaware Technical & Community College , where she taught English composition and remedial writing , with an emphasis on instilling confidence in students . She has said of teaching at a community college , " I feel like I can make a greater difference in their lives . I just love that population . It just feels really comfortable to me . I love the women who are coming back to school and getting their degrees , because they 're so focused . "
Biden is president of the Biden Breast Health Initiative , a nonprofit organization begun in 1993 that provides educational breast health awareness programs free of charge to schools and other groups in the state of Delaware . In the following 15 years , the organization informed more than 7 @,@ 000 high school girls about proper breast health . In 2007 , Biden helped found Book Buddies , which provides books for low @-@ income children , and has been very active in Delaware Boots on the Ground , an organization that supports military families . She runs five miles , five times a week , and she has run in the Marine Corps Marathon .
Biden later returned to school for her doctoral degree , studying under her birth name , Jill Jacobs . In January 2007 , at age 55 , she received a Doctor of Education in educational leadership from the University of Delaware . Her dissertation , Student Retention at the Community College : Meeting Students ' Needs , was published under the name Jill Jacobs @-@ Biden .
= = Role in 2008 presidential campaign = =
Following George W. Bush 's reelection in 2004 , she urged her husband to run again for President , later saying : " I literally wore black for a week . I just could not believe that he won , because I felt that things were already so bad . I was so against the [ Iraq War ] . And I said to Joe , ' You 've got to change this , you have to change this . ' " During Joe Biden 's 2008 campaign to be the Democratic nominee , she continued to teach during the week and would join him for campaigning on weekends . She said that she would have taken an activist role in addressing education as her chief focus of concern as a potential First Lady . She also said that she was basically apolitical and would not seek inclusion in Cabinet meetings .
Once her husband was selected as the Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama 's running mate , she began campaigning again . She wore a Blue Star Mothers Club pin in recognition of Beau Biden 's deployment to Iraq . She was not a polished political speaker , but was able to establish a connection with the audience . She also made some joint appearances with Michelle Obama . Throughout the time her husband was running for vice president , Jill Biden continued to teach four days a week at Delaware Technical & Community College during the fall 2008 semester , and then campaigned over the long weekend , while grading class papers on the campaign bus .
= = Second Lady of the United States = =
= = = First term = = =
Despite moving to Number One Observatory Circle ( the vice presidential residence in Washington ) as Second Lady of the United States , Biden intended to keep teaching at a Washington @-@ area community college , and several of them recruited her . In January 2009 , she began teaching two English courses as an adjunct professor at the Alexandria campus of Northern Virginia Community College ( NOVA ) , the second largest community college in the nation . It has been rare for Second Ladies to work while their spouses serve as Vice President , and Biden is thought to be the first Second Lady to hold a paying job while her husband is Vice President . Biden planned to be a public advocate for the importance of community colleges and to advise the Obama administration on issues related to them . In White House announcements and by her preference , she is referred to as " Dr. Jill Biden " .
Catherine Russell , a former adviser to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , was named Biden 's chief of staff for her Second Lady role . Courtney O ’ Donnell , a former spokesperson for Howard Dean and Elizabeth Edwards , was named her communications director and Kirsten White , a lawyer at Morgan , Lewis & Bockius , her policy director . As Second Lady , Biden has a staff of eight overall and occupies a corner suite in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building .
On The Oprah Winfrey Show just before the inauguration , Jill Biden said that Barack Obama had offered her husband either the Vice @-@ Presidency or the position of U.S. Secretary of State . However , Joe Biden 's spokesperson stated that Biden had only been offered one job by Obama . In May 2009 , Obama announced that Biden would be in charge of an initiative to raise awareness about the value of community colleges .
In June 2009 , Biden gave the commencement address at Kingsborough Community College in Brooklyn , New York , and received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from the City University of New York . Biden continued teaching two English reading and writing classes at NOVA in fall 2009 . In January 2010 , she gave the commencement speech at the University of Delaware 's winter commencement , the first such address by her at a major university . In August 2010 , Biden appeared as herself in an episode of Lifetime 's Army Wives , making it part of her campaign to raise awareness of military families .
In April 2011 , she and Michelle Obama founded a national initiative , Joining Forces , to showcase the needs of U.S. military families . In September 2011 , Biden lent her support to USAID 's FWD campaign , a push for awareness surrounding the deadly famine , war , and drought affecting over 13 million people in the Horn of Africa . She continued to teach at NOVA , and by 2011 held a permanent position as an associate professor , teaching three English and writing composition courses two days per week . Her position there was as normal as she could make it , sharing a cubicle with another teacher , holding regular office hours for students , and trying to get her accompanying Secret Service agents to dress as unobtrusively as possible . Her life with her husband at Number One Observatory Circle tended towards the informal and was centered around family and their nearby grandchildren . In June 2012 , she published a children 's book , Don 't Forget , God Bless Our Troops , based around her son Beau 's deployment . The same month , the Bidens ' daughter Ashley , a social worker and staffer at the Delaware Department of Services for Children , Youth , and Their Families , was married .
= = = Role in 2012 presidential campaign = = =
In the 2012 U.S. presidential election , in which her husband was running for re @-@ election as vice president , Biden played a modest role . She did not cut back on her teaching schedule and made few solo campaign appearances . This reflected her continuing distaste for both politics and public speaking , even though the Obama campaign considered her valuable in connecting to military families , teachers , and women .
= = = Second term = = =
Following the re @-@ election of Obama and her husband on November 6 , 2012 , Biden began a second term as second lady . She wore a silk blue gown by Vera Wang when she appeared at the inaugural balls in January 2013 .
During her second term , Biden continued to be involved with supporting military personnel , including staging multiple visits to the Center for the Intrepid rehabilitation facility for amputees and attending the inaugural Invictus Games in London . During the 2014 U.S. midterm Congressional elections she campaigned for a number of Democrats , including some ones in high @-@ profile contests such as Mark Udall in Colorado and Michelle Nunn in Georgia .
In May 2015 she suffered the death of her stepson Beau Biden from brain cancer . She was present at her husband 's side in the Rose Garden on October 21 , 2015 , when he announced he would not run for the Democratic Party presidential nomination in the 2016 election . By her own account , Biden was disappointed by his decision , believing her husband was highly qualified for the position , and " would have been the best president . "
Biden continued to teach at NOVA , handling a full load of five classes during the Fall 2015 semester . During 2016 , she was present with her husband on a listening tour for Cancer Moonshot 2020 , an effort he was leading . In March 2016 she headed the official party that welcomed American astronaut Scott Kelly back to Earth from his almost full year in space .
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= Justus =
Justus ( sometimes Iustus ; died on 10 November between 627 and 631 ) was the fourth Archbishop of Canterbury . He was sent from Italy to England by Pope Gregory the Great , on a mission to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native paganism , probably arriving with the second group of missionaries despatched in 601 . Justus became the first Bishop of Rochester in 604 , and attended a church council in Paris in 614 .
Following the death of King Æthelberht of Kent in 616 , Justus was forced to flee to Gaul , but was reinstated in his diocese the following year . In 624 Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury , overseeing the despatch of missionaries to Northumbria . After his death he was revered as a saint , and had a shrine in St Augustine 's Abbey , Canterbury .
= = Arrival in Britain = =
Justus was an Italian and a member of the Gregorian mission sent to England by Pope Gregory I. Almost everything known about Justus and his career is derived from the early 8th @-@ century Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum of Bede . As Bede does not describe Justus ' origins , nothing is known about him prior to his arrival in England . He probably arrived in England with the second group of missionaries , sent at the request of Augustine of Canterbury in 601 . Some modern writers describe Justus as one of the original missionaries who arrived with Augustine in 597 , but Bede believed that Justus came in the second group . The second group included Mellitus , who later became Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canterbury .
If Justus was a member of the second group of missionaries , then he arrived with a gift of books and " all things which were needed for worship and the ministry of the Church " . A 15th @-@ century Canterbury chronicler , Thomas of Elmham , claimed that there were a number of books brought to England by that second group still at Canterbury in his day , although he did not identify them . An investigation of extant Canterbury manuscripts shows that one possible survivor is the St. Augustine Gospels , now in Cambridge , Corpus Christi College , Manuscript ( MS ) 286 .
= = Bishop of Rochester = =
Augustine consecrated Justus as a bishop in 604 , over a province including the Kentish town of Rochester . The historian Nicholas Brooks argues that the choice of Rochester was probably not because it had been a Roman @-@ era bishopric , but rather because of its importance in the politics of the time . Although the town was small , with just one street , it was at the junction of Watling Street and the estuary of the Medway , and was thus a fortified town . Because Justus was probably not a monk ( he was not called that by Bede ) , his cathedral clergy was very likely non @-@ monastic too .
A charter purporting to be from King Æthelberht , dated 28 April 604 , survives in the Textus Roffensis , as well as a copy based on the Textus in the 14th @-@ century Liber Temporalium . Written mostly in Latin but using an Old English boundary clause , the charter records a grant of land near the city of Rochester to Justus ' church . Among the witnesses is Laurence , Augustine 's future successor , but not Augustine himself . The text turns to two different addressees . First , Æthelberht is made to admonish his son Eadbald , who had been established as a sub @-@ ruler in the region of Rochester . The grant itself is addressed directly to Saint Andrew , the patron saint of the church , a usage parallelled by other charters in the same archive .
Historian Wilhelm Levison , writing in 1946 , was sceptical about the authenticity of this charter . In particular , he felt that the two separate addresses were incongruous and suggested that the first address , occurring before the preamble , may have been inserted by someone familiar with Bede to echo Eadbald 's future conversion ( see below ) . A more recent and more positive appraisal by John Morris argues that the charter and its witness list are authentic because it incorporates titles and phraseology that had fallen out of use by 800 .
Æthelberht built Justus a cathedral church in Rochester ; the foundations of a nave and chancel partly underneath the present @-@ day Rochester Cathedral may date from that time . What remains of the foundations of an early rectangular building near the southern part of the current cathedral might also be contemporary with Justus or may be part of a Roman building .
Together with Mellitus , the Bishop of London , Justus signed a letter written by Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury to the Irish bishops urging the native church to adopt the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter . This letter also mentioned the fact that Irish missionaries , such as Dagan , had refused to share meals with the missionaries . Although the letter has not survived , Bede quoted from parts of it .
In 614 , Justus attended the Council of Paris , held by the Frankish king , Chlothar II . It is unclear why Justus and Peter , the abbot of Sts Peter and Paul in Canterbury , were present . It may have been just chance , but historian James Campbell has suggested that Chlothar summoned clergy from Britain to attend in an attempt to assert overlordship over Kent . The historian N. J. Higham offers another explanation for their attendance , arguing that Æthelberht sent the pair to the council because of shifts in Frankish policy towards the Kentish kingdom , which threatened Kentish independence , and that the two clergymen were sent to negotiate a compromise with Chlothar .
A pagan backlash against Christianity followed Æthelberht 's death in 616 , forcing Justus and Mellitus to flee to Gaul . The pair probably took refuge with Chlothar , hoping that the Frankish king would intervene and restore them to their sees , and by 617 Justus had been reinstalled in his bishopric by the new king . Mellitus also returned to England , but the prevailing pagan mood did not allow him to return to London ; after Laurence 's death , Mellitus became Archbishop of Canterbury . According to Bede , Justus received letters of encouragement from Pope Boniface V ( 619 – 625 ) , as did Mellitus , although Bede does not record the actual letters . The historian J. M. Wallace @-@ Hadrill assumes that both letters were general statements of encouragement to the missionaries .
= = Archbishop = =
Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury in 624 , receiving his pallium — the symbol of the jurisdiction entrusted to archbishops — from Pope Boniface V , following which Justus consecrated Romanus as his successor at Rochester . Boniface also gave Justus a letter congratulating him on the conversion of King " Aduluald " ( probably King Eadbald of Kent ) , a letter which is included in Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . Bede 's account of Eadbald 's conversion states that it was Laurence , Justus ' predecessor at Canterbury , who converted the King to Christianity , but the historian D. P. Kirby argues that the letter 's reference to Eadbald makes it likely that it was Justus . Other historians , including Barbara Yorke and Henry Mayr @-@ Harting , conclude that Bede 's account is correct , and that Eadbald was converted by Laurence . Yorke argues that there were two kings of Kent during Eadbald 's reign , Eadbald and Æthelwald , and that Æthelwald was the " Aduluald " referred to by Boniface . Yorke argues that Justus converted Æthelwald back to Christianity after Æthelberht 's death .
Justus consecrated Paulinus as the first Bishop of York , before the latter accompanied Æthelburg of Kent to Northumbria for her marriage to King Edwin of Northumbria . Bede records Justus as having died on 10 November , but does not give a year , although it is likely to have between 627 and 631 . After his death , Justus was regarded as a saint , and was given a feast day of 10 November . The ninth century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day , along with Mellitus and Laurence . In the 1090s , his remains were translated , or ritually moved , to a shrine beside the high altar of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury . At about the same time , a Life was written about him by Goscelin of Saint @-@ Bertin , as well as a poem by Reginald of Canterbury . Other material from Thomas of Elmham , Gervase of Canterbury , and William of Malmesbury , later medieval chroniclers , adds little to Bede 's account of Justus ' life .
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= The Legendary Axe =
The Legendary Axe ( Makyo Densetsu in Japan ) is a horizontal platform video game for the PC Engine and TurboGrafx @-@ 16 . It was developed by Victor Interactive Software and was published by Victor in Japan and by NEC in North America . It was released in Japan for the PC Engine on September 23 , 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 09 @-@ 23 ) and in North America alongside the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's launch on August 29 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 08 @-@ 29 ) . It is one of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's launch titles . In the game , the player controls Gogan , a barbarian whose girl , Flare , was kidnapped by the cult of Jagu . The player must navigate though six platforming levels , armed with a legendary axe named " Sting " to defeat Jagu and his minions and rescue Flare . The game features a rechargeable " strength meter " that determines how much damage is dealt from the axe to enemies .
The Legendary Axe received high praise and accolades among video game reviewers , and it received positive preview coverage in anticipation with the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's launch , showcasing the new console 's capabilities . Reviews from gaming magazines such as Electronic Gaming Monthly called it one of the best adventure games seen at the time . It was highly praised for its detailed graphics and animation , diverse music and gameplay , difficulty level , and execution . It won the " Best [ TurboGrafx @-@ 16 ] Game of the Year " and " Video Game of the Year " ( for all consoles ) awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly and VideoGames & Computer Entertainment respectively for 1989 . The game continued to receive praise from reviewers 20 years after its release for its simple gameplay and game design that showed the performance and capabilities of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 .
= = Plot = =
The Legendary Axe takes place in a faraway land , where its inhabitants have been under the control of the cult of Jagu . The cult , who has regularly pillaged the countryside , is led by a half @-@ man half @-@ beast named Jagu . The game 's protagonist , Gogan , lives in the village of Minofu , who must hand over one person as a human sacrifice to the Jagu every year . Gogan was away in a remote village studying warfare when he finds out that his childhood friend , Flare , has been selected by the Jagu as their annual sacrifice . Rushing back to Minofu , he finds that she has already been taken by the Jagu to the " Evil Place " located in the mountains . The village elders hand Gogan the Legendary Axe named " Sting " which gives him great strength to fight the evil cult . Armed with this axe , he sets off to the Evil Place to defeat Jagu and his cult and rescue Flare .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legendary Axe is a side @-@ scrolling action / platform video game in which the player assumes the role of Gogan , who sets out through six differently @-@ themed levels ( called " zones " ) including jungles , caves , and mountains ; the object is to defeat creatures such as " frog men " , bears , and giant spiders with his Legendary Axe " Sting " ; eliminate Jagu and his cult ; and rescue Flare . Players must also navigate obstacles and hazards by jumping . Gogan has a life meter that decreases every time he sustains damage from creatures , and the player loses a life when Gogan 's life meter runs out or if he falls off the screen . The game ends when players have lost all their lives , but they get four continues in which they can restart the game at the same section in which they have lost all their lives .
Gogan has a flashing " strength meter " on the top of the screen that determines how much damage he can inflict on enemies when he swings his axe . The strength meter empties after attacking and then slowly refills back to its maximum . The strength meter increases by 25 % whenever the player collects a " crystal container " . This incorporates an element of strategy in the game in which the player can either make a series of weak strikes with the axe or wait and build the strength meter for a single , more @-@ powerful strike . Scattered throughout the game to help Gogan are miniature statues called " Jagu idols " that reveal power @-@ ups when destroyed ; these power @-@ ups include " crystal containers " that increase Gogan 's attack strength , wings that increase the speed of Gogan 's attacks , power balls that help replenish Gogan 's life meter , crystals that award bonus points , and extra lives . Additional lives can also be obtained by earning certain amounts of points .
The zones in The Legendary Axe consist of different environments ; they range from dark forests to caverns to mountain plateaus to fortresses . Players will face many enemies along the way which they need to get through : " frog men " that leap from the water and spit fire ; jumping and rolling amoeba creatures in the caverns ; " rock men " that spring out and attack on the mountain plateaus ; and giant spiders that shoot webs at players . The bosses in the game are guardians of Jagu 's cult and are fought at the end of each zone . They include the following : at the end of Zone 1 , a pair of possessed grizzly bears ; of Zone 2 , a magical boulder ; of Zone 3 , a group of flying slinky @-@ type monsters called " Aqua Lungs " ; and of Zone 4 , a pair of creatures with shields and spears called " Punjabbis " . Zone 5 culminates with a maze of rooms called the " Pits of Madness " which feature every enemy encountered up to that point plus some new enemies ; at its end is a fire @-@ throwing cult demon . Zone 6 consists of the final battle with Jagu himself .
= = Development = =
The Legendary Axe was developed by Victor Interactive Software , and it was released under the title Makyo Densetsu in Japan for the PC Engine by the same company on September 23 , 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 09 @-@ 23 ) . Prior to its North American release , the game was retitled The Legendary Axe and was displayed with the other PC Engine games and the console itself at the 1989 International Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , Nevada . Later in 1989 , NEC retooled Hudson Soft 's console and renamed it the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 for its imminent North American release . NEC sought third @-@ party support to develop for the console ; since they were purely a hardware developer , they lacked the ability to develop any software or games . This allowed NEC to publish games developed by those supporting third @-@ party companies in North America . The Legendary Axe was released in North America as a launch title for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 on August 29 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 08 @-@ 29 ) .
= = SEQUELS = =
This game did Not spawn a sequel .
In September 7th in 1990 a game was published , in Japan Titled LEGEND OF DARKNESS " Ankoku Densetsu " By Atlus Software using the already existing Rastan game matrix . Atlus had purchased the developing software usage rights , but not the " title " product label from Taito . When the game was Released in the United States it was quickly re @-@ titled to " the Legendary Axe II " in hopes of boosting sales by using the well known title as a publicity sales tactic . Reviews for the new title were not good , some reviewers gave overly supportive reviews , they may have possibly purchased those positive comments .
GAMEPRO ( November 1990 ) -Magazine Rated at 4 out of 5
" Legendary Axe II has the same magic as the first version , but with snazzier graphics . You get more power @-@ ups here so you can stay in the hunt longer , enhancing the game 's arcade feel There 's also a better variety of enemies . If you like thumb @-@ numbing , hack @-@ em , slash @-@ em action , give this sequel a try ! Remember , you axed for it ! " -David Winstead
RAZE # 2 -1991 Magazine 68 % out of 100 %
" Admittedly , the game does look remarkably like Rastan Saga II also released this month . Unfortunately the game has changed little from itsSadly [ sic ] , the graphics haven 't improved much , neither has the sound , in fact , there are far better games available for the Engine . "
ELECTRONIC GAMING MONTHLY -Magazine ( The 1991 Video Game Buyer 's Guide ) Rated at 6 out of 10
" This is not a sequel ! The character looks different , and fights differently . It 's not a bad game , there 's just nothing new or interesting ! More like Rastan than Axe , Axe 2 simply borrows their ideas . " -Sushi X
The Legendary Axe was previewed by various video gaming magazines before its release . A preview from Electronic Gaming Monthly called the game " a definite 10 " and " one of the best video games we 've ever played " . In an overview of the PC Engine , VideoGames & Computer Entertainment referred to the game as " characteristic of the PC Engine 's advanced sound , graphics and game play " . A later preview from the same magazine said that it was one of the console 's better games , and they applauded the arcade @-@ like graphics and gameplay . They said that everyone who owned the console should own the game and that it was an " excellent showcase of the game system 's capabilities " .
= = Reception = =
The Legendary Axe received positive coverage upon its release . It was reviewed in Electronic Gaming Monthly in September 1989 . In the review , Steve Harris said it was one of his favorite games , praising its theme , graphics , sound , and execution ; he added that its features were unsurpassed by any video game at the time . Ed Semrad used this game to criticize Rastan , saying The Legendary Axe " is how [ a platform game ] should have been done " . He added that it should be the first game TurboGrafx @-@ 16 owners should buy . Donn Nauert called the game one of the best adventure games seen at the time and echoed Harris ' praises . Jim Allee repeated Semrad 's observation that the game is Rastan but with better graphics ; he praised its detailed sprites , the diverse music and gameplay , and difficulty level and concluded that it " is everything you could want in a game " . Later in that issue Nauert presented a partial walkthrough of the game , where he further praised the game for breathing new life into the platformer genre . An abridged walkthough was published in VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in November 1989 .
The Legendary Axe received several awards and accolades . In Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Best and Worst of 1989 " , the game won " Best Game of the Year " honors for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 . The magazine cited a " perfect blend of action and adventure " and outstanding graphics and sound . It also received an award for " Coolest Boss Attackers " for its final boss Jagu – an award that was shared with 1989 Sega Genesis " Best Game of the Year " Ghouls ' n Ghosts for its final boss " Loki " . The game won " Video Game of the Year " ( for all consoles ) honors from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in 1989 . They said that the game " has a little of everything : loads of axe @-@ swinging action , layer upon layer of high @-@ quality music and smooth , colorful animation . The combination of these elements brought this action adventure to the top of the video @-@ game heap like rising cream . "
The Legendary Axe continued to receive praise from reviewers almost 20 years after its release . In a brief overview of the game in his overview of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's history , IGN 's Levi Buchanan pointed out that the game made the console " an easy sell " for buyers and showed the superior performance of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 over the Nintendo Entertainment System . He said that The Legendary Axe " made the NES look downright ancient " . In a separate full review of the game , Buchanan noted that the game was an improvement over the console 's pack @-@ in game Keith Courage in Alpha Zones ; he said that The Legendary Axe was more fun and had good action compared to the former . He noted that the game remained enjoyable almost 20 years after its release because of its simple platforming gameplay compared to more complicated modern video games like Mass Effect . He praised the game 's smooth animation , innovative and detailed backgrounds , enemy designs , and soundtrack – saying that " any classic game tune nerd would enjoy having [ the music ] on their iPod " . Allgame noted a change in the gameplay near the end of the game ; after the fifth level , players must navigate a maze called the " Pits of Madness " which if they take the wrong path , they get sent back to its beginning .
The Legendary Axe has not been released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service , and IGN 's Lucas Thomas rated the game as the 3rd best in a list of " Top 10 unreleased TurboGrafx Titles " for the system . He said that he was shocked to find that this game was not on the Virtual Console , given that it was one of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's flagship titles that were heavily advertised when it was released . UK @-@ based magazine Retro Gamer , in a look back to video gaming in January 1989 , made a similar comparison of the game to Rastan , " with a lot of sword slashing and platform jumping " . The reviewer said that the popularity of The Legendary Axe in Japan was what caused it to be released as a TurboGrafx @-@ 16 launch title in North America .
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= The Green Child =
The Green Child is the only completed novel by the English anarchist poet and critic Herbert Read . Written in 1934 and first published by Heinemann in 1935 , the story is based on the 12th @-@ century legend of two green children who mysteriously appeared in the English village of Woolpit , speaking an apparently unknown language . Read described the legend in his English Prose Style , published in 1931 , as " the norm to which all types of fantasy should conform " .
Each of the novel 's three parts ends with the apparent death of the story 's protagonist , President Olivero , dictator of the fictional South American Republic of Roncador . In each case Olivero 's death is an allegory for his translation to a " more profound level of existence " , reflecting the book 's overall theme of a search for the meaning of life . Read 's interest in psychoanalytic theory is evident throughout the novel , which is constructed as a " philosophic myth ... in the tradition of Plato " .
The story contains many autobiographical elements , and the character of Olivero owes much to Read 's experiences as an officer in the British Army during the First World War . The novel was positively received , although some commentators have considered it to be " inscrutable " , and one has suggested that it has been so differently and vaguely interpreted by those who have given it serious study that it may lack the form and content to justify the praise it has received .
= = Biographical background and publication = =
Primarily a literary critic , poet , and an advocate for modern art , Read wrote his only novel , The Green Child , in about eight weeks during 1934 , most of it in the summer house behind his home in Hampstead , London . Hampstead was then a " nest of gentle artists " who included Henry Moore , Paul Nash , Ben Nicholson , and Barbara Hepworth . Read was at that time interested in the idea of unconscious composition , and the first sixteen pages of the manuscript – written on different paper from the rest – are considered by some critics to look like the recollection of a dream . Read claimed in a letter written to psychoanalyst Carl Jung that the novel was a product of automatic writing . As of 2016 , the original manuscript is in the possession of the University of Leeds Library ; Read had been a student at the University .
Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 Read became a supporter of communism , believing it to offer " the social liberty of my ideals " , but by the 1930s his conviction had begun to waver . Increasingly his political ideology leaned towards anarchism , but it was not until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 that Read became confirmed in his anarchist beliefs and stated them explicitly . The Green Child was therefore written at a time when Read 's political and philosophical ideas were in flux .
There have been six editions of the novel , the first from Heinemann in 1935 , priced at 7 shillings and sixpence , the equivalent of about £ 23 in 2016 . Ten years later a second edition was published by Grey Walls Press , with the addition of illustrations by Felix Kelly . A third edition , for which Graham Greene wrote an introduction focusing on the novel 's autobiographical elements , was published by Eyre and Spottiswoode in 1947 . The first American edition was published in New York by New Directions in 1948 , with an introduction by Kenneth Rexroth . Penguin Books published a fifth edition in 1979 , which included the 1947 introduction by Greene . A sixth edition , published by R. Clark , appeared in 1989 and was reprinted in 1995 , both containing Greene 's introduction .
= = Plot summary = =
The first and last parts of the story are told as a third @-@ person narrative , but the middle part is written in the first person . The story begins in 1861 with the faked death of President Olivero , dictator of the South American Republic of Roncador , who has staged his own assassination . He returns to his native England , to the village where he was born and raised . On the evening of his arrival Olivero notices that the stream running through the village appears to be flowing backwards , and he decides to follow the water upstream to discover the cause .
The stream 's course leads Olivero to a mill , where through a lighted window he sees a woman tied to a chair , forced by the miller to drink the blood of a freshly slaughtered lamb . Instinctively , Olivero hurls himself through the open window , his " leap into the world of fantasy " . The miller initially offers no resistance and allows Olivero to release the woman , whom he recognises by the colour of her skin to be Sally , one of the two green children who had mysteriously arrived in the village on the day he left , thirty years earlier ; Olivero also recognises the miller as Kneeshaw , an ex @-@ pupil at the village school where he had once taught . During a struggle between the two men Kneeshaw is accidentally drowned in the mill pond . The next morning Olivero and Sally continue on Olivero 's quest to find the stream 's destination , a pool in the moors high above the village . Paddling in its water , Sally begins to sink into the silvery sand covering its bed . Olivero rushes to her , and hand in hand they sink beneath the water of the pool .
The book 's second part recounts the events between Oliver leaving the village as its young schoolmaster and his return as ex @-@ President Olivero . He travels to London initially , hoping to find employment as a writer , but after three years spent working as a bookkeeper in a tailor 's shop he takes passage on a ship which lands him in Cádiz , Spain . Unable to speak the language , and in possession of a book by Voltaire , he is arrested as a suspected revolutionary . Held captive for two years , he learns Spanish from his fellow prisoners and determines to travel to one of the liberated American colonies he has learned of , where the possibility exists to establish a new world " free from the oppression and injustice of the old world " .
Freed in an amnesty following the death of King Ferdinand of Spain , Oliver makes his way to Buenos Aires . There he is mistaken for a revolutionary agent and taken to meet General Santos of the Roncador Army . Together they hatch a plot to seize the country 's capital city and assassinate its dictator . The plot is successful and " Don Olivero " finds himself leader of the Assembly , making him the country 's new dictator , a position he holds for 25 years . Eventually he realises that his style of government is leading the country into stagnation and " moral flaccidity " ; he begins to feel nostalgia for the English village where he was brought up , and resolves to escape . Wishing to avoid any suspicion that he is deserting Roncador , Olivero fakes his own assassination .
The final part of the book continues the story from when Olivero and Sally disappear under the water . A large bubble forms around them , transporting them to the centre of the pool and ascending into a large grotto , from where they proceed on foot through a series of adjoining caverns . Sally tells Olivero that this is the country she and her brother left 30 years ago . Soon they encounter her people , to whom Sally , or Siloēn as she is properly known , explains that many years ago she wandered off and became lost , but that she has now returned with one who " was lost too , and now wishes to dwell among us " . Olivero and Siloēn are welcomed into the community , where life is ordered around a progression from lower to upper ledges : the first ledge teaches the pleasures of youth ; on the second ledge the pleasure of manual work is learned ; on the third of opinion and argument ; and finally , on the upper ledge , the " highest pleasure " , of solitary thought .
Olivero soon tires of the first ledge , and leaving Siloēn behind he moves to the second , where he learns to cut and polish crystals , the most sacred of objects in this subterranean world . Eventually he is allowed to move to the highest ledge of all , " the final stage of life " . There he is taught the " basic principles of the universe " , that there is only Order and Disorder . " Order ... [ is ] the space @-@ filling Mass about them ... Disorder is empty space " . Disorder is caused by the senses , which , " being confined to the body ... create the illusion of self @-@ hood " . Olivero selects a grotto in which to spend what remains of his life alone , contemplating the " natural and absolute beauty " of the crystals he accepts from the crystal @-@ cutters . Food and water is brought regularly , and he settles to the task of preparing his body for " the perfection of death " , which when it comes he meets with a " peculiar joy " . Removing Olivero 's body from the grotto the attendants encounter another group carrying Siloēn , who died at the same time as Olivero . The pair are laid together in a petrifying trough , to " become part of the same crystal harmony " , as is customary when any of the Green people die .
= = Genre and style = =
Richard Wasson , professor of English , has said that The Green Child is " defiant of classification " , complicated by its division into " three arbitrarily related sections " . The first part of the novel adopts the style of a 19th @-@ century Gothic fairy tale . The " fluid , seemingly unbroken hand " in which it is written has encouraged the notion that it was produced in a single sitting , followed by a break before the second part was begun . Part two is written as a " conventional political adventure " , in which Olivero tells in flashback the story of his rise to power as the dictator of Roncador . The final part of the novel continues the narrative where the first left off , in the " fantastical , subterranean world of the Green people " . So different in style is the first part from what follows that some critics regard it as an entirely separate work , or " the ' true ' novel " .
Olivero 's quest in the underground world is written as a reversal of Plato 's allegory of the cave as described in his Republic . In Plato 's allegory , prisoners confined in a cave and condemned to stare at a blank wall , with only the light from a flickering fire behind them , see just the shadows of what is real ; the philosopher , on the other hand , is like someone released from the cave , able to see the true form of what is casting the shadows . Read turns the idea on its head ; when Siloēn left her subterranean world she left behind the Platonic " eternal forms " , and Olivero has to follow her back to her " cave " to discover the " divine essence of things " .
In the last few pages of the book , in which Olivero prepares for his death and petrification , Read describes Olivero 's final thoughts in a form adapted from Plato 's Phaedo , but in an almost mirror image . Socrates , whose thoughts on the afterlife Plato was describing , argued that death was the ideal home of the soul , but Olivero longs for his body to be free from the torments of the soul , to become part of the crystalline solidity of the universe . Olivero regards life , not death , as the destroyer , " for it [ life ] disrupts the harmony of inorganic matter " . Socrates ' suggestion , towards the end of the Phaedo , that our own world is but one of many , each a hollow in the earth connected by underground rivers , is a strikingly similar image to the subterranean land of the Green people that Read describes . Read however was " almost certainly " influenced in his depiction of the world of the Green people by W. H. Hudson 's 1887 utopian novel A Crystal Age , a story in which people strive to " live above their own mortality " .
= = Themes = =
The novel 's overarching theme is " a dialectical search for the meaning of life , a search which involves a return to life 's source " . The Green people 's emphasis on achieving " a literal oneness with the material universe " by petrifying the bodies of their dead , although it has " repulsed " some readers , is a vehicle that allows Read to parody the " traditional Western religious notion of the soul aspiring to rise through air to a vaporous paradise " .
The manuscript was originally entitled " Inland Far " , but at some point , perhaps during the gap between writing the first and subsequent parts , Read changed it to " The Green Child " , which suggests that the focus of the novel changed from Olivero 's quest for the source of the stream to the story of the green child herself . The original title was an allusion to William Wordsworth 's ode " Intimations of Immortality " , which describes the " ' bright landscape ' of childhood that casts its spell over later life " .
Read was interested in psychoanalysis , and employed psychoanalytic theory in his work , both Freudian and Jungian , although " more as machinery than as a key to meaning " . Olivero 's quest for the source of the stream has been described as " travelling allegorically across a landscape of the mind " , moving him " from the boundaries of the preconscious to the center of the id " . To Olivero , the miller Kneeshaw represents " the evil destructive instinct which lurks beneath the civilised conventions of society " , the Freudian id , whereas Olivero represents the ego . Thirty years earlier , Olivero had taught Kneeshaw at the local school , where he had seen the boy deliberately break a locomotive from a model railway that Olivero had brought into the school , by overwinding its clockwork mechanism . Unable to comprehend such wilful destruction , and already frustrated by the lack of opportunities offered by village life , Olivero left the next day . " When that spring snapped , something snapped in my mind . "
Olivero 's confrontation with Kneeshaw displays a Jungian psychoanalytic symbolism , as does the character of Siloēn , " the archetype of the anima , or Jungian ' soul ' , particularly in its function as intermediary between conscious and unconscious . " Kneeshaw represents " the shadow , the dark side of man 's nature , the primitive , animal part of the personality found in the personal unconscious " . Jung believed that the only way to face the shadow was to acknowledge it , not to repress it as Olivero had done 30 years earlier by leaving the village .
= = Autobiographical elements = =
During the First World War Read served with the Green Howards , fighting in the trenches of France . He was awarded the Military Cross , promoted to the rank of lieutenant , and became " obsessively determined not to betray his own men through cowardice " . The novel 's development of the " clearly autobiographical hero " of Olivero owes a great deal to Read 's wartime experiences and the " resolute self @-@ possession " they instilled in him . The irony of Olivero overthrowing a dictator only to become one himself is perhaps consistent with a view Read expressed in the mid @-@ 1930s : " From certain points of view , therefore , I can welcome the notion of the totalitarian state , whether in its Fascist or Communist form . I am not afraid of the totalitarian state as an economic fact , an economic machine to facilitate the complex business of living in a community . "
The son of a farmer , Read was born at Muscoates Grange , about four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the small North Yorkshire market town of Kirkbymoorside , to which he returned in 1949 . One of his favourite walks was along the course of Hodge Beck , the inspiration for the stream followed by Olivero . Hodge Beck led to a mill , which Read called his " spiritual hermitage " .
The crystals carved by the workmen on the second ledge of the Green people 's underground world , and contemplated by the sages on the highest ledge of all , symbolise Read 's ideas about the relationship of art to nature . He believed physical form to be the " underlying principle of the universe ... the ultimate reality in a completely material cosmos . Therefore it is the quality of recurring forms that makes possible all beauty and value " .
= = Critical reception = =
In the words of historian David Goodway , Read 's " remarkable career and formidable output have generated a surprisingly limited biographical and critical literature " . Richard Wasson has commented that The Green Child " though judged favorably by the few critics and scholars who give it serious study ... is so vaguely and variously interpreted that it would seem to lack both the form and the content which justify such praise " . The critic Richard E. Brown , writing in 1990 , considered the work to be " an important attempt by one of [ the 20th @-@ century 's ] most influential English critics to integrate his wide @-@ ranging thoughts into a complex interpretation of experience " , but added that it divided commentators , appearing to some to be " fascinating but inscrutable " . Reviewing the first American edition in 1948 , Professor of English Robert Gorham Davis commented that the novel " baffled some English critics when it arrived in 1935 " , but that it was " beautifully imagined and beautifully written " .
A review published in The Times shortly after the book 's publication described it as a " very charming philosophical tale " , and in his paper the historian and lecturer Bob Barker praised the novel for being " remarkable for its cool yet vivid style " . Critic Orville Prescott , writing in The New York Times , although admitting that the novel was " beautifully written " and " a triumph of delicate and suggestive mystification " , nevertheless concluded that the story was " ridiculous " and " vexatious " . He ended his review with the words : " One feels constantly that shining truths are about to be revealed ; that there is something important , something significant , hidden in these pages . But it is never made clear , while the ridiculous details remain all too conspicuously in view . " Prescott was just as critical of Rexroth 's preface to the first American edition , describing it as a " pretentious introduction of uncommon density " . Writing in The Independent in 1993 , shortly after the 100th anniversary of Read 's birth , critic Geoffrey Wheatcroft commented that Read may not have been a great novelist " but The Green Child is the kind of book to write if you are going to leave just the one novel behind : singular , odd , completely original " .
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= Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area =
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area is an Illinois state park on 1 @,@ 350 acres ( 550 ha ) in Kendall County , Illinois , United States . The park was established in the late 1960s and is named for the natural spring within its boundaries . The park has two artificial lakes and the Fox River flows through the northern end of the park . Silver Springs hosts a variety of activities including fishing , hunting , boating and hiking . The park has areas of native prairie restoration , a sledding hill and a seven mile ( 11 km ) equestrian trail . The prairie restoration areas hold many species of plants including lead plant , and purple coneflower .
= = Location = =
The Park is divided by the Fox River , with the northern area situated next to the Farnsworth House , designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe . The property that Mrs. Farnsworth bought frames part of the western side of the Park . One of the main access points to the park is a bridge that takes Fox River Drive ( Ben Street in Plano ) , over the river , and to an adjoining road ( Fox Road ) that runs past the entrance to the park . In the 1960s when the current bridge was being constructed , Mrs. Farnsworth appealed to the Kendall County Board , suggesting a block to the bridge , citing ecological concerns among other things .
= = History = =
There is evidence that the Fox River valley near Silver Springs was populated by indigenous people near the end of the last Ice Age , 10 – 14 @,@ 000 years ago . The original 1 @,@ 250 acres ( 510 ha ) tract of land that became Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area was purchased by the state of Illinois in 1969 , and has been open since January of that year . The park is located in Kendall County , Illinois , five miles ( 8 km ) west of the city of Yorkville . Since the original acquisition in 1969 , 100 acres ( 40 ha ) have been added to the park
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area was one of five new state parks opened in northern Illinois from 1969 – 1971 . As part of more than 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 ha ) added to the Illinois state park system during this period , Silver Springs opened to alleviate traffic at other state parks in the area . At the time , the Illinois Department of Natural Resources ( IDNR ) , which oversees the state park system , was attempting to provide the Chicago area with the most state park facilities in Illinois .
The park had nine extant wells tapping the Galena – Platteville Aquifer when the state purchased the property . By 1973 a modern well was drilled , reaching a depth of 120 feet ( 37 m ) . The well , located near the park entrance , was drilled by K & K Well Drilling Co. of Mokena , Illinois through black dirt , gravel , clay , and limestone . Upon completion , the well produced about 500 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 900 l ) per day during the summer . The well provides the park with water , but the other nine wells remained in use following its completion .
A prairie restoration project began on 30 acres ( 12 ha ) within Silver Springs in 1980 ; 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) was added to the restoration project in 1991 . The IDNR undertook another prairie restoration in an area within the park , on the north side of the Fox River , in 2002 . For the 2002 project , the IDNR removed numerous invasive species from the area including : basswood , ash , maple , and exotic honeysuckle . The non @-@ native exotic honeysuckle species had thrived in the absence of fire through human intervention . These actions were meant to allow native burr and black oak , and shagbark hickory a chance to reproduce .
= = Bodies of water = =
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area covers 1 @,@ 350 acres ( 550 ha ) and includes four distinct bodies of water , two artificial lakes , the Fox River , and Silver Springs . The larger of the two lakes , Loon Lake , covers 21 acres ( 8 @.@ 5 ha ) and has 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of shoreline . Loon Lake 's maximum depth is 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) and it has an average depth of 11 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) . Loon Lake , sometimes known as Silver Spring Lake , was constructed in 1960 when a lowland area was excavated . The lake 's water level is maintained through a small 20 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) watershed and groundwater seepage . Water quality at Loon Lake was identified as " good " in 1996 by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency . Beaver Lake , north of Loon Lake , is smaller , covering 4 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 8 ha ) . It has almost a half mile ( 800 m ) of shoreline and a maximum depth of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) ; Beaver Lake 's average depth is 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) .
The park 's name comes from a natural spring located along a trail on the south end of the park . The spring 's name is derived from the effect of sunlight on its surface , which makes the pool appear to shimmer like silver . Even through the winter , the bubbling spring never freezes , and plants often poke through snow surrounding the watercress @-@ bordered pool in the coldest months . Three miles of the Fox River , which Silver Springs empties into , flows through the park 's north end .
= = Wildlife = =
Plant species native to Illinois prairies prior to European settlement are found within the park 's 45 @-@ acre ( 18 ha ) prairie restoration . While the plant life varies by season , species observed in the park include : lead plant , purple coneflower , wild bergamot , and purple prairie clover , black @-@ eyed susan , tall coreopsis , compass plant , wild quinine , rattlesnake master , New Jersey tea , big bluestem , switch grass , and Indian grass . Along the park 's four mile ( 6 km ) trail , several species of trees are found . Six species of oak , three species of ash , and basswood , cottonwood , pawpaw , Kentucky coffeetree and hackberry are among the tree species living within the boundaries of Silver Springs .
The Fox River at Silver Springs has numerous species of freshwater fish including , bluegill , crappie , channel catfish , bullhead , carp , muskie and northern pike . The Loon and Beaver Lake fish population is maintained through human stocking . Channel catfish , bass , bluegill and crappie are stocked in both lakes .
Besides its prairie restorations and bodies of water , Silver Springs has areas of deciduous forests , and wetlands , both of which are populated with species of mammals , birds and insects . Bird life observed in the park includes : osprey , great horned owl , eastern screech owl and long @-@ eared owl ; bald eagle have been sighted further upstream along the Fox . Reptiles and amphibians are present in the park but are more elusive than other types of animal life .
= = Activities = =
When in season , hunting and fishing are two of the park 's primary activities ; during the fall and winter over 1 @,@ 300 acres ( 530 ha ) are opened to the public for hunting . Pheasant hunting , through a park operated controlled hunting program , is popular at the park . Dove hunting , squirrel hunting , and bow hunting for deer are also permitted with some restrictions . The park has areas set aside for trap shooting , and archery , participants are required to bring their own equipment and restrictions apply . For anglers , Loon Lake is stocked in the spring and fall with rainbow trout and a small one @-@ half acre pond to the east of the lake is stocked annually for children during the National Hunting and Fishing Days , which is marked yearly by events at Silver Springs . The Fox River is open for fishing from both the bank and boats . There are no motor restrictions and a boat launch is available at the park . The Fox River is shallow near the park and boaters are advised to use caution .
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area has trails for hiking and horseback riding . A short , half mile ( 800 m ) trail leads to Silver Springs near the park 's east entrance . A longer , four mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) trail follows the course of the Fox River through the park 's wooded areas . The equestrian trail is located in the wildlife management area of the park and stretches seven miles ( 11 km ) . A one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) path travels through the prairie restoration area as well . During the winter , much of the park 's trail system is open to cross @-@ country skiing , and a four mile ( 6 km ) trail is open to snowmobiling , weather permitting . When ice thickness permits , the lakes are opened to ice skating and ice fishing . Sledding is another popular activity ; Toboggan Hill is located inside the park 's east entrance .
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= Refugee controversy in Sjöbo =
The refugee controversy in Sjöbo , Sweden , refers to the surrounding events of the 1988 referendum that banned Sjöbo Municipality from admitting foreign refugees . In 1987 , despite opposition and demonstrations , local Centre Party politician Sven @-@ Olle Olsson ( 1929 – 2005 ) , who was Sjöbo 's municipal commissioner at the time , was successful in gaining the support of the Sjöbo municipal assembly to hold a referendum to decide if Sjöbo should ban the acceptance of foreign refugees . The controversial referendum passed with a 67 @.@ 4 % majority for the ban in 1988 , gaining Olsson and Sjöbo much publicity in the Swedish media . The outcome was heavily criticized by Swedish media and politicians ( including then @-@ Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson ) .
Olsson was in turn expelled from the Centre Party following the referendum which led to the forming of the nationalist Sjöbo Party ( Swedish : Sjöbopartiet ) in March 1991 . In the municipal elections the same year , the party received 31 % of the votes . This led to Olsson once again becoming Municipal Commissioner , a position he held until 1998 , when his party 's support was reduced to 15 % in municipal elections . Following the Sjöbo party 's loss of support , the ban was overturned by Sjöbo 's municipal assembly , and Sjöbo accepted its first refugees for more than a decade in 2001 .
= = Background and motion = =
In 1977 , while a member of the Centre Party , Sven @-@ Olle Olsson , a former farmer , was elected as Sjöbo 's Municipal commissioner.The Centre Party in Sjöbo , led by Olsson , motioned before Sjöbo 's municipal assembly in June 1987 for a referendum on the acceptance of foreign refugees in the municipality . The motion came after a proposal that fifteen refugees be accepted into the municipality , an idea Olsson disliked . It has been speculated that the reason behind the motion was not these fifteen refugees , a small number for the municipality , but , instead , Olsson 's idea to create a protest against Sweden 's positive stance on refugees . Despite heavy protests from most of the country , Sjöbo 's municipal assembly decided in October 1987 to go through with the referendum in 1988 . If the referendum passed , it would completely ban Sjöbo from accepting foreign refugees .
= = Referendum = =
= = = Debate and media attention = = =
The municipality 's decision to go through with the referendum was met with even more criticism from the rest of the country . Immigration minister and Social Democrat Georg Andersson described the vote as a " macabre expression of egoism , and a violation of the refugees ' human dignity . " A majority of the population in Sjöbo , however , was in favor of the referendum . One citizen stated that " Foreigners just create problems . It 's only democratic to vote about this . I 'm all for it . "
It was , however , reported , that several of those who were in favor of accepting refugees , were afraid of expressing their opinion in public . On the day of the vote , 18 September 1988 , the Associated Press reported that the refugee issue had split families , friends and even the town 's only church . "
The referendum and the protests against it also drew attention abroad . On 12 September 1988 , The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote : " A referendum on accepting refugees in this quiet Swedish town has flared into an ugly battle watched closely by a country that prides itself on its tolerant attitudes and absence of racism . "
Madeleine Ramel , a baroness , and the head of the local Social Welfare Board that was planning on taking care of the refugees , said : " a lot of people are very ashamed . It 's terrible . The town has changed . " Ramel was Olsson 's strongest opposition in Sjöbo at the time . The Baroness became a symbol of the minority who supported the acceptance of refugees into the municipality . According to the local newspaper Skånska Dagbladet , " the Swedish media , especially the evening newspapers , loved the polarization between the simple farmer who did not want foreigners in the village and the baroness who wanted to take in the needy with open arms . "
Olsson 's main argument in the debate leading up to the day of the referendum was that foreigners would not be able to fit into a community such as Sjöbo . He repeatedly stated that these people come from " unknown cultures " and that it would be impossible for them to integrate into the Swedish society . Per @-@ Ingvar Magnusson , the then @-@ chairman of the Sjöbo branch of the Center Party , stated to the media that the referendum had nothing to do with racism ; he claimed that the reason for the vote was that Sjöbo lacked housing and jobs . He said in an interview that he was surprised by the attention the town had received in the media : " They make us out to be stupid , fools , farmers who live in isolation . The town simply wants to take care of its own first . "
= = = Result = = =
The referendum was held in Sjöbo on 18 September 1988 , the day of the Swedish general election , and passed with a 67 percent majority of the votes ( 6 @,@ 237 for and 3 @,@ 000 against ) , which led to even more criticism from the Swedish population . Then @-@ Prime Minister of Sweden Ingvar Carlsson said the results were " tragic " , and the then @-@ leader of the Centre Party , Olof Johansson , called the ban " improper " . The result of the referendum led to concerns from the Swedish government that other municipalities would follow in Sjöbo 's footsteps . The day after the vote , Madeleine Ramel commented : " This is a sad result . Everyone is a loser . It is unfortunate for Sjöbo . "
Heléne Lööw , a Swedish historian , stated that one of the likely reasons for the relatively large xenophobia in Skåne County at the time was the high unemployment numbers . The county had accepted a large amount of refugees compared to the rest of Sweden , and many saw this as the reason for the lack of jobs . Lööw also stated that the xenophobia could have been strengthened by local traditions . Nazi groups were " relatively strong " in Skåne in the 1930s .
= = Aftermath = =
The ban was heavily discussed in the Swedish media . Following the criticism , and after claims that Olsson was associated with the New Swedish Movement , the Centre Party decided in 1988 to exclude Olsson and his companions Börje Ohlsson and Per @-@ Ivar Magnusson from the party . They responded by forming the nationalist Sjöbo Party ( Swedish : Sjöbopartiet ) in March 1991 . In the municipal elections the same year , the party received 31 percent of the votes . This led to Olsson once again becoming Municipal Commissioner , a position he held until 1998 , when the party 's support was reduced to 15 % in the municipal elections . Following Sjöbo party 's loss of support , the referendum was overturned by Sjöbo 's municipal assembly , and Sjöbo accepted its first refugees since more than a decade in 2001 . Although Olsson died in 2005 , the party is still active , and in the 2010 municipal election the party received 11 @.@ 4 % of the votes , making it the third largest party in Sjöbo .
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= Convention of 1833 =
The Convention of 1833 ( April 1 – 13 , 1833 ) , a political gathering of settlers in Mexican Texas , was a successor to the Convention of 1832 , whose requests had not been addressed by the Mexican government . Despite the political uncertainty resulting from a recently concluded civil war , 56 delegates met in San Felipe de Austin to draft a series of petitions to the Mexican government .
The volatile William H. Wharton presided over the meeting . Although the convention 's agenda largely mirrored that of the Convention of 1832 , delegates also agreed to pursue independent statehood for the province , which was at the time part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas . Under the guidance of Sam Houston , former governor of the US state of Tennessee , a committee drafted a state constitution to submit to the Mexican Congress . The proposed constitution was largely patterned on US political principles , yet retained several Spanish customs . Delegates also requested customs exemptions and asked that a ban on immigration into Texas be lifted .
Some residents complained that this convention , like its predecessor , was illegal . Nevertheless , Stephen F. Austin journeyed to Mexico City to present the petitions to the government . Frustrated with the lack of progress , in October Austin wrote a letter encouraging Texans to form their own state government . This letter was forwarded to the Mexican government and Austin was imprisoned in early 1834 . During his imprisonment , the federal and state legislatures later passed a series of measures to placate the colonists , including the introduction of trial by jury . Austin acknowledged that " [ e ] very evil complained of has been remedied . "
= = Background = =
Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821 . After the new country 's monarchy was overthrown , the Constitution of 1824 established a federalist republic composed of multiple states . Sparsely populated provinces were denied independent statehood and instead merged with neighboring areas . Mexican Texas , which marked the country 's eastern border with the United States , was combined with Coahuila to form the new state Coahuila y Tejas . To facilitate government of the large area , the state was subdivided into several departments ; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar .
Texas was part of the Mexican frontier , and settlers faced frequent raids by native tribes . Bankrupt and unable to provide much military assistance , in 1824 the federal government legalized immigration from the United States and Europe , hoping that an influx of settlers would discourage raiding . As the number of American living in Texas increased , Mexican authorities became apprehensive that the United States intended to annex the area , possibly by force . To curb the perceived threat , the Mexican government passed the Law of April 6 , 1830 , which restricted immigration from the United States into Texas and called for the first enforcement of customs duties . The new laws were unpopular with both native Mexicans in Texas ( Tejanos ) and recent immigrants ( Texians ) .
In 1832 , General Antonio López de Santa Anna led a revolt against President Anastasio Bustamante 's centralist government . Under the pretext that they supported Santa Anna , a small group of Texians armed themselves and overthrew the commander of the garrison that was enforcing the new customs duties . Other settlers followed their example , and within weeks all Mexican soldiers in eastern Texas had been forced to leave .
Buoyed by their military success , Texians organized a political convention to persuade Mexican authorities to weaken the Laws of April 6 , 1830 . Although the two municipalities with the largest Tejano populations , San Antonio de Béxar and Victoria , refused to participate , 55 delegates met in October for the Convention of 1832 . They adopted a series of resolutions that requested changes in the governance of Texas . The most controversial item was for Texas to become an independent state , separate from Coahuila . After approving the list of resolutions , delegates created a seven @-@ member central committee to convene future meetings .
Before the list of concerns could be presented to the state and federal governments , Ramón Músquiz , the political chief of the Department of Béxar , ruled that the convention was illegal . The law directed that citizens should protest to their local ayuntamiento ( similar to a city council ) , which would forward their concerns to the political chief . The political chief could then escalate the concerns to the appropriate governmental authority . Because this process had not been followed , Músquiz annulled the resolutions .
= = Preparation = =
The previous convention 's lack of Tejano representation fostered a perception that only newcomers to Texas were dissatisfied . The president of the Convention of 1832 , Stephen F. Austin , traveled to San Antonio de Béxar to garner support for the changes the convention had requested . Austin found that the Tejano leaders largely agreed with the result of the convention but opposed the methods by which the resolutions had been proposed . They urged patience ; Bustamante was still president and would not look favorably on a petition from settlers who had recently sided with his rival , Santa Anna .
As a compromise , the ayuntamiento of San Antonio de Béxar drafted a petition containing similar language to the convention 's resolutions . Following legal norms , they submitted this to Músquiz , who forwarded it to the Mexican Congress in early 1833 . At this time , the federal and state governments were in flux . Bustamante had resigned the presidency in late December 1832 as part of a treaty to end the civil war . There was no effective state government . The governor of Coahuila y Tejas had died in September 1832 , and his replacement , federalist Juan Martín de Veramendi , immediately dissolved the state legislature , which had centralist leanings . Veramendi called elections to seat a new government in early 1833 . Due to the political uncertainty , Austin urged that the federal government be given several months to address the petition . If no action was eventually taken , he advised that Texas residents would form their own state government , essentially declaring independence from Coahuila , if not from Mexico .
Austin 's timeframe was endorsed by Tejano leaders , but it did not pacify the Texian settlers . Towards the end of December , the central committee called for a new convention to meet in San Felipe de Austin in April 1833 . Elections were scheduled for March . This action disturbed the Tejano leaders , who saw it as a violation of their agreement with Austin .
Communities in Texas elected 56 delegates for the new convention . In a departure from the previous election , San Antonio de Béxar also sent delegates , including James Bowie , the son @-@ in @-@ law of Governor Veramendi . Bowie , like many of his fellow delegates , was known as an agitator who wanted immediate change . The majority of the delegates to the previous convention had been more cautious .
= = Proceedings = =
The Convention of 1833 was called to order on April 1 , 1833 , in San Felipe de Austin . By coincidence , on that day Santa Anna was inaugurated as the new President of Mexico . Delegates elected William H. Wharton , a " known hothead " , as president of the convention . Wharton had lost his bid to be president of the previous convention . Historian William C. Davis describes Wharton 's election as " a public declaration that while Austin was still respected , his moderate course would no longer be followed " .
On the first day , several delegates addressed the convention to justify the recent Texian actions . Many argued that the expulsion of most garrisons in the region was not an act of disloyalty to Mexico , but instead resistance to a particular form of governance . Sam Houston , who represented Nacogdoches , commented that " Santa Anna was only a name used as an excuse for resistance to oppression " . Several delegates argued that the recently concluded civil war had left Mexico in too much turmoil to provide effective rule for Texas . Echoing the American Revolution slogan " no taxation without representation " , one delegate insisted that Texas was not bound by Mexican laws since its settlers had no representation . This delegate overlooked the fact that Texas had been granted two representatives to the Coahuila y Tejas legislature .
Austin presented an overview of the events that had occurred in Texas and in the rest of Mexico over the previous year . He enumerated several grievances against the political and judicial systems and concluded that Texas needed to become an independent state . This could be justified , in his opinion , by language in the Constitution of 1824 .
= = = State constitution = = =
By the second day of the convention , delegates were in agreement to pursue separate statehood . Austin wrote to a friend , " We are now able to sustain A State Govt. and no country ever required one more than this " . Houston was named chairman of a committee to draft a new state constitution . Although Houston had not lived in Texas for very long , he was well @-@ known , having served as governor of Tennessee and as a member of the United States Congress .
The new constitution was based on a copy of the 1780 Massachusetts Constitution provided by one of the committee members . The proposed document also drew from the constitutions of other states in the United States , including Louisiana , Missouri , and Tennessee . It provided " meticulous detail " for the new system of government . The executive branch structure , proposed by Austin , called for a governor who would serve two @-@ year terms . The state would have a bicameral legislature and a three @-@ tier judiciary system , with local and district courts ultimately kept in check by a state supreme court .
A 27 @-@ article bill of rights , containing , according to historian Howard Miller , an " impressive list " of protected rights , was included . This document aligned closely with contemporary American political ideals , especially the notion that all men had a right to liberty . Much of the language and concepts were drawn from the first eight amendments to the United States Constitution . The document called for trial by jury , a distinct departure from Mexican law , which required that trials be heard by the local alcalde . Defendants would be granted counsel and would have the right to examine any evidence against them . They would be protected from excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishments . Civil authorities would take priority over military authorities . Delegates also agreed to protect " free communication of thoughts and opinions " , a phrase carefully drafted to imply freedom of speech , of assembly , and of the press . Although it could also be interpreted to imply freedom of religion , delegates were unwilling to explicitly grant that right , knowing that it would cause an uproar in Catholic Mexico .
A few of the rights were drawn from Spanish practices . The proposed constitution forbade the English practices of primogeniture and entailment , following a change made to Spanish law in 1821 . Delegates retained the traditional Spanish prohibition against seizing a debtor 's physical property and extended it to forbid imprisonment as a punishment for debt . This was a novel idea . In the United States , nine states had enumerated certain conditions under which a debtor could not be imprisoned , but no state had an unqualified prohibition on the practice .
Borrowing from the resolutions of the Convention of 1832 , delegates wrote into the constitution a guarantee of free public education . They further banned unsecured paper currency and insisted the state economy should be based solely on hard currency . When the constitution was completed , David G. Burnet headed a subcommittee to craft a letter to Mexican authorities to explain the merits of the proposal .
= = = Resolutions = = =
In addition to the development of a state constitution , delegates passed a series of resolutions that asked Mexican authorities for reforms . Several of these echoed resolutions passed at the previous year 's convention . Delegates again insisted that the ban on immigration should be repealed and that customs duties be lifted . Resolutions also requested additional protection from raids by native tribes , and that the government implement a more efficient mail delivery system .
One of the resolutions would have been more suited for passage by a state legislature than a group of concerned citizens . Perhaps to atone for some of the more revolutionary items they had requested , as one of their final acts delegates passed a resolution that condemned the slave trade within Texas . The Constitution of 1824 had already abolished the slave trade , and the constitution of Coahuila y Tejas had forbidden the importation of slaves into the state . Most settlers in Texas ignored the restrictions and instead converted their slaves to servants indentured for 99 years . African slaves were still imported into Texas occasionally , and a ship carrying slaves docked in Galveston Bay as the convention met . This ship , like most others used to import slaves , came from Cuba , which was a possession of Spain . Because Spain did not officially recognize Mexican independence , delegates considered this trade treasonous to Mexico .
Delegates ordered that the resolution be printed in newspapers in the Mexican interior and in New Orleans . It was not printed in Texas , clearly indicating that it was intended to influence public opinion in the Mexican interior rather than in Texas . The resolution was not binding , and slaves continued to be imported to Texas through Cuba .
Despite a vocal minority advocating for the unilateral implementation of the proposals , delegates agreed to present the requests to the Mexican Congress for approval . They did agree to take action if it appeared their demands would be ignored . As their last act , delegates elected Austin , James Miller , and Erasmo Seguín to deliver their petitions to Mexico City . Seguin , a prominent citizen of San Antonio de Béxar , had not attended the convention . Delegates hoped Austin could persuade Seguin to accompany him , thus implying that Tejanos supported the resolutions .
= = Preparations for delivery = =
When the convention adjourned on April 13 , Austin went directly to San Antonio de Béxar to meet with Seguin . Seguin called a series of meetings , held from May 3 to 5 , for prominent locals to discuss the convention proceedings . He was the only Béxar resident to fully support separate statehood . Other residents suggested that the capital of Coahuila y Tejas should be moved to San Antonio de Béxar , giving Texas more power . There was precedent for this ; under Veramendi , the capital had just been moved from Saltillo to Monclova . If the legislature rejected the move , these residents vowed to support separate statehood .
A third group of residents believed that the convention , like its predecessor , was illegal . Under their interpretation of the laws , only the state legislature would be able to petition the Mexican Congress for such a drastic change . Austin argued that the laws really meant that no one could petition on behalf of the people unless the people had been consulted , and the convention served as that consultation . The meetings ended with no agreement on how to proceed . Austin wrote that " the people here agree in substance with the rest of Texas , but differ as to the manner , and will express no opinion for , nor against " .
Seguin declined to accompany Austin . Miller also withdrew . Texas was in the throes of a cholera epidemic , and Miller , a physician , felt it his duty to stay and tend the sick . Austin then visited Goliad but was unable to attract any more Tejano support . He chose to go to Mexico City alone ; he had visited several times and had established a good reputation among government officials . Although he was warned that his reception would likely be poor , he ignored suggestions to delay his journey .
= = Reception = =
Within the Mexican interior , rumors abounded that Texas was on the verge of revolution . Many citizens in Matamoros believed Texians had already declared independence and were raising an army . Santa Anna was infuriated , especially at the involvement of Houston , a former officer in the United States military .
Immediately after Santa Anna had taken office in April , he had handed over all decision @-@ making authority to his vice president , Valentín Gómez Farías , and retired to the countryside . Farías enacted many federalist reforms , which angered citizens and army leaders . Much of the country was clamoring for a return to centralism , yet Texians wanted to take further steps toward self @-@ rule . By the time Austin arrived in Mexico City on July 18 , several Mexican states had engaged in minor revolts against Farías 's reforms . Although Texians had expelled troops within their province before Santa Anna and Farías took office , many officials identified the province with the other rebellious states and were suspicious of Austin 's intentions .
The cholera epidemic reached Mexico City within days of Austin 's arrival , prompting Congress to adjourn before Austin could present the convention 's resolutions . As he waited for the legislature to reconvene , Austin heard rumors that Texians were planning a third convention to unilaterally declare themselves a separate state . Although Austin was also frustrated at the lack of progress , he disapproved of this drastic proposal . In an attempt to quell the more radical groups in Texas , in October Austin sent a letter to the ayuntamiento in San Antonio de Béxar in which he proposed that all of the ayuntamientos should jointly form a new state government . In what could be interpreted as an inflammatory gesture , Austin signed his letter " dios y Tejas " ( " God and Texas " ) rather than the traditional Mexican closing " dios y libertad " ( " God and liberty " ) . A few days after he had posted the letter , the immigration ban was repealed , assuaging one of the major Texian concerns .
Austin had expected the letter to reach his friend Músquiz , who could be trusted to determine when or if it was appropriate to publicly disclose its contents . The letter arrived while Músquiz was out of town and was read by an unsympathetic ayuntamiento member . At this member 's request , the ayuntamiento of San Antonio de Béxar forwarded the letter to state officials in Coahuila . The new governor , Francisco Vidaurri y Villaseñor , ordered Austin 's arrest . Austin was arrested in December on suspicion of treason . He was imprisoned through all of 1834 and remained in Mexico City on bond until July 1835 .
During Austin 's imprisonment , the government addressed several more of the convention 's proposals . At Santa Anna 's urging , the Coahuila y Tejas legislature enacted several measures to placate the Texians . In early 1834 , Texas gained an additional seat in the state legislature . An American immigrant was named state Attorney General , and , for the first time , foreigners were granted explicit permission to participate in retail trade . Several American legal concepts , including trial by jury , were introduced to Texas , and English was authorized as a second language . Finally , the state created four new municipalities in Texas : Matagorda , San Augustine , Bastrop , and San Patricio . In a letter to a friend , Austin wrote " Every evil complained of has been remedied . This fully compensates me for all I have suffered . "
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= Annika Zeyen =
Annika Zeyen ( born 17 February 1985 ) is a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ point wheelchair basketball player , who has played for ASV Bonn and RSV Lahn @-@ Dill in the German wheelchair basketball league , and for the University of Alabama in the United States . She has also played for the national team , with which she won three European titles , was the runner @-@ up at 2010 World Championships , won silver at the 2008 Summer Paralympic Games in Beijing , and won a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , for which President Joachim Gauck awarded the team Germany 's highest sporting honour , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) .
= = Biography = =
Zeyen was born on 17 February 1985 . She is nicknamed " Anni " . At the age of 14 , she was involved in a serious horse riding accident that left her paralysed . During rehab , she was introduced to the sport of wheelchair basketball . She left the hospital and started looking for a club where she could play .
Zeyen joined ASV Bonn , initially playing with the youth team , then with the seconds , and finally with the firsts . In 2001 , she played in the German Championships for Women , and was named most valuable young player . In 2004 , she switched to RSV Lahn @-@ Dill , with which she won several German championships . She was invited to try out for the national team , and joined its development squad . She competed in her first paralympic games , the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens . She subsequently played for the national team that won the European championships in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 and 2011 .
In September 2008 , Zeyen participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , but Germany was beaten in the gold medal match by the United States team , which contained three of her former team mates from the University of Alabama , Stephanie Wheeler , Mary Allison Milford and Alana Nichols . The German team took home Paralympic silver medals instead . After the Paralympics , the team 's performance was considered impressive enough for it to be named the national " Team of the Year " , and it received the Silver Laurel Leaf , Germany 's highest sporting honour , from German President Horst Koehler .
Zeyen took up a scholarship to the University of Alabama in 2009 , majoring in advertising and minoring in graphic design . She maintained a 4 @.@ 0 grade point average . Her team at the University of Alabama won three titles in five years , narrowly missing out in March 2013 to the University of Wisconsin – Whitewater , which won the championship game 55 – 41 , a game in which Zeyen scored 11 points . Zeyen was named an Academic All @-@ American in 2012 and 2013 .
In June 2012 , Zeyen was named as one of the team that competed at the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . In the Gold Medal match , her team faced Australia , a team that had defeated them 48 – 46 in Sydney just a few months before . They defeated the Australians 58 – 44 in front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal , the first that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball in 28 years . They were awarded a Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , and were again named Team of the Year for 2012 .
The German team lost the European Championship to the Netherlands before a home town crowd of 2 @,@ 300 in Frankfurt in July 2013 by a point , 56 @-@ 57 . The game was televised live in Germany , and cameras lingered on a tearful Zeyen , who could have tied the game and sent it into extra time with a free throw in its dying moments .
In April 2014 , Zeyen was part of the BG Baskets Hamburg team that won the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Euro League Challenge Cup , its first International title , with a 62 – 54 over the Frankfurt Mainhatten Skywheelers . The team also won the Fair Play Award of the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Europe , and Zeyen was elected to its All Star team .
= = Achievements = =
2005 : Gold at European championships ( Villeneuve d 'Ascq , France )
2006 : Bronze at World Championships ( Amsterdam , Netherlands )
2007 : Gold at European championships ( Wetzlar , Germany )
2008 : Silver at the Paralympic Games ( Beijing , China )
2009 : Gold at the European Championships ( Stoke Mandeville , England )
2010 : Silver at the World Championships
2011 : Gold at the European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold at the Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : Silver at the European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
= = Awards = =
2008 : Team of the Year
2008 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
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= Limnoperdon =
Limnoperdon is a fungal genus in the monotypic family Limnoperdaceae . The genus is also monotypic , as it contains a single species , the aquatic fungus Limnoperdon incarnatum . The species , described as new to science in 1976 , produces fruit bodies that lack specialized structures such as a stem , cap and gills common in mushrooms . Rather , the fruit bodies — described as aquatic or floating puffballs — are small balls ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 mm diameter ) of loosely interwoven hyphae . The balls float on the surface of the water above submerged twigs . Experimental observations on the development of the fruit body , based on the growth on the fungus in pure culture , suggest that a thin strand of mycelium tethers the ball above water while it matures . Fruit bodies start out as a tuft of hyphae , then become cup @-@ shaped , and eventually enclose around a single chamber that contains reddish spores . Initially discovered in a marsh in the state of Washington , the fungus has since been collected in Japan , South Africa , and Canada .
= = Taxonomy , classification and phylogeny = =
The family , genus and species were first described in a 1976 publication by graduate students Gustavo Escobar and Dennis McCabe , and undergraduate Craig Harpel who , in the fall of 1974 , found the fungus as part of " a class project to find and isolate phycomycetes " . The holotype is located in the University of Washington Mycological Herbarium . An isotype ( duplicate of the holotype specimen ) is located in the Herbarium of the University of El Salvador in San Salvador .
Limnoperdon incarnatum was originally thought to be associated with the Gasteromycetes , an artificial assemblage of species united by the fact that their spores mature inside the fruit bodies and are not forcibly discharged from the basidia . Other morphologically similar genera include the Gasterella of the family Gasterellaceae , and the Protogaster of the family Protogastraceae ; however , it was excluded from these genera because of significant differences in spore color and structure , presence of clamp connections , and structure of the basidia . For these reasons the new family Limnoperdaceae was described to contain the new species , and it was classified along the Protogastraceae in the ( now defunct ) order Protogastrales . More recently , molecular phylogenetics has been used to clarify the relationship Limnoperdon with other fungi . In 2001 , David Hibbett and Manfred Binder established the membership of Limnoperdon incarnatum in the euagarics clade , a phylogenetically related group of species traditionally forming the order Agaricales . Additional molecular studies have placed Limnoperdaceae in the pluteoid clade of the Agaricales , a grouping that includes the families Pluteaceae , Amanitaceae , and Pleurotaceae ; other studies that used comparisons of ribosomal DNA sequences placed Limnoperdon near the gilled genera Melanoleuca or Resupinatus , of the Tricholomataceae family .
A 2007 field study that used molecular techniques to survey aquatic fungal taxa in a small springbrook in Valley Spring , Southern Ontario , Canada discovered many fungal taxa with high genetic affinity to Limnoperdon incarnatum , which suggests that a closely related species may also be common in streams .
= = Description = =
The genus description is similar to the family description , but further specifies that the fruit bodies float , are sometimes embedded in a loose subiculum ( a woolly or net @-@ like growth of hyphae ) , and that the spores are reddish . The fungus has been described as an " aquatic puffball " , although a later review considered " floating puffball " to be a more apt descriptor .
The fruit bodies of L. incarnatum are tiny , oval to roughly spherical , and measure 35 – 1250 by 200 – 450 μm . The floating balls are sometimes enclosed in a loose subiculum , with a whitish surface that is byssoid ( consisting of fine threads ) . The peridium ( the outer protective tissue layer ) is 18 – 30 μm thick , byssoid , and made of clamped hyphae typically 2 @.@ 5 – 4 μm in diameter intertwined with dendrophyses ( irregularly branched cystidia ) 1 μm in diameter . The surface of the peridium is hydrophobic , a feature that helps keep water off the growing hymenium during its development , and gives the fruit body buoyancy .
The gleba is a single chamber , reddish in color , with a cavity that has an oblate spheroid shape . Initially empty , in maturity it is filled with spores that measure 330 – 1220 by 180 – 420 μm . The smooth inner surface of the chamber comprises the fertile spore @-@ bearing tissue ( the hymenium ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) — conspicuous when viewed under the microscope — are hyaline ( translucent ) , more or less club @-@ shaped , and usually have basal and apical swellings separated by a narrow strip of variable length . The basidia are four @-@ spored , and have inflated sterigmata with a central constriction . The basidia measure 20 – 90 ( typically 25 – 55 ) μm long by 8 – 10 μm thick . Reddish in mass , the spores are obovate ( egg @-@ shaped , with the broad extremity located away from the base ) , smooth , thick @-@ walled , and measure 11 – 16 ( typically 12 – 15 ) by 7 – 10 μm . They have a beaked pedicel that is 2 – 4 by 2 – 5 μm , and a basal germ pore .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The species was originally discovered floating in petri dishes that contained submerged hardwood twigs previously collected from a marsh next to a playground on the south shore of Lake Union in Seattle , Washington . After the initial 1976 publication , L. incarnatum was reported the following year when Keisuke Tubaki recovered it from wood blocks submerged in brackish water in Japan ; scientists Seiya Ito and T. Yokoyama later reported collecting it in Japanese rice paddy fields . Later surveys uncovered the fungus in several localities in South Africa and in freshwater ponds in Canada .
= = Development = =
Escobar grew cultures of the fungus by placing fresh fruit bodies on agar containing growth medium with an extract of horse dung . The tips of the hyphae were used to obtain axenic cultures ; the fungus can grow on a variety of media commonly used to grow fungi in the laboratory . Depending on the composition of the growth media , fruit bodies were formed as early as eight days after initiating , when grown at 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and under dim light . When minute agar blocks containing mycelium were submerged in distilled water , mycelial strands grew towards the water surface and eventually gave rise to floating fruit bodies connected to the parent agar block by strands of hyphae .
Mycologist Dennis McCabe studied the development of the fruit body using specimens grown in pure culture . Starting out as a hyphal tuft , the fungus grows into a cup shape before eventually closing in completely to create the spherical structure of the mature fruit body . When the fungus is in the cup stage , the exposed hymenium is immature ; typically , spores develop after the fruit body is fully closed . In some cases , the fruit body stops developing at the cup stage while the hymenium continues to mature . This results in a cup @-@ shaped fungus with an exposed layer of basidia bearing normal and mature spores . Limnoperdon incarnatum is a structurally simple fungus , and relatively easy to grow in culture , suggesting it may have potential as a model organism for fruit body development in general . Under the experimental conditions used , fruit bodies matured to produce spores about 72 hours after the fungus started growing . The aborted cups resemble the sporocarps of the cyphelloid fungi , but can be distinguished by their orthotrophic spore attachment and the lack of ballistospory ( forceful spore discharge ) . McCabe and Escobar later suggested that the fungus may have evolved the loss of ballistospory by being compensated with the cup @-@ shaped fruit body closing at maturity . Halocyphina villosa is another small cup @-@ shaped Basidiomycete fungus that has adapted to a marine environment ; in contrast to L. incarnatum , however , it starts out with a closed fruit body that later opens up to become cup @-@ shaped .
Although it is not known with certainty how the spores are dispersed , they may disperse passively in the water , or a mature spore @-@ containing fruit body may float on the water surface for dispersal . L. incarnatum is homothallic , a mode of reproduction commonly employed by marine fungi that may confer a competitive advantage in marine environments .
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= Nevada State Route 564 =
State Route 564 ( SR 564 ) is an east – west highway in Clark County , Nevada , in the southeast portion of the Las Vegas Valley . The route travels through the city of Henderson , connecting Interstate 215 ( I @-@ 215 ) and I @-@ 515 / U.S. Route 93 ( US 93 ) / US 95 to Lake Mead . The route was designated in 2002 , replacing a portion of SR 146 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 564 begins as a continuation of the Las Vegas Beltway , starting where I @-@ 215 ends at its junction with I @-@ 515 / US 93 / US 95 . From there , the route travels east along Lake Mead Parkway , a major arterial roadway , towards downtown Henderson to cross Boulder Highway ( SR 582 ) . After entering the center of Henderson , SR 564 turns northeast near residential areas . The route then turns east just west of Lake Mead National Recreation Area . The road enters the park , near by Lake Las Vegas . State maintenance ends , and the road continues east . Around 52 @,@ 500 vehicles travel on the highway near its western terminus on average each day .
= = History = =
In the late 1970s , the highways in the state highway system were renumbered . SR 41 was split into two state routes . SR 146 is a started from I @-@ 15 to US 93 / US 95 in Henderson . SR 147 started from US 93 / US 95 to North Las Vegas . A limited access highway alignment from US 93 / US 85 started construction in 1985 – 86 . An interchange was built for SR 146 in 1989 – 90 , and the highway was completed by 1995 – 96 . The designation I @-@ 515 was added to the highway . In the same period , SR 147 's designation was removed from eastern section of Lake Mead Drive , and replaced by SR 146 . As the Las Vegas Beltway ( I @-@ 215 ) was being constructed in the late 1990s , the last five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) between Saint Rose Parkway and Interstate 515 were constructed on the SR 146 alignment . This left SR 146 in two separate segments . The eastern segment of SR 146 was reassigned to SR 564 by 2002 . I @-@ 215 from SR 146 to SR 564 's western terminus was completed in October 2005 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Henderson , Clark County .
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= Sotra Bridge =
The Sotra Bridge ( Norwegian : Sotrabrua ) is a suspension bridge which crosses Knarreviksundet between Knarrevik in Fjell and Drotningsvik on the mainland of Bergen in Hordaland , Norway . It carries two road lanes and two narrow pedestrian paths of National Road 555 , providing a fixed link for the archipelago of Sotra . The bridge is 1 @,@ 236 metres ( 4 @,@ 055 ft ) long , has a main span of 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) and a clearance of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . In 2007 , it had an average 25 @,@ 494 vehicles per day .
The bridge was brought into use on 11 December 1971 , although not officially opened until 1972 . It cost 40 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) to build , of which NOK 23 @.@ 5 million was paid for with tolls , which were collected until 1983 . When it opened , it was the longest suspension bridge in Norway , but is now the seventh longest . There exist plans to build a second bridge to either expand the road to four lanes , or carry a proposed extension of the Bergen Light Rail . Alternatively , a subsea tunnel could be built to carry a motorway .
= = Specifications = =
The concrete bridge crosses Knarreviksundet , which separates the island of Litlesotra , part of the Sotra archipelago , from the mainland and Bergen . The western part of the bridge , on Sotra , lies in Knarrevik in Fjell , while the eastern part lies in Drotningsvik in Bergen . The bridge is 1 @,@ 236 metres ( 4 @,@ 055 ft ) long with a main span of 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) . It carries two lanes of National Road 555 , with a combined width of 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) . In addition , it has a 0 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 2 ft 7 in ) wide sidewalk on each side . In 2009 , it had an annual average daily traffic of 25 @,@ 494 vehicles . Because it is located across the sound , the bridge is vulnerable to winds from the north and south . It is closed whenever the wind speed exceeds 30 metres per second ( 98 ft / s ) .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The first discussion of a bridge in a public forum was in 1954 , when Anton P. Torsvik proposed a bridge to the major and municipal engineer of Fjell . Torsvik lived in Oslo and had worked with public relations for various other bridge projects . The issue was discussed in the municipal councils of Fjell and Sund , but they both concluded that there were more pressing needs on the islands ' road network , so they did not want to prioritize a bridge . National Road 555 was completed in 1957 , and the following years various road projects were completed .
Another person who took up the initiative in the late 1950s was Rangvald Iversen , who was plant manager at Norwegian Talc at Knarrevik . The plant had large costs freighting their products across the sound on the Alvøy – Brattholmen Ferry . In 1958 , he took the initiative to conduct a traffic count , which along with estimates of increased traffic from other places that had replaced a ferry with a bridge , would give estimates for the revenue from tolls . Norwegian Talc also paid for a draft plan for a bridge . In 1959 , Iversen presented an estimate that a bridge would cost NOK 15 @.@ 5 million , and on 19 December 1959 , the council voted unanimously to recommend that a committee be established to continue work on the bridge plans . In 1960 , the bridge was included in the road plan for Hordaland .
There were also some plans for the future which would remove the last ferries within the Sotra and Øygarden archipelagos , meaning that the entire twin archipelago would have ferry @-@ free access to the mainland , should the Sotra Bridge be built . The plans had been spurred by a large decrease in fishing during the late 1950s , and the need for increased tax revenue from new industries . The framework for the plan started in 1961 with the creation of an inter @-@ municipal cooperation , which in 1964 resulted in the merger of the municipalities of Hjelme and Herdla to create Øygarden . On 8 May 1962 , an inter @-@ municipal road committee was established , which recommended that a limited company be established to finance the bridge . In Bergen , Bro og Tunnelselskapet had similarly built the Puddefjord Bridge and Eidsvåg Tunnel , and the inter @-@ municipal council recommended a similar model . However , they wanted a separate company for Sotra and Øygarden , so extra tolls could be used to help finance road projects on the archipelago .
On 29 June 1962 , Fjell Municipality sent an official application to the County Governor to start planning , and this was sent onwards to the Directorate for Public Roads . They concluded that it would be possible to finance the bridge with tolls collected over 13 to 14 years , with the state paying for one @-@ third of the bridge . The plans called for the bridge to run south of Norwegian Talc , but it was later routed slightly north , so that the span could be reduced from 520 to 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 710 to 1 @,@ 640 ft ) . The optimal location would be within the Norwegian Talc plant , and by placing the western pylon on a skerry , it was possible to reduce the span to 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) .
The plans from 1959 called for a height of 60 meters ( 200 ft ) , but the Public Roads Administration stated that a height of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) would be sufficient , and also help to reduce the construction costs . In 1962 , the extra costs for the higher height were estimated at NOK 4 million . Bergen Port Authority stated in 1963 that they required a height of 66 metres ( 217 ft ) , while the local newspapers felt that 50 metres ( 160 ft ) was sufficient . Bergen City Council voted in favor of the shortest proposal . The Royal Norwegian Navy supported a taller bridge , but were more willing to reduce the height than the port authority . The port authority reduced its preferred height to 62 metres ( 203 ft ) , with the road authority responding that such a clearance only existed in a very few places in the world , and that the extra costs could result in the whole project being abandoned .
It was the Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs who had the final word in the matter . A national committee was established in 1963 to make guidelines for clearances , and it recommended that 60 meters ( 200 ft ) be used in fjords and sounds where very large ships , in particular cruise ships , would pass , while 50 meters ( 160 ft ) would permissible for minor and inner parts of fjords , as well as passages where alternatives were available . The clearance of the Sotra Bridge would only be applicable for ships coming from the south , and even these had the option of sailing around Øygarden , a increased distance of 83 kilometres ( 52 mi ) . For ships from the east , the distance would be the same , while from the north they would not pass through the sound . The port authority stated on 11 November 1963 that they were willing to allow a smaller clearance , which was back up by Bergen City Council on 27 November . The ministry finalized the decision on 16 December , supporting a height of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) .
= = = Financing and construction = = =
On 2 January 1965 , the bridge committee recommended that a limited company be established to finance the bridge . The three archipelago municipalities , Fjell , Sund and Øygarden , would purchase shares for NOK 500 @,@ 000 , while another NOK 200 @,@ 000 would be purchased from the mainland municipalities and Hordaland County Municipality . The company was established as A / S Sotrabrua on 16 October 1965 , with the head office located in Fjell . The company was given authority by its owners to apply for a 20 @-@ year concession to collect tolls on a new bridge ; if the tolls gave a profit beyond covering the debt of the bridge , it was to be used for further construction of roads on Sotra and Øygarden . The company was formally registered on 12 January 1966 .
To get satisfactory conditions for the loan , the company was recommended by banks to increase the ownership equity to 10 % of the loan . The share capital was insufficient , so the company started issuing preferred shares to individuals and the companies , and managed to secure NOK 1 @.@ 7 million . An exception to the rules was made , and the company was allowed to start detailed planning before the loans had been finalized . An estimate from 1966 showed that the bridge itself would cost NOK 27 million , while the auxiliary roads would cost NOK 4 million , excluding inflation and interest during construction . On 23 November 1966 , the county council supported a proposal that one third of the construction costs be covered by national road funds . On 10 August 1967 , the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Norway gave permission that the company could borrow up to NOK 25 million . The loan was a bond sold by Bergens Privatbank and Samvirke Forsikring , consisting of one series valued at NOK 15 million issued in 1968 , and one valued at NOK 10 million issued in 1970 , with an interest of 5 @.@ 5 % and 6 @.@ 0 % , respectively . There was a five years interest @-@ only period , followed by ten years of repayment . The mortgage deed was secured in the right to collect tolls , supported by guarantees from the municipalities of Bergen , Fjell , Sund and Øygarden , and the county municipality . In addition , the company was granted loans from Bergens Privatbank , Bergens Sparebank and Vestlandsbanken for NOK 3 million , although these were never used . The state 's part of the financing was through a loan from the Regional Development Fund .
The bridge was approved by the Parliament of Norway on 5 June 1968 . An agreement regarding financing was made between A / S Sotrabrua and the Ministry of Transport and Communications on 1 July 1968 . The construction of the road would be done by Hordaland Public Road Administration , who would receive two @-@ thirds of the financing of costs up to NOK 34 million from the company . The company would also advance the state 's part of the costs , which would be repaid to the company as NOK 1 million per year , for an estimated advance of NOK 8 @.@ 3 million . The company would be responsible for any interest , including that which would be accumulated during construction , and would have the right to collect tolls on all traffic on the bridge .
The optimal crossing point ran over Norwegian Talc 's plant , and would involve placing the western pylon in the middle of their area . The company offered the authorities free land on the condition that they received a satisfactory intersection with the bridge . A formal agreement was reached in mid @-@ 1970 . On the eastern side , an area development plan had to be made , which was approved on 19 May 1967 . The necessary land not already owned by the municipalities was expropriated .
Initial plans had called for the bridge to be completed by October 1972 . On 28 December 1968 , the company asked the road administration if construction could be quickened . They estimated that the bridge could be completed by December 1971 for a price increase of NOK 750 @,@ 000 . This gave the company NOK 2 million more in profits , as it could more quickly start collecting toll revenue . The company chose to accept this extra cost . The start of construction was delayed , first by the parliamentary decision coming right before the holidays , followed immediately by a national strike by engineers . The contract for the foundation and concrete work was won by Selmer , who started work in March 1969 . The steel @-@ work contracts were issued to Høsveis , Bofa and Alfred Andersen ; despite them not having the lowest bid , the road administration chose to use the largest companies .
On 11 December 1971 , the bridge opened for traffic , and on the same day , the Alvøy – Brattholmen Ferry was terminated . In February 1972 , there were twice as many cars as there had been on the ferry in February 1971 . The official opening by King Olav V took place on 25 May 1972 . The bridge cost NOK 39 @.@ 8 million to construct . This included NOK 650 @,@ 000 for the county road between Knarrevik and Brattholmen , which had been paid for by the state . The cost the company had to pay was NOK 23 @.@ 45 million . The final estimates for the project were for NOK 34 million , and the whole cost above this was covered by the state . When it opened , the bridge was the longest in Norway .
= = = Tolls and auxiliary projects = = =
Since the bridge would be the only road from the mainland to the archipelago , tolls could be collected in only one direction . The tolls were set to NOK 40 for semitrailers , NOK 30 for buses , NOK 20 for trucks , NOK 12 for cars , NOK 5 for motorcycles , NOK 4 for bicycles , NOK 2 for adults and 1 for children . Discounts were available at the same rates as for ferries . The four people who had worked the longest on the ferry were offered the job as toll plaza employees . From 1972 , the bookkeeping of the company was transferred from the company 's secretary to Bergens Privatbank 's branch in Sotra , while the auditing was placed at Hordaland County Auditing .
In 1972 , the company collected NOK 3 @.@ 07 million in tolls , 21 % more than estimated . By 1977 , the annual income had reached NOK 5 @.@ 03 million , which was up 28 % from the estimates . From 1978 , the tolls for people were removed , resulting in about NOK 1 million less revenue per year . One of the reasons for the removal of passenger tolls was the extra time used to count passengers , which increased the queues at the toll plaza , and that the company 's debt would be covered anyway , even without the extra revenue . From 1 January 1981 , scheduled buses were also exempt from tolls , under the condition that the funds saved were used by the bus companies to strengthen public transport on Sotra . From 1980 , there was disagreement within the company as to whether the toll period should be extended to increase the subsidies to projects on Sotra and Øygarden , or if an as short as possible collection period was desirable . The board decided to terminate toll collections from 31 December 1983 . A minority of the owners wanted to extend the period for another two years , which would have given an estimated additional NOK 20 million .
The company collected NOK 73 @.@ 5 million in tolls , in addition to accumulating NOK 16 @.@ 3 million in interest . Costs , mostly for running of the toll plaza , were NOK 7 @.@ 6 million , in addition to financial costs of NOK 20 @.@ 0 million . This gave a profit of NOK 62 @.@ 4 million , including the necessary repayments of the initial loan . Because the debt had been financed with bonds , the company chose to place revenue in the bank with a higher interest instead of paying off the bonds faster . The preferred shares were repaid in 1980 , while all bonds had been repaid by 1985 . A / S Sotrabrua was formally liquidated on 9 February 1989 .
Among the company 's other goals was that of helping finance road projects on Øygarden . The most pressing issue was the section from Kolltveit on Store Sotra to the bridge , part of National Road 555 . In 1976 , the company issued NOK 5 million in an interest @-@ free loan to the project , which was repaid in 1982 and 1983 . Similar conditions were imposed for NOK 2 million for National Road 561 to Nordra Straumsundet and NOK 1 @.@ 2 million for the establishment of the Solsvik – Rong Ferry in 1974 . The rest of the subsidies were given as grants . The main project was National Road 561 , which ran from Kollveit northwards through Øygarden , for which the company paid NOK 28 @.@ 6 million . It paid a further NOK 9 @.@ 3 million for other projects in Sotra and Øygarden , including connections to Turøy and Misje .
= = Future = =
In 2005 , 8 @,@ 000 people commuted between Sotra and Bergen , and the bridge had an average daily traffic of 22 @,@ 000 vehicles . On National Road 555 between Straume , the municipal center of Fjell , and Storavatnet , where National Road 555 becomes a motorway , there are long queues during rush hour . The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has proposed a four @-@ lane motorway along National Road 555 from Stoavatnet to Straume . This will require a new crossing across Knarreviksundet . Such a motorway extension is estimated to cost between NOK 3 and 4 billion , and the government has allocated NOK 400 million in National Transport Plan 2010 – 2019 for the project . It is presumed that most of the project will be financed as a toll road .
Four main proposals were suggested for the new fixed link . One involved a four @-@ lane subsea tunnel , one involved building a second , two @-@ lane bridge immediately adjacent to the current one , which would give the impression of a single bridge , another involved a new four @-@ lane bridge slightly to the south , and the last involved a new bridge considerably further to the south , which would connect to County Road 557 .
A tunnel would consist of two sections , one from Kolltveit to Arefjord , where there would be an intersection , and one from Arefjord to Storavatnet . Both would be subsea tunnels , where the western @-@ most would be 4 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) long and reach 80 meters ( 260 ft ) below mean sea level ( BMSL ) , while the eastern tunnel would be 7 @.@ 0 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long and reach 140 metres ( 460 ft ) BMSL . This would involve the current National Road 555 being reclassified as a local road . A tunnel would be 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) longer than a bridge , which would give higher costs of roughly NOK 1000 per year for an average commuter . The tunnel would catch long @-@ distance travel ( Straume and westwards ) , while the bridge would be used for local traffic . An alternate tunnel proposal was to build it roughly 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) south of the current bridge , between Brattholmen and Håkonshella . This would connect to County Road 557 about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) south of Liavatnet .
The company Sotrasambandet AS has been established to lobby for and potentially debt @-@ finance the construction , which potentially could include other parts of National Roads 555 and 561 . In 2008 , the company estimated that it might be possible to start construction in 2013 , and complete the project by 2016 . On 21 April 2009 , State Secretary Geir Pollestad stated that the government would support a bridge , but did not indicate if a two @-@ lane or four @-@ lane solution would be chosen . The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has recommended a four @-@ lane bridge , while the Institute of Transport Economics has recommended the two @-@ lane bridge . It is largely up to the city councils of Bergen and Fjell to determine which of the bridge alternatives will be chosen .
A four @-@ lane bridge is estimated to cost NOK 2 billion . It could either be located immediately north of the current bridge , or south of Norwegian Talc . The traffic from Askøy , along County Road 562 , connects with National Road 555 at Storavatnet . Without a bypass , the increased capacity from Sotra would not be achieved without expanding the motorway from Storavatnet to the city center . In 2010 , an alternative was launched whereby a four @-@ lane bridge would be built south of Norwegian Talc , and would immediately run into a tunnel and connect to the current motorway at Liavatnet . This is the planned intersection between National Road 555 and County Road 557 ( Ring Road West ) , which would result in traffic from Sotra towards southern Bergen would not take up capacity on the current 555 motorway until after traffic from both Sotra and Askøy heading towards southern Bergen have had a possibility to head onto County Road 557 .
In June 2010 , Hordaland County Council decided that an extension of the Bergen Light Rail to Sotra was to be made part of the extension plans in the period until 2040 . For the light rail to use existing infrastructure , a bridge would have to be chosen . The road project has been criticized by environmentalists because it uniformly bases growth in transport to the archipelago based on cars , and lacks any plans for inclusion of public transport , whether by light rail or as bus lanes . Criticism has also been raised against the Norwegian Public Roads Administration being responsible for planning the public transport , as they have failed to produce efficient public transport systems in Bergen .
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= Evan O 'Neill Kane =
Evan O 'Neill Kane ( April 6 , 1861 – April 1 , 1932 ) was a surgeon working in Pennsylvania , United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , and a member of a notable Pennsylvanian family . Several other members of his family were also surgeons or physicians and their family home , Anoatok , is now a listed building .
He is most well known for the remarkable feat of removing his own appendix under local anaesthetic in 1921 at the age of 60 . He operated on himself again at the age of 70 to repair a hernia . In many ways Kane was idiosyncratic in his practices , which included the tattooing of his patients . Kane was again in the public eye when he gave evidence at the sensational trial of his son for murder .
Kane was one of the founding members of the Kane Summit Hospital and became chief surgeon there . A large part of Kane 's work was in railway surgery . In this field he contributed a number of innovations in procedures and equipment . These included asbestos bandages , mica windows for brain surgery , and multiple site hypodermoclysis .
= = Family and home = =
Kane 's father was the American Civil War Major General Thomas L. Kane , who was also the founder of the town Kane , Pennsylvania and a prominent abolitionist . Thomas L. Kane also played a role in preventing war with the Mormons through his friendship with Brigham Young . Kane 's mother , Elizabeth Denniston Wood Kane , M.D. also practiced medicine ( until 1909 ) as did his brother , William ( also called Thomas L. Kane Jr . ) ( b . 1863 ) , and his sister , Harriet Amelia ( 1855 – 1896 ) . Kane also had an elder brother , Elisha Kent Kane ( b . 1856 ) , an engineering graduate from Princeton .
Kane married his first wife Blanche Rupert on 18 May 1893 , but she died less than a year later , two weeks after giving birth to their son Elisha Kent Kane ( b . 18 March 1894 ) . He then married Lila Rupert on 1 June 1897 . With Lila he had a further six children : William Wood Kane ( b . 7 May 1898 ) , Blanche Rupert Kane ( b . 9 August 1899 ) , Bernard Evan Kane ( b . 18 February 1902 ) , Thomas Leiper Kane ( b . 3 August 1903 ) , Robert Livingston Kane ( b . 29 August 1904 ) , and his twin Schuyler Kane born on the same date .
Kane 's son , Elisha Kent Kane , was head of the Romance language department at the University of Tennessee . Elisha was charged with the murder of his wife , Jenny G. Kane ( 1898 – 1931 ) , by drowning her in Chesapeake Bay . The trial was such a sensation at the time that there were crowds of people outside the courthouse unable to find room inside . Evan Kane was instrumental in obtaining his son 's acquittal by presenting medical evidence at his trial . He established that Jenny had a heart condition that contributed to her drowning . Elisha resigned his position with the university after his trial . A book by Ann Davis , a local historian , gives a fictionalized account of these events .
The arctic explorer Elisha Kent Kane is related ( he is Evan Kane 's uncle ) , but is a different person from both Evan Kane 's son and his brother of the same name .
Kane lived in the family home Anoatok , which is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Anoatok was built by Kane 's mother to house herself , Evan O 'Neill Kane and another son , Thomas L. Kane , and their families after the original family home burned down in 1896 . The architect was Walter Cope who had married into the Kane family – to a cousin of Major General Kane . The name Anoatok , an Eskimo word , honours Elisha Kent Kane the arctic explorer . Elizabeth died in 1909 and Thomas moved his family out in 1910 into a new home also designed by Walter Cope , leaving Evan O 'Neill Kane and his family as the sole occupants . Anoatok remained Kane 's home and office until his death .
Kane died of pneumonia at the age of 70 in 1932 , shortly after the trial of his son and just a few months after his major hernia operation .
= = Kane Summit Hospital = =
In 1887 , Elizabeth Kane together with two of her sons , Evan and William , founded the Woodside Cottage Hospital in Kane . The concept of a cottage hospital originated with Major General Kane , who thought that wounds healed better " in the Kane air " , but he died in 1883 , some years before Elizabeth founded the hospital . Around 1892 the hospital , together with its patients , was moved to a larger site , built on land donated by Elizabeth Kane , and was thereafter known as Kane Summit Hospital . Evan graduated from Jefferson Medical College , Philadelphia in 1884 . He practiced as a physician in Kane and later became chief surgeon of the Kane Summit Hospital , a position he held at the time of his own appendectomy operation . He died at his own hospital in 1932 . The facility ceased work as a hospital in 1970 , but the building is still used by Kane Community Hospital for administration .
Kane Summit Hospital , as a public hospital , received charitable grants from the State of Pennsylvania . The tight family control of the hospital led to complaints from local physicians , who claimed that they were not able to freely use the hospital . Patients were admitted on condition that Evan O 'Neill Kane , as the chief surgeon , had the final say in their treatment . The complaining physicians felt that they alone should be the judge of the proper treatment of their own patients and found this condition unacceptable . In February 1908 , formal complaints to the Pennsylvania Board of Charity Commissioners resulted in an investigation . The complainants were requesting that the Hospital grant should be withdrawn so this was a serious matter for the hospital , but both Evan and his assistant Thomas L. Kane were away in Florida at the time . Answering the charges fell to their brother Elisha Kent Kane , who was on the board of management of the hospital , but not the medical staff , and the hospital superintendent Dr. M. J. Hays . The hospital admission rules were changed as a result of the investigation . The commissioners found that the Kanes were not using their position to make unacceptable profits from the hospital ; on the contrary , they had made large donations , but recommended that stock holding in the hospital should be more broadly extended outside the Kane family . The commissioners also requested that the private practice offices of Evan and Thomas Kane be moved outside the hospital . Although the furnishing of these offices were paid for by the occupants , the cost of fuel , water and lighting was borne by the hospital .
= = Railway surgery = =
Kane was a railway surgeon for five different railroads . In Kane 's time , railway surgery was markedly different from surgery in a hospital and was considered to be its own field . Surgeons frequently needed to operate at great distances from a proper hospital facility , often in dirty and unsanitary conditions , and operations were performed with only basic equipment and materials . Industrial accidents on the railways resulted in many crushing injuries . A large proportion of the estimated 1 @,@ 000 operations Kane performed in the three years from 1898 to 1900 were treatment for accidents on the railways , many of which were laparotomies . Several of Kane 's medical innovations were intended to be aids to the surgeon in the field , and clearly inspired by his work as a railway surgeon .
= = Innovations and inventions = =
Kane is responsible for one of the first uses of music as a medical therapy . Starting in 1914 , he played music with a phonograph in the operating theatre prior to anaesthetizing the patient . Kane believed this had a calming effect on his patients and was more effective than simply talking to them as the surgeon was often distracted and conversations with the assistants , in his experience , soon dried up . Modern studies have shown that music can help reduce pain following an operation , and consequently also reduces the need for pain @-@ killing drugs .
Kane invented an improvement to the Murphy button , a device then commonly used for intestinal anastomosis , but now usually done with a surgical stapler . Kane was seeking a device with a larger aperture and less possibility of blockage after losing a patient to whom he had fitted a Murphy button .
Kane presented a paper to the American Academy of Railway Surgeons in 1900 addressing the difficulty of administering intravenous infusions in the field . Kane lists among the difficulties the unsterilized conditions and the tendency of veins to collapse following haemorrhage . Kane 's solution was a device which could administer multiple instances of hypodermoclyses simultaneously . Kane 's device could have up to ten needles , but Kane never used this many , as four were normally sufficient . Normal hypodermoclysis would be too slow in emergency conditions , but Kane 's invention speeded up the rate of fluid replacement many times . Kane 's device was subsequently criticised for its use of an unsealed rubber bulb by Edwin Hasbrouck , who proposed an alternative improved design . Administering hypodermoclysis at two sites for faster fluid uptake is a technique still in use today .
Kane had some novel ideas on materials for use in surgery . Influenced by his work in railway surgery , he was particularly concerned with materials that were good for use in the field and sometimes advocated the use of supplies that could be obtained locally from hardware stores and similar suppliers . He made his own bandages from woven asbestos , a material readily available at the time . Sterilising dressings , and keeping them sterilised , was a problem in the field . Unlike modern dressings — which are supplied in sealed , sterile packs — the dressings of the time had to be sterilised immediately before use . In an emergency situation there may be little time to do this . The use of fire @-@ proof bandages allowed them to be sterilised quickly in an open fire . In 1924 , Kane proposed the use of mica to repair head wounds that had exposed and damaged the brain . He cited among the advantages of this that it provided a window for the physician to observe the damage and that in an emergency in the field , mica could be obtained by removing it from a stove window , an application for which it was commonly used at the time .
Another of Kane 's innovations for use in the field was an acetylene lamp worn on the head by the surgeon . This was intended for operations carried out in the field at night . Kane says it was particularly useful for illuminating the abdominal cavity .
Kane advocated , and practiced , tattooing newborn infants ( in an inconspicuous place ) with an identifying mark matching an identical tattoo on the mother . Kane was aware of cases where claims had been made of babies being mixed up and wished to avoid any possibility of this occurring in his hospital . In Kane 's view , complex clerical systems designed to prevent errors that might be implemented in a large hospital were impracticable in a small hospital because the administrative staff to run it were simply not available . Kane also argued that it was impossible to positively prove that a mistake had not been made with a purely clerical system .
= = Do @-@ it @-@ yourself surgery = =
Kane had a history of operating on himself . In 1919 he self @-@ amputated one of his own fingers that had become infected . But it was the operation of removing his own appendix under local anaesthetic , performed on 15 February 1921 at the age of 60 , which brought him wider media attention . He is believed to have been the first to have undertaken this self @-@ operation . Dr. Kane did this , in part , to experience the procedure from the patient 's perspective . He had in mind using local anaesthesia in future on patients with medical conditions that prevented a general anaesthetic being administered , and wanted to ensure that the procedure could be tolerated by the patient . Kane believed ether ( the usual general anaesthetic of the time ) was used too often and was more dangerous than local anaesthetics . The anaesthetic used by Kane was novocaine , a fairly recent replacement for the more dangerous cocaine . Kane performed the operation , which he had carried out nearly 4 @,@ 000 times on others , with the aid of mirrors that enabled him to see the work area . At this time the operation was rather more major than today , as the incision to remove an appendix was much larger than that needed for modern keyhole surgery techniques . Nevertheless , Kane was well enough to be taken home the following day .
This operation by Kane was not only a sensation at the time — it continued to be reported for many years afterwards . For instance , Popular Science discusses it in 1933 in an article on anaesthesia . More recently , it was held up as an example of commitment in a self @-@ motivation book .
On another occasion , in 1932 at the age of 70 , Kane repaired his own inguinal hernia under local anaesthetic . The hernia had been caused by a horse riding accident six years earlier . The operation was carried out at the Kane Summit Hospital with the press , including a photographer , in attendance . This operation is more dangerous than the earlier appendectomy because of the risk of puncturing the femoral artery . The operation lasted one hour and 55 minutes . Kane was back in the operating theatre working 36 hours later .
In the latter part of his career , Kane had started signing his handiwork by tattooing on his patients the letter " K " in morse code ( — · — ) using India ink . However , during his hernia operation he became too drowsy to finish the stitching up so this task and the tattooing fell to Dr. Howard Cleveland ( who later became Chief Surgeon in 1938 ) .
= = Alcohol = =
Kane was opposed to the consumption of alcohol . Alcohol had been previously widely used as a treatment in medicine , but Kane believed that this was neither necessary nor desirable . He also spoke out against a suggestion that the sale of spirits should be reintroduced in army bases . Alcohol had ceased to be available to soldiers on base when , in a prelude to prohibition , the army canteens were abolished in 1901 . For many years Richard Bartholdt attempted to introduce a Bill reversing this decision and his efforts were supported by a petition of 279 physicians . In a letter to JAMA in 1912 , Kane railed against this with " If our soldiers cannot find agreeable amusement without booze to make it attractive it is time that a determined effort to refine their depraved taste be made by the officers , who have plenty of spare time on their hands " .
= = Publications = =
" Fire @-@ proof asbestos dressing " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.25 , no.23 , pp. 996 – 997 , 7 December 1895 .
" Cure of prostatic hypertrophy by internal pressure " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.26 , no.11 , pp. 521 – 522 , 14 March 1896 .
" A new apparatus for fracture of the clavicle " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.27 , no.11 , pp. 596 – 597 , 12 September 1896 .
" Syphilis and drunkenness " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.28 , no.20 , pp. 951 – 952 , 15 May 1897 .
" Simple device for rapid hypodermoclysis in combating shock " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.34 , no.9 , pp. 520 – 521 , 3 March 1900 .
" A new coupler for rapid intestinal anastomosis " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.38 , no.16 , pp. 1003 – 1005 , 19 April 1902 .
" Pin in appendix " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.43 , no.3 , p . 199 , 16 July 1904 .
" Acetylene headlight and reflector for night operating " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.43 , no.17 , p . 1231 , 22 October 1904 .
" Cardiac dilation and displacement due to pleurisy " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.57 , no.10 , pp. 792 – 793 , 2 September 1911 .
" Peculiar twin ectopic gestation " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.58 , no.7 , p . 475 , 17 February 1912 .
" Phonograph in operating @-@ room " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.62 , no.23 , p . 1829 , 6 June 1914 .
" Railway and army surgery – a comparison " , International Journal of Surgery , vol.29 , p . 390 , December 1916 .
" Radium therapy " , Radium , vol.7 , no.1 , pp. 16 – 20 , April 1916 .
" Absorbable metal clips as substitutes for ligatures and deep sutures in wound closure " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.69 , no.8 , pp. 663 – 664 , 24 May 1917 .
" The injury to cancer patients of securing specimens prior to operation " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.72 , no.13 , p . 955 , 29 March 1919 .
" Autoappendectomy : a case history " , International Journal of Surgery , vol.34 , iss.3 , pp. 100 – 102 , March 1921 .
Is the Practice of Medicine Worth While ? , Harrisburg , Pa : Medical Society of the State of Pennsylvania , 1921 OCLC 30681219 .
" Sheet mica in brain surgery " , Journal of the American Medical Association , vol.82 , no.21 , p . 1714 , 24 May 1924 .
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= Fu ( poetry ) =
Fu ( Chinese : 賦 ) , variously translated as rhapsody or poetic exposition , is a form of Chinese rhymed prose that was the dominant literary form during the Han dynasty ( 206 BC – AD 220 ) . Fu are intermediary pieces between poetry and prose in which a place , object , feeling , or other subject is described and rhapsodized in exhaustive detail and from as many angles as possible . Classical fu composers attempted to use as wide a vocabulary as they could , and often included great numbers of rare and archaic terms in their compositions . Fu poems employ alternating rhyme and prose , varying line length , close alliteration , onomatopoeia , loose parallelism , and extensive cataloging of their topics .
Unlike the songs of the Classic of Poetry ( Shijing 詩經 ) or the Verses of Chu ( Chu ci 楚辭 ) , fu were meant to be recited aloud or chanted but not sung . The fu genre came into being around the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC and continued to be regularly used into the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . Fu were used as grand praises for the imperial courts , palaces , and cities , but were also used to write " fu on things " , in which any place , object , or feeling was rhapsodized in exhaustive detail . The largest collections of historical fu are the Selections of Refined Literature ( Wen xuan 文選 ) , the Book of Han ( Han shu 漢書 ) , the New Songs from the Jade Terrace ( Yutai xinyong 玉臺新詠 ) , and official dynastic histories .
There is no counterpart or similar form to the fu genre in Western literature . During a large part of the twentieth century , fu poetry was harshly criticized by Chinese scholars as excessively ornate , lacking in real emotion , and ambiguous in its moral messages . Because of these historical associations , scholarship on fu poetry in China almost ceased entirely between 1949 and the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 . Since then , study of fu has gradually returned to its previous level .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The term " fu " , when applied to Chinese literature , first appears in the Zhou dynasty ( c . 1046 – 221 BC ) , where it meant " to present " , as in poetic recitations . It was also one of the three literary devices traditionally assigned to the songs of the Classic of Poetry ( Shijing 詩經 ) . Over the course of the late 1st millennium BC , fu became the name of poetic expositions in which an author or composer created a comprehensive exposition and performed it as a rhapsody . Han dynasty historian Ban Gu in the " Monograph on Arts and Letters " defined fu as " to recite without singing " ( bù gē ér sòng 不歌而誦 ) .
Fu poetry is often viewed as a descendant of the Verses of Chu ( Chu ci 楚辭 ) songs combined with the rhetorical expositions of the Intrigues of the Warring States ( Zhanguo ce 戰國策 ) . During the golden age of fu in the 2nd century BC , many of the greatest fu composers were from the southwestern area of Shu ( modern Sichuan Province ) . A chapter of Xunzi containing a series of riddles has been theorized to be the earliest known fu . The earliest preserved and definitely datable fu is Jia Yi 's " Fu on the Owl " ( Fúniǎo fù 鵩鳥賦 ) , composed about 170 BC . Jia 's surviving writings mention an earlier fu he wrote upon his exile to Changsha which he modeled upon Qu Yuan 's " Encountering Sorrow " ( Li Sao 離騷 ) , but it has not survived to the present .
= = = Han dynasty = = =
Much of the surviving Han fu and other poetry survives through Six Dynasty anthologies and other sources , such as quotations embedded in various works .
= = = = Western Han = = = =
Fu achieved its greatest prominence during the early Han dynasty . Jia Yi 's " Fu on the Owl " , written around 170 BC , was composed following on the third year of his exile to Changsha , and uses much of the style of the Li Sao and other songs of the Verses of Chu . " Fu on the Owl " , besides being the earliest known fu , is unusual in the author 's extended use of philosophical reflection upon his own situation in life .
Emperor Wu of Han ascended the throne in 141 BC , and his 54 @-@ year reign is considered the golden age of " grand fu " ( Chinese : 大賦 ; pinyin : dàfù ) . Emperor Wu summoned famous fu writers to the imperial court in Chang 'an , where many of them composed and presented fu to the entire court . The earliest grand fu of Emperor Wu 's reign is " Seven Stimuli " ( Qī fā 七發 ) , by Mei Sheng ( 枚乘 ; d . 140 BC ) . In " Seven Stimuli " , Mei Sheng acts as a Warring States @-@ style travelling orator who tries to cure a Chu prince of an illness caused by overindulgence in sensual pleasures by pushing his senses to their limits with his fu descriptions .
Of all the authors from the golden age of " grand fu " composition , Sima Xiangru is generally considered to be the greatest . A native of Chengdu , he was traditionally said to have been summoned to the imperial court after Emperor Wu happened to personally read his " Fu of Sir Vacuous " ( Zǐxū fù 子虛賦 ) , though this is almost certainly a story added later . After arriving in the capital around 136 BC , Sima Xiangru expanded his " Fu of Sir Vacuous " into his magnum opus , " Fu on the Imperial Park " ( Shànglín fù 上林賦 ) , generally considered the most famous fu of all . This work , whose original title was probably " Fu on the Excursion Hunt of the Son of Heaven " ( Tiānzǐ yóuliè fù 天子遊獵賦 ) , is a grand celebration of the Emperor 's personal hunting park east of Chang 'an , and is famed for its rich number of rare and difficult words and characters . If not for the survival of Chinese scholar Guo Pu 's early 4th century AD annotations to " Fu on the Imperial Park " , much of its ancient and esoteric terminology would now be unintelligible .
The grand fu of the Western Han dynasty were read and recited as celebrations of pure poetic delight , and were the first pieces of Chinese literature to fuse both unrestrained entertainment and moral admonitions together in single works . However , after the reign of Emperor Wu , his court culture began to be criticized as having placed undue emphasis on the grandiose language in fu and therefore having missed opportunities to encourage moral restraint . The most prominent critic of " grand fu " was the other great fu writer of the Han dynasty : Yang Xiong . As a youth , Yang was an admirer and imitator of Sima Xiangru 's fu , but later came to disapprove of grand fu . Yang believed that the original purpose of fu was to " indirectly admonish " ( fèng 諷 ) , but that the extended rhetorical arguments and complex vocabulary used in grand fu caused their hearers and readers to marvel at their aesthetic beauty while missing their moral messages . Yang juxtaposed early Han dynasty fu with the fu @-@ like expositions in the Classic of Poetry , saying that while those in the Poetry provided moral standards , the fu of the Han poets " led to excess " . While known as one of the fu masters of the Han dynasty , Yang 's fu are generally known for their focus on admonishing readers and listeners to uphold moral values .
= = = = Eastern Han = = = =
Two of the most famous fu writers of the Eastern Han period were the polymaths Zhang Heng and Cai Yong . Among Zhang Heng 's large corpus of writings are a significant number of fu poems , which are the first to have been written in the shorter style that became typical of post @-@ Han fu . Zhang 's earliest known fu is " Fu on the Hot Springs " ( Wēnquán fù 溫泉賦 ) , which describes the hot springs at Mount Li ( modern Huaqing Pool ) which famously later became a favorite of Imperial Concubine Yang during the Tang dynasty . " Fu on the Two Metropolises " ( Èr jīng fù 二京賦 ) is considered Zhang 's masterpiece . Zhang spent ten years gathering material for the fu , a response to an earlier fu by Ban Gu that is a poetic comparison between the two capitals of the Han dynasty : Luoyang and Chang 'an . Zhang 's fu is highly satirical and cleverly mocks many aspects of the Western Han period , including Emperor Wu himself The piece contains long passages colorfully describing life in the two capitals in great detail , including the entertainment areas .
Cai Yong , like Zhang Heng , was a prolific writer in addition to his mathematical , astronomical , and musical interests . In AD 159 , Cai was summoned to Chang 'an to perform on the Chinese zither for the imperial court , but became ill shortly before arriving and returned to his home . Cai composed a poetic record of his journey in " Fu on Recounting a Journey " ( Shù xíng fù 述行賦 ) , his most well @-@ known fu . In " Fu on Recounting a Journey " , Cai cites examples of treacherous and dishonest rulers and officials from Chinese history , then criticizes the eunuchs of the capital for similar crimes .
A number of fu writers from the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD became considered great fu poets , and were noted for their descriptions of the chaos and destruction following the collapse of the Han dynasty . Wang Can , who lived as a refugee in Chu following the assassination of Dong Zhuo in AD 192 , wrote a famous fu entitled " Fu on Climbing the Tower " ( Dènglóu fù 登樓賦 ) in which Wang movingly describes climbing a tower near Jingzhou and gazing longingly in the direction of his home in Luoyang . Poets often used subjects of descriptive fu poems to symbolize themselves , as in " Fu on the Parrot " ( Yīngwǔ fù 鸚鵡賦 ) , by Mi Heng , in which Mi uses a caged parrot as an allegory for a scholar whose talents go unrecognized and whose inability to control his tongue results in his captivity . During the Three Kingdoms period , the court of the warlord Cao Cao and his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi became a famous literary salon , and a number of fu poems from their court have survived to modern times .
= = = Six Dynasties = = =
During the Six Dynasties period ( 220 – 589 ) , fu remained a major part of contemporary poetry , although shi poetry was gradually increasing in popularity . Six Dynasties fu are generally much shorter and less extravagant than Han dynasty fu , likely due to a tradition of composing works entirely in parallel couplets that arose during the period . While lyrical fu and " fu on things " had been starkly different forms in the Han dynasty , after the 2nd century AD the distinction mostly disappeared . Although the extravagant fu style of the Han mostly disappeared , " fu on things " continued to be widely written .
Xie Lingyun is one of the best @-@ known poets of the entire Six Dynasties period , second only to Tao Yuanming . In contrast to his older contemporary Tao , Xie is known for the difficult language , dense allusions , and frequent parallelisms of his poetry . Xie 's greatest fu is " Fu on Dwelling in the Mountains " ( Shān jū fù 山居賦 ) , a Han @-@ style " grand fu " describing Xie 's personal estate that borrows its style from the famous " Fu on the Imperial Park " by Sima Xiangru . Like classical Han fu , the poem uses a large number of obscure and rare characters , but " Fu on Dwelling in the Mountains " is unique in that Xie included his own annotations to the poem , without which the poem would be nearly incomprehensible .
During the Liang dynasty ( 502 – 587 ) , fu continued to be a popular form of literature , though it began to merge with the popular five- and seven @-@ syllable poetry forms , which completely eclipsed fu during the Tang dynasty . Some fu pieces , such as Shen Yue 's " Fu on Dwelling in the Suburbs " ( Jiāo jū fù 郊居賦 ) — an homage to Xie Lingyun 's " Fu on Dwelling in the Mountains " — followed the traditional forms and subjects of classical fu , but an increasing number did not . " Fu on Lotus @-@ picking " ( Cǎi lián fù 採蓮賦 ) , by Xiao Gang ( later Emperor Jianwen of Liang ) , is a short , lyrical fu that mixes freely with popular lyric poetry , and portrayed southern China as a romantic land of pleasure and sensuality . Lotus @-@ picking was an activity traditionally associated with peasant women , but in the early 5th century became a popular topic in fu and poetry .
Yu Xin is generally considered the last great fu poet of Chinese history . Yu , like Yan Zhitui , was born in the south but forced to relocate to northern China after the south 's defeat , and spent the rest of his career writing of the loss of the south as a loss of an entire culture and way of life . Yu 's most famous piece is " Fu on Lamenting the South " ( Āi Jiāngnán fù 哀江南賦 ) , in which he describes his life 's experiences in the context of the larger context of the destruction of the south and its culture .
= = = Tang and Song dynasties = = =
The fu genre changed rapidly during the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . During the early Tang , a new form of fu called " regulated fu " ( lǜfù 律賦 ) supplanted the original form . " Regulated fu " had strict rules of form and expression , and required the use of consistent rhymes throughout each piece . Additionally , rules were created to govern the arrangement of tones in each poem , as the introduction of Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit and Pali had stimulated the Chinese to methodical study of their own language and the identification of the four tones of Middle Chinese . Beginning in the Tang dynasty , these " regulated fu " were required for the composition sections of the imperial examinations . Tang writers added new topics to the traditional subjects of fu , such as purely moral topics or scenes from Chinese antiquity . The " parallel fu " ( piānfù 駢賦 ) was another variant of the fu developed in the Tang , and was only used for rhetorical compositions .
In 826 , Tang poet Du Mu 's poem " Fu on E @-@ pang Palace " ( Ēpáng gōng fù 阿房宫賦 ) laid the foundation for a new form of fu called " prose fu " ( wénfù 文賦 ) , in which prose is freely rhymed . This form of fu became the dominant fu form during the late Tang and the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . By the 9th and 10th centuries , traditional fu had become mainly historical pursuits , and were largely read and copied because of their inclusion on the imperial examinations .
= = Topics = =
= = = " Fu on things " = = =
Between 130 – 100 BC , Emperor Wu greatly expanded China 's territory into Central Asia , northern Vietnam , and the Korean Peninsula through a series of military campaigns and invasions . As the expansion progressed , a large number of foreign plants , animals , goods , and rarities were brought to the imperial capital at Chang 'an . Throughout the Han dynasty , court officials and poets often composed special fu called " fu on things " ( yǒngwù fù 詠物賦 ) on these new and unusual things , in which they described and catalogued extensively . These " fu on things " became a major genre in fu poetry , and cover a vast number of instruments , objects , and phenomena .
Ban Zhao , one of the most famous female poets of Chinese history , wrote a well @-@ known fu during the reign of Emperor He of Han entitled " Fu on the Great Bird " ( Dà què fù 大雀賦 ) , believed to be a description of an ostrich brought to the Han court from Parthia around AD 110 . Scholar Ma Rong wrote two well @-@ known fu on ancient board games : his " Fu on Chaupar " ( Chūpú fù 樗蒲賦 ) , which the Chinese believed to actually have been invented by Laozi after he departed west out of China , and his " Fu on Encirclement Chess " ( Wěiqí fù 圍棋賦 ) , one of the earliest known descriptions of the game Go . Han dynasty librarian Wang Yi , best known as the compiler of the received version of the Verses of Chu , wrote several object @-@ description fu in the early 2nd century AD , such as " Fu on the Lychee " ( Lìzhī fù 荔枝賦 ) , the earliest known poetic description of the lychee fruit .
The literary salon of Cao Pi 's court produced a number of notable " fu on things " in which a group of poets known as the Seven Masters of the Jian 'an period each composed their own version of the fu . During this period , Cao Pi was once presented with a large agate of unusual quality which Cao had made into a bridle . Each of the men composed their own " Fu on the Agate Bridle " ( Mǎnǎo lè fù 瑪瑙勒賦 ) for the occasion . Another object @-@ description fu from the Cao court is " Fu on the Musāragalva Bowl " ( Chēqú wǎn fù 硨磲碗賦 ) , which was a bowl made of a coral- or shell @-@ like substance from somewhere near India , which was then known as the " Western Regions " .
One of poet Shu Xi 's ( 束皙 ; AD 263 – 302 ) fu has become well known in the history of Chinese cuisine : his " Fu on Pasta " ( Bǐng fù 餅賦 ) is an encyclopedic description of a wide variety of dough @-@ based foods , including noodles , steamed buns , and dumplings , which had not yet become the traditional Chinese foods they are in modern times . Western Jin poet Fu Xian 's " Fu on Paper " ( Zhǐ fù 紙賦 ) is well known as an early description of writing paper , which had only been invented about 150 years earlier .
= = = Sociopolitical protest = = =
Part of the legacy associated with the fu is its use as a form of sociopolitical protest , such as the theme of the loyal minister who has been unjustly exiled by the ruler or those in power at the court , rather than receiving the promotion and respect which he truly deserves . In the Verses of Chu , one of the works attributed to Qu Yuan is the " Li Sao " , which is one of the earliest known works in this tradition , both as ancestral to the fu as well as its incorporation of political criticism as a theme of poetry . The theme of unjust exile is related to the development of Xiaoxiang poetry , or the poetry stylistically or thematically based upon lamenting the unjust exile of the poet , either directly , or allegorically through the use of the persona of a friend or historical figure ( a safer course in the case of a poet @-@ official who might be punished for any too blatant criticism of the current emperor ) . During the Han Dynasty , along with the development of the fu stylistically , the idea that it incorporate political criticism through indirection and allegory also developed . Han Dynasty historian and author Ban Gu in his Book of Han pointedly refers to a fu by Qu Yuan as a literary example of the use of the theme of the loyal minister who has been unjustly exiled , rather than receiving the promotion and respect which he truly deserves . As Hellmut Wilhelm puts it : " ... the Han fu can easily be classified into a limited number of types . All types have one feature in common : almost without exception they can be and have been interpreted as voicing criticism — either of the ruler , the ruler 's behavior , or certain political acts or plans of the ruler ; or of the court officials or the ruler 's favorites ; or , generally , of the lack of discrimination in the employment of officials . The few examples that are positive in tone recommend the authors or their peers for employment , or even contain specific political suggestions . In short , almost all fu have a political purport , and , in addition , almost all of them deal with the relationship between the ruler and his officials . " Seen in context , Ban Gu 's discussion of Qu Yuan and the Chu sao style is less to the point of the actual evolutionary path of the fu and more to the point that the main purpose of the fu is political and social criticism through poetic indirection : thus , in fu , paradoxically , the " fantastic descriptions and an overflowing rhetoric ... can be reduced to ... restraint " , as the sociopolitical criticism which was key to the fu was constrained within a very subtle , elaborately indirect , occasional , and allusive mode .
= = Collections = =
Fu pieces comprise the first main category in the Wen Xuan ( Selections of Refined Literature ) , an early Chinese literary anthology which is still extant . The Selections collects all known fu pieces from the early Han dynasty to its compilation in the 6th century AD , during the Liang dynasty ; it has since been the traditional source for studying classical fu .
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries , during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor , scholar Chen Yuanlong ( 1652 – 1736 ) compiled a collection of all known fu extant in his day , publishing his collection in 1706 as Collection of Fu Through the Ages ( Lìdài fù huì 歷代賦彙 ) . Chen 's Collection in total contains 4 @,@ 155 fu .
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= Tephrosia apollinea =
Tephrosia apollinea is a legume species , native to southwest Asia ( the Levant , Arabia , Socotra , Iran , Pakistan , northwestern India ) and northeast Africa ( Egypt , Sudan , Ethiopia , Eritrea , Djibouti , Somalia ) .
The leaflets of the plant are obovate @-@ oblong and equal @-@ sided , and of a silky texture . The fruits ( legumes ) are typically one to two inches ( 2 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 1 cm ) long and contain six or seven brownish seeds . The species typically grows in areas where the soils are relatively deep , especially in semi @-@ arid and wadi areas , and on terraces and slight inclines and hills .
Tephrosia apollinea is known to be toxic to goats . Although it has been used in Oman to treat bronchitis , cough , earache , nasal congestion and wounds and bone fractures , as of 1993 its wider impact on humans had not been assessed . It can be used to make indigo dyes , and the leaves and those of other plants are used to make hot drinks by the Bedouin in parts of Sinai and the Negev .
= = Description = =
The leaflets of the plant are obovate @-@ oblong , somewhat wedge @-@ shaped , equal @-@ sided , and of a silky texture . The mid @-@ rib is usually folded longitudinally , and they are characterized by parallel transverse veins . The fruits ( legumes ) are typically one to two inches long ( 2 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 1 cm ) and contain six or seven brownish seeds . The plant displays purple flowers during season ; they are described as their most attractive in the month of January . It typically grows to 45 – 50 cm in height , and can grow on mountains with an altitude of over 3000 ft . ( 914 m ) . Both diploid ( 22 chromosomes ) and tetraploid ( 44 chromosomes ) cytotypes have been reported .
The roots of Tephrosia apollinea are deep , penetrating soils to a depth of 3 metres or more , aiding the absorption of moisture from the soil . Moisture is stored in the cortex of the roots , which is protected by a thin periderm . Water storage in the cortex enables growth and reproduction during times of drought , which allow it to thrive in both arid and semi @-@ arid conditions and to survive during winter and summer months at times of low rainfall . The roots grow at a faster rate than the shoots themselves , and even at the early stage of the plant displaying a shoot the length of a cm , the roots may already be 30 cm or more in length .
A proposed 1993 treatment of T. apollinea as a subspecies of Tephrosia purpurea noted some regional variations , with plants in the Eastern Desert of Egypt possibly producing smaller pods , leaves , and leaflets , and plants from oases having densely pubescent spreading hairs . Among the features they described as differentiating the apollinea subspecies from the nominate purpurea subspecies were that apollinea has somewhat longer pods ( 3 @.@ 5 – 5 or sometimes 5 @.@ 5 cm , rather than 3 – 4 cm ) , a wider range in the quantity of seeds per pod ( generally 7 – 9 , as low as 3 , rather than generally 5 – 6 , or sometimes 7 ) , the pods being curved upwards rather than downwards , and leaflets having 9 rather than 7 lateral veins .
= = Taxonomy and names = =
The plant was initially named Galega apollinea by Alire Raffeneau Delile in 1813 , and moved to the genus Tephrosia by Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link in 1822 .
Its treatment as a subspecies of Tephrosia purpurea , called Tephrosia purpurea subsp. apollinea , was proposed by Hasnaa A. Hosni and Zeinab A. R. El @-@ Karemy in 1993 . This treatment has not been accepted by the databases The Plant List , International Legume Database & Information Service , or Tropicos . Hosni and El @-@ Karemy treated T. apollinea and T. purpurea as a single species after finding that their previous descriptions " agree in most of their characters and the distinction between typical forms is rather difficult ... " The full name with authorities under their revised classification is Tephrosia purpurea ( L. ) Pers. subsp. apollinea ( Delile ) Hosni & El @-@ Karemy .
In parts of southern Arabia the species carries the vernacular name of hailara , and it is also known as dhafra , dhawasi , omayye or nafal to Arabs , and written as رﮭﻔط in the Arabic language . In the Sinai area of Egypt it is referred to by the Bedouin as sanna or senna . It is also known as amioka in parts of Sudan . Due to its traditional use in making indigo dyes , Tephrosia apollinea has also been referred to as " Egyptian indigo " .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
The species is recorded in the northeast African nations of Djibouti , Egypt , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Somalia , and Sudan , the Western Asian nations of Iran , Israel , Jordan , Oman , Saudi Arabia , South Yemen , the United Arab Emirates , and Yemen ( including the Yemeni island of Socotra ) , and the South Asian nations of India and Pakistan . Within India , it is documented in the western states of Gujarat , Maharashtra , and Rajasthan .
The species , cited as a " leguminous desert forb " , typically grows in areas where the soils are relatively deep , especially in semi @-@ arid and wadi areas , and on terraces and slight inclines and hills . In Saudi Arabia it has been found scattered among species such as Zilla spinosa , Rhanterium epapposum , Astragalus spinosus , Gymnocarpos decandrum , Achillea fragrantissima and Halothamnus bottae on the edges of the slopes of desiccated lakes .
It has been well documented in sources in Egypt and Sudan . In 1866 the Pharmaceutical Journal stated that it was found as a contaminant in Alexandrian senna , being found in cultivated fields in the valleys to the east and south of Assouan , in the Elephantine Islands , opposite Assouan , along the Nile , and Edfou and Hermonthis . In Israel it grows in the Judean desert , the Dead Sea Valley , the Negev hills and Eilat .
In wadi areas of the Yemen it tends to grow on desert alluvial shrubland , and coexist with Fagonia indica , Cymbopogon schoenanthus and Boerhavia elegans . An example of Tephrosia apollinea was found by Harry St John Bridger Philby in 1936 at Raiyan , about 150 miles ( 240 km ) northeast of Sana 'a . In Socotra , an island off the coast of Yemen , it is typically found in the Croton shrubland of lowland plains at altitudes of between sea level and 100 metres on overgrazed soils , along with Cassia holsericea . In a 2000s analysis of vegetation in the woodlands of northern Socotra , the species was found to coexist with Achyranthus aspera , Ageratum conyzoides , Bidens chinensis , Forsskaolea viridis , Hibiscus vitifolius , Indigofera coerulea , Leucas urticifolia , Setaria adhaerens and Solanum incanum .
Tephrosia apollinea is also found in the United Arab Emirates and in Oman , where it inhabits the Jiddat al @-@ Harasis desert and dominates the beds of wadis in mountains such as Jebel Shams .
= = Toxicity = =
Tephrosia apollinea is cited as " unpalatable " , although the seeds of the plant are reportedly a favourite of sandgrouse inhabiting the scrub @-@ desert of northern Sudan , and the butterfly Colias croceus is known to feed on it . This has allowed it to colonize the landscape in parts of the Middle East which have been overgrazed , especially at lower altitudes .
The species is known to be toxic to goats ; a study published in the early 1980s revealed that 11 out of 12 goats died after 1 to 40 days of daily oral dosing of Tephrosia apollinea shoots ( fresh or dried ) , and that they displayed adverse reactions to ingesting it such as dyspnoea , weakness of the limbs and joints causing instability in movement , changes in fat composition , catarrhal enteritis , and hemorrhage in the heart , lungs , and intestinal mucosa . Rotenoids extracted from the seeds of the plant also caused complete mortality in Aphis craccivora , when applied at a concentration of 0 @.@ 1 % for 48 hours .
= = Uses = =
Tephrosia apollinea can be used to make indigo dyes . The species was noted to be commonly cultivated for this purpose in Nubia in the 1800s .
The plant is known for its medicinal properties and has significant anti @-@ bacterial properties ; the leaves and the root have been used to treat bronchitis , cough , earache , wounds and bone fractures by herbalists in countries like Oman . The ground leaves of Tephrosia apollinea are also inhaled to reduce nasal congestion , or boiled with water to make eardrops . Powdered bark can be mixed with water and poured into the ears of camels to alleviate ticks , and powdered leaves can be used as a paste in the treating of wounds . It can also be rubbed on limbs in conjunction with Fagonia indica and Ocomim basilicum to treat people affected with polio .
Although unpalatable when consumed raw , when boiled the leaves of Tephrosia apollinea and numerous other plants are used to make hot drinks by the Bedouin in parts of Sinai and the Negev . But herbal doctors in Oman warn that Tephrosia apollinea can be potentially harmful to humans , and as of 1993 it had not been fully analyzed chemically to assess the wider impact it could have on health .
= = Phytochemistry = =
When dried , the leaves of Tephrosia apollinea were found to contain 4 @.@ 4 % moisture , 21 @.@ 1 % of crude protein , 19 @.@ 8 % of crude fiber , and 10 @.@ 9 % of ash . A chemical analysis found that it contains rotenoids , isolflavones , flavanones , chalcones , and flavones , The chloroform extract of the aerial part of Tephrosia apollinea also revealed seven new 8 @-@ prenylated flavonoids , including tephroapollin A @-@ G ( 1 @-@ 7 ) .
In 2006 , researchers of Oman 's Sultan Qaboos University published their findings from a chemical investigation into the leaves in which they found it contained semiglabrin , semigalbrinol , and a new flavanone named apollineanin . One 2014 study revealed that pseudosemiglabrin extracted from the aerial parts of Tephrosia apollinea had an antiproliferative effect on cancer cell lines .
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= Ontario Highway 420 =
King 's Highway 420 , commonly referred to as Highway 420 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connects the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) with downtown Niagara Falls . It continues east as a limited @-@ access expressway named Niagara Regional Road 420 to connect with the Rainbow Bridge international crossing between Canada and the United States over the Niagara River ; this was part of Highway 420 until 1998 . West of the QEW , the freeway ends at an at @-@ grade intersection with Montrose Road ( Niagara Regional Road 98 ) . The highway has a speed limit of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) , making it the only 400 @-@ series highway to have a speed limit less than 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) for its entirety .
Originally constructed as a divided four lane road with two traffic circles , the route of Highway 420 formed part of the QEW between 1941 and 1972 before being assigned a unique route number . This took place during the reconstruction of the four lane divided highway into a freeway and the construction of the large interchange at the freeway 's western terminus . In 1998 , the section of Highway 420 east of Stanley Avenue was transferred to the responsibility of the Regional Municipality of Niagara and redesignated as Regional Road 420 .
= = Route description = =
At 3 @.@ 3 km ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) , Highway 420 is the shortest 400 @-@ series highway , travelling through Niagara Falls from Montrose Road to Stanley Avenue , on the outskirts of the city 's tourist district . East of Stanley Avenue ( Regional Road 102 ) the highway becomes Niagara Regional Road 420 and is known as Falls Avenue and Newman Hill on approach to the Rainbow Bridge . This portion was designated a part of Highway 420 until 2000 , when it was transferred to the City of Niagara Falls and the Regional Municipality of Niagara , although the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) still assists with the maintenance of it under a Connecting Link agreement . East of Drummond Road , Highway 420 features stylized light fixtures with the letters " ER " , which stand for Elizabeth Regina and are a tribute to The Queen Mother .
Highway 420 begins in the west at a signalized intersection with Montrose Road ( Regional Road 98 ) , west of which it continues as Watson Street through the residential neighbourhood of Greens Corners to Beaverdams Road ( Regional Road 53 ) . East of Montrose Road , the highway is a four lane roadway divided by a raised paved median , and passes north of a forest as it approaches a large interchange with the QEW . In addition to a parclo interchange that provides almost all directional movements , this four @-@ level stack interchange features two flyovers that arc from south to east as well as a four lane mainline that curves from north to east , directing most westbound Highway 420 traffic onto the Toronto @-@ bound QEW .
East of the QEW , Highway 420 encounters an interchange with Dorchester Road as both cross the Queenston @-@ Chippawa Power Canal . This interchange was originally a traffic circle that was removed in the early 1970s . The numerous lanes from the stack interchange to the west begin to converge between residential subdivisions east of Dorchester Road , gradually narrowing to four through lanes at the Drummond Road interchange . After passing beneath Portage Road , the route widens on approach to an at @-@ grade intersection with Stanley Avenue . This intersection is the eastern end of both the freeway segment of the route and the signed King 's Highway 420 ; east of Stanley Avenue the route is signed as Niagara Regional Road 420 and known as Falls Avenue .
Now separated by a landscaped median , the route progresses eastward , intersecting MacDonald Avenue and providing access to several residential / retail properties that adjoin the road . The route travels through a concrete trench and abruptly curves to the southeast as it passes beneath Victoria Avenue , with which there is a simple interchange . East of this point , the road was named Newman Hill until March 2012 . Palmer Avenue and Ontario Avenue overpass the route as it descends a hill towards the Niagara Gorge . At the bottom , the route curves to the southwest , where it provides access to the Rainbow Bridge border crossing into the United States as well as the tourist district of the city .
Due to its association with the number 420 in cannabis culture , Highway 420 is also the location for the annual Cannabis Conference and Protest , usually taking place sometime around April 20 . The event includes a march beginning near Niagara Falls and travelling to Highway 420 .
= = History = =
= = = Rainbow Bridge Approach = = =
The history of Highway 420 predates its designation by nearly 75 years , tied in with the crossing of the Niagara Gorge between the twin cities of Niagara Falls . The first level crossing between the two cities was the Honeymoon Bridge , constructed in 1898 . The 14 m ( 46 ft ) wide structure spanned 255 m ( 837 ft ) between the Canadian and American sides , 58 m ( 190 ft ) above the Niagara River . Its narrow design proved to be a fatal flaw , and on January 27 , 1938 , under the weight of a massive ice jam in the river , the structure collapsed . A day later , both the owners of the previous bridge — the International Railway Company ( IRC ) — as well as the Minister of Highways Thomas Baker McQuesten announced intentions to construct a new span ; a long political battle ensued for several years over the merits of private or public ownership of border crossings . In the end , the Niagara Falls Bridge Commission ( NFBC ) paid the IRC $ 615 @,@ 000 to purchase the right @-@ of @-@ way of the old bridge as well as the rights to construct the new one . The future Rainbow Bridge was royally dedicated by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth on June 7 , 1939 , just hours after the couple dedicated the QEW .
On May 16 , 1940 , Samuel Johnson , the vice @-@ chair of the NFBC , and McQuesten , who in addition to his parliamentary role was chair of the commission , ceremonially turned the first sod for the new bridge using a two @-@ handled shovel . However , construction had begun two weeks earlier on May 4 . The new bridge was assembled over the following 18 months ; the design was prepared by New York engineering firm Waddell & Hardesty and supervised by the Edward Lupfer Corporation , the latter the designers of the Peace Bridge . The new structure was located 167 m ( 548 ft ) downstream from the Honeymoon Bridge , as the gorge is slightly wider at that point , resulting in a 288 m ( 945 ft ) span .
Meanwhile , McQuesten was overseeing the construction of the QEW between Toronto and Fort Erie . The new dual highway , inspired by German Autobahns , was the first of its kind in Canada . However , the start of World War II in September 1939 would temporarily halt his ambitions , as funding was quickly shifted to the war effort . As a result , construction on the new superhighway was put on hold south of Niagara Falls . McQuesten officially opened the QEW on August 23 , 1940 ; the pavement ended south of Lundy 's Lane . Despite the war , work began on a link between the highway and the Rainbow Bridge through the centre of Niagara Falls . This link would not be completed in time for the opening of the new bridge .
On November 1 , 1941 , the Rainbow Bridge was officially opened during a simple ceremony . The oldest living couple known to have wed in Niagara Falls , a pair from Pennsylvania , were the first to cross , followed by a newlywed couple from Georgia . This symbolically tied the history of the two bridges together , and was followed by McQuesten and Johnson walking towards the centre of the structure from the Canadian and American sides , respectively , and shaking hands at the centre . Several explosions followed and the bridge was opened to traffic .
Work continued on the four lane bridge approach throughout 1941 , and by the summer of 1942 it was possible to drive directly from the bridge onto the QEW . The new link featured a traffic circle at Dorchester Road as well as at the QEW . Four gravel lanes opened between Niagara Falls and Fort Erie during the summer of 1941 , becoming the main route of the QEW . As a result , what would become Highway 420 was referred to by several names , including the Queen Elizabeth Way Extension ( and known by locals for decades as the " Queen E Extension " ) and the Rainbow Bridge Approach .
= = = Upgrade to freeway = = =
During the mid @-@ 1960s , the DHO examined the possibility of extending the freeway portion of the route east towards the Rainbow Bridge . They began to purchase properties lining Roberts Street in 1966 . In 1971 , construction began on a three @-@ level stack interchange between the QEW and the Rainbow Bridge Approach . This removed the two traffic circles along the approach . The interchange between the QEW and Lundy 's Lane ( Highway 20 ) was also removed ; instead , the new stack interchange included access to Montrose Road . By April 1972 , the Rainbow Bridge Approach was designated as Highway 420 .
In 1998 , the Niagara Falls Transportation Study was released , recommending that Roberts Street be rebuilt as a gateway to the city as opposed to a freeway . Highway 420 east of Stanley Avenue was subsequently transferred to Niagara Region . While the section near the QEW junction has high @-@ mast lighting , like other provincial freeways , the rest of the route ( including Regional Road 420 ) had the " ER " lightposts to commemorate the route 's historical status as the original routing of the QEW .
On September 23 , 2010 , Highway 420 was designated as the Niagara Veterans Memorial Highway . On January 31 , 2012 , Niagara Regional Council approved the renaming of Roberts Street and Newman Hill as an extension of Falls Avenue , beginning March 1 . Prior to this , Falls Avenue curved into Newman Hill at the Rainbow Bridge .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 420 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in the Regional Municipality of Niagara . All exits are unnumbered .
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= Beck v. Eiland @-@ Hall =
Beck v. Eiland @-@ Hall is a case filed in 2009 before the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) , a United Nations agency . It was filed by political commentator Glenn Beck against Isaac Eiland @-@ Hall , concerning the website " GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlIn1990.com " . Eiland @-@ Hall created the site as a parody to express the view that Beck 's commentary style challenged his guests to prove a negative . The site 's name was based on a joke first used by comedian Gilbert Gottfried at the 2008 Comedy Central Roast of Bob Saget , in which Gottfried jokingly implored listeners to disregard the ( non @-@ existent ) rumor that Saget had raped and murdered a girl in 1990 . Online posters began an Internet meme comparing Gottfried 's joke with Beck 's style of debate , by requesting Beck disprove he had committed the act in question . Eiland @-@ Hall launched his website on September 1 , 2009 .
Beck filed a complaint to the WIPO under the Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy ( UDRP ) , arguing the domain name of the website was defamatory and asserted trademark infringement in its use of his name . Eiland @-@ Hall filed a response brief to WIPO which cited the U.S. Supreme Court case Hustler Magazine v. Falwell , asserting the website 's domain name was a form of free speech and satirical political humor .
Beck made a supplemental filing in the case arguing the domain name was misleading and might lead individuals to believe it contained factual information . Eiland @-@ Hall filed a surreply and stated Beck had depreciated the value of the First Amendment by attempting to evade its reach in a legal proceeding outside U.S. courts . On October 29 , 2009 , WIPO ruled against Beck , concluding that Eiland @-@ Hall was making a political statement through parody in a justified usage of the Glenn Beck mark .
Commentators noted Beck 's actions led to a Streisand effect ; his suit against the website drew increased attention to it . Representatives of Public Citizen , the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Citizen Media Law Project were all of the opinion that Beck 's trademark argument in his complaint against the website was ridiculous . The assistant director of the Citizen Media Law Project applauded WIPO 's decision , saying , " It 's good to see that this WIPO arbitrator had no interest in allowing Beck to circumvent the guarantees of the U.S. Constitution . " Beck 's representative declined comment to PC Magazine about the conclusion of the case . Lawyers for Beck did not respond to a request from National Public Radio for a comment about the WIPO ruling .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
= = = = Gilbert Gottfried joke = = = =
Gilbert Gottfried was a featured comedian at the Comedy Central Roast of Bob Saget which first aired on August 16 , 2008 . At Saget 's roast , Gottfried jokingly begged listeners to disregard the ( nonexistent ) rumor that his fellow comedian " raped and killed a girl in 1990 " . Gottfried repeatedly warned the audience at the roast not to spread the rumor , which did not exist before the comedian 's speech . The audience in attendance at the Comedy Central Roast were both shocked and amused by the preposterous nature of Gottfried 's joke which seemed more ludicrous each time he repeated it .
= = = = Internet meme = = = =
On August 31 , 2009 , a post on the Internet discussion community Fark applied Gottfried 's joke to Glenn Beck . Online posters compared the Internet meme to Beck 's style of arguing , requesting Beck disprove that he had committed the act in question . The meme spread to social @-@ media websites , including Encyclopedia Dramatica , Reddit , Yahoo ! , Answers.com , YouTube , Twitter and Digg.com. A variation of the Googlebomb technique was used , in which Google provided " Glenn Beck murder " as a search suggestion in a query for " Glenn Beck " .
Isaac Eiland @-@ Hall , a 34 @-@ year @-@ old computer science student in Panama City , Florida , saw the discussion on Fark using the Gottfried joke on Beck and created a website , GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlIn1990.com , intending it as a parody of Beck 's style of political commentary . He chose not to identify with the WHOIS service and decided to remain anonymous . Eiland @-@ Hall used the domain name registrar Namecheap for his site . It was launched on September 1 , 2009 , and received over 120 @,@ 000 page views during its first 24 hours . The website asserted that it did not believe the charges were true . Eiland @-@ Hall wrote on the site that those furthering the meme were asserting Beck used a similar strategy to promote his opinions and increase his viewership .
The webpage originally displayed a small text disclaimer at the bottom , stating that the site was satirical . Eiland @-@ Hall later placed two prominent disclaimers at the top of the page , which identified it as parody . The disclaimer at the top of the website 's main page stated its entire contents was parody , and included a link to a larger disclaimer at the bottom of the page . The site criticized Beck 's tactic of challenging those he opposes to prove a negative . Eiland @-@ Hall told Politics Daily that after reading the initial thread at Fark which started the meme , he came to the conclusion that for those involved online participation in its propagation was a form of catharsis . He explained in an interview with Ars Technica that it was a means of utilizing Beck 's strategies to criticize him and a way to focus exasperation around Beck 's style of commentary into action . Eiland @-@ Hall 's website inspired copycat parodies .
= = = Litigation = = =
= = = = Beck initiates legal action = = = =
By September 3 , 2009 , attorneys representing Mercury Radio Arts , Glenn Beck 's media company , had requested that the domain registrar of Eiland @-@ Hall 's website delete the site . Beck 's lawyers characterized the site 's location as libelous . They demanded that the domain registrar revoke the WhoisGuard privacy @-@ protection service for the website , and turn over contact information for the then @-@ anonymous Eiland @-@ Hall . The registrar , NameCheap , refused . On September 4 , 2009 , Beck 's lawyers sent another letter to the domain registrar , repeating their requests and noting that they had read the website 's contents and were therefore aware from statements posted to the site that its operator had been notified by the registrar .
Their second letter to NameCheap observed that the site was still operational on September 4 , 2009 , in spite of their prior requests on behalf of Beck . The domain registrar changed the name server of the website without telling Eiland @-@ Hall ; after contacting the registrar , he was permitted to return to his original name server . In an interview with Gawker on September 9 , 2009 , Eiland @-@ Hall remarked that Beck 's attorneys contacted the registrar of the domain , his hosting provider , as well as the company which housed the servers for his website . He noted that the hosting provider informed him they would not cooperate with the requests from Beck 's lawyers unless they received a court order .
= = = = WIPO complaint = = = =
In September 2009 , lawyers for Beck and Mercury Radio Arts filed a complaint with the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) under the Uniform Domain @-@ Name Dispute @-@ Resolution Policy ( UDRP ) against the privacy service for Eiland @-@ Hall 's website . WIPO is a Switzerland @-@ based agency of the United Nations . The rules of WIPO 's Arbitration and Mediation Center were created by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ( ICANN ) . The privacy service for the website revealed the identity of the site 's owner in response to Beck 's complaint .
The complaint stated that Eiland @-@ Hall was trying to distort perceptions about the purpose and derivation of the site . Beck argued that the domain name of the website could be confused with his trademark , " Glenn Beck " . The complaint described the website 's domain name as libelous claiming that it encroached upon Beck 's legally registered claim of his name . Beck did not claim libel or defamation in the complaint , focusing on the legal issue of trademark . The complaint asserted that the website itself contained factually inaccurate information , was unauthorized and defamatory , and that it was highly probable it would create uncertainty among Beck 's potential customers .
Beck 's complaint asserted that the domain name of the website was an example of bad @-@ faith registration . It argued that Eiland @-@ Hall had no legitimate interest in , or right to , the website 's domain name . As of September 2009 Beck was in the process of trademarking the use of his name for " goods and services " , including the usage of " Glenn Beck " on merchandise .
= = = = Eiland @-@ Hall response = = = =
Eiland @-@ Hall retained First Amendment rights lawyer Marc Randazza to represent him . According to Randazza , Eiland @-@ Hall sought legal representation after he was contacted with legal requests from lawyers representing Beck . On September 28 , 2009 Randazza filed a 17 @-@ page response brief on behalf of his client , asserting that the website 's domain name was a form of protected political speech and satirical political humor . According to Randazza , the website was used for satirical purposes and its owner was not attempting to profit from it . Randazza wrote that an individual would have to be a pathetic idiot to come under the impression that his client 's website was directly affiliated with Beck , contending that the website 's domain name could not be confused with the " Glenn Beck " trademark except to " a moron in a hurry " .
Randazza asserted that Beck had insufficiently demonstrated trademark rights to his name , " Glenn Beck " , and claimed that Beck was actually trying to have the website taken down because he did not appreciate the criticism through satire which parodied Beck 's own techniques . He argued that Eiland @-@ Hall had legitimate rights to his website 's domain name because of its use to criticize Beck using political satire and as part of the Internet meme which had begun on the Fark website .
The brief gave a short history of Internet phenomena , including video parodies of the German film Downfall , memes based on the film 300 , " Hitler Hates Kanye West " , " All your base are belong to us " , " Mr. Spock Ate My Balls " , and the gerbil story involving Richard Gere .
Randazza traced the website 's origin , explaining the internet meme 's roots in Gilbert Gottfried 's joke . He then spelled out the root comedic intent of Eiland @-@ Hall 's website , in an explanation he termed the humor equation :
( Outrageous Accusation ) + ( Celebrity ) + ( Question Why the Celebrity Does Not Deny the Accusation ) = ( Confirmation of the Falsity of the Accusation + Laughter )
The Eiland @-@ Hall response brief cited a clip of Beck interviewing United States Congressman Keith Ellison , a Muslim from Minnesota . Beck had stated to U.S. Representative Ellison , " No offense and I know Muslims , I like Muslims , I 've been to mosques , I really don 't think Islam is a religion of evil . I think it 's being hijacked , quite frankly . With that being said , you are a Democrat . You are saying let 's cut and run . And I have to tell you , I have been nervous about this interview because what I feel like saying is , sir , prove to me that you are not working with our enemies . And I know you ’ re not . I ’ m not accusing you of being an enemy . But that ’ s the way I feel , and I think a lot of Americans will feel that way . " It was argued that this was an example of Beck 's interview style in which he challenged his guests to prove a negative . Randazza concluded Beck 's rhetorical style was similar to Gottfried 's , simply devoid of comedic intent .
Randazza 's argument compared the case to the Supreme Court of the United States case Hustler Magazine v. Falwell . Randazza wrote that Beck was attempting to evade the First Amendment to the United States Constitution by filing the legal process with an agency of the United Nations instead of in a U.S. court . In the legal brief , Randazza pointed out that Beck 's action of going to the WIPO in an attempt to get the website taken down was in contradiction to his prior statements saying he preferred United States law over international law .
On September 29 , 2009 , Randazza requested that Beck voluntarily ask that the First Amendment be applied to the arbitration case , despite its international setting . Randazza made this request because Beck 's political commentary favored the United States Constitution over international law . Randazza 's September 29 , 2009 letter to Beck 's attorneys cited statements by Beck in which he indicated he preferred United States law over international law . Beck had said , " Once we sign our rights over to international law , the Constitution is officially dead . " Randazza 's letter concluded : " I am certain that neither party wishes to see First Amendment rights subordinated to international trademark principles , thus unwittingly proving Mr. Beck 's point . Lest this case become an example of international law causing damage to the constitutional rights that both of our clients hold dear , I respectfully request that your client agree to stipulate to the application of American constitutional law to this case . "
On October 8 , 2009 , Randazza was interviewed about the case on the WPRR radio program , Declaring Independence . He explained why Beck did not file a libel lawsuit in the United States . He pointed out that because Beck was a public figure he had to prove a legal standard referred to as actual malice , and show that Eiland @-@ Hall knew his assertions were inaccurate . He explained that this did not apply to Eiland @-@ Hall 's website even if it was knowingly inaccurate , because the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Hustler Magazine v. Falwell that no proof is needed for an absurd statement made in the context of satire .
= = = = Supplemental filing and surreply = = = =
Beck submitted a supplemental filing in the case on October 13 , 2009 . In the supplemental filing , his attorneys argued that the joke of the Eiland @-@ Hall website was not obvious ; therefore , the website 's domain name was misleading . The filing asserted : " While there is absolutely nothing humorous or amusing about the statement made by Respondent in his domain name that ' Glenn Beck Raped and Murdered a Young Girl in 1990 , ' the average Internet user finding the domain name GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlin1990.com ( " Disputed Domain Name " ) in a search would have no reason not to believe that they will be directed to a website providing factual information ( as opposed to protected criticism or similar protected speech ) about Mr. Beck . "
On October 20 , 2009 , Eiland @-@ Hall filed a surreply in response to Beck 's supplemental filing . Eiland @-@ Hall asserted in the surreply that Beck was the butt of a viral joke which was protected speech even if it was not perceived as comedic in nature by the subject . He stated Beck had depreciated the value of the First Amendment by attempting to evade its reach in a legal proceeding outside U.S. courts .
= = = = WIPO ruling = = = =
On October 29 , 2009 , the WIPO ruled against Glenn Beck in the case . For Beck to have prevailed in the case , the WIPO court would have had to have ruled in Beck 's favor on three issues : that the domain name could be mistaken for the mark " Glenn Beck " ; that Eiland @-@ Hall did not have a justifiable stake in the name , and that the domain name was " bad faith " . On the first point , WIPO arbitrator Frederick M. Abbott ruled that the domain name could be confused with the " Glenn Beck " mark . On the issue of profit from Beck 's mark WIPO ruled that there had not been substantial commercial activity to warrant this particular claim . Abbott was the sole arbitrator on the WIPO panel .
Abbott concluded that Eiland @-@ Hall had legitimate interests in the website 's name for purposes of political satire in the form of comedic parody . Abbott did not draw a conclusion on the third point , noting that it was unlikely that Beck would have prevailed on the " bad faith " issue . Abbott wrote that the determination of whether the website is defamatory would not be an issue for WIPO . Instead , the WIPO limited the case 's scope to a determination of whether the website registrant had engaged in " abusive domain name registration and use " .
= = = Eiland @-@ Hall gives domain to Beck = = =
On November 6 , 2009 , Eiland @-@ Hall wrote to Beck , giving him control of the domain free of charge , and providing Beck with its username and password . Eiland @-@ Hall wrote that he had made his point , and the act of filing the complaint exacerbated the situation for the complainant . Eiland @-@ Hall explained his rationale for giving away the domain name , citing his desire to protect the applicability of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution had been satisfied .
Techdirt reported on November 6 , 2009 , that GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlIn1990.com was a dead site ; by November 10 the domain name was registered to Beck 's company , Mercury Radio Arts . In a notice posted to one of his other websites , Eiland @-@ Hall wished Beck ( then suffering from appendicitis ) well , and characterized the conclusion of the case as a success . In a post on his blog , Eiland @-@ Hall 's lawyer Marc Randazza described the case as a victory for freedom of speech .
Beck did not respond to Eiland @-@ Hall 's letter , and Beck 's representative declined comment to PC Magazine about the conclusion of the case . Lawyers for Beck did not respond to a request for comment about the WIPO ruling from National Public Radio .
= = Commentary = =
= = = Complaint and response = = =
Electronic Frontier Foundation attorney Corynne McSherry and Paul Levy of Public Citizen commented on the case to Ars Technica , calling Beck 's trademark claim before the WIPO ridiculous . The Citizen Media Law Project agreed with this assessment . Levy noted that domain names , in and of themselves , could be seen as defamatory ; however , the statement in the domain name would have to be deemed both false and malicious . Levy and McSherry thought that the filing may have been to ascertain Eiland @-@ Hall 's identity , which was anonymous prior to the complaint . McSherry couldn 't recall a prior case where an individual asserted a domain name was libelous . Jack Bremer of The First Post wrote that the attempt by Beck 's lawyers arguing the domain name of the website was itself defamatory had likely never occurred before in the field of information technology law .
Media commentators , including Paul Schmelzer of the Minnesota Independent , Andy Carvin of National Public Radio , and Andrew Allemann of Domain Name Wire , considered Randazza 's legal brief entertainingly written . Writing for Bostonist , Rick Sawyer called Randazza 's legal brief very funny and considered him among the uproariously amusing wordsmiths in North Shore , Massachusetts . Eriq Gardner of Adweek noted that the case had strategic import for the field of politics , referring to Beck 's style of commentary as exemplified in the interview with Congressman Keith Ellison . Chris Matyszczyk of CNET News commented on the legal issues of the case ; he asked whether it should hold to U.S. law as it involved two citizens , and additionally wondered if Beck was asserting trademark over his full name or his individual first and last names as well . Ed Brayton of ScienceBlogs called Randazza 's request that Beck stipulate to United States law intellectually creative . Daily Kos pointed out the inherent hypocrisy in Beck 's legal position of seeking redress in an international agency when compared to his prior statements criticizing foreign law in favor of U.S. law .
= = = Streisand effect = = =
Commentators analyzed Beck 's actions with respect to the " Streisand effect " . Jim Emerson of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times commented that the website 's disclaimer was not enough to dissuade attorneys representing Beck from attempting to have the site removed , which triggered the Streisand effect and backfired against their client . Jeffrey Weiss of Politics Daily wrote that by taking legal action , Beck achieved the one impact he did not desire , namely garnering more attention for Eiland @-@ Hall 's website . John Cook of Gawker noted Beck 's attempts to remove the site from the Internet helped assure it would become noteworthy because of his actions .
Mike Masnick wrote about the case on Techdirt , commenting on the effect of Beck 's actions on the meme 's spread . He observed in retrospect it would have been advantageous for Beck to have simply done nothing rather than encourage the meme as a byproduct of his attempts to remove it from the Internet . Masnick pointed out that Beck 's actions provided legitimacy to the meme 's noteworthiness . Steffen Schmidt wrote of Beck 's predicament in a Des Moines Register article : " Mr. Beck has quite a task ahead of him . Shutting down one web site is like trying to eradicate Pueraria lobata the dreaded Kudzu vine that is eating the South . " Citizen Media Law Project observed Beck had exacerbated the situation by intimating legal tactics against Eiland @-@ Hall , which served to increase the popularity of the meme and coverage of it among blogs .
= = Impact = =
At the conclusion of the WIPO case Glynnis MacNicol of Mediaite commented that those including Glenn Beck afforded freedom of speech guaranteed by the First Amendment must allow for an Internet environment with the same rights given to everyone . Brayton of ScienceBlogs pointed out that Beck and his lawyers never replied to Randazza 's request for all parties to stipulate to the U.S. Constitution and the First Amendment in the case . Brayton observed that this was irrelevant as Beck 's case was weak even when examined under the standards of the UN agency . Of Eiland @-@ Hall 's decision to turn the domain over to Beck after the conclusion of the case he commented that this was a wise strategic move . Monica Hesse of The Washington Post remarked upon the conclusion of the case that the division between what is considered libel and satire was murky , and asked whether this determination was more difficult to make on the Internet where speech can be amplified by others .
Wendy Davis of Online Media Daily commented on the potential impact of the case , and observed it was a victory for proponents of Internet rights . Davis pointed out a judgment for Beck would have enabled additional WIPO cases from individuals who were the focus of satire on the web , as a way for those people to avoid judgment in U.S. courts which adhere to First Amendment case law . John Cook of Gawker called Eiland @-@ Hall 's decision to turn the domain name over to Beck an optimal end to the affair which emphasized the ridiculousness of Beck 's actions . Citizen Media Law Project assistant director Sam Bayard applauded WIPO 's decision , noting , " It 's good to see that this WIPO arbitrator had no interest in allowing Beck to circumvent the guarantees of the U.S. Constitution . "
The Washington Post columnist Dana Milbank wrote in his 2010 book Tears of a Clown , that Beck had been baited by Eiland @-@ Hall to confirm the importance of the United Nations . Alexander Zaitchik came to a similar conclusion in his 2010 book Common Nonsense , and pointed out the discrepancy between Beck 's criticism of the United Nations as part of a New World Order with Beck 's subsequent reliance upon the WIPO where he chose to file the case . The case was cited by Jude A. Thomas in a 2011 article published in the John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law . In a discussion of the conflicts between freedom of speech and trademark , Thomas noted that panels of the UDRP have concluded website operators had fair use over domain names even in cases where the name in question was exactly the same as that trademarked by the individual filing the complaint to the WIPO .
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= Jean Bellette =
Jean Bellette ( occasionally Jean Haefliger ; 25 March 1908 – 16 March 1991 ) was an Australian artist . Born in Tasmania , she was educated in Hobart and Julian Ashton 's art school in Sydney , where her teachers included Thea Proctor . In London she studied under painters Bernard Meninsky and Mark Gertler .
A modernist painter , Bellette was influential in mid @-@ twentieth century Sydney art circles . She frequently painted scenes influenced by the Greek tragedies of Euripedes , Sophocles and Homer . She twice won the Sulman Prize , in 1942 with For Whom the Bell Tolls , and 1944 with Iphigenia in Tauris . She helped found the Blake Prize for religious art , and was its inaugural judge . Bellette married artist and critic Paul Haefliger in 1935 . The couple moved to Majorca in 1957 ; although she visited and exhibited in Australia thereafter , she did not return to live , and became peripheral to the Australian art scene .
= = Early life and training = =
Bellette was born in Hobart on 25 March 1908 and grew up an only child in rural Tasmania with her artist mother and postmaster father . Initially a student at the local Anglican school in Deloraine , at the age of 13 she became a boarder at a Friends School back in Hobart , and then at Hobart 's technical college . She was subsequently a student at Julian Ashton 's art school in Sydney . Her teachers included Thea Proctor , while fellow students included artist John Passmore . Her drawings and watercolours displayed in the 1934 student art exhibition attracted favourable comment from The Sydney Morning Herald art critic . At Ashton 's art school , Bellette met fellow Australian artist Paul Haefliger and in 1935 , they married . The following year they travelled to Europe , and Bellette ( like Passmore ) studied at the Westminster School of Art , where she was taught by figurative painters Bernard Meninsky and Mark Gertler . In 1938 , Bellette and her husband studied life drawing at Académie de la Grande Chaumière in Paris .
= = Career = =
= = = Australia = = =
Bellette and Haefliger returned to Australia just before the outbreak of World War II . Shortly after her arrival , Bellette held an exhibition at Sydney 's Macquarie Galleries . The couple became influential members of the Sydney Art Group , a network of " fashionable " moderns whose membership included William Dobell and Russell Drysdale . Bellette painted and held regular shows – " a solo show every second year and a group show every year at the Macquarie Galleries " – while her husband served as art critic for The Sydney Morning Herald for a decade and a half .
In 1942 , Bellette 's won the Sir John Sulman Prize with For Whom the Bell Tolls . She won it again in 1944 , with her painting Iphigenia in Tauris . The composition is set in a dry , open landscape , with several riders on horses whose appearance suggests " the Australian present , rather than Greek antiquity " . The judge awarding the prize actually preferred another of her entries , Electra – but it failed to meet the size requirements . Both Iphigenia in Tauris and Electra were among the many works created by Bellette in the 1940s that were inspired by the tragedies of Euripedes , Sophocles and Homer . Her choice of subject matter and approach placed her at odds with mainstream modernism , while she seemed to shun explicit links between the classical and the Australian . Bellette reasoned that she preferred to choose her pallette and the spatial arrangements of her compositions to evoke a place 's atmosphere . Critics identified the influence of European modernists Aristide Maillol and Giorgio de Chirico , as well as Italian Quattrocento painters Masaccio and Piero della Francesca , some of whom Bellette wrote articles about in the journal Art in Australia .
The most distinctive feature of the artist 's work was this choice of classical subjects . In 1946 , Bellette 's works were hung in at least four separate exhibitions . Reviewers commented on her synthesis of " the impulsiveness of romanticism and the deliberateness of classicism " , and her " romantically classical " approach . Despite the generally positive views , there were some reservations , particularly that the artist might be at risk of settling upon , and then repeating , a formula in her work . Bellette 's treatment of classical subjects extended beyond conventional painting ; in 1947 she created a textile design , titled " myths and legends " , while in 1948 she created the sets for a production of Shakespeare 's Pericles , Prince of Tyre . Her " vigorous imaginativeness " was well reviewed , though the acting was not .
Though she did not again win the Sulman , she was successful in having works hung in that competition on many occasions , including the 1946 , 1947 , 1948 and 1950 shows . Bellette continued to paint classical scenes , and around 1950 produced the work Chorus without Iphigenia . Purchased by the National Gallery of Australia in 1976 , this oil painting shows five figures , " posed like statues in a tableau vivant , [ and who ] possess a kind of erotic energy " . Anne Gray , the National Gallery 's curator , interpreted the scene chosen by Bellette :
Although nothing is happening in this image , we associate the figures with tragedy , with death and mourning – with the classical reference in the painting 's title . Iphigenia , Agamemnon 's daughter , gave her life for her country when the goddess Artemis asked for it in exchange for favourable winds so that the Greek ships could sail to Troy . Bellette 's melancholic painting might be supposed to portray Iphigenia 's friends mourning her death .
In 1951 , Bellette came second in the Commonwealth Jubilee Art Competition , behind the young Jeffrey Smart . The following year , she won a competitive exhibition sponsored by Metro Goldwyn Mayer , with Girl With Still Life .
Although Haefliger never critiqued his wife 's exhibitions , others occasionally stepped in to provide reviews in the Herald . Describing her 1950 exhibition at the Macquarie Galleries , one critic considered it " one of the most stimulating and refreshing that has been seen here for a long time " and that " She paints with a strong , sombre palette and her forms are sculptured with great decision . She uses paint sensuously and passionately , as paint , not as so many contemporary Australians do , as mere colour " .
Two years later , the same reviewer , attending another of the artist 's solo Sydney shows , observed that Bellette :
is one of the few Australian artists here who combines a firm technique with a sensitive and rich emotion . In some of the lighter landscapes in this exhibition , Miss Bellette seems to have been trying to solve some of the particular difficulties of painting Australian landscapes . The clear , strong light tends to flatten the form and bleach the colour ; a problem that doesn 't lend itself to the dramatic tensions and dark moods that are characteristic of her work . It requires a colder and more dispassionate approach . But when she finds landscapes to her taste , such as the rugged hills and beetling clouds in No. 8 , the earth decaying with erosion in No. 19 , or the prickly desolation of " Rough Country " , No. 14 , she handles them with great skill and effectiveness . Her figure drawings are decisively drawn and firmly modelled . The girls have a pensive dignity as though they are pondering the burdens and joylessness of a future to be spent as caryatids . The still lives and the interior are admirable exercises in formal organisation , the colours being sombre yet rich .
Around this time , Bellette also held a show in Melbourne , which included some black @-@ and @-@ white landscape studies as well as some of her classical Greek subjects . Arnold Shore , art critic for The Argus , drew a contrast between the two groups of works . He thought that one of the landscapes " sets the heart singing with its lovely tone , pattern and sense of place " . Continuing , he noted that the landscapes and some other works " attain at their best a standard only vaguely suggested when the painter concerned herself too much with striving after a new treatment of ancient Grecian ideals . "
Paintings by Bellette were among those of twelve Australian artists included in the 1953 Arts Council of Great Britain exhibition in London , five regional British cities , and at the Venice Biennale . Bellette was one of only two women represented , the other being Constance Stokes . As with her Sulman prize @-@ winners , Bellette 's subjects were classically themed works : Electra ( 1944 ) and Oedipus ( 1945 ) . Arts Council chairman Kenneth Clark was disappointed with the response of British critics to the exhibition , and their focus on a theme of nationhood paid little regard to the works of Bellette and several others .
As well as spending time in Sydney 's art community , in 1954 Haefliger and Bellette purchased a cottage in Hill End , an old gold mining village in central New South Wales . They added a studio , and the site became both a weekender and a venue for social visits and artistic endeavours by colleagues from the Sydney circle , including Drysdale , Margaret Olley , John Olsen , David Edgar Strachan and Donald Friend . This gathering of artists , sometimes referred to as the Hill End Group , is known for its landscape art . Bellette , though sometimes a painter of landscapes , was known for her classical subjects and still lifes , which critics struggled to accommodate within their understanding of the Hill End Group . Nevertheless , several still lifes from this period are held in public collections , including Still Life with Fish ( 1954 ) , in the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery , and Still life with wooden bowl ( c . 1954 ) , in the Art Gallery of New South Wales . These images were often rendered with strong colour , which was also sometimes a feature of earlier works on which critics would remark .
Both Bellette and Haefliger had for many years been informal organisers of Sydney 's artistic community . In 1955 , Bellette played a more public role , when she helped found the Blake Prize for religious art , and was its inaugural judge .
= = = Majorca = = =
In 1957 , Haefliger 's extramarital affair , which had lasted for over a decade , came to an end . Bellette and Haefliger left Australia intending to divorce quietly , but were reconciled . After a year in Paris they settled in Majorca , living first in Deià , before buying a house in the hamlet of C 'an Baxu . Bellette painted landscapes and still lifes that reflected a Spanish influence , and showed periodically in Australia through the 1960s . However , the year she moved to Majorca turned out to be the last year in which she exhibited work outside Australia . The couple visited in 1970 and 1975 , and Bellette returned once more in 1983 . Bellette had , however , become an " onlooker " to the local art scene . This was in part because of a transition in Australian art that included the rise of abstract expressionism , the strong influence of a small number of gallery owners , and discrimination against women that reached " record levels " . Bellette was nevertheless able to secure some exhibitions , in Sydney and in Melbourne . These infrequent exhibitions were received very positively by critics . When her work was hung at the South Yarra Gallery in 1964 , noted art historian and critic Bernard Smith stated in his review for The Age that he " could not recall an exhibition in Melbourne of this quality since I began to write this column . " Reviewing her 1966 show in Sydney , the Herald critic considered it was her " ability to combine the calm beauty of form of her beloved classicism of content with a dark romantic spirit that has gained her such an honourable place in Australian painting ... the antiquity of nature and man 's constructions are explored with a subtle , powerful inquiry . " In 1971 , Melbourne critic Alan McCulloch considered her classical compositions to be her most successful . Drawing parallels between classical tragedy and contemporary global refugee crises , he noted " there is infinite tenderness in these paintings and infinite sadness . For although these rocky , shadowed landscapes are peopled with the ghosts and shades of an ancient civilisation , they are also curiously symbolic of present day tensions and tragedies . "
Bellette and Haefliger lived and worked for the rest of their lives in Majorca , with periodic trips to Italy . Friends such as artists Jeffrey Smart and John Olsen visited them regularly in Europe . An injury to her wrist meant that paintings prepared in 1976 for a solo exhibition were her last . Paul died in March 1982 ; Bellette survived breast cancer and a mastectomy in 1986 and died on 16 March 1991 .
= = Legacy = =
Prior to her death , Bellette bequeathed the Hill End cottage to the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( which manages the Hill End historic site ) , on condition that it be used as an artists ' retreat . It continues to operate for that purpose . As of 2014 , Bellette is the only woman to have won the Sulman Prize on more than one occasion . A large number of her works are held by the Art Gallery of New South Wales ; other galleries that hold examples include the Art Gallery of South Australia , Art Gallery of Western Australia , Bendigo Art Gallery , Geelong Art Gallery , the National Gallery of Australia , and the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery . In 2004 – 05 , a major retrospective exhibition was held at Bathurst Regional Art Gallery , the S. H. Ervin Gallery in Sydney , the University of Queensland Art Museum , Mornington Peninsula Regional Gallery and the Drill Hall Gallery in Canberra .
Described by Amanda Beresford as Australia 's " only true modern classicist " , Bellette is generally regarded as an influential figure in the modern art movement in Sydney in the mid @-@ twentieth century . Art historian Janine Burke described Bellette as " a leader of the post @-@ war art world " , while the University of Queensland Art Museum 's curator placed her as " a seminal figure in the visual arts from the 1930s until her death in Majorca in 1991 " . Of her paintings , opinions vary . Burke described her as " arguably the best painter " of the Sydney circle . Historian Geoffrey Dutton was unconvinced about her choice of subject but nevertheless praised Bellette 's " assured if muted " style , while simultaneously dismissing the lesser efforts of her husband . However , art historian and writer Sasha Grishin had a different view . Commenting on Bellette 's paintings of Greek mythological subjects created in the 1940s , he wrote , " they were neither very convincing as paintings , nor works that had a particular resonance in Sydney or Australian art at the time " . John Passmore and Bellette studied together both in Australia and England , travelled in Europe , and exhibited side by side in group shows . However , he was highly critical of Bellette 's work , while Yvonne Audette , who went to a few of the artist 's drawing classes , described her classical works as " dull poses , and very badly drawn , and even more badly painted , like clumsy colouring @-@ in " .
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= Tender Mercies =
Tender Mercies is a 1983 American drama film directed by Bruce Beresford . The screenplay by Horton Foote focuses on Mac Sledge , a recovering alcoholic country music singer who seeks to turn his life around through his relationship with a young widow and her son in rural Texas . Robert Duvall plays the role of Mac ; the supporting cast includes Tess Harper , Betty Buckley , Wilford Brimley , Ellen Barkin and Allan Hubbard .
Financed by EMI Films , Tender Mercies was shot largely in Waxahachie , Texas . The script was rejected by several American directors before the Australian Beresford accepted it . Duvall , who sang his own songs in the film , drove more than 600 miles ( 966 km ) throughout the state , tape recording local accents and playing in country music bands to prepare for the role . He and Beresford repeatedly clashed during production , at one point prompting the director to walk off the set and reportedly consider quitting the film .
The film encompasses several different themes , including the importance of love and family , the possibility of spiritual resurrection amid death , and the concept of redemption through Mac Sledge 's conversion to Christianity . Following poor test screening results , distributor Universal Pictures made little effort to publicize Tender Mercies , which Duvall attributed to the studio 's lack of understanding of country music .
The film was released on March 4 , 1983 , in a limited number of theaters . Although unsuccessful at the box office , it was critically acclaimed and earned five Academy Award nominations , including one for Best Picture . Tender Mercies won Oscars for Best Original Screenplay for Foote and Best Actor for Duvall , his first and only win as of 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Mac Sledge ( Robert Duvall ) , a washed up , alcoholic country singer , awakens at a run @-@ down Texas roadside motel and gas station after a night of heavy drinking . He meets the owner , a young widow named Rosa Lee ( Tess Harper ) , and offers to work in exchange for a room . Rosa Lee , whose husband was killed in the Vietnam War , is raising her young son , Sonny ( Allan Hubbard ) , on her own . She agrees to let Mac stay under the condition that he does not drink while working . The two begin to develop feelings for one another , mostly during quiet evenings sitting alone and sharing bits of their life stories .
Mac resolves to give up alcohol and start his life anew . After some time passes , he and Rosa Lee wed . They start attending a Baptist church on a regular basis . One day , a newspaper reporter visits the motel and asks Mac whether he has stopped recording music and chosen an anonymous life . When Mac refuses to answer , the reporter explains he is writing a story about Mac and has interviewed his ex @-@ wife , Dixie Scott ( Betty Buckley ) , a country music star who is performing nearby .
After the story is printed , the neighborhood learns of Mac 's past , and members of a local country – western band visit him to show their respect . Although he greets them politely , Mac remains reluctant to open up about his past . Later , he secretly attends Dixie 's concert . She passionately sings several songs that Mac wrote years earlier , and he leaves in the middle of the performance . Backstage , he talks to Dixie 's manager , his old friend Harry ( Wilford Brimley ) . Mac gives him a copy of a new song he has written and asks him to show it to Dixie . Mac tries to talk to Dixie , but she becomes angry upon seeing him and warns him to stay away from their 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Sue Anne ( Ellen Barkin ) .
Upon his return home , Mac assures Rosa Lee he no longer has feelings for Dixie , whom he describes as " poison " to him . Later , Harry visits Mac to tell him , seemingly at Dixie 's urging , that the country music business has changed and his new song is no good . Hurt and angry , Mac drives away and nearly crashes the truck . He buys a bottle of whiskey but , upon returning home to a worried Rosa Lee and Sonny , he tells them he poured it out . He tells them he tried to leave Rosa Lee , but found he could not . Some time later , Mac and Sonny are baptized together in Rosa Lee 's church .
Eventually , Sue Anne visits Mac , their first encounter since she was a baby . Mac asks whether she got any of his letters , and she says her mother kept them from her . Sue Anne also reports that Dixie tried to keep her from visiting Mac and that she plans to elope with her boyfriend despite her mother 's objections . Mac admits he used to hit Dixie and that she divorced him after he tried to kill her in a drunken rage . Sue Anne asks whether Mac remembers a song about a dove he sang to her when she was a baby . He claims he does not , but after she leaves he sings to himself the hymn " On the Wings of a Dove , " which references a dove from the Lord saving Noah and descending at Jesus ' baptism .
Boys at school bully Sonny about his dead father , and he and Mac grow closer . The members of the local country band ask Mac permission to perform one of his songs , and he agrees . Mac begins performing with them and they make plans to record together . His newfound happiness is interrupted when Sue Anne dies in a car accident . Mac attends his daughter 's funeral at Dixie 's lavish home in Nashville and comforts her when she breaks down .
Back home , Mac keeps quiet about his emotional pain , although he wonders aloud to Rosa Lee why his once sorry existence has been given meaning and , on the other hand , his daughter died . Throughout his mourning , Mac continues his new life with Rosa Lee and Sonny . In the final scene , Sonny finds a football Mac has left him as a gift . Mac watches the hotel from a field across the road and sings " On the Wings of a Dove " to himself . Sonny thanks him for the football and the two play catch together in the field .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Playwright Horton Foote reportedly considered giving up on film writing , due to what he regarded as a poor adaption of his 1952 play The Chase into a 1966 film of the same name . Following what Foote saw as a far more successful adaption of his 1968 play Tomorrow in 1972 , his interest in filmmaking was rekindled , under the condition that he maintain some degree of control over the final product . Foote said of this stage in his career , " I learned that film really should be like theatre in the sense that in theatre , the writer is , of course , very dominant ... If we don 't like something , we can speak our minds . ... It is always a collaborative effort . ... But in Hollywood it wasn 't so . A writer there has in his contract that you are a writer for hire , which means that you write a script , then it belongs to them . " This renewed interest in cinema prompted Foote to write Tender Mercies , his first work written specifically for the screen . In the view of biographer George Terry Barr , the script reflected " Foote 's determination to battle a Hollywood system that generally refuses to make such personal films . "
The story was inspired partially by Foote 's nephew , who struggled to succeed in the country music business . Foote was initially interested in writing a film based on his nephew 's efforts to organize a band , which he saw as paralleling his own youthful attempts to find work as an actor . During his research , however , he met an experienced musician who had offered to help his nephew 's band , and Foote found himself growing more interested in a story about him , rather than the band itself . Foote said , " This older man had been through it all . As I thought about a storyline , I got very interested in that type of character . " The moment in the film where a woman asks , " Were you really Mac Sledge ? " and he responds , " Yes ma 'am , I guess I was , " was based on an exchange that Foote overheard between a washed @-@ up star and a fan . Foote said the entire film pivots on that statement , which he believed spoke volumes about Mac 's personality and former status .
Foote based Sledge 's victory over alcoholism on his observations of theater people struggling with the problem . He sought to avoid a melodramatic slant in telling that aspect of the story . Foote described his protagonist as " a very hurt , damaged man ... silence was his weapon " . He chose the title Tender Mercies , from the Book of Psalms , for its relation to the Rosa Lee character , who he said seeks only " certain moments of gentleness or respite , [ not ] grandness or largeness " . Foote sought to portray each character as realistic and flawed , but not unsympathetic . Although the script conveyed a strong spiritual message with religious undertones , Foote felt it was important to balance those religious elements with a focus on the practical challenges of everyday life .
Film historian Gary Edgerton said the Tender Mercies script " catapulted Horton Foote into the most active professional period in his life . " Film director and producer Alan J. Pakula credited the script with helping define the American independent film movement of the late 1980s by initiating a trend of personal filmmaking that often looks beyond Hollywood conventions .
= = = Development = = =
Duvall , who had appeared in To Kill a Mockingbird ( 1962 ) , which Foote adapted from the Harper Lee novel , was involved in Tender Mercies as an actor and co @-@ producer from its earliest stages . He said the script appealed to him because of the basic values it underlined and because the themes were universal even though the story was local . Duvall felt it portrayed people from the central region of the United States without parodying them , as he said many Hollywood films tend to do . Duvall 's early involvement led to rumors that he had requested Foote write the script for him , something that both men denied .
Foote took the script to Philip and Mary Ann Hobel , a married couple who ran Antron Media Production and had produced more than 200 documentaries between them . Foote felt their background in documentaries would lend Tender Mercies the authenticity he and Duvall were seeking . The Hobels agreed to produce it after reading and liking the script ; it would become their feature film debut as producers . The Hobels approached EMI Films , a British film and television production company , which agreed to provide financing for Tender Mercies as long as Duvall remained involved , and under the condition the Hobels find a good director . The script was rejected by many American directors , creating concerns for Foote and the producers that the film would never be made . Foote later said , " This film was turned down by every American director on the face of the globe " . The Hobels eventually mailed the script to Australian director Bruce Beresford because they were impressed by his 1980 film Breaker Morant . Philip Hobel said , " What we saw in Breaker Morant is what we like as filmmakers ourselves — an attention to the environment , a straightforward presentation ; it 's almost a documentary approach . "
Beresford was attracted to the idea of making a Hollywood film with a big budget and powerful distribution . Following his success with Breaker Morant , Beresford received about 150 Hollywood scripts as potential projects ; although he went weeks before reading many of them , Beresford read Tender Mercies right away . It immediately appealed to him , in part because it dealt with aspects of American rural life he had seldom encountered in film scripts . Several of those involved with Tender Mercies had reservations about an Australian directing a film about a country music star ; Beresford also found the decision strange , but kept his thoughts to himself because of his desire to direct the film . He contacted EMI Films and asked for one month to visit Texas and familiarize himself with the state before committing to direct , to which the company agreed . Beresford said of the trip , " I want to come over and see if this is all true , because if it 's not really a true picture of what it 's all like , it wouldn 't be right to make it . " During his visit to Texas , he saw parallels between the state and his homeland : the terrain reminded him of the Australian bush country , and the Texans he met in the isolated areas reminded him of residents of the Outback . He met Foote and discussed the script with him . The screenwriter , who gave Beresford tours of small Texas towns , felt the director 's Australian background made him sensitive to the story 's rural characters and would help him achieve the sought @-@ for authenticity . Beresford agreed to direct and was hired after receiving final approval from Duvall ( the actor had a clause in his contract allowing him such approval , the first time he had this power on a film ) .
The film was given a budget of $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( $ 11 @,@ 712 @,@ 848 in 2016 dollars ) , modest by Hollywood standards at the time . Philip Hobel said it took about a year to secure the financing from EMI Films , whose major 1981 release , Honky Tonk Freeway , had been a box office failure . For the primary location , Rosa Lee 's home and motel / gas station business , Beresford imposed one requirement : that no other buildings or large manmade structures be visible from it . The filmmakers eventually decided on a property that had been sitting abandoned by a Waxahachie highway . Mary Ann Hobel said the owner , when approached about its availability , immediately handed over the keys : " We said , ' Don 't you want a contract , something in writing ? ' And he said , ' We don 't do things that way here . ' "
Beresford , known for carefully planning every shot in his films , drew his own storyboards as well as detailed drawings of how he envisioned the sets . Jeannine Oppewall was hired as art director . Beresford praised her as " absolutely brilliant " , especially for her attention to very small details , " going from the curtains to the color of the quilts on the floors . " It was Oppewall who named the motel Mariposa , Spanish for " butterfly " , which symbolizes the spiritual resurrection Mac Sledge would experience there . Beresford chose the Australian Russell Boyd as cinematographer and the Irish William Anderson , who had worked on all of the director 's previous features , as editor . He selected Elizabeth McBride as costume designer . It was her first time in the position on a feature film , and she went on to build a reputation for costuming Texan and other Southern characters .
= = = Casting = = =
Duvall had always wanted to play a country singer , and Foote was rumored to have written the role of Mac Sledge specifically for him . Foote denied the claim , claiming he found it too constraining to write roles for specific actors , although he did hope Duvall would be cast in the part . Tender Mercies became a very important personal project for Duvall , who contributed a significant number of ideas for his character . In preparing for the role , he spent weeks roaming around Texas , speaking to strangers to find the right accent and mannerisms . He also joined a small country band and continued singing with them every free weekend while the film was being shot . In total , Duvall drove about 680 miles ( 1 @,@ 094 km ) to research the part , often asking people to speak into his tape recorder so he could practice their inflections and other vocal habits . Upon finding one man with the exact accent he wanted , Duvall had him recite the entire script into the recorder .
Tess Harper was performing on stage in Texas when she attended a casting call for a minor role in the film . Beresford was so impressed with her that he cast her in the lead . He later said that the actresses he had seen before her demonstrated a sophistication and worldliness inappropriate for the part , while she brought a kind of rural quality without coming across as simple or foolish . Beresford said of Harper , " She walked into the room and even before she spoke , I thought , ' That 's the girl to play the lead . ' " Harper said she knew she won the role when Beresford appeared on her doorstep with a bottle of champagne in each hand . Tender Mercies was Harper 's feature film debut , and she was so excited about the role she bit her script to make sure it was real . When filming ended , Duvall gave her a blue cowgirl shirt as a gift with a card that read , " You really were Rosa Lee " .
Beresford visited several schools and auditioned many children for the role of Sonny before he came across Allan Hubbard in Paris , Texas . Beresford said Hubbard , like Harper , was chosen based on a simple , rural quality he possessed . The boy was able to relate easily to the character because , like Sonny , his father died at an early age ; later , some media reports falsely claimed that his father was killed during the Vietnam War , just as Sonny 's was in the film 's backstory . None of the filmmakers knew Hubbard 's father had died until after filming began . Duvall developed a strong , trusting relationship with Hubbard , which Foote felt improved the duo 's on @-@ screen chemistry . Hubbard would often play guitar with Duvall during breaks from filming .
Betty Buckley attended a casting session in New York City and was chosen largely based on the quality of her singing voice ; Beresford said that few of the actresses who auditioned for the role were able to sing . Buckley was originally from Fort Worth , Texas , near the Grapevine Opry ; when her concert scenes were filmed there , her whole family participated as extras . Duvall said he thought Buckley perfectly conveyed the underlying frustration of a country singer and " brought a real zing to [ the ] part . " The actual location of the bar scenes were made in Seven Points Texas , in a club called the Cedar Creek Opry House . Seven Points is just east of Ellis county , across the Trinity river in western Henderson county Texas . The Opry House as it was known then , was a two story building that used to be a skating rink in its earlier life . The old rink was upstairs and became the dance floor of the Opry House , where the concert and bar scenes there were filmed . One scene of the movie shows the front of the building with its name visible
Ellen Barkin was cast after impressing Beresford during a New York audition . At the time , she had appeared only in television movies ; Diner , her feature film debut , was not yet in theaters . When filming on Diner wrapped , Barkin joked to her agent about future roles , " No more troubled teenagers , unless the movie is with Robert De Niro , Robert Duvall or Robert Redford . " Duvall said of Barkin , " She brings a real credibility for that part , plus she was young and attractive and had a certain sense of edge , a danger for her that was good for that part . " Some media outlets reported that Duvall and Barkin were involved romantically for a brief time during filming .
Wilford Brimley was cast at the urging of his good friend Duvall , who was not getting along well with Beresford and wanted " somebody down here that 's on my side , somebody that I can relate to " . Beresford felt Brimley was too old for the part , but eventually agreed to the casting .
= = = Filming = = =
Most of Tender Mercies was filmed in Waxahachie and Palmer , two towns in Ellis County in north central Texas . Beresford largely avoided the Victorian architecture and other picturesque elements of Waxahachie and instead focused on relatively barren locations more characteristic of West Texas . The town portrayed in the film is never identified by name . Foote said when he wrote the script he did not have the same isolated and lonely vision for the setting Beresford did , but he felt the atmosphere the director captured served the story well .
Principal photography took place between November 2 and December 23 , 1981 . The plants used in the gardening scenes were brought inside at night to keep them from freezing . Due to the tight schedule , the cast and crew worked seven days a week with very long hours each day . Although the Australian filmmakers and the crew , who were mostly from Dallas , got along very well both on and off the set , Beresford and Duvall were at odds during the production . Beresford , in his usual approach , meticulously planned each scene , and Duvall , who preferred a free @-@ form give @-@ and @-@ take on set , felt restricted by the director 's methods . Although Duvall regularly acknowledged his talent as a director , he said of Beresford , " He has this dictatorial way of doing things with me that just doesn 't cut it . Man , I have to have my freedom . " Although he had no problem with Duvall 's acting methodology , the actor 's temperament infuriated Beresford . While filming one scene with Harper and Barkin , he became so frustrated during a phone conversation with Duvall that he said , " Well if you want to direct the film , go right ahead , " and walked off the set . Beresford flew to New York and reportedly was ready to quit , until Duvall flew out to speak with him . After further arguments , the two made amends and returned to work on the film .
Beresford also clashed on set with Brimley . On the very first day of filming , he asked the actor to " pick up the pace " , prompting Brimley to reply , " Hey , I didn 't know anybody dropped it . " On another occasion , when Beresford tried to advise Brimley on how Harry would behave , Duvall recalled Brimley responding , " Now look , let me tell you something , I 'm Harry . Harry 's not over there , Harry 's not over here . Until you fire me or get another actor , I 'm Harry , and whatever I do is fine ' cause I 'm Harry . " Duvall said he believed the on @-@ set wrangling resulted in a combination of the director 's and actors ' visions and ultimately improved the picture . Likewise , Beresford said he did not feel the fights negatively affected the film because he and Duvall never disagreed on the interpretation of the Mac Sledge character .
Harper described the extent to which Duvall inhabited his character : " Someone once said to me , ' Well , how 's Robert Duvall ? ' and I said , ' I don 't know Robert Duvall . I know Mac Sledge very well . ' " Beresford , too , said the transformation was so believable that he could feel his skin crawling up the back of his neck the first day of filming . Duvall made an effort to help Harper , who was making her film debut . While preparing to shoot a scene in which Mac and Rosa Lee fight , he yelled at a make @-@ up artist in front of Harper to make her angry and fuel her performance ; he apologized to the make @-@ up artist after the scene was shot .
Cinematographer Russell Boyd largely utilized available light to give the movie a natural feel , which Beresford said was crucial to its sense of authenticity . Harper said Boyd was so quiet during filming that he mostly used just three words : " ' Yeah ' , ' right ' and ' sure ' " . Beresford , Foote and Duvall considered the climactic scene to be the one in which Mac , tending the family garden , discusses with Rosa Lee his pain over his daughter 's death . Beresford and Boyd filmed the scene in a long take and long shot so it could flow uninterrupted , with the lonely Texas landscape captured in the background . When studio executives received the footage , they contacted Beresford and requested close @-@ up shots be intercut , but he insisted on keeping the long take intact . Duvall said he felt the scene underscored Mac 's stoicism in the face of tragedy and loss .
= = = Music = = =
Tender Mercies includes no original film score , and the musical soundtrack is limited to the performances of country songs and the domestic guitar playing that occur as part of the story . A score was composed for the movie , but Beresford had it removed because he felt it was " too sweet " and sounded phony in the context of the film , although he acknowledged it as " very skillful " . Duvall sang his own songs , a right he insisted be part of his contract . He commented , " What 's the point if you 're not going to do your own [ singing ] ? They 're just going to dub somebody else ? I mean , there 's no point to that . " The film 's financial backers were initially concerned about whether he could sing well enough for the role . Those concerns were allayed after Duvall produced a tape of himself singing a cappella " On the Wings of a Dove " , a Bob Ferguson country song featured in the film . Duvall collaborated with Beresford in deciding on the unusual staging of the emotional scene in which Mac sings it after reflecting on the reunion with his daughter . The song is performed with Mac looking out a window with his back to the camera , his face unseen . Horton Foote thought the choice made the scene more moving and called it " an extraordinary moment " in the film . Duvall wrote two of Mac 's other songs , " Fool 's Waltz " and " I 've Decided to Leave Here Forever " . Several leading country singers , including Willie Nelson , George Jones and Merle Haggard , were believed to have inspired Mac and Duvall 's portrayal of him , but Duvall insisted the character was not based on anyone in particular . Another country star , Waylon Jennings , complimented his performance , saying he had " done the impossible . "
Betty Buckley also sang her own songs , one of which , " Over You " , written by Austin Roberts and Bobby Hart , was nominated for an Academy Award . Although Buckley performed it in the film , country singer Lane Brody was chosen to record it for radio release , and Mac Davis later sang it at the 1984 Academy Awards ceremony . Other songs in the film include " It Hurts to Face Reality " by Lefty Frizzell , " If You 'll Hold the Ladder ( I 'll Climb to the Top ) " by Buzz Rabin and Sara Busby , " The Best Bedroom in Town " and " Champagne Ladies & Barroom Babies " by Charlie Craig , " I 'm Drinkin ' Canada Dry " by Johnny Cymbal and Austin Roberts , and " You Are What Love Means To Me " by Craig Bickhardt .
= = Themes and interpretations = =
= = = Love and family = = =
Mac Sledge finds redemption largely through his relationship and eventual marriage with Rosa Lee . This is in keeping with the motif of fidelity common in the works of Foote , inspired , said the writer , by his marriage to Lillian Vallish Foote . He told The New York Times that she " kept me goin ' . She never lost faith , and that 's a rare thing . I don 't know now how we got through it , but we got through it . " The lyrics of " If You 'll Hold the Ladder " , which Mac performs with his new country band in the second half of the film , suggest what love has done for him . He sings of someone holding the ladder for him as he climbs to the top ; this is symbolic of Rosa 's love and guidance , which has allowed Sledge to improve himself and build a new life . The desultory romances that defined his past are represented by the more promiscuous lyrics of Dixie Scott 's songs , such as those of " The Best Bedroom in Town " : " The best part of all / the room at the end of the hall / That 's where you and me make everything alright ... We celebrate the happiness we 've found / Every night in the best bedroom in town " . His storming out of her concert symbolizes his rejection of that earlier life . In contrast , Rosa Lee sings the humble church hymn , " Jesus , Savior , Pilot Me " . In a related way , the film emphasizes the importance of the woman 's role in domestic life — although Mac takes on the role of patriarch in his new family setting , it is only through the support and care of Rosa Lee that he is able to settle into this role . Sociologist Norman K. Denzin points out that Tender Mercies embodies many of the ideas of recovery from addiction that are part of the twelve @-@ step program used by Alcoholics Anonymous . Both the film and the support group 's program advocate the idea of hitting rock @-@ bottom , making a decision to stop drinking , dealing with the past and adopting a spiritual way of life .
Tender Mercies also emphasizes the father – child theme common in the works of Foote , a theme that operates on both transcendent and temporal levels . Mac is reunited not only with his spiritual father through his conversion to Christianity , but also with his biological daughter , Sue Anne , when she pays him a surprise visit . Scholar Rebecca Luttrell Briley suggests that although Mac begins to plant new roots with Rosa Lee and Sonny in earlier scenes , they are not enough to fully satisfy his desire for redemption , as he is nearly driven to leave the family and return to his alcoholic ways . According to Briley , Sue Anne 's visit prompts Mac to realize that reconciliation with her and a reformation of their father – daughter relationship is the ingredient that had been lacking in his quest for redemption . This is further demonstrated by Mac 's singing " On the Wings of a Dove " to himself after their meeting ; the lyrics describe God baptizing his son Jesus , which connects Sledge 's spiritual reconciliation with the divine to the earthly reconciliation with his own child . However , the death of Sue Anne also demonstrates that , according to Briley , " all relationships cannot be mended , some by choice and some by chance , and the poignancy of missed opportunities between fathers and their children on this earth is underlined in this scene . "
The relationship between Mac and Sonny , whose name derives from " son " , is central to the film 's exploration of the father – child theme . Sonny tries to conjure an image of his biological father , whom he never had the chance to know , through old photographs , his mother 's memories and visits to his father 's grave . Sonny finds a father figure in Mac — when another young boy asks Sonny if he likes Mac more than his real father , Sonny says that he does , because he never knew the other man ; Briley says that this " emphasizes the distinction between companionship and blood relationship Foote has pointed out before . " The final scene , in which Mac and Sonny play catch with a football Mac bought him as a gift , symbolizes the fact that although Mac has lost the chance to reconcile with his daughter , he now has a second chance at establishing a father – child relationship with Sonny . The father – child theme also plays out through Mac 's relationship with the young band members , who say that he has been an inspiration to them , playing a paternal role in their lives before they even met him . Sledge eventually teams up with the musicians , offering them fatherly counsel in a much more direct way .
= = = Religion = = =
Mac 's redemption and self @-@ improvement run parallel with his conversion to Christianity . Briley argues that " the emphasis on the Christian family is stronger in this script than in any other Foote piece to this point . " At the urging of Rosa Lee , Mac begins to attend church regularly and is eventually baptized for the first time , along with Sonny . During a church scene , he also sings the hymn " Jesus , Savior , Pilot Me " , which serves as a symbol for his new direction in life . After they are baptized , Sonny asks Mac whether he feels any different , to which Mac responds , " Not yet . " According to scholars , this response indicates Mac 's belief that his reunion with God will lead to meaningful changes in his life . It is after this moment , Briley points out , that Mac is able to forge other relationships , such as those with his young bandmates , and " develop his own potential for success as a man . " Briley also proposes that Mac 's response — " Yes , ma 'am , I guess I was " — to a fan who asks if he was really Mac Sledge suggests that he has washed away his old self through baptism .
During one scene , Rosa Lee tells Mac , " I say my prayers for you and when I thank the Lord for his tender mercies , you 're at the head of the list . " Scholar Robert Jewett compares this line to the first verse of Romans 12 , in which Paul the Apostle appeals to Christians to live out their lives in service to others " through the mercies of God " . Many of the elements of Mac 's redemption , conversion to Christianity and budding relationship with Rosa Lee occur off @-@ camera , including their wedding . Jewett writes , " This is perfectly congruent with the theme of faith in the hidden mercies of God , the secret plot of the life of faith in Romans . ... It is a matter of faith , elusive and intangible . " Jewett compares Mac 's story to that of Abraham , because " just like Sledge 's story , [ it ] centers on the provision of a future through the tender mercies of God " . As told in Romans 4 , Abraham and his wife Sarah are too old to produce a son , but Abraham develops the faith that God will provide them an heir , which is exactly what occurs , though — as Paul describes — Abraham did nothing practical to guarantee or deserve such a miracle . Jewett describes Mac as similarly undeserving of redemption , based on his selfish and abusive past , typified by his condition in his first encounter with Rosa Lee : in a drunken stupor following a motel room fight . She takes him in and eventually falls in love with him , despite his having done nothing to deserve her care or his redemption : " It is an undeserved grace , a gift of providence from a simple woman who continues to pray for him and to be grateful for him . "
However , in the face of the loss of his daughter , Mac learns , in Briley 's words , that " his life as a Christian is no more sheltered from this world 's tragedies than it was before . " Before finding redemption , Sledge questions why God has allowed his life to take the path it has and , in particular , why his daughter was killed instead of him . Commentators have described this as a prime example of theodicy , the question of why evil exists that is commonly faced by Christians . Scholar Richard Leonard writes , " For all believers , the meaning of suffering is the universal question . ... No answer is completely satisfying , least of all the idea that God sends bad events to teach us something . " Following the death of his daughter , Mac moves forward with uncertainty as the film ends . Jewett writes of this conclusion , " The message of this film is that we have no final assurances , any more than Abraham did . But we can respond in faith to the tender mercies we have received . "
= = = Death and resurrection = = =
Mac experiences his spiritual resurrection even as he wrestles with death , in both the past — Sonny 's father in the Vietnam War — and present — his own daughter in a car accident . The latter threatens to derail Mac 's new life , captured in the moment when he learns of it and turns off the radio that is playing his new song . Leonard writes of this resurrection , " Depression hangs like a pall over Tender Mercies [ but ] what makes this film inspiring is that it is also about the joy of being found . ... Mac finds the way , the truth , and the life he wants . " In a climactic scene , Mac tells Rosa Lee that he was once nearly killed in a car crash himself , which forces him to address the question of why he was allowed to live while others have died . Jewett writes of this scene , " Mac Sledge can 't trust happiness because it remains inexplicable . But he does trust the tender mercies that mysteriously led him from death to life . "
Mac is portrayed as near death at the beginning of the film , having woken up in a drunken stupor in a boundless , empty flatland with nothing in his possession , a shot that scholar Roy M. Anker said " pointedly reflects the condition of his own soul " . The dialogue in other scenes suggests the threat of mortality , including a moment when Mac has trouble singing due to his bad voice and says , " Don 't feel sorry for me , Rosa Lee , I 'm not dead yet . " In several lasting shots , the vast sky dwarfs Mac , Rosa Lee and Sonny , starkly symbolizing their isolation , as well as the fragility of human existence . The fact that Mac sustains his newfound life with Rosa Lee and Sonny after his daughter 's death , rather than reverting to his old pattern of alcoholism and abuse , is consistent with a recurring theme in Foote 's works of characters overcoming tragedy and finding in it an opportunity for growth and maturation .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Philip and Mary Ann Hobel spent a long time seeking a distributor for Tender Mercies without any success . Duvall , who began to doubt the film would be widely released , was unable to help the Hobels because he was busy trying to find a distributor for Angelo My Love , a film he had written , directed and produced . Eventually , Universal Pictures agreed to distribute Tender Mercies . Test screenings for the film were held , which Beresford described as the most unusual he had ever experienced . The director said that the preview audiences appeared to be very engaged with the picture , to the point the theaters were so silent , " if you flicked a piece of paper on the floor , you could hear it fall . " However , the post @-@ screening feedback was , in Beresford 's words , " absolutely disastrous . " As a result , Universal executives lost faith in the film and made little effort to promote it . Foote said of the studio , " I don 't know that they disliked the film , I just think they thought it was inconsequential and of no consequence at all . I guess they thought it would just get lost in the shuffle . " Others in the film industry were equally dismissive ; one Paramount Pictures representative described the picture as " like watching paint dry " .
= = = Festivals and theatrical run = = =
Tender Mercies was released on March 4 , 1983 , in only three theaters : one in New York City , one in Los Angeles , and one in Chicago . New York Times critic Vincent Canby observed that it was released during " the time of year when distributors usually get rid of all of those movies they don 't think are worth releasing in the prime moviegoing times of Christmas and the midsummer months " . The simultaneous release of Angelo My Love led to some more publicity for Duvall himself , but was of no help to Tender Mercies . Duvall also believed that Universal 's lack of familiarity and comfort with southern culture and the country music genre further reduced their faith in the film . When country star Willie Nelson offered to help publicize it , a studio executive told Duvall she did not understand how the singer could contribute to the promotion , which Duvall said was indicative of the studio 's failure to understand both the film and the country music genre .
Tender Mercies was shown in competition at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival , where it was described as a relatively optimistic alternative to darker , more violent entries like One Deadly Summer , Moon in the Gutter and Merry Christmas , Mr. Lawrence . It was also shown at the 1983 International Film Festival of India in New Delhi . A jury headed by director Lindsay Anderson determined that none of the films in contention , including Tender Mercies , were good enough to win the Golden Peacock , the festival 's top prize . Film critic Jugu Abraham said the jury 's standards were higher than those of the Academy Awards , and that Tender Mercies ' lack of success at the festival was a " clear example of what is good cinema for some , not being so good for others " .
= = = Home media = = =
Following its brief theatrical run , Universal Studios quickly sold the film 's rights to cable companies , allowing Tender Mercies to be shown on television . When the film unexpectedly received five Academy Award nominations nearly a year after its original release , the studio attempted to redistribute the film to theaters ; however , the cable companies began televising the film about a week before the Oscar ceremony , which essentially halted any attempts at a theatrical rerelease . When the film first played on HBO in March 1984 , it surpassed the three major networks in ratings for homes with cable televisions . Tender Mercies was released on VHS some time later , and was first released on DVD on June 22 , 1999 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Tender Mercies was not considered a box office success . In its first three days , March 4 – 6 , the film grossed $ 46 @,@ 977 from exclusive engagements at the Tower East Theater in New York ( $ 21 @,@ 183 ) , the Fine Arts Theater in Los Angeles ( $ 18 @,@ 254 ) and the Carnegie Theater in Chicago ( $ 7 @,@ 540 ) . Tender Mercies eventually played at a total of 37 theaters and grossed $ 8 @,@ 443 @,@ 124 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Tender Mercies received mostly positive reviews . Richard Corliss of Time declared it the " best American movie of the new year " . Carol Olten of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune declared Tender Mercies the best movie of 1983 , and " the most poignant , but forthright , film of the year , with a brilliant performance by Robert Duvall " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote , " This is a small , lovely and somewhat overloaded film about small @-@ town life , loneliness , country music , marriage , divorce and parental love , and it deals with all of these things in equal measure . Still , the absence of a single , sharply dramatic story line is a relatively small price to pay for the plainness and clarity with which these other issues are defined . " She also praised Beresford 's direction , which she said lent the movie a light touch . The Times ' Canby wrote , " In all respects Tender Mercies is so good that it has the effect of rediscovering a kind of film fiction that has been debased over the decades by hack moviemakers , working according to accepted formulas , frequently to the applause of the critics as well as the public . " Leonard Maltin gave it three out of four stars , applauding Duvall in particular and describing it as a " winning but extremely low @-@ key film " , though he characterized Foote 's screenplay as " not so much a story as a series of vignettes " . David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor praised the film for its values , for underscoring the good in people and for avoiding flashiness and quick cuts in favor of a subtle and deliberately paced story , while maintaining a PG rating and omitting sex , drugs and violence . He also felt , however , that it tended toward melodrama on a few occasions and that the soundtrack had " a bit of syrupy music ... especially at the end " .
Some reviews were less favorable . David Ansen of Newsweek said , " While one respects the filmmaker 's small @-@ is @-@ beautiful philosophy , this story may indeed be too small for its britches . ... Beresford 's nice little movie seems so afraid to make a false move that it runs the danger of not moving at all . " Linda Beath of The Globe and Mail said Duvall 's performance was " fabulous , " but that the film was " very slight " compared to Beresford 's Australian pictures . Gary Arnold of The Washington Post panned the film , criticizing its mood and tempo and describing Buckley as its only true asset : " Tender Mercies fails because of an apparent dimness of perception that frequently overcomes dramatists : they don 't always know when they 've got ahold of the wrong end of the story they want to tell . "
Many critics specifically praised Duvall 's performance . Sterritt called it " one of the most finely wrought achievements to reach the screen in recent memory . " In Corliss 's description , " Duvall 's aging face , a road map of dead ends and dry gulches , can accommodate rage or innocence or any ironic shade in between . As Mac he avoids both melodrama and condescension , finding climaxes in each small step toward rehabilitation , each new responsibility shouldered . " Ansen said , " Robert Duvall does another of his extraordinary disappearing acts . He vanishes totally inside the character of Mac Sledge . " Maslin said he " so thoroughly transformed into Mac that he even walks with a Texan 's rolling gait " ; she also complimented the performances of the supporting cast . According to a review in People , " Duvall gives it everything he has , which is saying a great deal . His beery singing voice is a revelation , and his unfussy , brightly burnished acting is the kind for which awards were invented . " The review also described Betty Buckley as " bitchy and brilliant " . Duvall was praised as well for pulling off his first true romantic role ; the actor said of the response , " This is the only film where I 've heard people say I 'm sexy . It 's real romantic . Rural romantic . I love that part almost more than anything . "
Reflecting on the film a decade after it came out , critic Danny Peary said he found Duvall 's restrained portrayal " extremely irritating " and criticized the entire cast , save for Buckley , for their " subdued , emotions @-@ in @-@ check , phony ' honest ' performances . You just wish the whole lot of them would start tickling each other . " In his book Alternate Oscars , listing his personal opinions of who should have won the Academy Awards each year , Peary excluded Tender Mercies from all the categories , and chose Michael Caine as deserving of the Best Actor honor for Educating Rita . In June 2009 , critic Roger Ebert included Tender Mercies in The Great Movies , his series of reviews celebrating what he considers the most important films of all time . He praised what he called one of Duvall 's most understated performances , as well as Foote 's minimalist storytelling and the restraint and patience of Beresford 's direction . Ebert said of Foote 's screenplay , " The down @-@ to @-@ earth quality of his characters drew attention away from his minimalist storytelling ; all the frills were stripped away . ... Rarely does a movie elaborate less and explain more than Tender Mercies . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The 56th Academy Award nominations were announced about ten months after Tender Mercies was released . Little had been done to promote its candidacy : only four Oscar campaign advertisements were purchased ; all of them appeared in the trade journal Variety , and Duvall had declined to campaign for himself or the film . Beresford and studio executives were surprised when the film was nominated for five Academy Awards , including Best Picture . Harper was believed by some to be a strong contender for either Best Actress or Best Supporting Actress , but ultimately she was nominated in neither category .
Duvall was the only American actor nominated for the Best Actor Oscar ; his competition were Britons Michael Caine ( who had co @-@ starred with Duvall in the 1976 The Eagle Has Landed ) , Tom Conti , Tom Courtenay and Albert Finney . During an interview before the Oscar ceremony , Duvall offended some Britons by complaining about " the Limey syndrome , " claiming " the attitude with a lot of people in Hollywood is that what they do in England is somehow better than what we do here . " Duvall , who was presented with the Oscar by country music star Dolly Parton , said of winning the award , " It was a nice feeling , knowing I was the home @-@ crowd favorite . " In a New York Times profile of Duvall that appeared six years after Tender Mercies ' release , Nan C. Robertson wrote that despite four previous Academy Award nominations , " it was not until he won as Best Actor in 1983 ... that moviegoers woke up in droves to this great natural resource . The reason was that they rarely recognized Mr. Duvall from one part to another , so effortlessly did he vanish into each celluloid persona . " Foote , who was so certain he would not win the Best Adapted Screenplay Oscar for To Kill a Mockingbird he had not attended the 1963 ceremony , made sure he was present to collect his award for Best Original Screenplay . The critical success of the film allowed Foote to exercise considerable control over his future film projects , including final veto power over major decisions ; when such power was denied , Foote would simply refuse to do the film .
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= The Boat Race 2010 =
The 156th Boat Race took place on 3 April 2010 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was won by Cambridge . Of the eighteen competitors in the race , six were British . Of the non @-@ British rowers , the Oxford crew featured the American Olympic finalists , the Winklevoss twins . It was the first time the race had a title sponsor ; it was also known as the " Xchanging Boat Race " , having been sponsored by Xchanging .
Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race by four lengths while Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis in the reserve race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2009 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Cambridge led overall with 79 victories to Oxford 's 75 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the sixth consecutive year , but it was the first time in the 180 @-@ year history of the Boat Race that the title had been given over to sponsorship ; as such it was referred to as the " Xchanging Boat Race " .
Prior to the race , Oxford University Boat Club president and Dutch international rower Sjoerd Hamburger claimed " Last year we had an exceptional crew , power @-@ wise , which we don 't have this year , but we 're starting to match the times we did last year , so I 'm very pleased " . His Cambridge counterpart , American Deaglan McEachern , responded : " we 're faster " . Umpire and former Cambridge Blue Simon Harris suggested that he did not anticipate any problems with the two coxes obeying his instructions : " I 've been impressed by the coxes , how they 've responded to the umpire 's calls " .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
Cambridge 's crew weighed an average of 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) per rower more than Oxford . The Dark Blues were coached by Sean Bowden for the 13th time while the Light Blues saw Chris Nilsson act as chief coach for the second time . Cambridge 's crew featured four Britons , three Americans and two Canadians , while Oxford 's consisted of three Americans , two Britons , and rowers from Ireland , The Netherlands , Canada ( dual nationality ) and Germany .
Oxford 's crew included the Winklevoss twins ( Cameron and Tyler ) , who rowed in the 2008 Olympic Games for the United States in the men 's coxless pair . Cambridge 's bowman , Canadian international rower Robert Weitemeyer , had won the gold in the men 's eight at the World Rowing Cup in 2007 .
= = Race = =
Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites , and won the toss , electing to start the race from the Surrey station . They took an early lead and were nearly half a length up on Cambridge by the time the crews passed the Harrods Furniture Depository . The boats closed in on one another and umpire Harris was forced to issue a number of warnings to both coxes as the crews came close to clashing oars . The Light Blues pulled themselves back into contention around the Chiswick Reach and took the lead into Corney Reach . Oxford attempted to find a quicker racing line and were still in touch , but Cambridge inched away from them , passing the finishing post one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ third lengths ahead in a time of 17 minutes 35 seconds .
Oxford won the 65th Women 's Boat Race by four lengths , their third consecutive victory . Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie in the reserve race by two lengths , their first win in three years .
= = Reaction = =
Cambridge cox Randolph exclaimed " The whole way through I was thinking : ' We could win it , we could win it , we could win it " . Race umpire Simon Harris declared " it was a fantastic race " . Olympic medallist Steve Redgrave remarked " All credit to Oxford ... but all the way from the bend on there was only going to be one winner . It just took Cambridge a little while before they believed it was going to happen . "
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= Promiscuous ( song ) =
" Promiscuous " is a song by Canadian singer Nelly Furtado from her third studio album Loose ( 2006 ) , featuring Timbaland . The song was written by Anthony Motz , along with Tim " Timbaland " Mosley , Furtado and Nate " Danja " Hills . The song 's lyrics , which were penned by Furtado and Clayton , feature a conversation between a man and woman who call each other promiscuous . The overtly @-@ sexual song was released as the lead single from the album in North America in early 2006 , and as the second single elsewhere in mid @-@ 2006 except in Latin America , where the single was released as the third single in late 2006 .
The song was well received by music critics , with some critics calling it the highlight of the album . " Promiscuous " was an international success and it had become Furtado 's first number @-@ one single in the US . It is the first number one by a Canadian female artist since 1998 's " I 'm Your Angel " by R. Kelly and Céline Dion on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song also topped the chart in New Zealand and peaked within the top ten on many charts across Europe .
The accompanying music video was directed by Little X , and features scenes of Furtado and Timbaland , in what Furtado describes as a " verbal Ping @-@ Pong game " . Cameo appearances are made by Keri Hilson , Justin Timberlake , and Bria Myles .
The song won the " Best Pop Single of the Year " at the 2006 Billboard Music Awards and received a nomination for the " Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals " at the 49th Grammy Awards , losing to Tony Bennett and Stevie Wonder 's " For Once in My Life " .
= = Background and writing = =
The lyrics of " Promiscuous " describe the two sides of the relationship that the song 's protagonist deals with . It was one of the first songs Furtado wrote with labelmate Timothy " Attitude " Clayton . Furtado called their teamwork something she " had never done before " because she saw the writing process as " extremely freeing " because of his different approach and style . Clayton helped Furtado experiment with interpreting the " promiscuous girl " character and the two @-@ sided relationship she is in . Furtado also described that in the process of writing lyrics " we were actually flirting , which is why the song is so playful " and that she and Clayton nicknamed the song ' The BlackBerry Song ' , because everything we say in the song you could text @-@ message to somebody " . Because of the preponderant musical influence of artists such as Talking Heads , Blondie , Madonna , The Police and Eurythmics , whom producers Timbaland and Danja listened to during the writing of the album , " Promiscuous " takes inspiration from pop music of the 1980s . The sexuality was based on the " strong women in control " of the 1990s , such as Queen Latifah , MC Lyte , Yo @-@ Yo , Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa and TLC .
The reference to basketball player Steve Nash in the song 's lyrics led to speculation that he and Furtado were romantically involved , but both deny the link with Nash commenting , " I 'm flattered that she put me in her song , but I 'm completely in love with my wife and two little baby girls " . Furtado decided to include him because she and Nash are both from Victoria , British Columbia , and due to frequent citations of basketballers in songs , she decided to " give him the props " . In one of the verses Timbaland introduces himself as Thomas Crown . The Thomas Crown Affair is a film about wealthy businessman who plays a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse / flirting game with an insurance investigator . Timbaland only performed the song live on special occasions , such as Furtado 's appearance on Saturday Night Live , and the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards . Starting with Furtado 's show at the 94th Grey Cup on 19 November 2006 , and extending into the Get Loose Tour , Timbaland 's part is filled in by Canadian rapper Saukrates .
= = Critical reception = =
" Promiscuous " received positive reviews from music critics . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone considered it a highlight in Loose . Timbaland 's appearance received particular praise , which added Furtado 's " high @-@ school musical vocals " over his eighty beats according to Sheffield . The New Yorker considered it " a playful update " of Janet Jackson 's " Nasty " , using " a heavier and darker rhythmic bed . " AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine compared it to " vintage Prince " , citing " Promiscuous " as a highlight of Furtado 's makeover .
However , Erlewine believed that no matter how much Furtado sings about sex , she does not sound sexy and does not " generate much carnal heat " . IGN 's review considered the song " simultaneously annoying and yet catchy beyond belief " and listed as one of Loose 's " Definitely Downloads " , Pitchfork Media called it " one of the best vocal performances of [ Timbaland 's ] career " , and Billboard called the duo of Furtado and Timbaland " a surprisingly good match " . The song was also included in three lists of best songs of 2006 : fourth on Blender , sixth at The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop , 56th on Rolling Stone , and 80th on Pitchfork .
On 4 December 2006 , " Promiscuous " won " Best Pop Single of the Year " at the 2006 Billboard Music Awards , beating Daniel Powter 's " Bad Day " and Sean Paul 's " Temperature " . The song was nominated for the " Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals " at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards , losing to Tony Bennett & Stevie Wonder 's " For Once in My Life " .
= = Chart performance = =
In Canada , the single 's music video debuted on MuchMusic 's MuchOnDemand after an interview with Furtado on 8 May 2006 . On 4 May 2006 , " Promiscuous " debuted inside the top five on the Canadian Singles Chart , and on 1 June , it became Furtado 's first Canadian number @-@ one single . It spent twenty @-@ five weeks on the singles chart , and returned to number two after the commercial release of Loose , but was the year 's shortest @-@ running number @-@ one single . " Promiscuous " charted at number one on the Canadian Digital Chart and was the most successful single release in her home nation since " I 'm Like a Bird " ( 2000 ) . In April 2008 , the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) began certifying ringtone sales , and " Promiscuous " was included in its debut list , having sold 120 @,@ 000 copies in Canada . The single was also previously certified 3 Platinum in January 2007 for digital download sales , denoting sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies .
In United States , " Promiscuous " debuted at number sixty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of 20 May 2006 . On 8 July it topped the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her first number @-@ one single . It spent six weeks at the top spot and was replaced by Fergie 's " London Bridge " . It reached the top position on Billboard Pop Songs and Hot Dance Club Play chart . " Promiscuous " reached number twenty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and number thirty @-@ six on Hot Latin Songs chart . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies . It also made number three on the Billboard Hot 100 year @-@ end chart and number forty @-@ four on the decade @-@ end chart . As of August 2009 , the song has so far sold over 2 @,@ 504 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States .
Outside North America , " Promicuous " performed well . The song debuted at number five on the Australian ARIA Charts and peaked at number two in its third week . It was her first top five hit since " I 'm Like a Bird " ( 2000 ) and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the sales of 70 @,@ 000 digital copies .
" Promiscuous " debuted at number thirty @-@ three on the New Zealand Top 40 on 10 July 2006 . It topped the chart in its third week and became her second number @-@ one single after " Turn off the Light " ( 2001 ) . It remained the top spot for five weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
In Europe , " Promiscuous " became a commercial success , peaking at number five on European Hot 100 Singles . The song debuted at number fifteen on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number three the following week . It spent a total of fourteen weeks on the chart . On 31 December 2006 BBC Radio 1 reported that " Promiscuous " was the thirty @-@ eighth highest selling single in the UK in 2006 . The single re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at number sixty @-@ six in January 2007 due to the The Official UK Charts Company 's new rules . It performed moderately in others European countries , less than the next singles , it tooped the chart in Denmark and was within the top five in Finland , Hungary , Ireland , Norway and Slovakia . It missed to reach the top ten in Austria , France and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Little X and features cameo appearances by Keri Hilson , Bria Myles , Sean Faris and Justin Timberlake . It does not follow a storyline and per Furtado 's request , focuses on scenes with dancing and flirting because she wanted to recreate the song 's indicative vibe , and took the opportunity to film a club video for the first time . Furtado said of the video , " It 's that whole dance that goes on . There 's that mystery there , the fun , playful sexiness , the verbal Ping @-@ Pong game " . Furtado and Timbaland cannot decide whether they want to begin dating or instead flirt with others on the dance floor . Their single performances are intercut with several scenes of a dancing crowd , and the lighting changes between blue , green , red , and yellow colors .
" Promiscuous " premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live on 3 May 2006 , where it reached number one after spending twenty @-@ one days on the countdown . After its debut on MuchMusic 's Countdown , it ascended to number one for the week of 28 July 2006 . At the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards , it was nominated for the Best Dance , Female and Pop Video Awards . The video was parodied by MADtv in a segment entitled " Syphilis Girl " ; in the video , Furtado ( Nicole Parker ) is comically portrayed as having given Timbaland ( Jordan Peele ) the sexually transmitted disease , as well as on YouTube by the comedic group Train of Thought Sketch Comedy , where the video is parodied by troupe member Kaci and features a puppet version of Timbaland .
= = Track listings = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the Loose liner notes .
Nelly Furtado – lyrics , lead vocals , background vocals
Timbaland – lyrics , lead vocals , producer , drums , keyboards
Nate " Danja " Hills – producer , drums , keyboards
Demacio " Demo " Castellón – engineering , mixing , recording , additional programming
Marcella " Ms. Lago " Araica – additional recording
Jim Beanz – additional background vocals , vocal production
James Roach – second engineering
Kobla Tetey – second engineering
Ben Jost – second engineering
Vadim Chislov – second engineering
Timothy " Attitude " Clayton – lyrics
Recorded at The Hit Factory , Miami , Florida
Mixed at Thomas Crown Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= The Lazy Song =
" The Lazy Song " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Bruno Mars for his debut studio album Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . It was serviced to contemporary hit radios in the United States on February 15 , 2011 as the album 's third single by Atlantic and Elektra . Development of " The Lazy Song " began while Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine were hanging around the studio and didn ’ t feel like working . Mars wrote the song in collaboration with singer @-@ songwriter , K 'naan and his production team The Smeezingtons , who also produced the track . Musically , " The Lazy Song " has been described as borrowing " heavily from roots reggae " , while lyrically it is an anthem to laziness .
" The Lazy Song " reached number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 , while it topped the charts in Denmark and charted on most international markets within the top five . It topped the charts in Denmark and the United Kingdom . Cameron Duddy and Mars directed the accompanying music video , in which Mars hangs out with five dancers with monkey masks while jest around in his underwear . Worldwide , it was one of the best selling digital singles of 2011 with sales of 6 @.@ 5 million copies . Mars performed " The Lazy Song " on The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 – 12 ) , and occasionally on The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 – 14 ) .
= = Development and production = =
" The Lazy Song " is one of the eleven songs composed and produced by The Smeezingtons for Mars ' debut studio album Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans . In an interview with Sound on Sound , fellow Smeezington Ari Levine explained how they came up with the song " [ It ] was a very tough song to write , even though it is so simple . That song began one day when we were hanging around the studio and hadn ’ t written a song for a few days and we were kind of burnt out and didn ’ t feel like working . We felt lazy . ' K ’ naan ' was in the studio with us , and the four of us suddenly came up with this idea . " He added , " After that we had a really hard time getting the groove and the drums to sit right . Once you have one piece of the puzzle , like when you realise that a drum track is good , you can add other things in after that . "
" The Lazy Song " was mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in Hollywood by Manny Marroquin , while Christian Plata and Erik Madrid served as the assistant for mix . Ari Levine and Bruno Mars played all the instruments on the track and recorded them . Ari was also responsible for engineering the song at Levcon Studios in California . Stephen Marcussen mastered the song at Marcussen Mastering in California , while Jash Negandhi ( DJ Dizzy ) was responsible for the scratching on the track .
= = Composition = =
" The Lazy Song " was described as borrowing " heavily from roots reggae " and having a moderate reggae groove . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of B major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 88 beats per minute . The vocal range spans from F ♯ 4 to B5 . " The Lazy Song " features an acoustic guitar , scratching , and a drum track on the instrumentation , being three minutes and fifteen seconds long . Lewis Corner , reviewer of Digital Spy wrote that " Bruno pulls a sickie in this reggae @-@ pop number about , well , absolutely nothing . " and noticed the " reggae @-@ pop production " while describing Mars as a " couch potato of the daytime TV variety " due to the lyrics of the song " I 'm gonna kick my feet up then stare at the fan / Turn the TV on , throw my hand in my pants " . Jim Farber of Daily News considered the song a " hymn to sloth " . The single version of the song features whistling , which is not present on the album version . Lyrically , the song makes reference to MTV , the P90X home fitness DVDs , and the Cali Swag District song " Teach Me How to Dougie " .
= = Release = =
" The Lazy Song " was the third single to be released from Mars ' debut studio album Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . Atlantic and Elektra released the song , initially for airplay on mainstream radio in the United States , on February 15 , 2011 . The single was released in the UK by the Warner Music Group on May 9 , 2011 , as a CD single containing both the single version and The Hooligans remix of " Grenade " . On February 18 , 2011 it was released as a digital download only in New Zealand , containing the single version of the song . On May 27 , 2011 , the CD single was then also released on Germany .
= = Critical reception = =
" The Lazy Song " has received generally favourable reviews from contemporary music critics . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine noted that in song Mars " paints a portrait of Al Bundy as a young man " and Andy Gill of The Independent classified the song as a " laidback acoustic groove " . Tim Sendra of AllMusic said it was one of the tracks from Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans that captured the laid @-@ back groove . Scott Mervis of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette described the song as a " Jason Mraz / Sugar Ray @-@ style reggae . " Sean Fennessey , reviewer of The Washington Post felt the song was written in a " quality that is both endearing and damning " . A mixed review came from Digital Spy reviewer , Lewis Corner , commented on the song being a " summery ditty more head @-@ boppable than a Churchill nodding dog , which , given his current state of mind , is probably about all he could muster " , giving it three starts out of five . From Entertainment Weekly , Leah Greenblatt considered that " other modes suit him less well ; The Lazy Song is perhaps better left to Jason Mraz " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , gave the song a negative review , writing that The Lazy Song " gets no further than the second verse before Mars – nothing if not keen to keep his fans abreast of his every activity in a world of 360 @-@ degree connectivity – announces that he 's planning on having a wank " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2011 , the song received a nomination at the MP3Music Awards for " The BNC Award Best / New / Act " , but lost . It also received a nomination for the " Choice Summer Song " award at the 2011 Teen Choice Awards . In 2011 , the song was nominated at the NRJ Music Awards and ASCAP Pop Music Awards for , respectively , the International Song of the Year and Most Performed Song , having won the latter . It also was nominated for 2011 Billboard Music Awards , it the category of Top Streaming Song . At the RTHK International Pop Poll Awards the song won " Top 10 Gold International Gold Songs " . The song , according to Spotify and 300 @.@ 000 users , was considered a " Hangover Cure " .
= = Chart performance = =
" The Lazy Song " spent a total of 27 weeks on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and peaked at number 4 . It also peaked at number 3 on Billboard 's Pop Songs chart and at number 2 on the Adult Top 40 chart . The single sold over 1 million digital copies in the United States in May 2011 , becoming Mars ' fifth consecutive million @-@ selling single as a solo and featured artist combined . The song has sold 3 @,@ 262 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States by September 2012 . Only in August 16 , 2013 the song was certified Platinum , Double @-@ Platinum and consequently Triple @-@ Platinum at the same time . The song rose to number 5 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart , having started at number 85 on March 19 , 2011 . It entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number 10 on February 28 , 2011 and eventually reached number 6 . Worldwide , it was one of the best selling digital singles of 2011 with sales of 6 @.@ 5 million copies .
In New Zealand , it debuted at number eighteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart on February 28 , 2011 , and peaked at number three .
In the United Kingdom , " The Lazy Song " peaked at the top of the UK Singles Chart , becoming Mars 's third solo chart topper , and fourth in total , in Britain , as well as his third chart @-@ topping song there in under a year following " Just the Way You Are " and " Grenade " .
The single debuted at number 18 on the Denmark and peaked at number one , the only country in which it did . In Germany it reached number 9 . " The Lazy Song " started at number 26 in the Dutch Top 40 on April 2 , 2011 , and peaked at number 4 in its eighth week on the chart . The single debuted at number 10 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 and peaked at number 4 . In Switzerland it entered the singles chart at number 29 and climbed to number 9 . It peaked at number 11 on the French singles chart ( SNEP ) , and it peaked at number 10 in Italy .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The official video was directed by Mars and Cameron Duddy , produced by Nick Tabri and Dara Siegel , and features Poreotics wearing chimpanzee masks ; it was released on April 15 , 2011 . The whole video is presented in as a lone continuous and uninterrupted shot , it begins with Mars singing and hanging out in a bedroom with five dancers , they all wear monkey masks and Mars dresses in black sunglasses and a flannel shirt . While Mars sings what he feels to do on a day off , he and the monkeys perform dance moves typical of a boy @-@ band , fool around and mimicking the song 's lyrics . Philip Lawrence , a member of the Smeezingtons , makes an appearance , lip syncing the line , " Oh my God , this is great ! " before being driven off by the chimps ; the monkeys drop their pants when Mars sings , " I 'll just strut in my birthday suit / and let everything hang loose ! " The music video ends with Mars pouring yellow confetti all over his boxer @-@ clad pals , right before him , Poreotics and Philip Lawrence , who meanwhile reappeared , striking a pose for the camera .
An alternate video was directed by Nez , produced by Anne Johnson , and was released on May 27 , 2011 . The video features Leonard Nimoy , who " enjoys the lazy life " . During the music video Nimoy , who wears a robe and slippers all day , is seen " wandering around the neighborhood and scaring the local Ginger kids , he 's at home smoking weed and chilling out " . Besides this , one or two other famous Trek stars make a brief appearance , like William Shatner . Mars and Lawrence make a cameo in the video , walking out of the grocery store as Nimoy walks in .
= = = Reception = = =
" The Lazy Song " official video was nominated at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Choreography . It received a " Double Platinum " award for one of the most played music video on MTV channels around the world at the MTV Platinum Video Plays Awards ceremony . It was also nominated at the Myx Music Awards for " Favorite International Video " . The UK Music Video Awards also recognized the video in the category of " Best Pop Video @-@ UK " with a nomination . As of July 2016 , the music video has received over 930 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
Mars has performed the song in several shows . The song was first performed live on Kidd Kraddick , on October 19 , 2010 . On October 22 , 2010 , a " soulful " arrangement of the song was sung for a Billboard Tastemakers video session . On April 28 , 2011 he performed the song on the tenth season of American Idol . Mars also performed it at the NBA All @-@ Star Tip Off Pre @-@ Show in February 2011 . The song was also performed on NBC 's Today Show on June 24 , 2011 . On July 28 , of that year Bruno performed in the X @-@ Factor finale of France with the two finalists . On July 27 , 2011 he performed the song at KIIS FM for the program Jojoontheradio . It was the seventh song of his debut worldwide tour , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 ) and was tenth on the European set list of his second worldwide tour , The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" The Lazy Song " ( Single Version ) – 3 : 08
CD single
" The Lazy Song " ( Single Version ) – 3 : 08
" Grenade " ( The Hooligans Remix ) – 3 : 30
= = Credits and personnel = =
Mixing and mastering
Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios , Hollywood , California ; mastered at Marcussen Mastering , Hollywood , California ; engineered at Levcon Studios , Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans , Elektra Records
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Katie Hill =
Katie Hill ( born 17 February 1984 ) is an Australian 3 @.@ 0 point wheelchair basketball player . She participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a bronze medal , and the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a silver medal . She has over 100 international caps playing for Australia .
Hill plays for the Sydney University Flames in the Australian Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) . As the Hills Hornets , her team won the league championship in 2007 , 2008 and 2009 . After changing their name to the Sydney University Flames , they again won the WNWBL championship in 2010 . She was named 4 point Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) and a member of the All Star Five in 2007 . In 2009 , she scored 21 points in the Hornets ' 66 @-@ 49 final win against the Perth Western Stars , and was named MVP of the finals series .
Hill made her national team debut in 2005 in Malaysia at the World Junior Wheelchair Basketball Championships , and has played for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , universally known as the Gliders , at the IWBF World Wheelchair Basketball Championships in Amsterdam in 2006 and Birmingham in 2010 , and at the 2007 , 2009 and 2010 Osaka Cups in Japan .
= = Personal = =
Katie Hill was born in Kogarah , New South Wales , on 17 February 1984 , the youngest of three children . She has spina bifida , a condition she has had since birth . As of 2013 , she lives in Panania , New South Wales , and works as a receptionist at Salesforce.com.
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Hill is a 3 @.@ 0 point player , who started playing wheelchair basketball in 1996 . In financial year 2012 / 13 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant as part of their Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . She received $ 11 @,@ 000 in 2011 / 12 , $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2010 / 11 , $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 and $ 5 @,@ 200 in 2008 / 09 . In 2012 and 2013 , she had a scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport .
= = = Club = = =
Hill currently plays club wheelchair basketball for the Sydney University Flames in the Australian Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) , and the Sydney University Wheelkings in the mixed National Wheelchair basketball League . Playing with the Hills Hornets , who won the league championship , she was named 4 point Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) and part of the All Star Five in 2007 . In the 2009 finals series , she scored 20 points in the semi @-@ final to get the Hills Hornets into the final , and then 21 points and 7 assists in the Hornets won 66 @-@ 49 final win against the Perth Western Stars . She was named MVP of the finals series . In all , the Hornets won eight straight championships from 2002 to 2009 , before changing their name to the Sydney University Flames in 2010 , and claiming a ninth title that year .
= = = National team = = =
Hill made her national team debut in 2005 in Malaysia at the World Junior Wheelchair Basketball Championships . She played for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , universally known as the Gliders , at the IWBF World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Amsterdam in the Netherlands in 2006 , where the Gliders came fourth , at the 2007 Asia Oceania Qualification tournament , and at the 2007 and 2009 Osaka Cup in Japan . She subsequently represented Australia at the 2010 World Championships in Birmingham , where the Gliders again finished fourth , and was a member of the 2010 team that played in the Osaka Cup . By August 2012 , she had played 110 international games .
= = = Paralympics = = =
Hill was part of the bronze medal winning team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , and again at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . The Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins in the group stage against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to the Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal . Hill played in all seven games , for a total of 107 minutes , scoring 25 points , with six assists and eight rebounds .
= = Statistics = =
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= Elizabeth of Bosnia =
Elizabeth of Bosnia ( c . 1339 – January 1387 ) was queen consort and later regent of Hungary and Croatia , as well as queen consort of Poland . Daughter of Ban Stephen II of Bosnia , Elizabeth married King Louis I of Hungary in 1353 . In 1370 , she gave birth to a long @-@ anticipated heir , Catherine , and became Queen of Poland when Louis succeeded his uncle , Casimir III . The royal couple had two more daughters , Mary and Hedwig , but Catherine died in 1378 . Initially a powerless consort with no substantial influence , Elizabeth then started surrounding herself with noblemen loyal to her , led by her favourite , Nicholas I Garai . When Louis died in 1382 , Mary ascended to the throne of Hungary with Elizabeth as regent . Unable to preserve the personal union of Hungary and Poland , the queen dowager secured the Polish throne for her youngest daughter , Hedwig .
During her regency in Hungary , Elizabeth faced several rebellions led by John Horvat and John of Palisna , who attempted to take advantage of Mary 's insecure reign . In 1385 , they invited King Charles III of Naples to depose Mary and assume the crown . Elizabeth responded by having Charles murdered two months after his coronation , in 1386 . She had the crown restored to her daughter and established herself as regent once more , only to be captured , imprisoned and ultimately strangled by her enemies .
= = Descent and early years = =
Born about 1339 , Elizabeth was the daughter of Ban Stephen II of Bosnia , the head of the House of Kotromanić . Her mother , Elizabeth of Kuyavia , was a member of the House of Piast and grandniece of King Władysław I of Poland . The Hungarian queen dowager Elizabeth of Poland was first cousin once removed of Elizabeth 's mother . After her daughter @-@ in @-@ law Margaret succumbed to the Black Death in 1349 , Queen Elizabeth expressed interest in her young kinswoman , having in mind a future match for her widowed and childless son , King Louis I of Hungary . She insisted on immediately bringing the girl to her court in Visegrád for fostering . Despite her father 's initial reluctance , Elizabeth was sent to the dowager 's court .
In 1350 , Tsar Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia attacked Bosnia in order to regain Zachlumia . The invasion was not successful , and the Tsar tried to negotiate peace , which would be sealed by arranging Elizabeth 's marriage to his son and heir apparent , Stephen Uroš V. Mavro Orbini , whose reliability in this regard " is a subject of controversy " , wrote that the Tsar expected Zachlumia to be ceded as Elizabeth 's dowry , which her father refused . Later that year she was formally betrothed to the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Louis , who hoped to counter Dušan 's expansionist policy either with her father 's help or " as his eventual successor " , according to historian Oscar Halecki .
= = Marriage = =
Elizabeth 's marriage to Louis was celebrated in Buda on 20 June 1353 . The couple were related within the prohibited degree of kinship , Duke Casimir I of Kuyavia being Elizabeth 's maternal great @-@ great @-@ grandfather and Louis ' maternal great @-@ grandfather . A papal dispensation was thus necessary , but it was only sought four months after the wedding took place . The historian Iván Bertényi suggests that the ceremony may have been hastened by an unintended pregnancy , as the couple had been in contact for years . If so , the pregnancy likely ended in a stillbirth . Elizabeth 's mother had apparently died by the time she was married . Louis was dismayed when , upon his father @-@ in @-@ law 's death later the same year , Elizabeth 's young and ambitious cousin Tvrtko ascended the Bosnian throne . In 1357 , Louis summoned the young Ban to Požega and compelled him to surrender most of western Zachlumia as Elizabeth 's dowry .
The new Queen of Hungary subjected herself entirely to her controlling mother @-@ in @-@ law , Elizabeth of Poland . The fact that the young queen 's retinue consisted of the same individuals who had served the queen mother indicates that Elizabeth of Bosnia may not even have had her own court . Her mother @-@ in @-@ law 's influence prevailed until 1370 , when Louis succeeded his maternal uncle , Casimir III , as King of Poland . Elizabeth 's maternal uncle , Vladislaus the White , had also been a candidate for the Polish throne . Following his coronation in Poland , Louis brought Casimir 's underage daughters , Anne and Hedwig , to be raised by Elizabeth . Elizabeth , though Queen of Poland , was never crowned as such .
The problem of the succession marked Louis ' reign . Elizabeth was long considered barren , and a succession crisis was expected after the childless king 's death . Her brother @-@ in @-@ law Stephen was heir presumptive until his death in 1354 , when his son John replaced him . However , John also died in 1360 . A daughter was born to the King and Queen in 1365 , but the child died the next year . For a few years , John 's sister , Elizabeth , was treated as heir presumptive and a suitable marriage for her was being negotiated . Things suddenly took a different course when the King 's wife had three daughters in quick succession ; Catherine was born in July 1370 , Mary in 1371 , and Hedwig in 1373 or 1374 . Elizabeth is known to have written a book for the education of her daughters , a copy of which was sent to France in 1374 . However , all copies have been lost .
On 17 September 1374 , Louis granted various concessions to the Polish nobility by the Privilege of Koszyce , in exchange for their promise that a daughter of his would succeed him and that he , Elizabeth or his mother could indicate which one . In Hungary , he focused on the centralization of power as means of ensuring that his daughters ' rights would be respected . Securing marriage to one of the princesses was a priority in European royal courts . Mary was scarcely one year old when she was promised to Sigismund of Luxembourg . In 1374 , Catherine was betrothed to Louis of France , but died towards the end of 1378 . The same year , Hedwig , promised to William of Austria in a sponsalia de futuro , left her mother 's court and moved to Vienna , where she spent the next two years . The Polish lords swore to uphold Mary 's rights in 1379 , while Sigismund received this recognition three years later . Elizabeth was present , along with her husband and mother @-@ in @-@ law , at a meeting in Zólyom on 12 February 1380 , whereby Hungarian lords confirmed Hedwig 's Austrian match ; this indicates that Louis may have intended to leave Hungary to Hedwig and William .
The King , weakened by illness , became progressively less active in the last years of his reign , devoting an increasing amount of time to prayer , as did his aging mother , who had returned from Poland in 1374 . These circumstances allowed Elizabeth to assume a more prominent role at court . Her influence had grown steadily since she had given her husband heirs . It appeared probable that the crowns would pass to one of Elizabeth 's underage daughters and by 1374 , their rights were confirmed . Behind the scenes , Elizabeth began ensuring that the succession would be as smooth as possible by encouraging a slow but decisive change in the personnel of the government . Warlike and illiterate barons were gradually replaced by a small group of noblemen who excelled in their professional skills but were not distinguished by birth or military ability . Palatine Nicholas I Garai led the movement and enjoyed the full support of the Queen , and their power eventually became virtually unrestricted .
= = Widowhood and regency = =
Louis died on 10 September 1382 , with Elizabeth and their daughters at his bedside . Elizabeth , now queen dowager , had Mary crowned " King " of Hungary only seven days later . Halecki believes that the reason behind Elizabeth 's haste and Mary 's masculine title was the dowager 's desire to exclude Sigismund , her prospective son @-@ in @-@ law , from the government . Acted as regent on behalf of the eleven @-@ year @-@ old sovereign , Elizabeth made Garai her chief adviser . Her rule was not to be peaceful . The royal court was pleased with the arrangement , but Hungarian noblemen were unwilling to defer to a woman and objected to Mary 's accession , maintaining that the lawful heir to the throne was King Charles III of Naples , the only remaining male Angevin . Charles was , at that time , unable to claim Mary 's throne because his own was threatened by Duke Louis I of Anjou .
The first to rise against Elizabeth , in 1383 , was John of Palisna , Prior of Vrana . Historian John V. A. Fine says that the Prior " seems to have been chiefly opposed " to the centralizing policy which her husband had enforced . Her cousin Tvrtko also decided to take advantage of Louis ' death and Elizabeth 's unpopularity by trying to recover the lands he had lost to the King in 1357 . Tvrtko and John formed an alliance against Elizabeth , but they were ultimately defeated by her army , with John being forced to flee to Bosnia .
= = = Polish succession = = =
Although Louis had designated Mary as his successor in both of his kingdoms , the Polish nobles , seeking an end to the personal union with Hungary , were not willing to recognize Mary and her fiancé Sigismund as their sovereigns . They would have accepted Mary if she had moved to Kraków and reigned over both kingdoms from there rather than from Hungary , ruling according to their advice rather than that of the Hungarian nobles and marrying a prince of their choosing . Their intentions , however , were not to Elizabeth 's taste . She too would have been required to move to Kraków , where a lack of men loyal to her would have rendered her unable to enforce her own will . Elizabeth was also aware of the difficulties her mother @-@ in @-@ law had faced during her regency in Poland , which had ended with the old queen fleeing her native kingdom in disgrace .
An agreement was reached between Elizabeth 's and Polish delegates in Sieradz on 26 February 1383 . The queen dowager thereby proposed her youngest daughter Hedwig as Louis ' successor in Poland , and absolved the Polish nobles from their 1382 oaths to Mary and Sigismund . She agreed to send Hedwig to be crowned in Kraków but requested that , in view of her age , she spend three more years in Buda following the ceremony . The Poles , entangled in a bloody civil war , initially conceded to the requirement , but soon found it unacceptable for their monarch to reside abroad for so long . At the second meeting in Sieradz , held on 28 March , they contemplated offering the crown to Hedwig 's distant relative , Duke Siemowit IV of Masovia . They eventually opted against it , but at the third Sieradz meeting , on 16 June , Siemowit himself decided to lay claim to the crown . Elizabeth reacted by having an army of 12 @,@ 000 men devastate Masovia in August , forcing him to drop his pretensions . Meanwhile , she realized that she could not expect the nobles to accept her request and instead resolved to delay Hedwig 's departure . Despite continuous Polish demands to expedite her arrival , Hedwig did not move to Kraków until the end of August 1384 . She was crowned on 16 October 1384 . No regent was appointed , and the 10 @-@ year @-@ old exercised her authority according to the advice of Kraków magnates . Elizabeth never saw her again .
In 1385 , Elizabeth received an official delegation from Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania , who wished to marry Hedwig . In the Act of Kreva , Jogaila promised to pay compensation to William of Austria on Elizabeth 's behalf and requested that Elizabeth , as widow of King Louis and heiress of Poland herself as great @-@ grandniece of King Władysław I ( whose name Jogaila had purposely assumed on his baptism ) , legally adopt him as her son in order to give him a claim to the Polish crown in the event of Hedwig 's death . The marriage was celebrated in 1386 .
= = = Mary 's marriage = = =
Mary 's fiancé Sigismund and his brother Wenceslaus , King of Germany and Bohemia , were also opposed to Elizabeth and Garai . The queen dowager and the Palatine , on the other hand , were not enthusiastic about Sigismund reigning together with Mary . Both Sigismund and Charles schemed to invade Hungary ; the former intended to marry Mary and become her co @-@ ruler , while the latter intended to depose her . Elizabeth was determined to allow neither and , in 1384 , started negotiating Mary 's marriage to Louis of France , notwithstanding her daughter 's engagement to Sigismund . Had this proposal been made after Catherine 's death in 1378 , the Western Schism would have represented a problem , with France recognising Clement VII as pope and Hungary accepting Urban VI . However , Elizabeth was desperate to avoid an invasion in 1384 and unwilling to let the schism stand in the way of the negotiations with the French . Clement VII issued a dispensation which annulled Mary 's betrothal to Sigismund , and her proxy marriage to Louis was celebrated in April 1385 , but it was not recognized by the Hungarian noblemen , who adhered to Urban VI .
Elizabeth 's plan to have Mary married to Louis of France divided the court . The Lackfis , the master of the treasury Nicholas Zámbó and the judge royal Nicholas Szécsi openly opposed it and renounced their allegiance to the queen dowager in August , which resulted in her depriving them of all their offices and replacing them with Garai 's partisans . The kingdom was on the verge of a civil war when Charles decided to invade , encouraged by John Horvat and his brother Paul , Bishop of Zagreb . Charles ' imminent arrival forced Elizabeth to yield and abandon the idea of French marriage . While her envoys in Paris were preparing for Louis 's journey , Elizabeth came to terms with her opponents and designated Szécsi as the new palatine .
Four months after her proxy marriage to Louis , Sigismund entered Hungary and married Mary , but the reconciliation between the fractions turned out to be too late to forestall Charles ' invasion . Sigismund fled to his brother 's court in Prague in the autumn of 1385 .
= = = Deposition and restoration = = =
Charles 's arrival was well @-@ prepared . He was accompanied by his Hungarian supporters and Elizabeth was unable to raise an army against him or prevent him from convoking a diet , in which he obtained an overwhelming support . Mary was forced to abdicate , opening the path for Charles to be crowned on 31 December 1385 . Elizabeth and Mary were compelled to attend the ceremony and swear allegiance to him .
Deprived of authority , Elizabeth feigned friendly feelings for Charles while his retinue was at the court , but after his supporters had returned to their homes , he was left defenseless . She acted quickly and invited him to visit Mary in Buda Castle . Upon his arrival there on 7 February 1386 , Elizabeth had Charles stabbed in her apartments and in her presence . He was taken to Visegrád , where he died on 24 February .
Having had the crown restored to her daughter , Elizabeth immediately proceeded to reward those who had helped her , giving a castle in Gimes to Blaise Forgách , the master of the cupbearers , who had mortally wounded Charles . In April , Sigismund was brought to Hungary by his brother Wenceslaus and the queens were pressured into accepting him as Mary 's future co @-@ ruler by the Treaty of Győr . Having Charles murdered did not help Elizabeth as much as she hoped it would , however , as Charles 's supporters immediately recognized his son Ladislaus as heir and fled to Zagreb . Bishop Paul pawned church estates in order to collect money for an army against the queens .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Elizabeth believed that her daughter 's mere presence would help calm the opposition . Accompanied by Garai and a modest following , she and Mary set out for Đakovo . However , Elizabeth had seriously misjudged the situation . On 25 July 1386 , they were ambushed en route and attacked by John Horvat in Gorjani . Their small entourage failed to fight off the attackers . Garai was killed by the rebels and his head was sent to Charles 's widow Margaret , while the queens were imprisoned in the bishop of Zagreb 's castle of Gomnec . Elizabeth took all blame for the rebellion and begged the attackers to spare her daughter 's life .
Elizabeth and Mary were soon sent to Novigrad Castle , with John of Palisna as their new jailer . Margaret insisted that Elizabeth be put to death . She was tried and , after the Christmas adjournment of the proceedings , found guilty of inciting Charles ' murder . Sigismund marched into Slavonia in January 1387 , with the intention to reach Novigrad and rescue the queens . Towards the middle of January , when news of Sigismund 's approach reached Novigrad , Elizabeth was strangled by guards before Mary 's eyes .
Mary was released from the captivity by Sigismund 's troops on 4 June . Having been secretly buried in St Chrysogonus 's Church in Zadar on 9 February 1387 , Elizabeth 's body was exhumed on 16 January 1390 , transferred by sea to Obrovac and then carried overland to Székesfehérvár Basilica .
= = Legacy = =
Elizabeth was regarded by her contemporaries as an efficient but ruthless politician who used political intrigues to protect and defend her daughters ' rights . She was a caring parent , but was neither politically talented nor competent to prepare Mary and Hedwig for their roles as monarchs . Elizabeth failed to set a good example for her daughters , and her unbalanced character and questionable methods in politics would serve more as a warning to the young sovereigns . Her procrastinations and inability to make clear decisions threatened Hedwig 's status , while her endless problems with Croatian nobles and failure to improve relations with her native Bosnia made Mary 's reign insecure and tumultuous .
Queen Elizabeth commissioned the creation of the Chest of Saint Simeon in 1381 . The chest , located in Zadar , is of great importance for the history of the city , as it depicts various historical events – such as the death of her father – and Elizabeth herself . According to legend , she stole the saint 's finger and paid for the creation of the casket in order to atone for her sin . The casket contains a scene which allegedly depicts the queen gone mad after stealing the relict .
= = Family tree = =
The following family tree illustrates Elizabeth 's kinship with her husband , as well as her and her daughters ' relationships with their adversaries .
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= American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant =
The American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant , located in the Laurel Hill section of Norwich , Connecticut , in the United States , includes 11 contributing buildings and two other contributing structures . The original plant was built during 1912 – 13 and used a historic Italianate house as a company office building . The plant was the primary factory where Thermos bottles were manufactured from 1913 to 1984 . The plant is historically significant to its connection to the Thermos Company and the history of Norwich . The complex is architecturally significant because it displays the adaptive use of industrial mill design to new industry . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
Since its nomination , numerous changes and renovations have occurred . The surrounding area has seen the construction of condominiums and the large manufacturing building being renovated and re @-@ purposed for loft @-@ style apartments . Renovations on the northern end of the property would require the demolition of two buildings to construct the Integrated Day Charter School . Completed in 2008 , a new two @-@ story addition created an indoor gymnasium , kitchen , offices and a new lobby for the school .
= = Background = =
The citizens of Norwich , Connecticut , sought out the Thermos company to build and operate a plant on the banks of the Thames River . A group of citizens under the group " Norwich Boomers " rallied the community to purchase 27 acres ( 11 ha ) of land for $ 750 per acre ( $ 1 @,@ 900 / ha ) so that it could be used for the Thermos Plant . The house of Dr. William H. Mason was included in the purchase . The Italianate house was converted to be used as an office building . Together , the citizens and the city raised $ 78 @,@ 000 . A contract was signed on February 14 , 1912 , designating Norwich as the home of the Thermos Plant . In return , Thermos would include the city 's name in the company 's advertisements . Thermos would even mark the products produced in Norwich with " Made in Norwich " . Allyn L. Brown acted as attorney and provided counsel for the deal . The construction of the plant was a boon for Norwich , which helped the employment of the area after the decline of the textile industry . The operations expanded into nearby Taftville , operating until they were phased out and shut down in 1988 .
= = Plant overview = =
The plant was laid out roughly north to south orientation along the Thames River . The plant itself is a mixture of interconnected buildings and stand @-@ alone structures . The stand @-@ alone structures included three propane sheds ( Buildings 63 , 64 and 65 ) that were located near the Human Resources building ( Building 86 ) and its storage shed ( Building 30 ) . The main structure of the plant was a string of connecting buildings that were erected and integrated into the production and operation of the plant . At the north end of the plant was the Research and Development building ( Building 87 ) , it was located connected to two large storage buildings ( Building 1 and 2 ) . On the front of Building 2 was the main offices ( Building 85 ) . Building 2 is connected to the largest building , the Manufacturing Building ( Building 3 ) , which is connected to the Manufacturing Glass House ( Building 5 ) and Glass House 2 ( Building 32 ) . Building 32 also served as storage building . Connected to Building 5 is the Glass House Cullet & Mix House ( Number 7 ) and the Compressor & Auxiliary Generator building ( Number 9 ) at the southern end .
Originally , the plant consisted of the company offices and the large Manufacturing Building . The Mason house , which would become the company office was originally constructed in 1861 . It is a two @-@ story brick Italianate style house that was converted to be used as an office building and significantly modified throughout the years . The 1929 addition added a wing that connected it to the metal products building which was built that year . In 1942 , a two @-@ story front addition was added and another addition to the west was added around 1950 . These additions also resulted in the removal of the cupola , brick chimneys , front entry , and veranda . The Manufacturing building , constructed from 1912 to 1913 , is three stories high on the river side and two stories on the east . It is divided into 31 bays with pilasters . At each end of the building are stairs and elevator towers . The structural remains of the original glass house survive as a sub @-@ basement in a one @-@ story extension at the south end of the building .
The Human Resources and Research and Development buildings were originally constructed around 1912 by the MacKay Copper Process Company . The property was acquired in 1923 by the Thermos Company following the foreclosure of the MacKay company . The Human Resources building was used by the enameling department until its conversion in 1948 . The Research and Development building was previously the Engineering building . A one @-@ story hipped frame gatehouse was constructed in the 1920s . The Carpenter Shop ( Building 62 ) was constructed in 1926 . The Thermos factory completed construction of a storage building in 1929 ( Building 2 ) and another storage building in 1941 ( Building 1 ) . Glass House 1 ( Building 5 ) was constructed in 1939 and incorporates a warehouse dating from 1930 into its construction . Glass House 2 was constructed in 1951 and is connected to the Manufacturing Building by a conveyor .
= = Modern use and adaptation = =
The plant was a set in the 1990 movie Everybody Wins , afterwards the property was partially developed to condominiums . The project failed and resulted in the closure of the Brooklyn Savings Bank in 1990 . The Thermos on Thames condominium assets were acquired by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and was purchased by TOT Transfer for $ 420 @,@ 000 . An auction was held and around $ 1 @.@ 2 million was made for the purchase of 25 condominiums , but 55 unsold units were transferred to Real Estate Seizure Sales and 30 acres ( 12 ha ) to Thermos Norwich Developers LLC . The factory was also converted to loft @-@ style apartments .
In 1997 , the Integrated Day Charter School renovated a 16 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 500 m2 ) section of the factory for use as a school . This required the demolition of two buildings to serve as space for a playground and parking spaces . The total cost of the renovations were estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 and would be partly paid by the State of Connecticut . The renovations were expected to be completed by August 27 , 1997 , in time for the school 's opening . Integrated Day Charter School has a maximum enrollment of 330 students across pre @-@ kindergarten to eighth grade with a majority of children residing in the Norwich area and 15 % in nearby towns . The charter school has an application wait list and holds a lottery for admittance of pre @-@ kindergarten students .
Since the time of its NRHP nomination , the plant and the surrounding area have undergone numerous changes which have impacted and removed buildings . The construction of the Integrated Day Charter School removed the Research and Development and Storage Building 1 . The " Colosseum " as it was termed , was an outdoor gym which retained sides of the former building . Completed in 2008 , the two @-@ story addition created an indoor gymnasium , kitchen , offices and a new lobby for the school at a cost of $ 2 million . The renovation of the large Manufacturing building included the installation of new windows and energy @-@ efficient roofing along with the installation of modern mechanical , electrical and plumbing systems .
= = Significance = =
The American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant is historically significant as the primary factory for the production of Thermos bottles that would allow the company to dominate in the world market . It is also historically significant as an example of the Norwich community coming together to attract the company and diversify the local industry . The plant was the primary factory where Thermos bottles were manufactured from raw materials between 1913 and 1984 . The complex is architecturally significant as an example of late @-@ 19th century and early 20th century industrial mill design being adapted for new industry . The American Thermos Bottle Company Laurel Hill Plant was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
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= Grammy Award for Best Disco Recording =
The Grammy Award for Best Disco Recording was an award presented at the 22nd Grammy Awards in 1980 . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
Gloria Gaynor and producers Dino Fekaris and Freddie Perren won the Best Disco Recording award for the song " I Will Survive " . However , because of a backlash against disco , the Academy discontinued the category before the 23rd Grammy Awards . In 1998 , a similar category , Best Dance Recording , began being awarded to honor vocal or instrumental dance tracks , though there were concerns that the genre would be short @-@ lived much like the disco category .
= = Background = =
Disco is a genre of dance music that emerged in the United States during the 1970s . The experimental mixing of records , combined with the newly acquired ability to play longer tracks , resulted in a genre well @-@ suited for dance parties . During 1973 – 74 , MFSB 's " Love Is the Message " displayed " early rumblings of the disco sound " , and shortly afterward the songs " Never Can Say Goodbye " by Gloria Gaynor , " The Hustle " by Van McCoy , and " Love to Love You Baby " by Donna Summer emerged . In 1977 , the opening of Studio 54 in Manhattan , and the success of the film Saturday Night Fever ( which featured John Travolta and music by the Bee Gees ) , added to the popularity of the disco genre . The following year , Paradise Garage opened in Manhattan 's West Village , the New York radio station WKTU became " all @-@ disco " , and the number of discothèques in the nation reached nearly 20 @,@ 000 . At the 21st Grammy Awards in 1979 , Saturday Night Fever : The Original Movie Sound Track , was named Album of the Year and the Bee Gees received the award for Best Pop Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group for their contributions to the soundtrack album . By the end of 1979 , the disco industry was estimated to be worth more than $ 4 billion , " more ... than the industries of movies , television or professional sport " .
However , the disco fad soon began to decline . On July 12 , 1979 , just a few months after Newsweek had reported on the " [ take ] over " of disco music , a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " promotional event known as Disco Demolition Night was held at Chicago 's Comiskey Park . During a doubleheader intermission , disc jockey Steve Dahl set ablaze a bin full of disco records , causing a riot within the stadium and gaining international attention . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 disco records were destroyed , and around 50 @,@ 000 rioters participated in the event , staying on the field forcing the Chicago White Sox to forfeit the second game .
Nationally , a " backlash " took hold , as public support for disco music faded . According to author Craig Werner , as quoted in the British newspaper The Independent , the " anti @-@ disco movement represented an unholy alliance of funkateers and feminists , progressives and puritans , rockers and reactionaries . None the less , the attacks on disco gave respectable voice to the ugliest kinds of unacknowledged racism , sexism and homophobia . " By 1980 " mainstream disco " had ended , by 1985 WKTU had returned to playing rock music , and by the end of the decade the famous dance venues Studio 54 , Paradise Garage , and Clubhouse had all closed .
= = Award = =
In 1979 , the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences decided to add a Best Disco Recording category for the 22nd Grammy Awards , just as disco was " preparing to die " . Nominated works for the award included " Boogie Wonderland " by Earth , Wind & Fire , " I Will Survive " by Gloria Gaynor , " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " by Michael Jackson , " Da Ya Think I 'm Sexy ? " by Rod Stewart , and " Dim All the Lights " by Donna Summer . On February 27 , 1980 , during a live telecast from Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles , Gaynor was presented the award for Best Disco Recording . Dino Fekaris and Freddie Perren also received awards as the producers of the track .
However , because of the decreasing popularity of disco , the Academy eliminated the award category before the 1981 ceremony was to be held . According to the organization , disco was " no longer a readily definable separate music form " , although its influence had " permeated all types of pop music " . Despite the award 's short span , the award helped solidify Gaynor as one of the best @-@ known female disco artists from the 1970s and the song " I Will Survive " as one of the most recognized and top @-@ selling songs from the genre .
Another dance category did not emerge until 1998 when the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording began to honor vocal or instrumental dance tracks , though there were concerns that the award would be short @-@ lived much like the disco category . In 2003 , the Academy moved the category from the " Pop " field into a new " Dance " field , which currently contains the category Best Electronica / Dance Album as well .
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= Constantin Al . Ionescu @-@ Caion =
Constantin Al . Ionescu @-@ Caion ( Romanian pronunciation : [ konstanˈtin al i.oˈnesku kaˈjon ] , born Constantin Alexandru Ionescu and commonly known as Caion ; 1882 – November or December 1918 ) was a Romanian journalist and poet , primarily remembered for his legal dispute with humorist Ion Luca Caragiale . He was a Symbolist , a disciple of Alexandru Macedonski , and a militant Francophile , as well as a leading opponent of literary tradition . His scattered work comprises essays , short stories and prose poetry , noted for their cultural references , but made little impact on Romanian literature . As a journalist , Caion prioritized scandals , accusing Caragiale of plagiarism and losing the subsequent celebrity trial of 1902 , before partly recanting and winning the retrial . Despite his own coquetries with nationalism , Caion focused his verve on Transylvania 's contemporary nationalist literary current .
Ionescu @-@ Caion was the founder of several magazines , most notably Românul Literar . Originally conceived as a literary supplement for the daily Românul , it became a tribune of Macedonski 's Romanian Symbolist movement , and helped discover George Bacovia , the celebrated modern poet . During World War I , when he oscillated between the two opposing camps , Caion put out the journal Cronicarul . This was his last known activity in the Romanian press .
A contradictory figure , Caion was equated with infamy and ridicule in the Romanian context , and his evidently unsubstantiated allegations against Caragiale have traditionally puzzled literary historians . In Transylvania , the word Caion was for a while synonymous with yellow journalist .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early career = = =
Little is recorded about Caion 's roots , other than that he was a devout Roman Catholic , and a regular presence at Saint Joseph Cathedral . He had a very early debut in cultural journalism . After 1897 , when he was 15 , his literary chroniclers saw print in several newspapers , under various pseudonyms such as C. A. I. Nică Burdușel , Ion Filionescu , Marin Gelea , Isac Șt . Micu , Roman Mușat , among others . In January 1898 , he was employed by Adevărul daily , covering the Romanian tour of Sâr Péladan . Péladan , a writer , mystic and self @-@ styled mage , failed to impress the young reporter , who reported on his various claims with a note of irony . Also then , he affiliated with Macedonski 's eclectic art magazine Literatorul ( known during the period as Revista Literară ) . Interested in the Roman Empire , he published with Literatorul a comparative biography of Julius Caesar and Augustus , republished as a book by Carol Göbl of Bucharest .
Also in 1898 , Ionescu @-@ Caion completed his adaptation of Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver , published by the Adevărul collection Biblioteca Enciclopedică as Trei ani de suferință : O călătorie curioasă ( " Three Years of Suffering : A Strange Voyage " ) . It came with Caion 's own critical study of Swift . According to Anglicist Mihaela Mudure , Caion , " a famous journalist and a minor writer " , was thus the first Romanian to publish an essay on Swift , albeit one that was " not very sophisticated " ; she also notes that the translation added a sexual twist to some of Gulliver 's adventures . Caion published other such translations with Biblioteca Enciclopedică , rendering works by Thomas Bailey Aldrich , Louis Henri Boussenard , Henry de Graffigny , Louis Jacolliot and others .
Under contract with Adevărul ( 1899 ) , Caion published his translation from Prosper Castanier novellas , dealing with " Roman decadence " . Writing in 2011 , critic Angelo Mitchievici suggested that Caion 's introduction to the volume exaggerated Castanier 's merits , but was still " interesting " for showing the popularity of " decadentism " in 1890s Romania : Caion 's argument was that Rome fell victim to " Asiatic luxury " and sophisticated sexuality ( " orgies " ) . Caion 's own texts on the subject of decadence were published as booklets by the French company Retaux Frères . His bibliography for 1899 includes the essay Coversații despre artă ( " Conversations on Art " ) , and , also with Adevărul , a selection of his own novellas .
Not much is known about Caion 's other involvements , other than that he attended the University of Bucharest Faculty of Letters , in the same year as fellow journalist Eugen Porn . Although living in the capital , he maintained links with the youth of Iași , and published alongside I. I. Mironescu in the high school magazine C. Negruzzi . His work included an essay about the works of the eponymous novelist . A " Constantin Ionescu " , whom literary historian Victor Durnea tentatively identifies as the future Caion , was arrested by Romanian Police on Calea Victoriei , Bucharest , during the breakup of a student nationalist rally ( September 13 , 1894 ) . He was still enlisted at the University in 1899 , when he organized a charity event to benefit the impoverished schoolchildren of Câmpina .
= = = Symbolist beginnings = = =
Despite his subsequent involvement in various scandals , Ionescu @-@ Caion was not universally perceived as a mediocre journalist . Historian Lucian Boia notes that he " was not without merit as a publicist . " Around the year 1900 , Caion became a sympathizer of the Romanian Symbolist movement , whose leader was the poet Macedonski . Attached by philologist Ștefan Cazimir to a " Secessionist " current in Romanian literature , Caion made himself noted for a prose poem entirely dedicated to his lover 's hair ( a recurring theme in Symbolist literature , taken to extremes by the Romanian author ) . A regular presence in Macedonski 's house , Caion mounted a campaign to promote minor Romanian Symbolist authors in France . As noted by critics , the French contacts were themselves fringe magazines , with Legitimist and Traditionalist Catholic agendas .
Caion had an enduring interest in history and , in 1900 , completed his monograph on Wallachian Prince Gheorghe Bibescu . Titled Asupra domniei lui Bibescu ( " On Bibescu 's Reign " ) , it was first published as an addendum to Georges Bibesco 's pamphlet , O execuție ( " An Execution " ) . Bibesco , the Prince 's destitute son , continued to employ Caion as his defender and co @-@ author : in 1901 , they published an ampler work on the subject of Bibescu family grievances against the modern Romanian establishment . In tandem , Caion publicized his comparison of historical and psychological determinism , with a topical booklet . His first synthesis , Studii istorice ( " Historical Studies " ) , was also available in 1901 .
Caion also affiliated with the eclectic journal Noua Revistă Română , where he published historical documents of dubious authenticity and , in 1902 , the essay Din umbră . Moravuri antice ( " From the Shadows . Antique Morals " ) . From 1900 to 1903 , he was employed by the Bucharest Conservatory , lecturing in " selective world history " , and publishing his conferences as a university textbook .
According to at least one account , Caion first encountered Caragiale 's irony when he sent him a couple of Symbolist poems . The senior writer picked up on their involuntary humor , and proceeded to ridicule Caion . Literary historian Tudor Vianu believes that Caion was especially infuriated when Caragiale 's magazine , Moftul Român , made a public mockery of his Secessionist prose poem . In his gibe , Caragiale feigned enthusiasm about the young writer 's debut . Parodying Caion , he suggested that the young poet carry on writing a " lyrical @-@ decadent @-@ symbolist @-@ mystical @-@ capillary @-@ secessionist " novel about a hairdressers ' art society , whose members glue strands of hair onto canvasses or carve soap into human figures .
= = = Caragiale scandal = = =
Caion followed an elaborate recipe for revenge , with exposes in the Symbolist Revista Literară review , of which he was by then the co @-@ editor . The owner , Th . M. Stoenescu , had been Caragiale 's adversary since the 1880s . Described by Vianu as " a real pathological character " , Caion claimed to expose Caragiale 's drama , Năpasta , as plagiarized . In his report , Caion suggested that the real author was a Hungarian , Kemény Istvan — who , in fact , never existed . In order to back his claim , Caion published quotes from Năpasta alongside a supposed translation from Kemény . Reading these fragments in good faith , Caragiale was astonished by what he took to be a bizarre coincidence .
Macedonski followed the developments with enthusiasm , granting further exposure to Caion 's claims . For Macedonski , the young accuser embodied " the aspiration for beauty " , " the new aesthetics " , " courage and selflessness " . As commentators have suggested , the poet responded to Caragiale 's satires of him and his Symbolist salon , and attacking , in Caragiale , the entire anti @-@ Symbolist club Junimea . At Revista Literară , Stoenescu began suspecting a canard , and asked Caion to present further proof for his accusations . The latter produced two sheets printed in Romanian Cyrillic , which reportedly included fragments from an 1884 Romanian translation . Unconvinced , the editor promptly suspended his collaboration with Caion . The latter soon changed his statements , arguing that " Kemény " was a pseudonym used by Leo Tolstoy , and that Caragiale was guilty of copying The Power of Darkness .
Although Stoenescu was a disciple of his , Macedonski favored Caion in this dispute , and employed him to write more denunciations of Caragiale in the magazine Forța Morală . Forța Morală expanded on the initial accusations , claiming to have discovered an entire history of plagiarism in Caragiale 's writings ( from Victorien Sardou to Alfred Duru ) . Following Macedonski 's intercession , Caion was also supported by the historian Grigore Tocilescu , who made Caragiale the sole topic of his Romanian Atheneum conference ( January 24 , 1902 ) .
Românul newspaper , put out by the entrepreneur Vintilă Rosetti as an anti @-@ Junimist outlet , also stood by Caion . Its columnist , N. Ținc , had prepared a piece describing Caragiale and his Junimist colleagues as obsessed with their own role in culture . Unpublished until 2006 , Ținc 's article noted that " the poor Caion " had unwittingly struck a blow against " the youngest , sickest and therefore most innocent of the [ Junimea ] megalomaniacs . " Rosetti 's paper was hosting its own campaign against Caragiale , headed by Caragiale 's former employer Frédéric Damé . Meanwhile , Caragiale found his core group of journalist sympathizers in the Junimist fief of Moldavia .
Caragiale had by then proceeded to research the matter on his own , and came to the independent conclusion that the accusations were entirely concocted . Late in 1901 , he opened a legal case against both Caion and Stoenescu , taken up by the Ilfov County court . On the first day , Caion excused himself as sick , while Stoenescu recused himself , taking the prosecution 's side . For these reasons , the trial was held without a jury .
Caragiale 's legal representative was the fellow writer Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea , who systematically disproved Caion 's allegations , and noted that the absentee defendant was guilty of numerous forgeries . He also convinced the judge that the similarities between Năpasta and The Power of Darkness were superficial . The court found Ionescu @-@ Caion guilty of slander . He was sentenced to a three @-@ month jail term , a 500 lei fine and 10 @,@ 000 lei in court costs . However , he appealed the tribunal 's decision . The jury selection was a laborious process : Caion 's lawyer Danielopol recused writers Nicolae Iorga and Ovid Densusianu , alleging that all Romanian literati had a vested interest to defend plagiarism . Iorga took offense , and reportedly challenged Danielopol to a duel . During the proceedings , Caion backed up on the original accusations , explaining that he had only invented a reason to bring Caragiale in for a trial . The court eventually acquitted Caion .
Caragiale showed little surprise at the news . In an interview with poet Alexandru Antemireanu , he explained his conflict with Caion in paternalistic terms : " They did well not to sentence the kid . Is he the guilty party ? No ! Caion is merely a victim . Say I were a juror : why would I be setting an example by punishing this unreasonable and irresponsible kid , for those who are more mature and better placed , and who employ the same means as he did ? " The general public was by then firmly on Caragiale 's side , and Macedonski 's reputation suffered greatly as a result , increasing his isolation on the literary scene .
= = = Românul Literar = = =
Caion was still carrying on as a publicist and historian , with a study about the ancient Bacchanalia . It was simultaneously published in Paris and Bucharest ( 1901 ) . That year , with Carol Göbl press , he also published a devotional text , Isus , fragment ( " Jesus , A Fragment " ) . The theme of decadence continued to fuel Caion 's essays : in Carmen magazine ( September 1902 ) , he covered Castanier 's Lotus du Gange , implicitly advertising the book 's lewd content and titillating illustrations . His take on the Caragiale affair was outlined in the Carol Göbl essay Moravuri literare în 1902 ( " Literary Morals as of 1902 " ) .
In 1903 , Caion himself began working at Românul , where he was an editor , corresponding with Vintilă Rosetti over the newspaper 's publicity deals . He returned to belles @-@ lettres with a 1903 short story , Korinna . His fiction reflected his growing interest in Early Christianity , illustrated by another story , itself published in 1903 : Pentru cruce ( " For the Cross " ) . This was followed in 1904 by a volume of " Christian short stories " , Triumful Crucei , which he submitted for consideration to the Romanian Academy awards committee . Christian subjects infused his parallel work for the stage , as well as his historical research . In 1904 , he published a Byzantine @-@ themed tragedy , Legionariĭ Cruceĭ ( " Legionaries of the Cross " ) , and an essay on " The Rivalry between Jesus and Saint John the Baptist " ( La rivalité de Jésus et de saint Jean @-@ Baptiste ) .
A split occurred at Românul in late 1904 : on January 10 , 1905 , Caion issued Românul Literar as a separate weekly , announcing to the world that all his links to Românul had been severed ( this even though Românul Literar 's first issue was introduced as " Issue 1 , Year 3 " ) . The director himself signed the column Note critice ( " Critical Notes " ) , and four others which reviewed books local and foreign ; they were collected in book form in 1905 . Caion 's sheet was irregularly published for the next three years , and , in December 1908 , became a tri @-@ monthly .
Românul Literar was a voice of anti @-@ nationalist and anti @-@ traditionalist sentiment , rejecting the school formed around Sămănătorul magazine , and promoting the Symbolists ; its agenda has been summarized as " anti @-@ Sămănătorist " , and in step with modern French literature . It played host to many Romanian writers , most of them Romanian Symbolists : Macedonski , Mihail Cruceanu , Mircea Demetriade , Al . Gherghel , Dumitru " Karr " Karnabatt , Eugeniu Sperantia , Caton Theodorian , alongside the epigrammatists Cincinat Pavelescu and I. C. Popescu @-@ Polyclet . Cruceanu , who joined the literary club while still a high school student , recalls being impressed by Caion 's status as " a literary historian and critic " , " his restrained demeanor and his intelligence , with its inscrutable pursuits . " However , Caion seemed " ill and troubled " , and had " an unnatural and mean passion for going after those people who had made a name for themselves in our cultural life " , with his " venomous weaponry " . Other Symbolists took distance : Moldavian poet and literary reviewer Ștefan Petică made a mockery of Caion , exposing him as a sciolistic amateur .
In addition to receiving contributions directly from France , Românul Literar published translations of poems by Frédéric Mistral ( translator : Elena Văcărescu ) , Jean Moréas ( Demetriade ) and Albert Samain ( Popescu @-@ Polyctet ) . Other than poetry and fiction , Românul Literar hosted literary and scientific essays , including ones by Caion , Ținc , Ioan Tanoviceanu , Orest Tafrali and others . The journal also enlisted contributions from poetess Cornelia " Riria " Gatovschi and her husband , the formerly Junimist historian A. D. Xenopol . Românul Literar 's founder was especially enthusiastic about Riria . Against mainstream critics , who derided her poetry as stale and ungrammatical , he proclaimed the dawn of a new era , with Mrs. Xenopol as its herald . Caion , Tocilescu and the Xenopols were members of a small professional association , called " Romanian Society for Arts and Literature " .
Around 1907 , Caion 's paper was hosting poems by the young Symbolist author George Bacovia ( including " Sonnet " and " Pulvis " ) and art chronicles by Theodor Cornel . Bacovia described their first encounter , in November 1903 , as follows : " Caion [ ... ] was very depressed after his recently completed trial with Caragiale . My solitary presence , without any sort of recommendation from another author , made him receive me with significant reserve . I then communicated the purpose of my arrival , asking for the address of his collaborator , the poet Macedonski . Nevertheless , he still asked me for a handful of poems , the ones later published by his magazine . "
= = = Caion and the Transylvanians = = =
Ionescu @-@ Caion was unrelenting in his accusations of plagiarism , and a section of the press , in both Romania and abroad , still credited him as a whistle @-@ blower . His Romanian supporters called him a David fending off Caragiale @-@ Goliath , while the Revue de Paris referred to his stances as " courageous " . By that time , the formerly nationalist journalist had made himself new enemies outside the Junimea circles . These were ethnic Romanian writers from Transylvania , region that was then still part of Austria @-@ Hungary , including many traditionalists published by Sămănătorul . Early signs of this conflict showed up during the Caragiale trials , when Caion and Macedonski nominated Sămănătorul founding figure George Coșbuc as another successful plagiarist . Around the same time , he reputedly stated that Transylvanian literature was " a monstrous apparition " .
Caion 's dispute with the Transylvanian poets covered several fronts . In 1905 , his newspaper joyfully announced that Ștefan Octavian Iosif ( whom he called by his Magyarized legal name , István Gábor József ) had been expelled from the Romanian academic scholarship program . According to Caion , Octavian Goga 's father @-@ in @-@ law , politician Partenie Cosma , was " the tyrant of Transylvania " , and Coșbuc 's ally , the literary chronicler Ilarie Chendi , was a " Romanianized " Hungarian , with little authority in local literature . These reactions did not prevent Caion from becoming a co @-@ author of the first Transylvanian ( and Romanian ) encyclopedic dictionary , put together by Cornelius Diaconovich . To the indignation of other Transylvanians , " Ionescu @-@ Caion , C. A. , publicist , Bucharest " is a contributor of historical entries in Diaconovich 's second tome .
The ideological conflict involved various aspects of literary theory and activism , including the differences of opinion about reforming the literary language . Transylvanian political leader Alexandru Vaida @-@ Voevod noted that the neologistic dialect favored in the Old Kingdom was symptomatic , since " Caion and the likes " were popularly identified as the literary professionals . Linguist Sextil Pușcariu also commended Transylvanian literati for standing up to the " unhealthy currents " promoted by Caion , Macedonski and Karnabatt .
Caion 's indignation reached a peak in September 1909 , when the Romanian Writers ' Society ( SSR ) was officially established as a compromise between the Symbolists and the Transylvanians , doing away with the Romanian Society for Arts and Literature . In Românul Literar , Caion described the club as a mass of " déclassés " , concluding : " With the likes of Herț , Kendich , Ivăciuk , Demetrius [ that is : A. de Herz , Chendi , I. Dragoslav and Vasile Demetrius ] , for sure the new society shall uproot the old one , where one comes across respectable people such as A. D. Xenopol , Riria , N. Petrașcu , Pompiliu Eliade , Gr [ igore ] Tocilescu etc . " Another controversy shook the literary community when the SSR decided to exclude those authors who could not prove their belonging to the Romanian ethnic group . Although Românul Literar was itself suspected of antisemitism , Caion decided to stand by the Jewish Romanians who were thus excluded . In a March 1910 article , he sided with the Noua Revistă Română owner Constantin Rădulescu @-@ Motru ( a critic of antisemitism ) and journalist Eugen Porn ( a Jew ) , noting that Porn 's acceptance into Romanian literature was at least as justified as Ilarie Chendi 's .
Românul Literar tried to keep up with the latest developments in literary form , and Caion was among the first Romanian reviewers of Futurism . However , the paper went out of print in January 1911 . It was reestablished as a bi @-@ monthly on November 1 , and again ceased publication in December . It was restored a third and final time in June 1912 , but went out of business soon after .
Meanwhile , Caion focused on his Francophile essays , writing about the French influence on Romania . The fragment Înrâuriri franceze mai vechi ( " Older French Influences " ) saw print in the " encyclopedic magazine " Ilustrația , whose director was Nicolae G. Rădulescu @-@ Niger , the comedic poet . With Riria and the Symbolists , Caion began putting out a French @-@ language literary journal , called La Revue Roumaine ( first issue : February 1912 ) . The Transylvanian rivals at Luceafărul were unimpressed . According to them , La Revue Roumaine was beneath all other Francophone periodicals , either Romanian or Hungarian , unwitting evidence of " the inferiority and impotence of our [ national ] literature " .
When , in 1912 , Macedonski made his publicized return to literary life , the Transylvanians reacted with astonishment . In Arad , the journalist Ovidiu Băsceanu covered the comeback of " an enemy " as " Caion 's triumph " . He believed that the Symbolist offensive was presided upon and propagated by Caion , under the slogan : " I cursed , I libeled , I vanquished . " Caion himself focused on his academic career , and , in 1913 , took his Ph.D. with the thesis Îndrumări nouă în viața politică și culturală a Franței contemporane și înrâurirea lor asupra noastră ( " New Directions in France 's Political and Cultural Life and their Influence on Us " ) . It was published , in 1914 , by Poporul Typographers .
= = = World War I and death = = =
By the start of World War I , while Romania was still neutral territory , Caion supported France and the other Entente Powers . He was " a Francophile to the uttermost " ( according to Boia ) , publishing the booklet Rolul Franței în istoria omenirii ( " France 's Role in World History " ) . Two other books on this subject saw print in 1915 : Gallia și înrâuririle ei ( " Gaul and Her Influences " ) , Sparte contre Athènes ( " Sparta against Athens " ) . As noted by a Universul Literar columnist , Caion did not glorify the French Republic , but was rather a fan of the Ancien Régime . Caion cited a wealth of French authors , even obscure ones ( " who would not be great were they not the intellectual friends of the author " ) , to prove that German culture was " anarchic and worthless " .
The Central Powers ' invasion of Romania surprised Caion and made him reconsider his options . He stayed behind in occupied Bucharest , and , as Germany 's victory seemed certain and Romania signed the Peace of Bucharest , timidly embraced the " Germanophile " cause . From August 17 , 1918 , Ionescu @-@ Caion put out the magazine Cronicarul ( " The Chronicler " ) , which enlisted contributions from noted Germanophile writers , such as Gala Galaction and Duiliu Zamfirescu . Its theater chronicler , Radu Pralea , was among the first to cover the Jignița Summer Theater of Isidor Goldenberg , a mainstay of Yiddish dramaturgy in Romania . Another Cronicarul employee was the female journalist Aida Vrioni , who became Caion 's friend and , in time , his apologist .
The magazine , noted by Boia for its " high literary standing " , publicized Caion 's reformed views about the course of the war . He wrote that the new Germanophile Prime Minister , Alexandru Marghiloman , embodied " Romania 's national energy " , much like the figures in Thomas Carlyle 's On Heroes . His stances , like those of Marghiloman , had their dose of ambiguity . As Marghiloman recounts , Caion circulated an anti @-@ German manifesto put out by the revolutionary Social Democrats and the " Socialist Women of Romania " . Moreover , Caion still revered the anti @-@ Germanophile Xenopol . In issue 27 of Cronicarul , he referred to Xenopol 's memoirs as a masterpiece of Romanian prose .
Caion died only a few months later , in liberated Romania . As Lucian Boia notes , he had lived long enough to see all prophecies about a German victory being nullified by the November 1918 Armistice . According to bibliographer and educator Tudor Opriș , his was a " heroic death " , which served to clear his tarnished reputation .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Ignominy = = =
The various scandals involving Constantin Al . Ionescu @-@ Caion have left distinct marks on Romania 's cultural life . Boia writes : " Caion [ ... ] secured himself an unwanted fame in the history of Romanian literature " . In early 20th @-@ century Transylvania , " Caion " was adapted into a common noun and a term of contempt . Listing its " Transylvanophobe " enemies , Luceafărul noted the existence of " all sorts of Caions , those little puppies raised by the obscure magazines . " Also in Luceafărul , priest @-@ publicist Alexandru Ciura stated : " We live in the epoch of the Caions , for whom all things are permitted " . Caion 's poor reputation also rubbed off on Macedonski : Caragiale 's disciple Alexandru Cazaban coined the word Macaionski , as a hybrid of both writers .
The scandal continued to reverberate , and Caion soon earned condemnation from critics not directly involved in the early 20th @-@ century disputes . A liberal and a modernist , Eugen Lovinescu , dismissed Caion 's entire career in letters as a footnote . It likened Caion to a " squid " that leaves behind " a long trail of ink " , and judged his brand of literary criticism to have been " one of the illnesses of that time . " In contrast , Cronicarul 's Vrioni spoke of her friend 's attack on Caragiale as a " mistake " , noting that his career from 1901 was of genuine importance . Caion , she writes , created " true works of art " , without sparing a thought for " glory or money . "
According to literary historian Alexandru Dobrescu , Caion is the prototype " detractor " in Romanian culture , " born of frustration " , the Zoilus to Caragiale 's Homer . Dobrescu writes : " In the common definition , the detractor is someone consciously working to debase ( or destroy ) one 's good standing . The cobbler envious of his neighbor , the cordwainer , who will go lengths to besmirch the latter in hopes of ' helping ' him lose his clientele , is a detractor . " His verdict about Caion 's unicity in a Romanian context is placed in doubt by another author , Constantin Coroiu , who finds it unrealistic .
Various commentators believe that Caragiale 's ultimate relocation to Germany was at least in part prompted by the Caion affair . This was notably suggested by Caragiale 's actor friend , Ion Brezeanu . Moreover , literary rivals as well as third parties have noted that Caion 's calumnies shed focus from his own dubious creative methods . In his speech of 1902 , Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea openly accused Caion of forging historical records during his stint at Noua Revistă Română . More than fifty years after the fact , Ștefan Cazimir discovered that the poems Caion claimed to have authored , and which Caragiale found especially entertaining , were in fact poor @-@ quality translations from Charles Baudelaire .
In 2007 Ionescu @-@ Caion 's name was returned to circulation , amidst allegations of plagiarism brought up against philosopher Gabriel Liiceanu . Writer Andrei Pleșu defended Liiceanu against his accusers at Ziua daily , and argued that Romania was still " Caion 's land " . Noting that Caion had entered press history with a mârlănie ( " yokel 's deed " ) , Pleșu described Ziua journalism as partisanship and " hysteria " , assessing that Romania was going through " an epileptic fit " . Liiceanu critic Gheorghe Grigurcu also took distance from the Ziua accusers , noting that their " libel " , " puerile " in content , made it hard to sustain a serious debate about Liiceanu 's faults .
= = = Other literary echoes = = =
Caion 's presence at the center of literary and political controversies was treated with much sarcasm by his various peers , even before the 1901 face @-@ off . In addition to the " lyrical @-@ decadent @-@ symbolist @-@ mystical @-@ capillary @-@ secessionist " parody , Caragiale may have attacked Caion in an 1899 Universul sketch , as Superintendent Lazăr Ionescu @-@ Lion . Both writers were satirized in a revue , officially written by restaurateur G. A. Mandy ( but probably authored by Rădulescu @-@ Niger ) . The work focuses on the 1901 stock market panic and its political consequences in Romania ; Caragiale ( as Gearacale ) and Caion ( Crayon ) appear alongside scheming politicians or journalists — Take Ionescu , George D. Pallade , Luigi Cazzavillan — and the runaway embezzler Andrei Vizanti .
The legal scandal between Caion and Caragiale is traditionally considered one of Romania 's most famous trials . The legal professionals ' magazine Curierul Judiciar and lawyer @-@ editor Octav Minar published the court records in its Biblioteca marilor procese ( " Great Trials Library " ) , May – June 1924 . Theater scholar Cristian Stamatoiu finds Delavrancea 's plea not just a " shattering " proof of erudition , but also a guide to understanding the issues of artistic personality and intellectual property . As a personal witness of the proceedings , Brezeanu noted that Delavrancea spoke like a modern Demosthenes .
" Caion " was a breakthrough role for Gheorghe Dinică , ensuring his move from stagehand to award @-@ winning thespian . This was in a 1962 stage reconstruction by David Esrig , with Jules Cazaban playing Caragiale and Mircea Șeptilici as Delavrancea . Among the many volumes dealing with the legal face @-@ off is a stageplay by dramaturge and critic Romulus Vulpescu , first published in 1972 .
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= Bobo Holloman =
Alva Lee " Bobo " Holloman ( March 7 , 1923 – May 1 , 1987 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for one season in the American League with the St. Louis Browns in 1953 . In 22 career games , Holloman pitched 65 @.@ 1 innings and posted a win @-@ loss record of 3 – 7 and a 5 @.@ 23 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Born in Thomaston , Georgia , Holloman served in World War II before starting his professional baseball career . From 1946 to 1952 , he gradually rose up the minor leagues , and got a spring training invitation from the Chicago Cubs in 1950 . After the 1952 season , he was acquired by the St. Louis Browns , who placed him on the major league roster . He made his debut April 18 , and in his first start on May 6 , he threw a no @-@ hitter , one of three players to do so in his first start . Holloman pitched in 22 games that season for the Browns before being sold to a minor league team . He spent the rest of 1953 and 1954 in the minors before retiring from the game . After retiring , he ran an advertising agency and worked as a scout before his death in 1987 .
= = Early life = =
Holloman was born in Thomaston , Georgia , and moved to Athens , Georgia with his family when he was 17 . In Athens , he met Nan Stevens , the two were married on January 24 , 1942 , and they later had one son . He served as a Seabee for the United States Navy during World War II . After returning from the war , Holloman became an apprentice in a machine shop for the Georgia Railroad in Macon , Georgia . While working there , he played amateur baseball , and did well enough for his colleagues to convince him to try out for the Macon Peaches , the local baseball team . He did so , and he was assigned to the Class D Moultrie Packers , where he began his professional career .
= = Minor league career = =
Holloman began his professional baseball career by recording a 20 – 5 record and a 2 @.@ 33 ERA for the Packers as a rookie in the Class D Georgia – Florida League in 1946 . He played winter baseball in Cuba , then had a record of 18 – 17 for the Macon Peaches of the Sally League the next year . He started the 1948 season with Macon , then after winning eight games he was promoted to the Nashville Volunteers of the Class AA Southern Association , where he posted seven wins and two losses . While there , Volunteers owner Larry Gilbert gave him the nickname Bobo because the pitcher reminded him of Bobo Newsom ; the nickname stuck with him the rest of his career .
In 1949 , Holloman again spent the season with the Volunteers , posting a record of 17 – 10 with a 4 @.@ 46 ERA . After the season ended , the Chicago Cubs signed him and gave him an invitation to spring training . Holloman 's outgoing nature clashed with manager Frankie Frisch , who did not appreciate the pitcher 's attitude . It was , partially , for this reason that Holloman did not make the major league roster . Holloman split the 1950 season between Nashville and the Shreveport Sports of the Texas League . Combined , he had 13 wins and 13 losses on the year . In 1951 , he spent seven games with Nashville , but spent most of the season with the Augusta Tigers of the Sally League , where he posted an 11 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 87 ERA .
The following season , Augusta sold his contract to the Syracuse Chiefs of the AAA International League , and he posted a 16 – 7 record and a 2 @.@ 51 ERA with the team . After the season ended , he played winter baseball in Puerto Rico for the Cangrejeros de Santurce . With Santurce , he had a 15 – 5 record during the regular season . After the season ended , he participated in the 1953 Caribbean Series , and won two of the six games Santurce played , allowing them to win the title .
= = Major Leagues and later life = =
In October 1952 , Holloman was signed by the St. Louis Browns after they traded Duke Markell and $ 35 @,@ 000 to acquire him . Heading into the season , manager Marty Marion was high on him , considering him to be a pitcher who could have won 20 games with Syracuse the year prior had he not missed time due to an appendectomy .
Holloman made his major league debut on April 14 in a relief appearance . He made in three additional relief appearances afterward , allowing five runs in 5 ⅓ innings through his first four games . As a result , Holloman asked Marion for a start , claiming he was better in that role , and if he was just going to be used as a relief pitcher , he should be sold to another team . Marion gave in , and put him in for a home game on May 6 against the Philadelphia Athletics . On a rainy night before a crowd of 2 @,@ 473 at Sportsman 's Park , Holloman threw a no @-@ hitter in his first major league start . He had two hits as a batter , and recorded three strikeouts en route to the 6 – 0 victory .
Holloman is one of three pitchers to throw a no @-@ hitter in their first major league start . The others were Ted Breitenstein , who accomplished the feat in 1891 , and Bumpus Jones , who did so in 1892 . However , Breitenstein and Jones threw their no @-@ hitters before the 1893 rule change that moved the pitcher 's delivery point back to 60 feet , 6 inches from home plate .
The no @-@ hitter cemented Holloman 's spot in the starting rotation for the next month . In his next start against the Athletics , he lasted barely an inning , allowing two runs and three walks before leaving the game due to a blistered finger . His next win came on May 28 against the Cleveland Indians , but his third win did not come until a month later against the Boston Red Sox , where he allowed two hits in eight innings of work . Outside of the three wins , however , Holloman was ineffective ; in 22 games , 10 of them starts , Holloman had a 3 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 23 ERA , 25 strikeouts , and 50 walks . As a result , after his final appearance on July 19 , the Browns put him on waivers , and he was sold to the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Holloman finished the 1953 season with Toronto , and had a 4 – 3 record in 13 games . In 1954 , Holloman 's last professional season , he spent time on five different minor league squads , including former stops Toronto and Augusta , before retiring . The retirement was partially due to a sore arm , the result of pitching too frequently while playing winter ball . After retiring , Holloman became a truck driver and ran an advertising agency , and served as a scout for the Baltimore Orioles . He also turned to drinking for many years , but was able to overcome the addiction . He died on May 1 , 1987 at the age of 64 in Athens , Georgia of a heart attack .
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= Davison House =
Davison House ( officially the Eliza Davison House ) is a five @-@ story dormitory on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . Designed by Boston architecture firm Allen & Vance and built 1902 , it was the fourth dorm built on Vassar 's residential quadrangle . It houses 191 students of any grade or gender and it became Vassar 's first disabled @-@ accessible dorm following a 2008 – 2009 renovation .
= = History = =
Davison House was the fourth residential quadrangle ( quad ) dormitory to be built on the campus Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . Construction of Davison came during a period of rapid dorm @-@ building spanning 1893 – 1902 during which the older seminary @-@ style model of housing — a single large hall in which all a college 's residents lived , in Vassar 's case Main Building — was quickly waning in popularity in favor of smaller individual houses . The project began with the opening of Strong House in 1893 and continued with Raymond House in 1897 , Lathrop House in 1901 , and finally Davison in 1902 .
Davison House was built with funds provided by magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller , then a trustee at the college . Named in honor of his mother as the Eliza Davison House , it was the third structure at Vassar that Rockefeller paid for , after Strong House and Rockefeller Hall .
Roofers replaced Davison 's roof in 1960 and new windows were installed in 1980 . A new staircase on the side of the dorm facing away from the quad was built in 2005 . The dorm underwent a major renovation during the 2008 – 2009 school year , reopening at the beginning of the 2009 – 2010 academic year . The renovation included plans for upgraded accessibility , including an elevator and disabled @-@ accessible bathrooms and doors , making it Vassar 's first dorm to offer those features .
= = Architecture and features = =
Davison was designed by the Boston architectural firm of Francis Richmond Allen and J. McArthur Vance who were also responsible for the design of its neighbor , Lathrop House , in 1901 . Formulating a design for these two buildings was not difficult as a template had already been set by way of the preexisting Strong and Raymond Houses . Frederick Law Olmsted , a consultant of design for the college , recommended that any new dorms in the area be built in an " echelon formation " in order to provide for a greater sense of openness . Allen disregarded this advice , instead opting to place the dorm , along with Lathrop , in " two long unbroken rows of buildings on the bias " . Davison was ultimately placed north of Raymond , across the quad to the west of Lathrop , and diagonally across from Strong .
Standing a total of five stories tall with an additional basement level , Davison is an Elizabethan brick building . It is capped with a pitched Pennsylvania slate roof and five chimneys , each multiple wythes thick . Several cupolas also jut from the roof , each fitted with louvers . The dorm features elements of brownstone trim and brownstone @-@ capped brick parapets . Inside the building , dorm room floors are made of wood paneling . Walls are painted cream and fifth floor rooms feature sloped ceilings and inlaid skylights . Bathrooms have tile floors and marble sinks , while communal spaces utilize motion @-@ sensing lighting technology .
The house is co @-@ ed and currently has a capacity of 191 students . Residents of Davison , which houses students of all grades , may live in either single rooms , one @-@ room doubles , or three @-@ room triples with bathrooms being shared by all members of a hall . The dorm has a kitchen , a parlor abutting the quad , and , as of 2011 , its basement was a frequent practice space for student bands . In a 2005 guide to the school published by College Prowler , Davison was named one of the three best dorms at Vassar , along with Main and Jewett .
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= Blink @-@ 182 =
Blink @-@ 182 ( often stylized as blink @-@ 182 ) is an American rock band formed in Poway , California in 1992 . The band currently consists of bassist and vocalist Mark Hoppus , drummer Travis Barker , and guitarist and vocalist Matt Skiba . Founded by Hoppus , guitarist and vocalist Tom DeLonge , and drummer Scott Raynor , the band emerged from the Southern California punk scene of the early 1990s and first gained notoriety for high @-@ energy live shows and irreverent lyrical toilet humor . Blink @-@ 182 was initially known as Blink until an Irish band of the same name threatened legal action ; the band appended the meaningless number " -182 " .
In its early years , Blink @-@ 182 toured heavily behind the band 's debut , Cheshire Cat ( 1995 ) . The group signed with major label MCA Records to co @-@ distribute its second album , Dude Ranch ( 1997 ) . Raynor was fired midway through a 1998 tour and replaced by Barker . The group 's next two releases , Enema of the State ( 1999 ) and Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) , were enormous successes on the strength of radio and MTV airplay . The eponymously titled Blink @-@ 182 followed in 2003 and marked a stylistic shift for the group . DeLonge quit in 2005 , sending the band into what was termed an " indefinite hiatus " . They reunited in 2009 , producing the trio 's sixth album , Neighborhoods ( 2011 ) . In 2015 , DeLonge again exited and was replaced by Alkaline Trio guitarist and vocalist Matt Skiba . The band 's seventh studio album , California , was released on July 1 , 2016 .
Blink @-@ 182 is considered a key group in the development of pop punk ; the band 's combination of pop melodies with fast @-@ paced punk rock featured a more radio @-@ friendly accessibility than prior bands . The trio has sold over thirteen million albums in the United States , and over 35 million albums worldwide . In 2011 , The New York Times asserted , " no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink @-@ 182 , " and even as the band receded after its 2005 split , " its sound and style could be heard in the muscular pop punk of Fall Out Boy or in the current wave of high @-@ gloss Warped Tour punk bands , like All Time Low and The Maine . "
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1992 – 94 ) = = =
Blink @-@ 182 was formed in Poway , California , a suburb outside of San Diego , in August 1992 . Tom DeLonge was expelled from Poway High for attending a basketball game drunk and was forced to attend another local school for one semester . At Rancho Bernardo High School , DeLonge performed at a Battle of the Bands competition , where he was introduced to drummer Scott Raynor . He also befriended Kerry Key , who too was interested in punk music . Key 's girlfriend , Anne Hoppus , introduced her brother Mark Hoppus — who had recently moved from Ridgecrest to work at a record store and attend college — to DeLonge on August 1 , 1992 . The two clicked instantly and played for hours in DeLonge 's garage , exchanging lyrics and co @-@ writing songs — one of which became " Carousel " . One of the pair 's early meetings was at a local skate park where Hoppus , in trying to impress his new bandmate , managed to fall from a lamppost and crack his ankles , an injury that put him in crutches for three weeks .
The trio began to practice together in Raynor 's bedroom , spending hours together writing music , attending punk shows and movies , and playing practical jokes . Hoppus and DeLonge would alternate singing vocal parts . The trio first operated under a variety of names , including Duck Tape and Figure 8 , until DeLonge rechristened the band " Blink " . Hoppus ' girlfriend was angered by her boyfriend 's constant attention to the band , and demanded he make a choice between the band and her , which resulted in Hoppus leaving the band shortly after formation . Shortly thereafter , DeLonge and Raynor borrowed a four @-@ track recorder from friend and collaborator Cam Jones and were preparing to record a demo tape , with Jones on bass . Hoppus promptly broke up with his girlfriend and returned to the band . Flyswatter — a combination of original songs and punk covers — was recorded in Raynor 's bedroom in May 1993 . Southern California had a large punk population in the early 1990s , aided by an avid surfing , skating , and snowboarding scene . In contrast to East Coast punk music , the West Coast wave of groups , Blink included , typically introduced more melodic aspects to the group 's music .
" New York is gloomy , dark and cold . It makes different music . The Californian middle @-@ class suburbs have nothing to be that bummed about , " said DeLonge . San Diego at this time was " hardly a hotbed of [ musical ] activity " , but the band 's popularity grew as did California punk rock concurrently in the mainstream . DeLonge called clubs constantly in San Diego asking for a spot to play , as well as calling up local high schools , convincing them that Blink was a " motivational band with a strong antidrug message " in hopes to play at an assembly or lunch .
The band was on stage nearly every weekend , even at Elks Lodges and YMCA centers . The band soon became part of a circuit that also included the likes of Ten Foot Pole and Unwritten Law , and the band found its way onto the bill as the opening band for local acts at Soma , a local all @-@ ages venue located on Market Street which the band longed to headline . Big @-@ name acts such as NOFX and Green Day played on the main floor , while smaller acts were relegated to the basement , an area referred to as " the Dungeon " . The original location closed its doors and relocated before the band would be promoted to the main stage ( which required a 100 + crowd to attend ) . " Soma was like home away from home . All the punk kids who didn ’ t give a fuck about football games and proms or whatever came to hang out at Soma , " claimed Hoppus . The band 's first big show on the main floor took place on a Thursday , where the band opened for Face to Face . Hoppus ' manager at the record store , Patrick Secor , fronted him the money to properly record another demo at local studio Doubletime . The result was Buddha ( 1994 ) , which the members of the band viewed as the band 's first legitimate release . By this time , the group had branched out to venues such as the Soul Kitchen in El Cajon , but Raynor 's family relocated to Reno , Nevada , and he was briefly replaced by musician Mike Krull . The band saved money and began flying Raynor out to shows , but eventually Raynor moved in with Hoppus for a summer in which the band would record its first album and music video and gain even more exposure .
= = = Early releases and touring ( 1994 – 98 ) = = =
The heart of the local independent music scene was Cargo Records , which offered to sign the band on a " trial basis , " with help from O , guitarist for local punk band Fluf , and Brahm Goodis , friend of the band whose father was president of the label . Hoppus was the only member to sign the contract , as DeLonge was at work at the time and Raynor was still a minor . The band recorded its debut album in three days at Westbeach Recorders in Los Angeles , fueled by both new songs and re @-@ recordings of songs from previous demos . Although Cheshire Cat , released in February 1995 , made very little impact commercially , it is cited by fans and musicians as an iconic release . " M + M 's " , the band 's first single , garnered local radio airplay from 91X and Cargo offered the band a small budget to film a music video for it . Meanwhile , the record also drew the attention of Irish band Blink . Unwilling to engage in a legal battle , the band agreed to change its name . Cargo gave the band a week , but the trio put off the decision for more than two afterward . Eventually , Cargo called Blink @-@ 182 , demanding that the band " change the name or [ we 'll ] change it for you , " after which the band decided on a random number , 182 .
The band soon had a manager , Rick DeVoe , who associated with larger bands such as NOFX , Pennywise and The Offspring . In addition , the band crucially drew the attention of Rick and Jean Bonde of the Tahoe booking agency , who were responsible for " spreading the name of the band far and wide and getting the group as many gigs as humanly possible . " Surf film director Taylor Steele , friend of DeVoe , was preparing a national tour to promote his new surf video GoodTimes , and the band signed on for its first national tour , which extended as far as the East Coast . The band members purchased their own tour van and embarked on the GoodTimes tour with Unwritten Law , Sprung Monkey and 7 Seconds . The GoodTimes tour continued and the band was whisked away to Australia , with Pennywise paying for the band 's plane tickets . Fletcher Dragge , guitarist of Pennywise , believed in the band strongly . He demanded Kevin Lyman , founder of the Warped Tour , sign the band for the 1996 festival , telling him that " they 're gonna be gigantic . " Australia was very receptive to the band and its humorous stage shows and pranks gained them a reputation , but also made them ostracized and considered a joke .
By March 1996 , the trio began to accumulate a genuine buzz among major labels , resulting in a bidding war between Interscope , MCA and Epitaph . MCA promised the group complete artistic freedom and eventually signed the band , but Raynor held a great affinity for Epitaph and began to feel half @-@ invested in the band when it passed over the label . The group , who were wary of purists attempting to define " punk " and discouraged by Cargo 's lack of distribution and faith in the group , had no qualms about signing to a major label but were fiercely criticized in the punk community . After nonstop touring , the trio began recording their sophomore follow @-@ up , Dude Ranch , over the period of a month in late 1996 . The record hit stores the following summer and the band headed out on the 1997 Warped Tour . " Dammit " , the album 's lead single , received heavy airplay on modern rock stations . Dude Ranch shipped gold by 1998 , but an exhaustive touring schedule brought tensions among the trio . Raynor had been drinking heavily to offset personal issues , and he was fired by DeLonge and Hoppus in mid @-@ 1998 despite agreeing to attend rehab and quit drinking .
" I think Mark and Tom are better suited for what they are doing . It didn 't fit me . I was always fighting for a different direction and that conflict eventually led to a split . "
Travis Barker , drummer for tour @-@ mate The Aquabats , filled in for Raynor , learning the 20 @-@ song setlist in 45 minutes before the first show . He joined the band full @-@ time shortly thereafter and the band entered the studio with producer Jerry Finn later that year to begin work on its third album .
= = = Mainstream breakthrough and continued success ( 1999 – 2004 ) = = =
With the release of the group 's third album Enema of the State in June 1999 , Blink @-@ 182 was catapulted to stardom and became the biggest pop punk act of the era . Three singles were released from the record — " What 's My Age Again ? " , " All the Small Things " , and " Adam 's Song " — that became major radio hits and MTV staples . " All the Small Things " became a number @-@ one hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart , but also became a crossover hit and peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Its video parodied boy bands and pop music videos and won Best Group Video at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards . Although the band was criticized as synthesized , manufactured pop only remotely resembling punk and pigeonholed as a joke act due to the puerile slant of its singles and associating music videos , Enema of the State was an enormous commercial success . The album has sold over 15 million copies worldwide and had a considerable effect on pop punk music , inspiring a " second wave " of the genre and numerous acolytes .
After multi @-@ platinum success , arena tours , and cameo appearances ( American Pie ) , the band recorded Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) , which debuted at number one in the United States , Canada , and Germany . Hit singles " The Rock Show " , " Stay Together for the Kids " and " First Date " continued the band 's mainstream success worldwide , with MTV cementing its image as video stars . Finn returned to produce the record and was a key architect of the " polished " pop punk sound , and he served as an invaluable member of the band : part adviser , part impartial observer , he helped smooth out tensions and hone their sound . Recording sessions were sometimes contentious , as DeLonge strove for heavier and dirtier guitar @-@ driven rock . With time off from touring , he felt an " itch to do something where he didn 't feel locked in to what Blink was , " and channeled his chronic back pain and resulting frustration into Box Car Racer ( 2002 ) , a post @-@ hardcore disc that further explores his Fugazi and Refused inspiration . Refraining from paying for a studio drummer , he invited Barker to record drums on the project and Hoppus felt betrayed . The event caused great division within the trio for some time and was an unresolved tension at the forefront of the band 's later hiatus . Barker also explored hip @-@ hop influences and teamed up with Rancid 's Tim Armstrong to form the rap rock band Transplants .
The band regrouped in 2003 to record its fifth studio album , infusing experimentalist elements into its usual pop punk sound , inspired by lifestyle changes ( the band members all became fathers before the album was released ) and side projects . Blink 's eponymous fifth studio album was released in the fall of 2003 through Geffen Records , which absorbed sister label MCA earlier that year . The worldwide touring schedule , which saw the band travel to Japan and Australia , also found the three performing for troops stationed in the Middle East . Critics generally complimented the new , more " mature " direction taken for the release and lead singles " Feeling This " and " I Miss You " charted high , with the latter becoming the group 's second number one hit on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . Fans , however , were split by the new direction , and tensions within the band — stemming from the grueling schedule and DeLonge 's desire to spend more time with his family — started to become evident .
= = = Indefinite hiatus , side projects , and Barker 's plane crash ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
In February 2005 , Geffen issued a press statement announcing the band 's " indefinite hiatus . " The band had broken up after members ' arguments regarding their future and recording process . DeLonge felt increasingly conflicted both about his creative freedom within the group and the toll touring was taking on his family life . He eventually expressed his desire to take a half @-@ year respite from touring in order to spend more time with family . Hoppus and Barker were dismayed by his decision , which they felt was an overly long break . The band abruptly canceled a performance at a Music for Relief benefit show after rehearsals grew more contentious . Further arguments had ensued during rehearsals , rooted in the band members ' increasing paranoia and bitterness toward one another . DeLonge considered his bandmates ' priorities " mad , mad different , " coming to the conclusion that the trio had simply grown apart as they aged , had families , and reached fame . The breakdown in communication led to heated exchanges , resulting in his exit from the group .
In the interim , Hoppus and Barker continued playing music together in + 44 . The group first began to lay down electronic demos in Barker 's basement and Hoppus ' dining room shortly after the breakup . + 44 's debut , When Your Heart Stops Beating , was released the following year but stalled commercially and received mixed reviews . Barker starred in the MTV reality series Meet the Barkers with his then @-@ wife , former Miss USA Shanna Moakler . The group 's later split , reconciliation and subsequent breakup made them tabloid favorites . Meanwhile , DeLonge disappeared from public eye , making no appearances , granting no interviews and remaining silent until September 2005 , when he announced his new project , Angels & Airwaves , promising " the greatest rock and roll revolution for this generation . " He later revealed he was addicted to painkillers at the time , recalling " I was losing my mind , I was on thousands of painkillers , and I almost killed myself , " and did not realize that his promise of revolution sounded highly ambitious . The group released two albums in 2006 and 2007 : We Don 't Need to Whisper and I @-@ Empire . During the hiatus , Hoppus shifted his attention to producing albums ( most notably Commit This to Memory by former tour @-@ mate Motion City Soundtrack ) and hosting his podcast , HiMyNameisMark , while Barker launched a shoe line and worked on three other musical projects — the Transplants , + 44 , and TRV $ DJAM , a collaboration with friend Adam Goldstein ( DJ AM ) .
The band members did not speak from their breakup until 2008 . That August , Jerry Finn suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and was taken off life support . On September 19 , Barker and Goldstein were involved in a plane crash that killed four people , leaving the two the only survivors . Barker sustained second and third degree burns and developed posttraumatic stress disorder , and the accident resulted in sixteen surgeries and 4 @-@ 8 hour blood transfusions . Hoppus was alerted about Barker 's accident by a phone call in the middle of the night and jumped on the next flight to the burn center . DeLonge found out via the TV news at an airport while waiting to board a flight ; within minutes , he was crying in his seat . " I thought he was going to die , " says DeLonge , who quickly reached out to his former bandmate , mailing him a letter and photograph . " Instantly after the plane crash , I was like , ' Hey , I want to play music with him again . ' " The trio eventually met up in the hospital , laying the grounds for what was going to be the band 's reunion . Eventually , an arrangement was made for the trio to meet up at Hoppus and Barker 's Los Angeles studio in October 2008 . The three opened up , discussing the events of the hiatus and their break @-@ up , and DeLonge was the first to approach the subject of reuniting . " Tom had just kind of come out to Los Angeles for the day , " recalled Hoppus , " I remember he said , ' So , what do you guys think ? Where are your heads at ? ' And I said , ' I think we should continue with what we 've been doing for the past 17 years . I think we should get back on the road and back in the studio and do what we love doing . ' "
= = = Reformation , Neighborhoods , and Dogs Eating Dogs ( 2009 – 14 ) = = =
Eventually , the band appeared for the first time on stage together in nearly five years as presenters at the February 2009 Grammy Awards . The band 's official website was updated with a statement : " To put it simply , We 're back . We mean , really back . Picking up where we left off and then some . In the studio writing and recording a new album . Preparing to tour the world yet again . Friendships reformed . 17 years deep in our legacy . " Blink @-@ 182 embarked on a reunion tour of North America from July to October 2009 , supported by Weezer and Fall Out Boy . A European festival tour followed from August to September 2010 , and another spring European tour was scheduled for 2011 , but was cancelled in order to complete the band 's promised comeback album .
The recording process for Neighborhoods , the band 's sixth studio album , was stalled by its studio autonomy , tours , managers , and personal projects . The band members produced the record themselves following the death of Jerry Finn . DeLonge recorded at his studio in San Diego while Hoppus and Barker recorded in Los Angeles — an extension of their fractured relationships and inability to communicate . Completion was delayed several times , which Hoppus attributed to the band learning to work by themselves without Finn , and both DeLonge and Hoppus expressed frustration during the sessions at the band 's cabal of publicists , managers and attorneys ( which DeLonge described as " the absolute diarrhea of bureaucracy " ) . A result of the band 's split was each member hiring his own attorney , and during the sessions the band had four managers . In addition , Barker was releasing a solo record , DeLonge was involved in Angels & Airwaves , and Hoppus had to fly to New York City once a week to film his television show Hoppus on Music . DeLonge was also diagnosed with skin cancer in 2010 , which was cleared . The album was released in September 2011 and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 . Its singles — " Up All Night " and " After Midnight " — only attracted modest chart success , and label Interscope was reportedly disappointed with album sales .
" Despite growing evidence of remaining friction between the members , " Blink @-@ 182 headlined the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour with My Chemical Romance , which ran from August to October 2011 . European tour dates rescheduled in order to complete Neighborhoods commenced in 2012 , and the band left Interscope Records that October , becoming an independent act . The band subsequently released Dogs Eating Dogs , an EP , in December 2012 . The band toured Australia in spring 2013 ; Brooks Wackerman replaced Barker on drums as Barker was unwilling to fly after his near death experience in his plane crash . The band followed these dates with a small North American tour in September 2013 , which was followed by a series of shows celebrating the tenth anniversary of the band 's self @-@ titled album that November . The band played a European tour in August 2014 , culminating in them headlining the Reading and Leeds Festivals ; it was the band 's fourth appearance at the festival and second headlining slot . In his autobiography , Can I Say , Barker claims DeLonge 's behavior on tour was " introverted " until " money started coming in , " after which " he 'd get excited about Blink again . " According to Barker , DeLonge abruptly quit sometime in mid @-@ 2014 , only to renege on that the following day , suggesting motivational speaker Tony Robbins hold group therapy with the three .
= = = DeLonge 's second exit , addition of Matt Skiba , and California ( 2015 – present ) = = =
The group planned to enter the studio to write and record its seventh studio album in January 2015 , due for release later that year . The album saw delays ( initially slated for 2013 ) , attributed to DeLonge 's schedule with Angels & Airwaves and other personal projects . According to Hoppus and Barker , a record deal was finalized and sessions were booked before DeLonge 's manager informed the band he intended to spend more time on " non @-@ musical activities " and indefinitely depart the group . In a Rolling Stone interview , Hoppus noted , " This is exactly the same sequence of events that happened when Blink broke up 10 years ago . " In the piece , he stated that DeLonge 's attitude toward new music was passive , while Barker asserted , " Why Blink even got back together in the first place is questionable . "
As a result , Blink @-@ 182 performed two club shows and a slot at the Musink festival in March 2015 with Alkaline Trio vocalist / guitarist Matt Skiba " filling in " for DeLonge . DeLonge argued he did not exit the band by choice , claimed that " self @-@ sabotage " had overtaken the band following Dogs Eating Dogs , and remarking that recent events " makes me really sad . [ ... ] Our relationship got poisoned yesterday . Never planned on quitting , just find it hard as hell to commit . " In response , Hoppus spoke on the band 's future : " I just wish Tom does whatever makes him happy and stops holding Blink @-@ 182 back from what we all agree that we 're going to do : play shows , record music , continue this legacy and have a good time doing it . " After legal battles with DeLonge were worked out , Skiba rejoined Blink @-@ 182 as an official member , and the trio began preparations for new music .
The resulting album , California ( 2016 ) , was produced by John Feldmann . He was the group 's first new producer since longtime collaborator Jerry Finn . Prior to his involvement , the trio began writing together at Barker 's studio and completed dozens of song demos . They decided to shelve them upon working with Feldmann to start fresh , and they proceeded to record another 28 songs . California was recorded between January and March 2016 . The band , as well as Feldmann , would regularly spend " 18 hours " in the studio a day , aiming to start and complete multiple songs in that timeframe . " We all wanted to write the best record that we could [ ... ] It does feel like a new beginning . It feels like when we used to tour and sleep in the van because that 's all we wanted to do is play rock music , " said Hoppus .
Upon its July 2016 release , California became the band 's second number @-@ one album on the Billboard 200 , and first in 15 years ; it also reached the top for the first time in the United Kingdom . Its lead single , " Bored to Death " , became the group 's first number one single in 12 years . The band will support the album with a large headlining tour across North America alongside A Day to Remember , the All @-@ American Rejects , and All Time Low ; the trek officially begins July 21 in San Diego and will conclude October 8 in Irvine , California .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Blink @-@ 182 's music is often described as pop punk , a fusion music genre that combines some light characteristics of punk rock with pop music , " combining frustration and fast , sunny hooks " . The New York Times writes that the band " [ took ] punk 's already playful core and [ gave ] it a shiny , accessible polish . " The band is also considered alternative rock . Blink @-@ 182 's early albums such as Cheshire Cat and Dude Ranch are considered skate punk and punk rock . Blink @-@ 182 emerged from a " nurturing , often slapstick " Southern California punk scene , playing with groups like Guttermouth , NOFX and The Vandals , but the band 's sound was criticized when it achieved mainstream popularity by several punk acts who wished to not be associated with the band 's music . The band 's sound evolved with its 2003 untitled effort , which incorporated post @-@ hardcore influences into deeper , darker pop territory . The band 's newest material , Neighborhoods ( 2011 ) , combines arena rock , hip hop and indie rock inspiration . The Sydney Morning Herald characterised the band 's sound as a " mildly tough approach to pop melodies with a decided adolescent spin " .
Common lyrical themes include love , family , friends , and relationships . In greater detail , this includes " adolescent aimlessness , broken hearts and general confusion over the care and feeding of girls . " Lyrics in singles such as " What 's My Age Again ? " reflect age and maturity , while more serious compositions such as " Stay Together for the Kids " touch on the subject of divorce . DeLonge said in a 1999 interview that the goal is to remain sincere and relatable , noting that the band takes its lyrics very seriously . Despite this , the band gained a reputation for occasional lyrical toilet humor ( Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ) . As the band members grew older , lyrical themes began to reflect the realities of adulthood , including relationship woes , daily pressures and unexpected hardships , most prominently explored on Blink @-@ 182 ( 2003 ) . On Neighborhoods , darker lyricism continues : themes concerning depression , addiction , loss and death were inspired by Barker 's plane crash and the death of producer Jerry Finn .
The band has cited The Cure , Descendents , Bad Religion , Screeching Weasel , All , Face to Face , Down by Law , Pennywise , Green Day , The Vandals , Operation Ivy , Generation X , the Ramones , Fugazi and Refused as influences . The members of the band were also inspired by several mid @-@ 1990s " emo " acts , most prominently Jimmy Eat World and The Get Up Kids .
= = Legacy = =
Blink @-@ 182 was one of the most popular bands at the turn of the millennium , and spearheaded the second wave of pop punk and its journey into the mainstream . The glossy production instantly set Blink @-@ 182 apart from the other crossover punk acts of the era , such as Green Day . Cheshire Cat is often cited by bands and fans as an iconic release and Dude Ranch has been called a " genuine modern punk classic . " Enema of the State catapulted the band to stardom , creating what New York described as a " blanket immersion among America 's twenty @-@ some million teenagers . " At the band 's commercial peak , albums such as Take Off Your Pants and Jacket and Enema of the State sold over 14 and 15 million copies worldwide , respectively . The band was featured alongside Green Day , Rancid , Bad Religion , NOFX , and The Offspring in One Nine Nine Four ( 2009 ) , a documentary examining punk rock in California .
The band never received particularly glowing reviews , with many reviewers dismissing them as a joke act based on the humorous slant of its music videos . British publication NME was particularly critical of the trio , begging them to " fuck right off , " and comparing them to " that sanitised , castrated , shrink @-@ wrapped ' new wave ' crap that the major US record companies pumped out circa 1981 in their belated attempt to jump on the ' punk ' bandwagon . " Nevertheless , subsequent reviews of the band 's discography have been more positive . Andy Greenwald of Blender wrote , " the quick transformation from nudists to near geniuses is down @-@ right astonishing . " James Montgomery of MTV called Blink @-@ 182 one of the " most influential bands of the past 20 years , " writing , " despite their maturation , Blink never took themselves particularly seriously , which was another reason they were so accessible . "
" When it comes to having inestimable influence , Blink @-@ 182 might well be contemporary punk 's version of the Beatles " , wrote Scott Heisel in a 2009 Alternative Press cover story on the band . The same magazine later ranked Blink the fourth of the " 30 Most Influential Bands of the Past 30 Years , " just behind Radiohead , Fugazi , and Nirvana . The new generation of pop punk and alternative rock fans found the Blink sound " hugely influential , " with Montgomery writing , " ... without them , there 'd be no Fall Out Boy , no Paramore , or no Fueled by Ramen Records . " In 2011 , The New York Times asserted that " no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink @-@ 182 , " stating that even as the band receded after its 2005 split , " its sound and style could be heard in the muscular pop punk of Fall Out Boy or in the current wave of high @-@ gloss Warped Tour punk bands , like All Time Low and The Maine . " Maria Sherman of The Village Voice took that sentiment a step further , writing " It 's pretty simple : Blink @-@ 182 is the most important band of the ' 90s , dick jokes and all . Apart from the sound , Blink 's ideology has been popularized [ … ] their presence is everywhere . " According to Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker , the group " emerged as a touchstone , spawning more imitators than any American rock band since Nirvana . " Bands such as Panic ! at the Disco and All Time Low originated covering Blink @-@ 182 songs . " Anyone in our genre would be lying if they said they weren 't influenced by Blink @-@ 182 , " said Joel Madden of Good Charlotte . Bands such as You Me at Six and 5 Seconds of Summer have also named the band as influences .
The band 's influence extends beyond pop punk groups , as well : Mumford & Sons , Owl City , FIDLAR , Best Coast , Wavves Male Bonding , Grimes Posture & the Grizzly , and DIIV have acknowledged the band 's influence , and critics have noted traits of the band 's sound in Japandroids .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Cheshire Cat ( 1995 )
Dude Ranch ( 1997 )
Enema of the State ( 1999 )
Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 )
Blink @-@ 182 ( 2003 )
Neighborhoods ( 2011 )
California ( 2016 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Blink @-@ 182 has had the most success at the Teen Choice Awards , winning three awards : Choice Rock Group ( 2000 ) and Best Rock Group ( 2001 ) for the band , and Choice Love Song ( 2004 ) for the song " I Miss You " . " All the Small Things " , a single from the band 's Enema of the State album , received three nominations from the MTV Video Music Awards in 2000 : Video of the Year , Best Pop Video , and Best Group Video , which it won . Overall , Blink @-@ 182 has received seven awards from ten nominations .
Kerrang ! Awards
The Kerrang ! Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1993 by Kerrang ! . Blink @-@ 182 has received two awards .
MTV Europe Music Awards
The MTV Europe Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1994 by MTV Europe . Blink @-@ 182 has received two awards .
MTV Video Music Awards
The MTV Video Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1984 by MTV . Blink @-@ 182 has received one award from four nominations .
Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards
The Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards is an annual awards show organized by Nickelodeon . Blink @-@ 182 has received one award .
Teen Choice Awards
The Teen Choice Awards is an awards show presented annually by the Fox Broadcasting Company . Blink @-@ 182 has received three awards .
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= Cædmon =
Cædmon ( / ˈkædmən / or / ˈkædmɒn / ) is the earliest English ( Northumbrian ) poet whose name is known . An Anglo @-@ Saxon who cared for the animals at the double monastery of Streonæshalch ( Whitby Abbey ) during the abbacy ( 657 – 680 ) of St. Hilda ( 614 – 680 ) , he was originally ignorant of " the art of song " but learned to compose one night in the course of a dream , according to the 8th @-@ century historian Bede . He later became a zealous monk and an accomplished and inspirational Christian poet .
Cædmon is one of twelve Anglo @-@ Saxon poets identified in medieval sources , and one of only three of these for whom both roughly contemporary biographical information and examples of literary output have survived . His story is related in the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ( " Ecclesiastical History of the English People " ) by Bede who wrote , " [ t ] here was in the Monastery of this Abbess a certain brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God , who was wont to make religious verses , so that whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture , he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in Old English , which was his native language . By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world , and to aspire to heaven . "
Cædmon 's only known surviving work is Cædmon 's Hymn , the nine @-@ line alliterative vernacular praise poem in honour of God which he supposedly learned to sing in his initial dream . The poem is one of the earliest attested examples of Old English and is , with the runic Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket inscriptions , one of three candidates for the earliest attested example of Old English poetry . It is also one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language . In 1898 , Cædmon 's Cross was erected in his honour in the graveyard of St. Mary 's Church in Whitby .
= = Life = =
= = = Bede 's account = = =
The sole source of original information about Cædmon 's life and work is Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica . According to Bede , Cædmon was a lay brother who cared for the animals at the monastery Streonæshalch ( now known as Whitby Abbey ) . One evening , while the monks were feasting , singing , and playing a harp , Cædmon left early to sleep with the animals because he knew no songs . The impression clearly given by St. Bede is that he lacked the knowledge of how to compose the lyrics to songs . While asleep , he had a dream in which " someone " ( quidam ) approached him and asked him to sing principium creaturarum , " the beginning of created things . " After first refusing to sing , Cædmon subsequently produced a short eulogistic poem praising God , the Creator of heaven and earth .
Upon awakening the next morning , Cædmon remembered everything he had sung and added additional lines to his poem . He told his foreman about his dream and gift and was taken immediately to see the abbess . The abbess and her counsellors asked Cædmon about his vision and , satisfied that it was a gift from God , gave him a new commission , this time for a poem based on " a passage of sacred history or doctrine " , by way of a test . When Cædmon returned the next morning with the requested poem , he was ordered to take monastic vows . The abbess ordered her scholars to teach Cædmon sacred history and doctrine , which after a night of thought , Bede records , Cædmon would turn into the most beautiful verse . According to Bede , Cædmon was responsible for a large number of splendid vernacular poetic texts on a variety of Christian topics .
After a long and zealously pious life , Cædmon died like a saint : receiving a premonition of death , he asked to be moved to the abbey 's hospice for the terminally ill where , having gathered his friends around him , he expired , after receiving the Holy Eucharist , just before nocturns . Although he is often listed as a saint , this is not confirmed by Bede and it has recently been argued that such assertions are incorrect .
The details of Bede 's story , and in particular of the miraculous nature of Cædmon 's poetic inspiration , are not generally accepted by scholars as being entirely accurate , but there seems no good reason to doubt the existence of a poet named Cædmon . Bede 's narrative has to be read in the context of the Christian belief in miracles , and it shows at the very least that Bede , an educated and intelligent man , believed Cædmon to be an important figure in the history of English intellectual and religious life .
= = = Dates = = =
Bede gives no specific dates in his story . Cædmon is said to have taken holy orders at an advanced age and it is implied that he lived at Streonæshalch at least in part during Hilda 's abbacy ( 657 – 680 ) . Book IV Chapter 25 of the Historia ecclesiastica appears to suggest that Cædmon 's death occurred at about the same time as the fire at Coldingham Abbey , an event dated in the E text of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle to 679 , but after 681 by Bede . The reference to his temporibus " at this time " in the opening lines of Chapter 25 may refer more generally to Cædmon 's career as a poet . However , the next datable event in the Historia ecclesiastica is King Ecgfrith 's raid on Ireland in 684 ( Book IV , Chapter 26 ) . Taken together , this evidence suggests an active period beginning between 657 and 680 and ending between 679 and 684 .
= = = Modern discoveries = = =
The only biographical or historical information that modern scholarship has been able to add to Bede 's account concerns the Brittonic origins of the poet 's name . Although Bede specifically notes that English was Cædmon 's " own " language , the poet 's name is of Celtic origin : from Proto @-@ Welsh * Cadṽan ( from Brythonic * Catumandos ) . Several scholars have suggested that Cædmon himself may have been bilingual on the basis of this etymology , Hilda 's close contact with Celtic political and religious hierarchies , and some ( not very close ) analogues to the Hymn in Old Irish poetry . Other scholars have noticed a possible onomastic allusion to ' Adam Kadmon ' in the poet 's name , perhaps suggesting that the entire story is allegorical .
= = = Other medieval sources = = =
No other independent accounts of Cædmon 's life and work are known to exist . The only other reference to Cædmon in English sources before the 12th century is found in the 10th century Old English translation of Bede 's Latin Historia . Otherwise , no mention of Cædmon is found in the corpus of surviving Old English . The Old English translation of the Historia ecclesiastica does contain several minor details not found in Bede 's Latin original account . Of these , the most significant is that Cædmon felt " shame " for his inability to sing vernacular songs before his vision , and the suggestion that Hilda 's scribes copied down his verse æt muðe " from his mouth " . These differences are in keeping with the Old English translator 's practice in reworking Bede 's Latin original , however , and need not , as Wrenn argues , suggest the existence of an independent English tradition of the Cædmon story .
= = = = Heliand = = = =
A second , possibly pre @-@ 12th century allusion to the Cædmon story is found in two Latin texts associated with the Old Saxon Heliand poem . These texts , the Praefatio ( Preface ) and Versus de Poeta ( Lines about the poet ) , explain the origins of an Old Saxon biblical translation ( for which the Heliand is the only known candidate ) in language strongly reminiscent of , and indeed at times identical to , Bede 's account of Cædmon 's career . According to the prose Praefatio , the Old Saxon poem was composed by a renowned vernacular poet at the command of the emperor Louis the Pious ; the text then adds that this poet had known nothing of vernacular composition until he was ordered to translate the precepts of sacred law into vernacular song in a dream . The Versus de Poeta contain an expanded account of the dream itself , adding that the poet had been a herdsman before his inspiration and that the inspiration itself had come through the medium of a heavenly voice when he fell asleep after pasturing his cattle . While our knowledge of these texts is based entirely on a 16th @-@ century edition by Flacius Illyricus , both are usually assumed on semantic and grammatical grounds to be of medieval composition . This apparent debt to the Cædmon story agrees with semantic evidence attested to by Green demonstrating the influence of Anglo Saxon biblical poetry and terminology on early continental Germanic literatures .
= = Work = =
= = = General corpus = = =
Bede 's account indicates that Cædmon was responsible for the composition of a large oeuvre of vernacular religious poetry . In contrast to Saints Aldhelm and Dunstan , Cædmon 's poetry is said to have been exclusively religious . Bede reports that Cædmon " could never compose any foolish or trivial poem , but only those which were concerned with devotion " , and his list of Cædmon 's output includes work on religious subjects only : accounts of creation , translations from the Old and New Testaments , and songs about the " terrors of future judgment , horrors of hell , ... joys of the heavenly kingdom , ... and divine mercies and judgments . " Of this corpus , only his first poem survives . While vernacular poems matching Bede 's description of several of Cædmon 's later works are found in London , British Library , Junius 11 ( traditionally referred to as the " Junius " or " Cædmon " manuscript ) , the older traditional attribution of these texts to Cædmon or Cædmon 's influence cannot stand . The poems show significant stylistic differences both internally and with Cædmon 's original Hymn , and there is nothing about their order or content to suggest that they could not have been composed and anthologised without any influence from Bede 's discussion of Cædmon 's oeuvre : the first three Junius poems are in their biblical order and , while Christ and Satan could be understood as partially fitting Bede 's description of Cædmon 's work on future judgment , pains of hell and joys of the heavenly kingdom , the match is not exact enough to preclude independent composition . As Fritz and Day have shown , indeed , Bede 's list itself may owe less to direct knowledge of Cædmon 's actual output than to traditional ideas about the subjects fit for Christian poetry or the order of the catechism . Similar influences may , of course , also have affected the makeup of the Junius volume .
= = = Cædmon 's Hymn = = =
The only known survivor from Cædmon 's oeuvre is his Hymn ( audio version ) . The poem is known from 21 manuscript copies , making it the best @-@ attested Old English poem after Bede 's Death Song ( with 35 witnesses ) and the best attested in the poetic corpus in manuscripts copied or owned in the British Isles during the Anglo @-@ Saxon period . The Hymn also has by far the most complicated known textual history of any surviving Anglo @-@ Saxon poem . It is found in two dialects and five distinct recensions ( Northumbrian aelda , Northumbrian eordu , West @-@ Saxon eorðan , West @-@ Saxon ylda , and West @-@ Saxon eorðe ) , all but one of which are known from three or more witnesses . It is one of the earliest attested examples of written Old English and one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language . Together with the runic Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket inscriptions , Cædmon 's Hymn is one of three candidates for the earliest attested example of Old English poetry .
There is continuing critical debate about the status of the poem as it is now available to us . While some scholars accept the texts of the Hymn as more or less accurate transmissions of Cædmon 's original , others argue that they originated as a back @-@ translation from Bede 's Latin , and that there is no surviving witness to the original text .
= = = = Manuscript evidence = = = =
All copies of Hymn are found in manuscripts of the Historia ecclesiastica or its translation , where they serve as either a gloss to Bede 's Latin translation of the Old English poem , or , in the case of the Old English version , a replacement for Bede 's translation in the main text of the History . Despite this close connection with Bede 's work , the Hymn does not appear to have been transmitted with the Historia ecclesiastica regularly until relatively late in its textual history . Scribes other than those responsible for the main text often copy the vernacular text of the Hymn in manuscripts of the Latin Historia . In three cases , Oxford , Bodleian Library , Laud Misc . 243 , Oxford , Bodleian Library , Hatton 43 , and Winchester , Cathedral I , the poem is copied by scribes working a quarter @-@ century or more after the main text was first set down . Even when the poem is in the same hand as the manuscript 's main text , there is little evidence to suggest that it was copied from the same exemplar as the Latin Historia : nearly identical versions of the Old English poem are found in manuscripts belonging to different recensions of the Latin text ; closely related copies of the Latin Historia sometimes contain very different versions of the Old English poem . With the exception of the Old English translation , no single recension of the Historia ecclesiastica is characterised by the presence of a particular recension of the vernacular poem .
= = = = Earliest text = = = =
The oldest known version of the poem is the Northumbrian aelda recension . The surviving witnesses to this text , Cambridge , University Library , Kk . 5 . 16 ( M ) and St. Petersburg , National Library of Russia , lat . Q. v. I. 18 ( P ) , date to at least the mid @-@ 8th century . M in particular is traditionally ascribed to Bede 's own monastery and lifetime , though there is little evidence to suggest it was copied much before the mid @-@ 8th century .
The following text , first column on the left below , has been transcribed from M ( mid @-@ 8th century ; Northumbria ) . The text has been normalised to show a line @-@ break between each line and modern word @-@ division . A transcription of the likely pronunciation of the text in the early 8th @-@ century Northumbrian dialect in which the text is written is included , along with a modern English translation .
Bede 's Latin version runs as follows :
Nunc laudare debemus auctorem regni caelestis , potentiam creatoris , et consilium illius facta Patris gloriae : quomodo ille , cum sit aeternus Deus , omnium miraculorum auctor exstitit ; qui primo filiis hominum caelum pro culmine tecti dehinc terram custos humani generis omnipotens creavit .
" Now we must praise the author of the heavenly realm , the might of the creator , and his purpose , the work of the father of glory : as he , who , the almighty guardian of the human race , is the eternal God , is the author of all miracles ; who first created the heavens as highest roof for the children men , then the earth . "
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= Italian cruiser Libia =
Libia was a protected cruiser built in Italy in the 1900s . The ship had originally been laid down in 1907 for the Ottoman Navy and was to have been named Drama , and was based on the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye . She had not been completed by the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 and so she was seized by the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) and was completed in 1913 . The ship was armed with two 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) and eight 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and was capable of a top speed of over 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
Libia had a relatively uneventful career . Before Italy 's entry into World War I , she was involved in the evacuation of Prince William , the ruler of Albania , from Durazzo in late 1914 . Following Italy 's declaration of war in May 1915 , Libia patrolled the Otranto Barrage but did not see action . In 1921 – 22 , she went on a world tour , during which she was featured in a short documentary produced by the then @-@ unknown Frank Capra . In 1925 she was deployed to China , where she remained for nearly a decade . In 1937 , the old cruiser was stricken from the naval register and sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
The design for the new cruiser was based on the British @-@ built Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye . The ship was 103 @.@ 6 meters ( 340 ft ) long at the waterline and 111 @.@ 8 m ( 367 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 14 @.@ 5 m ( 48 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 760 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 700 long tons ; 4 @,@ 140 short tons ) standard and up to 4 @,@ 466 t ( 4 @,@ 395 long tons ; 4 @,@ 923 short tons ) at full load . The ship was fitted with two pole masts . She had a crew of 14 officers and 300 enlisted men . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 100 mm ( 4 in ) thick , and the conning tower had the same thickness of armor plating on the sides . The main guns were protected by 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields .
Libia was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by sixteen coal @-@ fired Niclausse water @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into three closely spaced funnels on the centerline . The engines were rated at 12 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 300 kW ) , though they only reached 11 @,@ 530 ihp ( 8 @,@ 600 kW ) in service . This was sufficient to propel the ship at a top speed of 22 @.@ 9 knots ( 42 @.@ 4 km / h ; 26 @.@ 4 mph ) . Libia had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 150 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 830 km ; 3 @,@ 620 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of two 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) L / 50 quick @-@ firing guns , one forward and one astern . These guns were probably Pattern FF Armstrong guns , which fired a 20 @-@ kilogram ( 44 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 780 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . These were augmented by a battery of eight 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 45 guns , four mounted individually on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of eight 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 50 guns and six 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 20 guns . She was also equipped with four 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .
= = Service history = =
The new cruiser was laid down in 1907 at the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa for the Ottoman Empire , under the name Drama . But following the rise of the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire , the Ottoman government became unwilling to pay its foreign debts , which led Ansaldo to halt construction work . Work on the ship only resumed in late 1911 when Italy seized the ship following its declaration of war against the Ottoman Empire in the Italo @-@ Turkish War . The completed hull was launched on 11 November 1912 , and following the completion of fitting @-@ out work , the new ship was commissioned on 25 March 1913 . On 3 September 1914 , Libia was in the port of Durazzo , Albania when Prince William , the ruler of the country , departed following turmoil caused by an insurgency in the country , coupled with the outbreak of World War I. Libia had landed a contingent of marines to restore order in the city , where some 2 @,@ 000 refugees fleeing the insurgents attempted to board passenger ships bound for Italy . After the refugees were evacuated , Libia recalled her marines and departed as well .
Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Libia spent much of the war patrolling the Otranto Barrage , along with the cruisers Piemonte and Agordat and several Italian and French destroyers . During the war , the ship had three 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 40 anti @-@ aircraft guns installed .
In 1921 the ship went on a world tour under the command of Admiral Ernesto Burzagli . During the cruise , she stopped in San Francisco , United States in November , where she stayed for a month . While there , she was filmed for a short documentary by the then @-@ unknown film director Frank Capra on 6 and 7 November — though it did not generate much attention , it was Capra 's first publicly screened film . The ship departed San Francisco on 4 December . In 1922 , Libia visited Australia while on her tour . In 1925 , her 150 mm guns were removed . That year , she was sent to China , where she joined the armored cruisers San Marco and San Giorgio and the river gunboats Caboto and Carlotto . These ships contributed men to form the Battaglione Italiano in China ( Italian Battalion in China ) ; the contingents from Libia were sent to guard the consulates in Beijing and Shanhaiguan . The ship remained in Chinese waters for nearly a decade ; in the early 1930s , she was replaced by the protected cruiser Quarto . In September 1935 she was drydocked to prepare for her disposal . She was stricken from the naval register on 11 March 1937 and was sold to ship breakers .
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= Ratna Sarumpaet =
Ratna Sarumpaet ( born 16 July 1949 ) is an Indonesian human rights activist . She is also a theatrical producer , actress , film director , and writer .
Sarumpaet , born into a politically active Christian family in North Sumatra , initially studied architecture in Jakarta . After seeing a play by Willibrordus S. Rendra in 1969 , she dropped out and joined his troupe . Five years later , after marrying and converting to Islam , she founded the Satu Merah Panggung ; the troupe did mostly adaptations of foreign dramas . As she became increasingly concerned about her marriage and unhappy about the local theatre scene , two years later Sarumpaet left her troupe and began to work in television ; she only returned in 1989 , after divorcing her abusive husband .
The murder of Marsinah , a labour activist , in 1993 led Sarumpaet to become politically active . She wrote her first original stageplay , Marsinah : Nyanyian dari Bawah Tanah ( Marsinah : Song from the Underground ) , in 1994 after becoming obsessed with the case . This was followed by several other politically charged works , several of which were banned or restricted by the government . Increasingly disillusioned by the autocratic acts of Suharto 's New Order government , during the 1997 legislative elections Sarumpaet and her troupe led pro @-@ democracy protests . For one of these , in March 1998 , she was arrested and jailed for seventy days for spreading hatred and attending an " anti @-@ revolutionary " political gathering .
After her release , Sarumpaet continued to participate in pro @-@ democracy movements ; these actions led to her fleeing Indonesia after hearing rumours that she would be arrested for dissent . When she returned to Indonesia , Sarumpaet continued to write politically charged stageplays . She became head of the Jakarta Art Board in 2003 ; two years later she was approached by UNICEF and asked to write a drama to raise awareness of child trafficking in Southeast Asia . The resulting work served as the foundation for her 2009 feature film debut , Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President ) . This film was submitted to the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film but not nominated . The following year , she released her first novel , Maluku , Kobaran Cintaku ( Maluku , Flame of My Love ) .
= = Background and early career = =
Sarumpaet was born on 16 July 1949 in Tarutung , North Tapanuli Regency , North Sumatra . She was the fifth of ten children born to Saladin Sarumpaet , Minister of Defence in the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia rebel government , and Julia Hutabarat , a women 's rights activist . Both were also prominent in the Christian community . Three of her siblings – Mutiara Sani , Riris Sarumpaet and Sam Sarumpaet – are members of the Indonesian art community . As a teenager she moved to Jakarta to study there , finishing her high school studies at PSKD Menteng . In his biography , her classmate Chrisye recalled that Sarumpaet was very confident ; he noted that she enjoyed writing poetry and then reading it in a loud voice while other students were engaging in other activities .
By 1969 she was studying architecture at the University of Indonesia . It was at this time that she saw a performance of Kasidah Berzanji ( The Berzanji Chant ) by a troupe led by Willibrordus S. Rendra , which convinced her to drop out of university and join the troupe . In 1974 she founded Satu Merah Panggung Theater , which performed adaptations of foreign works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet – in the latter , Sarumpaet played the titular role .
Sarumpaet became interested in Islam in her teenage years , but only converted around 1974 after marrying Achmad Fahmy Alhady , an Arab @-@ Indonesian . Together they had four children : Mohammad Iqbal Alhady , Fathom Saulina , Ibrahim Alhady , and Atiqah Hasiholan . Atiqah is also an actress and would later star in her mother 's film Jamila .
In 1976 , Sarumpaet , who was suffering domestic violence at home and discouraged by the market , left theatre and entered the film industry . After her divorce , which took several years and required records of her broken ribs to satisfy the religious courts , she returned to theatre in 1989 with a performance of Shakespeare 's Othello . Sarumpaet began working as a director in 1991 , with the television serial Rumah Untuk Mama ( House for Mother ) , which was broadcast on the state @-@ owned television station TVRI . That same year , she adapted Antigone , a tragedy by French writer Jean Anouilh , in a Batak setting .
= = Political theater = =
Sarumpaet 's first original stageplay , Marsinah : Nyanyian dari Bawah Tanah ( Marsinah : Song from the Underground ) , was performed in 1994 despite a sponsor abandoning the project near the showing date . The stageplay was based on the 1993 murder of Marsinah , a labour rights leader from East Java , and explored issues of political repression . The murder sparked a period of political activity for Sarumpaet . According to Barbara Hatley in Inside Indonesia , Sarumpaet was obsessed with the case , including seeing Marsinah 's face while writing . Sarumpaet later reported that the way the murder was conducted , with Marsinah raped and mutilated , then discarded in a forest , " symbolised the deep , trivialising contempt which men , especially powerful men , feel towards women who dare to speak out " .
After Marsinah , Sarumpaet and Satu Merah Panggung performed several other politically themed dramas , including Terpasung ( Chained ; 1995 ) , about male dominance and violence against women , and Pesta Terakhir ( The Last Party ; 1996 ) , about the funeral of a dictator without any mourners . In 1997 , after the Marsinah case was closed due to contaminated DNA evidence , Sarumpaet released Marsinah Menggugat ( Marsinah Revolts ; 1997 ) , a monologue in which Marsinah describes her murder . The play was banned in three cities . During the 1997 elections , Sarumpaet and her troupe performed with a coffin labeled " Democracy " . For their action , they were arrested and held for twenty @-@ four hours .
On 11 March 1998 , Sarumpaet and eight others were arrested during a gathering held in concurrence with a meeting of the People 's Consultative Assembly , in which she and the gathered persons sang the national anthem " Indonesia Raya " and " Padamu Negeri " ( " To You , My Country " ) in front of security forces . The government had banned political meetings of more than five people earlier that month . Six of those arrested were brought up on charges , including Sarumpaet , who was charged with spreading hatred and attending an " anti @-@ revolutionary " political gathering . Her pre @-@ trial motion complaining about irregularities in the arrest , including the lack of a warrant , was dismissed by the court ; a judge on the case commented that " singing ' Indonesia Raya ' and ' [ Padamu Negeri ] ' is proof of their political crime " . She was sentenced to 70 days in prison on 20 May – equal to her time served – then released . A day after her release , President Suharto resigned , bringing an end to the New Order .
= = Post @-@ Suharto work = =
After her release , Sarumpaet continued to be active in pro @-@ democracy groups ; she also wrote another play , Sang Raja ( The King ) . Towards the end of 1998 , with the political situation in Indonesia increasingly unstable and Sarumpaet rumoured to be wanted for stirring up dissent , she fled to Europe via Singapore . In December 1998 , the Tokyo @-@ based Asia Foundation for Human Rights awarded Sarumpaet the Female Human Rights Special Award .
By 2002 Sarumpaet had returned to Indonesia , where she debuted a stageplay entitled Alia , Luka Serambi Mekah ( Alia , Wound of Serambi Mekah ) at Ismail Marzuki Park in Jakarta ; it was her first stageplay since the fall of Suharto . Dealing with Indonesian military operations in Aceh , the play was later performed in five other cities . In December 2002 it was scheduled to be broadcast on TVRI in commemoration of Human Rights Day , but pulled at the last minute due to intervention from the military . In 2001 , she and her troupe put on Dalam Kegelapan Panjang ( In a Long Darkness ) , which dealt with the children of victims of the anti @-@ communist purges of 1965 – 1966 .
In 2003 , Sarumpaet was selected to head the Jakarta Art Board ( Dewan Kesenian Jakarta ) , a position which she held until 2006 . Two years after her selection , Sarumpaet was approached by UNICEF and asked to do a survey of child trafficking in Southeast Asia and promote awareness of the problem . After discovering the extent of the problem , she wrote Pelacur dan Sang Presiden ( The Prostitute and the President ) , spending six months interviewing prostitutes in Surabaya , Surakarta , Garut , and Borneo in preparation . The play was shown in five different cities in 2006 and received warmly . Also in 2006 , Sarumpaet organised the seventh triannual Women 's Playwright International Conference in Bali .
After Pelacur , Sarumpaet began working on a film adaptation entitled Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President ) . The film 's production took three years , due in part to a lack of funding ; the total budget was Rp.6.5 billion ( US $ 800 @,@ 000 ) Released on 30 April 2009 , the film was well received both domestically and internationally . It was submitted to the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film , but not nominated .
On 23 July 2008 , while Jamila was in production , Sarumpaet nominated herself as an independent presidential candidate in the 2009 elections . She attempted to raise funding through selling " stocks " in her campaign through the Akar Indonesia , established especially for the campaign ; according to Sarumpaet , the technique was meant to show that people who were not wealthy could run for president . She did not make the ballot , after the Constitutional Court of Indonesia ruled that independent candidates would not be allowed to run .
Sarumpaet released her first written work of fiction on 10 December 2010 , in commemoration of Human Rights Day . Entitled Maluku , Kobaran Cintaku ( Maluku , Flame of My Love ) , the novel is about the love of a Christian woman and Muslim man set amidst the Maluku sectarian conflict ; it delves into the causes of the conflict , including poverty and provocation by the armed forces .
In June 2014 , Sarumpaet was upset by a Time magazine article that criticized a music video with Nazi overtones made by Indonesian rock singer Ahmad Dhani in support of 2014 presidential candidate Prabowo Subianto and his running mate Hatta Rajasa . The article , headlined " This Indonesian Nazi Video Is One of the Worst Pieces of Political Campaigning Ever " , was written by reporter Yenni Kwok . On Twitter , Sarumpaet accused Kwok of having embarrassed Indonesia by making a false report on a survey on CNN . She also mentioned Kwok 's Chinese ethnicity and her former address , and posted a photo of Kwok and her child . Kwok said Sarumpaet 's actions went " beyond bullying " and asked her to remove the photo or face legal action . Sarumpaet subsequently deleted the photo .
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= June 2008 tornado outbreak sequence =
The June 2008 tornado outbreak sequence was a series of tornado outbreaks affecting most of central and eastern North America from June 3 – 11 , 2008 . 192 tornadoes were confirmed , along with widespread straight – line wind wind damage . Seven people were killed from a direct result of tornadoes ; four in Iowa , two in Kansas , and one in Indiana . Eleven additional people were killed across five states by other weather events including lightning , flash flooding , and straight @-@ line winds . Severe flooding was also reported in much of Indiana , Wisconsin , Minnesota and Iowa as a result of the same thunderstorms , while high heat and humidity affected much of eastern North America ; particularly along the eastern seaboard of the United States from New York City to the Carolinas .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
= = = June 3 = = =
Several clusters of thunderstorms developed during the morning from eastern Nebraska across Iowa into Illinois , taking place along a warm front . The front remained over the same areas during the day , as daytime heating and southwesterly surface winds brought warm and unstable air northward , resulting in severe weather development . The presence of strong winds aloft aided in development of multiple clusters and lines of thunderstorms that produced damaging wind , hail and tornadoes across Missouri , Illinois and Indiana .
A moderate risk of severe weather was issued by the Storm Prediction Center for parts of Indiana , Kentucky , Illinois , Ohio and West Virginia on June 3 , Two particular tornadoes , rated EF2 and EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale , caused extensive damage across portions of central Indiana . The EF3 tornado damaged 34 structures in Rush County , of which 27 of them were in Middletown . Eight people were injured in Rush County , including a 67 @-@ year @-@ old woman who was impaled in the chest by a large tree limb and later died as a result of her injury on August 17 . A 19th century landmark covered bridge in Moscow was destroyed , as well as severe damage to dozens of homes , including some that were swept completely off the foundation . The EF2 tornado damaged 20 to 30 homes in Brown County , 40 buildings at Camp Atterbury in Johnson County and 59 buildings in Edinburgh .
= = = June 4 = = =
A moderate risk of severe weather was issued for northern Kansas into southern Nebraska and from eastern West Virginia through Virginia , Maryland and Delaware . An ongoing line of thunderstorms moved east across West Virginia as the atmosphere began to destabilize . The thunderstorms resulted in a threat for isolated tornadoes in eastern sections of West Virginia , Virginia , Delaware and Maryland . In the central Great Plains region , a warm front extended northeast in northeastern Kansas from a surface low in central sections of Kansas . Strong instability occurred in the vicinity of the area as a result of surface heating . An intensifying low @-@ level jet stream broke the cap in the region and resulted in the development of thunderstorms . During the afternoon , numerous thunderstorms formed across the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . An EF0 tornado was produced from one of the thunderstorms that impacted portions of Chesapeake Beach , tearing off sections of roof and siding from 10 to 20 single family homes . EF1 tornadoes were produced in Culpeper , Clarke and Stafford counties in Virginia . Several other EF0 and EF1 tornadoes formed throughout the Great Plains region .
= = = June 5 = = =
A strong jet stream moved northeast across the Great Plains region and a strong surface low in western Kansas strengthened as it moved to the Nebraska @-@ South Dakota border . Ahead of the low , very warm and moist air spread throughout the South Central United States into Nebraska , eastern sections of South Dakota and the upper Mississippi Valley . The combination of strong winds and warm and moist air created conditions favorable for strong thunderstorms . On June 5 , a high risk of severe weather was issued for six different states in the Midwestern United States , with a moderate risk area surrounding the high risk area . Forecasters had warned of a potentially historic outbreak , as computer forecasting models for June 5 resembled those on June 8 , 1974 , when 39 tornadoes struck the southern Great Plains and killed 22 people . Wichita State University canceled evening classes because of the weather predictions . Severe weather began developing across eastern Colorado and northwestern Kansas during the morning and into the early afternoon , producing several weak tornadoes in the process . An EF1 tornado impacted a campground near Kellogg , Iowa and injured two people . Despite extremely favorable conditions , severe weather for the day was limited and the tornadoes generally caused minimal damage .
= = = June 6 = = =
During the morning hours of June 6 , two strong tornadoes caused damage throughout Wadena and Hubbard counties in Minnesota . The first tornado , rated EF2 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale , touched down south of Stocking Lake and downed several trees onto cabins , vehicles and storage sheds . It also toppled an irrigation system in a field north of the lake . The tornado moved to the north and expanded to its maximum width of 450 yards ( 410 m ) and reached estimated peak winds of 130 miles per hour ( 210 km / h ) . Eight turkey barns were destroyed , killing an estimated 15 to 20 thousand turkeys . The tornado swept a home north of the area in Hubbard County off its foundation , as well as causing damage to several homes along with hundreds of acres of forest . One man working at a turkey barn was injured . The storm then produced an EF3 tornado , which eventually grew to a width of 400 yards ( 370 m ) and reached wind speeds of 160 miles per hour ( 260 km / h ) . At Pickerel Lake , it nearly flattened every tree in the area , while destroying a trailer home , a camper , a garage and a house . At northern sections of Pickerel Lake , one home had its roof torn off and numerous trees were snapped onto other residences and farm buildings . The tornado began to lose its intensity but continued to topple trees , damage storage structures and toss debris before dissipating in Emmaville .
= = = June 7 – 8 = = =
A series of impulses moved from the central Rocky Mountains into the central Great Plains . Opulent moisture formed over the Missouri and Mississippi Valleys with dew points reaching near 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Strong low level winds over the area created favorable wind shear for supercells . During the afternoon , a supercell developed in western portions of Illinois and moved northeast reaching Lake Michigan around the Illinois @-@ Indiana border , during which it produced eight tornadoes along its path . At 4 : 21 pm ( 2121 UTC ) , an EF0 tornado occurred 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of Cornell in Livingston County . The tornado occurred in an open field with no damage observed . At 4 : 31 pm CDT ( 2131 UTC ) , an EF1 tornado touched down southwest of Dwight in Livingston County , snapping power poles and damaging trees and roofs ; this tornado lifted at 4 : 45 pm CDT ( 2145 UTC ) . From 5 : 18 pm CDT ( 2218 UTC ) to 5 : 46 pm CDT ( 2246 UTC ) , an EF2 tornado traveled 13 @.@ 6 miles ( 21 @.@ 9 km ) across southwestern Will County and extreme northwestern Kankakee County , near Wilmington , uprooting trees , damaging homes and destroying sheds . At 5 : 51 pm CDT ( 2251 UTC ) , an EF2 tornado touched down for three minutes in central Will County near Wilton Center , destroying a garage and severely damaging a metal building . From 5 : 55 pm CDT ( 2255 UTC ) to 6 : 08 pm CDT ( 2308 UTC ) , an EF2 tornado occurred west of Monee , leveling barns , garages , and outbuildings and damaging homes . An EF2 tornado re @-@ formed at 6 : 13 pm CDT ( 2313 UTC ) , injuring six people as it crossed Interstate 57 .
As the tornado moved into more densely populated southern Cook County , it destroyed homes in Richton Park , before dissipating at 6 : 30 pm CDT ( 2330 UTC ) . At approximately 6 : 32 pm CDT ( 2332 UTC ) , an EF0 tornado hit South Chicago Heights , causing minor damage to several homes , with two homes sustaining significant damage . At 6 : 49 pm CDT ( 2349 UTC ) , an EF0 tornado touched down in Lansing , damaging tree limbs . In Wisconsin , five people suffered minor injuries after an EF2 tornado went through Columbia County . Further west , a new complex of storms produced two tornadoes inside the Omaha metropolitan area during the early hours of June 8 . A total of 539 homeowners reported damage from the tornadoes . Seven homes were destroyed and 21 others sustained major damage . The two tornadoes that hit the region were rated EF1 and EF2 . The EF2 tornado was the strongest to strike the Omaha metropolitan area since 1975 .
= = = June 11 = = =
A storm system moved to the northern and central Great Plains region during the day , as strong winds helped push a moist air mass northward ahead of the system . Thunderstorms developed during the afternoon ahead of a cold front from southeast South Dakota into central Kansas . Strong winds along with instability in the atmosphere created favorable conditions for supercell development with the potential to produce strong tornadoes . At approximately 6 : 35 pm CDT ( 2335 UTC ) a tornado hit the Little Sioux Scout Ranch in Little Sioux , Iowa , killing four Boy Scouts after a chimney collapsed on them and injuring 48 others . The camp received a tornado warning 12 minutes before it struck . There were 93 campers and 25 staff members at the camp . The campers were between 13 and 18 years old and were attending a leadership training camp . The tornado was rated EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale .
Tornadoes also caused major damage in Kansas . In Chapman , one person was killed and three others were critically injured after an EF3 tornado struck the town . About 80 percent of Chapman suffered serious damage , with minor damage occurring to the downtown area . 70 homes in Chapman were destroyed with 215 receiving damage . Two churches were demolished and the town 's elementary , middle and high schools were severely damaged . Manhattan was also heavily impacted by a tornado that was rated EF4 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale . Forty @-@ five residences in Manhattan were destroyed , as well as two mobile homes and three businesses . An additional 67 residences , three multi @-@ family homes , one mobile home and 10 businesses suffered significant damage . Also , 75 single @-@ family residences , three multi @-@ family structures and 20 businesses sustained minor damage , and 637 residences , 93 multi @-@ family structures , 20 mobile homes and 10 businesses were partially affected . An elementary school was also heavily damaged in Manhattan . There was also damage to Kansas State University , where the Wind Erosion Lab was damaged . Also suffering severe damage was the engineering complex , the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity house , Waters , Call and Cardwell halls as well as Ward Hall , which houses the university 's nuclear reactor . One person was also killed near the town of Soldier in Jackson County from an EF2 tornado . 32 homes were damaged in Jackson County . The southern outskirts of Salina near the junction of Interstate 135 was also hard hit by an EF3 tornado . Several homes , outbuildings , trees and power lines were damaged in the area .
= = Confirmed tornadoes = =
Note : Four tornadoes in Canada were rated according to the Fujita scale , but are included in the table using their corresponding number rating .
= = Non – tornadic events = =
On June 3 , the communications tower at a courthouse in Shelbyville , Missouri was struck by lightning , damaging computers for the 911 system and the sheriff 's office , radio consoles , and various other electronic equipment . In Oklahoma , high winds in excess of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) caused major damage to five to six barns in Cherokee and destroyed one barn in Ingersoll . Three people were injured in Frontenac , Kansas after a tree was blown down on a vehicle . The next day , the inclement weather moved into the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . A 57 @-@ year @-@ old man was killed in Annandale , Virginia after a large tree crushed his vehicle . More than 250 @,@ 000 customers lost power in Virginia . Washington Monument State Park suffered extensive damage after thunderstorms knocked out phone , electricity , and water service . Fallen trees and branches blocked the main road and the hiking trail to the monument in several places . The museum and water treatment buildings were severely damaged , and as a result , the park was closed for two weeks . A total 70 severe thunderstorm , marine , and tornado warnings were issued in the Baltimore / Washington region . In Bloomington , Indiana , two people had lightning strikes near them and were taken to the hospital for lighting related injuries . The cell phone of another individual was stuck while the person was talking on the phone and was also taken to the hospital for treatment .
On June 5 , a storm system caused damage throughout the Great Plains . The most substantial damage occurred in Altus , Oklahoma , where 179 homes sustained some form of damage , with two destroyed , five with major damage , 43 with minor damage and 129 affected . Seventeen businesses were damaged , with two destroyed , four with major damage and eight with minor damage . A school in Mulvane , Kansas had roof damage and there was significant roof damage to the terminal building at an airport near Winfield . In Lawrence , The Wakarusa Music and Camping Festival shut down while the storm passed through . On June 8 , thunderstorms affected areas across the Great Lakes region . Two people were killed in Ottawa County , Michigan due to the straight @-@ line winds that toppled trees ; one onto a pedestrian and another onto a car . In Eaton County , a woman was killed by winds which blew a large trailer on to her . Over 300 @,@ 000 people in Michigan were left without power due to the storm .
On June 10 , a powerful squall line of thunderstorms with embedded supercells developed across New York and moved northeast through parts of northern New England and Quebec . Particularly hard hit was the Montreal region and its southern suburbs including Longueuil , Châteauguay , Brossard and Saint @-@ Jean @-@ sur @-@ Richelieu . Barns were reported damaged and other structures sustained roof and siding damage ; particularly in the Saint @-@ Blaise @-@ sur @-@ Richelieu area where one home was pushed from its foundation . In Sainte @-@ Catherine , the roof of an office was blown into a nearby residence punching a large hole on the back wall . On Montreal 's Champlain Bridge , eight tractor trailers were overturned forcing the closure of the entire bridge in both directions . In addition , a window washing platform tumbled from a high rise building in downtown Montreal . The workers were able to get inside .
Severe thunderstorms also affected the Saint @-@ Hyacinthe , Sherbrooke , Trois @-@ Rivières and Quebec City where winds as strong as 68 miles per hour ( 109 km / h ) were reported with locally higher gusts while hail from golf ball to baseball size were reported in Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Hilaire and Belœil breaking windows from homes and vehicles . The roof of a 65 unit apartment complex in Sainte @-@ Foy was heavily damaged . The Quebec Bridge linking the city to the suburb of Levis was also temporarily shut down because of a collapsed scaffolding . About 300 @,@ 000 Hydro @-@ Québec customers across the province lost power , particularly in the Quebec City , Montérégie and Montreal regions with outages occurring in the Eastern Townships and Mauricie regions . Schools in some areas were closed on June 11 due to the power outages . The tractor trailer accidents resulted in two minor injuries during the storms . According to a report from the Insurance Bureau of Canada , insured damage amounts were estimated at $ 56 million ( 2008 CAD ) , and up to 16 @,@ 000 insurance claims were filed for damage to homes and automobiles .
The severe weather extended south into the Eastern Seaboard of the United States where it ended a prolonged period of intense heat . Temperatures had reached the mid to upper 90s ° F ( mid 30s ° C ) for several days in a row , with some areas exceeding 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . About 150 @,@ 000 customers in New Jersey , 140 @,@ 000 in Pennsylvania and 50 @,@ 000 in northern New York lost power . One person was killed in Lewis County , New York by fallen trees during the storm .
= = = Flooding = = =
The same series of systems contributed to a significant flooding event in many parts of the Midwest . Several counties in this region in Iowa , Illinois and Wisconsin were declared disaster areas . Over 10 inches ( 25 cm ) fell in areas over the course of a week , and in Indiana some rivers approached levels similar to flooding in 1913 which killed 200 people . In Franklin , Indiana , water at one point reached the first level of the area hospital , and buildings at Franklin College were damaged . Flooding was reported also in Columbus , Helmsburg and Terre Haute , Indiana . US Coast Guard units were deployed in assistance for rescue efforts . Parts of Interstate 65 and U.S. Route 31 were temporarily shut down . Thirty thousand people in Indiana lost power during the storms , and several counties filed disaster declarations .
Beginning on June 8 , flooding also started occurring across parts of Iowa following several round of thunderstorms and heavy rains . In Parkersburg , Iowa , a levee burst , flooding three nearby highways . In New Hartford , which was also hit by the same tornado , water gushed over a levee forcing the evacuation of 650 people . The flood waters also damaged a water treatment plant leaving Mason City without drinking water . Up to 5 inches ( 13 cm ) of rain fell in parts of the state . Mandatory evacuations were also made in Cedar Falls and Waterloo . Several entire blocks in Cedar Rapids were under water ( which was at times as high as stop signs ) after the Cedar River overflowed its banks . Flooding later affected the Iowa City area along the Iowa River where 20 buildings on the University of Iowa campus were affected . Many other towns across the state became flooded as well as the rising water levels slowly made their way into the Mississippi River across southeastern Iowa , western Illinois and northeastern Missouri .
Flooding was also reported north of Mason City in southeastern Minnesota , where several inches of rain closed roads and forced evacuations . Gays Mills , Wisconsin was evacuated for the second time in ten months when the Kickapoo River flooded the town . These same areas were also affected by the 2007 Midwest flooding . From June 3 to June 11 eight people were killed due to flooding ; three in Indiana , three in Michigan , and one in Illinois and Minnesota .
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= Pax Mongolica =
The Pax Mongolica ( less often known as Pax Tatarica ) ( Latin for " Mongol Peace " ) is a historiographical term , modeled after the original phrase Pax Romana , which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social , cultural , and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries . The term is used to describe the eased communication and commerce the unified administration helped to create , and the period of relative peace that followed the Mongols ' vast conquests .
The conquests of Genghis Khan ( r . 1206 – 1227 ) and his successors , spanning from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe , effectively connected the Eastern world with the Western world . The Silk Road , connecting trade centers across Asia and Europe , came under the sole rule of the Mongol Empire . It was commonly said that " a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm " . Despite the political fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into four khanates ( Yuan dynasty , Golden Horde , Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate ) , nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century . The end of the Pax Mongolica was marked by the disintegration of the khanates and the outbreak of the Black Death in Asia which spread along trade routes to much of the world in the mid @-@ 14th century .
= = Foundations = =
The foundations of the Pax Mongolica lie in the Mongol Empire beginning with Genghis Khan in the early 13th century . In the process of conquering the various tribes in the region , Genghis Khan revolutionized the way Mongolian tribal society was structured . After each new victory , more and more people were incorporated under Genghis Khan 's rule , thus diversifying the societal balance of the tribe . In 1203 , Genghis Khan , in an effort to strengthen his army , ordered a reform that reorganized his army 's structure while breaking down the traditional clan- and kindred @-@ based divisions that had previously fragmented the society and military . He arranged his army into arbans ( inter @-@ ethnic groups of ten ) , and the members of an arban were commanded to be loyal to one another regardless of ethnic origin . Ten arbans made a zuun , or a company ; ten zuuns made a myangan , or a battalion ; and ten myangans formed a tumen , or an army of 10 @,@ 000 . This decimal system organization of Genghis Khan 's strong military would prove very effective in conquering , by persuasion or force , the many tribes of the central Asian steppe , but it would also strengthen Mongol society as a whole . By 1206 Genghis Khan 's military expansion had unified the tribes of Mongolia , and in the same year he was elected and acclaimed as the leader of Mongolia .
The new Mongol Nation quickly moved to annex more territory . The first Mongol conquests were campaigns against the Western Xia in northwestern China . In 1209 the Mongols conquered the Western Xia . Between 1213 and 1214 the Mongols conquered the Jin Empire , and by 1214 the Mongols had captured most of the land north of the Yellow River . In 1221 Mongol generals Jebe and Subodei began their expedition around the Caspian Sea and into Kievan Rus ' ; Genghis Khan defeated Turkic Jalal ad @-@ Din Mingburnu at the Battle of Indus and the war with the Khwarezmian Empire concluded the same year . In 1235 the Mongols invaded Korea . Two years later in 1237 Batu Khan and Subodei began their conquest of Rus ' ; they invaded Poland and Hungary in 1241 . In 1252 the Mongols began their invasion of Southern China ; they would seize the capital of Hangzhou in 1276 . In 1258 Hulagu Khan captured Baghdad .
Each new victory gave the Mongols the chance to incorporate new peoples , especially foreign engineers and laborers , into their society . Each new conquest also acquired new trade routes and the opportunity to control taxation and tribute . Thus , through territorial expansion , the Mongol Nation not only became an empire , but it also became more technologically and economically advanced .
= = Trade network = =
At its height , the Mongolian empire stretched from Shanhaiguan in the east to Budapest in the west , from Rus ' in the north to Tibet in the south . This meant that an extremely large part of the continent was united under one political authority . As a result , the trade routes used by merchants became safe for travel , resulting in an overall growth and expansion of trade from China in the east to Britain in the west . Thus , the Pax Mongolica greatly influenced many civilizations in Eurasia during the 13th and 14th centuries .
= = = World trade system = = =
Before the Mongols ' rise , the Old World system consisted of isolated imperial systems . The new Mongol empire amalgamated the once isolated civilizations into a new continental system , and re @-@ established the Silk Road as a dominant method of transportation . The unification of Eurasia under the Mongols greatly diminished the amount of competing tribute gatherers throughout the trade network and assured greater safety and security in travel . During the Pax Mongolica , European merchants like Marco Polo made their way from Europe to China on the well @-@ maintained and well @-@ traveled roads that linked Anatolia to China .
On the Silk Road caravans with Chinese silk ; pepper , ginger , cinnamon , and nutmeg came to the West from the Spice Islands via the transcontinental trade routes . Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well . Indian muslins , cottons , pearls , and precious stones were sold in Europe , as well as weapons , carpets , and leather goods from Iran . Gunpowder was also introduced to Europe from China . In the opposite direction , Europeans sent silver , fine cloth , horses , linen , and other goods to the near and far East . Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets , thus increasing the GDP of each nation or society that was involved in the trade system . Μany of the cities participating in the 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size .
Along with land trade routes , a Maritime Silk Road contributed to the flow of goods and establishment of a Pax Mongolica . This Maritime Silk Road started with short coastal routes in Southern China . As technology and navigation progressed these routes developed into a high @-@ seas route into the Indian Ocean . Eventually these routes further developed encompassing the Arabian Sea , Persian Gulf , Red Sea , and the sea off East Africa .
Along with tangible goods , people , techniques , information , and ideas moved lucidly across the Eurasian landmass for the first time . For example , John of Montecorvino , archbishop of Peking founded Roman Catholic missions in India and China and also translated the New Testament into the Mongolian language . Long @-@ distance trade brought new methods of doing business from the far East to Europe ; bills of exchange , deposit banking , and insurance were introduced to Europe during the Pax Mongolica . Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveler would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins .
Islamic methods of mathematics , astronomy , and science made their way to Africa , East Asia and Europe during the Pax Mongolica . Methods of paper @-@ making and printing made their way from China to Europe . During the Pax Mongolica rudimentary banking systems were established , and money changing and credit extension were common , resulting in large amount of merchant wealth .
= = = Mongol administration = = =
Mongolia 's central geographical position on the Asian continent was an important reason why it was able to play such a large role in the trade system . The Mongol army was easily able to assert strong rule throughout most of the empire . The military ensured that supply lines and trade routes flowed smoothly ; permanent garrisons were established along trade routes to protect the travelers on these routes . Complex local systems of taxation and extortion that were prevalent before Mongol rule were abolished to ensure the smooth flow of merchants and trade through the empire . A system of weights @-@ and @-@ measures was also standardized . To make the voyage on the trade routes less harrowing , the Mongols went as far as to plant trees along the roads to shade the merchants and travelers in the summer months ; stone pillars were used to mark the roads where trees could not grow .
The Mongols sought alliances with other nations and societies to ensure the flow of trade through the empire . The Mongol army was also used to reshape and streamline the flow of trade through the continent by destroying cities on the less @-@ important or more inaccessible routes . The Mongol military was mostly made up of cavalrymen . This allowed the military to move swiftly and easily over large distances .
The code of Mongol law , known as the Yassa ( " Great Law " ) , decreed strict rules and punishments in many areas of the Mongolian Empire 's society , especially those areas concerning trade and commerce . The Yassa helped suppress the traditional causes of tribal feuding and war , thus helping to ensure a peaceful trading and traveling environment ; theft and animal rustling were outlawed , and the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan even established a massive lost @-@ and @-@ found system . Harsh penalties including a retribution of nine times the original value of stolen goods helped deter theft on Mongol roads . The Yassa also decreed complete religious freedom , ensuring that Buddhists , Muslims , Christians , etc . , were all allowed to travel freely throughout the empire ; religious leaders were also exempted from taxation , as were doctors , lawyers , undertakers , teachers , and scholars . The Yassa did allow for flexibility and it usually adapted , absorbed , or built upon legal systems in remote parts of the empire , thus maintaining a level of openness to various societies and ensuring peace and stability .
In order to ensure Mongol law was enforced , a hierarchy of legal administration was developed . This was headed by the Secretarial Council " chug @-@ shu @-@ sheng " of the central government which oversaw 10 provincial governments known as " Hsing @-@ sheng " . The Hsinsing @-@ sheng was further split into smaller districts which handled legal cases . A police commissioner known as " hsien wei " was entrusted with law enforcement and had the authority to arrest suspects . This method of federalizing the empire made it easier and more efficient for laws to be administered throughout the continent .
= = = Postal system = = =
The Mongols established the Yam ( Mongolian : Өртөө , Örtöö , checkpoint ) , the first system of communication that connected the Far East and the West . Relay stations were set up every 25 – 30 miles or an average day ’ s journey on horse . These stations were introduced by Ögedei Khan in 1234 and supplied fresh horses and fodder . His brothers Chagatai Khan and Tolui and his nephew Batu Khan further extended this network .
The Mongol army administered the Yam . The Yam stretched across Mongol territory from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean . The routes were well organized , funded , maintained , and administrated by the Mongols . This highly sophisticated system of communication and travel made it relatively easy to send important messages and travel long distances in relatively short amounts of time . As a result of the relatively lucid communication and ease of movement , the Mongols were able to govern their vast empire effectively , thus ensuring political and economic stability .
= = Decline = =
The decline of the period of the Pax Mongolica was a result of a number of factors , these being incompetent and rivaling leaders , corruption , revolts , decadence , factional struggles , assassinations , external attacks , and disease . The decline of the Pax Mongolica resulted in a decline of eased trade between East and West .
= = = Decline of Mongol rule = = =
The Mongol Empire , near the time of its decline , consisted of many different territories that varied from one to another . Each territory was defined as a " khanate " . Due to the isolation of the Mongolian world , many rulers in the 14th century started to focus on their own khanates .
Religious intolerance was one particular factor in the decline of the Pax Mongolica . In Rus ' , the Mongols ( known as the Golden Horde ) , gradually lost power and territory due to intolerance specifically geared towards different religions . The Rus ' Mongols converted to Islam and joined the Egyptian Mamluks for political reasons . At one point in the war the Golden Horde even fought the Persian Mongols . However , the eastern part of the Golden Horde , White Horde , had friendly relations with the Ilkhanate and the Great Khan . The decentralization occurred because communication was so difficult due to the collapsing trade system and the rivalry between Mongol princes . Eventually , the Persian Mongol leader Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295 . This contributed to the growing power of Nawruz ; a Muslim Oirat general .
In China , descendants of Kublai Khan claimed the Mongols weakened their power by becoming " too Chinese " . This led to Yuan emperors separating themselves from their subjects in order to stress their Mongol identity and to reject their Chinese culture . Kublai Khan once promoted Chinese culture and the importance of its practice but under the Yuan emperors this was now prohibited . As the Chinese culture was changing , intolerance became more common . Some Chinese thought that they were planning to kill Chinese children and perform sexual rituals on them . This led many Chinese to become xenophobic towards the Mongols . This xenophobia led Chinese rulers to expel the Mongols from China and to isolate China from the rest of the world trade system .
= = = The Black Death = = =
The segregation and fragmentation of the respective khanates in the Mongol Empire were not the only factors in contributing to the decline of the Pax Mongolica . The outbreak of bubonic plague , or Black Death , also played a devastating role in the decline of the Pax Mongolica . Because the Mongol Empire bridged once isolated regions , it made it easy for the Black Death to spread rapidly . Historian William H. McNeill has noted that the plague was transferred from ground rodents living in southern Chinese and Burmese Himalayan foothills to Mongol soldiers when they invaded the area in 1252 . In 1331 the plague was noted in China , and from east Asia it was carried west along the trade routes by merchants and Mongol soldiers who were able to so freely and quickly travel across the continent during the Pax Mongolica . Plague @-@ infected fleas hitched rides in the manes of horses , on the hair of camels , or on black rats that nestled in cargoes or in saddlebags . The Black Death is estimated to have killed one @-@ third of China 's population and 25 to 50 percent of Europe 's population .
Demographically weakened , the Mongols were not able to exert their rule over remote domains in their empire , who began to revolt once the plague broke out . These revolts disrupted the production of goods and flow of trade , which ended the Pax Mongolica .
= = = Effects on trade = = =
Over the next 300 years China would become extremely isolated from foreign merchants ; China prohibited foreigners or foreign trade and languages other than Chinese . Confucianism and Taoism were reinstated as the national religion and the Chinese experienced cultural stagnation . During the early years of the Ming @-@ dynasty trade with the rest of the world declined . This is attributed to war , epidemics and widespread disruptions rather than " symbolic policy change " . Economic difficulties also contributed to the decline as an important world trade player . The Black Death quickly spread to the rest of the world trade system , and the long @-@ distance trading that was common and applauded during the Pax Mongolica almost entirely stopped .
= = Personnel exchanges = =
Under the Mongols new technologies and commodities were exchanged across the Old World , particularly Eurasia . Professor Thomas T.Allsen noted many personnel exchanges occurred during the Mongol period . There were many significant developments in economy ( especially trade and public finance ) , military , medicine , agriculture , cuisine , astronomy , printing , geography , and historiography , which were not limited to Eurasia but also included North Africa . The Mongolian Empire functioned as the principal cultural clearing house for the Old World until its downturn when it was gradually replaced by maritime Europe which in time came to perform similar offices for the Old World and the New .
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= Mississippi Highway 311 =
Mississippi Highway 311 ( MS 311 ) is a state highway located in Marshall County , Mississippi . The route runs 12 @.@ 960 mi ( 20 @.@ 857 km ) from MS 7 in Holly Springs north to U.S. Route 72 ( US 72 ) in Mount Pleasant . The route is a two @-@ lane undivided road its entire length and passes through rural areas . MS 311 was designated onto its current alignment in 1957 , and was fully paved from a gravel road by the 1960s .
= = Route description = =
MS 311 begins at an intersection with MS 7 in the northern part of Holly Springs , heading northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Mount Pleasant Road . The route passes through wooded areas with some homes and businesses as it comes to an intersection with the Holly Springs Bypass and makes a left turn to continue to the northwest and leaves the city . Upon leaving Holly Springs , the road continues through forested areas with some farm fields and residences . Farther north , the highway reaches the community of Mount Pleasant . MS 311 passes a few homes and businesses within Mount Pleasant before reaching its northern terminus at the US 72 intersection . At this point , the road continues north as Rossville Road . MS 311 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 .
= = History = =
MS 311 was designated in 1957 for a gravel road connecting Holly Springs to Mt . Pleasant . By 1960 , the route was paved except for a small portion halfway between Holly Springs and Mt . Pleasant . In 1965 , the remaining portion of MS 311 was paved .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Marshall County .
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= John MacBride ( Royal Navy officer ) =
John MacBride ( c . 1735 – 17 February 1800 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy and a politician who saw service during the Seven Years ' War , the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary Wars , eventually rising to the rank of Admiral of the Blue .
MacBride entered the navy after serving on merchant vessels and distinguished himself in a number of actions during the Seven Years ' War , including cutting out a privateer , which secured him the rank of post @-@ captain by the end of the conflict . He was instrumental in establishing and securing a British settlement on the Falkland Islands in the years of peace which followed , and also performed service to the Royal Family by transporting the King 's sister , Caroline Matilda . Still in active service by the outbreak of war with the American colonies , MacBride took command of a ship of the line and saw action in engagements under Keppel and Rodney . He was also active against privateers , capturing the Comte d 'Artois in a heated battle off the Irish coast . Further service followed with Parker 's fleet against the Dutch and with Barrington in the Channel .
MacBride ended the war serving ashore in Ireland , and in 1784 embarked on a political career , becoming MP for Plymouth . Promoted to flag rank with the outbreak of war with Revolutionary France , he commanded squadrons off the enemy coasts , and transported troops to support land operations on the continent . His last active service was in 1795 , though he was promoted to Admiral of the Blue shortly before his death in 1800 .
= = Family and early life = =
John MacBride was born in Scotland around 1735 , the second son of the Presbyterian minister Robert MacBride . The MacBrides moved to Ireland shortly after John 's birth , when Robert became minister of Ballymoney , in County Antrim . John 's brother , David MacBride , became a noted medical writer . John MacBride initially went to sea with the merchant service in 1751 , and joined the navy as an able seaman three years later , in 1754 . He served first aboard the 24 @-@ gun HMS Garland in the West Indies for a number of years , before returning to British wars and serving aboard HMS Norfolk , the flagship in the Downs for a few months .
MacBride passed his lieutenant 's examination on 6 October 1758 , and received his commission on 27 October . He was moved into the hired cutter Grace , and in August 1761 came across a French privateer anchored in the Dunkirk roadstead . MacBride made contact with the frigate HMS Maidstone and asked her captain for four armed and manned boats . Maidstone 's captain readily agreed , and at 10 o 'clock that night the boats left the British ships and approached the privateer with muffled oars . They came within pistol shot and hailed the French vessel , and on receiving no reply , boarded her . The British boarded on both sides of the vessel , and carried the ship with two men wounded . MacBride himself shot and killed the French lieutenant as he aimed a gun at the British boat . The total French losses were two dead and five wounded . Having secured the vessel , the British took her out to sea under the guns of a French battery .
MacBride 's good service brought him a promotion to master and commander on 7 April 1762 , and an appointment to command the fireship HMS Grampus . From there he moved to command the sloop HMS Cruizer on 27 May 1763 , still at the rank of commander . After some time spent on the Home station , MacBride received a promotion to post @-@ captain on 20 June 1765 , and took command of the 30 @-@ gun HMS Renown . This was followed in August 1765 with command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Jason , and a mission to establish a colony on the Falkland Islands .
= = Falkland Islands = =
MacBride arrived with Jason , HMS Carcass and the storeship HMS Experiment , in January 1766 , with orders to secure a settlement and to inform any existing inhabitants that the islands were a British possession . The British consolidated Port Egmont , made several cruises in the surrounding waters , and in December came across the French settlement . In a cordial meeting MacBride informed the French governor M. de Neville of the British claim , which the French politely rejected . Unbeknownst to both de Neville and MacBride , Louis Antoine de Bougainville , who had established the French settlement , had agreed to sell the colony to Spain . The resulting tensions between the Spanish and British claims would nearly lead to war in 1770 , but in the meantime MacBride returned home , reporting the situation to the government . He later published a 13 @-@ page monograph , probably in 1770 , entitled A Journal of the Winds and Weather ... at Falkland Islands from 1 February 1766 to 19 January 1767 .
= = Interwar years = =
After his return to Britain MacBride was given command of the 22 @-@ gun HMS Seaford in August 1767 and employed to cruise in the English Channel . He spent several years aboard Seaford , before transferring to take command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Arethusa in March 1771 , followed by the 32 @-@ gun HMS Southampton in August that year . He was in command of Southampton in May 1772 when he received orders to command a small squadron tasked with transporting Caroline Matilda , former Queen of Denmark and Norway and sister of King George III , from Elsinore to Stadt . The squadron consisted of Southampton , and two of MacBride 's former commands , Seaford , and Cruizer . In April 1773 he took command of HMS Orpheus .
= = American War of Independence = =
With the outbreak of war with the American colonies , MacBride was appointed to take command of the 64 @-@ gun HMS Bienfaisant on 6 November 1776 . He was present at the Battle of Ushant on 28 July 1778 , but did not become heavily engaged in the confused action . In the ensuing argument over the outcome of the battle , MacBride gave evidence in favour of Admiral Keppel that was an important factor in Keppel 's acquittal at his court @-@ martial . MacBride was less supportive of Sir Hugh Palliser . He remained in command of Bienfaisant , and in December joined Sir George Rodney 's fleet to relieve Gibraltar . During the voyage the British fleet came across a Spanish convoy transporting naval stores from San Sebastián to Cádiz , and engaged it . The British succeeded in capturing the convoy , while MacBride distinguished himself in engaging the Spanish flagship Guipuscoana , which surrendered to him .
On 16 January the fleet again encountered Spanish ships , this time off Cape St. Vincent . The Spanish fleet , under Admiral Juan de Lángara , were engaged in the Battle of Cape St. Vincent , and again MacBride was in the thick of the action . He took his ship in to engage the San Domingo , with the Bienfaisant narrowly escaping significant damage after her opponent blew up . He then went on to chase down and capture Lángara 's flagship , the 80 @-@ gun Fenix . MacBride sent Lieutenant Thomas Louis aboard to take possession , but as a smallpox outbreak was raging on the Bienfaisant , MacBride did not take the usual step of transferring some of the captured officers and men aboard his own ship . Instead he reached an agreement with de Lángara , that should the ships encounter a French or Spanish force , he would allow the Fenix to be defended against them . If the Bienfaisant escaped but the Fenix was retaken , de Lángara and his men would consider themselves to still be prisoners of war , but if Fenix escaped and Bienfaisant was taken , then de Lángara and his men would be freed . In any event both ships made it to Gibraltar without incident , after which MacBride was given the honour of taking Rodney 's despatches back to Britain . MacBride set off at once , but was delayed by adverse winds . Consequently , his despatches arrived several days after an identical set had reached London , delivered by Captain Edward Thomson , who had left Rodney later than MacBride , but who had had a faster voyage .
= = = MacBride and the Artois connection = = =
Rodney 's fleet returned to Britain in March , and MacBride rejoined the Bienfaisant . In early August a large French privateer , the 64 @-@ gun Comte d 'Artois , was reported to have sailed from Brest to cruise off the Irish south coast . MacBride was ordered to sail in company with the 44 @-@ gun HMS Charon and to capture the dangerous vessel . After several days in search of the vessel , a mysterious sail was finally sighted early on 13 August , chasing after some of the ships of a convoy departing from Cork . MacBride ranged up and fell in with the unidentified ship , which hoisted English colours . Both ships came within pistol shot , and it was not until there was some communication between the two ships , that MacBride could be satisfied of her identity . By now the two ships were so close , with Bienfaisant off the Comte de 'Artois 's bow , that neither ship could bring their main guns to bear . Instead both ships opened fire with muskets until MacBride could manoeuvre away and a general action ensued . After an hour and ten minutes the French vessel surrendered , having had 21 killed and 35 wounded , while Bienfaisant had three killed and 20 wounded . The Charon had only joined the action towards the end of the engagement and had a single man wounded . The capture had an unusual sequel , for just over a year later , and under a different captain , Bienfaisant captured another privateer , this time named Comtesse d 'Artois .
In a further coincidence MacBride was appointed in January 1781 to command the 40 @-@ gun HMS Artois , a former French ship captured in 1780 by HMS Romney . MacBride served in the North Sea with Sir Hyde Parker 's fleet , and fought against the Dutch at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781 . After the battle Parker temporarily moved MacBride into the 80 @-@ gun HMS Princess Amelia , whose captain , John MacCartney , had been killed during the battle . MacBride resumed command of Artois after the fleet 's return to port , and continued to cruise in the North Sea . On 3 December he engaged and captured two large 24 @-@ gun Dutch privateers , the Hercules and Mars . Nine men were killed and fifteen wounded on Mars , while 13 were killed and 20 wounded on Hercules . Artois had one man killed and six wounded .
By 1782 MacBride was operating in the Channel , and in April was sent out as a scout ahead of the main force under Admiral Samuel Barrington , which aimed to intercept a French squadron that had left Brest bound for the East Indies . He sighted the force on 20 April and alerted Barrington . The British moved in and that day and the following captured over half of the French force . After this success MacBride was appointed to the Irish station in June , where he worked in the impress service while Artois cruised under her first lieutenant .
= = Years of peace = =
At the end of the war with America , MacBride left the Artois , but in June was able to obtain command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Druid . He commanded her until the end of the year , after which he was temporarily unemployed at sea . MacBride took this opportunity to enter politics , and in 1784 he was elected as MP for Plymouth , holding the seat until 1790 . He gave several speeches on naval matters , and sat on the Duke of Richmond 's commission into the defences of Portsmouth and Plymouth between 1785 and 1786 . He opposed a plan for fortifying the naval dockyards , both on the commission and in parliament . In 1788 he returned to an active , though not a seagoing command , when he took over the Plymouth guardship , the 74 @-@ gun HMS Cumberland . By 1790 , with the threat of the Spanish Armament looming , MacBride took Cumberland to Torbay to join the fleet assembling there under Lord Howe .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
MacBride was promoted to rear @-@ admiral on 1 February 1793 , as part of the general promotion following the outbreak of war . He became commander @-@ in @-@ chief on the Downs station , commanding a frigate squadron with his flag in Cumberland , later transferring his flag to the 32 @-@ gun HMS Quebec . He took possession of Ostend after the French retreat in early 1793 , and in October transported reinforcements under General Sir Charles Grey to assist in the defence of Dunkirk . He took command of the 36 @-@ gun HMS Flora at the end of the year and sailed from Portsmouth on 1 December carrying an army under the Earl of Moira to support French royalists in Brittany and Normandy .
Following this service he took command of a small squadron in the Western Approaches , flying his flag in a number of different vessels , including the sloop HMS Echo , the 74 @-@ gun HMS Minotaur and the 64 @-@ gun HMS Sceptre . The squadron did not achieve any significant successes , and MacBride had the misfortune to break his leg while mounting his horse , forcing him to temporarily relinquish his duties . He was promoted to rear @-@ admiral of the red on 11 April , and on 4 July to vice @-@ admiral of the blue . Promoted to vice @-@ admiral of the white on 1 June 1795 , MacBride became commander of the squadron in the North Sea assigned to watch the Dutch fleet in the Texel , flying his flag in the 74 @-@ gun HMS Russell . He stepped down from the post in late 1795 , and was not actively employed at sea again . He was promoted to admiral of the blue on 14 February 1799 . Admiral John MacBride died of a paralytic seizure at the Spring Garden Coffee House , London on 17 February 1800 .
= = Family and issue = =
MacBride married early in his career , but no details are known , other than that his wife was the daughter of a naval officer . She is presumed to have died , for MacBride married Ursula Folkes , eldest daughter of William Folkes of Hillington Hall , Norfolk on 14 July 1774 . Their son , John David MacBride , became principal of Magdalen Hall , Oxford . MacBride 's daughter , Charlotte , married Admiral Willoughby Lake in 1795 .
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= WWV ( radio station ) =
WWV is the call sign of the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology 's ( NIST ) HF ( " shortwave " ) radio station near Fort Collins , Colorado . WWV continuously transmits official U.S. Government frequency and time signals on 2 @.@ 5 , 5 , 10 , 15 and 20 MHz . These carrier frequencies and time signals are controlled by local atomic clocks traceable to NIST 's primary standard in Boulder , Colorado by GPS common view observations and other time transfer methods . NIST also operates the very similar radio station WWVH in Kauai , Hawaii . WWV and WWVH make recorded announcements ; since they share frequencies , WWV uses a male voice to distinguish itself from WWVH , which uses a female voice . They also make other recorded announcements of general interest , e.g. , the GPS satellite constellation status and severe oceanic weather warnings . WWV shares its site near Fort Collins with radio station WWVB that transmits carrier and time code ( no voice ) on 60 kHz in the LF ( " longwave " ) band .
= = History = =
= = = Launch = = =
WWV is the oldest continuously @-@ operating radio station in the United States , first going on the air from Washington , D.C. in May 1920 , approximately six months before the launch of KDKA . The station first broadcast Friday evening concerts on 600 kHz , and its signal could be heard 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) from Washington . On December 15 , 1920 , WWV began broadcasting on 750 kHz , distributing Morse code news reports from the Department of Agriculture . This signal could be heard up to 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) from Washington . These news broadcasts ended on April 15 , 1921 .
= = = Standard frequency signals = = =
At the end of 1922 , WWV 's purpose shifted to broadcasting standard frequency signals . These signals were desperately needed by other broadcasters , because equipment limitations at the time meant that the broadcasters could not stay on their assigned frequencies . Testing began on January 29 , 1923 , and frequencies from 200 to 545 kHz were broadcast . Frequency broadcasts officially began on March 6 , 1923 . The frequencies were accurate to " better than three @-@ tenths of one percent . " At first , the transmitter had to be manually switched from one frequency to the next , using a wavemeter . The first quartz oscillators were invented in the mid @-@ 1920s , and they greatly improved the accuracy of WWV 's frequency broadcasts .
In 1926 , WWV was nearly shut down . Its signal could only cover the eastern half of the United States , and other stations located in Minneapolis and at Stanford University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology were slowly making WWV redundant . The station 's impending shutdown was announced in 1926 , but it was saved by a flood of protests from citizens who relied on the service . Later , in 1931 , WWV underwent an upgrade . Its transmitter , now directly controlled by a quartz oscillator , was moved to College Park , Maryland . Broadcasts began on 5 MHz . A year later , the station was moved again , to Department of Agriculture land in Beltsville , Maryland . Broadcasts were added on 10 and 15 MHz , power was increased , and time signals , an A440 tone , and ionosphere reports were all added to the broadcast in June 1937 .
WWV was nearly destroyed by a fire on November 6 , 1940 . The frequency and transmitting equipment was recovered , and the station was back on the air ( with reduced power ) on November 11 . Congress funded a new station in July 1941 , and it was built 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of the former location , still referred to as Beltsville ( although in 1961 the name used for the transmitter location would be changed to Greenbelt , Maryland ) . WWV resumed normal broadcasts on 2 @.@ 5 , 5 , 10 , and 15 MHz on August 1 , 1943 .
= = = Time signals = = =
WWV 's primary purpose today ( and for most of its existence ) is to disseminate the " official U.S. time " ( provided by government entities such as NIST and USNO ) to ensure that uniform time is maintained throughout the United States and around the world . The time signals generated by WWV allow time @-@ keeping devices such as radio @-@ controlled clocks to automatically maintain accurate time without the need for manual adjustment . These time signals are used by commercial and institutional interests where accuracy is essential and time plays a vital role in daily operations - these include shipping , transport , technology , research , education , military , public safety and telecommunications . It is of particular importance in broadcasting , whether it be commercial , public , or private interests such as amateur radio operators . WWV provides a public service by making time information readily available at all hours and at no monetary charge ( other than the cost of the receiving equipment itself ) .
WWV had been broadcasting second pulses since 1937 , but these pulses were not tied to actual time . In June 1944 , the United States Naval Observatory allowed WWV to use the USNO 's clock as a source for its time signals . Over a year later , in October 1945 , WWV broadcast Morse code time announcements every five minutes . Voice announcements started on January 1 , 1950 , and were broadcast every five minutes . Frequencies of 600 Hz and 440 Hz were broadcast during alternating minutes . By this time , WWV was broadcasting on 2 @.@ 5 , 5 , 10 , 15 , 20 , 25 , 30 , and 35 MHz . The 30 and 35 MHz broadcasts were ended in 1953 .
A binary @-@ coded decimal time code began testing in 1960 , and became permanent in 1961 . This " NASA time code " was modulated onto a 1000 Hz audio tone at 100 Hz , sounding somewhat like a monotonous repeated " baaga @-@ bong " . The code was also described as sounding like a " buzz @-@ saw " . On July 1 , 1971 , the time code 's broadcast was changed to the present 100 Hz subcarrier , which is inaudible when using a normal radio ( but can be heard using headphones or recorded using a chart recorder ) .
WWV moved to its present location near Fort Collins on December 1 , 1966 , enabling better reception of its signal throughout the continental United States . WWVB signed on in that location three years earlier . In April 1967 , WWV stopped using the local time of the transmitter site ( Eastern Time until 1966 , and Mountain Time afterwards ) and switched to broadcasting Greenwich Mean Time or GMT . The station switched again , to Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) , in 1974 .
The 20 and 25 MHz broadcasts were discontinued in 1977 , but the 20 MHz broadcast was reinstated the next year . As of April 4 , 2014 , the 25 MHz signal has been back on the air in an ' experimental ' mode . The voice used on WWV was that of Don Elliott Heald until August 13 , 1991 , when equipment changes required rerecording the announcer 's voice . The one used at that time was that of John Doyle , but was soon switched to the voice of KSFO morning host Lee Rodgers .
The radio signals of WWV , WWVB and WWVH , along with the atomic clocks that their time signals derive from , are maintained by NIST 's Time and Frequency Division , which is based in nearby Boulder , Colorado . The Time and Frequency Division is part of the NIST 's Physics Laboratory , based in Gaithersburg , Maryland . NIST 's predecessor , the National Bureau of Standards , previously maintained WWV as a part of the Department of Agriculture ; NIST is currently part of the Department of Commerce .
= = = WWV and Sputnik = = =
WWV 's 20 MHz signal was used for a unique purpose in 1958 : to track the disintegration of Russian satellite Sputnik I after the craft 's onboard electronics failed . Dr. John D. Kraus , a professor at Ohio State University , knew that a meteor entering the upper atmosphere leaves in its wake a small amount of ionized air . This air reflects a stray radio signal back to Earth , strengthening the signal at the surface for a few seconds . This effect is known as meteor scatter . Dr. Kraus figured that what was left of Sputnik would exhibit the same effect , but on a larger scale . His prediction was correct ; WWV 's signal was noticeably strengthened for durations lasting over a minute . In addition , the strengthening came from a direction and at a time of day that agreed with predictions of the paths of Sputnik 's last orbits . Using this information , Dr. Kraus was able to draw up a complete timeline of Sputnik 's disintegration . In particular , he observed that satellites do not fall as one unit ; instead , the spacecraft broke up into its component parts as it moved closer to Earth .
= = = Call Sign = = =
WWV is one of a small number of radio stations west of the Mississippi River with a call sign beginning with W. The W call sign stems from the station 's early locations in D.C. and Maryland — the call sign was maintained when the federal government moved the station to Colorado — and the fact that WWV , being a government station , does not fall within the FCC 's jurisdiction with respect to call signs . How and why the call sign WWV was assigned to the time signal station are not known . However FCC regulations do dictate that time stations are to be issued call signs beginning with " WWV " .
= = Broadcast format = =
On top of the standard carrier frequencies , WWV carries additional information using standard double @-@ sideband amplitude modulation . WWV 's transmissions follow a regular pattern repeating each minute . They are coordinated with its sister station WWVH to limit interference between them . Because they are so similar , both are described here .
= = = Date and time = = =
WWV transmits the date and exact time as follows :
English @-@ language voice announcements of time .
Binary @-@ coded decimal time code of date and time , transmitted as varying length pulses of 100 Hz tone , one bit per second .
In both cases the transmitted time is given in Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) .
= = = Per @-@ second ticks and minute markers = = =
WWV transmits audio " ticks " once per second , to allow for accurate manual clock synchronization . These ticks are always transmitted , even during voice announcements and silent periods . Each tick begins on the second , lasts 5 ms and consists of 5 cycles of a 1000 Hz sine wave . To make the tick stand out more , all other signals are suppressed for 40 ms , from 10 ms before the second until 30 ms after ( 25 ms after the tick ) . As an exception , no tick ( and no silent interval ) is transmitted at 29 or 59 seconds past the minute . In the event of a leap second , no tick is transmitted during second 60 of the minute , either .
On the minute , the tick is extended to a 0 @.@ 8 second long beep , followed by 0 @.@ 2 s of silence . On the hour , this minute pulse is transmitted at 1500 Hz rather than 1000 . The beginning of the tone corresponds to the start of the minute .
Between seconds one and sixteen inclusive past the minute , the current difference between UTC and UT1 is transmitted by doubling some of the once @-@ per @-@ second ticks , transmitting a second tick 100 ms after the first . ( The second tick preempts other transmissions , but does not get a silent zone . ) The absolute value of this difference , in tenths of a second , is determined by the number of doubled ticks . The sign is determined by the position : If the doubled ticks begin at second one , UT1 is ahead of UTC ; if they begin at second nine , UT1 is behind UTC .
WWVH transmits similar 5 ms ticks , but they are sent as 6 cycles of 1200 Hz . The minute beep is also 1200 Hz , except on the hour when it is 1500 Hz .
The ticks and minute tones are transmitted at 100 % modulation ( 0 dBFS ) .
= = = Voice time announcements = = =
Voice announcements of time of day are made at the end of every minute , giving the time of the following minute beep . The format for the voice announcement is , " At the tone , X hours , Y minute ( s ) , Coordinated Universal Time . " The announcement is in a male voice and begins 7 @.@ 5 seconds before the minute tone .
WWVH makes an identical time announcement , starting 15 seconds before the minute tone , in a female voice .
When voice announcements were first instituted , they were phrased as follows : " National Bureau of Standards , WWV ; when the tone returns , [ time ] Eastern Standard Time . " After the 1967 switch to UTC , the announcement changed to " National Bureau of Standards , WWV , Fort Collins , Colorado ; next tone begins at X hours , Y minute ( s ) , Greenwich Mean Time . " However , this format would be short @-@ lived . The announcement was changed again to the current format in 1971 .
Voice time announcements are sent at 75 % modulation , i.e. the carrier varies between 25 % and 175 % of nominal power .
= = = Standard frequencies = = =
WWV and WWVH transmit 44 seconds of audio tone in most minutes . It begins after the 1 @-@ second minute mark and continues until the beginning of the WWVH time announcement 45 seconds after the minute .
Even minutes ( except for minute 2 ) transmit 500 Hz , while 600 Hz is heard during odd minutes . The tone is interrupted for 40 ms each second by the second ticks . WWVH is similar , but exchanges the two tones : 600 Hz during even minutes and 500 Hz during odd .
WWV also transmits a 440 Hz tone , a pitch commonly used in music ( A440 , the note A above middle C ) during minute : 02 of each hour , except for the first hour of the UTC day . Since the 440 Hz tone is only transmitted once per hour , many chart recorders may use this tone to mark off each hour of the day , and likewise , the omission of the 440 Hz tone once per day can be used to mark off each twenty @-@ four @-@ hour period . WWVH transmits the same tone during minute : 01 of each hour .
No tone is transmitted during voice announcements from either WWV or WWVH ; the latter causes WWV to transmit no tone during minutes : 43 – : 51 ( inclusive ) and minutes : 29 and : 59 of each hour . Likewise , WWVH transmits no tone during minutes : 00 , : 30 , : 08 – : 10 and : 14 – : 19 .
Audio tones and other voice announcements are sent at 50 % modulation .
= = = Other voice announcements = = =
WWV transmits the following 44 @-@ second voice announcements ( in lieu of the standard frequency tones ) on an hourly schedule :
A station identification at : 00 and : 30 past each hour ;
marine storm warnings , provided by the National Weather Service , for the Atlantic Ocean at : 08 and : 09 minutes past , and for the Pacific Ocean at : 10 past ;
at : 14 and : 15 past , GPS satellite health reports from the Coast Guard Navigation Center ;
at : 18 past , a special " geophysical alert " report from NOAA is transmitted , containing information on solar activity and shortwave radio propagation conditions . These particular alerts were to be discontinued on September 6 , 2011 . However , as of June 17 , 2011 , WWV is announcing at : 18 past that the decision has been retracted and that the geophysical alert reports " will continue for the foreseeable future " .
Additional time slots are normally transmitted as a standard frequency tone , but can be preempted by voice messages if necessary :
At : 04 and : 16 past the hour , NIST broadcasts any announcements regarding a manual change in the operation of WWV and WWVH , such as leap second announcements . These minutes are marked in the broadcast schedule as " NIST Reserved " . When not used , a 500 Hz tone is broadcast .
Minute 11 is used for additional storm warnings if necessary . If not , a 600 Hz tone is transmitted .
WWVH transmits the same information on a different schedule . WWV and WWVH 's voice announcements are timed to avoid crosstalk ; WWV airs dead air when WWVH airs voice announcements , and vice versa . WWVH 's storm warnings cover the area around the Hawaiian islands and the Far East rather than North America .
= = = = Digital time code = = = =
Time of day is also continuously transmitted using a digital time code , interpretable by radio @-@ controlled clocks . The time code uses a 100 Hz subcarrier of the main signal . That is , it is an additional low @-@ level 100 Hz tone added to the other AM audio signals .
This code is similar to , and has the same framework as , the IRIG H time code and the time code that WWVB transmits , except the individual fields of the code are rearranged and are transmitted with the least significant bit sent first . Like the IRIG timecode , the time transmitted is the time of the start of the minute . Also like the IRIG timecode , numeric data ( minute , hour , day of year , and last two digits of year ) are sent in binary @-@ coded decimal ( BCD ) format rather than as simple binary integers : Each decimal digit is sent as two , three , or four bits ( depending on its possible range of values ) .
= = = = = Bit encoding = = = = =
The 100 Hz subcarrier is transmitted at − 15 dBFS ( 18 % modulation ) beginning at 30 ms from the start of the second ( the first 30 ms are reserved for the seconds tick ) , and then reduced by 15 dB ( to − 30 dBFS , 3 % modulation ) at one of three times within the second . The duration of the high amplitude 100 Hz subcarrier encodes a data bit of 0 , a data bit of 1 , or a " marker " , as follows :
If the subcarrier is reduced 800 ms past the second , this indicates a " marker . "
If the subcarrier is reduced 500 ms past the second , this indicates a data bit with value one .
If the subcarrier is reduced 200 ms past the second , this indicates a data bit with value zero .
A single bit or marker is sent in this way in every second of each minute except the first ( second : 00 ) . The first second of each minute is reserved for the minute marker , previously described .
In the diagram above , the red and yellow bars indicate the presence of the 100 Hz subcarrier , with yellow representing the higher strength subcarrier ( − 15 dB referenced to 100 % modulation ) and red the lower strength subcarrier ( − 30 dB referenced to 100 % modulation ) . The widest yellow bars represent the markers , the narrowest represent data bits with value 0 , and those of intermediate width represent data bits with value 1 .
= = = = = Interpretation = = = = =
It takes one minute to transmit a complete time code . Most of the bits encode UTC time , day of year , year of century , and UT1 correction up to ± 0 @.@ 7 s .
Like the WWVB time code , only the tens and units digits of the year are transmitted ; unlike the WWVB time code , there is no direct indication for leap year . Thus , receivers assuming that year 00 is a leap year ( correct for year 2000 ) will be incorrect in the year 2100 . On the other hand , receivers that assume year 00 is not a leap year will be correct for 2001 through 2399 .
The table below shows the interpretation of each bit , with the " Ex " column being the values from the example above .
The example shown encodes day 86 ( March 27 ) of 2009 , at 21 : 30 : 00 UTC . DUT1 is + 0 @.@ 3 , so UT1 is 21 : 30 : 00 @.@ 3 . Daylight Saving Time was not in effect at the previous 00 : 00 UTC ( DST1 = 0 ) , and will not be in effect at the next 00 : 00 UTC ( DST2 = 0 ) . There is no leap second scheduled ( LSW = 0 ) . The day of year normally runs from 1 ( January 1 ) through 365 ( December 31 ) , but in leap years , December 31 would be day 366 , and day 86 would be March 26 instead of March 27 .
= = = = = Daylight saving time and leap seconds = = = = =
The time code contains three bits announcing daylight saving time ( DST ) changes and imminent leap seconds .
Bit : 03 is set near the beginning of the month which is scheduled to end in a leap second . It is cleared when the leap second occurs .
Bit : 55 ( DST2 ) is set at UTC midnight just before DST comes into effect . It is cleared at UTC midnight just before standard time resumes .
Bit : 02 ( DST1 ) is set at UTC midnight just after DST comes into effect , and cleared at UTC midnight just after standard time resumes .
If the DST1 and DST2 bits differ , DST is changing during the current UTC day , at the next 02 : 00 local time . Before the next 02 : 00 local time after that , the bits will be the same . Each change in the DST bits happens at 00 : 00 UTC and so will first be received in the mainland United States between 16 : 00 ( PST ) and 20 : 00 ( EDT ) , depending on local time zone and on whether DST is about to begin or end . A receiver in the Eastern time zone ( UTC − 5 ) must therefore correctly receive the " DST is changing " indication within the seven hours before DST begins , and six hours before DST ends , if it is to change the local time display at the correct time . Receivers in the Central , Mountain , and Pacific time zones have one , two , and three more hours of advance notice , respectively .
During a leap second , a binary zero is transmitted in the time code ; in this case , the minute will not be preceded by a marker .
= = = Levels of modulation = = =
The once @-@ per @-@ second " ticks " and minute and hour tones are modulated onto the carrier signal at 100 percent , or 0 dBc . The time code and audio tones are modulated at 50 percent , or approximately − 3 dBc , and the maximum modulation level for the voice recordings is 75 percent , or approximately − 1 @.@ 25 dBc .
= = Transmission system = =
WWV broadcasts its signal on five transmitters , one per frequency . The transmitters for 2 @.@ 5 MHz and 20 MHz put out an ERP of 2 @.@ 5 kW , while those for the other three frequencies use 10 kW of ERP . The experimental 25 MHz signal uses a sixth transmitter , with 2 @.@ 5 kW of radiated power .
Each transmitter is connected to a dedicated antenna , which has a height corresponding to approximately one @-@ half of its signal 's wavelength , and the signal radiation patterns from each antenna are omnidirectional . The top half of each antenna tower contains a quarter @-@ wavelength radiating element , and the bottom half uses nine guy wires , connected to the midpoint of the tower and sloped at one @-@ to @-@ one from the ground — with a length of <formula> — as additional radiating elements .
= = Half @-@ hourly station identification announcement = =
WWV identifies itself twice each hour , at 0 and 30 minutes past the hour . The text of the identification is as follows :
WWV accepts reception reports sent to the address mentioned in the station ID , and responds with QSL cards .
= = Telephone service = =
WWV 's time signal can also be accessed by telephone by calling + 1 ( 303 ) 499 @-@ 7111 ( Boulder , Colorado ) . An equivalent time service operated by the U.S. Naval Observatory can be accessed by calling + 1 ( 202 ) 762 @-@ 1401 ( Washington , D.C. ) . Telephone calls are limited to two minutes in length , and the signal is delayed by an average of 30 milliseconds .
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= Ba Cụt =
Lê Quang Vinh ( 1923 – 13 July 1956 ) , popularly known as Ba Cụt ( " Cụt " in Vietnamese is " severed " which refers to the finger he had partially severed and ' Ba ' , the number three in Vietnamese , refers to his being the family 's second born child ) was a military commander of the Hòa Hảo religious sect , which operated from the Mekong Delta and controlled various parts of southern Vietnam during the 1940s and early 1950s .
Ba Cụt and his forces fought the Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) , the Việt Minh , and the Cao Đài religious movement from 1943 until his capture in 1956 . Known for his idiosyncrasies , he was regarded as an erratic and cruel leader who fought with little ideological purpose . His sobriquet came from the self @-@ amputation of his left index finger ( although it was erroneously reported that it was his middle or " third cut finger " ) . He later swore not to cut his hair until the communist Việt Minh were defeated . Ba Cụt frequently made alliances with various Vietnamese factions and the French . He invariably accepted the material support offered in return for his cooperation , and then broke the agreement — nevertheless , the French made deals with him on five occasions . The French position was weak because their military forces had been depleted by World War II , and they had great difficulty in re @-@ establishing control over French Indochina , which had been left with a power vacuum after the defeat of Japan .
In mid @-@ 1955 , the tide turned against the various sects , as Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm of the State of Vietnam and his VNA began to consolidate their grip on the south . Ba Cụt and his allies were driven into the jungle , and their position was threatened by government offensives . After almost a year of fighting , Ba Cụt was captured . He was sentenced to death and publicly beheaded in Cần Thơ .
= = Early life and background = =
Ba Cụt was born circa 1923 in Long Xuyên , a regional town in the Mekong Delta , in the far south of Vietnam . He was orphaned at an early age and adopted by a local peasant family . Ba Cụt was illiterate and was known from childhood as a temperamental and fiery person . The family 's rice paddies were confiscated by a prominent landlord , the father of Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ . Ba Cụt 's bitter personal experience imbued him with a permanent and fanatical hatred towards landowners . Thơ rose to become a leading politician in the 1950s and played a key role in Ba Cụt 's eventual capture and execution . An aura of mystery surrounded Ba Cụt during his life , and foreign journalists incorrectly reported that he had severed his finger as part of a vow to defeat the French . As Ba Cụt became more fanatical in his religious beliefs and spent increasing time with local religious men , Ba Cụt 's father demanded that he work more in the family 's rice fields . A defiant Ba Cụt severed his index finger , which was necessary for work in the rice paddies .
Vietnam was a tumultuous place during Ba Cụt 's youth , particularly in the Mekong Delta . In 1939 , Huỳnh Phú Sổ founded the Hòa Hảo religious movement , and within a year had gained more than 100 @,@ 000 followers . He drew adherents for two reasons : the prophecies he made about the outbreak of World War II and the conquest of South @-@ East Asia by Japan , which proved to be correct ; and his work as a mystical healer — his patients claimed to have been miraculously cured from all manner of serious illnesses after seeing him , when Western medicine had failed . Sổ 's cult @-@ like appeal greatly alarmed the French colonial authorities . During World War II , Imperial Japan invaded and seized control of Vietnam from France ; its defeat and withdrawal at the end of the war in 1945 left a power vacuum in the country .
The Hòa Hảo formed their own army and administration during the war , and started a de facto state in their Mekong Delta stronghold . They came into conflict with the Cao Đài , another new religious movement , which also boasted a private army and controlled a nearby region of southern Vietnam around Tây Ninh . Meanwhile , in Saigon , the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate ruled much of the city through its gangster militia . These three southern forces vied for control of southern Vietnam with the main protagonists : the French , who were attempting to re @-@ establish colonial control across the entire nation ; and the communist @-@ dominated Việt Minh , who sought Vietnamese independence .
At the time , the many groups vying for power — including their respective factions — engaged in alliances of convenience that were frequently broken . Historian David Elliott wrote : " [ T ] he most important eventual cause of the French decline was the inherently unstable nature of the political alliances they had devised ... [ T ] he history of the French relations with the Hoa Hao sect is a telling illustration of the pitfalls of short @-@ term political deals between forces whose long @-@ term interests conflict . "
The Hòa Hảo initially engaged in large @-@ scale clashes with the Việt Minh in 1945 , but by mid @-@ 1946 the two groups had agreed to stop fighting each other and fight the French instead . However , in June 1946 , Sổ became estranged from his military leaders and started the Dân Xã ( Social Democratic Party ) . Because of his charisma , the Việt Minh saw Sổ as a threat and assassinated him , leaving the Hòa Hảo leaderless and causing Sổ 's military leaders to go their separate ways . The split caused an increase in violence as the various Hòa Hảo factions engaged in conflicts among themselves .
= = Career = =
Ba Cụt joined the Hòa Hảo militia when it was formed in 1943 – 44 , and became a commander within a year . He was feared by his enemies , and was described as " a sort of lean Rasputin " who claimed to be immortal . According to historian and writer Bernard Fall , " The hapless farmers who were under the rule of the maniacal Ba Cut fared worse [ than those under other military leaders ] , for the latter [ Ba Cụt ] was given to fits of incredible cruelty and had no sense of public duty . " American journalist Joseph Alsop described Ba Cụt as " war @-@ drunk " . Ba Cụt was famous for inventing a torture contraption that drilled a steel nail through the victim 's ear , a device he used to extort villagers and wealthy landlords to fund his forces . He was said to have " arranged temporary marriages between his troops and village girls " . He raised a large amount of funds for the Hòa Hảo and himself personally by charging traders and landlords high prices to stop pirates in the local area . The severed heads of the pirates were subsequently impaled on stakes and put on public display .
In 1947 , he led his own faction of the sect after its various military leaders pursued their own policies towards the French and Hồ Chí Minh 's Việt Minh in the wake of Sổ 's death . At the time , France was in a ruinous financial state following World War II and was experiencing great difficulty in its attempts to re @-@ establish control over its colonies . Ba Cụt had only 1 @,@ 000 men in five battalions at the time , fewer than 5 % of Hòa Hảo forces , whereas Trần Văn Soái had 15 @,@ 000 men . The French tried to maintain their hold with a divide and conquer strategy towards the Hòa Hảo . They coaxed Soái into joining with them and recognised him as the leader of the Hòa Hảo . In 1948 , Ba Cụt rallied to the French and Soái , but broke away again soon after , relocating to Đồng Tháp Province and resuming his military activities against the French .
In 1950 , Ba Cụt was involved in a battle with another Hòa Hảo leader , Nguyễn Giác Ngộ . He was defeated and driven from the district of Chợ Mới in February , provoking Soái to attack Ngo . Ba Cụt then moved to Thốt Nốt and began attacking the civilians and the French forces there . The French saw the disagreements as an opportunity to divide the Hòa Hảo and gain an anti @-@ Việt Minh ally , and offered material aid , which Ba Cụt accepted . Ba Cụt repeatedly made treaties with the French colonial forces to fight the Việt Minh in return for arms and money , but he broke his end of the bargain and sometimes fought the Cao Đài instead of the communists . He made five such deals with the French , but he abandoned his military responsibilities each time . It was said that Ba Cụt sometimes broke away with the encouragement of Soái , who was still allied to the French , but nevertheless is believed to have given Ba Cụt weapons to fight the French . The French continued to furnish him with supplies despite his disloyalty and unreliability because they lacked the personnel to patrol all of Vietnam but had spare equipment . Some historians have claimed Ba Cụt 's anti @-@ French activities were not taken seriously as he was able to pass through French checkpoints without incident . There are also reports that he was accompanied by French intelligence agents during periods when he was nominally opposed to the French . The other Hòa Hảo commanders generally had the same general outlook as Ba Cụt ; they were stridently opposed to the Việt Minh due to Sổ 's assassination , and sometimes fought alongside and received supplies from the French , but at times they lapsed into apathy and refused to attack .
The most notable instance of Ba Cụt 's abandoning the fight against the Việt Minh came in mid @-@ 1953 . At that time , his forces had been helping to defend the regional Mekong Delta town of Mỹ Tho , but the French decided to transfer more of the military power to their more mainstream allies , the Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) . As the French tried to undermine his position , tensions with Ba Cụt increased . On 25 June , the Hòa Hảo leader ordered his men to evacuate their French @-@ supplied bases ; they took their weapons with them and razed the camps . Ba Cụt then withdrew his forces from a string of military posts in the Plain of Reeds and retreated to Châu Đốc in the extreme south of the country . As a result , the French @-@ aligned presence in the Mekong Delta was severely dented and the Việt Minh made substantial gains in the area . Eventually , the French defeat at Điện Biên Phủ in May 1954 signaled the end of French Indochina .
When the Geneva Conference in July 1954 ended the First Indochina War , it handed North Vietnam to Hồ Chí Minh 's Việt Minh , and the south to the State of Vietnam . To reunify the country , national elections were scheduled for 1956 , following which the French would withdraw from Indochina . The partition of Vietnam angered Ba Cụt and he vowed not to cut his hair until the nation was reunified . Having fought against the Việt Minh since 1947 , Ba Cụt 's principal criticism of Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm 's State of Vietnam government stemmed from his belief that Diệm had been too passive in rejecting the partition , and that half of the country should not have been yielded to the communists .
In mid @-@ 1954 , General Nguyễn Văn Hinh , the head of the State of Vietnam 's VNA , announced that he did not respect the leadership of Prime Minister Diệm , and vowed to overthrow him . The coup never materialised and Hinh was forced into exile , but not before appointing Ba Cụt to the rank of colonel in the VNA in an attempt to undermine Diệm , as the Hòa Hảo warlord was openly contemptuous of the prime minister . In August , Ba Cụt and his 3 @,@ 000 men broke from the VNA and left their Thốt Nốt base for the jungle , and fought against those who had briefly been their comrades ; this put him at odds with most Hòa Hảo leaders , who accepted government payments to integrate their forces into the VNA . Operation Ecaille , the initial military offensive by the VNA against Ba Cụt was a failure , possibly because the details of the planned attack on his forces were leaked to him by Soái , a Hòa Hảo member of the National Defence Committee .
During the transition period between the signing of the Geneva Accords and the planned reunification elections , South Vietnam remained in chaos as the VNA tried to subdue the remaining autonomous factions of the Hòa Hảo , Cao Đài , and Bình Xuyên militias . In early 1955 , during a battle with the Cao Đài forces of Trình Minh Thế , after a dispute over control of the That Son region , Ba Cụt was wounded in a disputed incident . Thế claimed to have tried initiating peace talks with Ba Cụt , but received no reply , so he decided to try to capture his rival . He sent some of his militant disciples to infiltrate Ba Cụt 's forces and try to capture the Hòa Hảo leader . When they located Ba Cụt and surrounded him , he refused to surrender but instead tried to shoot his way out . Ba Cụt was severely wounded by a bullet that penetrated his chest . It seemed that he would die , but a French Air Force helicopter flew in and airlifted him to a colonial hospital . He recovered but in the interim the fighting stopped . Another account claims the two military leaders had been on good terms and exchanging diplomatic missions , but that the skirmish was caused by one of Ba Cụt 's aides addressing the envoy in an abrasive and rude manner , and that the injuries were minor . Yet another account holds that the reaction by Thế 's envoy was premeditated and that the claim the firing was in response to rudeness was merely a cover for an assassination attempt . According to this theory , Thế , whose units were then being integrated into Diệm 's VNA , had given orders to target Ba Cụt . This was allegedly done on the orders of CIA agent Edward Lansdale , who was trying to help secure Diệm in power at the time . Lansdale has been accused of failing in an earlier attempt to bribe Ba Cụt to cease his activities .
By this time , with France preparing to withdraw from Indochina , senior French officers had begun to undermine Diệm 's leadership and his attempts to stabilise South Vietnam . The VNA later implicated the French in the organisation of weapons air drops to Ba Cụt , prompting a protest from Diệm 's government . Diệm complained to a French general , alleging that Ba Cụt 's men were using French equipment that was of higher quality than that given to the VNA . The Hòa Hảo accused Diệm of treachery in his negotiations with various groups . They charged the prime minister with integrating Thế 's forces into the VNA in return for them being allowed to attack Ba Cụt with the aid of the VNA , and that this part of the deal had been kept secret . They warned that other Hòa Hảo leaders who had stopped fighting could join Ba Cụt , and appealed to Diệm 's U.S. sponsors . In response , Ba Cụt ambushed a VNA unit in Long Mỹ , killing three officers and injuring some thirty men .
= = Last stand against Diệm = =
In 1955 , Diệm tried to integrate the remaining Hòa Hảo armies into the VNA . Ba Cụt was one of four Hòa Hảo military leaders who refused the government offer on 23 April , and continued to operate autonomously . At one stage , the Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo and Bình Xuyên formed an alliance called the United Front , in an attempt to pressure Diệm into handing over power ; Ba Cụt was named senior military commander . However , this had little meaning as the various units were still autonomous of each other , and the United Front was more a showpiece than a means of facilitating coordinated action , and did not in any way strengthen any military threat to Diệm . The leaders were suspicious of one another and often sent subordinates to meetings . Initially , American and French representatives in Vietnam hoped that Diệm would take up a ceremonial role and allow the sect leaders — including Ba Cụt — to hold government positions . However , Diệm refused to share power and launched a sudden offensive against Ba Cụt in Thốt Nốt on 12 March , shelling the area heavily . The battle was inconclusive and both sides blamed the other for causing instability and disrupting the situation . Diệm then attacked the Bình Xuyên 's Saigon headquarters in late April , quickly crushing them .
During the fighting , the Hòa Hảo attempted to help the Bình Xuyên by attacking towns and government forces in their Mekong Delta heartland . Ba Cụt 's men , who had also been angered by the recent arrest of some colleagues , blockaded the Mekong and Bassac rivers and laid siege to various towns , including Sa Đéc , Long Xuyên and Châu Đốc , stifling the regional economy . The Hòa Hảo shut down several important regional roads and stopped the flow of agricultural produce from the nation 's most fertile region into the capital , causing food prices to rise by 50 % , as meat and vegetables became scarce . Ba Cụt then attacked a battalion of VNA troops south of Sa Đéc . Soon after , they retreated to a Hòa Hảo citadel on the banks of the Bassac . After reinforcing their base , the Hòa Hảo proceeded to fire mortars across the water into the city of Cần Thơ , which stood on the opposite side of the river . During this period , the United Front publicly accused Diệm of trying to bribe Ba Cụt with 100 million piasters .
With the Bình Xuyên vanquished , Diệm turned his attention to conquering the Hòa Hảo . As a result , a battle between government troops led by General Dương Văn Minh and Ba Cụt 's men commenced in Cần Thơ on 5 June . Five Hòa Hảo battalions surrendered immediately ; Ba Cụt and three remaining leaders had fled to the Cambodian border by the end of the month . The soldiers of the three other leaders eventually surrendered , but Ba Cụt 's men continued to the end , claiming loyalty to the Emperor Bảo Đại . Diệm responded by replacing the officers of Bảo Đại 's personal regiments with his own men and used the royal units to attack Ba Cụt 's rebels near Hà Tiên and Rạch Giá , outnumbering the Hòa Hảo by at least a factor of five . Knowing that they could not defeat the government in open conventional warfare , Ba Cụt 's forces destroyed their own bases so that the VNA could not use their abandoned resources , and retreated into the jungle . Ba Cụt 's 3 @,@ 000 men spent the rest of 1955 evading 20 @,@ 000 VNA troops who had been deployed to quell them . A bounty of one million piasters was put on the head of Ba Cụt , who scattered trails of money in the jungle , hoping to distract his pursuers , but to no avail . The communists claimed in a history written decades later that Ba Cụt had tried to forge an alliance with them , but that talks broke down a few months later .
Despite his weak military situation , Ba Cụt sought to disrupt the staging of a fraudulent referendum that Diệm had scheduled to depose Bảo Đại as head of state . Ba Cụt distributed a pamphlet condemning Diệm as an American puppet , asserting that the prime minister was going to " Catholicize " the country ; the referendum was partly funded by the U.S. government and various Roman Catholic organisations . Diệm had strong support from American Roman Catholic politicians and the powerful Cardinal Francis Spellman and his elder brother , Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục , was Archbishop of Huế . Ba Cụt presciently noted that the referendum was a means " for Diem to gather the people from all towns and force them to demonstrate one goal : to depose Bao Dai and proclaim the puppet Diem as the chief @-@ of @-@ state of Vietnam . " On the day of the poll , Ba Cụt 's men prevented voting in the border regions which they controlled , and ventured out of the jungles to attack polling stations in Cần Thơ . Despite that disruption , Diệm was fraudulently credited with more than 90 % of support in Hòa Hảo @-@ controlled territory , and a near unanimous turnout was recorded in the area . These results were replicated across the nation , and Diệm deposed Bảo Đại .
Eventually , Ba Cụt was surrounded , and sought to make a peace deal with the Diệm government to avoid being taken prisoner . Ba Cụt sent a message to Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ , the public official who oversaw the civilian side of the campaign against the Hòa Hảo , asking for negotiations so that his men could be integrated into mainstream society and the nation 's armed forces . Thơ agreed to meet Ba Cụt alone in the jungle , and despite fears that the meeting was a Hòa Hảo trap , he was not ambushed . However , Ba Cụt began asking for additional concessions and the meeting ended in a stalemate . According to historian Hue @-@ Tam Ho Tai , Ba Cụt 's lifelong antipathy towards Thơ 's family influenced his behaviour during his last stand . Ba Cụt was arrested by a patrol on 13 April 1956 , and his remaining forces were defeated in battle .
= = Trial and execution = =
Diệm 's government put Ba Cụt on trial . During the proceedings , Ba Cụt theatrically removed his shirt so that the public gallery could see how many scars he had suffered while fighting the communists . This , according to him , demonstrated his devotion to Vietnamese nationalism . He challenged any other man to show as many scars . However , the Diệmist judge was unimpressed . Ba Cụt was found guilty of multiple murders and sentenced to death . Diệm 's adviser , Colonel Edward Lansdale from the CIA , was one of many who protested against the decision . Lansdale felt that the execution would tarnish Diệm — who had proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam ( commonly known as South Vietnam ) and declared himself President — and antagonise Ba Cụt 's followers . Ngô Đình Nhu , Diệm 's younger brother and chief adviser , denied a reprieve as the army , particularly Minh , opposed any clemency . Some sections of the southern public , however , were sympathetic to Ba Cụt .
Ba Cụt was publicly guillotined on 13 July 1956 , in Cần Thơ . His body was later diced into small pieces , which were then buried separately . Some followers , led by a deputy named Bảy Đớm , retreated to a small area beside the Cambodian border , where they vowed not to rest until Ba Cụt was avenged . Many of his followers later joined the Việt Cộng — the movement that succeeded the Việt Minh their leader had fought — and took up arms against Diệm .
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= Shore Line East =
Shore Line East ( SLE ) is a commuter rail service which operates along the Northeast Corridor through southern Connecticut , US . A fully owned subsidiary of the Connecticut Department of Transportation ( ConnDOT ) , SLE provides service seven days a week along the Northeast Corridor from New London west to New Haven , with limited through service to Bridgeport and Stamford . Connecting service west of New Haven to New York City is available via Metro @-@ North Railroad 's New Haven Line .
The service was introduced in 1990 as a temporary measure to reduce congestion during construction work on I @-@ 95 . However , it proved more popular than expected , and service was continued after construction ended despite criticisms that the line was too expensive to operate . The service has been continually upgraded since its inception with rebuilt stations and new rolling stock as well as extensions to New London in 1996 and to Stamford in 2001 . Around 1 @,@ 900 to 2 @,@ 100 riders use the service every weekday depending on the season .
= = Current service = =
Most weekday SLE trains run local westbound from New London or Old Saybrook to New Haven in the morning , with some nonstop eastbound service . This traffic pattern is reversed in the afternoon and evening rush . A handful operate through New Haven as far as Stamford .
Most weekend SLE trains also run local westbound in the morning , then express in the afternoon , stopping only at Guilford and Westbrook between Old Saybrook and State Street . Eastbound service is reversed . This is because Branford , Madison , and Clinton only have platforms on the eastbound track , and thus switching is needed to platform a westbound train .
Around half of SLE trains operate to and from New London Station . New London SLE multi @-@ ride pass holders are also allowed to board selected Northeast Regional trains , or Acela Express train # 2151 . There are plans to increase the service to New London , which is limited by U.S. Coast Guard requirements regarding the bridge crossing the Connecticut River . After years with just one or two trains to New London , additional New London round trips were added in 2010 and 2013 , and weekend service began in June 2013 .
All trains that do not operate west of New Haven make a connection to a Metro @-@ North Railroad train at New Haven , for service to and from points in Connecticut , Westchester County , New York , and New York City .
Although SLE service is funded by ConnDOT , it is operated under contract by Amtrak . Amtrak owns and controls the Northeast Corridor east of New Haven . West of New Haven , the New Haven Line is owned by ConnDOT and trains are dispatched by Metro @-@ North .
During the OpSail and SailFest tall ship festivals at New London , extra Friday and weekend Shore Line East service is operated from New Haven to New London . During OpSail 2000 , through service operated from New Haven to Mystic – the only time Shore Line East service has run east of New London .
= = Service history = =
= = = Previous service = = =
The section of the Northeast Corridor that Shore Line East operates on was once the New York @-@ Boston mainline of the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad . The section from New Haven to New London was built as the New Haven & New London Railroad . It was charted in 1848 , began construction in 1850 , and opened for service in July 1852 . The line was owned by the New York , Providence and Boston Railroad ( the " Stonington Road " ) from 1858 to 1862 , and by the Shore Line Railway from 1864 until it was acquired by the New York , New Haven , and Hartford Railroad ( the " New Haven " ) in 1870 . Crossing the Connecticut River required a ferry transfer until a drawbridge was built in 1870 .
The line was referred to by the New Haven Railroad as the Shore Line , to distinguish it from the railroad 's Main Line from New Haven to Springfield , Massachusetts . In recognition of the large role played by the New Haven in the history and heritage of the state of Connecticut , ConnDOT paints SLE 's diesel @-@ powered locomotives in the New Haven 's orange and black style . New Haven Railroad colors and emblems have also been placed at several stations , particularly New Haven Union Station .
The New Haven Railroad operated local service on the Shore Line up until its merger with Penn Central on January 1 , 1969 , when most commuter service east of New Haven was abandoned . Intercity service continued , but generally only stopped at New Haven , Old Saybrook , and New London . Penn Central continued to operate the Clamdigger , a single daily New London @-@ New Haven round trip with local stops , as well as a New London @-@ Boston round trip . Amtrak took over the Clamdigger along with most intercity passenger service , in May 1971 . In January 1972 , Amtrak discontinued the Clamdigger and Penn Central cut the New London @-@ Boston trip .
In 1976 and 1977 , Amtrak operated the Clamdigger as a Providence @-@ New Haven round trip with limited local stops ; for three months in 1978 , it was revived with additional commuter @-@ based stops . It was replaced in April 1978 by the Beacon Hill , which stopped at New Haven , Branford , Madison , Old Saybrook , Niantic , New London , and Mystic en route to Providence and Boston . The Beacon Hill ( which served the Providence and Boston commuting markets rather than New Haven ) was discontinued in 1981 due to funding cuts , ending commuter rail service in Connecticut east of New Haven .
= = = Initial service = = =
In 1981 and 1986 , legislation was proposed to restore commuter service between New Haven and New London , as well as between New Haven and Hartford . A 1986 ConnDOT study analyzed congestion on Interstate 95 , which runs parallel to the line . The study showed that Old Saybrook was a better terminus for initial service , with an expected ridership of 420 riders in each direction daily .
Based on the study , Governor O 'Neill ordered ConnDOT in October 1986 to initiate rail service on the corridor . It was established as a temporary service to newly reopened local stations between Union Station in New Haven and Old Saybrook , to alleviate traffic congestion that arose from scheduled construction work on I @-@ 95 . O 'Neill introduced a $ 50 million transportation program that included $ 900 @,@ 000 ( later reduced to $ 500 @,@ 000 ) for basic stations and $ 4 million to refurbish 12 Budd Rail Diesel Cars for rolling stock . The RDCs were found to be insufficient and two diesel trainsets were purchased from the defunct PATrain service in 1989 instead .
A second study in 1989 indicated higher potential ridership of 700 to 1350 daily riders . The state bought Amtrak 's New Haven maintenance facility in May 1989 and signed a service contract with Amtrak in November . ( Metro @-@ North Railroad was not considered for several reasons , largely because Amtrak already owned the rail line east of New Haven ) . Construction of 5 intermediate stations was completed in April 1990 .
Shore Line East service began on May 29 , 1990 , with four trains each direction during the morning and evening . The service carried the Clamdigger name during planning ; " Shore Line East " did not appear until shortly before service began . Shore Line East was threatened to be cut in 1991 by newly elected Governor Lowell Weicker , but it proved more popular than expected , and was effectively made permanent . A 1996 study found that Shore Line East captured 8 % of regional commuter trips and attracted a loyal ridership base .
In 1995 and 1997 , then Gov. John Rowland proposed to replace Shore Line East and the Waterbury Branch with bus service , citing a high subsidy of $ 18 @.@ 70 per rider per trip , in order to decrease the unpopular gas tax . Lawmakers from the region called the proposals political and defended the line 's ability to reduce congestion and pollution , while opponents of the line called it an example of government waste . The Shore Line East Rider 's Association and other groups lobbied to save both services each time , and after public hearings a small fare increase was enacted in late 1997 instead .
= = = Early expansions and criticisms = = =
In July 1995 , Governor Rowland signed a bill ordering various studies , including one that analyzed extending service to New London as had been originally planned . Before the study was completed , ConnDOT unilaterally decided to implement New London service , which the report commended . On February 1 , 1996 , two round trips per weekday were extended to New London . At that point , ridership was up 18 % over 1991 numbers .
In January 2001 , because of to changes in Amtrak rules , passengers were no longer allowed to cross tracks to access trains . New platforms were opened on the south side of the tracks at Branford and Westbrook at approximately the same locations .
In December 2001 , a single morning rush @-@ hour round trip branded SLExpress was extended to Stamford , with a stop at Bridgeport plus eastbound @-@ only stops at Stratford and Milford . An evening eastbound trip was also extended to Stamford with only the Bridgeport intermediate stop . This trip was intended to allow commuters to reach employment centers in Bridgeport and Stamford without having to make a transfer at New Haven . On June 24 , 2002 , additional Stamford trains were added , for a total of two westbound and three eastbound trains . When West Haven opened in August 2013 , it was added to these trips as well .
In 2003 , in order to add four additional Amtrak trips along the corridor , four of the then six round trips to New London were cut back to Old Saybrook . An agreement with the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection limits service over the Old Saybrook @-@ Old Lyme bridge in order to avoid inconveniencing recreational boaters . ConnDOT 's agreement with Amtrak allowed commuters with monthly passes to ride certain Amtrak trains instead . After criticism over the service cuts , in April 2008 ConnDOT began allowing commuters with multi @-@ ride passes to board the selected Amtrak trains as well .
= = = Improved and increased service = = =
When started in 1990 , Shore Line East was intended to be a temporary service . Except at Old Saybrook and New Haven , which were already served by Amtrak , the state constructed new stations – consisting of little more than bare wooden decks – for minimal cost . Since the service was started two months before the Americans with Disabilities Act was signed , the platforms were not built to be handicapped accessible . After a decade of service , with Shore Line East established as part of Connecticut 's transportation system , the state began to upgrade the service . The basic stations have been rebuilt with high @-@ level platforms to provide handicapped access and level boarding , parking lots have been expanded , and more trains have been added to the schedule .
A completely new station was also added to the line for traffic mitigation as part of the reconstruction of the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge . On June 7 , 2002 , State Street Station was opened in New Haven to provide better access to the downtown area than Union Station , which is half a mile away from the business district .
The first station to be rebuilt was Old Saybrook , the busy eastern terminus of the line . The new high @-@ level island platform and pedestrian bridge opened on November 1 , 2002 . Old Saybrook had previous had only a single side platform serving a relatively small number of Amtrak trains ; the rebuilt has two platforms serving three tracks , to allow Amtrak trains in both directions to stop or pass even while a SLE train is at the station .
Beginning on May 24 , 2004 , construction of new platforms began at Clinton , Guilford , and Branford . The rebuilt Clinton station opened on July 25 , 2005 , and the rebuilt Branford station opened on August 8 , 2005 ; both consist of a single high @-@ level platform on the south side of the tracks . The new Guilford station , which has platforms on both sides of the tracks ( connected by a pedestrian bridge ) to allow for greater operational flexibility , opened on November 28 , 2005 . Construction at Madison started on September 24 , 2007 , and finished with the opening of the rebuilt station platform on July 28 , 2008 .
On October 8 , 2007 , reverse @-@ peak and more midday service were introduced , which officials hailed as the beginning of Shore Line East as a true bidirectional system . Several existing express trains also began to stop at Guilford . Since at least 2006 , advocates had been calling for the establishment of weekend Shore Line East service . A pilot of weekend service was run from November 17 , 2007 , to December 30 , 2007 , with six " Shopper 's Special " round trips from Old Saybrook to New Haven . The trains were scheduled to connect with similar Metro @-@ North specials at New Haven . Year @-@ round weekend service began on July 4 , 2008 , with 9 daily Old Saybrook – New Haven round trips on weekends . No weekend service was run to New London , but weekday service was increased as cross @-@ honoring of multiple @-@ ride and monthly tickets was added on two Amtrak trains .
The major obstacle preventing full New London service is the bridge over the Connecticut River between Old Saybrook and Old Lyme . The drawbridge section is closed for a certain period of time to allow trains to pass , which prevents large boats from passing under . The Marine Trades Association opposes additional service , which would mandate more bridge closings . The 2003 agreement with Amtrak limited weekday traffic over the bridge to 2 SLE and 39 Amtrak trains until 2018 , although it was revised in 2010 and 2013 . Since 2003 , New London had been served by cross @-@ honored Amtrak trains plus one or two dedicated SLE roundtrips .
On February 16 , 2010 , an additional round trip was extended to New London . Three more were extended on May 10 , 2010 . However , advocates for full service to New London said that Governor Rell failed to deliver on promises to New London , with one newspaper columnist writing that " she seems incapable of standing up to the marine trades lobby " regarding the bridge openings .
In July 2012 , Governor Malloy announced that 5 weekend round trips would be extended to New London beginning in April 2013 . However , the extension was dependent on ongoing negotiations with the marine industry over mandated closings of the Old Saybrook – Old Lyme bridge . Two weekday midday trips were added in May 2013 , while weekend service began on June 1 , 2013 , after the application for additional bridge closings was approved by the state Department of Energy and Environmental Protection . By July , New London represented 26 % of weekend ridership . In December 2013 , the state announced that ridership was up 35 % for the year as a result of the increased service . From 2009 to 2014 , monthly New London ridership increased from less than 1 @,@ 000 monthly passengers to approximately 5 @,@ 000 , accounting for a significant fraction of ridership increases on Shore Line East during that period .
Four of the five intermediate stations between Old Saybrook and New Haven were rebuilt with accessible platforms between 2004 and 2008 , but rebuilding at Westbrook was delayed due to environmental and cost issues . No site was available until Westbrook and ConnDOT traded the new station site on Norris Avenue for a highway garage site off Route 145 . The controversial land swap was begun in 2004 but was not finalized until 2006 , and town operations were not moved to the Route 145 site until September 2011 . Site clearing began in November 2011 , and ground was broken for the $ 14 @.@ 4 million station in January 2012 . A new station with a larger 210 @-@ space lot and platforms on both tracks opened on March 25 , 2014 , with full bidirectional service to the station beginning on May 11 .
= = = Future = = =
In a 2007 report , ConnDOT outlined plans to turn SLE into a full @-@ service bidirectional regional rail line , with full @-@ day service and all trains extended to New London . This involves incremental improvements , similar to those that have already been put into place . One of the first priorities is to add a second platform at all stations , which is mandated by the 2003 agreement with Amtrak . New London , Old Saybrook , Guilford , Westbrook , and stops from New Haven Union Station west all have multiple platforms , while State Street has an island platform serving two tracks with plans for a second platform .
Branford is the first previously rebuilt station to be further renovated with a second platform . A $ 60 million bond in February 2011 included $ 16 @.@ 5 million for a second platform and pedestrian bridge at Branford , $ 7 @.@ 3 million for platform extensions at Guilford , and $ 11 million to add catenary wires to currently unwired sidings along the line . Construction on the new platform at Branford began in September 2013 , and the Guilford work is under way as well . As of September 2015 , the new platform and pedestrian bridge at Branford were officially scheduled to open on December 18 , 2015 , but have been delayed into 2016 as a result of the previous harsh winter and other issues . Bidding on a second platform and three @-@ level parking garage at Madison , planned since 2009 , was scheduled to begin in 2013 but did not occur . Per the agreement with Amtrak , a second platform is planned to be added to Clinton station . The project was originally planned to start in early 2012 , but has since been indefinitely delayed .
Expansion of the original parking facilities is also necessary to meet demand at many stations , since many started with small lots suitable for just a few dozen cars . The rebuilt stations at Branford , Guilford , Madison , Clinton , and Westbrook have larger lots than the 1990 stations , and a second lot with 272 spaces opened at Branford in June 2011 . A 585 @-@ space , three @-@ level parking garage is eventually planned for Madison station .
Although the route east of New Haven is electrified under Amtrak 's 60 Hz traction power system , Shore Line East currently operates entirely with diesel locomotives . Once the full order of M8 railcars are in service , and Amtrak tests and approves the M8s for usage east of New Haven , ConnDOT plans to use 24 to 32 cars for electric SLE service to reduce diesel emissions . The diesel trainsets will be moved to service on the Danbury or Waterbury branches , or to the planned Hartford Line from New Haven to Springfield .
In April 2012 , state officials released a report detailing possible sites for an infill station in East Lyme . Four sites were analyzed – two near downtown Niantic and two at Rocky Neck State Park . Niantic had previously been a stop on the Clamdigger . As part of a bonding proposal made by Governor Malloy , $ 750 @,@ 000 would be allocated for a new station at Niantic .
The possibility of extending service eastward has also been considered . Several special trains operated to Mystic during the 2000 OpSail festival , the only such service to date . In a 2001 report examining commuter rail for Rhode Island , RIDOT considered an extension of Shore Line East to Providence via Westerly ( effectively restoring the Clamdigger service ) . Ultimately , MBTA Commuter Rail service , which already ran to Providence as part of the Providence / Stoughton Line , was extended southward instead ( although only to Wickford Junction ) . However , both RIDOT and SLE have long @-@ term plans to extend their services to meet at Westerly . Extending SLE service would require negotiations with the US Coast Guard , the Marine Trades Association , and other stakeholders for increased use of the Thames River Bridge and the Mystic River bridge . As part of Governor Malloy 's thirty year transit plan , Shore Line East would be extended to Westerly at a cost of $ 200 million . On February 1 , 2016 , the Connecticut Public Transportation Commission issued a report recommending extension of Shore Line East rail service to Mystic and Westerly as soon as possible .
= = Rolling stock = =
In contrast to the electric multiple units used on Metro @-@ North 's New Haven Line , which are also purchased in part by the state of Connecticut , all SLE trains are diesel push @-@ pull trains .
SLE runs diesel service because Amtrak had not yet electrified the Northeast Corridor between New Haven and Boston at the time service began . The original SLE service operated with 2 F @-@ 7s and 10 Pullman @-@ Standard coaches purchased from Pittsburgh 's PATrain for $ 1 @.@ 7 million .
In 1991 , ConnDOT purchased 10 Bombardier Shoreliner III coaches , similar to ones already used on the Danbury Branch and Waterbury Branch , and leased three additional diesel locomotives : two EMD GP38s and one EMD GP9 . In 1994 Amtrak rebuilt 11 of ConnDOT 's surplus SPV @-@ 2000 diesel railcars into coaches , dubbed " Constitution Liners . " In 1996 , SLE took delivery of six refmanufactured GP40 @-@ 2H diesels to replace the entire motive power fleet . These were supplemented in 2005 with 8 GE P40DC Genesis diesels leased from Amtrak . ConnDOT purchased the P40DCs in 2008 . To augment capacity ConnDOT acquired 33 Mafersa coaches from the Virginia Railway Express in 2004 . These began entering service in 2006 , displacing the Shoreliners and Constitution Liners .
ConnDOT plans call for the Kawasaki M8 to replace most or all of the locomotives and coaches currently in service on Shore Line East in 2018 . ConnDOT has proposed to use up to 32 M8 's in SLE service as far as Old Saybrook ; the diesel equipment will then be used on the Hartford Line and for New London service . Limited direct service from Grand Central Terminal to Old Saybrook may be added once the M8s are in service .
ConnDOT acquired an additional four GE P40DC locomotives from New Jersey Transit in 2015 . Originally built for Amtrak , NJ Transit employed the locomotives on the short @-@ lived Atlantic City Express Service .
= = = Roster = = =
= = Station stops = =
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= National Football League Players Association =
The National Football League Players Association , or NFLPA , is the labor organization representing the professional American football players in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The NFLPA , which has headquarters in Washington , D.C. , is led by president Eric Winston and executive director DeMaurice Smith . Founded in 1956 , the NFLPA was established to provide players with formal representation to negotiate compensation and the terms of a collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) . The NFLPA is a member of the AFL – CIO , the largest federation of unions in the United States .
In the early years of the NFL , contractual negotiations took place between individual players and management ; team owners were reluctant to engage in collective bargaining . A series of strikes and lockouts have occurred throughout the union 's existence largely due to monetary and benefit disputes between the players and the owners . League rules that punished players for playing in rival football leagues resulted in litigation ; the success of such lawsuits impelled the NFL to negotiate some work rules and minimum payments with the NFLPA . However , the organization was not recognized by the NFL as the official bargaining agent for the players until 1968 , when a CBA was signed . The most recent CBA negotiations took place in 2011 .
In addition to conducting labor negotiations , the NFLPA represents and protects the rights of the players ; the organization 's actions include filing grievances against player discipline that it deems too severe . The union also ensures that the terms of the collective bargaining agreement are adhered to by the league and the teams . It negotiates and monitors retirement and insurance benefits and enhances and defends the image of players and their profession .
= = Early history = =
The establishment of the National Football League in 1920 featured early franchises haphazardly formed and often saddled with financial difficulties , poor player talent and attendance rates . As the league expanded through the years , players were provided with no formal representation and received few , if any , benefits . In 1943 , Roy Zimmerman 's refusal to play an exhibition game without compensation resulted in his trade from the Washington Redskins to the Philadelphia Eagles . With the formation of the competing All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) in 1946 , NFL owners instituted a rule which banned a player for five years from NFL @-@ associated employment if he left the league to join the AAFC .
Bill Radovich , an offensive lineman , was one player who " jumped " leagues ; he played for the Detroit Lions in 1945 and then joined the Los Angeles Dons of the AAFC after the team offered him a greater salary . Subsequently , Radovich was blacklisted by the NFL and was denied a tryout with the NFL @-@ affiliated San Francisco Seals baseball team of the Pacific Coast League . Unable to attain a job in either league , Radovich filed a lawsuit against the NFL in 1957 . In 1964 , Green Bay Packers Pro Bowl and All @-@ Pro center Jim Ringo approached head coach Vince Lombardi to negotiate a raise . Lombardi was angered by the presence of Ringo 's agent , and excused himself ; five minutes later he returned to inform the two that Ringo had been traded to the Philadelphia Eagles . The players grew tired of incidents such as these and complained to one another . One sore point was playing in training camp and preseason exhibition games without pay ; no contract payment was made until a player made a regular season roster .
The NFLPA began when two players from the Cleveland Browns , Abe Gibron and Dante Lavelli , approached a lawyer and former Notre Dame football player , Creighton Miller , to help form an association to advocate for the players . Miller was initially reluctant but accepted in 1956 . He contacted Don Shula ( a Baltimore Colts player at the time ) , John Gordy of the Detroit Lions , Frank Gifford and Sam Huff of the New York Giants , and Norm Van Brocklin of the Los Angeles Rams to aid in the development of the association . Representatives of 11 of the 12 teams in the league at the time joined the association ; the Chicago Bears were the sole dissenter ; by November 1956 a majority of the players signed cards allowing the NFLPA to represent them . The first meeting took place at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in November where players decided on demands to be submitted to league commissioner Bert Bell . The new association 's initial agenda included a league @-@ wide minimum salary , plus a per diem when teams were on the road , that uniforms and equipment be paid for and maintained at the clubs ' expense , and continued payment of salaries when players were injured . The NFLPA hoped to meet with Bell during the owners ' meeting in January 1957 to discuss the demands ; however , no meeting took place . The owners , for their part , were not enthused by the concept of a player 's union and this sentiment was reflected when Miller , who served as an assistant coach with the Cleveland Browns , was removed from the team photo at the request of Paul Brown . Gibron , Lavelli , and Miller were instrumental in the founding of the union as they had become chagrined by Paul Brown 's staunch view that " it was both just and necessary that management could cut , trade , bench , blackball and own in perpetuity anyone and everyone that it wanted " .
Miller continued to represent the NFLPA in their early days . Unable to win the owners ' attention by forming the union , the NFLPA threatened to bring an antitrust lawsuit against the league . The antitrust laws are meant to protect " free and fair competition in the marketplace " and prohibit practices that may give industries or businesses an unfair advantage over their competitors . That threat became much more credible when the United States Supreme Court ruled in Radovich v. National Football League , 352 U.S. 445 ( 1957 ) , that the NFL did not enjoy the same antitrust immunity that Major League Baseball did , meaning that players like Radovich had been wrongfully barred from finding new employment . Jarett Bell of USA Today noted in 2011 , the Radovich ruling " set the foundation for a series of court battles that have continued to present times " largely over disagreements in compensation . Rather than face another lawsuit , the owners agreed to a league minimum salary of $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 50 for each exhibition game played , and medical and hospital coverage . Although most of the NFLPA 's requests were met , the owners did not enter into a collective bargaining agreement with the association or formally recognize it as the players ' exclusive bargaining representative , instead agreeing to change the standard player contract and alter governing documents to reflect the deal .
From the inception of the NFLPA , its members were divided over whether it should act as a professional association or a union . Against the wishes of NFLPA presidents Pete Retzlaff and Bernie Parrish , Miller ran the association as a " ' grievance committee ' " rather than engaging in collective bargaining . The standard collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) is a contract between organized workers and management that determines the wages and hours worked by employees and can also determine the scope of one 's work and what benefits employees receive . The association continued to use the threat of antitrust litigation over the next few years as a lever to gain better benefits , including a pension plan and health insurance . In the 1960s the NFL also faced competition from the new American Football League ( AFL ) . NFL players viewed the new league as potential leverage for them to improve their contracts . The NFL tried to discourage this idea by changing the owner @-@ controlled pension plan to add a provision saying that a player would lose his pension if he went to another league .
On January 14 , 1964 , players in the newer league formed the AFL Players Association , and elected linebacker Tom Addison of the Boston Patriots as president . Rather than working with the AFLPA , the NFLPA chose to remain apart and tried to block the merger between the two leagues in 1966 , though lack of funding prevented it from mounting a formal challenge . With the merger complete , the players could no longer use the leverage of being able to sign with an AFL team to attain more money .
Parrish , upset with the ineffectiveness of the association , proposed forming a players ' union , that would be independent of the NFLPA , with the assistance of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters ( IBT ) . The IBT pushed for the NFLPA to join the trucking union . In early November 1967 , Parrish , with support from former Cleveland Browns player Jim Brown , began distributing union cards to form a Teamsters affiliate known as the American Federation of Pro Athletes . The NFLPA rejected the overture at its meeting in Hollywood , Florida , during the first week of January 1968 and declared itself an independent union . Although Parrish 's proposal was defeated , Miller left his position as counsel to the union . He was later replaced by two Chicago labor lawyers , Dan Schulman and Bernie Baum .
= = Recognition and certification ( 1968 – 1983 ) = =
Six months after the NFLPA declared itself an independent union , many players were dissatisfied with the lack of compensation teams provided and voted to strike on July 3 , 1968 after official discussions with the owners stalled . The owners countered by declaring a lockout . By July 14 , 1968 , the brief work stoppage came to an end . Although a CBA resulted , many players felt that the agreement did not net them as many benefits as they had hoped . The owners agreed to contribute about $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the pension fund with minimum salaries of $ 9 @,@ 000 for rookies , $ 10 @,@ 000 for veterans and $ 50 per exhibition game ; there was at yet no neutral arbitration for disputes .
As the merger of the AFL and NFL became effective in 1970 , the unions agreed to meet for the first time in January of that year . The NFL players wanted Ed Meador — who was the president @-@ elect of the NFLPA prior to the merger — to become president of the newly combined association while the AFL players wanted Jack Kemp . The compromise was John Mackey of the Baltimore Colts , an NFL team before the merger , which was grouped with former AFL teams in the American Football Conference . The AFL players agreed to Mackey 's election on the condition that former AFL player Alan Miller would become general counsel . Though the NFL owners were open to recognizing the union , their representatives requested lawyers not be present during negotiations , something the players were unwilling to agree to . This prompted the players to petition the National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB ) for union certification .
The players went on strike in July 1970 after the owners locked them out for a brief period . The strike lasted for two days ending with a new four year CBA which was reached after the owners threatened to cancel the season . Due to the new agreement , the union won the right for players to bargain through their own agents with the clubs , and minimum salaries were increased to $ 12 @,@ 500 for rookies and $ 13 @,@ 000 for veterans . Also , players ' pensions were improved and dental care was added to the players ' insurance plans . Players also gained the right to select representation on the league 's retirement board and the right to impartial arbitration for injury grievances . Following the 1970 agreement , many union representatives were released by their teams . Unfazed , the players were determined to create a stronger union through better communication . Attorney Ed Garvey was hired by the NFLPA in 1971 to act as their first executive director , and the NFLPA became officially certified as a union by the NLRB the same year . Headquarters were established in Washington , D.C. and a campaign was launched to help inform players of their rights .
= = = 1974 strike = = =
The NFLPA challenged the so @-@ called " Rozelle Rule " as a violation of federal antitrust laws in a lawsuit filed by president John Mackey and allied union leaders in 1971 . The rule , named after commissioner Pete Rozelle , allowed the commissioner to award compensation , which included players , to a team losing a free agent if both the signing team and the team the player was departing could not come to an agreement on compensation . This rule limited player movement , as few teams were willing to sign high @-@ profile free agents only to risk having their rosters raided . With the 1970 CBA agreement set to expire , the players went on strike on July 1 , 1974 . In addition to the " Rozelle Rule " , the players demanded the elimination of the option clause , impartial arbitration of disputes , elimination of the draft and waiver system and individual , rather than uniform contracts .
The strike lasted until August 10 , 1974 when the players returned to training camp without a new CBA , instead choosing to pursue free agency through the Mackey lawsuit filed three years before . While the courts ruled in favor of the players in 1976 , the union found that making progress in bargaining was more difficult to achieve . The Rozelle Rule was invalidated by the court which found it constituted a refusal to deal and was therefore in violation of the Sherman Act as it deterred franchises from signing free agents . However , the change did not achieve true free agency as compensation remained tied to draft picks that were awarded based on the salary of the departing free agent and teams still maintained a right of first refusal . The NFL and NFLPA agreed to a new collective bargaining agreement in March 1977 that ran until 1982 .
= = = 1982 strike = = =
The 1982 NFL strike began on September 21 , 1982 , and lasted 57 days , ending on November 16 , 1982 . During this time , no NFL games were played . The strike occurred because the union demanded that a wage scale based on percentage of gross revenues be implemented . The NFLPA wanted the percentage to be 55 percent , and according to the Los Angeles Times , this demand " dominated the negotiations . "
During the strike , the NFLPA promoted two " AFC @-@ NFC ' all @-@ star ' games . " One was held at RFK Stadium in Washington D.C. on October 17 , 1982 , and the second was held at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum a day later . One of the few stars who did play , future Hall of Fame running back John Riggins , explained " I guess I 'll do just about anything for money . " Despite a local TV blackout and ticket prices starting at six dollars , neither game drew well ; only 8 @,@ 760 fans attended in Washington , D.C. , and just 5 @,@ 331 attended in Los Angeles . With no NFL games to air , CBS replayed the previous Super Bowl and aired Division III football ; Pat Summerall and John Madden , for example , covered a game between Baldwin Wallace and Wittenberg . NBC acquired the rights to Canadian Football League games from ESPN , and aired them with NFL @-@ like production values ; the first four games it showed were all blowouts , however , with poor ratings , and the network gave up .
The 1982 strike ended with a players ' revolt against their own union , as some members suggested that Garvey step down as executive director . As a result of the strike , the season schedule was reduced from 16 games to 9 and the playoffs expanded to 16 teams ( eight from each conference ) for a " Super Bowl tournament . " A new five @-@ year agreement was ratified , providing severance packages to players upon retirement , an increase in salaries and post @-@ season pay , and bonuses based on the number of years of experience in the league . Additionally , the NFLPA was allowed to receive copies of all player contracts .
= = Gene Upshaw era ( 1983 – 2008 ) = =
In 1983 , former Oakland Raider Gene Upshaw became the executive director of the NFLPA . During his tenure , he oversaw a player strike , several antitrust lawsuits , and the collective bargaining agreement of 1993 .
The NFLPA went on strike for a month in 1987 upon the expiration of the 1982 CBA ; the league 's free @-@ agent policy was the major matter in dispute . This time , however , the strike only canceled one week of the season . For three weeks , the NFL staged games with hastily assembled replacement teams , made up principally of players cut during training camp and players left out of work from the closure of the United States Football League two years prior ( along with , to a lesser extent , the Montreal Alouettes , who had folded just three months prior to the strike ) . They were joined by a few veterans who crossed the picket lines , including New York Jets defensive end Mark Gastineau , Dallas Cowboys defensive tackle Randy White , San Francisco 49ers quarterback Joe Montana , New England Patriots quarterback Doug Flutie , and Seattle Seahawks wide receiver Steve Largent .
Given the willingness of the players to cross the picket lines and networks to broadcast the replacement games , despite a 20 % drop in television viewership and even steeper drops in attendance , the union failed to achieve their demands . The strike ended on October 15 , 1987 , without a collective bargaining agreement in place . The union filed a new antitrust lawsuit on December 30 asking federal judge David Doty to overturn the league 's restricting free agent policies .
On November 1 , 1989 , the Court of Appeals rejected the suit on the grounds that the owners were covered by the labor exemption from antitrust law . The union 's next tactic , in November 1989 , was to disclaim any interest in representing NFL players in collective bargaining and to reform itself as a professional organization . Having done that , individual players , led by Freeman McNeil of the New York Jets , brought a new antitrust action , challenging the NFL 's so @-@ called " Plan B " free agency , which gave teams a right of first refusal to sign a player , as an unlawful practice under the antitrust acts .
The players ultimately prevailed after a jury trial on their claims . That verdict , the pendency of other antitrust cases and the threat of a class action lawsuit filed by Reggie White , then with the Philadelphia Eagles , on behalf of all NFL players caused the parties to settle the antitrust cases and to agree on a formula that permitted free agency . In return , the owners received a salary cap , albeit one tied to a formula based on the players ' share of total league revenues . The agreement also established a salary floor — minimum payrolls all teams were obliged to pay . The settlement was presented to and approved by Judge Doty , who had also heard the McNeil antitrust case in 1993 . Once the agreement was approved , the NFLPA reconstituted itself as a labor union and entered into a new collective bargaining agreement with the league . The NFLPA and the league extended the 1993 agreement five times . The final extension came in March 2006 when it was extended through the 2010 season after the NFL owners voted 30 – 2 to accept the NFLPA 's final proposal .
= = DeMaurice Smith era ( 2009 – present ) = =
Following the death of Gene Upshaw in 2008 , Richard Berthelsen was named interim executive director , serving from August 2008 until March 2009 . The NFLPA Board of Representatives elected DeMaurice Smith for a three @-@ year term as the executive director on March 16 , 2009 . Smith has been largely praised for his work ethic by the media , current and former players and colleagues as director and for making the union more professional despite the resentment of some players who found his leadership style to be too controlling . Smith 's contract was renewed for an additional three years in March 2012 . He was elected for a third term in March 2015 . The major issue of Smith 's tenure has been the 2011 lockout ; former offensive lineman Chester Pitts praised Smith for fiercely fighting for the players ' rights during negotiations .
= = = 2011 lockout = = =
In May 2008 , the owners decided to opt out of the 1993 arrangement , per the agreement with the players , with the termination to follow a year with no salary cap in 2010 . By the CBA 's expiration in March 2011 , the NFLPA and the NFL had not yet come to terms on a new agreement . The owners were expected to lock out the players upon termination of the agreement . However , the NFLPA filed papers to decertify as a union on March 11 , 2011 , and filed an antitrust suit to enjoin the lockout with lead plaintiffs quarterbacks Tom Brady , Peyton Manning , and Drew Brees . U.S. District Court judge Susan Richard Nelson granted the players ' request to end the owners ' lockout on April 25 . The league asked Nelson to stay the order while they appealed to the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals ; Nelson refused . On April 29 , the Eighth Circuit granted the league a temporary stay of Nelson 's ruling ; the league reinstated the lockout the same day . The Eighth Circuit vacated Nelson 's ruling on July 8 , affirming the legitimacy of the lockout . During the lockout , players were barred from using team facilities and contacting team coaches ; many organized their own workout regimens .
The parties settled the lawsuit on July 25 , 2011 , and a majority of players signed union authorization cards . The NFL officially recognized the NFLPA 's status as the players ' collective bargaining representative on July 30 , 2011 . The NFL and NFLPA proceeded to negotiate terms for a new collective bargaining agreement , and the agreement became effective after ratification by the players August 4 , 2011 . Under the agreement , which runs through 2021 , revenue sharing , the most contentious issue during the lockout , was re @-@ designed so that the players must receive at least 47 % of all revenue in salary for the term of the agreement . Additionally , a limit was placed on the amount of money given to rookies . Fifty million dollars was set aside annually for medical research and approximately $ 1 billion would be set aside for retired player benefits over the life of the agreement .
= = = Bountygate = = =
The NFLPA , on behalf of Will Smith , Scott Fujita and Anthony Hargrove , three players suspended due to the Bountygate investigation by the NFL , filed a lawsuit against the league . The investigation found that New Orleans Saints players were allegedly paid bonuses for hits that injured opposing players . The players ' lawsuit claimed NFL commissioner Roger Goodell " had violated the league 's labor agreement by showing he had pre @-@ determined the guilt of the players punished in the bounty probe before serving as the arbitrator for their June 18 appeal hearing " . The suspensions were unanimously overturned by a three @-@ member appeals panel ; however , the ruling did not permanently void their suspensions . The NFL appointed former commissioner Paul Tagliabue to review the NFL 's sanctions against the players , which he overturned .
= = = Activate = = =
In April 2014 , the NFLPA partnered with opendorse to launch Activate , the first professional sports micro @-@ endorsement marketplace . The Activate platform allows for marketers to quickly find and contact athletes that best fit their endorsement campaigns . For athletes , Activate provides a monetary valuation of each player 's social media accounts that leads to an easier and more efficient negotiation process .
= = = New drug policy = = =
The league and the NFLPA approved updated substance abuse and performance @-@ enhancing substance policies in September 2014 . The regulations include human growth hormone testing and amended rules on DUIs and marijuana . Third @-@ party arbitration will handle appeals . The deal lifted suspensions for some players the week it was approved . The NFL began testing players for HGH the next month .
= = Composition = =
According to NFLPA 's Department of Labor records since 2006 , when membership classifications were first reported , around 60 % , or almost two thirds , of the union 's membership are classified as " former players , " and not eligible to vote in the union , " because , as a matter of federal law , they cannot be members of the collective bargaining unit . " The other , voting eligible , classifications are " active players " and " associates . " As of 2014 this accounts for 3 @,@ 130 " former player " members ( 59 % of total ) , 1 @,@ 959 " active players " ( 37 % ) , and 207 " associate " members ( 4 % ) .
= = Leadership = =
The current president of the NFLPA is Eric Winston and the executive director is DeMaurice Smith . As of 2014 , the executive committee consists of the following current and retired NFL players : Adam Vinatieri , Benjamin Watson , Brian Waters , Jay Feely , Lorenzo Alexander , Mark Herzlich , Matt Hasselbeck , Ryan Clark , Scott Wells and Zak DeOssie . Each NFL team also has a player representative , along with two to three alternate representatives .
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= Whinchat =
The whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra ) is a small migratory passerine bird breeding in Europe and western Asia and wintering in central Africa . At one time considered to be in thrush family , Turdidae , it is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family , Muscicapidae . Both sexes have a strong supercilium , brownish upper parts mottled darker , a pale throat and breast , a pale buff to whitish belly , and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers , but in the breeding season , the male has an orange @-@ buff throat and breast .
The whinchat is a solitary species , favouring open grassy country with rough vegetation and scattered small shrubs . It perches in elevated locations ready to pounce on the insects and other small invertebrates that form its diet . The nest is built by the female on the ground in coarse vegetation , with a clutch of four to seven eggs being laid . The hen incubates the eggs for about thirteen days and then both parents feed the nestlings . Fledging takes place about eighteen days after hatching and the parents continue to feed the young for another fortnight . Moulting takes place in late summer before the migration southwards , and again on the wintering grounds in Africa before the migration northwards in spring . The whinchat is a common species with a wide range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified it as being of " least concern " .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
This species represents a fairly basal divergence of the genus Saxicola . It retains the supercilium found in many Muscicapidae but lost in the more derived Saxicola species such as the European stonechat or African stonechat ( S. torquatus ) .
As with other species of Saxicola , it was formerly considered a member of the thrush family ( Turdidae ) , but is now placed in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae . It , and similar thrush @-@ like Muscicapidae species , are often called chats . Its scientific name means " small rock @-@ dweller " , in reference to its habitat . Saxicola derives from Latin saxum ( " rock " ) + incola ( " dwelling " ) ; rubetra is a Latin term for a small bird . No subspecies are recognised .
Very rarely , hybridisation occurs between the whinchat and the Siberian stonechat ( Saxicola maurus ) , with a case being reported in Finland in 1997 . It has also been reported to hybridise with the European stonechat in western and southern Europe .
= = Description = =
The whinchat is a short @-@ tailed bird , moving on the ground with small , rapid hops and frequently bobbing and flicking its wings and tail . It is similar in size to its relative the European robin ( Erithacus rubecula ) , being 12 to 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) long and weighing 13 to 26 g ( 0 @.@ 46 to 0 @.@ 92 oz ) . Both sexes have brownish upperparts mottled darker , a buff throat and breast , a pale buff to whitish belly , and a blackish tail with white bases to the outer tail feathers .
The male in breeding plumage has a blackish face mask almost encircled by a strong white supercilium and malar stripe , a bright orange @-@ buff throat and breast , and small white wing patches on the greater coverts and inner median coverts . The female is duller overall , in particular having browner face mask , pale buffy @-@ brown breast , and a buff supercilium and malar stripe , and smaller or no white wing patches . Males in immature and winter plumage are similar to females , except that adult males retain the white wing patches all year round .
Though fairly similar to females and immatures of the European stonechat ( S. rubicola ) , the whinchat can readily be distinguished by its conspicuous supercilium and whiter belly , and also in western Europe , by being paler overall than the western European stonechat subspecies S. rubicola hibernans . It also differs structurally in being slightly slimmer and less ' dumpy ' , and having longer wingtips ( an adaptation to its long @-@ distance migration ) . It is more easily confused with female or immature Siberian stonechat ( S. maura ) , which ( also being a long @-@ distance migrant ) shares the longer wingtips ; however , Siberian stonechat can be distinguished by its conspicuous unmarked pale orange @-@ buff rump ( in whinchat , the rump is the same mottled brown colour as the back ) .
Its main call is described as a hue @-@ tac @-@ tac , the ' tac ' softer and less grating than that of the European stonechat ; the call is used both for contact between birds and predator alarms . The male has a whistling , crackly but soft song used during the breeding season , consisting of a mixture of soft whistles , tacs and more grating sounds ; it is often mimetic , including phrases from the songs of at least 12 other assorted bird species . It sings from a fence , bush , tree or wire , or occasionally from the ground or in flight , between about April and July . On the wintering grounds , it often gives alarm calls but only occasionally sings , being most likely to do so at the end of winter , when starting spring migration .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The whinchat is a migratory species breeding in Europe and western Asia from Ireland and northern Portugal east to the Ob River basin near Novosibirsk , and from northern Norway south to central Spain , central Italy , northern Greece , and the Caucasus Mountains .
Birds arrive on the breeding grounds between the end of April and mid May , and depart between mid August and mid September ( odd birds lingering to October ) . They winter primarily in tropical sub @-@ Saharan Africa from Senegal east to Kenya and south to Zambia , arriving in western Africa at the start of the dry season in late September to November , and leaving between February and March . Small numbers also winter in northwestern Africa in Morocco , northern Algeria and Tunisia . Vagrants have reached northwest of the breeding range to Iceland , west on migration to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde , and south of the wintering range to northern South Africa .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The whinchat is a largely solitary bird though it may form small family groups in autumn . It favours rough low vegetation habitats such as open rough pasture or similar minimally cultivated grassland with scattered small shrubs such as hawthorn ( Crataegus monogyna ) , and bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum ) or heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) stands on rock @-@ strewn ground . It also commonly inhabits new and clear @-@ felled conifer plantations until the new tree crop is about five to six years old and a metre or two tall . It always needs at least a few perching points ( shrubs , tall weeds , or fence posts ) to scan from for food and for use as song posts .
Breeding takes place in late April and May . The nest is built solely by the female , and is made of dried grasses and moss , and lined with hairs and fine bents . It is built on the ground , hidden in dense low vegetation , often at the foot of a bush . The female lays and incubates a clutch of four to seven eggs which hatch after eleven to fourteen days . Both parents bring food to the young which leave the nest ten to fourteen days later , while still too young to fly . The chicks fledge at seventeen to nineteen days after hatching and remain largely dependent on the parents for a further two weeks . Whinchats are short @-@ lived , typically only surviving two years , to a maximum recorded of just over five years in the wild ; breeding starts when birds are a year old . Predators include weasels , stoats , and small raptors such as the merlin and nest predators such as crows and magpies . Nests are also lost due to agricultural operations such as silage cutting ( the main factor in the species ' decline in western Europe ) or trampling by livestock , and are sometimes parasitised by the common cuckoo .
Whinchats are insectivorous , feeding largely ( about 80 – 90 % ) on insects , but also consume a wide range of other invertebrates including spiders , small snails and worms . They also eat small amounts of fruit such as blackberries , primarily in autumn . The birds like to perch on elevated spots such as shrubs , from where they make sallies to catch insects , mostly taken off the ground , but also flying insects . While so perched , males in particular frequently flick their tail and sometimes their wings to show the white tail and wing flashes , for display or territorial communication signals to other whinchats .
Adult whinchats have a single complex complete moult in late summer ( late July onward ) after breeding and mainly completed before southbound migration . Juveniles have a partial moult at the same time , growing new body feathering but retaining the flight feathers . All ages also have a partial moult in early spring on the wintering grounds before northbound migration .
= = Status and conservation = =
Fairly common across its wide range , the whinchat is classified as a species of " least concern " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Some populations are however in serious decline , particularly in the west of its range in Britain , Ireland , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Denmark , and Germany , primarily due to agricultural intensification . In Britain it is amber @-@ listed with an unfavourable conservation status ; it had all but disappeared from former lowland breeding areas in the south and east between surveys in 1968 – 72 and 1988 – 91 , remaining common only in upland areas of the north and west where low @-@ intensity livestock rearing is the main land use . There has been a similar decline in Ireland , where it is now classified as " rare " .
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= Thrud the Barbarian =
Thrud the Barbarian is a comics character created by Carl Critchlow in 1981 . Although Thrud himself is a parody of Conan the Barbarian , particularly as depicted in the Arnold Schwarzenegger films , inspiration for the character 's adventures and adversaries has been drawn from several fantasy sources .
During the 1980s , a Thrud comic strip was a regular and popular feature in the roleplay and wargame magazine White Dwarf with Thrud 's grotesque and comic antics forming a memorable part of the magazine 's golden age . In 2002 , continued interest in the character from role @-@ playing enthusiasts and a desire to be free to experiment with a new artistic style prompted Critchlow to self @-@ publish a series of award @-@ winning full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comics .
Since October 2002 , Critchlow has continued to develop his new artistic style in several different 2000 AD stories , contributing to the success of Lobster Random in particular . While Critchlow 's use of muted palettes has been criticised , his style has received praise for being highly recognisable and unique .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Initial publications = = =
The character of Thrud was created by the then 18 @-@ year @-@ old Critchlow in 1981 while he was at foundation art college . His graphic design tutor , Bryan Talbot , gave him the project of producing a comic strip . At the time , Critchlow was reading the Conan books by Robert E. Howard , and this inspired him to produce Thrud . The initial five @-@ page strip was published in comics fanzine Arken Sword . When Critchlow moved on to art college in Liverpool , Thrud made a further appearance in the comic Dead ' Ard , which Critchlow co @-@ authored with artist Euan Smith . Dead ' Ard also featured a strip titled The Black Currant , subsequently re @-@ published in the 26th and final issue of the Warrior comic anthology . The Black Currant would later appear as one of Thrud 's many enemies .
= = = White Dwarf = = =
On seeing an advertisement in White Dwarf magazine asking for cartoonists , Critchlow submitted some of his Thrud strips and was hired . Thrud the Barbarian became a monthly feature in White Dwarf between issue 45 in September 1983 and issue 105 in September 1988 . During this time , the black @-@ and @-@ white single @-@ page strip was voted " Most popular feature " for three consecutive years .
In 1987 , a collection of Thrud strips was published in a Thrud the Barbarian Graffik Novel by Games Workshop . In addition to strips that had been printed in White Dwarf , this anthology included a re @-@ drawn version of the original Arken Sword strip and an origin story for Thrud .
= = = Full @-@ length comic = = =
Once the Thrud strip had run its course in White Dwarf , Critchlow worked on other comics including the Judge Dredd / Batman crossover story The Ultimate Riddle , first published in 1995 . His work on this story was fully painted , and while considered impressive was also criticised as being forced , confused and muddy . Critchlow was developing a new style based on line @-@ drawings with computer colouring , but having been pigeon @-@ holed as a painter did not believe that he would be able to interest anyone in this very different style .
When attending gaming conventions , Critchlow found that he was often remembered for his work on Thrud and recognised that there was still an interest in the character . He therefore decided to create and self @-@ publish a full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comic as a way to get his new style noticed . A total of five Thrud the Barbarian comics were published :
Carborundum Capers – June 2002
Ice ' n ' a Slice – January 2003
Lava Louts – June 2004
Thrud Rex ! – June 2005
Bungle in the Jungle – January 2007
Critchlow found that , by organising distribution through comic shops and a devoted Thrud website , he was able to break even financially . His new style was also noticed and received positive comments .
The cover images for each of the first four comics were hand @-@ painted in contrast to the computer @-@ coloured line art used in the comic itself . For issue 5 , Critchlow also used his new style for the cover image .
= = Fictional character biography = =
An origin story for Thrud was printed in the Thrud the Barbarian Graffik Novel . The story tells of a group of mercenaries who , lost and searching for a pub , stumble across an abandoned baby in a deserted village . The mercenaries decide to raise the baby as one of their own , teaching him how to fight and drink beer .
At the age of five , Thrud is sent to Crom the Destroyer Orthodox Pagan Infants School , where he towers above the teachers and his fellow students . When one of the children shoots him with a pea shooter , Thrud 's reaction is to kill and maim twenty @-@ seven pupils and three teachers , leading to his expulsion from the school . Choosing to return to the wilderness rather than his adoptive parents , Thrud lives alone until , one day , he stumbles across a hidden burial chamber . Finding a small helmet and a large axe , Thrud arms himself . Finding gold and gems , he decides to return to civilisation with his newfound wealth , quickly establishing himself a reputation as a violent warrior .
Many years later , Thrud the Barbarian becomes Thrud the King , but finds the mundane duties of kingship tiresome without opportunities to fight . To put a halt to Thrud 's constant mutterings of , " Kill ! Death ! Maim ! Mutilate ! Destroy ! " , the wise men of his kingdom collect stories of heroism from around the land and read them to him long into the night .
= = Characterisation = =
Endowed with the strength of a rhinoceros , the speed of a jungle cat and the intelligence of a garden snail , Thrud is a one @-@ dimensional character who engages in mindless slaughter and strikes Frank Frazetta @-@ style poses while remaining ignorant of plot points . Depicted as an 8 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) barbarian with a hugely exaggerated , muscular physique and a very small head , and dressed in large furry boots and a loincloth , Thrud is a caricature of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's Conan the Barbarian .
Thrud is also a heavy drinker , frequenting the The Hobbit 's Armpit tavern and regularly causing mayhem when he is unable to have his desired flavour of crisps . These and other annoyances often cause Thrud to invoke the author of the Conan the Barbarian books with the battle cry , " By the sacred jockstrap of Robert E. Howard you 'll pay for this , Hellspawn ! "
= = Supporting characters = =
= = = The Black Currant = = =
First appearing in Dead ' Ard and Warrior , The Black Currant returned in a series of White Dwarf Thrud strips titled Thrud the Destroyer . In this story , The Black Currant is the leader of a horde of warriors who attack a small village , looting the homes , burning the women , raping the livestock and eating the babies . The Black Currant returned again in issue 3 of Critchlow 's self @-@ published Thrud the Barbarian comic as the leader of a group of bandits laying siege to a small town . The Black Currant is depicted in heavy black armour , wearing a helmet provided with a pair of exceedingly long , horizontally extending horns .
= = = Carl Critchlow = = =
Critchlow himself appears in a number of Thrud strips , occasionally as a narrator although more often as a drinking companion for Thrud . Critchlow depicts himself with lank hair and a large cap pulled down low over his eyes .
= = = Croneman the Cimpletan = = =
Croneman claims to be the mightiest barbarian of the northern tribes and honorary chief of the savage bezerkers of Nid . Known also as Amoron , the Wombat , he is a slayer , a reaver , a corsair , a usurper , and a conqueror . Depicted as resembling Schwarzenegger , he is also a bodybuilder with a very silly accent . On first meeting Croneman , Thrud slices him in half with a sword . When Croneman returns to join a group of mercenaries fighting The Black Currant in Thrud the Destroyer , he is depicted with a line of sutures running down the middle of his face and chest .
= = = Lymara , the She Wildebeeste = = =
Thrud first encounters Lymara when he sees her chasing away a wasp by waving a small cloth from her tower bedroom . Thinking her to be a damsel in distress , Thrud storms the tower , killing Lymara 's father , five brothers , two uncles , ten cousins and fiance in the process . Seeking revenge , Lymara attempts to poison Thrud with a bottle of Acme " Mammoth Poison " , but succeeds only in putting him to sleep as part of the The Three Tasks of Thrud series of strips . Subsequently , Lymara joins Thrud as one of the group of mercenaries brought in to fight The Black Currant in Thrud the Destroyer . In this latter series of strips , Lymara is depicted with oversized breasts barely covered by an off @-@ the @-@ shoulder leather bra .
= = = To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa = = =
To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa ( a name phonetically similar to that of British comedian Tommy Cooper ) is an evil necromancer who regularly crosses paths with Thrud and is depicted as a bald man wearing a large cloak . Thrud first encounters To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa in an early White Dwarf strip and is turned into a frog . Subsequently , in The Three Tasks of Thrud , To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa takes advantage of Thrud 's drugged state , following Lymara 's failed assassination attempt , to hypnotise him and force him to obtain three items necessary for a spell .
In Thrud the Destroyer , To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa is revealed as being in service to The Black Currant and is providing him with an army of warriors drawn from throughout time , including daleks and Imperial stormtroopers . To @-@ Me Ku @-@ Pa also appears as the villain in issue 1 of the full @-@ length Thrud the Barbarian comic .
= = Merchandise = =
A range of Thrud merchandise has been produced since the character 's inception , including a Thrud t @-@ shirt and badge as well as a series of miniatures . Citadel Miniatures produced five different metal miniatures of Thrud , starting in 1984 with a " White Dwarf Personality " miniature . Three numbered limited edition miniatures followed consisting of " LE12 , Thrud the Barbarian " , in 1986 , " LE19 , Thrud and Female Admirer " in 1987 , and " LE104 , Thrud scratching head " . Thrud was also introduced as a Blood Bowl player and Jervis Johnson commissioned an appropriate miniature . Heresy Miniatures has also produced three Thrud miniatures , including a limited edition " Strolling Thrud " that sold out within three weeks of release . On 29 March 2007 , another limited edition of 1000 resin miniatures was released .
= = Reception and awards = =
Thrud the Barbarian was one of the best loved pieces in White Dwarf over the five years that the strip ran , being voted " Most popular feature " for three consecutive years during the magazine 's golden age . Long @-@ term fans of Thrud were excited and nostalgic to see him return in his own full @-@ length comic , but were concerned that the idea would not stretch to 24 pages . In reviewing issue 1 , Jez Higgins , writing on TRS2 , and Robert Clark of Strike to Stun , considered the comic a success that was more than one joke spread thin and which was not limited by the single page brevity of the original strip . Steven Maxwell of Bulletproof Comics , however , found that what worked well within the constraints of a single page seemed stretched when spun out over 24 . Issue 2 received similarly mixed reviews , with Clark criticising the comic for being much the same , with the same themes and joke as issue 1 while Glenn Carter of Comics Bulletin found it to be well written light reading with quite a few elements of humour . Overall , the comic was deemed a success , with even the more negative reviewers awarding it 6 out of 10 and looking forward to more issues .
Although the writing received mixed reviews , the reception of the artwork was almost entirely positive . Higgins , recalling the heavy blacks and bold outlines of the original strip , found Critchlow 's new style to be much more open and expressive . Maxwell also praised Critchlow 's development as an artist , judging the comic to be beautifully drawn and coloured with a clear line style . Carter thought that the art was a little flat in places , but nevertheless praised it for being unique with a lot of character .
Critchlow was also commended for the risky decision to write , draw and publish the comic himself . The comic was compared favourably with professional quality comics , with its lack of adverts viewed as an advantage over those offerings . The high production values were also praised , with the glossy cover and high quality paper used for the inner pages .
In 2004 , Thrud the Barbarian won the Eagle Award for " Favourite British Small Press Title " . In 2006 Thrud was nominated for the " Favourite Colour Comicbook – British " Eagle Award , but lost out to 2000 AD .
= = Legacy = =
In October 2002 , four months after Thrud issue 1 was published , Critchlow returned to 2000AD using his new computer @-@ drawn style . His first story was the Judge Dredd , Out of the Undercity story written by John Wagner . The new style was initially well received by 2000AD Review and seen as a marked improvement over his previous fully painted style with clearer figures and atmospheric colouring . As the Undercity story developed , however , Critchlow was criticised for using too narrow a palette , with too many greys and blues , although this might have been as a result of the story being set underground .
2000AD Review 's criticism of Critchlow 's subdued colouring continued with the 2003 Lobster Random story , No Gain , No Pain . By the conclusion , however , Critchlow 's style was recognised as being truly unique and even the previously criticised blues and greys were seen to work well when used with other coloured elements . The artwork in two further Lobster Random stories , Tooth & Claw in October 2004 and The Agony & the Ecstasy in April 2006 was again very well received . Tooth & Claw was praised for its character designs while Critchlow 's style in The Agony & the Ecstasy was said to be easily recognisable , having " volume , colour and verve " .
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= Barry ( dog ) =
Barry der Menschenretter ( 1800 – 1814 ) , also known as Barry , was a dog of a breed which was later called the St. Bernard that worked as a mountain rescue dog in Switzerland for the Great St Bernard Hospice . He predates the modern St. Bernard , and was lighter built than the modern breed . He has been described as the most famous St. Bernard , as he was credited with saving more than 40 lives during his lifetime , hence his byname " Menschenretter " meaning people rescuer in German .
The legend surrounding him was that he was killed while attempting a rescue ; however , this is untrue . Barry retired to Bern , Switzerland and after his death his body was passed into the care of the Natural History Museum of Bern . His skin has been preserved through taxidermy although his skull was modified in 1923 to match the Saint Bernard of that time period . His story and name have been used in literary works , and a monument to him stands in the Cimetière des Chiens near Paris . At the hospice one dog has always been named Barry in his honor and since 2004 the Foundation Barry du Grand Saint Bernard has been set up to take over the responsibility for breeding dogs from the hospice .
= = History = =
The first mention in the Great St Bernard Hospice archives of a dog was in 1707 which simply said " A dog was buried by us . " The dogs are thought to have been introduced to the monastery as watchdogs at some point between 1660 and 1670 . Old skulls from the collection of the Natural History Museum of Bern show that at least two types of dog lived at the hospice . By 1800 , the year that Barry was born , it was known that a special kind of dog was being used for rescue work in the pass . This general variety of dog was known as a Küherhund , or cowherd 's dog .
Measurements of his preserved body show that Barry was smaller than the modern Saint Bernard , weighing between 40 and 45 kilograms ( 88 and 99 lb ) whereas modern Bernards weigh between 80 and 130 kilograms ( 180 and 290 lb ) . His current mounted height is approximately 64 centimetres ( 25 in ) , but the living Barry would have been slightly smaller .
During Barry 's career , he was credited with saving the lives of more than forty people , although this number has sometimes varied over the years . Barry 's most famous rescue was that of a young boy . He found the child asleep in a cavern of ice . After warming up the boy 's body sufficiently by licking him , he moved the boy about and onto his back and carried the child back to the hospice . The child survived and was returned to his parents , although other sources say that the boy 's mother died in the avalanche that trapped the boy . The Museum of Natural History in Bern disputes the legend , attributing it to Peter Scheitlin , an animal psychologist .
The best of dogs , the best of animals is Barry . You used to leave the convent with a basket round your neck , into the storm , in the most insidious snow . Each and every day you examined the mountain searching for unfortunates buried under avalanches . You dug them out and brought them back to life by yourself and , when you couldn 't , you rushed back to the convent signalling the monks for help . You resurrected people . Your tenderness was so easy to communicate , that the boy you dug out had no fear to let you bring him , holding on to your back , to the Hospice .
= = = Death = = =
There is a plaque on a monument in the Cimetière des Chiens pet cemetery which states , " Il sauva la vie à 40 personnes . Il fut tué par le 41ème " : Barry saved the lives of forty people , but died while attempting to save his forty @-@ first . The story goes that news had come that a Swiss soldier was lost in the mountains . Barry was searching for the soldier and had picked up the scent , some forty @-@ eight hours old , and finally stopped before a large bank of ice . He dug until he reached the soldier , and then licked him as he was trained . The Swiss soldier awoke startled and mistook Barry for a wolf and fatally stabbed him with his bayonet . James Watson in his 1906 work The Dog Book attributed the rumour to fellow author Idstone , also known as Reverend Thomas Pearce .
However , the legend of his death is untrue . After twelve years of service at the monastery , Barry was brought by a monk to Bern , Switzerland so that he could live out the rest of his life . He died at the age of 14 . His body passed into the hands of the Natural History Museum of Bern . A special exhibit was held in his honor at the museum to commemorate his 200th Anniversary .
= = Legacy = =
The Hospice has always maintained one St. Bernard named Barry in the original 's honor . During Barry 's lifetime , his breed did not have one specific name . By 1820 , six years after his death , Barry was specifically referred to as being an Alpine Mastiff , while there was also a breed called the Alpine Spaniel which was recorded around the same time period . The English called the breed " sacred dogs " , while the German Kynology proposed the name " Alpendog " in 1828 . Following his death and up until 1860 , the entire stock were called " Barry hounds " in the Canton of Bern after Barry himself . It was not until 1865 when the term " St. Bernard " was first used primarily for the breed . Under this name , the St. Bernard has been recognised since 1880 by the Swiss Kennel Club .
Barry is described as the most famous St. Bernard by the Natural History Museum of Bern . Following his death , his skin was preserved by a taxidermist for the museum , while the rest of his body was buried . He was originally given a humble and meek pose , as the taxidermist felt that this would serve as a reminder of servitude to future generations . In 1923 , his body was refurbished by Georg Ruprecht , as his coat had become brittle and had broken into more than 20 pieces . During the restoration , his body was re @-@ posed and his skull shape was modified to match the shape of the St. Bernard of that time , in a compromise between Ruprecht and the Museum 's director . His original head shape was rather flat with a moderate stop , with the modification resulting in a larger head with a more pronounced stop . A barrel was added hanging from his collar , following the popularization of the myth of the monastery 's dogs using these during the rescues , which was originally introduced by Edwin Landseer 's work Alpine Mastiffs Reanimating a Distressed Traveller . The barrel was removed in 1978 by Professor Walter Huber , the director of the museum , although it has since been replaced . A monument to Barry is located opposite the entrance to the Cimetière des Chiens in Paris .
In literary works , Samuel Rogers ' poem The Great Saint Bernard is sometimes referred to as Barry , The Great St. Bernard . Henry Bordeaux praised Barry 's work in his 1911 novel La Neige sur les pas . Walt Disney Productions made a telemovie entitled Barry of the Great St. Bernard in 1977 , and Barry 's story has been featured in children 's books such as Barry : The Bravest Saint Bernard published by Random House Books for Young Readers .
Until September 2004 , 18 dogs still belonged to the hospice at any one time . The Foundation Barry du Grand Saint Bernard was established to create kennels in Martigny , a village further down the pass , to take over the breeding of St. Bernard puppies from the friars at Hospice . Around 20 puppies per year are born at the foundation . In 2009 , the St. Bernard Dog Museum was opened at the Foundation in Martigny and , to commemorate the occasion , Barry 's remains were lent from the museum in Bern . Each summer , the foundation leads dogs up the pass when it is open to the hospice , mainly for tourists , with rescue efforts on the pass now conducted by helicopters .
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
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= Smoke Gets in Your Eyes ( Mad Men ) =
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " is the first episode of the first season of the American period drama television series Mad Men . It first aired on July 19 , 2007 , in the United States on AMC , and was written by creator Matthew Weiner and directed by Alan Taylor . " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was budgeted at US $ 3 million . Production for the episode took place in New York City and Los Angeles .
Weiner conceived of the script in 2000 while working as a writer for the television sitcom Becker . Before writing the pilot episode , Weiner studied American literature and cinema of the 1950s and 1960s to get a perspective on American culture during that period . Weiner sent the script to The Sopranos creator David Chase , who recruited Weiner to work with him on The Sopranos . Weiner shelved the project for seven years to focus on Chase 's program ; interest for Mad Men did not surface until the conclusion of The Sopranos ' final season .
According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode attained a rating of 1 @.@ 4 ( 1 @.@ 2 million households ) upon initial airing .
= = Plot = =
In 1960 New York City , Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) , creative director for advertising agency Sterling Cooper , is facing a professional dilemma : how to sell cigarettes in spite of increased public awareness of their health risks . He seeks input from customers and his girlfriend Midge Daniels ( Rosemarie DeWitt ) , but is unable to find a solution . He rejects company research which suggests that some customers will be drawn to smoke despite the health risks because of a collective " death wish . "
Meanwhile , Peggy Olson ( Elisabeth Moss ) begins a new career at Sterling Cooper as Don 's secretary . She finds herself overwhelmed by her new surroundings , and advice from office manager Joan Holloway ( Christina Hendricks ) proves more intimidating than helpful . A junior account executive named Pete Campbell ( Vincent Kartheiser ) makes crude comments about her appearance and clothing , causing Don to rebuke him . On her break , Peggy goes to a doctor 's office , where she gets a prescription for the pill . At the end of the day , she attempts to make a move on Don , but he rejects her advances .
Don and Roger Sterling ( John Slattery ) meet with Rachel Menken ( Maggie Siff ) , owner of a large department store . Rachel , looking to attract wealthier customers , is disappointed by the agency 's suggestions of coupons to attract frugal housewives . The meeting becomes heated and both Rachel and Don leave angry with each other . A later meeting with executives from Lucky Strike tobacco company also appears to go badly , as Don still struggles to find a new approach to cigarette advertising . Pete suggests the " death wish " idea put forth by the company 's research , but the executives reject his idea . Just when it seems that the meeting is over , Don comes up with a new tagline — " It 's toasted ! " — and a strategy of ignoring the question of health risks while claiming that Lucky Strikes are uniquely prepared . The client is impressed , but Don rebukes Pete for using the rejected research .
Don meets Rachel for dinner to make amends for the meeting . The two of them begin to bond , and she agrees to give Sterling Cooper another shot . Meanwhile , Pete and some of his co @-@ workers go to a gentlemen 's club to celebrate Pete 's impending wedding . There , a waitress rejects Pete 's advances . Dejected from this rejection and his professional problems , Pete arrives drunk at Peggy 's apartment , and she invites him in . Don takes a train to a large house in the suburbs , where he is greeted by his loving wife Betty ( January Jones ) , who he has made no mention of thus far in the episode . He checks on their two sleeping children as she watches admiringly from the doorway .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Creator Matthew Weiner conceived the script for " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " in 2000 , while he was working as a writer for the sitcom Becker . The first draft of the episode was written as a spec script and was titled The Division . Two years later , Weiner sent the script to David Chase , the creator of The Sopranos , although Weiner 's agents insisted that he not proceed with his plans . Chase later recruited him upon first glance . " It was what you ’ re always hoping to see , " he recalled . " It was lively and it had something new to say . Here was someone who had written a story about advertising in the 1960s , and was looking at recent American history through that prism . " Weiner set the pilot script aside for the next seven years to focus on The Sopranos . Neither HBO nor Showtime expressed interest in the project until the commencement of The Sopranos ' final season . During that time , AMC began looking into the television market for new programming . " The network was looking for distinction in launching its first original series , " according to AMC Networks president Ed Carroll , " and we took a bet that quality would win out over formulaic mass appeal . "
Prior to writing the pilot episode , Weiner studied American culture during the 1950s and 1960s , analyzing literary works such as The Feminine Mystique ( 1963 ) and Sex and the Single Girl ( 1962 ) while viewing such films as The Apartment ( 1960 ) and A Guide for the Married Man ( 1967 ) . He continued his endeavors when the series ' concept began to materialize , as he received a copy of the Richard Yates novel Revolutionary Road ( 1962 ) from the executives of AMC . Weiner discussed the look of Mad Men with production designer Bob Shaw and cinematographer Phil Abraham , whom Weiner had previously collaborated with in The Sopranos . Abraham wanted to establish a more genuine approach to portraying society in the 1960s , rather than " simply referencing the period as seen in movies of that time . We wanted to be more genuine than that . Movies were an influence . " In evoking historical accuracy of elements such as architecture and graphic design , Abraham sought inspiration from the buildings designed by the architecture firm Skidmore , Owings and Merrill . He said , " We noticed that in all the Skidmore , Owings & Merrill designs of contemporary buildings , the ceiling — the overhead grid of lights — was a strong graphic element in all the office spaces . In one design we loved , the whole ceiling was like a lightbox . It was a time of high modernism , and we embraced the notion of presenting the world in that way . These were new work spaces — sleek , not stuffy . "
= = = Casting = = =
Jon Hamm was cast as Don Draper , the central character of the series . Hamm , who was relatively unknown at the time , competed with 80 other actors in the auditioning process . Weiner proclaimed that Hamm accurately portrayed the character , saying that he was " the only person who really had this great mix of empathy and masculinity and intelligence . Both Don and Jon have an inner life . So long as you have that kind of depth in a human being , people will root for him [ ... ] Jon walked out of the room and I said , ' That guy has lived . ' " Hamm admitted that he felt that he had a considerable disadvantage compared to his peers , and initially believed Thomas Jane would acquire the role . " I started , literally , on the very , very bottom , " he iterated . " I couldn 't have had less heat on me . Nobody knew who I was . The casting directors didn 't know who I was . I wasn 't on anybody 's lists . The funny thing was , I think they went to Thomas Jane for it , and they were told that Thomas Jane does not do television . " Hamm went through seven auditions ; his last one took place at the Hotel Gansevoort in the Meatpacking District of New York City . " When we were riding down on the elevator , the woman in charge of whatever the decision @-@ making process was told me , ' You got the job . ' "
John Slattery , who was later cast as Roger Sterling , originally auditioned to portray Don Draper . Slattery felt Don was the show 's biggest draw , and was disappointed upon hearing of his character 's sparse screen time . He recalled , " I really did prepare the thing and went in and I worked hard on it and then read for Don and they actually gave me adjustments and I went and I did it again . And then they sort of said , ' Well , look , here ’ s the deal . We have a guy . The reason we asked you to come in and read for Draper is because we didn 't think that you ’ d come in a read for Roger because there wasn ’ t that much Roger in the script . ' " During production of " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes , " Slattery admitted he was unsure of whether to continue working on Mad Men . " I was on the fence a little bit , even while shooting it . And I think Matt finally was like , ' Look man , we ’ re not jerking you around here . We ’ re serious about this and I ’ ve really thought this out . I promise you this will be a great character and it will be a big part of the show . ' "
Producers of Mad Men approached January Jones to portray Betty Draper , Don 's wife and mother of their two children . Jones avouched that portraying the character would give the audience an opportunity to see a dark side of her nature . She initially auditioned for the role of Peggy Olson , which was later given to fellow cast member Elisabeth Moss . " It got down between Elisabeth Moss and myself , and it was obviously more suited to her , but Matthew had said , you know , there ’ s this other role , of the wife . " Jones signed a seven @-@ year contract with the show , although her character originally had two lines in " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes . " Weiner eventually edited the script to accommodate her desires . " It ’ s such a testament to his ability , " Jones stated . " He just took something out of thin air , which makes me think now that he had to have had an idea that the wife was going to be part of the show , because I kind of took the job with the promise that Betty would be a part of the show . When you sign a seven @-@ year contract , you want to make sure you ’ re in the show . " Christina Hendricks was brought in to play Joan Holloway , the office manager and head of Sterling Cooper 's secretarial pool . While Hendricks had previously made recurring appearances on ER before being on the show , her acting career had been largely inactive , and Hendricks ' agent urged her not to participate in the project . " They said to me , ' AMC [ ... ] doesn 't have any other big shows — why would you do this instead of taking something that 's a better bet ? ' I said , ' Look , I 've gone with the one that 's the better bet in the past — let 's go with the really good script this time . ' "
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " features guest appearances from several actors and actresses , including Rosemarie DeWitt ( as Midge ) and Maggie Siff ( as Rachel Menken ) . DeWitt was given a recurring role in the season as Don 's mistress , which lasted for six episodes . She initially felt out of place while playing out her character . DeWitt stated , " They were at the end of casting , and hadn 't found the right Midge yet . Originally they had a scene where she opens the door wearing a red kimono , and I remember thinking ' I 'm not that ' , so I wasn ’ t sure I was right for the part . Maybe the fact that I wasn 't this ' vamp ' is what made Matt Weiner give me a shot . " Prior to working on Mad Men , Siff mainly worked in theatre and performing arts .
= = = Filming = = =
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was budgeted at US $ 3 million , slightly more than the US $ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 million budgeted in typical Mad Men episodes . The pilot episode was mostly shot at various locations in and around New York City including the Silvercup Studios , where principal photography lasted for two days . Most of the production crew were previously part of The Sopranos . After filming concluded in New York , production moved to the Los Angeles Center Studios . Abraham collaborated with an entirely different production crew from the one in New York . According to Abraham , Los Angeles contained a continuity that was related to the show . " Once we moved to L.A. , there was a continuity of style that came from Alan and me , and that was important to Matt [ Weiner ] . "
In creating a practical effect , a grid consisting of fluorescent lights was installed onto the set that housed Sterling Cooper 's main office . The show 's art department bought several 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 four @-@ tube fixtures , which was determined to be accurate relative to the time period . The shipments arrived on the first day of filming the pilot . However , examination by the set @-@ lighting crew revealed the lightbulbs used were internally modernized , having been designed to hold T @-@ 8 bulbs measuring two feet each . " Getting more than 800 2 @-@ foot color @-@ corrected T @-@ 8 tubes became a major issue , and none of the regular suppliers had enough in stock , " recalled Mike Ambrose , the gaffer for the production team in Los Angeles . " Movietone stopped production of whatever bulbs it was making , retooled the plant and started manufacturing the T @-@ 8s we needed . The last shipment arrived the morning of our first day of shooting . "
Abraham created a light @-@ control system in an attempt to keep the overhead from being unflattering . However , after unsuccessfully attempting to implement the necessary wiring to control each light , the production team established controlling rows of light . Pat O 'Mara , the key grip during production , installed several 2x1 and 2x2 blackout panels and frames that were retrofitted with small albeit strong magnets . During a scene when and actor or actresses stood under a fluorescent light , a panel or a frame was placed over the fixture , subsequently diffusing light onto their faces . " If somebody was walking through the office in a wide shot , I just turned the overhead lights on . But if Don was talking to someone at his desk and the office was the backdrop , I turned all the lights on and then selectively removed some ; then , I brought the key around with Kino Flo Image 80s through 4 @-@ by @-@ 8 frames of 250 or 216 , or sourced my key with a larger Fresnel through the window . "
The set containing Sterling Cooper 's corporate offices contained skypans fitted with 5K bulbs onto the centers , which measured 8 inches apart . Ambrose collaborated with the production team to institute twenty @-@ five inch trusses on chain motors and to devise dollys with Arri Alexa cameras that were eventually installed on aluminum I @-@ beams . Ambrose proclaimed that the flexibility of the trolleys and chain motors enabled production to move more efficiently in concentrating on the design of the window . He added : " We also had four 20Ks and a few more T @-@ 12s on stands that could be rolled around the office floor . For tungsten close @-@ ups , we often used Barger @-@ Baglite six- and three @-@ light units with Chimeras , soft cloth , diaper baffles and 60- and 90 @-@ degree honeycomb grids for control . " In comparison , Ambrose used traditional lighting when creating the housing for the character , as he favored the color spectrum of a household lightbulb . For example , Don 's home required four to five rooms to be lit simultaneously . " We used a lot of batten strips with 100 @-@ watt household bulbs , " noted Ambrose . " The bulbs are so close they 're almost touching , so they create a single source that doesn 't cast multiple shadows . Over time , we built housings for them with channels into which you can slide diffusion frames or egg crates . We call them ' Whiteys ' because the guy who knocked these shells out of tin back in New York was named Whitey ; I used them extensively on The Sopranos and felt they suited the homes in Mad Men as well . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Controversy = = =
In the days leading to the " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " premiere , the watchdog group Commercial Alert filed a complaint against producers to the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States . Commentators from the group criticized distillery brand Jack Daniel 's for its decision to sponsor Mad Men , citing that it violates industry codes that prohibit alcohol marketing , as well " depictions of irresponsible drinking , overt sexual activity or sexually lewd images " . Robert Weissman , the director for Commercial Alert , stated that based on AMC 's website , " it appears that the sponsorship arrangement will violate numerous provisions of the industry 's self @-@ regulatory marketing code . " He continued : " There is no reason why a company should be able to escape normal enforcement and implementation of the Code simply because it chooses to violate the code in such brazen manner that curing the violation would cause non @-@ trivial complications for a major television series . " In association with the complaint , Weissman urged in his letter that the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States become more proactive in regulating the distilleries ' initiatives in the entertainment industry . " Our complaint in this instance is not with the portrayal of heavy alcohol consumption , or even with the glorification of such heavy consumption ; it is specific to industry sponsorship of and entwinement with such portrayals . Quite different issues are raised where artists choose to depict such activities in the absence of industry sponsorship . "
= = = Ratings and critical response = = =
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was originally broadcast on July 19 , 2007 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , the episode acquired a 1 @.@ 4 rating ( 1 @.@ 2 million households ) according to the Nielsen Media Research . Total viewership was 75 percent higher than all television programming airing on Thursdays on AMC .
Television commentators praised the pilot episode . Heather Havrilesky of Salon declared that " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " raised expectations for future competition at the time , and added that it emulated some of the best episodes of The Sopranos . Chicago Tribune journalist Maureen Ryan said that it was an " intelligently made character drama " . In his four star review , Adam Buckman of New York Post described it as " stunning " and suggested that Mad Men " just happens to be the finest new TV series of the summer and possibly the entire year " . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle and Variety 's Brian Lowry lauded the episode for its historical accuracy ; " Just because they 're on the cusp of a new decade does not mean they can see what viewers already know is around the corner , " stated Goodman . " That impending change gives an extra dimension of perspective to the series . " Lowry addressed that despite the subtle approach of Mad Men , it managed to provoke a profound meaning . " In that context , the show illustrates that period 's own form of excess without wagging fingers , while reminding us that before sex , drugs and rock ' n ' roll , there was sexual harassment , free @-@ flowing cocktails and bluesy ballads , invariably sung by white guys . " USA Today writer Robert Bianco echoed synonymous sentiment ; " Mad Men is a joy to watch — the clothes , the clocks , the furniture , it 's like a mid @-@ century night 's dream . But this is no mere period piece . It 's a smart , complex drama that attempts to get through the facades that have always hidden the truth . "
Troy Patterson of Slate drew comparisons to the HBO comedy @-@ drama Sex and the City , and affirmed that it introduced a lewd and cynical perspective of the so @-@ called " golden age " of advertisement . Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker concluded that " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was " smart and tremendously attractive " , while Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer journalist Melanie McFarland felt that it was a rarity compared to other television installments . Writing for the Boston Globe , Matthew Gilbert remarked that the setting and design was immediately distinguishable . Gilbert wrote , " This is a gorgeously fashioned period piece , from its IBM typewriters and rotary phones to the constant fog of cigarette smoke hanging over every scene . The show has a subtle color palette , to match the ivory metal Venetian blinds at the Sterling Cooper ad agency offices , but it may sit in your memory as if it had been filmed in black and white . " Citing its authenticity as an episode highlight , Randy Cordova from the Arizona Republic noted that " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was well @-@ constructed .
Some critics were less enthusiastic than the general consensus . Although The New Republic 's Sacha Zimmerman stated that the episode 's aesthetic features were comparable to cinematic works , she affirmed that Mad Men lacked any substance , ultimately criticizing the cultural references and the character development presented in the episode . Mad Men seems to be attempting satire without a plan , " Zimmerman said . " The mood is serious , not campy , and there aren 't laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments , just a lot of groaners — at which point , the show simply becomes a reflection of its characters : depressing . It turns out that watching moody , cruel men and unsatisfied , put @-@ upon women for an hour just isn 't that much fun . " Similarly , Tim Shale of The Washington Post concluded that despite the evocative nature of the program , " Smokes Gets in Your Eyes " fell flat ; " The people in and around them spoil the show , gum up the works and shatter veracity . " To New York 's John Leonard , the installment felt like a " fifties leftover " .
Commentators praised the performances of several cast members , specifically Hamm 's portrayal of Don Draper . Goodman asserted that the acting from the cast members was one of the aspects that carried the show . Gilbert evaluated that Hamm played his character to " slick perfection " .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards , " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " won Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series ( Matthew Weiner ) . The episode also won Creative Arts Emmys for Art Direction for a Single @-@ Camera Series and Cinematography for a One Hour Series . " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " also received a nomination for Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series ( Alan Taylor ) as well as Outstanding Costumes for a Series ( John A. Dunn , costume designer and Lisa Padovani , assistant costume designer ) . The episode also won a Casting Society of America Artios Award for Outstanding Casting in a Television Pilot , Drama . Alan Taylor won a 2007 Directors Guild of America Award for Drama Series directing the episode . The episode also earned a Motion Picture Sound Editors Golden Reel Award nomination in Best Sound Editing - Dialogue and ADR for Short Form Television for Jason George ( supervising sound editor ) , Jed M. Dodge ( supervising dialogue editor ) , Julie Altus ( ADR editor ) , Dale Chaloukian ( dialogue editor ) , and Charlie Kolander ( dialogue editor ) .
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= River Torrens =
The River Torrens / ˈtɒrənz / is the most significant river of the Adelaide Plains and was one of the reasons for the siting of the city of Adelaide , capital of South Australia . It flows 85 kilometres ( 53 mi ) from its source in the Adelaide Hills near Mount Pleasant , across the Adelaide Plains , past the city centre and empties into Gulf St Vincent between Henley Beach South and West Beach . The upper stretches of the river and the reservoirs in its watershed supply a significant part of the city 's water supply . The river 's long linear parks and a constructed lake in the lower stretch are iconic of the city .
At its 1836 discovery an inland bend was chosen as the site of the Adelaide city centre and North Adelaide . The river is named after Colonel Robert Torrens , chairman of the colonial commissioners and a significant figure in the city 's founding . The river is also known by its native Kaurna name Karra wirra @-@ parri . The river and its tributaries are highly variable in flow , and together drain an area of 508 square kilometres ( 196 sq mi ) . They range from sometimes raging torrents , damaging bridges and flooding city areas , to trickles and completely dry in summer . Winter and spring flooding has prompted the construction of flood reduction works . A constructed sea outlet , landscaped linear parks and three holding reservoirs contain peak flow .
The river 's flora and fauna have been both deliberately and accidentally impacted since settlement . In the 19th century , native forests were cleared , gravel removed for construction and many foreign species introduced . With construction of the linear parks , many species native to the river have been replanted , and introduced species have been controlled as weeds . Since European settlement the river has been a frequently touted tourist attraction . During the early years of settlement , the river acted as both the city 's primary water source and main sewer , leading to outbreaks of typhus and cholera .
= = Physiography = =
The River Torrens runs largely westward from the Adelaide Hills , through the centre of Adelaide to the Gulf St Vincent . It originates close to the eastern fault scarp of the Mount Lofty Ranges , near Mount Pleasant , approximately 480 metres ( 1 @,@ 575 ft ) above sea level . It runs predominantly along faulted north @-@ south ground structures , which were formed over 250 million years ago during the Paleozoic era then further dislocated during the Cretaceous and earliest Tertiary . There is a 400 metre subsidence along the Para Fault which also affects the rivers flow . This subsidence was formed in the last two million years , after the Pliocene era .
From its origin to Birdwood the river follows rolling , relatively level country before entering a hilly section that continues to Gumeracha . The river then follows sedimentary rock strata before entering a gorge after Cudlee Creek . It flows through the gorge to Athelstone , passing over the Eden Fault Zone of the Adelaide Hills face and associated escarpment . After the scarp it flows over sedimentary rocks of varying resistance to erosion , which has led to interspersed narrows and broad basins . From the base of the Adelaide Hills to Adelaide 's central business district it runs in a shallow valley with a terraced floor , then down the slope of its own alluvial fan . The structure of this fan shows that the river formerly entered Gulf St Vincent via the Port River . Over time the Torrens deposited sediment , choking its own outflow ; becoming locked behind coastal sand dunes and forming the swampy areas of the Cowandilla Plains and the reedbeds .
= = = Tributaries = = =
The Torrens is fed by numerous seasonal creeks , which are dry for most of the year . There are five main creeks that join from the south side as it crosses the Adelaide Plains east of Adelaide , and at least five more in its path through the Adelaide Hills . The plains tributaries , known as First to Fifth Creeks , with First being the closest to Adelaide 's city @-@ centre and the rest numbered consecutively eastward , were originally named Greenhill , Hallett , Todd , Anstey and Ormsley rivulets respectively . They flow vigorously in winter and spring but are otherwise dry , except for small flows in limited areas upstream . " Moriatta " a Kaurna word meaning " ever flowing " is now the official name of Fourth Creek . This name has been adapted to Morialta which is now the name of an electoral district , school and the Morialta Conservation Park through which the creek flows .
First , Second and Third Creeks have been particularly heavily modified . Some sections have been converted to concrete channels ; others run through landscaped private gardens and some run in underground pipes . Much of the original vegetation has disappeared from the creeks , particularly those closest to the city . Introduced species including Olives , bamboo , boxthorn , watsonia and blackberries have displaced native flora .
The largest catchment of the Torrens is Sixth Creek in the Adelaide Hills , which joins the Torrens at Castambul on Gorge Road .
= = = Water flow = = =
At the time of European settlement the river was a summertime chain of waterholes bounded by large gum trees . Flowing through the area where the city of Adelaide is sited the river was sometimes invisible beneath its gravel stream bed . It frequently flooded in winter and did not reach the sea , instead ending at coastal dunes where its waters created a vast but shallow freshwater wetlands . These wetlands , known as The Reedbeds after the dominant vegetation , occupied a large area of the western Adelaide Plains and was also fed by other waterways . The river only flowed to the sea through the Port River , Barker Inlet , and Patawalonga River following heavy rain .
The river 's catchment area of approximately 500 km2 ( 193 sq mi ) is the largest of any waterway within the Adelaide region . The upper reaches are used to create a potable water supply for metropolitan Adelaide with the river supplying three of Adelaide 's eight reservoirs . The upper catchment has an average annual rainfall of between 575 millimetres ( 22 @.@ 6 in ) at its eastern end to 1 @,@ 025 millimetres ( 40 @.@ 4 in ) near Uraidla . The Torrens has a very variable flow leaving early settlers to use trial and error in determining bridge heights , with many bridges consequently being washed away . Due to the variability of Adelaide 's climate , flow rates can change from a trickle to flood conditions quickly . On 5 June 1889 , prior to major flooding , the flow rate before it entered the suburbs was 0 @.@ 7 m ³ / s ( cubic metres per second ) , rising to 129 @.@ 1 m ³ / s , 8 days later .
What the River Torrens may be capable of performing for a week or two of the rainy season beyond sweeping down to the swamp the summer filth of Adelaide we cannot guess ; but the Torrens at other times is not a river at all , but merely a chain of fresh water pools . At the present moment , its running water may be spanned with the hand and sounded with the forefinger
Since settlement it has repeatedly flooded , sometimes with disastrous consequences . Adelaide 's western suburbs were especially prone to flooding due to their location on the river 's alluvial fan . As development of Adelaide progressed the amount of rainfall required for flooding decreased and consequent damage increased . Increased stormwater runoff , modification of the river 's banks and other changes all served to exacerbate the problem . Work done by various groups to minimise flooding was often counter productive with the creation of levees , moving and widening channels and other works simply shifting the flooding elsewhere .
Two early floods were , 18 September 1841 which resulted in two people drowning while trying to cross the river at Klemzig , and 22 September 1844 , the largest recorded since settlement began , when " Shands ' Brewery " was washed away after the river undermined its foundations . The 1899 flood was particularly widespread with extensive flooding of both the river and its tributaries , after a year with 785 @.@ 6 millimetres of rain compared to the Adelaide average of 530 millimetres . The river flooded market gardens and farms throughout its hills course causing extensive damage . Norwood was inundated to The Parade , Adelaide to Pirie and Rundle Streets , and many areas west of the city were left in a shallow lake . The river ran 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) deep over the weir near Thorndon Park Reservoir , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) over the Torrens Lake Weir and 1 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) over the Morphett Street Bridge . The Underdale ( or Holbrooks ) Bridge was destroyed , the Torrens Lake weir 's bridge damaged , and the Felixstow Bridge over the Fourth Creek washed away .
= = " Discovery " and naming = =
The first European sighting of the river was in November 1836 by an exploration party comprising Lieutenant W.G. Field , John Morphett and George Strickland Kingston . The river was named " The Yatala " by the party but later renamed by Surveyor General Colonel William Light after Colonel Robert Torrens , chairman of the South Australian colonisation commissioners . On 29 December 1836 Light announced the location of the new city of Adelaide , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland on the river 's banks . The first Europeans to explore the Torrens Gorge to the headwaters and sources of the river were Dr George Imlay and John Hill in January 1838 .
In recent years the river has been dually known by the indigenous Kaurna people 's name of Karra wirra @-@ parri ( meaning river of the Red Gum forest ) , referring to the dense eucalyptus forest that lined its banks prior to clearing by early settlers . This name , alternatively Karra @-@ weera , only referred to the lake section of the river , between Adelaide and North Adelaide . It was known as Karrundo @-@ ingga at Hindmarsh , Witoingga near the reed beds , and Yertala everywhere when in flood . Yertala has been translated as " water running by the side of a river " and has survived as Yatala in the naming of various places in Adelaide .
= = Changes after 1836 = =
During early years of colonisation , the surrounding trees were cut down and the river 's gravel used in road making and construction of buildings . As the natural environment was removed , the banks were eroded and the riverbed gradually levelled as waterholes filled . By 1878 the river was noted to be a malodorous , black sewer rather than the sylvan stream of the 1830s .
... anything in the guise of a river more ugly than the Torrens would be impossible to either see or describe ...
Much of the river 's catchment area consists of cleared farmland with run @-@ off captured in private dams to sustain farming over Adelaide 's dry summer . Combined with the river 's use for potable water this has greatly reduced the overall flow especially in the lower river .
= = = Flood mitigation = = =
A flood mitigation bill was passed in 1917 to not only combat the damage caused by floods but also the public health risk due to the lack of mains sewerage in the western suburbs . Popular opinion favoured diverting the flood waters into their " natural " outlets of the Port and Patawalonga Rivers . The chief engineer of the department of works favoured a cutting through sand dunes near Henley Beach , allowing the river an outlet , mitigating floods and preventing silting of the Port River . He also advocated the construction of a reservoir where the Kangaroo Creek Reservoir is now , to both mitigate floods and provide summer irrigation water for market gardens . Unfortunately the bill lapsed with no action as the government and local councils were unwilling to fund the works . The Millbrook Reservoir opened in 1918 as a summer water source , and flood mitigator if required . A bill was passed in 1923 to enact the earlier plan of cutting through the dunes and adding an upstream regulating weir . Again the bill lapsed due to a lack of commitment from parties on payment .
A major flood in 1931 and another in 1933 led to the latest in a series of government enquiries . In 1934 the " Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public Works " recommended that an outlet for the river be created to accommodate flows of up to 370 m ³ / s ( cubic metres per second ) ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) , covering a 1 in 60 year flood . The work was partly financed by a Commonwealth Government grant with the State Government arranging for the balance . The State Government , western and eastern local councils and the Municipal Tramways Trust shared interest costs . The scheme was enacted in 1935 and largely completed by 1939 with the creation of the " Breakout Creek " channel . The scheme involved diversion of the river at Lockleys ( near Adelaide Airport ) , with the original channel blocked and a new channel created to the sea . The reedbeds and swamps were subsequently drained and some of their area is now the site for the suburb of West Lakes .
Based on recommendations in a 1925 report on flood mitigation , work began in the 1960s on the building of the Kangaroo Creek Reservoir , opened in 1969 with a capacity of 24 @.@ 4 megalitres It remains the only reservoir damming the river rather than being fed from weirs . The " River Torrens Committee " was formed in 1964 to advise the minister of works on preserving and enhancing the river 's natural beauty , and developing it for recreational uses . The " River Torrens Acquisition Act 1970 @-@ 72 " was passed , authorising the purchase of land , in some cases 60 metres back from the top of the river 's banks .
By 1980 , further development along the riverbanks and removal of levées had reduced the outlet 's capacity to a 1 in 35 year flood . A study showed that a 1 in 200 year flood would inundate 13 @,@ 000 properties ; so the Kangaroo Creek dam 's level was raised , its spillway modified , the breakout creek channel capacity increased and some bridges reinforced . A development plan was approved in 1981 to purchase land along the length of the river , create a flood mitigating linear park and also to modify the Kangaroo Creek dam further . The sea outlet was enlarged to a capacity of 410 m ³ / s which now covered a 1 in 200 year flood . When the O @-@ Bahn Busway was opened , the bridges were designed to cope with this scale of flood , although the two bridges in St Peters would likely be awash .
= = = Torrens Lake = = =
The 470 megalitre Torrens Lake was created in 1881 with the construction of a weir , landscaping of Elder Park and modification of the river 's bank and surrounds into an English formal park . The lake forms a centrepiece of many Adelaide events and postcard scenes . Elder Park with its iron rotunda was opened on 28 November 1882 . The Rotunda is a largely Glasgow built 9 metre high iron bandstand which was funded by Sir Thomas Elder Smith , the park being named after him .
In 1867 , prison labour from Adelaide Gaol was used to build a wooden dam near the site of the current weir . The dam was poorly constructed and almost immediately the Torrens washed it away . Construction of a permanent concrete weir was begun in November 1880 and completed , at a cost of £ 7 @,@ 000 , in 1881 . The sluice gates were closed to begin filling the 12 @-@ hectare ( 30 @-@ acre ) Torrens Lake on 1 July 1881 . At the lake 's official opening on 21 July 1881 an estimated 40 @,@ 000 , almost the entire population of Adelaide , attended . During the 1889 flood , the weir was overwhelmed , its gates jammed , and in trying to free them the weir 's designer John Langdon was crippled . The weir was rebuilt from 1928 to 1929 with its footbridge relocated and the centre section replaced . The gates can now be fully raised and the river allowed to flow unimpeded .
The " Popeye " boats are privately owned recreational ferries that operate on the lake between Elder Park and the Adelaide Zoo . The first boat was launched on the Torrens Lake by Gordon Watts in 1935 . It was a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) boat , built on the banks of the Torrens to hold up to 20 passengers and named Popeye 1 . Watts purchased a former Glenelg cruise boat in 1948 and placed it in service as Popeye 2 . Over the next two years three new jarrah hulled boats were built at Port Adelaide ; carrying 40 passengers each they were numbered Popeye 3 through Popeye 5 . Trips on the Popeyes from Elder Park to the zoo became a treasured family outing and the boats hosted weddings and other events . In March 1962 Keith Altman , owner of riverside eatery " Jolley 's Boathouse " , took over the Popeyes and introduced recreational paddle boats to the river . The Popeyes had a brush with royalty in March 1977 with Popeye 5 ferrying Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip followed by a choir in Popeye 4 . Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser officially launched three new fibreglass models named Popeyes I , II and III in 1982 as the wooden boats ' replacements .
= = = Water use = = =
In the early days of Adelaide , the Torrens was used for bathing , stock watering , rubbish disposal , water supply and as a de facto sewer and drainage sump . This led to a range of health issues until finally , in 1839 , when a dysentery outbreak killed 5 children in one day , Governor Gawler forbid bathing , clothes washing and the disposal of animal carcases in the Torrens within 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of town . The quality of the river 's water was not helped by water supply methods . Carters used to drive water carts into the Torrens to refill . To prevent this the State Government built a facility with steam powered pumps and water storage in 1852 , from which the carters then filled .
The " Waterworks Act " of 1856 was passed to enable damming of the upstream Torrens for water supply purposes . The resulting " Water Commission " arranged the following year for foundations to be laid for a water supply weir 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Adelaide near Campbelltown . Unsuitable geology and shoddy work by contractors Frost & Watson led to it being washed away in July 1858 and the site abandoned . Engineer Hamilton was replaced by John England . Government then created a Waterworks Department , which started construction of a weir 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the city and reservoir at Thorndon Park in 1859 . The weir was completed on 4 June 1860 and the reservoir began supplying piped water in December . Engineer England was found by a Select Committee to have overpaid the contractors and forced to resign . The water was captured at the weir , piped for storage to the Thorndon Park Reservoir then to a water tower at Kent Town . Water from Kent Town storage was distributed via a manually controlled water system , unmetered for its first six years . Within six years 20 @,@ 000 citizens in Adelaide and Port Adelaide were connected to reticulated water from the Torrens . By 1872 , the 2840 megalitre Hope Valley Reservoir in the foothills of the Adelaide Hills was completed as a storage reservoir , supplied via an aqueduct and tunnel .
Public baths were built in 1861 just north of the current Parliament House . They were supplied with reticulated water from the Torrens and progressively upgraded with the last change a 1940 remodelling including an Olympic size swimming pool and diving tower . The baths were demolished in 1970 to make way for the Adelaide Festival Centre . The 16 @,@ 500 megalitre Millbrook Reservoir was constructed high in the Adelaide Hills from 1913 to 1918 submerging the town of Millbrook . An earth bank dam fed by mile long tunnel from a weir on the river at Gumeracha , its elevation allows gravity supply of water to Adelaide 's eastern suburbs .
= = = Bridges = = =
Due to the river 's path through the centre of Adelaide , transport necessitated the construction of many bridges . Prior to the bridges all crossings had been via fords which proved a dangerous practice in winter and spring . The first bridge was one of timber built in 1839 approximately 500 metres west of the current City bridge , but destroyed by floods in September 1844 . In 1849 £ 6000 was allocated to bridge the Torrens . Within four years three wooden bridges had been built and subsequently destroyed in floods . In June 1856 the English manufactured , iron City Bridge was opened , extending King William Street to North Adelaide . It was widened in 1877 then converted into a two @-@ lane bridge in 1884 . In 1929 a new wider , concrete bridge was proposed , to be the same width as King William Road and would relieve congestion , particularly on match days at the Adelaide Oval . The bridge was duly replaced in 1931 with the concrete arch structure proposed in 1929 . The distinctive lamp fittings and their pylons were designed by South Australian artist John C. Goodchild .
The Victoria Bridge extends from Morphett Street and crosses the rail lines from the Adelaide railway station and the river . The first bridge was opened on 21 June 1871 , and over time various bridges have been built on the same site . The current bridge , a prestressed concrete box girder bridge , was opened in March 1968 by then Premier of South Australia Don Dunstan , and Adelaide Lord Mayor Walter Lewis Bridgland . The bridge is constructed as two bridges joined to appear continuous . The first spans North Terrace and the rail lines , and the second the river . The bridge was designed without a central pillar in the river , allowing three lanes of rowers to compete without interference .
The Albert Bridge is adjacent to the Adelaide Zoo and carries Frome Road over the river . A timber bridge was constructed in 1859 , west of the current bridge , and named the Old Frome Bridge . The current bridge was named after Prince Albert , royal consort to Queen Victoria , on 7 May 1879 . The wrought iron structure is made from three parallel , scalloped girders that were manufactured in England . It is 120 feet ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) long with a cantilevered span of 60 feet ( 18 m ) . The bridge is 43 feet ( 13 m ) wide and originally had a timber deck , which was replaced with concrete in 1922 . The coats of arms on the inside of the bridge contains the city 's motto , Ut Prosint Omnibus Conjuncti which translates as " united for the common good . " The bridge is listed on the " City of Adelaide Heritage Register " , the " South Australian Heritage Register " and the " Register of the National Estate " . A complete restoration was finished in 1982 , with the bridge now appearing as it did at the 1879 opening .
Torrens River Park Pedestrian Bridge east of the zoo , was opened in late 2009 and is well patronised by cyclists .
The Hackney Bridge was first known as the " Second Company Bridge " as the South Australia Company built it . It was built so that wheat farmers from the northern side could access the South Australian Company 's flour mill which stood where the Hackney Hotel was later built . The current bridge is the third at the same site ; in 1845 " Prescott 's Crossing " was built as a timber beam bridge , 1860 saw it replaced with a four span , trussed timber bridge and 5 December 1885 with a 126 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) long , 34 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) wide truss arch bridge .
University Footbridge connects Victoria Drive , at the rear of University of Adelaide , with University Oval , War Memorial Drive . The bridge was conceived in 1928 by an engineering undergraduate at the university and funded with a £ 26 @,@ 000 grant from Adelaide City Council . It was designed by university staff under the supervision of Robert Chapman , chief engineer of the South Australian Railways . Construction was delayed until 1937 due to the economic effects of the Great Depression . The bridge has an arch spanning 152 ft ( 46 m ) , 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) over the river , and was the first welded bridge in South Australia . A murder that occurred in the vicinity of the bridge on 10 May 1972 resulted in calls to reform South Australia 's laws regarding homosexuality . University of Adelaide law lecturer Dr George Duncan was thrown into the river . A plaque on the bridge commemorates his death and the subsequent decriminalisation of homosexuality in South Australia .
Various other bridges have spanned the Torrens including :
Railway Bridge , Built in 1856 to carry the Port and Gawler Town railway lines . The bridge was constructed 1 @.@ 5 km from Adelaide railway station .
Felixstowe Bridge , built in 1873 on OG Road and reconstructed in 1892 , 1901 , 1924 and 1961 . The first bridge was narrow , and hay @-@ laden carts often damaged posts while brushing past them .
Tennyson Bridge , built 1877 on Stephen Terrace , St Peters , replacing a ford at the same site .
Ascot Bridge , built in 1970 to connect Ascot Avenue and Lower Portrush Road .
Dickson 's Crossing , built on Darley Road in 1977 to replace a ford .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The river was formerly a food source with yabbies , mussels and small fish , however the reduction in water quality , changing of the river 's habitat , and introduction of European fish species has led to a reduction in fauna quantity and diversity . Exotic pest species such as the European carp , redfin perch and trout have greatly reduced native fish populations like the big headed gudgeon ( Philypnodon grandiceps ) but native waterfowl are common along the river with Pacific black ducks , Australian wood ducks , black swans , ibis , egrets and herons amongst the more than 100 species seen . The number of exotic waterfowl species such as mallards has reduced in recent years . In places the steep banks of the river are an ideal habitat for long @-@ necked tortoises .
The river , and its tributaries , had a population of water rats ( Hydromys chrysogaster ) and Australian swamp rats ( Rattus lutreolus ) . Water rats remain in reduced numbers , but the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) and brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) have largely supplanted the natives . The house mouse ( Mus musculus ) is now the most common mammal of the Torrens environ .
Widely found native reeds , sedges and rushes along the upper river are bulrush , knobby club rush , spike rush , common reed , sea rush and pale rush . River red gum ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) and blue gum ( Eucalyptus leucoxylon ) trees are found along the riverbanks , although sparser than the forest that was seen by European discoverers . Still present are many of the original vegetation species like : Sheoak ( Casuarina stricta ) , native cherry ( Exocarpos cupressiformis ) , native pine ( Callitris preissii ) and Australia 's floral emblem the golden wattle ( Acacia pycnantha )
= = Today 's river = =
From its source the river flows westwards through Birdwood and Gumeracha . It then continues down through Torrens Gorge entering suburban Adelaide at Athelstone with some of its path paralleled by the O @-@ Bahn Busway . It passes between the city @-@ centre and North Adelaide , forming the Torrens Lake between the Adelaide Zoo and a weir opposite Adelaide Gaol . The river then continues the remaining eight kilometres to the sea at Henley Beach South , emptying into Gulf St Vincent via a constructed outlet .
Hope Valley , Millbrook and Kangaroo Creek Reservoirs , which provide water storage for Adelaide , capture the river 's flow . These reservoirs form part of the Adelaide Hills catchment , which supplies 60 % of Adelaide 's water needs in an average year . Adelaide City Council uses water from the lower river to irrigate the city 's surrounding parklands . Rubbish accumulation in the lower river is controlled with numerous collection racks , and sediments and other pollutants are filtered through constructed wetlands .
The earliest linear river park in Australia bounds the suburban end of the river . The park is 35 km long with numerous playgrounds walkways and bicycle tracks . On the south bank of the lake , adjacent to the Adelaide Festival Centre , Elder Park is used for the annual Tasting Australia festival , mass singing of christmas carols at the annual " Carols by Candlelight " , and other public events throughout the year . The Popeye tourist boats , small paddle boats and Black Swans of the lake are icons of the area and frequently featured in postcard photographs of the city . Due to now @-@ limited natural river flow and stormwater born organic material , the lower river , ( particularly the lake ) , is often polluted with algal blooms and significant levels of E. coli bacteria in spring and summer . Numerous taskforces have been formed to improve the river 's water quality , including one created in 2006 by the Minister for the Environment and Conservation .
The river is a used by many for recreation , with the footpaths on the riverbanks often filled with cyclists and joggers . Rowers use the lake for training all year round , and many clubs such as the Adelaide University Boat Club , the Adelaide Rowing Club , and the boat houses of the secondary schools which participate in the annual Head of the River are located upon its banks . Several rowing regattas are held on the Torrens Lake course in the summer months of each year , contested by both club and school crews .
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= Alan Julian =
Alan John Julian ( born 11 March 1983 ) is a semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for National League club Bromley .
Julian started his career at Brentford , progressing through the youth side and making his first @-@ team debut in 2002 . After failing to cement a place as Brentford 's number one goalkeeper , he left to join Stevenage Borough in February 2005 . Julian was a regular fixture in the side , helping the club win the FA Trophy in May 2007 . He left Stevenage to join Gillingham on a free transfer in May 2008 . Julian was released by Gillingham in May 2011 , having played 80 games for the club during his three @-@ year tenure . He spent a season at his former club , now called simply Stevenage , before being released in May 2012 , and subsequently joined Newport County a month later . He was released by the club in May 2013 , and subsequently joined Dartford on a free transfer .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Julian joined Brentford aged nine , following a successful trial . He progressed through the various youth ranks and eventually signed his first professional contract in 2002 . He made his debut for the club in the Brentford 's 1 – 0 victory over Plymouth Argyle in the Football League Trophy on 12 November 2002 . During the match , Julian was " forced into numerous good saves . His best stop came in the 21st minute when he managed to claw away a stinging drive from Hasney Aljofree , and moments later he also denied Blair Sturrock with a low block " . He made a further three appearances during the 2002 – 03 season , keeping a clean sheet in a 1 – 0 win over Mansfield Town . At the end of the season , Julian signed a new contract with Brentford , keeping him contracted to the club until 2005 . Julian remained at Brentford during the club 's 2003 – 04 campaign , playing his first match of the season in a 4 – 0 away defeat to West Bromwich Albion . He made a total of 14 appearances for Brentford during the season . Julian left Brentford in February 2005 , claiming " the time had come " for him to experience first @-@ team football on a regular basis .
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
He signed for Stevenage Borough on a free transfer on 4 February 2005 , making his debut in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 win over Scarborough . Julian kept seven clean sheets for Stevenage in 17 appearances during the second half of the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign , including in a 1 – 0 victory against Hereford United at Edgar Street in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final second leg – a win that meant Stevenage were one game away from reaching the Football League for the first time in their history . He played in the play @-@ off final against Carlisle United at the Britannia Stadium , which Stevenage lost 1 – 0 . He remained at Stevenage during the 2005 – 06 season , " attracting interest from scouts " as a result of Stevenage 's strong start to the season . Stevenage kept 12 clean sheets during the season , although failed to make the play @-@ offs following a 2 – 0 defeat at Forest Green Rovers , finishing sixth . Julian made 45 appearances for Stevenage during the campaign and was voted ' Supporters Association Player of the Year ' .
At the end of the 2005 – 06 season , Graham Westley , the man that had brought Julian to Stevenage , left the club and was replaced by Mark Stimson . Stimson signed goalkeeper Danny Potter and stated that Potter would be the club 's first choice goalkeeper . Julian was subsequently an unused substitute for Stevenage 's first two games of the season . However , after Potter was sent @-@ off in Stevenage 's home game against Crawley Town , Julian made his first appearance of the season , coming on as a 63rd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 2 defeat . Julian remained first choice goalkeeper from then onwards , making 53 appearances for the club during the 2006 – 07 season as Stevenage finished eighth in the Conference National . Eight of Julian 's appearances during the season came in the club 's successful FA Trophy campaign , keeping four clean sheets in the process . He also made a number vital saves in the club 's semi @-@ final second leg against Grays Athletic , which Stevenage went on to win by a 3 – 1 aggregate scoreline . Julian started in the Final , which Stevenage won 3 – 2 against Kidderminster Harriers at Wembley Stadium in front of a crowd of 53 @,@ 262 . The win meant that Julian was part of the first team to win a competitive final at the new stadium .
Julian remained at Stevenage for a fourth consecutive season , starting in the club 's first game of the 2007 – 08 season , a 2 – 1 defeat at Crawley Town . He kept his first clean sheet of the season in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 home win against Weymouth . This served as the catalyst for a run of eight games without conceding a goal , equalling a Conference National record when they beat Farsley Celtic 4 – 0 at Broadhall Way . Julian went a total of 778 minutes without conceding a goal . After manager Mark Stimson left Stevenage to join Gillingham , Julian refused to sign a new contract , stating he wanted to " keep his options open for the summer " . As a result , he was transfer @-@ listed in January 2008 . Despite being on the transfer @-@ list , Julian remained first choice goalkeeper under new manager Peter Taylor until Stevenage 's 3 – 1 home defeat to Torquay United on 12 April 2008 , his final appearance of the season . He made 44 appearances during the 2007 – 08 season . During his three and a half @-@ year tenure at Stevenage , Julian made a total of 159 appearances in all competitions .
= = = Gillingham = = =
Julian joined Gillingham on a free transfer on 21 May 2008 , joining up with former Stevenage manager Mark Stimson . He made his debut for Gillingham in the club 's League Cup first round 1 – 0 home defeat against Colchester United on 12 August 2008 . Four days later , Julian made his first league start for Gillingham , playing the whole match in a 1 – 0 home loss to Luton Town . He did not make another first @-@ team appearance until November 2008 , when he kept a clean sheet in a 1 – 0 away win at Macclesfield Town . A week later , he kept another clean sheet as Gillingham beat Bury 1 – 0 at Gigg Lane in the FA Cup . After six weeks without a first @-@ team appearance , Julian played in Gillingham 's 2 – 0 away loss at Dagenham & Redbridge . His next first @-@ team appearance was five months later , playing in a 1 – 0 away victory at Rochdale , with Gillingham having already secured a play @-@ off place . It was Julian 's last appearance of the 2008 – 09 campaign as Gillingham secured promotion back to League One after a 1 – 0 play @-@ off Final win against Shrewsbury Town . He made six appearances during his first season with the club , keeping three clean sheets .
Ahead of the 2009 – 10 campaign , manager Mark Stimson admitted he was undecided as to whether Julian or Simon Royce would start in the club 's opening fixture of the season . Julian ultimately started in the club 's 5 – 0 home win against Swindon Town on the first day of the season . After three straight defeats in the space of a week with Gillingham conceding seven goals , Julian was replaced by Royce ahead of the club 's League Cup game against Blackburn Rovers . After the game , Julian only featured twice in the space of four months , both appearances coming in Football League Trophy fixtures . Julian handed in a transfer request in November 2009 as a result of a lack of first @-@ team appearances . However , Gillingham received no offers for the player , with manager Mark Stimson saying " I haven 't had a phone call . He 's been on the loan circuit for four to six weeks and I haven 't had a call . You don 't just say I 'm on the transfer list and six teams come in for you " . He remained at Gillingham , and after appearing in Gillingham 's 2 – 1 away loss at Huddersfield Town in December 2009 , Julian remained as a first choice goalkeeper until the end of the season . The club went the whole season without an away victory , and were relegated back to League Two on the final day of the season following a 3 – 0 defeat to Wycombe Wanderers . Julian made 33 appearances during the 2009 – 10 season , keeping eight clean sheets .
Under the new management of Andy Hessenthaler , Julian started the 2010 – 11 season as first choice goalkeeper , starting in the club 's first game of the season , a 1 – 1 draw with Cheltenham Town on 7 August 2010 . However , similarly to the 2009 – 10 season , Julian lost his first @-@ team place after a winless run at the start of the campaign . New signing Lance Cronin impressed in an away draw against Morecambe , and kept Julian out of the first @-@ team for five weeks . After Gillingham 's 7 – 4 away loss at Accrington Stanley , Julian regained his first @-@ team place , playing in a 2 – 1 home win against Stockport County on 9 October 2010 . Julian was part of the side that ended Gillingham 's 35 game winless away streak when they won 1 – 0 against Oxford United at the Kassam Stadium on 20 November 2010 , making a number of key saves during the game . He remained as first choice goalkeeper throughout the season as Gillingham finished in eighth position in League Two , narrowly missing out on a play @-@ off place after losing three out of their last four games . Julian made 41 appearances for Gillingham in all competitions during the 2010 – 11 season , keeping 12 clean sheets . Despite being the club 's first choice goalkeeper during the campaign , Julian was told that he no longer featured in the club 's plans , and was subsequently released on 11 May 2011 . He made 80 appearances in all competitions for Gillingham during the three years he spent at the club .
= = = Return to Stevenage = = =
In June 2011 , Julian re @-@ joined his former club , now renamed simply Stevenage , on a free transfer , three years after leaving the club . The move meant that Julian would be playing under the management of Graham Westley once more , who first brought Julian to Stevenage in 2005 – Westley said " Alan sees the opportunity in the long term and we all know how much quality he will bring into the squad . He is a different type of character but another man that you would happily go into the trenches with " . On signing for Stevenage , Julian said " I had a great time at Stevenage before and coming back now and we are in League One , it is a dream come true " . As a result of Chris Day dislocating his finger , Julian started in the club 's first game of the 2011 – 12 campaign , keeping a clean sheet in Stevenage 's 0 – 0 home draw against Exeter City . He played the first three games of the season , before first choice goalkeeper Chris Day returned from injury . Julian made just two further appearances during the campaign ; in a 2 – 2 draw with AFC Wimbledon in the Football League Trophy , and an appearance as a second @-@ half substitute in Stevenage 's 2 – 2 home draw against Huddersfield Town . He was released by Stevenage when his contract expired in May 2012 .
= = = Newport County = = =
In June 2012 , Julian joined Conference National side Newport County on a free transfer . In Newport 's first pre @-@ season game ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , away to Caldicot Town , Julian suffered a knee ligament injury . He subsequently missed the first three months of the season , before eventually making his first @-@ team debut for Newport on 17 November 2012 , in a 3 – 1 home defeat to Hyde . Julian went on to make eleven appearances during a campaign in which Newport would return to the Football League after a 25 @-@ year absence following the club 's 2 – 0 play @-@ off final victory over Wrexham in May 2013 .
= = = Dartford = = =
He was released by Newport at the end of the season , and subsequently signed for Dartford . On securing the signing of Julian , Dartford manager Tony Burman stated — " After meeting Alan a couple of times , I was impressed with his professionalism and I am looking forward to having someone of his experience here at Dartford " . Julian was voted Dartford 's player of the season for the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Sutton United = = =
Following his departure from Dartford , Julian signed for Sutton United . However , following an injury in pre @-@ season , Julian found opportunities limited , before eventually making 14 league appearances . He eventually left the club along with fellow goalkeeper Tom Lovelock in January 2015 .
= = = Bromley = = =
Soon after , he joined Sutton 's league rivals Bromley . He made his debut for the club in a 2 – 1 away win over Basingstoke Town .
= = International career = =
Julian has played once for the Northern Ireland U21 side , playing in a 0 – 0 draw against Switzerland U21 in August 2004 .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage
FA Trophy ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07
Newport County
Conference National play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
Individual
Stevenage Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
Dartford Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
= = Career statistics = =
As of 9th May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
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= Raoul Wallenberg =
Raoul Gustaf Wallenberg ( 4 August 1912 – disappeared 17 January 1945 ) was a Swedish architect , businessman , diplomat and humanitarian . He is widely celebrated for saving tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi @-@ occupied Hungary during the Holocaust from German Nazis and Hungarian Fascists during the later stages of World War II . While serving as Sweden 's special envoy in Budapest between July and December 1944 , Wallenberg issued protective passports and sheltered Jews in buildings designated as Swedish territory .
On 17 January 1945 , during the Siege of Budapest by the Red Army , Wallenberg was detained by SMERSH on suspicion of espionage and subsequently disappeared . He was later reported to have died on 17 July 1947 while imprisoned by communist authorities and KGB secret police in the Lubyanka , the KGB headquarters and affiliated prison in Moscow . The motives behind Wallenberg 's arrest and imprisonment by the Soviet government , along with questions surrounding the circumstances of his death and his possible ties to US intelligence , remain mysterious and are the subject of continued speculation .
Due to his courageous actions on behalf of the Hungarian Jews , Raoul Wallenberg has been the subject of numerous humanitarian honors in the decades following his presumed death . In 1981 , U.S. Congressman Tom Lantos , himself one of those saved by Wallenberg , sponsored a bill making Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States . He was the second person ever to receive this honor , after Winston Churchill ( and unlike Churchill , neither of his parents had been born in the United States ) . Wallenberg is also an honorary citizen of Canada , Hungary , Australia and Israel . Israel has also designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous Among the Nations . Monuments have been dedicated to him , and streets have been named after him throughout the world . A Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States was created in 1981 to " perpetuate the humanitarian ideals and the nonviolent courage of Raoul Wallenberg . " It gives the Raoul Wallenberg Award annually to recognize persons who carry out those goals . Postage stamps have been issued in his honour by Australia , Hungary , Sweden , Canada and the United States . On 26 July 2012 , he was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress " in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust . "
= = Early life = =
Wallenberg was born in 1912 in Lidingö , near Stockholm , where his maternal grandparents , professor Per Johan Wising and his wife Sophie Wising , had built a summer house in 1882 . His paternal grandfather , Gustaf Wallenberg , was a diplomat and envoy to Tokyo , Istanbul and Sofia .
His parents , who married in 1911 , were Raoul Oscar Wallenberg ( 1888 – 1912 ) , a Swedish naval officer , and Maria " Maj " Sofia Wising ( 1891 – 1979 ) . His father died of cancer three months before he was born , and his maternal grandfather died of pneumonia three months after his birth . His mother and grandmother , now both suddenly widows , raised him together . In 1918 , his mother married Fredrik von Dardel ; they had a son , Guy von Dardel , and a daughter , Nina Lagergren .
After high school and his compulsory eight months in the Swedish military , Wallenberg 's paternal grandfather sent him to study in Paris . He spent one year there , and then , in 1931 , he matriculated at the University of Michigan in the United States to study architecture . Although the Wallenberg family was rich , he worked at odd jobs in his free time and joined other young male students as a passenger rickshaw handler at Chicago 's Century of Progress . He used his vacations to explore the United States , with hitchhiking being his preferred method of travel . About his experiences , he wrote to his grandfather saying , " When you travel like a hobo , everything ’ s different . You have to be on the alert the whole time . You ’ re in close contact with new people every day . Hitchhiking gives you training in diplomacy and tact . "
Wallenberg was aware of his one @-@ sixteenth Jewish ancestry , and proud of it . It came from his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather ( his maternal grandmother 's grandfather ) Michael Benedicks , who immigrated to Stockholm in 1780 . Professor Ingemar Hedenius ( one of the leading Swedish philosophers ) recalls a conversation with Raoul dating back to 1930 , when they were together in an army hospital during military service :
We had many long and intimate conversations . He was full of ideas and plans for the future . Although I was a good deal older - you could choose when to do your service - I was enormously impressed by him . He was proud of his partial Jewish ancestry and , as I recall , must have exaggerated it somewhat . I remember him saying , ' A person like me , who is both a Wallenberg and half @-@ Jewish , can never be defeated ' .
He graduated from university in 1935 , but upon his return to Sweden , he found his American degree did not qualify him to practice as an architect . Later that year , his grandfather arranged a job for him in Cape Town , South Africa , in the office of a Swedish company that sold construction material . After six months in South Africa , he took a new job at a branch office of the Holland Bank in Haifa . He returned to Sweden in 1936 and obtained a job in Stockholm with the help of his uncle and godfather , Jacob Wallenberg , at the Central European Trading Company , an export @-@ import company trading between Stockholm and central Europe , owned by Kálmán Lauer , a Hungarian Jew .
= = World War II = =
Beginning in 1938 , the Kingdom of Hungary , under the regency of Miklós Horthy , passed a series of anti @-@ Jewish measures modeled on the so @-@ called Nuremberg Race Laws enacted in Germany by the Nazis in 1935 . Like their German counterparts , the Hungarian laws focused heavily on restricting Jews from certain professions , reducing the number of Jews in government and public service jobs , and prohibiting intermarriage . Because of this , Wallenberg 's business associate , Kalman Lauer , found it increasingly difficult to travel to his native Hungary , which was moving still deeper into the German orbit , becoming a member of the Axis powers in November 1940 and later joining the German @-@ led invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 . Out of necessity Wallenberg became Lauer 's personal representative , traveling to Hungary to conduct business on Lauer 's behalf and also to look in on members of Lauer 's extended family who remained in Budapest . He soon learned to speak Hungarian , and from 1941 made increasingly frequent travels to Budapest . Within a year , Wallenberg was a joint owner and the International Director of the company . In this capacity Wallenberg also made several business trips to Germany and Occupied @-@ France during the early years of World War II . It was during these trips that Wallenberg was able to closely observe the Nazis ' bureaucratic and administrative methods , knowledge which would prove quite valuable to him later .
Meanwhile , the situation in Hungary had begun to deteriorate as the tide of the war began to turn decisively against Germany and its allies . Following the catastrophic Axis defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad ( in which Hungarian troops fighting alongside German forces suffered a staggering 84 % casualty rate ) the regime of Miklos Horthy began secretly pursuing peace talks with the United States and the United Kingdom . Upon learning of Horthy 's duplicity , Adolf Hitler ordered the occupation of Hungary by German troops in March 1944 . The Wehrmacht quickly took control of the country and placed Horthy under house arrest . A pro @-@ German puppet government was installed in Budapest , with actual power resting with the German military governor , SS @-@ Brigadeführer Edmund Veesenmayer . With the Nazis now in control , the relative security from the Holocaust enjoyed by the Jews of Hungary came to an end . In April and May 1944 the Nazi regime and its accomplices began the mass deportation of Hungary 's Jews to extermination camps in Nazi @-@ occupied Poland . Under the personal leadership of SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann , who would later be tried and hanged in Israel for his major role in the implementation of the Nazis ' Final Solution , deportations took place at a rate of 12 @,@ 000 individuals per day .
= = = Recruitment by the War Refugee Board = = =
The persecution of the Jews in Hungary soon became well known abroad , unlike the full extent of the Holocaust . At the end of May 1944 , George Mantello publicized two important reports . One of the reports was probably Rabbi Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl 's five @-@ page abridged version of the 33 @-@ page Auschwitz Protocols : both the Vrba – Wetzler report and Rosin @-@ Mordowicz report . The reports described in detail the operations of the Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau extermination camp . The second was a 6 @-@ page Hungarian report , that detailed the Ghettoization and deportation of 435 @,@ 000 already deported Hungarian Jews , updated to 19 June 1944 , town by town , to Auschwitz . The report 's publication resulted in Winston Churchill 's letter : " There is no doubt that this persecution of Jews in Hungary and their expulsion from enemy territory is probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed in the whole history of the world .... "
Following the report 's publication , the administration of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt turned to the newly created War Refugee Board ( WRB ) established as a result of activism by the " Bergson Group " led by Hillel Kook and later by Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr and team in search of a solution to the humanitarian crisis in Hungary . In spring 1944 , President Roosevelt dispatched US Treasury Department official Iver C. Olsen to Stockholm as a representative of the WRB . Olsen was tasked specifically by the President with finding a way to aid the Hungarian Jews . This , however , was not the sole reason for Olsen being posted to Sweden . In addition to his duties with the WRB , Olsen was also secretly functioning as the chief of currency operations for the Stockholm branch of the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , the United States ' wartime espionage service .
In search of someone willing and able to go to Budapest to organize a rescue program for the nation 's Jews , Olsen established contact with a relief committee composed of many prominent Swedish Jews led by the Swedish Chief Rabbi Marcus Ehrenpreis to locate an appropriate person to travel to Budapest under diplomatic cover and lead the rescue operation . One member of the committee was Wallenberg 's business associate Kalman Lauer .
The committee 's first choice to lead the mission was Count Folke Bernadotte , the vice @-@ chairman of the Swedish Red Cross and a member of the Swedish Royal Family . When Bernadotte 's proposed appointment was rejected by the Hungarians , Lauer suggested Wallenberg as a potential replacement . Olsen was introduced to Wallenberg by Lauer in June 1944 and came away from the meeting impressed and , shortly thereafter , appointed Wallenberg to lead the mission . Olsen 's selection of Wallenberg was initially met with objections from some US officials who doubted his reliability , in light of existing commercial relationships between businesses owned by the Wallenberg family and the German government . These differences were eventually overcome and the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs agreed to the American request to assign Wallenberg to its legation in Budapest as part of an arrangement in which Wallenberg 's appointment was granted in exchange for a lessening of American diplomatic pressure on neutral Sweden to curtail their nation 's free @-@ trade policies toward Germany .
= = Mission to Budapest = =
When Wallenberg reached the Swedish legation in Budapest in July 1944 , the campaign against the Jews of Hungary had already been underway for several months . Between May and July 1944 , Eichmann and his associates had successfully deported over 400 @,@ 000 Jews by freight train . Of those deported all but 15 @,@ 000 were sent directly to the German Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau concentration camp in southern Poland . By the time of Wallenberg 's arrival there were only 230 @,@ 000 Jews remaining in Hungary . Together with fellow Swedish diplomat Per Anger , he issued " protective passports " ( German : Schutz @-@ Pass ) , which identified the bearers as Swedish subjects awaiting repatriation and thus prevented their deportation . Although not legal , these documents looked official and were generally accepted by German and Hungarian authorities , who sometimes were also bribed . The Swedish legation in Budapest also succeeded in negotiating with the German authorities so that the bearers of the protective passes would be treated as Swedish citizens and be exempt from having to wear the yellow badge required for Jews .
With the money raised by the board , Wallenberg rented 32 buildings in Budapest and declared them to be extraterritorial , protected by diplomatic immunity . He put up signs such as " The Swedish Library " and " The Swedish Research Institute " on their doors and hung oversized Swedish flags on the front of the buildings to bolster the deception . The buildings eventually housed almost 10 @,@ 000 people .
Sandor Ardai , one of the drivers working for Wallenberg , recounted what Wallenberg did when he intercepted a trainload of Jews about to leave for Auschwitz :
.. he climbed up on the roof of the train and began handing in protective passes through the doors which were not yet sealed . He ignored orders from the Germans for him to get down , then the Arrow Cross men began shooting and shouting at him to go away . He ignored them and calmly continued handing out passports to the hands that were reaching out for them . I believe the Arrow Cross men deliberately aimed over his head , as not one shot hit him , which would have been impossible otherwise . I think this is what they did because they were so impressed by his courage . After Wallenberg had handed over the last of the passports he ordered all those who had one to leave the train and walk to the caravan of cars parked nearby , all marked in Swedish colours . I don 't remember exactly how many , but he saved dozens off that train , and the Germans and Arrow Cross were so dumbfounded they let him get away with it .
At the height of the program , over 350 people were involved in the rescue of Jews . Sister Sára Salkaházi was caught sheltering Jewish women and was killed by members of the Arrow Cross Party . Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz also issued protective passports from the Swiss embassy in the spring of 1944 ; and Italian businessman Giorgio Perlasca posed as a Spanish diplomat and issued forged visas . Portuguese diplomats Sampaio Garrido and Carlos de Liz @-@ Texeira Branquinho rented houses and apartments to shelter and protect refugees from deportation and murder and issued safe conducts to approximately 1 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews . Berber Smit ( Barbara Hogg ) , the daughter of Lolle Smit ( 1892 – 1961 ) , director of N.V. Philips Budapest and a Dutch spy working for the British MI6 , also assisted Wallenberg . According to her son , she had a romance with him . Smit 's other daughter , Reinderdina Petronella ( 1922 – 1945 ) , died on 18 August 1945 in Bucharest .
Wallenberg started sleeping in a different house each night , to guard against being captured or killed by Arrow Cross Party members or by Adolf Eichmann 's men . Two days before the Soviet Army occupied Budapest , Wallenberg negotiated with both Eichmann and Major @-@ General Gerhard Schmidthuber , the supreme commander of German forces in Hungary . Wallenberg bribed Arrow Cross Party member Pál Szalai to deliver a note in which Wallenberg persuaded the occupying Germans to prevent a Fascist plan to blow up the Budapest ghetto and kill an estimated 70 @,@ 000 Jews and cancel a final effort to organize a death march of the remaining Jews in Budapest by threatening to have them prosecuted for war crimes once the war was over .
People saved by Wallenberg include biochemist Lars Ernster , who was housed in the Swedish embassy , and Tom Lantos , later a member of the United States House of Representatives , who lived in one of the Swedish protective houses .
= = Disappearance = =
On 29 October 1944 , elements of the 2nd Ukrainian Front under Marshal Rodion Malinovsky launched an offensive against Budapest and by late December the city had been successfully encircled by Soviet forces . Despite this the German commander of Budapest , SS Lieutenant General Karl Pfeffer @-@ Wildenbruch , refused all offers to surrender , setting in motion a protracted and bloody siege of Budapest . At the height of the fighting , on 17 January 1945 , Wallenberg was called to General Malinovsky 's headquarters in Debrecen to answer allegations that he was engaged in espionage . Wallenberg 's last recorded words were , " I 'm going to Malinovsky 's ... whether as a guest or prisoner I do not know yet . " Documents recovered in 1993 from previously secret Soviet military archives and published in the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet show that an order for Wallenberg 's arrest was issued by Deputy Commissar for Defence ( and future Soviet Premier ) Nikolai Bulganin and transmitted to Malinovsky 's headquarters on the day of Wallenberg 's disappearance . In 2003 , a review of Soviet wartime correspondences indicated that Vilmos Böhm , a Hungarian politician who was also a Soviet intelligence agent , may have provided Wallenberg 's name to the SMERSH as a person to detain for possible involvement in espionage .
Information about Wallenberg after his detention is mostly speculative ; there were many witnesses who claim to have met him during his imprisonment . Wallenberg was transported by train from Debrecen , through Romania , to Moscow . The Soviet authorities may have moved him to Moscow in the hope of exchanging him for defectors in Sweden . Vladimir Dekanozov notified the Swedish government on 16 January 1945 that Wallenberg was under the protection of Soviet authorities . On 21 January 1945 , Wallenberg was transferred to Lubyanka prison and held in cell 123 with fellow prisoner Gustav Richter , formerly a police attaché at the German embassy in Romania . Richter testified in Sweden in 1955 that Wallenberg was interrogated once for about an hour and a half , in early February 1945 . On 1 March 1945 , Richter was moved from his cell and never saw Wallenberg again .
On 8 March 1945 , Soviet @-@ controlled Hungarian radio announced that Wallenberg and his driver had been murdered on their way to Debrecen , suggesting that they had been killed by the Arrow Cross Party or the Gestapo . Sweden 's foreign minister , Östen Undén , and its ambassador to the Soviet Union , Staffan Söderblom , wrongly assumed that they were dead . In April 1945 , W. Averell Harriman then of the U.S. State Department offered the Swedish government help in inquiring about Wallenberg ’ s fate , but the offer was declined . Söderblom met with Vyacheslav Molotov and Stalin in Moscow on 15 June 1946 . Söderblom , still believing Wallenberg to be dead , ignored talk of an exchange for Russian defectors in Sweden .
= = = Death = = =
On 6 February 1957 , the Soviet government released a document dated 17 July 1947 , which stated " I report that the prisoner Wallenberg who is well @-@ known to you , died suddenly in his cell this night , probably as a result of a heart attack or heart failure . Pursuant to the instructions given by you that I personally have Wallenberg under my care , I request approval to make an autopsy with a view to establishing cause of death ... I have personally notified the minister and it has been ordered that the body be cremated without autopsy . " The document was signed by Smoltsov , then the head of the Lubyanka prison infirmary , and addressed to Viktor Abakumov , the Soviet minister of state security . In 1989 , Wallenberg 's personal belongings were returned to his family , including his passport and cigarette case . Soviet officials said they found the materials when they were upgrading the shelves in a store room .
In 1991 , Vyacheslav Nikonov was charged by the Russian government to investigate Wallenberg 's fate . He concluded that Wallenberg died in 1947 , executed while a prisoner in Lubyanka . He may have been a victim of the C @-@ 2 poison ( carbylamine @-@ choline @-@ chloride ) tested at the poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services .
In Moscow in 2000 , Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev announced that Wallenberg had been executed in 1947 in Lubyanka prison . He claimed that Vladimir Kryuchkov , the former Soviet secret police chief , told him about the shooting in a private conversation . The statement did not explain why Wallenberg was killed or why the government had lied about it . General Pavel Sudoplatov claimed that Raoul Wallenberg died after being poisoned by Grigory Mairanovsky , a notorious NKVD assassin . In 2000 , Russian prosecutor Vladimir Ustinov signed a verdict posthumously rehabilitating Wallenberg and his driver , Langfelder , as " victims of political repression " . A number of files pertinent to Wallenberg were turned over to the chief rabbi of Russia by the Russian government in September 2007 . The items were slated to be housed at the Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center in Moscow , which opened in 2012 .
= = = Disputes regarding his death = = =
Several former prisoners have claimed to have seen Wallenberg after his reported death in 1947 . In February 1949 , former German Colonel Theodor von Dufving , a prisoner of war , provided evidentiary statements concerning Wallenberg . While in the transit camp in Kirov , en route to Vorkuta , Dufving encountered a prisoner with his own special guard and dressed in civilian clothes . The prisoner claimed that he was a Swedish diplomat and that he was there " through a great error " .
Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal searched for Wallenberg and collected several testimonies . For example , British businessman Greville Wynne , who was imprisoned in the Lubyanka prison in 1962 for his connection to KGB defector Oleg Penkovsky , stated he talked to , but could not see the face of , a man who claimed to be a Swedish diplomat . Efim ( or Yefim ) Moshinsky claims to have seen Wallenberg on Wrangel Island in 1962 . An eyewitness asserted that she had seen Wallenberg in the 1960s in a Soviet prison .
During a private conversation about the conditions of detention in Soviet prisons at a party reception in the mid @-@ 1970s , a KGB general is reported to have said that " conditions could not be that harsh , given that in Lubyanka prison there is some foreign prisoner who had been there now for almost three decades . "
The last reported sightings of Wallenberg were by two independent witnesses who said they had evidence that he was in a prison in November 1987 . John Farkas was a resistance fighter during World War II and was the last man claiming to have seen Wallenberg alive . Farkas ' son has stated that there have been sightings of Wallenberg " up into the 1980s in Russian prisons and psychiatric hospitals . "
Raoul Wallenberg 's half @-@ brother , Professor Guy von Dardel , a well @-@ known physicist , retired from CERN , was dedicated to finding out his half @-@ brother 's fate . He traveled to the Soviet Union about fifty times for discussions and research , including an examination of the Vladimir prison records . Over the years , Professor von Dardel had compiled a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ page archive of interviews , journal articles , letters , and other documents related to his quest . In 1991 , he initiated a Swedish @-@ Russian working group to search eleven separate military and government archives from the former Soviet Union for information about Wallenberg 's fate , but the group was not able to find conclusive information . Many , including Professor von Dardel and his daughters Louise and Marie , do not accept the various versions of Wallenberg 's death . They continue to request that the archives in Russia , Sweden and Hungary be opened to impartial researchers .
In 2012 Russian lieutenant @-@ general Vasily Khristoforov , head of the registration branch of the Russian Federal Security Service said that the Wallenberg case is still open . He dismissed allegations of a continuing coverup ; referring to the legacy Soviet agency from which his department sprang , Khristoforov said : " This is another state and a different special service . "
= = = Declared death in absentia = = =
On 29 March 2016 , an announcement was made by the Swedish Tax Agency that a petition to have Wallenberg declared dead in absentia had been submitted . It stated that if he does not report to the Tax Agency before 14 October 2016 , he will be declared dead legally : " Raoul Wallenberg kallas jämlikt 7 § ( 2005 : 130 ) om dödförklaring att senast den 14 oktober 2016 anmäla sig hos Skatteverket . "
= = Connection to US intelligence = =
In May 1996 the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) released thousands of previously classified documents regarding Raoul Wallenberg , in response to requests filed under the Freedom of Information Act . The documents , along with an investigation conducted by the newsmagazine US News and World Report , appeared to confirm the long @-@ held suspicion that Wallenberg was an American intelligence asset during his time in Hungary . In addition to Wallenberg 's name appearing on a roster found in the National Archives which listed the names of operatives associated with the CIA 's wartime predecessor , the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , the documents also included a 1954 memo from an anonymous CIA source that identified a Hungarian @-@ exile living in Stockholm who , according to the author : " assisted … in inserting Roul [ sic ] Wallenberg into Hungary during WWII as an agent of OSS . " Another declassified memorandum written in 1990 by the curator of the CIA 's Historical Intelligence Collection William Henhoeffer , characterized the conclusion that Wallenberg was working for the OSS while in Budapest as being " essentially correct " .
More telling was a communique sent on 7 November 1944 by the OSS , Secret Intelligence Branch in Bari , Italy which apparently acknowledged that Wallenberg was acting as an unofficial liaison between the OSS and the Hungarian Independence Movement ( MFM ) , an underground anti @-@ Nazi resistance organization . The OSS message notes Wallenberg 's contacts with Geza Soos , a high @-@ ranking MFM leader and further explains that Soos " may only be contacted " through the Swedish legation in Budapest , which was Wallenberg 's workplace and also served as the operational center for his attempts to aid the Hungarian Jews . The same message 's assertion that Wallenberg " will know if he ( Soos ) is not in Budapest " is also curious , in that by November 1944 Soos was in hiding and knowledge of his whereabouts would only have been available to individuals closely involved with the MFM . This conclusion is given further weight by additional evidence suggesting that communications from the MFM to US intelligence were transmitted first to Stockholm and then relayed to Washington via Iver C. Olsen , the American OSS operative who initially recruited Wallenberg to go to Budapest in June 1944 .
This particular disclosure has given rise to speculation as to whether , in addition to his efforts to rescue the Hungarian Jews , Wallenberg may have also been pursuing a parallel clandestine mission aimed at politically destabilizing Hungary ’ s pro @-@ Nazi government on behalf of the OSS . This would also seem to add some credence to the potential explanation that it was his association with US intelligence that led to Wallenberg being targeted by Soviet authorities in January 1945 . Several other humanitarians who had helped refugees during World War II disappeared behind the Iron Curtain in the period 1949 / 50 , several years after Wallenberg ’ s disappearance . OSS ties may have been of interest to the Soviets , but are not a complete explanation because some of those detained , i.e. Hermann Field and Herta Field , had not worked for the OSS . All of these humanitarians , however , like Wallenberg , had interacted with a large number of anti @-@ fascist and socialist refugees during the War , and this experience was used in the Stalin regime ’ s factional politics and show trials .
= = Family = =
In 2009 , reporter Joshua Prager wrote an article in the Wall Street Journal profiling the long @-@ term toll that Raoul Wallenberg 's disappearance had on his family . His mother Maj and his stepfather Fredrik von Dardel spent the rest of their lives searching for their son . They both committed suicide by overdosing on pills two days apart in 1979 . Their daughter Nina Lagergren , Raoul 's half @-@ sister , attributed their suicide to their despair about never finding their son . Lagergren and Raoul 's half @-@ brother Guy von Dardel established organizations and worked to find their brother or confirmation of his death . At the request of their parents , they were to assume he was alive until the year 2000 .
Nina 's daughter , Nane Maria Lagergren , married Kofi Annan , former secretary general of the United Nations , and is active in many humanitarian efforts . Another of Wallenberg 's nieces , Louise von Dardel , is the main activist in the family and dedicates much of her time to speaking about Wallenberg and lobbying various countries to help uncover information about her uncle . The extended Wallenberg family remains an influential part of Swedish society as major shareholders in banks and corporations including Saab and Scandinavian Airlines .
= = Honours = =
Wallenberg was nominated twice for the Nobel Peace Prize , in 1948 by more than 50 qualified nominators and in 1949 by a single nominator At the time , the prize could be awarded posthumously , but the concept of such awards was controversial .
= = = Argentina = = =
In Buenos Aires , there is a monument in honour of Wallenberg at a park . It is a replica of the London monument by Philip Jackson , was unveiled in 1998 and can be seen from the Figueroa Alcorta Avenue , in Recoleta neighbourhood .
= = = Australia = = =
In Melbourne , a small memorial in honour of Wallenberg stands at the Jewish Holocaust Museum and Research Centre ; a monument by the sculptor Karl Duldig dedicated to him is at Kew Junction on the corner of Princess Street and High Street , Kew ; and a tree and memorial seat are in Carlisle St at St Kilda Town Hall . The Australian Centre for Clinical Neuropharmacology in Melbourne adopted the name ' The Raoul Wallenberg Centre ' on the occasion of Raoul Wallenberg 's 89th birthday . In Sydney are a Raoul Wallenberg garden and sculpture in Woollahra , and a statue inside the Jewish Museum of Australia . Commemorative trees have been planted in front of the federal Parliament and in many other locations .
Established in 1985 , Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B 'nai B 'rith in Melbourne , Australia , together with Max Stern & Co , a leading stamp dealer in Melbourne , and Australia Post , released a limited edition Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet and Envelope Set to mark the Unit 's 25th anniversary in 2010 . The Stamp Sheet shows a photo of Raoul Wallenberg together with a brief outline of his life , a monument in honour of Raoul Wallenberg by artist , Karl Duldig , in the Raoul Wallenberg Garden at Kew Junction , Melbourne , and ten 60 cent Australia Post stamps with tabs of Raoul Wallenberg from early childhood to adult soldier . The Envelope has a transparent front to show the Stamp Sheet ; a Schutzpass is shown on the back accompanied by an explanation .
To commemorate the Centenary Year , a limited number of the Raoul Wallenberg Stamp Sheet were stamped with a special Centenary cancellation . These are available from Raoul Wallenberg Unit of B 'nai B 'rith in Melbourne .
Raoul Wallenberg Unit requested clergy around the world to speak about Raoul Wallenberg and his heroic deeds - ' One Person can Make a Difference ' - from their pulpits over the weekend 3 – 5 August 2012 which coincided with the date of his 100th birthday , 4 August 2012 .
Raoul Wallenberg Reserve in the neighbourhood of Yokine in Perth was dedicated in honour of Raoul Wallenberg . The small park is located in close proximity to many of Perth 's Jewish institutions including a Jewish Day School , aged care facility , community centre , sports club and orthodox synagogue .
Wallenberg was named Australia 's first honorary citizen in April 2013 , during his centenary year . Frank Vajda AM was saved by Wallenberg in 1944 from the pro @-@ Nazi Arrow Cross Party and campaigned for decades for him to be recognised with the award . A ceremony at Government House , Canberra , to mark the occasion was held on 6 May 2013 , and was attended by Governor @-@ General Quentin Bryce AC CVO , Prime Minister Julia Gillard , and Opposition Leader Tony Abbott . Vajda also attended the ceremony , as did the son of World War II resistance fighter John Farkas , who was the last person known to have seen Wallenberg alive . George Farkas described the award as " recognition that some people can do unbelievable good in the face of reprehensible evil " .
A 70 cent Raoul Wallenberg postage stamp and associated philatelic items were released by Australia Post on 5 October 2015 , one of three to by honoured in this manner by Australia ; the other two are Mother Teresa and Nelson Mandela .
= = = Austria = = =
In the 22nd district of Vienna a street was named " Raoul @-@ Wallenberg @-@ Gasse " .
= = = Canada = = =
Wallenberg was made the first Honorary Citizen of Canada in 1985 ; and the government declared 17 January , the day he disappeared , as " Raoul Wallenberg Day " in Canada .
Numerous memorials , parks , and monuments honouring Wallenberg can be found across Canada , including the Raoul Wallenberg Memorial in Queen Elizabeth Park in Vancouver , Raoul Wallenberg Corner in Calgary , Raoul Wallenberg Park in Saskatoon , Parc Raoul Wallenberg in Ottawa , Ontario , and a memorial behind Christ Church Cathedral in downtown Montreal , where a bust of Wallenberg and a caged metal box , styled as a barbed @-@ wire gate , stand beside each other . The main entrance to Earl Bales Park in Toronto , Ontario is named Raoul Wallenberg Road .
On 17 January 2013 , which marked the 68th anniversary of Wallenberg 's arrest by Soviet troops , Canada released a postage stamp in honour of Wallenberg .
In 2008 , the Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto added " Wallenberg " to the name of the school , thus spawning the moniker , Tanebaum CHAT Wallenberg Campus .
= = = Georgia = = =
In the center of Batumi a street was named " Raoul Wallenberg street " .
= = = Germany = = =
Streets were named after Wallenberg in both East and West Germany .
= = = Hungary = = =
Budapest named Wallenberg as an honorary citizen in 2003 . Several sites honor him , including Raoul Wallenberg Memorial Park , which commemorates those who saved many of the city 's Jews from deportation to extermination camps , and the building that housed the Swedish Embassy in 1945 .
In July 2012 , Hungary paid tribute to Raoul Wallenberg in a ceremony at Budapest 's Holocaust museum , marking 100 years since his birth . Zoltan Balog , minister for human resources and social affairs , said that " evil must be rejected " .
= = = Israel = = =
Israel granted Wallenberg honorary citizenship in 1986 and honored him at the Yad Vashem memorial as one of the Righteous Among the Nations . Other tributes to Wallenberg in Israel include at least five streets named after him . On Raoul Wallenberg Street in Tel Aviv , a statue identical to one in Budapest was installed in 2002 ( see below ) , made by the sculptor Imre Varga .
= = = Peru = = =
A memorial to his name was made in 2013 in the capital city of Lima . Taking the form of a park , it is situated on the coast of the San Miguel District .
= = = Russia = = =
A memorial to him stands in the courtyard of the Russian Rudomino Library of Foreign Languages in Moscow . In Saint Petersburg , the Institute of Special Pedagogy and Psychology bears Wallenberg 's name .
= = = Sweden = = =
In 2001 , a memorial was created in Stockholm to honor Wallenberg . It was unveiled by King Carl XVI Gustaf , at a ceremony attended by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan and his wife Nane Maria Annan , Wallenberg 's niece At the unveiling , King Carl XVI Gustaf said Wallenberg is " a great example to those of us who want to live as fellow humans " . Kofi Annan praised him as " an inspiration for all of us to act when we can and to have the courage to help those who are suffering and in need of help " . The memorial 's design ( see photo ) has been considered inappropriate by some critics .
A memorial to Wallenberg was installed in Gothenburg , near Hagakyrkan ( Haga Church ) . Kofi Annan attended the unveiling ceremony .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
A monument to Raoul Wallenberg by Scottish sculptor Philip Jackson is located at Great Cumberland Place in London 's Marble Arch district , outside the Western Marble Arch Synagogue . It was unveiled by Queen Elizabeth II in 1997 , in the presence of the President of Israel , Ezer Weizman , the Secretary General of the United Nations , Kofi Annan , and survivors of the Holocaust . A separate monument stands near the Welsh National War Memorial in Cathays Park , Cardiff . A bronze briefcase monument by Gustav Kraitz with the initials RW is located in the garden of the Beth Shalom Holocaust Centre near Laxton in Nottinghamshire .
= = = United States = = =
The US Congress made Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States in 1981 , the second person to be so honored , after Winston Churchill . In 1985 , the portion of 15th Street , SW in Washington , D.C. on which the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is located , was renamed Raoul Wallenberg Place by Act of Congress .
In 1997 , the United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor . Representative Tom Lantos , one of those saved by Wallenberg 's actions , said : " It is most appropriate that we honor [ him ] with a U.S. stamp . In this age devoid of heroes , Wallenberg is the archetype of a hero – one who risked his life day in and day out , to save the lives of tens of thousands of people he did not know whose religion he did not share . "
In Manhattan , a monument honoring him was installed on Raoul Wallenberg Walk , named in his honor , across from the headquarters of the United Nations . The Swedish consulate commissioned the piece , created by Swedish sculptor Gustav Kraitz . The sculpture , Hope , is a replica of Wallenberg ’ s briefcase , a sphere , five pillars of black granite , and paving stones ( setts ) which were formerly used on the streets of the Budapest ghetto . There is also Wallenberg Forest in Riverdale , Bronx , established in 1990 and named Wallenberg Forest in 1996 .
Another memorial stands in front of the Art and Architecture building at the University of Michigan , where he received his architecture degree in 1935 .
Places named after Wallenberg include Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco , the PS 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn , New York , Raoul Wallenberg Avenue in Trenton , New Jersey , and Raoul Wallenberg Blvd in Charleston , South Carolina .
Since 2005 , the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation has campaigned to establish 5 October as Raoul Wallenberg Day throughout the United States , as this was the day Wallenberg was awarded Honorary U.S. Citizenship . By 2010 , Raoul Wallenberg Day was being observed by the states of Colorado , Connecticut , Illinois , Iowa , Maine , Maryland , Michigan , Nebraska , Nevada , New Jersey , New Mexico , West Virginia , and Wyoming .
Wallenberg was posthumously awarded the Train Foundation 's Civil Courage Prize , which recognizes " extraordinary heroes of conscience " .
On 26 July 2012 , Wallenberg was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal by the United States Congress " in recognition of his achievements and heroic actions during the Holocaust " .
= = Awards in his name = =
The Raoul Wallenberg Committee of the United States bestows the Raoul Wallenberg Award " on individuals , organizations and communities that reflect Raoul Wallenberg 's humanitarian spirit , personal courage and nonviolent action in the face of enormous odds " .
The University of Michigan awards the Wallenberg Medal annually to outstanding humanitarians who embody the humanitarian values and commitment of its distinguished alumnus . The first Wallenberg Medal was presented in 1990 to Elie Wiesel . The twentieth Wallenberg Medal was awarded in October 2010 to Dr. Denis Mukwege . Recently , the University also established the " Wallenberg Fellowship " , which grants students $ 25 @,@ 000 to pursue humanitarian projects to better humanity . The University 's Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning also awards Wallenberg Scholarships to exceptional undergraduate students in their final Senior @-@ Year studio class , which is given to enable students to broaden their study of architecture to include work in distant locations , following Wallenberg 's Grandfather 's wish for him to be a " citizen of the world " . The projects which won the scholarship in recent years addressed Chinese relations , nuclear accident cleanup , and the recent thaw of US @-@ Cuban relations . The Scholarship gives out on average anywhere between $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 20 @,@ 000 for travel @-@ related expenses .
The Raoul Wallenberg Academy has created the Raoul Wallenberg Prize , financed by Sweden 's Ministry of Employment . In 2013 , the jury was chaired by Olle Wästberg , and the award was presented by Minister for Integration Erik Ullenhag . The winner of the 2013 Raoul Wallenberg Award was Siavosh Derakhti , who founded ' Young People against Antisemitism and Xenophobia ' , an organization dedicated to promoting collaboration and respect for all .
= = Schools named after him = =
= = = Argentina = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Educational Center
= = = Brazil = = =
The Raoul Wallenberg Integral High School
= = = Canada = = =
The Anne & Max Tanenbaum Community Hebrew Academy of Toronto Wallenberg Campus
Wallenberg Academy ( formerly Wagar High School ) , Montreal , Quebec .
= = = Ecuador = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Kindergarten & Primary School
= = = Germany = = =
Raoul @-@ Wallenberg Schule , Dorsten
Raoul @-@ Wallenberg @-@ Oberschule , Berlin
= = = Hungary = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Humán Szakközépiskola és Gimnázium
= = = Sweden = = =
Raoul Wallenberg School Bromma
Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Bromma
Raoul Wallenberg Preschool Skövde
Raoul Wallenberg School Uppsala
Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law ( Lund University )
= = = Uruguay = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Lyceum
= = = United States = = =
P.S. 194 Raoul Wallenberg School in Brooklyn , New York
Raoul Wallenberg Traditional High School in San Francisco
Raoul Wallenberg Avenue , Trenton , New Jersey .
Raoul Wallenberg Playground , Washington Heights NYC
= = = Venezuela = = =
Raoul Wallenberg Pre @-@ School Educational Unit
= = Films = =
A number of films have been made of Wallenberg 's life , including the 1985 made @-@ for @-@ television movie Wallenberg : A Hero 's Story ( 1985 ) , starring Richard Chamberlain , the 1990 Swedish production Good Evening , Mr. Wallenberg , featuring Stellan Skarsgård , and various documentaries , such as Raoul Wallenberg : Buried Alive ( 1984 ) , the AFI Award winning Raoul Wallenberg , Between The Lines ( 1985 ) and Searching for Wallenberg ( 2003 ) . He also appears in the Spanish television series El ángel de Budapest and is played by Iván Fenyő . In 2006 , the film " Raoul Wallenberg @-@ l 'ange de Budapest " ( translated by Nigel Spencer as " Raoul Wallenberg : the Angel of Budapest " ) , featuring relatives and the Winnipeg lawyer still piloting inquiries into his case , was released in Canada and broadcast on the Bravo ! network .
= = Art = =
He is featured prominently in the work of esteemed painter and Holocaust survivor Alice Lok Cahana . Her father was saved by Wallenberg .
= = Operas = =
Wallenberg . Opera premiered at the Opernhaus Dortmund on 5 May 2001.Composer Erkki @-@ Sven Tüür , Libretto of Lutz Hübner
Raoul . Opera premiered at the Theater Bremen on 21 February 2008.Composer Gershon Kingsley , Libretto of Michael Kunze
= = Song = =
Irish musician Andy Irvine wrote the song " Raoul Wallenberg " which features on his album Rude Awakening .
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= The Time Traveler 's Wife =
The Time Traveler 's Wife is the debut novel of American author Audrey Niffenegger , published in 2003 . It is a love story about a man with a genetic disorder that causes him to time travel unpredictably , and about his wife , an artist , who has to cope with his frequent absences and dangerous experiences . Niffenegger , frustrated in love when she began the work , wrote the story as a metaphor for her failed relationships . The tale 's central relationship came to her suddenly and subsequently supplied the novel 's title . The novel , which has been classified as both science fiction and romance , examines issues of love , loss , and free will . In particular , it uses time travel to explore miscommunication and distance in relationships , while also investigating deeper existential questions .
As a first @-@ time novelist , Niffenegger had trouble finding a literary agent . She eventually sent the novel to MacAdam / Cage unsolicited and , after an auction took place for the rights , Niffenegger selected them as her publishers . The book became a bestseller after an endorsement from author and family friend Scott Turow on The Today Show , and as of March 2009 had sold nearly 2 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and the United Kingdom . Many reviewers were impressed with Niffenegger 's unique perspectives on time travel . Some praised her characterization of the couple , applauding their emotional depth ; others criticized her writing style as melodramatic and the plot as emotionally trite . The novel won the Exclusive Books Boeke Prize and a British Book Award . A film version was released in August 2009 .
= = Plot summary = =
Using alternating first @-@ person perspectives , the novel tells the stories of Henry DeTamble ( born 1963 ) , a librarian at the Newberry Library in Chicago , and his wife , Clare Anne Abshire ( born 1971 ) , an artist who makes paper sculptures . Henry has a rare genetic disorder , which comes to be known as Chrono @-@ Impairment , that causes him to involuntarily travel through time . When 20 @-@ year @-@ old Clare meets 28 @-@ year @-@ old Henry at the Newberry Library in 1991 at the opening of the novel , he has never seen her before , although she has known him most of her life .
Henry begins time traveling at the age of five , jumping forward and backward relative to his own timeline . When he leaves , where he goes , or how long his trips will last are all beyond his control . His destinations are tied to his subconscious — he most often travels to places and times related to his own history . Certain stimuli such as stress can trigger Henry 's time traveling ; he often goes jogging to keep calm and remain in the present . He also searches out pharmaceuticals in the future that may be able to help control his time traveling . He also seeks the advice of a geneticist , Dr. Kendrick . Henry cannot take anything with him into the future or the past ; he always arrives naked and then struggles to find clothing , shelter , and food . He amasses a number of survival skills including lock @-@ picking , self @-@ defense , and pickpocketing . Much of this he learns from older versions of himself .
Once their timelines converge " naturally " at the library — their first meeting in his chronology — Henry starts to travel to Clare 's childhood and adolescence in South Haven , Michigan , beginning in 1977 when she is six years old . On one of his early visits ( from her perspective ) , Henry gives her a list of the dates he will appear and she writes them in a diary so she will remember to provide him with clothes and food when he arrives . During another visit , he inadvertently reveals that they will be married in the future . Over time they develop a close relationship . At one point , Henry helps Clare frighten and humiliate a boy who abused her . Clare is last visited in her youth by Henry in 1989 , on her eighteenth birthday , during which they make love for the first time . They are then separated for two years until their meeting at the library .
Clare and Henry marry , but Clare has trouble bringing a pregnancy to term because of the genetic anomaly Henry may presumably be passing on to the fetus . After six miscarriages , Henry wishes to save Clare further pain and has a vasectomy . However a version of Henry from the past visits Clare one night and they make love ; she subsequently gives birth to a daughter , Alba . Alba is diagnosed with Chrono @-@ Impairment as well but , unlike Henry , she has some control over her destinations when she time travels . Before she is born , Henry travels to the future and meets his ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter on a school field trip and learns that he dies when she is five years old .
When he is 43 , during what is to be his last year of life , Henry time travels to a Chicago parking garage on a frigid winter night where he is unable to find shelter . As a result of the hypothermia and frostbite he suffers , his feet are amputated when he returns to the present . Henry and Clare both know that without the ability to escape when he time travels , Henry will certainly die within his next few jumps . On New Year 's Eve 2006 Henry time travels into the middle of the Michigan woods in 1984 and is accidentally shot by Clare 's brother , a scene foreshadowed earlier in the novel . Henry returns to the present and dies in Clare 's arms .
Clare is devastated by Henry 's death . She later finds a letter from Henry asking her to " stop waiting " for him , but which describes a moment in her future when she will see him again . The last scene in the book takes place when Clare is 82 years old and Henry is 43 . She is waiting for Henry , as she has done most of her life .
= = Composition and publication = =
Niffenegger is an artist who teaches at the Center for Book and Paper Arts at Columbia College Chicago , where she prepares editions of handpainted books . She produced some of her earlier works in editions of ten copies , which were sold in art galleries . However , she decided that The Time Traveler 's Wife would have to be a novel : " I got the idea for the title , and when I draw I have this big drawing table covered with brown paper , and I write ideas down on the paper . So I wrote down this title and after a while I started to think about it . I couldn 't think of a way to make it a picture book because still pictures don 't represent time very well , so I decided to write a novel . " She was intrigued by the title because " it immediately defined two people and their relationship to each other " . Niffenegger said that its source was an epigraph to J. B. Priestley 's 1964 novel Man and Time : " Clock time is our bank manager , tax collector , police inspector ; this inner time is our wife . " Drawing her central theme from this image , she says , " Henry is not only married to Clare ; he 's also married to time . " Other authors whom Niffenegger has cited as influencing the book include Richard Powers , David Foster Wallace , Henry James , and Dorothy Sayers .
She has said the story is a metaphor for her own failed love affairs and that " I had kind of got the idea that there 's not going to be some fabulous perfect soulmate out there for me , so I 'll just make him up . " She also drew on her parents ' marriage for inspiration — her father spent the bulk of each week traveling . Despite the story 's analogies to her own life , Niffenegger has forcefully stated that Clare is not a self @-@ portrait ; " She 's radically different . I am much more willful and headstrong . ... I don 't think I could go through a lifetime waiting for someone to appear , no matter how fascinating he was . "
Niffenegger began writing the novel in 1997 ; the last scene , in which an aged Clare is waiting for Henry , was written first , because it is the story 's focal point . The narrative was originally structured thematically . Responding to comments from readers of early drafts of the manuscript , Niffenegger reorganized the narrative so that it largely followed Clare 's timeline . The work was finished in 2001 . With no history of commercial publication , Niffenegger had trouble finding interested literary agents — 25 rejected the manuscript . In 2002 , she sent it unsolicited to the small , San Francisco @-@ based publisher MacAdam / Cage , where it reached Anika Streitfeld . Streitfeld , who became Niffenegger 's editor , " thought it was incredible . Right from the very beginning you feel like you are in capable hands , that this is someone who has a story to tell and who knows how to tell it . " She gave it to David Poindexter , the founder of the publishing firm , " who read it overnight and decided to buy the book " . However , Niffenegger had acquired an agent by this time , and several publishing houses in New York City were interested in the novel . The manuscript was put up for auction and MacAdam / Cage bid US $ 100 @,@ 000 , by far the largest sum it had ever offered for a book . Although another publisher outbid them , Niffenegger selected MacAdam / Cage because they were so dedicated to her work . Also , Niffenegger explains that her " own natural inclination is to go small . My background is in punk music — I 'd always pick the indie company over the giant corporation . "
= = Genre = =
Reviewers have found The Time Traveler 's Wife difficult to classify generically : some categorize it as science fiction , others as a romance . Niffenegger herself is reluctant to label the novel , saying she " never thought of it as science fiction , even though it has a science @-@ fiction premise " . In Niffenegger 's view , the story is primarily about Henry and Clare 's relationship and the struggles they endure . She has said that she based Clare and Henry 's romance on the " cerebral coupling " of Dorothy Sayers 's characters Lord Peter Wimsey and Harriet Vane .
Time travel stories to which the novel has been compared include Jack Finney 's Time and Again ( 1970 ) F.M. Busby 's short story " If This Is Winnetka , You Must Be Judy " and the film Somewhere in Time ( 1980 ) . Henry has been compared to Billy Pilgrim of Kurt Vonnegut 's Slaughterhouse @-@ Five ( 1969 ) . Science fiction writer Terence M. Green calls the novel a " timeslip romance " . The Time Traveler 's Wife is not as concerned with the paradoxes of time travel as is traditional science fiction . Instead , as critic Marc Mohan describes , the novel " uses time travel as a metaphor to explain how two people can feel as if they 've known each other their entire lives " . Robert Nathan 's Portrait of Jennie , as novel , or film , is another obvious comparison , although Jennie , as a ghost , travels time in one direction , not randomly .
= = Themes = =
Niffenegger identifies the themes of the novel as " mutants , love , death , amputation , sex , and time " . Reviewers have focused on love , loss , and time . As Charlie Lee @-@ Potter writes in The Independent , the novel is " an elegy to love and loss " . The love between Henry and Clare is expressed in a variety of ways , including through an analysis and history of the couple 's sex life .
While much of the novel shows Henry and Clare falling in love , the end is darker and " time travel becomes a means for representing arbitrariness , transience , [ and ] plain bad luck " , according to The Boston Globe 's Judith Maas . As Andrew Billen argues in The Times , " The book may even serve as a feminist analysis of marriage as a partnership in which only the male is conceded the privilege of absence . " Several reviewers noted that time travel represents relationships in which couples cannot quite communicate with each other . Natasha Walter of The Guardian describes the story 's attention to " the sense of slippage that you get in any relationship — that you could be living through a slightly different love story from the one your partner is experiencing . " She points , for example , to the section of the book which describes the first time Clare and Henry make love . She is 18 and he is 41 , already married to her in his present . After this interlude , he returns to his own time and his own Clare , who says ,
Henry 's been gone for almost twenty @-@ four hours now , and as usual I 'm torn between thinking obsessively about when and where he might be and being pissed at him for not being here ... I hear Henry whistling as he comes up the path through the garden , into the studio . He stomps the snow off his boots and shrugs off his coat . He 's looking marvelous , really happy . My heart is racing and I take a wild guess : " May 24 , 1989 ? " " Yes , oh , yes ! " Henry scoops me up ... and swings me around . Now I 'm laughing , we 're both laughing .
The novel raises questions about determinism and free will . For example , critic Dan Falk asks , " Given that [ Henry 's ] journey has ' already happened , ' should he not simply be compelled to act precisely as he remembers seeing himself act ? ( Or perhaps he is compelled , and merely feels he has a choice ... ? ) . " Although Henry seemingly cannot alter the future , the characters do not become " cynical " and , according to Lee @-@ Potter , the novel demonstrates that people can be changed through love . Walter notes that there is a " quasi @-@ religious sense " to the inevitability of Henry 's and Clare 's lives and deaths . Niffenegger , however , believes that the novel does not depict destiny but rather " randomness and meaninglessness " .
= = Reception = =
The hardback edition of The Time Traveler 's Wife was published in the United States in September 2003 by MacAdam / Cage and in the United Kingdom by Random House on 1 January 2004 . MacAdam / Cage initiated an " extensive marketing drive " , including advertising in The New York Times and The New Yorker and a promotional book tour by Niffenegger . As a result , the novel debuted at number nine on the New York Times bestseller list . After popular crime writer Scott Turow , whose wife is a friend of Niffenegger , endorsed it on The Today Show , the first print run of 15 @,@ 000 sold out and 100 @,@ 000 more copies were printed . In Britain , the book received a boost from its choice as a Richard & Judy book club recommendation — nearly 45 @,@ 000 copies were sold in one week . It was named the 2003 Amazon.com Book of the Year . A December 2003 article in The Observer reported that although " a tiny minority of American reviewers " felt that the novel was " gimmicky " , it was still " a publishing sensation " . At that point , the novel had been sold to publishers in 15 countries . As of March 2009 , it had sold almost 1 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States and 1 million in the United Kingdom . The success of The Time Traveler 's Wife prompted almost every major publishing firm to attempt to acquire Niffenegger 's second novel , Her Fearful Symmetry , which has been called " one of the most eagerly sought @-@ after works in recent publishing history " . It garnered her an advance of US $ 5 million from Scribner 's .
Reviewers praised Niffenegger 's characterization of Henry and Clare , particularly their emotional depth . Michelle Griffin of The Age noted that although Henry " is custom @-@ designed for the fantasy lives of bookish ladies " , his flaws , particularly his " violent , argumentative , depressive " nature , make him a strong , well @-@ rounded character . Charles DeLint wrote in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction that one of Niffenegger 's " greatest accomplishments " in the novel was her ability to convey the emotional growth of Clare and Henry in character arcs while at the same time alternating their perspectives . Stephen Amidon of The Times , however , questioned the selfishness of the central characters .
Most reviewers were impressed with the premise of the novel , but critical of its melodramatic style . While Griffin praised the plot and concept as " clever " , she complained that Niffenegger 's writing is usually " pedestrian " and the story at times contrived . Heidi Darroch of the National Post agreed , contending that the story has an excess of overwrought emotional moments " which never quite add up to a fully developed plot " . Writing in The Chicago Tribune , Carey Harrison praised the originality of the novel , specifically the intersection of child @-@ bearing and time travel . Despite appreciating the novel 's premise , Amidon complained that the implications of Henry 's time @-@ traveling were poorly thought out . For example , Henry has foreknowledge of the September 11 attacks but does nothing to try to prevent them . Instead , on 11 September 2001 , he gets up early " to listen to the world being normal for a little while longer " . Amidon also criticized the novel 's " overall clumsiness " , writing that Niffenegger is " a ham @-@ fisted stylist , long @-@ winded and given to sudden eruptions of cliche " . Miriam Shaviv agreed to an extent , writing in The Jerusalem Post , " There are no original or even non @-@ cliched messages here . True love , Niffenegger seems to be telling us , is timeless , and can survive even the worst circumstances . ... And yet , the book is a page @-@ turner , delicately crafted and psychologically sound . " The Library Journal described the novel as " skillfully written with a blend of distinct characters and heartfelt emotions " ; it recommended that public libraries purchase multiple copies of the book .
= = Sequel = =
On September 23 , 2013 it was announced that a sequel to the novel is in the works . The sequel will focus on Henry and Clare 's daughter Alba as an adult . She finds herself in love with two different men : Zach , a normal man , and Oliver , a musician and fellow time @-@ traveler . The first 25 pages are currently available with the purchase of The Time Traveler 's Wife eBook . In February 2014 , Niffenegger estimated that the book " should be ready in 2018 or so " .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Audio book = = =
BBC Audio published an audio book of The Time Traveler 's Wife that was narrated by William Hope and Laurel Lefkow , described as " feisty readers " in one review .
HighBridge also produced an unabridged version in 2003 , which is twelve hours long and narrated by Maggi @-@ Meg Reed and Christopher Burns ; their performance has been described as " sincere and passionate " .
The 2006 Audible / HighBridge version is narrated by Fred Berman and Phoebe Strole and is 17 : 43 in length .
Audible.co.uk produced an unabridged version in 2008 , also narrated by Hope and Lefkow .
= = = Film = = =
The film rights for The Time Traveler 's Wife were optioned by Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment , in association with New Line Cinema , before the novel was even published . The adaptation was written by Bruce Joel Rubin and directed by Robert Schwentke , and stars Rachel McAdams and Eric Bana . Filming began in September 2007 and the movie was released by Warner Bros. on 14 August 2009 . When asked about the prospect of her novel being turned into a film , Niffenegger said , " I 've got my little movie that runs in my head . And I 'm kind of afraid that will be changed or wiped out by what somebody else might do with it . And it is sort of thrilling and creepy , because now the characters have an existence apart from me . " In general , the film received mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews . For example , The New York Times wrote that the film was an " often ridiculous , awkward , unsatisfying and dour melodramatic adaptation " .
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= Silba @-@ class landing ship @-@ minelayer =
The Silba class ( sometimes the Cetina class ) is a class of three landing ships , also used as minelayers , built for the Yugoslav ( JRM ) and Croatian Navy ( HRM ) during the 1980s and 1990s . The ships were built at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata shipyard in Split with slight differences in armament configuration between the last two ships . By the time the Croatian War of Independence started , one ship was in service with the JRM while another was being completed .
The one in JRM service was relocated to Montenegro where it would be commissioned with the Navy of the new FR Yugoslavia . The second ship that was captured unfinished was completed by Croatian forces and entered service with the HRM , followed by a third that was laid down by Croatia in 1993 . The two ships commissioned with the HRM remain in active service , providing assistance to civilian institutions aside from their regular military tasks . The fate of the first ship in the class remains unknown .
= = Development and building = =
The Silba class was developed by the Brodarski institut ( BI ) from Zagreb as a replacement for a large number of aging barge @-@ like landing craft based on German World War II designs ( Marinefährprahm and Siebel ) . All three ships were completed at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata ( BSO ) in Split , Croatia . The first one , Krk ( DBM @-@ 241 ) , was commissioned with the JRM sometime between 1986 and 1990 . The keel for the second ship that was to be named Rab ( DBM @-@ 242 ) was laid down in 1990 . As the Croatian War of Independence started , unfinished Rab was captured by Croatian forces . It was completed and launched as Cetina ( DBM @-@ 81 ) on 18 July 1992 . A third and final ship was launched on 17 September 1994 as Krka ( DBM @-@ 82 ) .
= = Description = =
These ferry @-@ like ships feature a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off design with two loading ramps located on the bow and the stern . Measuring 49 @.@ 69 m ( 163 ft 0 in ) in length , they have a 10 @.@ 2 m ( 33 ft 6 in ) beam with a 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) draft . Propulsion consists of two 1 @,@ 140 kW ( 1 @,@ 530 hp ) Burmeister & Wain Alpha Diesel 10V 23L VO engines mounted on two shafts , enabling them a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) and a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Traveling at their cruise speed they have a range of 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 – 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 400 – 1 @,@ 600 mi ) with a 12 @-@ day endurance . The ships are manned by a crew of 32 .
The Armament configuration differs between the first two ships and the last one ; DBM @-@ 241 and DBM @-@ 81 are armed with two AK @-@ 230 CIWS mounted on the sides , a single quadruple 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M @-@ 75 gun on the stern and a single quadruple MTU @-@ 4 9K32M Strela @-@ 2M ( SA @-@ 7b " Grail " ) anti @-@ aircraft missile launcher . The interior , which features two mine rails , can be used to carry up to 152 different naval mines , six medium tanks or 300 troops with equipment , a total cargo capacity of 460 t ( 450 long tons ) . DBM @-@ 82 was completed with a different gun armament ; in place of the AK @-@ 230 , DBM @-@ 82 has two 20 mm M @-@ 71 guns on the sides and a single Bofors D70 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun on the bow . The ship was also completed as an auxiliary water carrier with a capacity of around 230 t ( 230 long tons ) of fresh water . The number of mines that DBM @-@ 82 can carry is a maximum of 114 .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
At the start of the Croatian War of Independence DBM @-@ 241 was relocated to Montenegro where it later entered service with the SR Yugoslav Navy . DBM @-@ 242 , now redesignated as DBM @-@ 81 was launched as Cetina and entered service with the Croatian Navy 19 February 1992 with Ivo Raffanelli in command . For the remainder of the war , Cetina was engaged in transporting troops and equipment along the coast , including supply runs for Croatian forces during Operation Maslenica in 1993 . The same year the ship participated in testing of the new MNS @-@ M90 naval mine . DBM @-@ 82 , the third and final ship of the class , was commissioned with the Croatian Navy on 9 March 1995 with Jerko Bošnjak in command .
According to publications and news reports , DBM @-@ 241 was reported operational as late as 2005 . An article published in October 2012 reported that the Egyptian Navy bought DBM @-@ 241 a year earlier . Although the advance was paid , the official handover of the ship has not happened by the time the article was published . As of March 2014 , the official website of the Armed Forces of Montenegro does not list DBM @-@ 241 among its fleet and the ships status remains unknown . The two Silba @-@ class in Croatian hands continue to see service the Navy Flotilla performing traditional naval tasks as well as support missions for civilian institutions such water supply and transporting firefighters .
In July 2006 Krka was damaged during an overhaul at the Šibenik Shipyard . While being lowered to the sea , the winch of the syncrolift pulled out of the concrete causing the ship to fall down , creating a hole in the hull and sinking the stern . Early reports of significant damage proved to be false and the ship was repaired soon after . Out of ten crew members that were on board at the time , only one sustained minor injuries .
In 2015 , Krka and Cetina were tasked with transporting Croatian Army vehicles and personnel to Spain for the NATO " Trident Juncture " exercise . The ships departed the Lora Naval Base on 11 October 2015 , loaded with four Patria AMVs , two trucks , one motor vehicle and 14 soldiers scheduled to take part in the exercise . On 13 October they arrived in Catania where they rendezvoused with Andrija Mohorovičić deployed in support of Operation Triton . The two ships made another stop at Cagliari before continuing to Spain , arriving in Sagunto on 18 October after spending seven days at sea . The ships returned to the Lora Naval Base on 13 November , concluding their month long deployment during which they traversed a total of 2 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 000 kilometres ; 3 @,@ 100 miles ) .
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= Arthur Gould ( rugby union ) =
Arthur Joseph " Monkey " Gould ( 10 October 1864 – 2 January 1919 ) was a Welsh international rugby union centre and fullback who was most associated as a club player with Newport Rugby Football Club . He won 27 caps for Wales , 18 as captain , and critics consider him the first superstar of Welsh rugby . A talented all @-@ round player and champion sprinter , Gould could side @-@ step and kick expertly with either foot . He never ceased practising to develop his fitness and skills , and on his death was described as " the most accomplished player of his generation " .
Following the withdrawal of their regular fullback , Newport RFC first selected Gould in 1882 , when he was 18 . He was never dropped from the side thereafter and played regularly until he retired in 1898 . Gould played for Newport during their " invincible " season of 1891 – 92 , when they did not lose a match , and scored a record 37 tries in Newport 's 24 @-@ game 1893 – 94 season , a club record that still stands . Gould frequently travelled due to his job as a public contractor , and consequently turned out for a number of other sides during his career , including the clubs Richmond and London Welsh , and the county side Middlesex .
Gould was first selected for Wales in 1885 when he played at fullback against England . He was awarded the captaincy in 1889 , by which time he was playing at centre , and led Wales to their first Home Nations Championship and Triple Crown titles in 1893 ; that tournament 's match against England established Gould as a great player and captain . By the time Gould retired he was the most capped Welsh centre , a record he held until 1980 , with 25 caps in the position . He ended his international career against England on 9 January 1897 . The game , played in front of 17 @,@ 000 supporters at Rodney Parade , was Gould 's 18th as Wales captain – a record eventually broken by Ieuan Evans in 1994 .
Towards the end of his career , Gould was at the centre of a controversy known as the " Gould affair " that saw Wales withdraw from international rugby for a year . The controversy centred on the support of the Welsh Football Union ( WFU ) for a testimonial for Gould on his retirement . The English Rugby Football Union and International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) argued that the testimonial constituted professionalism – which they claimed breached the sport 's by @-@ laws . The WFU withdrew from the IRFB in protest , rejoining a year later under the IRFB @-@ imposed condition that Gould would not represent Wales again . He worked as a brewery representative after retiring from rugby , and died of an internal haemorrhage in 1919 at the age of 54 .
= = Family and early years = =
Arthur Joseph Gould was born into a sporting family in Newport , Monmouthshire , on 10 October 1864 to Joseph and Elizabeth . His father , from Oxford , England , moved to Newport to find work , setting up his own brass foundry business . Joseph was also an ardent sportsman , playing for the local cricket team .
Gould 's five brothers were all notable rugby players and athletes . His brother Bob was a forward who played 136 times for Newport Rugby Football Club , whom he captained in the 1886 – 87 season . Bob was also capped 11 times for Wales between 1882 and 1887 , and captained his country once , versus Scotland in 1887 . A younger brother , Bert , was a centre who played three times for Wales – he appeared with Gould in the Welsh team that won the Triple Crown for the first time in 1893 . His other brothers – Harry , Gus and Wyatt – all played rugby for Newport . Wyatt captained Newport in 1905 – 06 , and Harry played for them in their inaugural season of 1875 – 76 . For the first 29 seasons of its existence , Newport RFC always had at least one of the Gould brothers in the team . Wyatt played for the club until 1907 ; he also ran the 400 m hurdles for Great Britain in the 1908 Summer Olympics .
The young Gould often climbed trees , and thus acquired the childhood nickname " Monkey " , which was soon contracted by most to " Monk " . Like his brother Wyatt , he was a keen athlete and made £ 1 @,@ 000 during his years as a rugby player by entering track and field meets . A county champion sprinter and hurdler , Gould finished third in the Amateur Athletic Association 120 @-@ yard hurdles in 1887 and 1893 .
= = Rugby career = =
= = = Club and county history = = =
At the age of 14 Gould captained the Newport Junior team , and later played a few games for the Third XV . Gould was drafted into the First XV – the senior team – as a fullback at the age of 18 . On 18 November 1882 Newport had a home fixture against Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare at Rodney Parade . The Newport groundsman , John Butcher , had been sent by the club to collect the regular fullback who had not appeared for the game . Gould , who was returning from a youth match , saw Butcher outside the missing fullback 's home and approached the groundsman to discover that the player was at a funeral . Butcher offered Gould the position instead , and then the groundsman successfully persuaded the club captain to play him . Gould ran in two of his team 's three tries after disregarding the instructions of his captain , Charlie Newman , who kept shouting for Gould to " Kick , kick ! " After this , he was not dropped by Newport until his retirement in 1898 .
As rugby was then an exclusively amateur sport , Gould and his brother Bob travelled Britain working as public works contractors . During this time he entered open athletic meets and played for various English rugby teams including the Southampton Trojans , and from 1887 was a regular member of the London side Richmond . In 1885 Gould was invited to play for the newly formed Welsh exiles team London Welsh . London Scottish F.C. had been founded for Scottish players working or studying in the city , but until this time a London club for Welsh players had not existed . The side 's first game , a trial match , was played on 21 October 1885 at Putney , and three days later the first team played London Scottish at the Saracens ' Palmerston Road ground in Walthamstow . Gould played at half @-@ back , and was joined in the team by Martyn Jordan , Thomas Judson , Rowley Thomas , Charles Taylor and T. Williams – all past or future Welsh internationals . During the 1885 – 86 season London Welsh were invited to form a combined " exiles " team with London Scottish , to face a London XV in a charity match at The Oval . Gould was one of six Welsh players selected to play in front of a crowd of 8 @,@ 000 that included the Prince of Wales .
In the 1885 – 86 season he was moved up to play as a threequarter for Newport . As he was frequently travelling and playing in England between 1885 and 1890 , Gould was not a regular member of the team . After playing just a handful games during the three seasons preceding it , in the 1889 – 90 season he managed 15 games for the club – scoring ten tries and five dropped goals .
In June 1890 Gould left Britain to complete a works contract in the West Indies , but returned to Newport in time for the 1891 – 92 season . Newport were unbeaten throughout that campaign , which was later dubbed their " invincible " season . Gould captained Newport between 1893 – 94 , when the team lost only three games , and in the 1894 – 95 season , in which the club lost only to Llanelli . During his first period as captain , 1893 – 94 , Gould scored 37 tries in 24 games , a club record that still stands as of 2013 . Although records before 1886 are incomplete , Newport RFC acknowledge Gould 's scoring record at the club between the 1882 – 83 and 1898 – 99 seasons as 159 tries , 66 conversions , 61 dropped goals and a single penalty , over 231 appearances .
Gould also turned out for the Middlesex county side , and was a mainstay during their " invincible " season of 1887 – 88 . He also played for them against the New Zealand Native team in 1888 . The match , hosted by the Earl of Sheffield , was an invitation only event . The Middlesex side won 9 – 0 , and scored three tries in the match , the second one resulting from a smart pass by Gould . In addition to Gould , the Middlesex backline of the time regularly fielded a number of English and Scottish internationals – this earned the side the sarcastic nickname " the Imperial team " .
= = = International career = = =
= = = = 1885 – 89 = = = =
Gould was first capped for Wales against England in the opening game of the 1885 Home Nations Championship . He joined his brother Bob in the side , and played at fullback , his preferred position at the time . Played under the captaincy of Newport team @-@ mate Charlie Newman , this was Wales ' eighth @-@ ever international and fourth encounter with England . The Welsh lost by a goal and a try to a goal and four tries . Wing Martyn Jordan of London Welsh scored both Welsh tries , with one successfully converted into a goal . Some accounts award the conversion to Charles Taylor , though it is now generally credited to Gould . Gould was selected for the second game of the tournament , an away draw to Scotland , in which both teams played a pair of brothers ; George and Richard Maitland for Scotland , and Arthur and Bob Gould for Wales .
By 1886 the four threequarter system had spread throughout Wales . First instituted by Cardiff RFC in 1884 , the system was designed to allow Cardiff centres Frank Hancock and Tom Williams to play at the same time , and involved dropping the ninth forward to include a second centre . Newport were reluctant to adopt this style of play , mainly due to Gould 's excellent kicking and covering abilities , which allowed the club to continue with the advantage of the extra forward .
For the 1885 – 86 season Gould switched from fullback at Newport to the centre position ; this tactic was adopted by Wales and Gould replaced Cardiff 's Hancock at centre for their first match of the 1886 Home Nations Championship against England . The match resulted in a Welsh loss . In Wales ' next game , against Scotland , Wales became the first country to trial the four threequarter system . They did this by bringing back Hancock as captain and having him play at centre alongside Gould . The experiment was a tactical disaster – the eight Welsh forwards struggled against the nine Scottish forwards . Hancock duly regrouped the team at half @-@ time and readopted the standard formation , bringing Harry Bowen from fullback into the pack , and pushing Gould from centre into Bowen 's vacant position . Wales lost by two goals to nil , the system was deemed a failure and Hancock never represented Wales again . The whole affair had a negative effect on Gould , who initially disliked the strategy , stating that he was " prejudiced against the four three @-@ quarters . " Gould even went as far as persuading the Welsh selectors to revert to the old formation . The next time Wales trialled the system was in the 1888 encounter with the touring New Zealand Natives , a match in which Gould was unavailable to play .
In the next season , Wales completed their first full Home Nations Championship ; Gould played as the lone centre in all three games . It was a fairly successful Championship for the Welsh , with a draw , a win and a loss , leaving them second in the table . Of note during the series was Bob Gould 's captaincy in the second match , against Scotland , and Gould 's first ever international dropped goal – which gave Wales a win over Ireland and made up for him missing a dropped goal by just a yard in their draw against England . Due to work commitments , Gould only played one of the two Wales games of the 1888 Home Nations Championship , in the country 's first victory over Scotland , thanks to a single try from Thomas Pryce @-@ Jenkins . In the second game , played away to Ireland , George Bowen was given the centre position in the last match Wales would play with a three threequarter system . Gould then missed the first Welsh international against an overseas touring side , when the New Zealand Natives were beaten at St. Helen 's in Swansea , and was still absent two months later for the opening game of the 1889 Championship . Gould returned in time for the clash with Ireland where he was given the captaincy and played alongside Llanelli centre Tom Morgan . Gould lost his first match as captain , losing by two tries to nil at home – this was the first of 18 caps he earned leading his country .
= = = = 1890 – 93 = = = =
Gould appeared in Wales ' three matches of the 1890 Home Nations Championship where he partnered Dickie Garrett , a coal tipper who played for Penarth , at centre . Gould lost the team captaincy for the first match to Frank Hill , a game which Wales lost to Scotland 5 – 1 , though Gould did score his first international try . The game is also notable for featuring the first appearance of Billy Bancroft , the Swansea all @-@ round sportsman who would take over the captaincy from Gould on his retirement . Bancroft was fullback in Gould 's next 18 international games . Gould regained the captaincy for the next game , an encounter with England at Crown Flatt in Dewsbury , and from that point held the captaincy whenever he represented Wales . The encounter was an historic day for Wales , with the country 's first win over England , a single try from Buller Stadden giving Wales the victory . The campaign ended in a disappointing away draw with Ireland , which saw the introduction of Tom Graham , a Newport forward who would become Gould 's club captain during the 1891 – 92 " invincible " season .
Gould missed the entire 1891 campaign as he and his brother Bob had travelled to the West Indies to conduct civil engineering work . Gould regained his international place and the captaincy on his return for the 1892 Home Nations Championship . The tournament was a failure for Wales ; the team lost all three of their matches . There was little consistency for Gould at centre , with three different centre @-@ pairings in each of the matches ; Garrett against England , Conway Rees at home to Scotland and in the Irish encounter , Gould 's younger brother Bert . The 1892 Championship was soured by the aftermath of the Wales – Scotland encounter , which was played in Swansea at St. Helen 's . After Wales lost the game 7 – 2 , members of the crowd , angered by Jack Hodgson 's refereeing of the game , attacked him . The assailants by @-@ passed the police and the referee had to be rescued by members of the Welsh team . In the struggle , Gould was struck on the chin , and it was reported that Hodgson only reached the Mackworth Hotel because Gould accompanied him on the coach .
The Welsh performance during the 1893 Home Nations Championship was in stark contrast to the previous year . Under the captaincy of Gould , Wales not only won the Championship for the first time , but also the Triple Crown . The first match of the campaign was against England , and played at the Cardiff Arms Park . The pitch had been kept from freezing over the night before by 500 braziers dispersed across the playing field . This led to a slippery ground , with play further hampered by a strong wind .
The English played the first half with the wind behind them and their nine @-@ man scrum dominated the smaller Welsh pack . At half time Wales were 7 – 0 down following tries from Frederick Lohden and Howard Marshall and a conversion from England captain Andrew Stoddart . The second half started poorly for Wales when Marshall scored a second try following excellent English forward pressure . The game turned not long after : the English forwards could not maintain the pace they had set in the first half of the game , and began to slow . Then Welsh forward Charles Nicholl broke through a line @-@ out with the ball , transferred it to Hannan , who passed to Gould at the half way line . Gould evaded both Alderson and Lockwood before outpacing Edwin Field to score beneath the posts . Bancroft converted . A near identical move resulted in Conway Rees then releasing Cardiff wing Norman Biggs who scored with a run from the half @-@ way line , though this time the conversion missed .
The Welsh backs repeatedly exposed the three threequarter system used by the English , as once the Welsh backs broke through the pack there was little defensive @-@ cover to prevent run away scores . With the score at 9 – 7 to England , Marshall extended the lead with his third try of the match . This gave England an 11 – 7 lead with only ten minutes remaining . The game swung again when Percy Phillips received ball quickly before passing to Gould . Gould broke through the English defence and scored , though again Bancroft missed the conversion . With further Welsh pressure , a penalty was awarded to Wales on the English 25 @-@ yard line , but at a wide angle . Accounts differ as to what happened ; some say that Gould tried to place the ball for Bancroft , but failed on the frozen ground , another states that Bancroft defied his captain to take the penalty as a drop kick , while other accounts mention Bancroft and Gould arguing on the pitch before Bancroft 's attempt . Regardless , Bancroft kicked the penalty , the first penalty to be scored in an international match . It was the final score of the game and Wales were victorious , 12 – 11 .
At the final whistle the pitch was invaded by Welsh fans and Gould was carried shoulder @-@ high back to the Angel Hotel , cheered all the way . It was a defining moment for the Welsh style of play . England adopted the four threequarter system the following year .
Gould continued to captain the Wales team through victory over Scotland , with tries coming from Bert Gould , Biggs and William McCutcheon ; all the result of precision handling from the backs . This left the final encounter with Ireland , played at Stradey Park in Llanelli , as the deciding match for a Welsh Triple Crown . Despite an unconvincing Welsh display , an enthusiastic crowd of 20 @,@ 000 watched their country win the game and with it the title , decided by a single try from Bert Gould .
= = = = 1894 – 97 = = = =
The 1894 Championship began with a loss for the defending champions against England , during a game in which Welsh in @-@ fighting affected the result . Before the game , Gould instructed his forwards to heel the ball from the scrums swiftly , so it would get to the backs quickly and allow them to run at the English . Frank Hill decided that this was the wrong option and put all his might into wheeling the scrums instead , which worked against the efforts of Jim Hannan , who was trying to follow his captain 's wishes . In the next match Gould was partnered by Dai Fitzgerald in a win over Scotland , but was unavailable for the encounter with Ireland and was replaced by Jack Elliott from Cardiff RFC .
By 1895 the only backs remaining from the 1893 Championship @-@ winning team were Bancroft and Gould . Gould was now partnered with Owen Badger , who kept his place for the whole campaign . As the other teams adopted the Welsh style of play , Wales lost their advantage ; the livelier English forwards outplayed their Welsh counterparts to give England victory in the opening game of the 1895 Championship . This was followed by a close loss to Scotland at Raeburn Place and then a narrow win over Ireland at the Cardiff Arms Park .
1896 was Gould 's last full international tournament . The Championship started badly for Wales with a heavy defeat by England , during which Wales were reduced to 14 men after Badger broke his collar @-@ bone in the first 15 minutes . In the second game Wales beat Scotland 6 – 0 , with a try each for Gould and Cliff Bowen . The final game of the Championship was an away loss to Ireland , in which Gould scored his last international points with a dropped goal . At the end of 1896 Gould decided to retire from rugby .
In 1897 , Gould was enticed out of retirement for one last Championship . By now Gould was a household name throughout Britain , as much due to his personality and good looks as his brilliant centre play ; a testimonial fund had been started with contributions being made by the public . This caused a stir among the other Home Unions , who viewed this as an effort to pay Gould for playing , which would constitute professionalism . As the arguments continued , Gould played his final international game , a solid 11 – 0 win over England in early January . Wales played no further matches that season after the events behind Gould 's testimonial fund caused Wales to leave the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) , in a situation now referred to as the " Gould affair " .
= = = = Matches played = = = =
= = Gould affair = =
By 1896 Gould had played more first class matches , scored more tries and dropped more goals than any other player on record . This led to South Wales Argus journalist W. J. Townsend Collins , to write in the paper : " ... as Arthur Gould is as pre @-@ eminent in football as W. G. Grace is in cricket , the footballing enthusiasts of Wales might recognise his services to the game ... by some national testimonial . "
A Welsh shipbroker , W. J. Orders , organised a collection fund on the floor of the Cardiff Coal Exchange and floated a public testimonial of one shilling . The national response was considerable and within weeks the total was into hundreds of pounds . This drew the Welsh Football Union ( WFU ) into a confrontation with the IRFB , as rule 2 on professionalism stated that no player was allowed to receive money from his club , or any member of his club , for services rendered to football . The fund could have been seen as a professional fee to Gould , henceforth making him ineligible to play for his country . The WFU argued that the money raised was not given by the club , but rather an outpouring of thanks from the Welsh public to a national hero .
By April 1896 the Welsh Football Union had sanctioned a subscription of 1 @,@ 000 shillings to be contributed to the Gould testimonial . The Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) complained and the IRFB reacted by informing the WFU that only a plate up to the value of a hundred pounds sterling could be given to Gould , and that the remaining funds should be donated to charity ; otherwise Wales would lose their international fixtures . The WFU stood down and withdrew their subscription . The reaction in Wales was one of anger , with the people feeling that the WFU had bowed to English pressure , and had been bullied into a decision against the people 's wishes .
In a move that was described as an act of hurt pride by social historian David Smith , but also as a manoeuvre to appease the Welsh supporters , in February 1897 the WFU wrote to the IRFB and withdrew their membership . The WFU claimed that they alone had authority over the matter because the IRFB did not have any rules regarding amateurism . The WFU then reinstated their subscription to Gould , and on Easter Monday 1897 a banquet was arranged at Drill Hall in Newport in Gould 's honour . Many civic and sporting worthies were in attendance to witness the WFU president Sir John Llewellyn present Gould with the title deeds of a gift house . The 250 guests , including David A. Thomas , were joined by a reed and string orchestra , the band of the Fourth Battalion of the South Wales Borderers , and galleries packed by members of the public .
Wales did not field an international team until the IRFB , supported by the RFU , recommended that the WFU be readmitted into the organisation in February 1898 . The WFU agreed that they would in future abide by all IRFB by @-@ laws , and that Gould not be allowed to play in any future internationals . Gould accepted the ruling but returned to rugby as a referee and Welsh international selector . The compromise prevented a long term split in the sport , and by 1901 the IRFB added laws to the game banning professionalism to clarify their authority on the issue .
= = Later life and legacy = =
After retiring from rugby , Gould became a brewery representative around Newport . He was still a very popular figure and was followed during his work by fans ; his image was still worth money , appearing on merchandise such as cigarette cards and matchboxes .
Gould died in 1919 , at the age of 54 . Falling ill at work on 2 January , he was rushed home where he died later that day of an internal haemorrhage . His funeral was reported as the biggest ever seen in Wales up to that time ; it was surpassed three decades later by that of the former British Prime Minister David Lloyd George . Gould was buried at St Woolos Cemetery , Newport . In reporting his death , The Times stated :
To him more than anyone else is due the rise of Welsh football , and so football as we know it now . He did more than any one else to transform a game from one in which brute force and individual skill were the chief characteristics to one in which scientific combination became the main feature , without the sacrifice of individualism .
In 1923 a memorial fund was raised in Gould 's name , the donations of which were given to the Royal Gwent Hospital in Newport . The hospital recognised the gift with the Arthur Gould Memorial Bed , inscribed : " To the memory of Arthur Gould – Greatest of Rugby Football Players " . The bed was lost , however , when a portion of the hospital was demolished . Donations for the memorial , which totalled £ 1 @,@ 525 , were received from all over the world , and several matches were staged to raise funds , including a fixture between Newport and Cardiff .
Gould has been described as the first superstar of his sport by rugby historian Terry Godwin while David Smith in the Official History of the Welsh Rugby Union described him as the first player to surpass national recognition , becoming in both meanings of the word " an international " . The Welsh Academy 's Encyclopedia of Wales , published over 90 years after his death , records Gould as " Welsh rugby 's first superstar " , while a 1919 obituary described him as " the most accomplished player of his generation " . He set several long @-@ standing records for his country , including captaining Wales 18 times , a number eventually surpassed by Ieuan Evans in 1994 . Gould played 25 matches at centre for Wales , a record that stood until beaten by Steve Fenwick in 1980 . He was also the most capped Welsh player , with 27 , at the time of his retirement .
Gould was inducted into the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame in June 2007 ; members of Gould 's family were in attendance including his granddaughter Mary Hales . When Newport RFC set up their own hall of fame in 2012 the first person inaugurated was Gould .
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= Majungasaurus =
Majungasaurus ( / məˌdʒʌŋɡəˈsɔːrəs / ; " Mahajanga lizard " ) is a genus of abelisaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in Madagascar from 70 to 66 million years ago , at the end of the Cretaceous Period . The genus contains a single species , Majungasaurus crenatissimus . This dinosaur was briefly called Majungatholus , a name which is now considered a junior synonym of Majungasaurus .
Like other abelisaurids , Majungasaurus was a bipedal predator with a short snout . Although the forelimbs are not completely known , they were very short , while the hind limbs were longer and very stocky . It can be distinguished from other abelisaurids by its wider skull , the very rough texture and thickened bone on the top of its snout , and the single rounded horn on the roof of its skull , which was originally mistaken for the dome of a pachycephalosaur . It also had more teeth in both upper and lower jaws than most abelisaurids .
Known from several well @-@ preserved skulls and abundant skeletal material , Majungasaurus has recently become one of the best @-@ studied theropod dinosaurs from the Southern Hemisphere . It appears to be most closely related to abelisaurids from India rather than South America or continental Africa , a fact that has important biogeographical implications . Majungasaurus was the apex predator in its ecosystem , mainly preying on sauropods like Rapetosaurus , and is also one of the few dinosaurs for which there is direct evidence of cannibalism .
= = Description = =
Majungasaurus was a medium @-@ sized theropod that typically measured 6 – 7 meters ( 20 – 23 ft ) in length , including its tail . Fragmentary remains of larger individuals indicate that some adults reached lengths of more than 8 meters ( 26 ft ) . Sampson and Witmer estimated an average weight for an adult Majungasaurus of 1 @,@ 100 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 400 lb ) . The specimen they based it on ( FMNH PR 2100 ) was not the largest one discovered . Larger specimens of Majungasaurus crenatissimus could have been similar in size to its relative Carnotaurus , which has been estimated to weigh 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) .
The skull of Majungasaurus is exceptionally well @-@ known compared to most theropods and generally similar to that of other abelisaurids . Like other abelisaurid skulls , its length was proportionally short for its height , although not as short as in Carnotaurus . The skulls of large individuals measured 60 – 70 centimeters ( 24 – 28 in ) long . The tall premaxilla ( frontmost upper jaw bone ) , which made the tip of the snout very blunt , was also typical of the family . However , the skull of Majungasaurus was markedly wider than in other abelisaurids . All abelisaurids had a rough , sculptured texture on the outside faces of the skull bones , and Majungasaurus was no exception . This was carried to an extreme on the nasal bones of Majungasaurus , which were extremely thick and fused together , with a low central ridge running along the half of the bone closest to the nostrils . A distinctive dome @-@ like horn protruded from the fused frontal bones on top of the skull as well . In life , these structures would have been covered with some sort of integument , possibly made of keratin . Computed tomography ( CT scanning ) of the skull shows that both the nasal structure and the frontal horn contained hollow sinus cavities , perhaps to reduce weight . The teeth were typical of abelisaurids in having short crowns , although Majungasaurus bore seventeen teeth in both the maxilla of the upper jaw and the dentary of the lower jaw , more than in any other abelisaurid except Rugops .
The postcranial skeleton of Majungasaurus closely resembles those of Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus , the only other abelisaurid genera for which complete skeletal material is known . Majungasaurus was bipedal , with a long tail to balance out the head and torso , putting the center of gravity over the hips . Although the cervical ( neck ) vertebrae had numerous cavities and excavations ( pleurocoels ) to reduce their weight , they were robust , with exaggerated muscle attachment sites and ribs that interlocked for strength . Ossified tendons attached to the cervical ribs , giving them a forked appearance , as seen in Carnotaurus . All of these features resulted in a very strong and muscular neck . Uniquely , the cervical ribs of Majungasaurus had long depressions along the sides for weight reduction . The humerus ( upper arm bone ) was short and curved , closely resembling those of Aucasaurus and Carnotaurus . Also like related dinosaurs , Majungasaurus had very short forelimbs with four extremely reduced digits , first reported with only two very short external fingers and no claws . The hand and finger bones of Majungasaurus , like other majungasaurines , lacked the characteristic pits and grooves where claws and tendons would normally attach , and its finger bones were fused together , indicating that the hand was immobile . In 2012 , a better specimen was described , showing that the lower arm was robust , though short , and that the hand contained four metatarsals and four , probably inflexible and very reduced , fingers , with small claws on the second and third finger . The phalanx formula was 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 0 .
Like other abelisaurids , the hindlimbs were stocky and short compared to body length . The tibia ( lower leg bone ) of Majungasaurus was even stockier than that of its relative Carnotaurus , with a prominent crest on the knee . The astragalus and calcaneum ( ankle bones ) were fused together , and the feet bore three functional digits , with a smaller first digit that did not contact the ground .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Majungasaurus is classified as a member of the theropod clade Abelisauridae , which is considered a family in Linnaean taxonomy . Along with the family Noasauridae , abelisaurids are included in the superfamily Abelisauroidea , which is in turn a subdivision of the infraorder Ceratosauria . Abelisaurids are known for their tall skulls with blunt snouts , extensive sculpturing on the outer surfaces of the facial bones ( convergent with carcharodontosaurids ) , very reduced ( atrophied ) forelimbs ( convergent with tyrannosaurids ) , and stocky hindlimb proportions , among other features .
As with many dinosaur families , the systematics ( evolutionary relationships ) within the family Abelisauridae are confused . Several cladistic studies have indicated that Majungasaurus shares a close relationship with Carnotaurus from South America , while others were unable to firmly place it in the phylogeny . The most recent analysis , using the most complete information , instead recovered Majungasaurus in a clade with Rajasaurus and Indosaurus from India , but excluding South American genera like Carnotaurus , Ilokelesia , Ekrixinatosaurus , Aucasaurus and Abelisaurus , as well as Rugops from mainland Africa . This leaves open the possibility of separate clades of abelisaurids in western and eastern Gondwana .
A cladogram by Tortosa et al . 2013 places Majungasaurus in a new subfamily , Majungasaurinae . A simplified version showing the taxa within the group is shown below .
= = Discovery and naming = =
French paleontologist Charles Depéret described the first theropod remains from northwestern Madagascar in 1896 . These included two teeth , a claw , and some vertebrae discovered along the Betsiboka River by a French army officer and deposited in the collection of what is now the Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 . Depéret referred these fossils to the genus Megalosaurus , which at the time was a wastebasket taxon containing any number of unrelated large theropods , as the new species M. crenatissimus . This name is derived from the Latin word crenatus ( " notched " ) and the suffix -issimus ( " most " ) , in reference to the numerous serrations on both front and rear edges of the teeth . Depéret later reassigned the species to the North American genus Dryptosaurus , another poorly known taxon .
Numerous fragmentary remains from Mahajanga Province in northwestern Madagascar were recovered by French collectors over the next 100 years , many of which were deposited in the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle in Paris . In 1955 , René Lavocat described a theropod dentary ( MNHN.MAJ 1 ) with teeth from the Maevarano Formation in the same region where the original material was found . The teeth matched those first described by Depéret , but the strongly curved jaw bone was very different from both Megalosaurus and Dryptosaurus . Based on this dentary , Lavocat created the new genus Majungasaurus , using an older spelling of Mahajanga as well as the Greek word σαυρος / sauros ( meaning " lizard " ) . Hans @-@ Dieter Sues and Philippe Taquet described a dome @-@ shaped skull fragment ( MNHN.MAJ 4 ) as a new genus of pachycephalosaur ( Majungatholus atopus ) in 1979 . This was the first report of a pachycephalosaur in the Southern Hemisphere .
In 1993 , scientists from the State University of New York at Stony Brook and the University of Antananarivo began the Mahajanga Basin Project , a series of expeditions to examine the fossils and geology of the Late Cretaceous sediments near the village of Berivotra , in Mahajanga Province . Among these scientists was paleontologist David W. Krause of Stony Brook . The first expedition turned up hundreds of theropod teeth identical to those of Majungasaurus , some of which were attached to an isolated premaxilla that was described in 1996 . The following seven expeditions would turn up tens of thousands of fossils , many of which belonged to species new to science . The Mahajanga Basin Project claims credit for quintupling the known diversity of fossil taxa in the region .
Fieldwork in 1996 turned up a spectacularly complete theropod skull preserved in exquisite detail ( FMNH PR 2100 ) . On top of this skull was a dome @-@ shaped swelling nearly identical to the one described by Sues and Taquet as Majungatholus atopus . Majungatholus was redescribed as an abelisaurid rather than a pachycephalosaur in 1998 . Although the name Majungasaurus crenatissimus was older than Majungatholus atopus , the authors judged the type dentary of Majungasaurus too fragmentary to confidently assign to the same species as the skull . Further fieldwork over the next decade turned up a series of less complete skulls , as well as dozens of partial skeletons of individuals ranging from juveniles to adults . Project members also collected hundreds of isolated bones and thousands of shed Majungasaurus teeth . Taken together , these remains represent nearly all the bones of the skeleton , although most of the forelimbs , most of the pelvis and the tip of the tail are still unknown . This fieldwork culminated in a 2007 monograph consisting of seven scientific papers on all aspects of the animal 's biology , published in the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoirs . The papers are in English , although each has an abstract written in Malagasy . In this volume , the dentary described by Lavocat was re @-@ evaluated and determined to be diagnostic for this species . Therefore , the name Majungatholus was replaced by the older name Majungasaurus . Although the monograph is comprehensive , the editors noted that it describes only material recovered from 1993 through 2001 . A significant quantity of specimens , some very complete , were excavated in 2003 and 2005 and await preparation and description in future publications . The dentary was made the neotype specimen after a 2009 petition to the ICZN .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Skull ornamentation = = =
Majungasaurus is perhaps most distinctive for its skull ornamentation , including the swollen and fused nasals and the frontal horn . Other ceratosaurs , including Carnotaurus , Rajasaurus , and Ceratosaurus itself bore crests on the head . These structures are likely to have played a role in intraspecific competition , although their exact function within that context is unknown . The hollow cavity inside the frontal horn of Majungasaurus would have weakened the structure and probably precluded its use in direct physical combat , although the horn may have served a display purpose . While there is variation in the ornamentation of Majungasaurus individuals , there is no evidence for sexual dimorphism .
= = = Feeding = = =
Scientists have suggested that the unique skull shape of Majungasaurus and other abelisaurids indicate different predatory habits than other theropods . Whereas most theropods were characterized by long , low skulls of narrow width , abelisaurid skulls were taller and wider , and often shorter in length as well . The narrow skulls of other theropods were well equipped to withstand the vertical stress of a powerful bite , but not as good at withstanding torsion ( twisting ) . In comparison to modern mammalian predators , most theropods may have used a strategy similar in some ways to that of long- and narrow @-@ snouted canids , with the delivery of many bites weakening the prey animal .
Abelisaurids , especially Majungasaurus , may instead have been adapted for a feeding strategy more similar to modern felids , with short and broad snouts , that bite once and hold on until the prey is subdued . Majungasaurus had an even broader snout than other abelisaurids , and other aspects of its anatomy may also support the bite @-@ and @-@ hold hypothesis . The neck was strengthened , with robust vertebrae , interlocking ribs and ossified tendons , as well as reinforced muscle attachment sites on the vertebrae and the back of the skull . These muscles would have been able to hold the head steady despite the struggles of its prey . Abelisaurid skulls were also strengthened in many areas by bone mineralized out of the skin , creating the characteristic rough texture of the bones . This is particularly true of Majungasaurus , where the nasal bones were fused and thickened for strength . On the other hand , the lower jaw of Majungasaurus sported a large fenestra ( opening ) on each side , as seen in other ceratosaurs , as well as synovial joints between certain bones that allowed a high degree of flexibility in the lower jaw , although not to the extent seen in snakes . This may have been an adaptation to prevent the fracture of the lower jaw when holding onto a struggling prey animal . The front teeth of the upper jaw were more robust than the rest , to provide an anchor point for the bite , while the low crown height of Majungasaurus teeth prevented them from breaking off during a struggle . Finally , unlike the teeth of Allosaurus and most other theropods , which were curved on both the front and back , abelisaurids like Majungasaurus had teeth curved on the front edge but straighter on the back ( cutting ) edge . This structure may have served to prevent slicing , and instead holding the teeth in place when biting .
Majungasaurus was the largest predator in its environment , while the only known large herbivores at the time were sauropods like Rapetosaurus . Scientists have suggested that Majungasaurus , and perhaps other abelisaurids , specialized on hunting sauropods . Adaptations to strengthen the head and neck for a bite @-@ and @-@ hold type of attack might have been very useful against sauropods , which would have been tremendously powerful animals . This hypothesis may also be supported by the hindlegs of Majungasaurus , which were short and stocky , as opposed to the longer and more slender legs of most other theropods . While Majungasaurus would not have moved as fast as other similar @-@ sized theropods , it would have had no trouble keeping up with slow @-@ moving sauropods . The robust hindlimb bones suggest very powerful legs , and their shorter length would have lowered the animal 's center of gravity . Thus Majungasaurus may have sacrificed speed for power . Majungasaurus tooth marks on Rapetosaurus bones confirm that it at least fed on these sauropods , whether or not it actually killed them .
= = = Cannibalism = = =
Although sauropods may have been the prey of choice for Majungasaurus , discoveries published in 2007 detail finds in Madagascar that indicate the presence of other Majungasaurus in their diet . Numerous bones of Majungasaurus have been discovered bearing tooth marks identical to those found on sauropod bones from the same localities . These marks have the same spacing as teeth in Majungasaurus jaws , are of the same size as Majungasaurus teeth , and contain smaller notches consistent with the serrations on those teeth . As Majungasaurus is the only large theropod known from the area , the simplest explanation is that it was feeding on other members of its own species . Suggestions that the Triassic Coelophysis was a cannibal have been recently disproven , leaving Majungasaurus as the only non @-@ avian theropod with confirmed cannibalistic tendencies , although there is some evidence that cannibalism may have occurred in other species as well .
It is unknown if Majungasaurus actively hunted their own kind or only scavenged their carcasses . However , some researchers have noted that modern Komodo monitors sometimes kill each other when competing for access to carcasses . The lizards will then proceed to cannibalize the remains of their rivals , which may suggest similar behavior in Majungasaurus and other theropods .
= = = Respiratory system = = =
Scientists have reconstructed the respiratory system of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae ( UA 8678 ) recovered from the Maevarano Formation . Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities ( pneumatic foramina ) that may have resulted from the infiltration of avian @-@ style lungs and air sacs . In birds , the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac , the upper back vertebrae by the lung , and the lower back and sacral ( hip ) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac . Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs . These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian @-@ style ' flow @-@ through ventilation , ' where air flow through the lungs is one @-@ way , so that oxygen @-@ rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with carbon dioxide . This method of respiration , while complicated , is highly efficient .
The recognition of pneumatic foramina in Majungasaurus , besides providing an understanding of its respiratory biology , also has larger @-@ scale implications for evolutionary biology . The split between the ceratosaur line , which led to Majungasaurus , and the tetanuran line , to which birds belong , occurred very early in the history of theropods . The avian respiratory system , present in both lines , must therefore have evolved before the split , and well before the evolution of birds themselves . This provides further evidence of the dinosaurian origin of birds .
= = = Brain and inner ear structure = = =
Computed tomography , also known as CT scanning , of a complete Majungasaurus skull ( FMNH PR 2100 ) allowed a rough reconstruction of its brain and inner ear structure . Overall , the brain was very small relative to body size , but otherwise similar to many other non @-@ coelurosaurian theropods , with a very conservative form closer to modern crocodilians than to birds . One difference between Majungasaurus and other theropods was its smaller flocculus , a region of the cerebellum that helps to coordinate movements of the eye with movements of the head . This suggests that Majungasaurus and other abelisaurids like Indosaurus , which also had a small flocculus , did not rely on quick head movements to sight and capture prey .
Inferences about behavior can also be drawn from examination of the inner ear . The semicircular canals within the inner ear aid in balance , and the lateral semicircular canal is usually parallel to the ground when the animal holds its head in an alert posture . When the skull of Majungasaurus is rotated so that its lateral canal is parallel to the ground , the entire skull is nearly horizontal . This contrasts with many other theropods , where the head was more strongly downturned when in the alert position . The lateral canal is also significantly longer in Majungasaurus than in its more basal relative Ceratosaurus , indicating a greater sensitivity to side @-@ to @-@ side motions of the head .
= = = Pathology = = =
A 2007 report described pathologies in the bones of Majungasaurus . Scientists examined the remains of at least 21 individuals and discovered four with noticeable pathologies . While pathology had been studied in large tetanuran theropods like allosaurids and tyrannosaurids , this was the first time an abelisauroid had been examined in this manner . No wounds were found on any skull elements , in contrast to tyrannosaurids where sometimes gruesome facial bites were common . One of the specimens was a phalanx ( toe bone ) of the foot , which had apparently been broken and subsequently healed .
Most of the pathologies occurred on the vertebrae . For example , a dorsal ( back ) vertebra from a juvenile animal showed an exostosis ( bony growth ) on its underside . The growth probably resulted from the conversion of cartilage or a ligament to bone during development , but the cause of the ossification was not determined . Hypervitaminosis A and bone spurs were ruled out , and an osteoma ( benign bone tumor ) was deemed unlikely . Another specimen , a small caudal ( tail ) vertebra , was also found to have an abnormal growth , this time on the top of its neural spine , which projects upwards from the vertebrae , allowing muscle attachment . Similar growths from the neural spine have been found in specimens of Allosaurus and Masiakasaurus , probably resulting from the ossification of a ligament running either between the neural spines ( interspinal ligament ) or along their tops ( supraspinal ligament ) .
The most serious pathology discovered was in a series of five large tail vertebrae . The first two vertebrae showed only minor abnormalities with the exception of a large groove that extended along the left side of both bones . However , the next three vertebrae were completely fused together at many different points , forming a solid bony mass . There is no sign of any other vertebrae after the fifth in the series , indicating that the tail ended there prematurely . From the size of the last vertebrae , scientists judged that about ten vertebrae were lost . One explanation for this pathology is severe physical trauma resulting in the loss of the tail tip , followed by osteomyelitis ( infection ) of the last remaining vertebrae . Alternatively , the infection may have come first and led to the end of the tail becoming necrotic and falling off . This is the first example of tail truncation known in a non @-@ avian theropod dinosaur .
= = Paleoecology = =
All specimens of Majungasaurus have been recovered from the Maevarano Formation in the Mahajanga Province in northwestern Madagascar . Most of these , including all of the most complete material , came from the Anembalemba Member , although Majungasaurus teeth have also been found in the underlying Masorobe Member and the overlying Miadana Member . While these sediments have not been dated radiometrically , evidence from biostratigraphy and paleomagnetism suggest that they were deposited during the Maastrichtian stage , which lasted from 70 to 66 Ma ( million years ago ) . Majungasaurus teeth are found up until the very end of the Maastrichtian , when all non @-@ avian dinosaurs became extinct .
Then as now , Madagascar was an island , having separated from the Indian subcontinent less than 20 million years earlier . It was drifting northwards but still 10 – 15 ° more southerly in latitude than it is today . The prevailing climate of the time was semi @-@ arid , with pronounced seasonality in temperature and rainfall . Majungasaurus inhabited a coastal flood plain cut by many sandy river channels . Strong geological evidence suggests the occurrence of periodic debris flows through these channels at the beginning of the wet season , burying the carcasses of organisms killed during the preceding dry season and providing for their exceptional preservation as fossils . Sea levels in the area were rising throughout the Maastrichtian , and would continue to do so into the Paleocene Epoch , so Majungasaurus may have roamed coastal environments like tidal flats as well . The neighboring Berivotra Formation represents the contemporaneous marine environment .
Besides Majungasaurus , fossil taxa recovered from the Maevarano include fish , frogs , lizards , snakes , seven distinct species of crocodylomorphs , five or six species of mammals , Vorona and several other birds , the possibly flighted dromaeosaurid Rahonavis , the noasaurid Masiakasaurus and two titanosaurian sauropods , including Rapetosaurus . Majungasaurus was by far the largest carnivore and probably the dominant predator on land , although large crocodylomorphs like Mahajangasuchus and Trematochampsa might have competed with it closer to water .
= = Documentaries = =
Majungasaurus was a main focus of the fifth episode of the mini @-@ series When Dinosaurs Ruled hosted by Jeff Goldblum . It also featured in the pilot episode of Jurassic Fight Club , in which its cannibalistic behavior was explored . In both series , the animal was referred to as Majungatholus . It was properly referred to as Majungasaurus in the third episode of BBC 's Planet Dinosaur , in which its killing technique as well as its cannibalistic nature were explored .
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= Blame Game =
" Blame Game " is a song by American hip @-@ hop recording artist Kanye West from his fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . The song features recording artist John Legend and was produced by West , Justin Franks , and Mike Dean . The song features a hip hop skit provided by comedian Chris Rock . It contains a sample of " Avril 14th " , written by Richard D. James , known primarily by his pseudonym , Aphex Twin . Lyrically , the song contains West 's thoughts on past break @-@ ups and explores themes of unrequited love , heartbreak , and spousal abuse . Midway through the song , Rock delivers an extended monologue as the new boyfriend of West 's past lover .
Critics were generally complimentary and praised Legend 's vocal delivery . The appearance by Rock was widely noted as a surprising element of the song and received mixed criticism , though some critics described it as a highlight . It charted on the South Korean Gaon Chart at position 81 . West and Legend performed " Blame Game " together on Vevo Presents GOOD Music at SXSW . The song was featured in West 's 2010 short film Runaway . West planned to produce a music video for the song featuring Amber Rose but she declined the offer of appearing and West scrapped the video .
= = Background = =
" Blame Game " was recorded in Oahu , Hawaii , where most of the sessions for My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy took place . West opted to work with more familiar songwriters to maintain artistic privacy and keep a low profile after several of his publicized controversies . West recorded the song with vocalist John Legend , a frequent collaborator of his since West 's 2004 debut album The College Dropout . During an appearance on Ustream , West announced that Legend was set to appear on a song from his currently upcoming album , titled " Blame Game " . During the announcement , West cited " Blame Game " as his favorite song from the album , which was at the time unfinished . The song developed from Legend and West 's brainstorming , which also led to several other tracks , including " All of the Lights " . Rapper Pusha T was erroneously reported to have provided backing vocals on the song .
West asked comedian Chris Rock to appear on the song . Rock , a fan of West 's , mused that he was more than happy to collaborate with West , and said , " you 'd be amazed at how many people want to work with you if you just ask , if you just make a call . " He had previously collaborated on other hip hop songs , such as with rappers Ludacris , Ol ' Dirty Bastard , and Ice Cube on the track " You Ain 't Gotta Lie ( Ta Kick It ) " . Rock described his collaboration with West as exciting in nature , commenting that he was always open to working on unusual ventures . In an interview with The New York Times , Rock went into detail about the composition of the song :
“ I did that quicker than I read scripts that they offer me money to do ... I thank [ Kanye ] so much it probably freaks him out . Especially at this late date , to get on something , the album of the moment , that stuff is priceless , you can ’ t put a price tag on that . I felt invigorated by it . I ’ ve still got my fastball . "
The song is partly inspired by West 's relationship with model Amber Rose . West originally met Rose in 2008 , and they subsequently developed a romantic relationship , before having a dramatic break @-@ up in 2010 ; Rose cited allegations of adultery . Rose also said that West had written the song about their relationship , commenting that West " talked reckless about me on his album " .
= = Composition = =
The track is built on a recreation of electronic musician Aphex Twin 's piano composition " Avril 14th " . The song begins with a minute long introduction sung by Legend . " Blame Game " has a lush , cello @-@ driven production with predominant piano . After Legend 's introduction , West raps his verses in a highly melodic manner , almost singing his lines . West 's forceful delivery expresses hurt and contempt . The song 's soulful sound juxtaposes West 's angry lyrics : " been a long time since I spoke to you in a bathroom , ripping you up , fuckin ' and chokin ' you " . He subsequently raps less antagonistically and repeatedly confesses " I can 't love you this much " .
West 's vocals are substantially manipulated throughout the song from " naturally clear @-@ sounding and ominously pitched @-@ down as it pans back and forth " , as they are slowed down , sped up , edited substantially , and altered in various ways , giving the song a brooding , ominous mood . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal wrote that this effect " bottoms out with a verse in which Kanye 's voice is sped up , slowed down and stretched out ... The effect is almost psychotic , suggesting three or four inner monologues fighting over smashed emotions . " AbsolutePunk 's Drew Beringer commented that the vocal altercations gives the sense of the " multiple personalities and paranoia he tries to overcome . "
On " Blame Game " , West attempts to call his past lover , but he receives a call back instead and he hears a conversation between her and Chris Rock , who begins an extended monologue approximately five minutes into the song . Chris Rock performs a vulgar , profanity @-@ ridden sketch in which he compliments his lover 's dress sense and sexual technique , and asks her who taught her these skills . Each time he asks , the answer is the same : " Yeezy taught me . " . Andy Gill of The Independent commented that a similar " alliance of aristocratic piano and cello with less rarefied elements underpins ' Blame Game ' , a brutal rumination on West 's sexual appetite " .
= = Reception = =
" Blame Game " generally pleased contemporary critics . The Village Voice 's Sean Fennessey said that it is " not the flashiest or most forward @-@ thinking song on the album , but certainly the most earthbound . And therefore the most important . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Thomas Conner complimented Rock 's " hilarious , X @-@ rated spiel " and cited the song as the best example of West 's ability " to contrast the light and dark pieces against each other , the profane and the sacred " , writing that it utilizes " Legend 's soft , pretty voice to sing a smooth , troubling refrain . " Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield called it one of the funniest of West 's career , a " confessional " song where he " honestly struggles to figure out why he has to be such a douchebag . " Steve Jones of USA Today cited the song as the album 's pièce de résistance that " plays out with growing hostility over John Legend 's moody piano work . " Nitsuh Abebe of New York mused that the song successfully showcased a " gloomy and elegiac " presentation .
David Browne of Time called it " that rare , effortless fusion of penthouse @-@ boudoir R & B and hip hop grit " , but was ambivalent about its segue " into an interminable , decidedly unfunny skit in which a guy keeps asking a woman how she learned such mind @-@ boggling bedroom moves . " In contrast , Kitty Empire of The Guardian felt that " comedian Chris Rock is hilariously foul @-@ mouthed at the end of Blame Game . " Becky Bain of Idolator called the song epic , but felt that Rock 's appearance served as a detriment to the song , writing ; " we ’ d kill the last two minutes with Rock ’ s unfocused , not @-@ as @-@ funny @-@ as @-@ we @-@ think @-@ it ’ s @-@ supposed @-@ to @-@ be rambling , but otherwise , this is quite a beautiful track . " " Blame Game " charted on South Korean Gaon Chart at position 81 .
= = Marketing = =
The song was also featured in Runaway , a 35 @-@ minute music video directed by West set to music from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . After a traumatic dinner sequence , the song is played during a tense moment between West and the phoenix . At the Vevo Presents GOOD Music musical presentation , the song was performed by both West and Legend together . The two performed a few song together before Legend performed his own single " Ordinary People " separately .
A planned music video for the song was going to feature an appearance by Amber Rose , however she declined the offer . Rose commented that she passed on the video because she " just felt like Chris Rock 's part was disrespectful " , believing that the song painted her in a negative light . Another reason for her declining to appear in the video because of her then @-@ current relationship with rapper Wiz Khalifa , feeling that appearing in an ex @-@ boyfriend 's musical venture would be disrespectful to Khalifa . West told Rose that both " Blame Game " and the Runaway film were partially inspired by his relationship with her .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes for My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) .
Chris " Hitchcock " Chorney – cello
Andrew Dawson – engineer , mixing
Mike Dean – additional production , bass , composer , mixing , piano
DJ Frank E – composer , producer
Ryan Gilligan – engineer
Richard D. James – composer ( sample )
Phil Joy – engineer
John Legend – composer , featured artist
Salma Kenas – additional vocals
Anthony Kilhoffer – mixing
Chloe Mitchell – composer ( poem )
Chris Rock – additional vocals
Kanye West – composer , producer , primary artist
= = Charts = =
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= Kosta Pećanac =
Konstantin " Kosta " Milovanović Pećanac ( Serbian Cyrillic : Коста Миловановић Пећанац ; 1879 – 1944 ) was a Serbian Chetnik commander ( vojvoda ) during the Balkan Wars , World War I and World War II . Pećanac fought on the Serbian side in both Balkan Wars and World War I , joining the forces of Kosta Vojinović during the Toplica uprising of 1917 . Between the wars he was an important leader of Chetnik veteran associations , and was known for his strong hostility to the Yugoslav Communist Party , which made him popular in conservative circles . As president of the Chetnik Association , he transformed the association during the 1930s into an aggressively partisan Serb political organisation with over half a million members . During World War II , Pećanac collaborated with both the German military administration and their Serbian puppet government in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia .
Just before the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , the Yugoslav government provided Pećanac with funds and arms to raise guerrilla units in southern Serbia , Macedonia and Kosovo . He formed a detachment of about 300 men , mostly in the Toplica river valley in southern Serbia , which avoided destruction during the invasion . In the first three months after the surrender , Pećanac gathered more troops from Serb refugees fleeing Macedonia and Kosovo . However , his Chetniks fought only Albanian groups in the region , and did not engage the Germans . Following the uprising in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia in early July 1941 , Pećanac quickly resolved to abandon resistance against the Axis , and by the end of August had concluded agreements with the German occupation forces and the puppet government of Milan Nedić to collaborate with them and fight the communist @-@ led Partisans . In July 1942 , rival Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović arranged for the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile to denounce Pećanac as a traitor , and his continuing collaboration with the Germans ruined what remained of the reputation he had developed in the Balkan Wars and World War I.
The Germans rapidly realised that Pećanac 's Chetniks , whose numbers had grown to 8 @,@ 000 , were inefficient and unreliable , and even the Nedić government had no confidence in them . They were completely disbanded by March 1943 . Pećanac himself was interned by the Nedić regime for some time , and was assassinated by agents of Mihailović in May or June 1944 .
= = Early life = =
Kosta Milovanović was born in a village near Dečani in 1879 , although some sources mistakenly identify the year as 1871 . His father Milovan was a guardian of the Visoki Dečani monastery . Pećanac 's father and his brother Milosav fought in the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 1878 . In 1883 , both of his parents were killed in an attack by Albanians on the monastery . After that point , Pećanac was looked after by his uncle in the village of Đurakovac near Peć for an unknown amount of time .
He arrived in Serbia in 1892 at the age of 14 and worked as a mercenary . When he was 21 , he was called up for army service and served in the engineer corps , becoming a reserve officer . He later worked with the border gendarmerie near Vranje as a corporal . Pećanac was discharged at some point for reasons unknown and later joined the Chetniks . While serving with them he was given the nickname " Pećanac " , derived from the name of the town in which he grew up .
= = Macedonia and the Balkan Wars = =
In 1895 , war broke out in Macedonia against the Ottoman Empire . Pećanac joined the Serbian Chetnik Organization in 1903 , and fought against the Ottoman army in several significant battles including that of Šuplja Stena ( near Pčinja ) and Čelopek ( near Staro Nagoričane ) . The deacon of the Vladika of Žiča and commander ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : vojvoda , вoјвода ) Jovan Grković @-@ Gapon suggested awarding Pećanac the title of vojvoda ; at a Christmas @-@ day meeting in 1904 , Pećanac received the title at the age of 25 . In the period between 1905 and 1907 , he led several major battles against the Ottoman army in the Skopje region . In 1908 , Pećanac married Sofia Milosavljević from the town of Aleksinac . He went on to father four children with her . In 1910 , as the struggles in Macedonia intensified , he left his children and pregnant wife , and returned to the battlefield .
In the First Balkan War , fought from October 1912 to May 1913 , Pećanac was mobilised in the Serbian Third Army , holding the rank of sergeant in the Morava Division . He took part in the defeat of the Albanians in Merdare , the Battle of Kumanovo and the liberation of Metohija . During the Second Balkan War , fought from 29 June to 10 August 1913 , Pećanac is believed to have been stationed at the front at Kitka on Osogovo Mountain along the Zletovska and Bregalnica rivers . There , his division took part in the Battle of Bregalnica with the Bulgarians . After the Bulgarian attacks failed , they sent parliamentarians to seek a truce , but the Serbian side refused and the fighting continued . After his division had endured six days of heavy fighting , the Bulgarians were defeated at Grljani near Vinica .
= = World War I = =
Following the disastrous end to the Serbian campaign in late 1915 , Pećanac escaped to Corfu along with the retreating Serbian army and government , and ultimately joined the Salonika front . In 1915 , Pećanac had received various medals for his " merit in fighting " including three gold medals for bravery , one for military virtue , and the Order of the Star of Karađorđe ( 4th Class ) for his service in World War I and possibly also for his prior military accomplishments .
In September 1916 , the Serbian High Command sent then @-@ Lieutenant Pećanac by air to Mehane ( south @-@ west of Niš in the Toplica region ) to prepare a guerrilla uprising in support of a planned Allied offensive . There , Pećanac contacted several groups of guerrillas , known as comitadji . Pećanac joined forces with local leader Kosta Vojinović , and they both established headquarters on Mount Kopaonik . Rivalry quickly developed between the two leaders , mainly because Pećanac only had orders to prepare to support the planned Allied offensive , but Vojinović was conducting operations that might result in pre @-@ emptive action by the Bulgarian occupation forces . Matters came to a head in January – February 1917 when the Bulgarians began conscripting local Serbs for military service . At a meeting of guerrilla leaders to discuss whether they should commence a general uprising , Pećanac was outvoted . However , events had overtaken the leaders , and they were essentially joining a popular uprising that was already underway . After guerrillas under Pećanac 's command engaged the Bulgarians , he was hailed as a leader of the resistance , although he had serious reservations about the eventual outcome once the Bulgarians and Austro @-@ Hungarians committed large numbers of troops to subdue the uprising . The guerrillas were closing on Niš in early March when the occupying forces went on the offensive . Pećanac advised his fighters to hide out in the woods and mountains , while Vojinović ordered his to fight to the death . By 25 March , the uprising had been crushed . Pećanac 's participation in the rebellion came at a great personal cost ; three of his children died whilst in Bulgarian internment .
In April 1917 , Pećanac re @-@ emerged with his guerrillas , attacking a railway station , destroying a bridge and raiding a Bulgarian village on the border . Pećanac avoided a further offensive by the occupation forces in July by disappearing into the mountains once again . After emerging for a short time , in September – October 1917 Pećanac again dispersed his guerrillas and infiltrated the Austro @-@ Hungarian occupied zone , where he remained in hiding until mid @-@ 1918 . During his period in hiding , he met with the Kosovar Albanian leader Azem Galica to discuss joint actions against the occupation forces .
= = Interwar period = =
Pećanac was the most prominent figure in the Chetnik movement during the interwar period . During the 1920 Constitutional Assembly elections , Prime Minister Nikola Pašić sent Pećanac to the Sandžak with orders to intimidate the local Muslim population in the hope of keeping the turnout low . In the same year , attempts by the Yugoslav government to disarm and conscript Kosovo Albanians were met by revolts . Pećanac was sent to Kosovo to form detachments made up of local Serbs to fight the rebels . This resulted in rebel attacks on Serb villages .
Pećanac had a leading role in the Association against Bulgarian Bandits , an organisation that arbitrarily terrorised Bulgarians in the Štip region . He also served as a commander with the Organization of Yugoslav Nationalists ( ORJUNA ) . Pećanac was present as a member of parliament at the assassination of Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) leader Stjepan Radić and HSS deputies Pavle Radić and Đuro Basariček on 20 June 1928 . Prior to the shooting , he was accused by HSS deputy Ivan Pernar of being responsible for a massacre of 200 Muslims in 1921 .
Pećanac became the president of the Chetnik Association in 1932 . By opening membership of the Chetnik Association to new younger members that had not served in World War I , he grew the organisation during the 1930s from a nationalist veterans ' association focused on protecting veterans ' rights to an aggressively partisan Serb political organisation with 500 @,@ 000 members throughout the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . During this period , Pećanac formed close ties with the far @-@ right Yugoslav Radical Union government of Milan Stojadinović . Pećanac was known for his hostility to the Communist Party of Yugoslavia , which made him popular with conservatives , especially those in Stojadinović 's party .
= = World War II = =
Shortly before the Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Pećanac was requested by the Yugoslav Ministry of the Army and Navy to prepare for guerrilla operations and guard the southern area of Serbia , Macedonia , and Kosovo from pro @-@ Bulgarians and pro @-@ Albanians rebels . He was given money and weapons , and managed to arm several hundred men in the Toplica River valley in southern Serbia . Pećanac 's force remained intact after the German occupation of Serbia and supplemented its strength from Serb refugees fleeing Macedonia and Kosovo . Pećanac 's detachments fought against Albanian bands in the early summer of 1941 . At this time and for a considerable time after , only detachments under Pećanac were identified by the term " Chetnik " . With the rise of the communist Partisans , Pećanac gave up any interest in resistance and by late August reached agreements with both the Serbian puppet government and the German authorities to carry out attacks against the Partisans .
While he was concluding arrangements with the Germans , on 18 August 1941 Pećanac received a letter from Draža Mihailović requesting an agreement be reached where Pećanac would control the Chetniks south of the Western Morava River while Mihailović would control the Chetniks in all other areas . Pećanac declined his request and suggested that he might offer Mihailović the chief of staff position and recommended Mihailović 's detachments disband and join his detachments . In the meantime , Pećanac had arranged for the transfer of several thousand of his Chetniks to the Serbian Gendarmerie to act as German auxiliaries .
On 27 August , Pećanac issued an open " Proclamation to the Dear People " , in which he portrayed himself as a defender and protector of Serbs and called " on detachments that have been formed without his approval " to come together under his command . He demanded that individuals hiding in the forests immediately return to their homes and that acts of sabotage against the occupiers cease or the perpetrators would face death .
In September 1941 , some of Pećanac 's subordinates broke ranks to join with the Partisans in fighting the Germans and their Serbian auxiliaries . In the Kopaonik region , a previously loyal subordinate of Pećanac began attacking local gendarmerie stations and clashing with armed bands of Albanian Muslims . By the end of October , the Germans decided to stop arming the " unreliable " elements within Pećanac 's Chetniks , and attached the remainder to their other Serbian auxiliary forces .
On 7 October 1941 , Pećanac sent a request to Milan Nedić , the head of the Serbian puppet government , for stronger organisation , supplies , arms , salary funds , and more . Over time , his requests were fulfilled and a German liaison officer was appointed at Pećanac 's headquarters to help coordinate actions . According to German data , on 17 January 1942 72 Chetnik officers and 7 @,@ 963 men were being provided for by the Serbian Gendarmerie Command . This fell short of the maximum authorized size of 8 @,@ 745 men and included two or three thousand of Mihailović 's Chetniks who were legalized in November 1941 . In the same month , Pećanac sought permission from the Italians for his forces to move into eastern Montenegro , but was refused over Italian concerns that the Chetniks would move into the Sandžak .
In April 1942 , the German Commanding General in Serbia , General der Artillerie ( General ) Paul Bader , issued orders giving unit numbers C – 39 to C – 101 to the Pećanac Chetnik detachments , which were put under the command of the local German division or area command post . These orders also required the deployment of a German liaison officer with all detachments engaged in operations , and limited their movement outside their assigned area . Supply of arms and ammunition was also controlled . In July 1942 , Mihailović arranged for the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile to denounce Pećanac as a traitor . His continuing collaboration ruined what remained of the reputation he had developed in the Balkan Wars and World War I.
The Germans soon found that Pećanac 's units were inefficient , unreliable , and of little military use . Pećanac 's Chetniks regularly clashed and had rivalries with other German auxiliaries , such as the Serbian State Guard and Serbian Volunteer Command , as well as with Mihailović 's Chetniks . The Germans and the puppet government commenced disbanding them in September 1942 , and all but one were dissolved by the end of 1942 . The last detachment was dissolved in March 1943 . Pećanac 's followers were dispersed to other German auxiliary forces , German labour units , and prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps . Many deserted to join Mihailović . Nothing is known of Pećanac 's activities in the months that followed except that he was interned for some time by the Serbian puppet government .
= = Death = =
Accounts of Pećanac 's capture and death vary . According to one account , Pećanac , four of his leaders and 40 of their followers were captured by forces loyal to Mihailović in February 1944 . All were killed within days except Pećanac , who remained in custody to write his war memoirs before being executed on 5 May 1944 . Another source states he was assassinated on 6 June 1944 by Chetniks loyal to Mihailović .
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= = = Online sources = = =
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= Trial of Lord George Gordon =
The Trial of Lord George Gordon for high treason occurred on 5 February 1781 before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King 's Bench , as a result of Gordon 's role in the eponymously named riots . Gordon , President of the Protestant Association , had led a protest against the Papists Act 1778 , a Catholic relief bill . Intending only to hand in a petition to Parliament , Gordon riled the crowd by announcing the postponement of the petition , denouncing Members of Parliament and launching " anti @-@ Catholic harangues " . The crowd of protesters fragmented and began looting nearby buildings ; by the time the riots had finished a week later , 300 had died , and more property had been damaged than during the entire French Revolution . Gordon was almost immediately arrested , and indicted for levying war against the King .
Defended by Thomas Erskine and Lloyd Kenyon , Gordon was accidentally assisted by the Attorney General , James Wallace , who managed to " ridicule " some of his own evidence before Gordon was set back by Kenyon 's lacklustre and confusing speech . However , an impassioned speech by Erskine , which argued that Gordon 's actions were only crimes under the illegally extended law of constructive treason , led to the jury finding him not guilty . This result , which met with pleasure due to the popular disquiet with the idea of constructive treason , left juries unwilling to apply the extended law of constructive treason ; as a result , the government was forced to incorporate it into statute law . Erskine became renowned as an excellent , albeit unorthodox , advocate ; Gordon , on the other hand , was later excommunicated and imprisoned , dying in jail in 1793 . Kenyon was chosen to replace Wallace as Attorney General at the next change of ministry .
= = Background = =
Lord George Gordon , third and youngest son of the third duke of Gordon , and brother of the fourth duke , an " ignorant young nobleman , almost simple @-@ minded in his attitude to Catholics " , was the President of the Protestant Association . This body was dedicated to the repeal of the Papists Act 1778 , a Roman Catholic relief bill . Prior to the passage of the Act , Catholics were legally forbidden from voting , inheriting land , saying mass , serving in public office or academia , bearing arms or serving in the military , although these prohibitions were frequently overlooked , particularly those regarding military enlistment . The 1778 Act explicitly removed the bans on saying mass , land inheritance or academic standing , and involved several other implicit concessions , made to encourage Catholics to serve in the military . This was made necessary by the ongoing course of the American Revolution , which was going poorly for British forces – it was felt that Catholic relief would both directly strengthen the armed forces and prevent the repeat of revolution in Ireland , a mostly Catholic nation , which politicians thought a distinct possibility given their " trade grievances and troubled politics " .
On 2 June 1780 , approximately 60 @,@ 000 people gathered in St George 's Fields , London , to hear an address from Gordon . He and the mob were there to hand in a petition to Parliament ( of which he was a Member ) decrying the Papists Act . After marching to Parliament and reassembling , the mob became incensed by a declaration from Gordon that consideration of the petition was to be postponed , and fragmented . Gordon himself encouraged the crowd with " anti @-@ Catholic harangues " , denouncing approaching Members of Parliament , and groups began destroying and looting Catholic buildings or buildings owned by those they alleged to support Catholic relief . Several Members of Parliament were attacked , the house of Lord Chief Justice Lord Mansfield was destroyed , and several prisons were broken into . At least 300 died in the week it took the military to quash the riots ; Emma Mason writes that more property was damaged during this week than in the entire French Revolution . 450 were arrested , including Gordon himself , who was charged with high treason . His indictment stated that he " most wickedly , maliciously , and traitorously did ordain , prepare , and levy public war against our said lord , the King " .
= = Trial = =
Gordon retained two barristers for his defence , Thomas Erskine and Lloyd Kenyon , and was arraigned by the Attorney General before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King 's Bench on 5 February 1781 , pleading not guilty . The Attorney General opened , managing to accidentally reduce the evidence of some of his own witnesses to ridicule ; this was offset by Kenyon 's confusing and poor speech in Gordon 's defence . Kenyon , an equity barrister with little experience of public speaking , was noted as " a curious choice for the defence " , and seeing the reaction of the jury to his speech , Erskine asked for leave to delay giving his speech , which was granted .
Following the testimony of 12 witnesses , who stated that Gordon was of excellent character and was loyal to both the king and the constitution , Erskine rose , and instead of arguing that Gordon had not been involved instead took the line that his crimes did not constitute treason . High treason was at the time still based on the Treason Act 1351 , which mandated that the definition of treason could not be extended by judges . Notwithstanding this , the judiciary had extended this to include constructive treason . Erskine was successful in showing that Gordon 's motives had only been to defend his nation , not to harm it , and that without the intention to commit treason , no treason could be committed . The original law required the act to be treasonous in nature , not in consequence , and Gordon 's crimes fell into the second category .
Erskine 's speech was replied to by the Solicitor General , James Mansfield , and the summing @-@ up by Lord Mansfield was not favorable to Gordon . However , Erskine 's reasoning carried the day with the jury , who found Lord George not guilty .
= = Aftermath = =
The verdict was received with pleasure by the majority of the populace , with the principle of constructive treason " widely regarded as highly threatening and injurious to public freedoms " ; as a result , juries became far less willing to convict people for constructive treason , and the government resorted to amending the Treason Act to incorporate the judicially invented concept of constructive treason into statute law . Erskine 's speech , more than anything else , is considered to be the source of this acquittal ; Lloyd Paul Stryker in his biography of Erskine notes that he " had held his jury spellbound @-@ not the jury only , but the whole courtroom also . His logic , his sincerity , and his fire had driven in his close @-@ knit arguments with hammer blows " . Erskine later became Lord Chancellor in the Ministry of All the Talents and was renowned as an excellent , albeit unorthodox , advocate . Kenyon , on the other hand , became Lord Chief Justice . Gordon , the defendant in the case , had a less successful subsequent career ; he was later excommunicated and sent to prison , where he died of typhoid in 1793 .
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= Æthelbald of Mercia =
Æthelbald ( also spelled Ethelbald , or Aethelbald ) ( died 757 ) was the King of Mercia , in what is now the English Midlands from 716 until he was killed in 757 . Æthelbald was the son of Alweo and thus a grandson of Eowa , who was the brother of Penda . Æthelbald came to the throne after the death of his cousin , King Ceolred , who had driven him into exile . During his long reign , Mercia became the dominant kingdom of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and recovered the position of pre @-@ eminence it had enjoyed during the seventh century under the strong Mercian kings Penda and Wulfhere .
When Æthelbald came to the throne , both Wessex and Kent were ruled by stronger kings , but within fifteen years the contemporary chronicler Bede describes Æthelbald as ruling all England south of the river Humber . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle does not list Æthelbald as a bretwalda , or " Ruler of Britain " , though this may be due to the West Saxon origin of the Chronicle .
St. Boniface wrote to Æthelbald in about 745 , reproving him for various dissolute and irreligious acts . The subsequent 747 council of Clovesho and a charter Æthelbald issued at Gumley in 749 — which freed the church from some of its obligations — may have been responses to Boniface 's letter . Æthelbald was killed in 757 by his bodyguards . He was succeeded briefly by Beornred , of whom little is known , but within a year , Offa , the grandson of Æthelbald 's cousin Eanwulf , had seized the throne , possibly after a brief civil war . Under Offa , Mercia entered its most prosperous and influential period .
= = Early life and accession = =
Æthelbald came of the Mercian royal line , although his father , Alweo , was never king . Alweo 's father was Eowa , who may have shared the throne for some time with his brother , Penda of Mercia . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle does not mention Eowa ; though it does date Penda 's reign as the thirty years from 626 to 656 , when Penda was killed at the battle of the Winwaed . However , two later sources name Eowa as king as well : the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae . The Annales Cambriae is the source for Eowa 's death in 644 at the battle of Maserfield , where Penda defeated Oswald of Northumbria . Details on Penda 's reign are scarce , and it is a matter for speculation whether Eowa was an underking , owing allegiance to Penda , or if instead Eowa and Penda had divided Mercia between them . If they did divide the kingdom , it is likely that Eowa ruled northern Mercia , as Penda 's son Peada was established later as the king of southern Mercia by the Northumbrian Oswiu , who defeated the Mercians and killed Penda in 656 . It is possible that Eowa fought against Penda at Maserfield .
During Æthelbald 's youth , Penda 's dynasty ruled Mercia ; Ceolred , a grandson of Penda and therefore a second cousin of Æthelbald , was king of Mercia from 709 to 716 . An early source , Felix 's Life of Saint Guthlac , reveals that it was Ceolred who drove Æthelbald into exile . Guthlac was a Mercian nobleman who abandoned a career of violence to become first a monk at Repton , and later a hermit living in a barrow at Crowland , in the East Anglian fens . During Æthelbald 's exile he and his men also took refuge in the Fens in the area , and visited Guthlac . Guthlac was sympathetic to Æthelbald 's cause , perhaps because of Ceolred 's oppression of the monasteries . Other visitors of Guthlac 's included Bishop Haedde of Lichfield , an influential Mercian , and it may be that Guthlac 's support was politically useful to Æthelbald in gaining the throne . After Guthlac 's death , Æthelbald had a dream in which Guthlac prophesied greatness for him , and Æthelbald later rewarded Guthlac with a shrine when he had become king .
When Ceolred died of a fit at a banquet , Æthelbald returned to Mercia and became ruler . It is possible that a king named Ceolwald , perhaps a brother of Ceolred , reigned for a short while between Ceolred and Æthelbald . Æthelbald 's accession ended Penda 's line of descent ; Æthelbald 's reign was followed , after a brief interval , by that of Offa , another descendant of Eowa .
Other than his father , Alweo , little of Æthelbald 's immediate family is known , although in the witness list of two charters a leading ealdorman named Heardberht is recorded as his brother .
= = Mercian dominance = =
Æthelbald 's reign marked a resurgence of Mercian power , which would last until the end of the eighth century . With the exception of the short reign of Beornrad , who succeeded Æthelbald for less than a year , Mercia was ruled for eighty years by two of the most powerful Anglo @-@ Saxon kings , Æthelbald and Offa . These long reigns were unusual at this early date ; during the same period eleven kings reigned in Northumbria , many of whom died violent deaths .
By 731 , Æthelbald had all the English south of the Humber under his overlordship . There is little direct evidence of the relationship between Æthelbald and the kings who were dependent on him . Generally , a king subject to an overlord such as Æthelbald would still be regarded as a king , but would have his independence curtailed in some respects . Charters are an important source of evidence for this relationship ; these were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen , and were witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land . A charter granting land in the territory of one of the subject kings might record the names of the king as well as the overlord on the witness list appended to the grant ; such a witness list can be seen on the Ismere Diploma , for example . The titles given to the kings on these charters could also be revealing : a king might be described as a " subregulus " , or underking .
Enough information survives to suggest the progress of Æthelbald 's influence over two of the southern kingdoms , Wessex and Kent . At the start of Æthelbald 's reign , both Kent and Wessex were ruled by strong kings ; Wihtred and Ine , respectively . Wihtred of Kent died in 725 , and Ine of Wessex , one of the most formidable rulers of his day , abdicated in 726 to go on a pilgrimage to Rome . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Ine 's successor , Aethelheard , fought that year with an ealdorman named Oswald , whom the Chronicle provides with a genealogy showing descent from Ceawlin , an early king of Wessex . Aethelheard ultimately succeeded in this struggle for the throne , and there are subsequent indications that he ruled subject to Mercian authority . Hence it may be that Æthelbald helped establish both Aethelheard and his brother , Cuthred , who succeeded Aethelheard in 739 . There is also evidence of South Saxon territory breaking away from West Saxon dominance in the early 720s , and this may indicate Æthelbald 's increasing influence in the area , though it could have been Kentish , rather than Mercian , influence that was weakening West Saxon control .
As for Kent , there is evidence from Kentish charters that shows that Æthelbald was a patron of Kentish churches . There is , however , no charter evidence showing Æthelbald 's consent to Kentish land grants ; and charters of Aethelberht and Eadberht , both kings of Kent , survive in which they grant land without Æthelbald 's consent . It may be that charters showing Æthelbald 's overlordship simply do not survive , but the result is that there is no direct evidence of the extent of Æthelbald 's influence in Kent .
Less is known about events in Essex , but it was at about this time that London became attached to the kingdom of Mercia rather than that of Essex . Three of Æthelbald 's predecessors — Æthelred , Coenred , and Ceolred — had each confirmed an East Saxon charter granting Twickenham to Waldhere , the bishop of London . From Kentish charters it is known that Æthelbald was in control of London , and from Æthelbald 's time on , the transition to Mercian control appears to be complete ; an early charter of Offa 's , granting land near Harrow , does not even include the king of Essex on the witness list . For the South Saxons , there is very little charter evidence , but as with Kent , what there is does not show any requirement for Æthelbald 's consent to land grants . The lack of evidence should not obscure the fact that Bede , who was after all a contemporary chronicler , summarized the situation of England in 731 by listing the bishops in office in southern England , and adding that " all these provinces , together with the others south of the river Humber and their kings , are subject to Æthelbald , King of the Mercians . "
There is evidence that Æthelbald had to go to war to maintain his overlordship . In 733 Æthelbald undertook an expedition against Wessex and captured the royal manor of Somerton . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle also tells how when Cuthred succeeded Aethelheard to the throne of Wessex , in 740 , he " boldly made war against Aethelbald , king of Mercia " . Three years later , Cuthred and Æthelbald are described as fighting against the Welsh . This could have been an obligation placed on Cuthred by Mercia ; earlier kings had similarly assisted Penda and Wulfhere , two strong seventh @-@ century Mercian rulers . In 752 , Æthelbald and Cuthred are again on opposite sides of the conflict , and according to one version of the manuscript , Cuthred " put him [ Æthelbald ] to flight " at Burford . Æthelbald seems to have reasserted his authority over the West Saxons by the time of his death , since a later West Saxon king , Cynewulf , is recorded as witnessing a charter of Æthelbald at the very beginning of his reign , in 757 .
In 740 , a war between the Picts and the Northumbrians is reported . Æthelbald , who might have been allied with Óengus , the king of the Picts , took advantage of Eadberht 's absence from Northumbria to ravage his lands , and perhaps burn York .
= = Titles and Bretwaldaship = =
Earlier in Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People chronicle , he lists seven kings who governed the southern provinces of the English , with reigns dating from the late fifth to the late seventh century . Subsequently , the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle — another important source for the period — describes these seven as bretwaldas or brytenwaldas , a title translated as " Britain @-@ ruler " or " Wide @-@ ruler " . The Chronicle adds just one king to the list : Egbert of Wessex , who reigned in the ninth century . The resulting list of eight bretwaldas omits several strong Mercian kings . It is possible that the chronicler was merely adding Egbert 's name to Bede 's original list of seven , rather than claiming that no other kings achieved similar powers in England . The chronicler was almost certainly a West Saxon , and since neither Æthelbald nor Offa were kings of Wessex it is possible the chronicler does not mention them out of regional pride . The meaning of the term " bretwalda " , and the nature of the power that these eight kings wielded , has had much academic scrutiny . One suggested interpretation is that since Bede was writing during Æthelbald 's reign , the original seven he listed were essentially those kings who could be seen as prototypes of Æthelbald in their domination of England south of the Humber .
Further evidence of Æthelbald 's power , or at least his titles , is provided by an important charter of 736 , the Ismere Diploma , which survives in a contemporary ( and possibly original ) copy . It starts by describing Æthelbald as " king not only of the Mercians but also of all the provinces which are called by the general name South English " ; in the witness list he is further named " Rex Britanniae " , " King of Britain " . One historian described this title as " a phrase which can only be interpreted as a Latin rendering of the English title Bretwalda " ; but it may be that at that time these titles would not have been acknowledged much beyond Worcester , where this and other documents from the 730s that use similar titles were written .
= = Relations with the church = =
In 745 – 746 , the leading Anglo @-@ Saxon missionary in Germany , St Boniface , along with seven other bishops , sent Æthelbald a scorching letter reproaching him for many sins — stealing ecclesiastical revenue , violating church privileges , imposing forced labour on the clergy , and fornicating with nuns . The letter implored Æthelbald to take a wife and abandon the sin of lust :
We therefore , beloved son , beseech Your Grace by Christ the son of God and by His coming and by His kingdom , that if it is true that you are continuing in this vice you will amend your life by penitence , purify yourself , and bear in mind how vile a thing it is through lust to change the image of God created in you into the image and likeness of a vicious demon . Remember that you were made king and ruler over many not by your own merits but by the abounding grace of God , and now you are making yourself by your own lust the slave of an evil spirit .
Boniface first sent the letter to Ecgberht , the archbishop of York , asking him to correct any inaccuracies and reinforce whatever was right ; and he requested Herefrith , a priest whom Æthelbald had listened to in the past , to read and explain it to the king in person . Though Boniface 's letter praises Æthelbald 's faith and alms @-@ giving , its criticisms have strongly coloured subsequent opinion of Æthelbald . A claim made in a ninth @-@ century list of donations from the abbey of Gloucester that Æthelbald had " stabbed — or smitten " to death the kinsman of a Mercian abbess has also contributed negatively to his reputation .
Æthelbald may have influenced the appointment of successive archbishops of Canterbury in Tatwine , Nothelm , and Cuthbert , the latter probably the former bishop of Hereford ; and despite Boniface 's strong criticisms , there is evidence of Æthelbald 's positive interest in church affairs . A subsequent letter of Boniface 's to Cuthbert , Archbishop of Canterbury , provided a good deal of information about Frankish synods , especially one held in 747 , the decrees of which Boniface included in the letter . Boniface does not explicitly suggest to Cuthbert that he , too , should hold a synod , but it seems clear that this was Boniface 's intent . A council was , in fact , subsequently held at Clovesho ( the location of which is now lost ) ; Æthelbald attended and perhaps presided . The council was concerned with the relationship between the church and the secular world , and it condemned many excesses on the part of the clergy . The council limited relations between monks and laymen and ruled that secular activities were impermissible for monks : secular business and secular songs were both forbidden , especially " ludicrous songs " .
Two years after this , in 749 , at the synod of Gumley , Æthelbald issued a charter that freed ecclesiastical lands from all obligations except the requirement to build forts and bridges — obligations which lay upon everyone , as part of the trinoda necessitas . This charter was witnessed only by Mercian bishops , and it is possible it had no effect outside Mercia , but it is also possible that it was essentially part of a reform programme inspired by Boniface and instigated at Clovesho .
= = Death = =
In 757 , Æthelbald was killed at Seckington , Warwickshire , near the royal seat of Tamworth . According to a later continuation of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History , he was " treacherously murdered at night by his own bodyguards " , though the reason why is unrecorded . He was succeeded , briefly , by Beornrad . Æthelbald was buried at Repton , in a crypt which still can be seen ; a contemporary is reported to have seen a vision of him in hell , reinforcing the impression of a king not universally well @-@ regarded . The monastery church on the site at that time was probably constructed by Æthelbald to house the royal mausoleum ; other burials there include that of Wigstan .
A fragment of a cross shaft from Repton includes on one face a carved image of a mounted man which , it has been suggested , may be a memorial to Æthelbald . The figure is of a man wearing mail armour and brandishing a sword and shield , with a diadem bound around his head . If this is Æthelbald , it would make it the earliest large @-@ scale pictorial representation of an English monarch .
= = The Legend of Alfred III , King of Mercia = =
According to a story recorded by the 16th century antiquarian John Leland , and derived by him from a now lost book in the possession of the Earls of Rutland at Belvoir Castle , there was once a King Alfred III of Mercia , who reigned in the 730s . Though no Mercian king was ever named Alfred , let alone three , if this story has any historical basis ( which Leland himself rejected ) it must presumably relate to Æthelbald . The legend states that Alfred III had occasion to visit a certain William de Albanac , alleged ancestor of the Earls of Rutland , at his castle near Grantham , and took a fancy to Willam 's three comely daughters . It was the king 's intention to take one as his mistress , but William threatened to kill whichever he chose rather than have her dishonoured in this way , whereupon Alfred " answerid that he meant to take one of them to wife , and chose Etheldrede that had fat bottoks , and of her he had Alurede that wan first all the Saxons the monarchy of England . " A painting of this supposed incident was commissioned in 1778 by the then Duke of Rutland , but was destroyed in a fire in 1816 .
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= 1971 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1971 Atlantic hurricane season was fairly active with several notable storms . Hurricane Edith , the strongest of the season , was a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , the highest category on the scale . It struck Nicaragua at peak intensity , killing dozens , and later hit southern Louisiana . Until 2003 , Hurricane Ginger held the record for the longest known duration of a North Atlantic tropical cyclone , lasting 27 @.@ 25 days from early September to early October ; it is currently the second longest @-@ lasting Atlantic hurricane . Ginger moved ashore in North Carolina , producing heavy rains and damaging winds . An unnamed storm in August attained hurricane status further north than any other Atlantic hurricane .
The season officially began on June 1 , and lasted until November 30 , 1971 ; these dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . With thirteen tropical storms , of which six became hurricanes , the season was active . Despite the activity , damage in the United States totaled about $ 235 million ( 1971 USD , $ 1 @.@ 37 billion 2016 USD ) , which National Hurricane Center forecaster Paul Hebert noted was " pretty small considering we had five storms in a row strike the U.S. " Most of the damage came from Tropical Storm Doria , which affected much of the East Coast of the United States . Hurricane Fern struck Texas after executing an unusual track , dropping heavy rainfall and producing flooding . The first storm , Arlene , developed on July 4 off the coast of North Carolina . Activity was steady through most of the season , and the last storm , Laura , dissipated on November 22 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Arlene = = =
The origins of Arlene were from a cold front that exited the East Coast of the United States on July 2 and stalled offshore . A frontal wave developed the next day , steadily developing due to thermal instability . On July 4 , the system organized into a tropical depression about 120 mi ( 195 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . While in its formative stages , it dropped rainfall along the coast of the Carolinas , peaking at 4 @.@ 11 in ( 104 mm ) in Pinopolis , South Carolina . The depression tracked northeastward due to a ridge over New England , and the cyclone passed just southeast of the Outer Banks . After a Hurricane Hunters plane observed gale force winds , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arlene late on July 5 ; in the post @-@ season summary , meteorologist Neil Frank noted , " the surprising element in the development of Arlene was the rapidity of the transformation process . "
Upon being named , Arlene continued northeastward , possessing a circular mass of convection with spiral rainbands . Late on July 6 , the storm attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , based on a ship report . It weakened thereafter , and Arlene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone late on July 7 just south of Newfoundland . The cyclone last observed early the following day . The storm capsized a boat in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland , and the crew of 12 was rescued .
= = = Unnamed Hurricane = = =
A hybrid @-@ type depression formed east of Bermuda on July 29 . It moved rapidly southwestward before turning to a northwest drift . On August 3 , it was classified as a tropical depression , and the next day the system passed near Bermuda . The depression accelerated to the northeast , strengthening into a tropical storm on August 5 . It intensified further due to baroclinity , or enhanced instability through different levels of the atmosphere caused by temperature and moisture gradients . On August 6 , a drilling rig about 230 mi ( 370 km ) southeast of Newfoundland recorded sustained winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) with gusts to 126 mph ( 204 km / h ) at an altitude of 325 ft ( 99 m ) ; this suggested the storm attained hurricane status at 46 ° North , which is the northernmost location for a tropical storm to intensify into a hurricane .
Despite the intensity , the cyclone was not purely tropical ; although the radius of maximum winds was only 35 mi ( 56 km ) , the thermal structure did not resemble a tropical cyclone , and there was no precipitation or convection near the center . It continued northeastward and dissipated on August 7 to the southwest of Greenland . It was not named operationally , but it was later added to the Atlantic hurricane database .
= = = Hurricane Beth = = =
On August 9 , an upper @-@ level low developed off the coast of Florida , and the next day spawned a tropical depression . The newly developed cyclone tracked slowly northeastward , eventually encountering conditions favorable for development . On August 14 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beth off the coast of North Carolina , and it quickly strengthened into a hurricane by August 15 . After reaching peak winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) off the coast of Cape Cod , Beth slightly weakened and later moved ashore near Copper Lake , Nova Scotia . Shortly thereafter , Beth was swept up by a nearby cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
The hurricane left extensive damage in its wake , especially to crops and infrastructure . Halifax International Airport reported 10 @.@ 49 in ( 266 mm ) of rainfall in a 30 ‑ hour span , which caused widespread flooding . Several bridges in the region were washed out , while railways were covered by water , forcing trains to suspend their operation . Overall monetary damage from Beth is estimated up to $ 5 @.@ 1 million ( 1971 USD , $ 29 @.@ 8 million 2016 USD ) . One person was indirectly killed by the hurricane in a traffic accident induced by heavy rainfall .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
On August 11 , Tropical Depression Eight developed southwest of Fort Myers , Florida . It quickly moved ashore , reaching Lake Okeechobee before looping to the northwest . While moving across the state , it dropped heavy rainfall of around 10 in ( 250 mm ) along the west coast . In Pinellas Park , the heavy rains led to flash flooding that forced 200 families from their house , including one that required evacuation from a helicopter . Damage in the region was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1971 USD , $ 1 @.@ 46 million 2016 USD ) .
The depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 15 near Tampa , and later turned to the northeast ahead of an upper @-@ level low . On August 16 , it intensified as it moved ashore near Cedar Key , where hurricane @-@ force wind gusts were briefly observed . The depression dissipated on August 17 over South Carolina , although in that state it produced its heaviest rainfall , totaling 14 @.@ 11 in ( 358 mm ) in Sullivan 's Island . In nearby Savannah , Georgia , the rainfall forced about 100 families from their houses in low @-@ lying areas . The remnants continued northeastward through the Mid @-@ Atlantic States and New England , crossing into Canada on August 20 .
= = = Tropical Storm Chloe = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 13 , moving westward for several days before organizing into a tropical depression on August 18 about 460 mi ( 740 km ) east of Barbados . It quickly moved through the Lesser Antilles , where it produced wind gusts up to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) . The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) on Barbados and Martinique . After entering the eastern Caribbean Sea , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chloe on August 20 . About 18 hours after attaining tropical storm status , Chloe quickly strengthened to peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) about 215 mi ( 345 km ) south of the Mona Passage , as reported by reconnaissance aircraft .
After reaching peak intensity , Chloe began weakening as it turned to the west @-@ southwest , and late on August 22 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression as a weakening ridge to its north cut off the low @-@ level inflow . For several days it continued generally westward , gradually losing organization . While passing south of Jamaica , the storm prompted the evacuation of the SS Hope , a hospital ship , at Kingston . On August 25 , Chloe moved ashore in Belize as a weak tropical depression , and dissipated shortly thereafter without ever having caused significant damage or deaths . The remnants of Chloe later spawned Hurricane Lily in the eastern Pacific Ocean .
= = = Tropical Storm Doria = = =
Tropical Storm Doria , the costliest storm of the season , developed from a tropical wave on August 20 to the east of the Lesser Antilles , and after five days without development attained tropical storm status to the east of Florida . Doria turned to the north , and reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) as it was making landfall near Morehead City , North Carolina . It turned to the northeast , and moved through the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England as a tropical storm before becoming an extratropical storm over Maine on August 29 .
In North Carolina , Doria produced moderate rainfall , resulting in localized flooding and damage . The storm spawned a tornado near Norfolk , Virginia , damaging twelve houses and downing hundreds of trees . Tropical Storm Doria dropped heavy precipitation in New Jersey , peaking at 10 @.@ 29 in ( 261 mm ) in Little Falls . The rainfall led to record @-@ breaking river levels and flooding in several houses , resulting in damage to dozens of houses across the state . Moderate damage and rainfall continued along its path into New England and southeastern Canada . In all , Tropical Storm Doria caused seven deaths and $ 147 @.@ 6 million ( 1971 US $ , $ 862 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Fern = = =
Hurricane Fern was the first of four tropical systems to develop in association with an extended surface trough across the Gulf of Mexico into the open Atlantic , along with Ginger , Heidi , and a strong tropical depression . Fern developed on September 3 in the central Gulf of Mexico . It moved over southern Louisiana the next day , but due to increased ridging to the north the depression moved southwestward back over water . On September 7 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fern ; it is rare for a tropical depression to move over land in the continental United States ( excluding Florida ) and later attain tropical storm status . Fern later turned to the northwest , intensifying into a hurricane on September 8 . It quickly reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , but later weakened as it curved to the southwest , moving ashore on September 10 between Freeport and Matagorda , Texas as a tropical storm . Fern dissipated on September 13 over northeastern Mexico .
The precursor of Fern dropped rainfall up to 5 in ( 130 mm ) of rainfall across South Florida , while totals of up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) were reported in southeastern Louisiana where it made its first landfall . As it struck Texas , Fern produced strong winds up to 86 mph ( 138 km / h ) , along with 5 to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) storm tides and heavy rainfall ; the highest precipitation total was 26 @.@ 0 in ( 660 mm ) in Beeville . The heavy rainfall caused severe flash flooding that isolated numerous small towns in the southeastern portion of the state , damaging 7 @,@ 500 buildings . In all , Fern left two indirect deaths and moderate damage totaling $ 30 @.@ 2 million ( 1971 USD , $ 171 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Edith = = =
Hurricane Edith , the strongest storm of the season , developed from a tropical wave on September 5 to the east of the southern Lesser Antilles . It moved quickly across the southern Caribbean Sea , intensifying into a hurricane just off the north coast of South America . Edith rapidly intensified on September 9 and made landfall on Cape Gracias a Dios as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It quickly lost intensity over Central America and after briefly entering the Gulf of Honduras it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . After moving across the Gulf of Mexico , a trough turned the storm to the northeast and Edith , after having restrengthened while accelerating towards the coast , made landfall on Louisiana with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) on September 16 . Edith steadily weakened over land and dissipated over Georgia on September 18 .
The hurricane killed two people when it passed near Aruba . Striking northeastern Central America as a Category 5 hurricane , Edith destroyed hundreds of homes and killed at least 35 people . In Texas high tides caused coastal flooding but little damage . Edith caused moderate to heavy damage in portions of Louisiana due to flooding and a tornado outbreak from the storm . One tornado , rated F3 on the Fujita Scale , damaged several homes and injured multiple people in Baton Rouge . The tornado outbreak extended eastward into Florida . Damage in the United States totaled $ 25 million ( 1971 USD , $ 146 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Ginger = = =
Hurricane Ginger was the longest lasting Atlantic hurricane on record until 2003 , when the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane was retroactively found to have lasted longer . The eighth tropical cyclone and fifth hurricane of the season , Ginger spent 27 @.@ 25 days as a tropical cyclone , and lasted from September 6 to October 3 . The storm developed in a large region of convection across the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic , and for the first nine days of its duration tracked generally east- or northeastward while gradually strengthening to peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . On September 14 Ginger slowed and turned to a general westward track , passing near Bermuda on September 23 ; there , the hurricane produced gusty winds and high waves , but no damage .
While over the western Atlantic Ocean , Ginger became the last target of Project Stormfury , which sought to weaken hurricanes by depositing silver iodide into tropical cyclone rainbands . The plane dropped silver iodide into the center of Ginger , although there was no effect due to Ginger 's large eye and diffuse nature ; Ginger was the last seeding done by the project . Ginger ultimately struck North Carolina on September 30 as a minimal hurricane , lashing the coastline with gusty winds that caused power outages across the region . Heavy rainfall flooded towns and left heavy crop damage , with 3 million bushels of corn and 1 million bushels of soybean lost . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 10 million ( 1971 USD , $ 58 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) . Further north , moderate rainfall and winds spread through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , although no significant damage was reported outside of North Carolina .
= = = Tropical Storm Heidi = = =
Tropical Storm Heidi was the last of the four tropical systems to develop from the extended surface trough of low pressure , forming on September 11 northeast of the Bahamas and intensifying into a tropical storm the next day . After initially moving to the northwest , Heidi curved northeastward and attained its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 14 off the coast of Virginia . The storm failed to become a well @-@ organized system , and it gradually weakened while accelerating north @-@ northeastward . On September 15 , shortly after Heidi moved ashore in Maine , it was absorbed by a broad extratropical cyclone over the northern Appalachians .
Heidi did not directly cause any fatalities or severe damage . However , the larger extratropical storm drew in moisture from Heidi , producing rainfall from North Carolina through northern New England , including a peak of 9 @.@ 38 in ( 238 mm ) in southeastern Pennsylvania . The heavy rains triggered extensive flooding that caused over a dozen fatalities and left thousands of residents homeless in Pennsylvania and New Jersey . In Chester , Pennsylvania a stone dam collapsed , forcing hundreds of families to evacuate and damaging homes , businesses , roads , and bridges . Governor Milton Shapp declared a state of emergency in several Pennsylvania counties following the floods .
= = = Hurricane Irene = = =
A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on September 11 about 800 mi ( 1300 km ) east of the Windward Islands . The cyclone tracked nearly due westward at a low latitude , passing through the southern Windward Islands and later over northern South America . In the southwest Caribbean Sea , it intensified to a tropical storm and later a hurricane . Irene made landfall on southeastern Nicaragua on September 19 , and maintained its circulation as it crossed the low @-@ lying terrain of the country . Restrengthening after reaching the Pacific , Irene was renamed Hurricane Olivia , which ultimately attained peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) before weakening and dissipating over northwestern Mexico .
In the Atlantic , Irene produced moderate rainfall and winds along its path , although impact was greatest in Nicaragua where it moved ashore as a hurricane . A total of 96 homes were destroyed , and 1 @,@ 200 people were left homeless . The rainfall resulted in widespread flooding , killing three people in Rivas . In neighboring Costa Rica , Hurricane Irene caused more than $ 1 million ( 1971 USD , $ 5 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) in damage to the banana crop . The hurricane was the first actively tracked tropical cyclone that moved into the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic ocean .
= = = Tropical Storm Janice = = =
The origins of Janice were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 18 . It developed into a tropical depression on September 21 about 1050 mi ( 1700 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde , which was the easternmost formation of the named storms this season . The next day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Janice , and quickly reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . The storm never became well @-@ organized , with its peak winds located east of the broad center . Despite being in a climatologically favored region for further development , Janice weakened due to increased wind shear from Hurricane Ginger . The circulation became elongated and separated from the convection , and on September 24 the storm weakened to a tropical depression . Later that day Janice dissipated just northeast of the Lesser Antilles as it was absorbed by Ginger . Around that time , it produced rainfall in the northeastern Caribbean , reaching 4 in ( 100 mm ) on Saint Kitts ; no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Kristy = = =
The interaction between a tropical wave and an upper @-@ level trough led to the development of a tropical depression on October 18 , about 685 mi ( 1100 km ) northeast of Puerto Rico . It moved quickly north @-@ northeastward , followed by a curve to the northeast . On October 20 , a ship reported winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , indicating the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy . As it reached this strength , an approaching cold front produced cooler , drier air over the storm . Kristy intensified slightly further to peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before becoming indistinguishable from the cold front . By October 21 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating near the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Laura = = =
The final storm of the season , Laura , formed on November 12 in the western Caribbean Sea , and reached winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) as it approached western Cuba . Across the island , the storm produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 32 @.@ 5 in ( 830 mm ) . The resulting flooding killed one person and caused crop damage , and also forced 26 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes . Initially , Laura was forecast to move across the island and impact the southern United States , but it executed a small loop and turned to the southwest . The storm moved ashore on Belize , one of only four November storms to affect the country . Little impact occurred during Laura 's final landfall , and it dissipated on November 22 over central Guatemala . Laura had the second highest accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) of any Atlantic tropical cyclone that did not attain hurricane status behind a tropical storm in 1913 .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the named storms and otherwise notable cyclones , there were several weak depressions during the season . After a June devoid of activity , three tropical depressions developed within the first ten days of July . The first became Tropical Storm Arlene on July 4 , and the second formed off the coast of Louisiana on July 6 . Tropical Depression Two moved westward due to a ridge to its northeast , and it struck just west of the Texas / Louisiana border before dissipating on July 8 . Its precursor dropped 3 @.@ 90 in ( 99 mm ) near Carrabelle , Florida , but much less along its path . Just two days later , another tropical depression formed in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico , quickly moving ashore in southern Texas before dissipating on July 11 ; it dropped light rainfall along its path .
In August , there were two tropical depressions , in addition to the named storms and the notable Tropical Depression Eight . The first , Tropical Depression Five , developed in the central Gulf of Mexico on August 6 . It made landfall in Louisiana three days later , eventually dissipating over Mississippi . The other , designated Tropical Depression Eleven , formed over the Bahamas on August 28 . It moved westward , crossing Florida and the Gulf of Mexico before dissipating over southeastern Louisiana on September 1 . The depression dropped moderate rainfall along the Gulf Coast , peaking at 6 @.@ 82 in ( 173 mm ) at Gulf Shores , Alabama .
There were three non @-@ developing tropical depressions in September , the first of which just off the coast of Africa on September 3 . It moved west @-@ northwestward , passing near Cape Verde before dissipating on September 8 . The next , Tropical Depression Eighteen , originated on September 8 east of Florida from the same trough that also spawned Fern , Ginger , and Heidi . It initially moved northward before curving to the west , making landfall near the Georgia / South Carolina border on September 11 before dissipating the following day . The other , Tropical Depression Nineteen , developed off the coast of Africa on September 10 , moving westward before dissipating on September 14 .
The final non @-@ developing tropical depression of the season formed on October 6 in the western Caribbean Sea . It crossed the Yucatán Peninsula the next day , dropping heavy rainfall up to 9 @.@ 09 in ( 231 mm ) . The depression turned to the northeast due to an approaching upper @-@ level trough , and it transitioned into an frontal wave on October 10 . As the trough advanced ahead of the storm , a ridge built across the southeast United States , causing the cyclone to turn northward and parallel the west coast of Florida . It regained tropical characteristics before moving ashore near Apalachicola and dissipating on October 14 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1971 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . Storms were named Beth , Kristy and Laura for the first time in 1971 . No names were retired after the 1971 season .
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= Jesús Blancornelas =
J. Jesús Blancornelas ( November 14 , 1936 – November 23 , 2006 ) was a Mexican journalist who co @-@ founded the Tijuana @-@ based Zeta magazine , known for its reporting on corruption and drug trafficking . His work encompassed an extensive research on how the drug industry influences local leaders and the police in the Mexican state of Baja California – topics frequently avoided by the rest of the Mexican media .
As an author of six books , Blancornelas was regarded by the press as a leading expert on organized crime and drug trafficking during his time . He was also the first man to publish a photograph of Ramón Arellano Félix , the former drug lord of the Tijuana Cartel . In response to the photo publication , the cartel attempted to kill Blancornelas in 1997 , but he managed to survive the attack and continued to report on the workings of Mexico 's criminal underworld .
For more than two decades , Blancornelas received several international press awards for his defiance of Mexico 's old regime status quo , where bribe @-@ taking and censorship by the government were commonplace in Mexico 's media . After his death , the Los Angeles Times and the Committee to Protect Journalists described him as " the spiritual godfather of modern Mexican journalism . " Blancornelas is also regarded as a pioneer in the push for press freedom in Mexico .
= = Early career = =
A native of San Luis Potosí , Blancornelas began his career as a journalist for El Sol de San Luis in April 1955 , working as a sportswriter . In 1960 , he moved to Tijuana , Baja California , where he became active in reporting on corruption and the drug trade . He was promoted to news editor at the daily newspaper El Mexicano before moving to the daily La Voz de la Frontera , of which he became editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Unlike several other journalists during his time , Blancornelas was eager to write about drug trafficking and corruption , leading to his firing from three newspapers before deciding to create his own .
In 1977 , he founded a newspaper called ABC . The paper employed future Zeta co @-@ founder Héctor Félix Miranda , then a columnist who wrote under " Félix el Gato " ( " Felix the Cat " ) to criticize local politicians . These columns eventually angered Baja California 's state government and Mexico 's former President José López Portillo to the point that the government ordered Blancornelas to fire Miranda and banned its distribution . When Blancornelas refused , a SWAT team was sent to take over the paper 's offices on the pretext of settling a labor dispute . Blancornelas escaped to the United States , resettling in San Diego , California .
= = Zeta = =
In 1980 , Blancornelas re @-@ surfaced with a new weekly publication known as Zeta , which he co @-@ founded with Félix . The magazine printed copies in the United States and then smuggled them across the border into Mexico . After some years , they reestablished themselves in Tijuana . Through the magazine , the pair continued their investigation into organized crime and corruption . The magazine ran a cover story in 1985 about local police guarding a marijuana @-@ filled warehouse ; the story was the first to report on the future leaders of the Tijuana Cartel , the Arellano Félix brothers . After Blancornelas discovered that plainclothes police officers had bought all 20 @,@ 000 copies of the issue , Zeta republished the issue under the headline " Censored ! "
Félix was killed by multiple shotgun blasts in 1988 ; two guards from the Agua Caliente Racetrack were later convicted of the murder . For the next eighteen years , Blancornelas left Félix 's name on the Zeta masthead , marked with a black cross . He also published a full @-@ page ad in every issue under Félix 's " byline " , asking the employer of the men , Tijuana politician Jorge Hank Rhon , why Félix had been murdered .
In 1994 , Zeta published an investigation on the assassination of Luis Donaldo Colosio ; despite the conspiracy theories about the case , the magazine concluded that the shooting had been the work of a single troubled individual .
In the 2000s , Blancornelas wanted to remove bylines from Zeta 's most dangerous stories , but was persuaded not to by reporter Francisco Ortiz , who wished his to continue to run atop his stories on organized crime . In 2005 , Ortiz was shot to death in front of his children , and Blancornelas began his no @-@ byline policy . In the days after Ortiz 's death , he stated , " I feel remorse for having created Zeta . After losing three colleagues , I believe the price has been too high . I would have liked to retire a long time ago ... [ but ] I cannot allow drug traffickers to think that they were able to crush Zeta 's spirit , and our readers to believe that we are afraid . "
Blancornelas covered the rise of Mexico 's drug trafficking organizations for more than thirty years , but his best work in the field took place during the 1990s . During this period , Mexico experienced the rise of three powerful drug cartels : the Tijuana Cartel in the west ; the Juárez Cartel in Ciudad Juárez ; and the Gulf Cartel in the east . Blancornelas ' stories are considered so crucial that almost every written account of the Tijuana Cartel cites him .
= = Assassination attempt = =
In November 1996 , Blancornelas was planning to visit New York City to receive an international award for his work in covering the drug trade , political corruption , and the relationship between the drug lords and the police . A few days before he was about to fly , a policeman in Tijuana visited Blancornelas and warned him that he was risking his life if he decided to go . A year later , the warning proved to be true : in 1997 in Tijuana , Blancornelas was ambushed and wounded by gunmen of the Tijuana Cartel while heading to the airport for publishing a photo of the drug lord Ramón Arellano Félix . Blancornelas was nearly killed when the attackers opened fire on his car , wounding him in the abdomen and killing his driver and bodyguard , Luis Valero Elizalde , who died protecting him and managed to kill one of the shooters . Blancornelas suffered complications from the injury for the rest of his life . In the attack , Blancornelas ' car was hit more than 180 times , but only four bullets penetrated the journalist 's body . Elizalde , however , was hit 38 times . That same year , three other prominent journalists were killed in Mexico .
The nature of Blancornelas ' work forced him to live under a " self @-@ imposed home arrest , " only traveling to his workplace and home with multiple Special Forces bodyguards from the Mexican Army , who accompanied him everywhere . While previous attacks on journalists received little coverage , Blancornelas ' assassination attempt made it to the frontpage of most newspapers in Mexico , and was covered on the television and radio . The attempt also fueled internationally ; the New York Times , Los Angeles Times , San Diego Union Tribune , and the National Public Radio covered it extensively . Due to the public outcry , the Mexican authorities decided to report the attack to the Office of the General Prosecutor , which had greater resources than the state authorities .
After spending 20 days in the hospital , Blancornelas recovered from his wounds and returned to publishing for the Zeta magazine . He left the hospital with a walker and was escorted by municipal , judicial state , and federal policemen , along with soldiers of the Mexican Army , to his home in La Mesa delegation in Tijuana . As he got to his home , a crowd of reports awaited Blancornelas , who allowed them to take pictures of him but refused to answer any questions . " I 'll be back as soon as possible , " Blancornelas said to the reporters as he entered his home . He also thanked the media for covering his assassination attempt .
The Blancornelas family erected a huge brick wall in their one @-@ story house to increase their security measures ; outside the house , a squadron of military men guarded the family , while some others protected the Zeta offices . As of 1998 , the top editors of the newspaper , along with Blancornelas ' three sons , were under guard by the authorities at all times .
Marco Arturo Quiñones Sánchez , whom Mexican authorities alleged to be a hit man for the Tijuana Cartel , was later charged with being one of the gunmen in the attack on Blancornelas , but was found not guilty by a judge in 2013 .
= = Death = =
In the last years of his life , Blancornelas lived as a virtual prisoner , always accompanied by an escort of fifteen armed guards . He died in the border city of Tijuana , Baja California on November 23 , 2006 in Del Prado Hospital , from complications caused by stomach cancer , possibly caused by the embedded bullets he received when he was shot . Blancornelas was taken to the hospital on November 19 after his son confessed that his father had a lung defect that dated back to his youth . Prior to his death , Blancornelas stopped reporting directly for the Zeta magazine since February 2006 but still sent information to the magazine , particularly on issues covering drug trafficking . Beginning to doubt Zeta 's ability to foster change , Blancornelas considered closing the magazine with his death . Editor Adela Navarro Bello and his son César René Blanco Villalón persuaded him to let the magazine continue , however , and succeeded him as the magazine 's co @-@ publishers .
Just before his death , Blancornelas speculated that the Tijuana Cartel had placed a US $ 250 @,@ 000 bounty on his assassination , and publicly said that he wanted to interview Enedina Arellano Félix , a female drug lord of the cartel , to confirm the information .
He was survived by his wife , Genoveva Villalón de Blanco , and three sons : José Jesús , Ramón Tomás and César René .
While Blancornelas ' reporting helped bring some drug lords to justice , the Mexican drug trafficking organizations grew more powerful after his death . As he said in an interview shortly before dying :
= = Awards = =
In 1996 , he was one of four winners of the US @-@ based CPJ International Press Freedom Awards , which honor journalists who show courage in defending press freedom despite facing attacks , threats , or imprisonment . He also won the Maria Moors Cabot Prize of Columbia University and was honored as the International Editor of the Year by the World Press Review in 1998 . Blancornelas was also UNESCO / Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize in 1999 . In 2000 he was named one of the Austria @-@ based International Press Institute 's fifty World Press Freedom Heroes of the previous fifty years .
El Periodista ( " The Journalist " ) , a corrido ( ballad ) in memory of Blancornelas , was written by members of the band Los Tucanes de Tijuana .
Zeta and Blancornelas are profiled in the Bernardo Ruiz documentary Reportero .
= = Published works by Jesús Blancornelas = =
Biebrich , crónica de una infamia . México : Editores Asociados Mexicanos . 1979 . ISBN 9684090323 .
El tiempo pasa : de Lomas Taurinas a Los Pinos . México , D.F : Océano . 1997 . ISBN 9706511024 .
Pasaste a mi lado . Tijuana México , D.F : Centro Cultural Tijuana . 1997 . ISBN 9686412093 .
Una vez nada más . México , D.F : Océano . 1997 . ISBN 9706510443 .
Conversaciones Privadas . México : Ediciones B. México . 2001 . ISBN 9707100559 .
El cártel : Los Arellano Félix : la mafia más poderosa en la historia de América Latina . México , D.F : Random House / Debolsillo , 2008 . 2010 . ISBN 9707809620 . " The Cartel : The Arellano Félix : The Most Powerful Mafia in the History of Latin America . "
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= Pennsylvania Route 106 =
Pennsylvania Route 106 ( PA 106 ) is a 20 @.@ 69 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 33 @.@ 30 km ) state highway located in both Susquehanna and Lackawanna counties in Pennsylvania . Route 106 begins at a fork from U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the community of Kingsley . The route heads southeasterly for most of its length , interchanging with Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) in Lenox Township . PA 106 continues into the city of Carbondale , where the designation terminates at US 6 Business ( US 6 Bus . , North Main Street ) , the former alignment of US 6 through Carbondale .
PA 106 is one of five portions of the original U.S. Route 106 ( US 106 ) , a spur of US 6 through Pennsylvania . US 106 went from US 6 in Wyalusing to the New York state line in Damascus Township along current @-@ day PA 652 . The designation was eliminated in 1972 and replaced by PA 106 from Kingsley to Carbondale , PA 652 from Indian Orchard to Darbytown and PA 706 from Wyalusing to Nichols .
= = Route description = =
= = = Susquehanna County = = =
PA 106 begins at an intersection with US 11 in the community of Kingsley , Pennsylvania . The route heads to the southeast , paralleling US 11 through forestry until the intersection with Jeffers Road , where it turns away from US 11 and enters fields . The route makes several curves to the southeast and east , crossing through several large fields and industries . The route keeps turning to the southeast , re @-@ entering the deep woods and passing a large pond near West Lenox . In West Lenox , PA 106 passes through forestry and residences until leaving the community for more forestry . After paralleling Creek Road for a distance , PA 106 enters the small community of Lenox , where the highway intersects PA 92 near some industry . A short distance later , the highway interchanges with I @-@ 81 at Interchange 211 . After I @-@ 81 , PA 106 continues paralleling the interstate through forestry . The highway continues eastward , paralleling Stone Road into East Lenox , Pennsylvania .
After crossing from East Lenox , PA 106 continues southeastward through fields and soon into a region of residences . The southeastern stretch continues for several miles into the community of West Clifford . There , PA 106 passes some homes and intersects with PA 374 . The two designations become concurrent , paralleling the alignment of the Milford and Owego Turnpike Road through West Clifford . PA 106 and PA 374 head southward and soon turn southwestward through forestry , until clearing into the community of Royal . In the small community , PA 106 and PA 374 fork , with PA 374 heading southwestward to Glenwood and PA 106 heading southeastward through Royal . PA 106 continues further , entering deep woods once again after leaving Royal . At the intersection with Cemetery Road , the highway enters a large cemetery and into Clifford . There , the route crosses through a large residential and commercial community , intersecting with State Route 2008 ( SR 2008 ) . The route continues southeastward through the residential area before crossing the county line into Lackawanna County .
= = = Lackawanna County = = =
After crossing into Lackawanna County , PA 106 continues on a southeastern trend , crossing through homes before returning to the deep forestry in Greenfield Township . The route continues further , passing through a lumber yard , where it turns southward and further southeastward into the community of Finch Hill . In Finch Hill , PA 106 passes Our Mother of Sorrows Cemetery and intersects with PA 247 ( Lakeland Drive ) in the center of the town . After PA 247 , PA 106 passes through a small residential district before reaching the Homestead Golf Course . The route passes along the southern side of the golf course and turns eastward after passing to the north of Merli @-@ Sarnoski Park .
After leaving the golf course behind , PA 106 makes a gradual turn to the southeast at Crystal Lake Road . There , the highway becomes known as Fall Brook Road , and turns southward through forestry . At the intersection with 43rd Street , PA 106 enters the city of Carbondale . The route , known now as Fallbrook Street , continues on a southeastern trend , entering a large residential district north of the business district . At the intersection with Dundaff Street , it turns southward again , paralleling a nearby river . At the intersection with River Street , PA 106 turns eastward along Salem Avenue , crosses the river and intersects with US 6 Bus . ( North Main Street ) in Carbondale . At that intersection , the PA 106 designation terminates while Salem Avenue continues as SR 1019 through Carbondale .
= = History = =
PA 106 was originally an alignment of PA 47 designated in 1927 . This alignment stretched from US 11 in Kingsley to the intersection with US 6 in Carbondale . In the plan for the U.S. Highway System from November 11 , 1926 , the road between Wyalusing and Carbondale was to be a part of US 6 while US 106 was to run from US 6 in Wyalusing to the New York border at the Delaware River in Narrowsburg via Scranton . By 1928 , US 6 and US 106 switched alignments between Wyalusing and Carbondale . The piece of US 106 that is now PA 106 began in the community of Kingsley and went to the city of Carbondale . The route remained intact for almost 45 years . On December 3 , 1971 , the American Association of State Highway Officials approved the elimination of the US 106 designation . On March 14 , 1972 , US 106 was decommissioned and replaced with PA 706 between US 6 in Wyalusing and US 11 south of New Milford , PA 106 between US 11 in Kingsley and US 6 in Carbondale , and PA 652 between US 6 in Indian Orchard and the Delaware River . The remainder of the route was removed from concurrencies with US 11 between south of New Milford and Kingsley and US 6 between Carbondale and Indian Orchard . Signs were changed by April of that year .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Day of Thirst =
The " Day of Thirst " ( Arabic : Yawm al- ' Atash ) is the name traditionally given in Arabic historiography to a battle fought in 724 between the Turkic Turgesh khaganate and the Umayyad Caliphate on the banks of the river Jaxartes , in Transoxiana ( in modern Tajikistan , Central Asia ) . The Umayyad army , under Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi , was campaigning in the Ferghana Valley when it learned of the Turgesh advance . Immediately , the Arabs began a hasty retreat to the Jaxartes , pursued and harassed by the Turgesh cavalry . Finally , after 11 days , the Umayyad army reached the Jaxartes , where it was caught between the Turgesh and the forces of the native Transoxianian principalities . Nevertheless , the Arabs managed to break through and cross the river to Khujand . The Umayyad defeat led to the collapse of Muslim rule over much of the region , which until ca . 740 remained disputed territory , with both the Arabs and the Turgesh fighting for control over it .
= = Background = =
The region of Transoxiana ( Arabic : Ma wara ' al @-@ nahr ) had been conquered by the Umayyad leader Qutayba ibn Muslim in the reign of Al @-@ Walid I ( r . 705 – 715 ) , following the Muslim conquests of Persia and Khurasan in the mid @-@ 7th century . The loyalties of Transoxiana 's native Iranian and Turkic populations and those of autonomous local rulers remained questionable , however , as demonstrated in 719 , when the Transoxianian princes sent a petition to the Chinese and their Turgesh vassals for military aid against the Caliphate 's governors . The Turgesh responded by launching a series of attacks against the Muslims in Transoxiana , beginning in 720 . These incursions were coupled with uprisings against the Caliphate among the local Sogdians . The Umayyad governor of Khurasan , Sa 'id ibn Amr al @-@ Harashi , harshly suppressed the unrest and restored the Muslim position almost to what it had been during the time of Qutayba , except for the Ferghana Valley , control over which was lost .
= = Expedition against Ferghana and the " Day of Thirst " = =
In 723 , al @-@ Harashi was replaced as governor by Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi , who resolved late the next year to launch an expedition with the goal of seizing Ferghana . The campaign faced difficulties already in its early stages , when the news arrived of the accession of a new Caliph , Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik , and the appointment of a new governor of Iraq , Khalid al @-@ Qasri . Expecting Muslim 's imminent recall by the new regime , the Yemeni troops in Balkh initially refused to join the campaign , but were forced to join the army when a force composed of Mudaris ( northern Arabs ) under Nasr ibn Sayyar marched against them and defeated them at Baruqan . The campaign eventually went ahead as Khalid al @-@ Qasri wrote to al @-@ Kilabi , urging him to proceed with it until his replacement , Khalid 's brother Asad , arrived in Khurasan . Nevertheless , 4 @,@ 000 troops from the Yemeni Azd tribe withdrew from the army .
Al @-@ Kilabi led his army along the Jaxartes valley to Ferghana , and laid siege to it while devastating the surrounding countryside . At this point , the Umayyad army became aware that the Turgesh khagan Suluk was advancing against them with a stronger army . Abandoning their advance , the Muslim army retreated so hastily towards the south that it was claimed they covered a distance in one day that equalled three days of normal travel . On the second day , after the Arabs crossed the river Wadi al @-@ Subuh , the Turgesh army caught up with them , and attacked a secondary camp pitched by Abdallah ibn Abi Abdallah separately from the main Arab force . The Arabs and their Sogdian allies suffered heavy casualties — the brother of the ruler of Samarkand , Ghurak , being among the slain — but managed to repel the attack .
The Arabs continued their retreat for eight more days , during which they were constantly harassed by the Turgesh cavalry . On the ninth day , the Arabs reached the Jaxartes only to find their path blocked by their enemies , troops of the native principalities of Shash and Farghana , and the remnants of the Sogdian rebellion Sa 'id al @-@ Harashi had suppressed . The Arabs made camp for the night and burned all their baggage , allegedly worth one million dirhams , in preparation for battle . On the next day , despite suffering from thirst and being hemmed in between the Turgesh on their rear and the Transoxianian forces in front , the desperate Arabs managed to break through the enemy lines and cross the Jaxartes . As al @-@ Tabari writes , when they reached the relative safety of Khujand , " suffering from hunger and exhaustion , the troops spread out in disorder " . There , the leadership of the army was formally transferred to Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Na 'im al @-@ Ghamidi , who led the remnants of the army back to Samarkand .
= = Aftermath and impact = =
The defeat of the Arab army , and the casualties suffered , was a catalyst for the almost complete collapse of Muslim rule in Transoxiana over the next few years . In the words of the British scholar H.A.R. Gibb , " it was practically the last aggressive expedition of the Arabs into Transoxania for fifteen years , but of much greater importance was the blow which it struck at Arab prestige . The roles were reversed ; from now onwards the Arabs found themselves on the defensive and were gradually ousted from almost every district across the Oxus . " The new Umayyad governor , Asad al @-@ Qasri , campaigned incessantly over the next few years , but without achieving any major result . Asad also tried to secure the cooperation of the local elites by abolishing for a time the payment of taxes by the native converts ( mawali ) , but this policy was opposed by the Khurasani Arabs themselves , and was reversed by Asad 's successor Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami . This led to a general uprising of Transoxiana in 728 , and with Turgesh military aid the Arabs were evicted from almost the entire region . Transoxiana thereafter remained contested , and the Arabs did not recover their previous position until the campaigns of Nasr ibn Sayyar in 739 – 741 , who took advantage of the collapse of the Turgesh khaganate into civil wars after the murder of Suluk in 738 .
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