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= Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology =
Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology is a collection of essays and a short story by American Beat writer William S. Burroughs ( 1914 – 97 ) . First published in 1971 as the short story " Ali 's Smile " , the book eventually contained a group of previously published newspaper articles as well , all of which address Scientology . Burroughs had been interested in Scientology throughout the 1960s , believing that its methods might help combat a controlling society . He joined the Church of Scientology later in the decade . However , he became disenchanted with the authoritarian nature of the organization . In 1970 Burroughs had published a " considered statement " on Scientology 's methods because he felt they were significant enough to warrant commentary . These pieces were later gathered together into Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology , which religious studies scholar Hugh B. Urban describes as a " nonscholarly popular exposé of Scientology " . Burroughs 's texts argue that while some of Scientology 's therapies are worthwhile , the dogmatic nature of the group and its secrecy are harmful .
= = Background = =
Beat Generation writer William S. Burroughs was an avant @-@ garde author whom several important critics consider the most important American writer since World War II . Sometimes called the " Godfather of Punk literature " , he adopted a persona that Matt Theado , a scholar of the Beats , describes as " a tormented but supremely curious person who explored the dark side of the human consciousness . " Burroughs often probed contentious social and political problems with " a cold @-@ blooded , almost insectlike presence " that influenced popular culture as well as literature .
Burroughs believed that readers needed to take an active part in reshaping their own reality through reading . For example , works such as the controversial novel Naked Lunch ( 1959 ) dealt with his concerns regarding " the battle against control , " and Burroughs wrote that others " might see the control that governments , religions , greedy human beings , and their own cravings for drugs , sex , or power often hold over them " . Theado writes that Burroughs saw words as " instruments of control that allow evil forces to impose their will over people " , and he attempted to use words themselves to combat this problem . He wrote in a way that would allow both him and his readers to redefine words and to create new levels of meaning , thereby liberating them from social control .
His concerns about social control and language led Burroughs to write at length about Scientology . He had been interested in Scientology since the early 1960s , having been introduced to the concepts of its founder L. Ron Hubbard by artist Brion Gysin . Burroughs 's early novels emphasized the power of Scientology to combat a controlling society . For example , in both The Ticket That Exploded ( 1962 ) and Nova Express ( 1964 ) , Scientology , along with the cut @-@ up technique , silence , and apomorphine ( which he believed was an extremely effective treatment for heroin addiction ) , allows the characters to resist social control . These works reflected Burroughs 's initial belief that Scientology could be an instrument of liberation from social control , much as he used his own cut @-@ up style of writing . He sought to use cut @-@ ups " to expose the arbitrary nature and manipulative power of all linguistic systems , " and connected cut @-@ ups to the theories of the self expounded by Hubbard 's Dianetics . As religious studies scholar John Lardas explains , " the cut @-@ up method was the evangelical counterpart of Scientology in that it was intended to alter a reader 's consciousness " .
In 1967 Burroughs became a more serious devotee to Scientology , taking several courses and in 1968 becoming what the Church of Scientology calls a " clear " — a person who has eradicated the harmful influence of their reactive mind by removing engrams , traumatic mental images , from their subconscious through Scientology 's auditing process . In his works , Burroughs represented the process that Scientologists refer to as " clearing " memories as a step towards becoming an active rather than passive member of society . Scientology thus appealed to Burroughs because it " confirmed his belief that consciousness is akin to a tape recording that can be rewound , fast @-@ forwarded , or even erased " . Burroughs believed that Scientology 's practice of auditing had helped him resolve some traumatic life experiences , and " came to regard the E @-@ Meter as a useful device for deconditioning " . However , he had " growing doubts about some of the other Scientology technology , and grave reservations about their policy as an organisation " . He became frustrated by the authoritarian nature of the organization , and as biographer Ted Morgan writes , " ... had hoped to find a method of personal emancipation and had found instead another control system . " In a similar vein , Burroughs was both intrigued by Scientology 's study of language , but felt distaste for the way it was being utilized :
They [ the Church of Scientology ] have a great deal of very precise data on words and the effects produced by words – a real science of communication . But I feel that their presentation has been often deplorable and that as a science , a body of knowledge , it is definitely being vitiated by a dogmatic policy .
By 1970 , Burroughs had severed connections with the Church of Scientology . He was eventually expelled from the organization and declared to be in " Condition of Treason " . He became increasingly disenchanted with the group and wrote a series of critical articles published in Mayfair . Burroughs also forced one of their headquarters to relocate by publicizing photos of it .
= = Publication and contents = =
Ali 's Smile , Burroughs 's short story on Scientology , was originally published in a limited @-@ edition run of 99 copies by Unicorn in 1971 . A recording of Burroughs reading the story was simultaneously released . Two years later , Expanded Media Editions issued a revised and enlarged version titled Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology , which contained a series of articles , most of which had been previously published in newspapers and magazines . In 1970 Burroughs had published a " considered statement " on Scientology 's methods because he felt that they were significant enough to warrant commentary . This statement articulates what he calls the group 's " precise and efficient " therapeutic methods , however he also criticizes the authoritarian nature of the institution , describing Hubbard 's statements as fascistic and comparing their internal surveillance methods to that of the FBI and CIA . He also condemns the " unquestioning acceptance " demanded of Scientologists as well as the institution 's secrecy . These pieces were later gathered together into Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology , which religious studies scholar Hugh Urban describes as a " nonscholarly popular exposé of Scientology " . In 1985 , Expanded Media Editions published a bilingual German and English edition .
" Burroughs on Scientology " is an opinion piece originally published in the Los Angeles Free Press on 6 March 1970 . It begins " In view of the fact that my articles and statements on Scientology may have influenced young people to associate themselves with the so called Church of Scientology , I feel an obligation to make my present views on the subject quite clear . " Burroughs states that some Scientology practices have value : " Some of the techniques are highly valuable and warrant further study and experimentation . " He is critical of the Church of Scientology 's organizational policy and organizations in general , and Scientology 's attempts to keep many of its counseling methods secret , and writes " On the other hand I am in flat disagreement with the organizational policy . "
" William Burroughs : Open Letter to Mr. Garden Mustain " was originally published in the East Village Other on 7 July 1970 . The East Village Other introduction to Burroughs ' piece notes that the open letter " is Mr. Burroughs ' final answer to his critics and to Mister Gorden Mustain who attacked him for his position on Scientology in the pages of the L.A. FREE PRESS . In it he asks the inevitable question to be faced by us all , whether we be in a professional status or not : ' We would like to know where Scientology and Mr. Hubbard stand on the Vietnam war , on sexual freedom , militant students , Black Power , pot , Red China , the politics of the American Narcotics department and the CIA . If it comes to a revolution : which side would you fight on ? ' "
" William Burroughs on ' Inside Scientology ' by Robert Kaufman " was originally published in Rolling Stone on 26 October 1972 . It is a book review of Inside Scientology , which was embroiled in a legal controversy . In the review , Burroughs relates his personal experiences as a Scientologist and describes himself as an anthropologist . Burroughs begins by praising Kaufman 's decision to reveal confidential upper @-@ level Scientology teachings in the book : " Mr. Kaufman has shown real courage in publishing Hubbard 's so @-@ called confidential materials for the first time in Inside Scientology . "
" Letter to Rolling Stone " by R. Sorrell ( Church of Scientology ) was originally published in Rolling Stone on 5 December 1972 . Sorrell wrote on behalf of the Church of Scientology to Rolling Stone , asserting that statements made by Burroughs in his review of Inside Scientology were inaccurate . Sorrell noted that the book had been involved in legal controversy and commented : " I have included here an itemization of these inaccuracies with documentation to show that Mr. Burroughs may be a writer but cannot always be trusted to be an accurate one . "
" Answer to R. Sorrell 's Letter " by William Burroughs is a point @-@ by @-@ point response to Sorrell 's letter in Rolling Stone . In total , Burroughs addresses 28 issues , including " Scientology 's security checks " , Fair Gaming , excommunication , the financial dealings of Scientology , Scientology terminology such as " Wog " , and the efficacy of the E @-@ meter as a lie detector .
" Ali 's Smile " by William Burroughs is a short story originally published by Unicorn in 1971 and later republished in Burroughs 's collection of short stories , Exterminator ! ( 1973 ) . At the opening of the story , Clinch Smith , a former colonial official , is living in an English town overshadowed by a giant slag heap . He is upset when he receives a letter from a Scientologist friend saying that he will " disconnect " from Smith , describing him as a " suppressive person " . A kris hanging on the wall of his room reminds Smith of Ali , whom he had met 30 years ago in Malaya . Ali had been put under a latah spell by an old woman , forcing him to dance in the marketplace . Smith rescued Ali , making the young man his houseboy . Ali returned to the market , however , and ran amok , killing several of the women with the kris . Smith was forced to shoot Ali , and kept the kris as a souvenir . Back in the present , Smith feels compelled to take the kris from the wall and goes to town , where there is a fight going on between hippies and locals , with members of Scientology 's Sea Org in the crowd as well . Smith goes on a killing spree with the kris , which seems to have a life of its own . He stabs Lord Westfield , a Home Office official who has asked a private investigator to infiltrate a Scientology organization , a woman , and several Sea Org members , and then a bystander shoots him dead . Police and more combatants prepare to join the fight . As they do so , the slag heap collapses and buries everyone . At the end , the " ghost face " of Ali smiles over all .
= = Reception = =
In Michael B. Goodman and Lemuel B. Coley 's 1990 bibliography of the works of and criticism on Burroughs , described as " the most comprehensive and up @-@ to @-@ date guide to Burroughs ' primary and secondary materials " , there are no contemporary reviews listed for Ali 's Smile : Naked Scientology .
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= U.S. Route 33 in Michigan =
US Highway 33 ( US 33 ) is a part of the United States Numbered Highway System that was once located in Berrien County , Michigan . At the time it was removed from the state , it was only about 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) long running north from the Indiana state line to an intersection with US 12 south of Niles . The highway was not originally part of the US Highway System in the state ; it was added in 1937 as a second designation for part of US 31 between the state line and St. Joseph . It was later extended further north to the community of Lake Michigan Beach . This extension became the only section of US 33 that was routed independent of another highway until it was truncated to Niles . In 1997 , US 33 was officially removed from the state .
= = Route description = =
At the time it last existed in Michigan , US 33 started at the Indiana state line at an intersection with State Line Road . From there it ran due north along 11th Street through a residential neighborhood parallel to the St. Joseph River . Just past an intersection with Fulkerson Road , the highway curved briefly to the northeast as it approached Bell Road . US 33 terminated at a five @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange with US 12 ( Pulaski Highway ) south of the city of Niles in Bertrand Township . According to the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , the agency that maintained the roadway , in 1998 , the last year it was US 33 , the highway carried between 17 @,@ 192 and 24 @,@ 669 vehicles on average , daily . Additionally , the roadway that carried the highway designation is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , one of the system 's divisions corresponded to US 33 . Division 5 followed a course from Niles northward to Mackinaw City . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and the future US 33 corridor was assigned the original M @-@ 58 designation from the state line northward through Niles to St. Joseph . When the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , the corridor received the US 31 designation . The US 33 designation was later added to US 31 from the state line northward to St. Joseph in 1937 .
In November 1960 , the US 33 designation was extended northward along US 31 from St. Joseph through Benton Harbor to Lake Michigan Beach Two years later , a segment of freeway opened east of Benton Harbor , and US 31 was rerouted to follow it , leaving US 33 to its own alignment between Scottdale and Lake Michigan Beach . This was the first time that US 33 had a section of its routing in Michigan that was not concurrent with another highway . Also , the northernmost 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of US 33 overlapped part of US 31 between the freeway and its old routing , resulting in a wrong @-@ way concurrency . This concurrency was removed the next year when another freeway section for I @-@ 196 / US 31 opened north of the previous endpoint , removing US 31 from Hagar Shores Road . Additional freeway for US 31 was built in the late 1970s into the 1980s . Called the St. Joseph Valley Parkway , the first section of this freeway through Berrien County was completed in 1979 and ran from the Indiana state line north to US 12 ; after its completion , US 33 had a second independent routing from the state line north to US 12 where US 31 merged back in from its new freeway routing .
US 33 was all but eliminated in Michigan on June 9 , 1986 , when the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved a request by MDOT to truncate the designation to the intersection with US 12 south of Niles . A year later , construction of the Niles Bypass was finished , bringing the parkway north to Walton Road northwest of Niles . Signage was updated for US 33 at the same time , and the M @-@ 63 designation was assigned to US 33 from Scottdale to Lake Michigan Beach , while the US 31 designation ran solo on the highway between Scottdale and the Niles Bypass . Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) was created along the former routing of US 31 / US 33 between the bypass and Niles while the remainder of US 33 through downtown became part of Bus . US 12 or M @-@ 51 . The last segment of US 33 between US 12 and the state line was removed on April 25 , 1997 , when AASHTO approved a joint request by MDOT and its counterpart in Indiana to truncate the highway designate to an intersection with US 20 in Elkhart , Indiana . This remaining segment in Michigan became part of an extended M @-@ 51 when the signage was changed a year later .
On March 5 , 2010 , a segment of Bus . US 12 previously used by US 33 in downtown Niles was transferred back to city control . Otherwise , all of US 33 at its greatest extent from 1961 through 1987 remains part of a state highway in Michigan . From the state line into Niles , it is M @-@ 51 . From the west side of downtown Niles , it is M @-@ 139 to Scottdale , and from there north , it is M @-@ 63
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Bertrand Township , Berrien County .
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= Box Cutter ( Breaking Bad ) =
" Box Cutter " is the fourth season premiere of the American television drama series Breaking Bad , and its 34th episode overall . Written by series creator Vince Gilligan and directed by Adam Bernstein , " Box Cutter " originally aired on AMC in the United States on July 17 , 2011 . The narrative follows protagonist Walter White ( Bryan Cranston ) and his partner Jesse Pinkman ( Aaron Paul ) as they face repercussions from drug kingpin Gustavo Fring ( Giancarlo Esposito ) for killing Gale during the previous season . Meanwhile , Skyler White ( Anna Gunn ) breaks into her husband Walter 's condominium to investigate his sudden disappearance , and Marie Schrader ( Betsy Brandt ) struggles to help Hank Schrader ( Dean Norris ) recover from his injuries .
The episode marked the final regular performances of actors David Costabile and Jeremiah Bitsui as Gale and Victor . Gilligan considered changing the episode based on audience responses to the third @-@ season finale , " Full Measure " , on whether Gale would be killed or not , but ultimately decided against it . During a twist scene in " Box Cutter " , Gus slices his loyal henchman Victor 's throat with a utility knife right before Walt and Jesse 's eyes . Esposito said he was concerned about filming the scene " without really hurting my spirit and my soul " , and he concentrated so hard that he remained silent and focused during filming , rarely speaking to others on set . The scene was so bloody it made Cranston 's daughter faint during a screening .
A major theme of " Box Cutter " , and the entire fourth season , involved Walter 's gradual change into a darker character who becomes more proactively violent and dangerous . The episode also illustrates Jesse 's moral decline and feelings of guilt over his killing of Gale , and Skyler 's growing involvement in Walter 's illegal activities . The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 2 @.@ 58 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . Until the fifth season premiere , " Box Cutter " was the most watched Breaking Bad episode in the series ' history and the third @-@ highest @-@ rated season premiere for any AMC show , after the first two seasons ' premieres of The Walking Dead . In 2012 , Gilligan received the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Episodic Drama for his work on this episode . This marked his second win for individual work on Breaking Bad , along with his award from the pilot episode in 2009 .
= = Plot = =
During a pre @-@ credits flashback sequence , methamphetamine manufacturer Gale Boetticher ( David Costabile ) excitedly sets up equipment in an underground meth superlab for drug kingpin Gus Fring ( Giancarlo Esposito ) . Gale asks Gus about the blue meth being produced by chemist Walter White ( Bryan Cranston ) , who at this point is not yet working for Gus . Gus explains he has reservations about hiring Walter , but Gale insists Gus hire him because of his superior product .
In the present day , Walt 's partner Jesse Pinkman ( Aaron Paul ) has just shot Gale to death on orders from Walt to foil Gus ' plot to kill and replace them . Gus ' henchman Victor ( Jeremiah Bitsui ) arrives at Gale 's apartment and finds him dead , surrounded by neighbors who have just called the police . Victor finds a stunned Jesse sitting in his car outside and forces him at gunpoint to return to the meth lab , where Gus ' employee Mike ( Jonathan Banks ) is holding Walt hostage . Mike , who is concerned that Victor was seen by bystanders at the murder scene , calls to inform Gus of the events . Victor , who has often watched Walt work , starts cooking meth himself to prove they do not need him or Jesse . Walt grows concerned when Victor proves better at the process than he expected .
Meanwhile , Walt 's wife Skyler ( Anna Gunn ) observes his car in her driveway and , not wishing her son Walter Jr . ( RJ Mitte ) to see it , drives it a few blocks away to conceal it . Concerned about Walt 's apparent disappearance , she calls their lawyer Saul Goodman ( Bob Odenkirk ) , but he has become paranoid from Walt 's falling out with Gus and is too busy checking his office for listening devices . Skyler hires a locksmith to break into Walt 's condo for her , claiming it belongs to her . When he hesitates to do so without identification , Skyler claims her purse was stolen and fakes a panic attack until he finally agrees . She finds little of interest inside the condo . Elsewhere , Skyler 's sister Marie ( Betsy Brandt ) struggles to maintain her composure while caring for her belligerent husband Hank ( Dean Norris ) , who is still bedridden after the attempt on his life .
Gus arrives at the superlab but says nothing . Walt launches into a nervous , rambling monologue of excuses and justifications , trying to convince Gus he needs him and Jesse alive . He claims it is Gus who is ultimately responsible for Gale 's death , not they , and insists Victor cannot produce the meth Gus needs . Gus maintains his silence , even while changing into hazmat gear and selecting a box cutter , while Victor grins in anticipation . Never changing his demeanor , Gus suddenly slices Victor 's throat , startling the others . Through the killing , Gus simultaneously punishes Victor while delivering a stern message to Walt and Jesse . Gus drops the body to the floor and coldly eyes the duo to ensure his message was received . Gus quietly returns to his street clothes , then walks out of the lab , pausing only to say , " Well , get back to work . "
Later , Walt and Jesse dispose of Victor 's body , the gun that killed Gale , and the box cutter in a barrel of hydrofluoric acid . During breakfast later , Walt insists to Jesse that Gale 's death was necessary , but expresses concern that Gus will kill them at his next opportunity . Jesse doubts this , believing it will be too much trouble for Gus to find another drug manufacturer , and that both they and Gus understand the situation : neither can kill the other , so Gus might as well make them wish they were dead . The episode ends with police investigating Gale 's apartment with the camera focusing on his lab notes which have yet to be discovered .
= = Production = =
" Box Cutter " , the fourth season premiere of Breaking Bad , was directed by Adam Bernstein and written by series creator Vince Gilligan . Filmed in January 2011 , the episode was edited by Skip MacDonald , one of a handful of editors who have regularly worked on the series . It was broadcast on July 17 , 2011 , and was the first original Breaking Bad episode in 13 months , since the third season finale episode " Full Measure " aired in June 2010 . AMC officials delayed the fourth season premiere until July because they felt the Nielsen ratings would be better during the summer . While Breaking Bad scripts are generally 50 pages long , the screenplay to " Box Cutter " was 43 pages long , and Gilligan was originally concerned because he did not want to stretch out the episode simply to pad the running time . " Full Measure " ended with Jesse 's pulling a gun on Gale and firing directly into the screen , with Gale 's death not visibly revealed on @-@ screen . This led to wide speculation among fans and reviewers that Jesse did not actually kill Gale , but rather aimed away from him and fired the gun . This speculation continued up until the original broadcast of " Box Cutter " , which confirmed Jesse indeed killed Gale . Gilligan said he never intended for that scene to be a cliffhanger and he thought it clearly conveyed that Gale had died .
" Box Cutter " featured the final regular appearances of recurring Breaking Bad characters David Costabile and Jeremiah Bitsui who , respectively , played Gale Boetticher and Victor . Stand @-@ up comedian Lavell Crawford also made his first of several guest appearances in " Box Cutter " as Huell , Saul 's new bodyguard . Gilligan stated that he named the episode " Box Cutter " mainly because " it just sounded like a cool title " , but also because he was concerned that the climax of the episode took so long to build to that , by calling it " Box Cutter " , " Perhaps I was thinking on some level , ' We 'd better let the audience know that there 's something at the end of this . ' " Although the Breaking Bad staff always intended for Gale to be killed , the audience reaction to " Full Measure " made Gilligan and the Breaking Bad writing staff reconsider whether their plans were the best ones . However , Gilligan said they instead decided to follow their original plan , saying " At the end of the day , the choice we made for how to press forward was the choice we felt was the most honest , and the one that would best continue the story . "
Giancarlo Esposito said that when he first read the script for " Box Cutter " , he was so shocked that he had to put it down and walk away from it . Esposito said he did not want to " take any of [ the scene ] home with me " and had " some deep concern about being able to do it and coming out of it unscathed , without really hurting my spirit and my soul " . He worked through these concerns by justifying Gus ' actions in that , by killing Victor , he was protecting everyone else who works for him . Nevertheless , he said it was " a difficult moment for me " to slit Victor 's throat , and that during one take he tried to hush the character to make him die more calmly . That scene took two days to film , and Esposito remained silent and focused during filming , rarely speaking to the others on set . The boots he was originally given were too large and he was concerned that he would slip , which would be out of character for Gus , who was otherwise completely calm and in control . A costume designer quickly procured the right @-@ sized boots for him .
In writing the script , the Breaking Bad staff decided early on that Gus would not speak much during the scene because they felt it was more dramatic that way and more appropriate for his character . Esposito felt the scene was a pivotal moment not only for his character , but for Gus ' relationship with Walter , and a warning that Walter should continue to operate Gus ' way or risk death . Regarding his character 's murder of Victor , Esposito said : " This had to be done . Someone did something , they got seen . ... It was about survival . This had to be done , but I could do it in a way that also sent a message to the people who weren 't listening . " Bryan Cranston said he was not expecting the episode to take the direction it did . He called the scene " painful , but beautifully crafted , and reasonably so " , and commented on the contrast between Gus ' calm demeanor and Walter 's " tap @-@ dancing to stay alive " . Cranston said of Esposito 's performance , " When he plays that bad character , his eyes go dead , and all it takes is to look into his eyes . " Gilligan said although Gus ' actions in the scene were scripted , " You 'd be surprised how little I talked to Giancarlo about how he played that part ... This is a man with amazing instincts . "
A major theme of " Box Cutter " involves Walter 's gradual change from an unwitting participant in a drug @-@ dealing enterprise into a man more comfortable with a life of crime who embraces his darker side and becomes more proactively violent and dangerous . This development began during the latter episodes of the third season and would continue to be a major theme throughout the fourth season . The episode also introduced the ongoing theme of Jesse 's moral decline and self guilt over his killing of Gale . Aaron Paul said of this , " Jesse 's much more raw this season . He 's very distant , and he 's turned to just utter chaos and destruction to keep his mind busy . When he 's left alone in his own thoughts , that 's when things can get kind of dangerous and scary for Jesse . "
The scene when Walter pleads with Gus demonstrates the paternal sense of protectiveness Walter has developed for Jesse . During that scene , Walter tells Gus , " You kill me , you have nothing . You kill Jesse , you don 't have me . " Jesse is visibly moved by the statement , which Aaron Paul described as " the first moment that Jesse realizes that Walt 's loyalty is to Jesse . " " Box Cutter " also illustrated Skyler 's growing involvement in Walter 's illegal activities through the subplot in which she lies to a locksmith to break into Walter 's house , going so far as to use her baby as a prop in her facade . After Skyler breaks in to Walter 's apartment , she finds the plastic eyeball of a teddy bear that has been part of the series since the second season . The eye has long been used as a symbol to identify Walter 's gradual descent into a life of crime , and Skyler 's discovery of it symbolizes her own similar descent .
Jeremiah Bitsui sprained his ankle during filming of the scene when Walter and Jesse shoved his corpse into a barrel to dispose of it with hydrofluoric acid . Following that scene , Jesse lifts the barrel with a forklift and it is lit in a way that the barrel can be seen through . This was accomplished by back @-@ lighting the barrel and tying monofilament to the bottom of it , which staff members then moved and twisted outside of the view of the camera to create the lighting effect .
= = Cultural references = =
During a scene when Gale 's neighbor calls police to report his murder , a clock in Gale 's apartment reads 10 : 13 . This is a deliberate reference to the number 1013 , which frequently appeared in The X @-@ Files , where Vince Gilligan worked as a writer and producer and Bryan Cranston as an actor . It refers to the name of X @-@ Files creator Chris Carter 's production company Ten Thirteen Productions , which in turn is a reference to Chris Carter 's birthday , October 13 . A copy of Everything 's Eventual , a collection of short stories by Stephen King , can be seen in Gale 's apartment . After Walter and Jesse are released by Gus , they eat lunch at Denny 's , a coffee shop and family restaurant chain . During this scene , they are wearing matching T @-@ shirts with country music singer Kenny Rogers on them . The T @-@ shirts are deliberately not explained in the episode , but Vince Gilligan said he believed Mike simply bought the first articles of clean clothing he could find for Walter and Jesse after their clothes were soaked with Victor 's blood . During the final scene of " Box Cutter " , when Walter walks back to his condominium , the Alex Ebert song " Truth " plays in the background .
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial screening and ratings = = =
" Box Cutter " was first publicly shown on June 28 , 2011 , at the Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . During the scene when Gus killed Victor , Bryan Cranston 's daughter Taylor fainted in her seat inside the theater at the sight of all the blood . This prompted theater officials to briefly interrupt the screening and ask for a doctor in the audience , causing a brief panic among the crowd . The violent scenes in " Box Cutter " proved so bloody that AMC included a disclaimer warning about the violence at the start of the episode and after the commercial break halfway through the episode .
In its original American broadcast , " Box Cutter " was seen by an estimated 2 @.@ 58 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It was the most watched Breaking Bad episode in the series and the second highest rated season premiere for any AMC show , falling behind only the series premiere of The Walking Dead , which drew 5 @.@ 3 million household viewers . It was also a 32 percent increase in viewership compared to the third season premiere , " No Mas " . " Box Cutter " performed especially strong with men between ages 18 and 34 , among whom viewership was up 67 percent compared to the third season premiere . The episode was seen by 1 @.@ 4 million household viewers in both the 18 to 49 and the 25 to 54 age groups , a 21 percent increase in the former group and a 26 percent increase in the latter .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Box Cutter " received critical acclaim . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said the episode demonstrated how effective the creators of Breaking Bad are at manipulating the emotions of their viewers . Sepinwall described the story as " remarkably simple " but the execution as extremely effective , and he called the amount of screen time dedicated to Gus calmly changing his clothes before and after killing Victor " a move so ballsy and so brilliant I actually started giggling the second time they did it " . Time magazine writer James Poniewozik said the episode demonstrated how effective Breaking Bad can be even with a minimal amount of dialogue , such as Gus ' silence during his scene in the lab , and Jesse 's wordlessness throughout the episode as he processed what he had done to Gale . He also praised the color scheme of the blood @-@ red meth lab as an illustrator of Walter and Jesse 's descent into hell . Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker said of the episode , " Its eloquent silences , its breath @-@ taking pictorial compositions ... these are pleasures that transcend 98 % of television 's usual attempts at dirty realism or fashionable pessimism " . Kim Potts of TV Squad called Gus ' killing of Victor " one of the more jarring scenes in Breaking Bad history " . The Faster Times writer Craig McQuinn called it " one of the most intense episodes I 've ever seen " , and said it solidified Gus ' standing as " one of the greatest TV antagonists I 've ever seen " . Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon.com compared the filmmaking in " Box Cutter " to that of works by Alfred Hitchcock and the Coen brothers , and called the best example of television 's ability to " take an elastic approach to narrative and let certain incidents or moments expand to fill up most or all of an episode " since " The Suitcase " , an episode of the television series Mad Men .
Seth Amitin of IGN called it a minimalist , deliberately paced episode but said it was never boring due to the excellent acting , dialogue and suspense which illustrates " just how quickly this show lost its innocence " . He also said the subplots involving Skyler , Hank and Marie kept the episode 's pace well . Los Angeles Times writer Todd VanDerWerff praised the performance of Aaron Paul despite his almost complete lack of dialogue throughout the episode , and felt the script raised interesting contrasts between Walt , who acts impulsively and rash while captured , and Gus , who seems calm and in control . However , he said it felt like Victor was killed rather than Walter or Jesse simply because the writers could not kill the two main protagonists . Michael Arbeiter of Hollywood.com called it a " great and intriguing way to start the season " and particularly praised Aaron Paul , who he said was " phenomenal " despite barely speaking any dialogue in the episode . However , he had " mixed feelings " about the Gus character 's evolution from a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes criminal to a hands @-@ on killer . Jessica Johnson of Time Out Chicago called it an " exquisite exercise in tension " that builds a " slow crescendo of what looks to be an impressively strong season " . Andy Vineberg of the Bucks County Courier Times called it " a great start for a show that just keeps getting better " . He praised the dark humor that kept the tension of the show balanced , and particularly complimented the pre @-@ credits scene and the ramifications it had for the show and its characters . RedEye writer Curt Wagner found that the cinematography , pacing and tension were so effective in " Box Cutter " , that " I think I broke a sweat just watching " . Paste magazine writer Brent Koepp praised the transformation of Walter , and said few other shows would risk making their protagonist so unlikeable . Koepp called the climactic scene with Gus " brilliant " and complimented the script for taking its time in building the tension .
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic praised the episode for its effectiveness in scenes featuring little dialogue , particularly with Jesse and Gus , claiming , " No show does silence like Breaking Bad . " He also complimented Cranston 's desperate monologue while trying to convince Gus not to kill him , claiming it provided a deep insight into Walt 's character and his inability to accept responsibility for his actions . Zap2it writer Rick Porter called the scene with Gus killing Victor a " master class in building tension " due to the strong writing , direction and acting , particularly by Esposito . Scott Wampler of Collider.com called it " a fantastic , bloody , shocking season premiere , one of the best in the show 's history " . He particularly praised Esposito 's performance and suggested it could make the actor worthy of contention for an Emmy Award . BlackBook magazine writer Chris Mohney strongly praised Esposito 's performance , and described his silence and calm during the climactic scene as " one of the great recent moments of TV menace " . June Thomas of Slate magazine called it a " fine opening episode " that did not advance the plot significantly but " served as an artful reminder of where the characters stand psychologically " . Thomas said she believed the episode demonstrated that Walter is in fact a weak man , comparing his useless pleas to Gus to his ineffective attempts to mislead Skyler about his drug @-@ manufacturing activities in earlier seasons . Not all reviews were positive . Jessica Grose , also of Slate magazine , said while she prefers episodes that mixed its darker aspects with black humor , " Box Cutter " was " all claustrophobia and fear " . The Philadelphia Inquirer columnist David Hiltbrand condemned the violent scene with Victor 's death , which he called " totally gratuitous ... serv [ ing ] no plot or character purpose " .
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= William Walker ( Australian cricketer ) =
William Holden Walker ( 16 December 1835 – 14 June 1886 ) was an English @-@ born Australian cricketer . As captain of the Tasmanian cricket team , Walker was one of Tasmania 's leading cricketers of his time . Known for his all @-@ round capabilities , he was a right @-@ handed batsman and an underarm bowler , as well as keeping wicket . Walker was named in the Cricket Tasmania Premier League 's " Team of the Decade " for the decade spanning 1866 – 67 to 1875 – 76 .
= = Early life and professional career = =
Walker was born in Islington in 1835 , the son of Holden and Mary Waldegrave Walker . During his early years in England , when Walker started playing cricket , his team came to be known as the Walker team . From England , Walker moved to Tasmania in 1859 , and then to Launceston in 1862 , where he became an employee of the soliciting firm Messrs Douglas & Collins . In 1866 , he became the Council Clerk and Clerk of Petty Sessions for the town of Fingal . Subsequently , he was employed with solicitors Messrs Gill and Ball , Messrs Dobson and Mitchell and later became an accountant at Messrs Elliston and Featherstone .
= = Cricketing career = =
Walker was a right @-@ handed batsman and right @-@ arm underarm bowler . One of Tasmania 's leading cricketers of his time , his score of 60 in an 1860 North versus South Tasmania game set a record of being the highest individual score in such matches . In his profile of Walker for ESPNcricinfo , the sports writer Thomas Rose said : " He impressed in representative games and was often the shining light of a rather dismal Tasmanian side ... "
After moving to Launceston , Walker made cricket famous in the city , captaining the Northern Tasmania cricket team . During the 1860s and 1870s , Walker also played for two clubs – Derwent and Wellington – under the then Tasmanian Cricket Association , standing out by scoring a century in one of his appearances .
Walker 's first @-@ class cricketing career spanned six years , from 1872 to 1878 . He played two first @-@ class cricket matches as captain of the Tasmanian cricket team during that period , scoring 73 runs and taking five wickets . During Cricket Tasmania 's 150th anniversary celebrations , Walker was named as a member of the Cricket Tasmania Premier League 's Team of the Decade for the decade 1866 / 67 – 1875 / 76 for having scored one of the only two centuries in Tasmania by any cricketer for the decade 1866 – 1875 .
Walker took 60 wickets in the 1875 – 76 domestic season at an average of 8 @.@ 47 runs per wicket , the best for all bowlers of the season . Walker was also a highly skilled wicket @-@ keeper . Despite his all @-@ round capabilities , Walker was best recognised and remembered for his impressive contributions as an inspirational captain , coming out as the best player in many matches irrespective of his team 's performance .
= = Death = =
At the age of 50 , after suffering a very short illness , Walker died on 14 June 1886 , at Pressland House , Hobart , Tasmania , with his funeral being held two days later . The Mercury wrote in its obituary on 15 June 1886 : " Cricketers will learn with regret of the death , after a very short illness , of Mr. William Holden Walker , one of the oldest votaries of this thoroughly English game in the colony ... Mr. Walker , who previous to his departure from England , was a member of the well @-@ known Walker Team , brought cricketing into great prominence in Launceston ... His efforts in the cause of cricket are so well known that they require no comment , but his sudden demise will cause a pang among the many friends who admired his genial and gentlemanly temperament . "
Around a month after his death , on 13 July 1886 , an amount of £ 590 from his estate was issued over as probate .
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= Nafaanra =
Nafaanra ( sometimes written Nafaara , pronounced [ nafãːra ] ) is a Senufo language spoken in northwest Ghana , along the border with Ivory Coast , east of Bondoukou . It is spoken by approximately 61 @,@ 000 people . Its speakers call themselves Nafana ; others call them Banda or Mfantera . Like other Senufo languages , Nafaanra is a tonal language . It is somewhat of an outlier in the Senufo language group , with the geographically closest relatives , the Southern Senufo Tagwana – Djimini languages , approximately 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) to the west , on the other side of Comoé National Park .
The basic word order is subject – object – verb , similar to Latin and Japanese . Like other Niger – Congo languages it has a noun class system where nouns are classified according to five different genders , which also affects pronouns , adjectives and copulas . The phonology features a distinction between the length of vowels and whether they are oral or nasal ( as in French or Portuguese ) . There are also three distinct tones , a feature shared with the other Senufo languages . Nafaanra grammar features both tense and aspect which are marked with particles . Numbers are mainly formed by adding cardinal numbers to the number 5 and by multiplying the numbers 10 , 20 and 100 .
= = Geography and demography = =
Nafaanra is bordered by Kulango languages to the west , while Deg ( a Gur language ) and Gonja ( Kwa ) are found to the north and east . The closest eastern neighbour is the Mande language Ligbi , whose speakers are also called Banda ) which , like Nafaanra , is an outlier to its own family . Southeast and south of Nafaanra and Ligbi , the Akan language Abron ( also Bron or Brong ) is spoken .
The Nafana people live in the north @-@ west corner of the Brong @-@ Ahafo Region of Ghana , concentrated mainly in Sampa ( capital of the Jaman North district ) and Banda . There are two dialectal variants of Nafaanra : Pantera of Banda , and Fantera of Sampa . Bendor @-@ Samuel gives a 79 % cognate relationship on the Swadesh list between the two dialects , meaning that they have many basic words in common . The Banda dialect is considered central . The terms " Fantera " and " Pantera " come from other peoples and are considered pejorative by the Nafana .
The Nafana people say that they come from a village called Kakala in Ivory Coast . Their oral history says that some of their people are still there , and if they go back they will not be allowed to leave again . They arrived in the Banda area after the Ligbi people , who came from Begho ( Bigu , Bighu ) to the area in the early 17th century .
Many Nafana are bilingual in Twi , the regional lingua franca , to some extent . According to SIL , 50 % of the people are able to " satisfy routine social demands and limited requirements in other domains " , while 20 % are able to speak Twi " with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary to participate effectively in most formal and informal conversations on practical , social , and occupational topics " . The remaining 30 % are either able to maintain only very simple face @-@ to @-@ face conversations on familiar topics ( 15 % ) or unable to speak Twi at all ( 15 % ) . 15 – 25 % of the Nafana people are literate in Twi , whereas only 1 – 5 % are literate in Nafaanra .
Nafaanra is the second language of the approximately 70 Dompo people living in the close vicinity of Banda . Dompo is their first language , thought to be extinct until a field work trip of Blench in 1998 proved the contrary .
= = = Classification = = =
Maurice Delafosse was the first linguist to mention Nafaanra , calling it " a much dispersed Senufo tribe " in 1904 . Westermann in his classification of West @-@ African languages , also grouped Nafaanra with Senufo , apparently based on the word list found in Rapp . This classification is confirmed by Bendor @-@ Samuel , who bases his internal Senufo classification on the comparative word lists in Swadesh et al .
It is less clear which particular Senufo branch Nafaanra is related to most closely . Bendor @-@ Samuel gives a 60 % cognate relationship on the Swadesh list with " Tenere " ( a western Senari dialect ) , 59 % with " Central Senari " ( the Senari dialect spoken around Korhogo ) , and 43 % with the non @-@ Senufo languages Mo ( or Deg ) , Kabre ( or Kabiye ) , and Dogon . The relatively low scores of about 60 % point to a rather distant relationship . Likewise , Mensah and Tchagbale establish an intercomprensibility factor of 38 % with " Tyebaara " ( Senari ) , concluding that Nafaanra is only distantly related to this dialect . Nafaanra has been tentatively linked to Palaka ( Kpalaga ) by Manessy , whereas Mills suggests a relation with the southern Tagwana – Djimini branch .
= = Sounds = =
= = = Vowels = = =
Nafaanra has seven oral and five nasalized vowels . A difference in vowel length can make a difference in meaning , as in sɛ , " to go " , vs. sɛɛ , " fetish " or o , " we " vs. oo , " we will " . Similarly , the phonemic contrastiveness of nasalization can be seen in sii , " to be giving birth , " vs. sĩĩ , " to build " . The vowel system closely resembles that of other Senufo languages . It is like the two Northern Senufo languages Supyire and Mamara in having only five nasal against seven oral vowels . In the orthography , nasalization of vowels is marked by adding the letter " n " after the vowel .
= = = Consonants = = =
In the table below , orthographic symbols are included between brackets if they differ from the IPA symbols . Note especially the use of " j " for IPA [ ɟ ] and the use of " y " for IPA [ j ] , common in African orthographies .
The consonant system of Nafaanra is fairly similar to that of other Senufo languages . Nafaanra has only one attested palatal fricative , / ç / , occupying an intermediate position between the Northern Senufo languages ( Mamara , Supyire ) that have both / ç / and its voiced counterpart / ʝ / , and the Central and Southern Senufo languages ( e.g. Karaboro , Senari , Djimini ) that have no palatal fricatives at all .
= = = Tone = = =
Like the other Senufo languages , Nafaanra has three contrastive tones : High , Mid and Low . Tone is normally not marked in the Nafaanra orthography . Examples are :
kúfɔ ̀ " yam " ( High @-@ Low )
dama " two pesewas ( coin ) " ( Mid )
màŋà " rope " ( Low )
The Mid tone sometimes has a rising feature , the High tone sometimes is subject to downstep ( a tonal process resulting in a High tone being realised lower than a preceding High tone ) , and an upstep is also found . The " rising feature " of Mid may be related to the fact that two different Mid tones are found in some other Senufo languages ( e.g. Sucite and Supyire ) . The High tone downstep ( signified by a raised exclamation mark ) occurs in the following context :
we ! sɛ ( he FUT go ) " he will go " .
It is likely that the tonal lowering seen in this particular example is related to the low tone nasal prefix found in future tense constructions in some other Senufo languages . In fact , Supyire shows a similar phenomenon in future tense constructions with a direct object ( in other future tense constructions , a low tone nasal is found ) . In general however , downstep is more widespread than in Supyire ; a similar phenomenon is found in Palaka , Tagwana , and Djimini .
An upstep is found in the imperative tense of high tone verbs :
ki tɔ ( it close ) " close it ! "
= = Grammar = =
The Nafaanra syllable comprises a vowel and a maximum of three consonants . A nasal consonant may occur as a syllable on its own , in which case it is called a syllabic nasal . The basic syllable structure can be rendered as ( C1 ) ( C2 ) V ( C3 ) , with a preference for CV and CVV . Position C1 may contain any consonant , although word @-@ initial / r / does not occur . Position C2 may contain only trills ( / r / ) or approximants ( / w , l , j / ) . Position C3 may contain only nasals ( / m n ɲ ŋ / ) , in which case the syllable as a whole is nasalized .
Senufo languages have a typical Niger – Congo noun class ( or gender ) system . Suffixes on nouns mark membership of one of the five noun genders . Pronouns , adjectives and copulas reflect the noun gender of the nominal they refer to . Although none of the sources on Nafaanra provides any details , it can be inferred from a brief word list given by Jordan that the Nafaanra noun class system resembles that of other Senufo languages .
The basic word order in Nafaanra is subject – object – verb , as can be seen in the following sentence :
bibilɛ ná pé nya ( boys PAST them see ) " The boys saw them "
= = = Personal pronouns = = =
Jordan lists the following list of pronouns , commenting , " Although the pronoun system appears quite simple , it becomes complicated because all the tenses are shown by a combination of pronoun plus particle . "
= = = Tense and aspect = = =
Tense and aspect in Nafaanra are generally encoded in two places : in preverbal particles and on the verb form . Nafaanra has past , recent past , and future tenses and continuative aspect . In a simple sentence , the order of the various constituents can be rendered as follows : SUBJECT • ( NEGATION ) • ( TENSE ) • ( ASPECT ) • VERB . When the negative suffix -n is present , no fusing of preverbal particles takes place . Nafaanra additionally expresses some tense / aspect matters by use of certain time adverbs and auxiliary verbs .
Past tense is marked by the preverbal particle ná ( high tone , as opposed to the low tone continuative particle ) . Future tense is marked by the particle wè . Simple sentences without a preverbal tense particle are interpreted as recent past ( sometimes called immediate ) . If aspect marking is absent , simple sentences are generally interpreted as completive .
kòfí ná sɛ ́ ( Kofi PAST go @-@ completive ) " Kofi went " — PAST
kòfí wè sɛ ́ ( Kofi FUTURE go @-@ completive ) " Kofi will go " — FUTURE
kòfí sɛ ́ ( Kofi go @-@ completive ) " Kofi just went " — RECENT PAST ( no marking )
Continuative aspect ( sometimes called progressive ) denotes an action that is ongoing or repetitive . Continuative aspect is usually marked both by a preverbal particle nà ( low tone ) and by a change of the verb form . The verb sɛ ́ , " go " used in the sentences below has the continuative form síé . In sentences where both past tense particle ná and continuative particle nà are present , they combine to give the fused particle náà . In sentences in the recent past tense , the preverbal continuative particle is omitted and continuative aspect is shown only on the verb .
kòfí náà síé ( Kofi PAST + CONT go @-@ CONT ) " Kofi was going " — CONT + PAST
kòfí wè nà síé ( Kofi FUT CONT go @-@ CONT ) " Kofi will be going " — CONT + FUTURE
kòfí síé ( Kofi go @-@ CONT ) " Kofi is going " — CONT + RECENT PAST
Two classes of verbs can be differentiated on the basis of their behaviour in aspectually marked sentences . One class of verbs has two aspectually distinct forms , as seen in the above example sentences . Another class of verbs does not distinguish aspect — one and the same form shows up in both completive and continuative aspect . In sentences in the recent past tense , this gives rise to ambiguity since the preverbal continuative particle is omitted there . Thus , the sentence kòfí blú can be interpreted in the following two ways :
kòfí blú ( Kofi swim @-@ CONT ) " Kofi is swimming " — CONT + RECENT PAST
kòfí blú ( Kofi swim @-@ completive ) " Kofi just swam " — RECENT PAST ( no marking )
Considerable fusion takes place between pronominal subjects and the preverbal particles . For example , ná " PAST " fuses with pé , " they " , to produce prá sɛ ́ ( they @-@ PAST go @-@ completive ) , " they went " , and wè " FUTURE " fuses with pé in píè sɛ ́ ( they @-@ FUTURE go @-@ completive ) , " they will go " .
= = = Questions = = =
Questions can be formed in several ways in Nafaanra . Basic yes – no questions are constructed by adding a sentence @-@ final question marker rá . Constituent questions ( sometimes called Wh @-@ questions or question word questions ) are doubly marked . They contain a sentence @-@ initial question word and are marked with a sentence @-@ final question marker hin .
u pan rá ( he come Q ) " Has he come ? " — basic yes – no @-@ question
ŋgi wra nya hin ( what he + PAST see Q ) " What did he see ? " — constituent question
= = = Numbers = = =
The cardinal numbers without tonal marking are presented below ; where possible , the tone pattern is added based on the list in Rapp . Some Supyire correlates are given for comparison . Numbers six to nine are derived by adding the numbers one to four to kɔɔ , " five " , by means of the conjunction na .
The numbers 11 – 19 are formed by adding 1 – 9 to 10 by means of the conjunction mbɔ , e.g. kɛmbɔnunu , " eleven " , kɛmbɔkunɔ , " fifteen " . In the tens and higher , the Nafaanra and Supyire systems diverge . Multiplication of fulo , " twenty , " and addition of kɛ , " ten " , ( by means of the conjunction ná ) is used to form the 30 – 90 tens . Perhaps surprisingly , there are considerable differences between Rapp ( 1933 ) and Jordan ( 1980 ) here . In Rapp 's 60 , 70 and 80 , féle seems to be used to mark ten , which conjoined with 6 , 7 and 8 forms 60 , 70 and 80 .
Rapp ( 1933 ) compares the Nafaanra numerals for three ( táárɛ ) and hundred ( lafaa ) with eta and ke @-@ lafa from Mpre , a hitherto unclassified language from Ghana . It should be noted however that Mpre eta is Kwa @-@ like ( cf . Brong esã , Ga etɛ ) , whereas the Nafaanra form táárɛ is transparently related to the forms found in the other ( non @-@ Kwa ) Senufo languages ( e.g. Supyire tàànrè ) . Nafaanra lafaa " hundred " is a typical Kwa numeral and is most probably borrowed from one of the surrounding Kwa languages ( cf . Dangme làfá , Gonja kì @-@ làfá , Ewe alafá ) . Rapp 's implication of affinity between Mpre and Nafaanra seems therefore unwarranted at this level .
Morphophonological alternations occur here and there , most notably the reduction of kúnɔ , " five " to kɔ ́ ɔ ̀ ( preserving the tone pattern ) and the change from lafaa to lafɛɛ in the hundreds .
= = = Colour words = = =
The three basic colour words of Nafaanra are : wɔɔ , " black " , finge , " white " , and ɲiɛ , " red " . As with adjectives in Senufo languages , the form of the colour words reflects the noun class of the noun that is modified .
wɔɔ — ki wɔ " it is black "
finge — ki fninge " it is white "
ɲiɛ — ki ɲina " it is red "
The cognate forms in closely related Supyire are -ɲyɛ- , " red ; warm colored " , and -fyìn- , " white ; light colored " , in Supyire . These adjectives are related to the respective verbs fíníŋɛ ́ , " be white ; whiten " and ɲááŋá , " be red ; redden " , which in turn are causative forms of the now defunct verbs fini , " be white " and ɲana , " be red " .
= = Sample sentences = =
Sample Nafaanra sentences from the SIL :
mùùrà kà ní čàà mè gbú mè é nyìè tɛ ́ ɛ ́ mè kí lóó
story some I want and @-@ FUTURE beat and @-@ FUTURE your ear put and @-@ FUTURE it hear
" I want to tell a story for you to hear . "
yɛ ́ ngè nà kòmó ǹdrá
true that hyena hide @-@ completive
" It 's true that the hyena hid himself . "
ké bĺè kà kpáhù wá
it day some frog not @-@ there
" On a certain day the frog wasn 't here . "
ẃrè ǹnà pè kúú
he not @-@ CONT them kill @-@ CONT
" He wasn 't killing them . "
ná múúrò ḿnà kàà mà ná yo mà
if fish you @-@ PAST @-@ CONT chew @-@ CONT you @-@ not past say @-@ completive that
" If you had been eating fish you would not have said that . "
= = Research = =
There is relatively little published on or in the Nafaanra language . The first linguistic publication to mention Nafaanra is Delafosse ( 1904 ) , containing some notes on the Nafana people and a fairly extensive comparative Senufo word list , though it lacked any proper tonal marking . Rapp ( 1933 ) is an appendix to an article on the Kulango language containing a German @-@ Nafaanra ( Nafana @-@ Sprache ) word list of around 100 items , gathered during a stay of four hours at Sampa . Rapp notes in passing that special attention was paid to the marking of the tones .
After a period of silence on Nafaanra , Painter ( 1966 ) appeared , consisting of basic word lists of the Pantera and Fantera dialects . The SIL linguist Dean Jordan published an article on Nafaanra discourse in 1978 , and together with his wife Carol Jordan has produced a translation of the New Testament , which appeared in 1984 . Kropp @-@ Dakubu 's 1980 West African language data sheets vol II contains a few pages on Nafaanra put together in the late seventies by Dean and Carol Jordan , including a phonology , a list of nouns , a list of pronouns , a list of numbers , and some example sentences ; tones are not marked . A more detailed phonology of Nafaanra by Jordan , also containing a Swadesh list , appeared in 1980 . Several books of Nafana folk tales have been published by the Summer Institute of Linguistics . Mensah and Tchagbale in their 1983 linguistic atlas of Ivory Coast include a comparative Senufo word list of about 120 items ; Nafaanra is present under the name " Nafara of Bondoukou " . An orthography of Nafaanra , lacking tonal marking , is included in Hartell ( 1993 ) . The area where Nafaanra is spoken has been the subject of recent archaeological @-@ anthropological studies ( Stahl 2004 ) .
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= Women 's health in India =
Women 's health in India can be examined in terms of multiple indicators , which vary by geography , socioeconomic standing and culture . To adequately improve the health of women in India multiple dimensions of wellbeing must be analysed in relation to global health averages and also in comparison to men in India . Health is an important factor that contributes to human wellbeing and economic growth .
Currently , women in India face a multitude of health problems , which ultimately affect the aggregate economy ’ s output . Addressing the gender , class or ethnic disparities that exist in healthcare and improving the health outcomes can contribute to economic gain through the creation of quality human capital and increased levels of savings and investment .
= = Gender bias in access to healthcare = =
The United Nations ranks India as a middle @-@ income country . Findings from the World Economic Forum indicate that India is one of the worst countries in the world in terms of gender inequality . The 2011 United Nations Development Programme 's Human Development Report ranked India 132 out of 187 in terms of gender inequality . The value of this multidimensional indicator , Gender Inequality Index ( GII ) is determined by numerous factors including maternal mortality rate , adolescent fertility rate , educational achievement and labour force participation rate . Gender inequality in India is exemplified by women ’ s lower likelihood of being literate , continuing their education and participating in the labour force .
Gender is one of many social determinants of health — which include social , economic , and political factors — that play a major role in the health outcomes of women in India . Therefore , the high level of gender inequality in India negatively impacts the health of women .
The role that gender plays in health care access can be determined by examining resource allocation within the household and public sphere . Gender discrimination begins before birth ; females are the most commonly aborted sex in India . If a female fetus is not aborted , the mother ’ s pregnancy can be a stressful experience , due to her family ’ s preference for a son . Once born , daughters are prone to being fed less than sons , especially when there are multiple girls already in the household . As women mature into adulthood , many of the barriers preventing them from achieving equitable levels of health stem from the low status of women and girls in Indian society , particularly in the rural and poverty @-@ affected areas .
The low status of — and subsequent discrimination against — women in India can be attributed to many cultural norms . Societal forces of patriarchy , hierarchy and multigenerational families contribute to Indian gender roles . Men use greater privileges and superior rights to create an unequal society that leaves women with little to no power . This societal structure is exemplified with women ’ s low participation within India ’ s national parliament and the labour force .
Women are also seen as less valuable to a family due to marriage obligations . Although illegal , Indian cultural norms often force payment of a dowry to the husband ’ s family . The higher future financial burden of daughters creates a power structure that favours sons in household formation . Additionally , women are often perceived as being incapable of taking care of parents in old age , which creates even greater preference for sons over daughters .
Taken together , women are oftentimes seen less valuable than men . With lower involvement in the public sphere — as exemplified by the labour and political participation rates — and the stigma of being less valuable within a family , women face a unique form of gender discrimination .
Gender inequalities , in turn , are directly related to poor health outcomes for women . Numerous studies have found that the rates of admission to hospitals vary dramatically with gender , with men visiting hospitals more frequently than women . Differential access to healthcare occurs because women typically are entitled to a lower share of household resources and thus utilise healthcare resources to a lesser degree than men .
Amartya Sen has attributed access to fewer household resources to their weaker bargaining power within the household . Furthermore , it has also been found that Indian women frequently underreport illnesses . The underreporting of illness may be contributed to these cultural norms and gender expectations within the household . Gender also dramatically influences the use of antenatal care and utilisation of immunisations .
A study by Choi in 2006 found that boys are more likely to receive immunisations than girls in rural areas . This finding has led researchers to believe that the sex of a child leads to different levels of health care being administered in rural areas . There is also a gender component associated with mobility . Indian women are more likely to have difficulty traveling in public spaces than men , resulting in greater difficulty to access services .
= = = Cooperative conflicts approach to gender biases = = =
Amartya Sen ’ s cooperative conflicts approach to gender biases frames women ’ s gender disadvantage through three different responses : breakdown wellbeing , perceived interest and perceived contribution responses . The breakdown well @-@ being response — derived from the Nash equilibrium — describes breakdown positions between individuals during cooperative decisions . When the breakdown position of one individual is less than the other person , the solution to any conflict will ultimately result in less favourable conditions for the first individual . In terms of women ’ s health in India , the overall gender disadvantage facing women — represented by cultural and societal factors that favour men over women — negatively impacts their ability to make decisions with regards to seeking out healthcare .
The perceived interest response describes the outcome of a bargained decision when one individual attaches less value to his or her well @-@ being . Any bargaining solution derived between the aforementioned individual and another individual will always result in a less favourable outcome for the person who attaches less value to their well @-@ being . The health status of women in India relates to the perceived interest response because of the societal and cultural practices that create an environment where the self @-@ worth of women is marginalised compared to men . Therefore , outcomes relating to healthcare decisions within households will favour the men , due to greater self @-@ worth .
The perceived contribution response describes the more favourable position of an individual when the individual ’ s contribution is perceived as contributing more to a group than other individuals . The more favourable perception gives the individual a better outcome in a bargaining solution . In terms of women ’ s health in India , males ’ perceived contribution to household productivity is higher than that of women , which ultimately affects the bargaining power that women have with regards to accessing healthcare .
= = Problems with India ’ s healthcare system = =
At the turn of the 21st Century India ’ s health care system is strained in terms of the number of healthcare professionals including doctors and nurses . The health care system is also highly concentrated in urban areas . This results in many individuals in rural areas seeking care from unqualified providers with varying results . It has also been found that many individuals who claim to be physicians actually lack formal training . Nearly 25 percent of physicians classified as allopathic providers actually had no medical training ; this phenomenon varies geographically .
Women are negatively affected by the geographic bias within implementation of the current healthcare system in India . Of all health workers in the country , nearly two thirds are men . This especially affects rural areas where it has been found that out of all doctors , only 6 percent are women . This translates into approximately 0 @.@ 5 female allopathic physicians per 10 @,@ 000 individuals in rural areas .
A disparity in access to maternal care between rural and urban populations is one of the ramifications of a highly concentrated urban medical system . According to Government of India National Family Health Survey ( NFHS II , 1998 @-@ 1999 ) the maternal mortality in rural areas is approximately 132 percent the number of maternal mortality in urban areas .
The Indian government has taken steps to alleviate some of the current gender inequalities . In 1992 , the government of India established the National Commission for Women . The Commission was meant to address many of the inequalities women face , specifically rape , family and guardianship . However , the slow pace of change in the judicial system and the aforementioned cultural norms have prevented the full adoption of policies meant to promote equality between men and women .
In 2005 India enacted the National Rural Health Mission ( NHRM ) . Some of its primary goals were to reduce infant mortality and also the maternal mortality ratio . Additionally , the NHRM aimed to create universal access to public health services and also balance the gender ratio . However , a 2011 research study conducted by Nair and Panda found that although India was able to improve some measures of maternal health since the enactment of the NHRM in 2005 , the country was still far behind most emerging economies .
= = Outcomes = =
= = = Health problems of tribal women = = =
The high incidence of breast lumps among Adivasi women of Adilabad in Telangana has created apprehension of more serious health impacts for this remote population . “ Leave alone breast cancer or any other type of carcinoma , even routine mammarian infections were unknown among indigenous people belonging to the Gond , Pardhan , Kolam and Thotti , ” points out Dr. Thodsam Chandu , the District Immunisation Officer , himself a Gond .
= = = Malnutrition and morbidity = = =
Nutrition plays a major role in and individual ’ s overall health ; psychological and physical health status is often dramatically impacted by the presence of malnutrition . India currently has one of the highest rates of malnourished women among developing countries . A study in 2000 found that nearly 70 percent of non @-@ pregnant women and 75 percent of pregnant women were anemic in terms of iron @-@ deficiency . One of the main drivers of malnutrition is gender specific selection of the distribution of food resources .
A 2012 study by Tarozzi have found the nutritional intake of early adolescents to be approximately equal . However , the rate of malnutrition increases for women as they enter adulthood . Furthermore , Jose et al. found that malnutrition increased for ever @-@ married women compared to non @-@ married women .
Maternal malnutrition has been associated with an increased risk of maternal mortality and also child birth defects . Addressing the problem of malnutrition would lead to beneficial outcomes for women and children .
= = = Breast cancer = = =
India is facing a growing cancer epidemic , with a large increase in the number of women with breast cancer . By the year 2020 nearly 70 percent of the world ’ s cancer cases will come from developing countries , with a fifth of those cases coming from India .
Much of the sudden increase in breast cancer cases is attributed to the rise in Westernisation of the country . This includes , but is not limited to , westernised diet , greater urban concentrations of women , and later child bearing . Additionally , problems with India ’ s health care infrastructure prevent adequate screenings and access for women , ultimately leading to lower health outcomes compared to more developed countries . As of 2012 , India has a shortage of trained oncologists and cancer centres , further straining the health care system .
= = = Reproductive health = = =
The lack of maternal health contributes to future economic disparities for mothers and their children . Poor maternal health often affects a child ’ s health in adverse ways and also decreases a woman ’ s ability to participate in economic activities . Therefore , national health programmes such as the National Rural Health Mission ( NRHM ) and the Family Welfare Programme have been created to address the maternal health care needs of women across India .
Although India has witnessed dramatic growth over the last two decades , maternal mortality remains stubbornly high in comparison to many developing nations As a nation , India contributed nearly 20 percent of all maternal deaths worldwide between 1992 and 2006 . The primary reasons for the high levels of maternal mortality are directly related to socioeconomic conditions and cultural constraints limiting access to care .
However , maternal mortality is not identical across all of India or even a particular state ; urban areas often have lower overall maternal mortality due to the availability of adequate medical resources . For example , states with higher literacy and growth rates tend to have greater maternal health and also lower infant mortality .
= = = = HIV / AIDS = = = =
As of July 2005 , women represent approximately 40 percent of the HIV / AIDS cases in India . The number of infections is rising in many locations in India ; the rise can be attributed to cultural norms , lack of education , and lack of access to contraceptives such as condoms . The government public health system does not provide adequate measures such as free HIV testing , only further worsening the problem .
Cultural aspects also increase the prevalence of HIV infection . The insistence of a woman for a man to use a condom could imply promiscuity on her part , and thus may hamper the usage of protective barriers during sex . Furthermore , one of the primary methods of contraception among women has historically been sterilisation , which does not protect against the transmission of HIV .
The current mortality rate of HIV / AIDS is higher for women than it is for men . As with other forms of women ’ s health in India the reason for the disparity is multidimensional . Due to higher rates of illiteracy and economic dependence on men , women are less likely to be taken to a hospital or receive medical care for health needs in comparison to men . This creates a greater risk for women to suffer from complications associated with HIV . There is also evidence to suggest that the presence of HIV / AIDS infection in a woman could result in lower or no marriage prospects , which creates greater stigma for women suffering from HIV / AIDS .
= = = = Reproductive rights = = = =
India legalised abortion through legislation in the early 1970s . However , access remains limited to cities . Less than 20 percent of health care centres are able to provide the necessary services for an abortion . The current lack of access is attributed to a shortage of physicians and lack of equipment to perform the procedure .
The most common foetus that is aborted in India is a female one . Numerous factors contribute to the abortion of female foetuses . For example , women who are highly educated and had a first @-@ born female child are the most likely to abort a female . The act of sex @-@ selective abortion has contributed to a skewed male to female ratio . As of the 2011 census , the sex ratio among children aged 0 – 6 continued a long trend towards more males .
The preference for sons over daughters in India is rooted in social , economic and religious reasons . Women are often believed to be of a lower value in society due to their non @-@ breadwinner status . Financial support , old age security , property inheritance , dowry and beliefs surrounding religious duties all contribute to the preference of sons over daughters . One of the main reasons behind the preference of sons is the potential burden of having to find grooms for daughters . Families of women in India often have to pay a dowry and all expenses related to marriage in order to marry off a daughter , which increases the cost associated with having a daughter .
= = = Cardiovascular health = = =
Cardiovascular disease is a major contributor to female mortality in India . Indians account for 60 % of the world 's heart disease burden , despite accounting for less than 20 % of the world 's population . Indian women have a particular high mortality from cardiac disease and NGOs such as the Indian Heart Association have been raising awareness about this issue . Women have higher mortality rates relating to cardiovascular disease than men in India because of differential access to health care between the sexes . One reason for the differing rates of access stems from social and cultural norms that prevent women from accessing appropriate care . For example , it was found that among patients with congenital heart disease , women were less likely to be operated on than men because families felt that the scarring from surgery would make the women less marriageable .
Furthermore , it was found that families failed to seek medical treatment for their daughters because of the stigma associated with negative medical histories . A study conducted by Pednekar et al. in 2011 found that out of 100 boys and girls with congenital heart disease , 70 boys would have an operation while only 22 girls will receive similar treatment .
The primary driver of this difference is due to cultural standards that give women little leverage in the selection of their partner . Elder family members must find suitable husbands for young females in the households . If women are known to have adverse previous medical histories , their ability to find a partner is significantly reduced . This difference leads to diverging health outcomes for men and women .
= = = Mental health = = =
Mental health consists of a broad scope of measurements of mental well being including depression , stress and measurements of self @-@ worth . Numerous factors affect the prevalence of mental health disorders among women in India , including older age , low educational attainment , fewer children in the home , lack of paid employment and excessive spousal alcohol use . There is also evidence to suggest that disadvantages associated with gender increase the risk for mental health disorders . Women who find it acceptable for men to use violence against female partners may view themselves as less valuable than men . In turn , this may lead women to seek out fewer avenues of healthcare inhibiting their ability to cope with various mental disorders .
One of the most common disorders that disproportionately affect women in low @-@ income countries is depression . Indian women suffer from depression at higher rates than Indian men . Indian women who are faced with greater degrees of poverty and gender disadvantage show a higher rate of depression . The difficulties associated with interpersonal relationships — most often marital relationships — and economic disparities have been cited as the main social drivers of depression .
It was found that Indian women typically describe the somatic symptoms rather than the emotional and psychological stressors that trigger the symptoms of depression . This often makes it difficult to accurately assess depression among women in India in light of no admonition of depression . Gender plays a major role in postnatal depression among Indian women . Mothers are often blamed for the birth of a female child . Furthermore , women who already have a female child often face additional pressures to have male children that add to their overall stress level .
Women in India have a lower onset of schizophrenia than men . However , women and men differ in the associated stigmas they must face . While men tend to suffer from occupational functioning , while women suffer in their marital functioning . The time of onset also plays a role in the stigmatisation of schizophrenia . Women tend to be diagnosed with schizophrenia later in life , oftentimes following the birth of their children . The children are often removed from the care of the ill mother , which may cause further distress .
= = = = Suicide = = = =
Indian women have higher rates of suicide than women in most developed countries . Women in India also have a higher rate of suicide compared to men . The most common reasons cited for women 's suicide are directly related to depression , anxiety , gender disadvantage and anguish related to domestic violence .
Many of the high rates of suicide found across India and much of south Asia have been correlated with gender disadvantage . Gender disadvantage is often expressed through domestic violence towards women . The suicide rate is particularly high among female sex workers in India , who face numerous forms of discrimination for their gender and line of work .
= = = Domestic violence = = =
Domestic violence is a major problem in India . Domestic violence — acts of physical , psychological , and sexual violence against women — is found across the world and is currently viewed as a hidden epidemic by the World Health Organisation . The effects of domestic violence go beyond the victim ; generational and economic effects influence entire societies . Economies of countries where domestic violence is prevalent tend to have lower female labour participation rate , in addition to higher medical expenses and higher rates of disability .
The prevalence of domestic violence in India is associated with the cultural norms of patriarchy , hierarchy , and multigenerational families . Patriarchal domination occurs when males use superior rights , privileges and power to create a social order that gives women and men differential gender roles . The resultant power structure leaves women as powerless targets of domestic violence . Men use domestic violence as a way of controlling behaviour .
In a response to the 2005 @-@ 2006 India National Family Health Survey III , 31 percent of all women reported having been the victims of physical violence in the 12 months preceding the survey . However , the actual number of victims may be much higher . Women who are victimised by domestic violence may underreport or fail to report instances . This may be due to a sense of shame or embarrassment stemming from cultural norms associated with women being subservient to their husbands . Furthermore , underreporting by women may occur in order to protect family honour .
A 2012 study conducted by Kimuna , using data from the 2005 @-@ 2006 India National Family Health Survey III , found that domestic violence rates vary across numerous sociological , geographical and economic measures . The study found that the poorest women faired worst among middle and high @-@ income women . Researchers believe that the reason for higher rates of domestic violence come from greater familial pressures resulting from poverty . Additionally the study found that women who were part of the labour force faced greater domestic violence . According to the researchers , working women may be upsetting the patriarchal power system within Indian households .
Men may feel threatened by the earning potential and independence of women and react violently to shift the gender power structure back in their favour . One of the largest factors associated with domestic violence against women was the prevalence of alcohol use by men within the households . A 2005 study conducted by Pradeep Panda and Bina Agarwal found that the incidence of domestic violence against women dropped dramatically with women 's ownership of immovable property , which includes land and housing .
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= John Frusciante =
John Anthony Frusciante ( / fruːˈʃɑːnteɪ / ; born March 5 , 1970 ) is an American guitarist , singer , producer and composer . He is best known as the former guitarist of the rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , from 1988 until 1992 , and again from 1998 until 2009 . He recorded five studio albums with them .
Frusciante has an active solo career , having released eleven solo albums and five EPs ; his recordings include elements ranging from experimental rock and ambient music to new wave and electronica . In 2015 , Frusciante released his debut acid house album under his alias , Trickfinger . He has also recorded with numerous other artists , including The Mars Volta , for whom he was a studio guitarist ( and occasional live performer ) from 2002 until 2008 ; Josh Klinghoffer and Joe Lally , with whom he released two albums as Ataxia ; and various collaborations with both Klinghoffer and Omar Rodríguez @-@ López .
At the age of eighteen , he joined the Red Hot Chili Peppers , first appearing on the band 's 1989 album , Mother 's Milk . The group 's follow @-@ up album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik ( 1991 ) , was a breakthrough success . Frusciante became overwhelmed by the band 's new popularity and quit in 1992 . He became a recluse and entered a long period of drug addiction , during which he released his first solo recordings : Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt ( 1994 ) and Smile from the Streets You Hold ( 1997 ) . In 1998 , he successfully completed drug rehabilitation and rejoined the Red Hot Chili Peppers . Their next album , Californication ( 1999 ) would eventually go on to sell 16 million copies . His album To Record Only Water for Ten Days was made in 2001 . A fourth album with the Chili Peppers , By the Way was released in 2002 . On a creative spree , Frusciante released six solo albums in 2004 ; each album explored different recording techniques and genres . 2006 saw the release of his fifth and final album with the Chili Peppers , Stadium Arcadium . In 2009 , Frusciante released The Empyrean , which features Flea and Josh Klinghoffer , and announced he had again parted ways with the Chili Peppers .
He has produced and / or recorded with Duran Duran , Wu @-@ Tang Clan , The Mars Volta and Omar Rodriguez Lopez , Swahili Blonde , Black Knights , The Bicycle Thief , Glenn Hughes , Ziggy Marley , Johnny Cash , George Clinton , and others .
Frusciante has received critical recognition for his guitar playing , ranking at number 18 on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " in 2003 ; and again in a second list published in 2011 , where he ranked at number 72 . He was ranked as number 42 in Gibson 's list of the " 50 Best Guitarists of All Time " . He was voted " The Best Guitarist of the Last 30 Years " in a 2010 BBC poll called " The Axe Factor " . Frusciante was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Red Hot Chili Peppers on April 14 , 2012 although he did not attend the ceremony .
= = Biography = =
= = = 1970 – 1987 : Childhood and early life = = =
Frusciante was born in Queens , New York on March 5 , 1970 . His father , John Sr. , is a Juilliard @-@ trained pianist , and his mother Gail was a promising vocalist who gave up her career to be a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother . Frusciante 's family moved to Tucson , Arizona , and then Florida , where his father served as a Broward County judge until October 2010 . His parents separated , and he and his mother moved to Santa Monica , California . Frusciante is of Italian descent ; his paternal great @-@ grandfather Generoso Frusciante emigrated from Benevento .
A year later , Frusciante and his mother moved to Mar Vista , Los Angeles with his new stepfather who , he says , " really supported me and made me feel good about being an artist . " Like many young people in the area , he became intimately involved in the L.A. punk rock scene . At nine he was infatuated with the Germs , wearing out several copies of their record ( GI ) . By ten , he had taught himself how to play most of ( GI ) ' s songs . He has stated that he did not really know what he was doing , and that he would play every chord with a single @-@ finger barre .
Frusciante began studying guitarists like Jeff Beck , Jimmy Page , David Gilmour and Jimi Hendrix at eleven . He discovered Frank Zappa , whose work he would study for hours . Frusciante first heard of the Red Hot Chili Peppers around 1984 when his guitar instructor was auditioning as a guitarist for that band . He dropped out of high school at sixteen with the permission of his parents and completion of a proficiency test . With their support , he moved to Los Angeles in order to develop his musical proficiency . He began taking classes at the Guitar Institute of Technology , but turned to punching in without actually attending and left shortly thereafter .
= = = 1988 – 1992 : First term with the Red Hot Chili Peppers = = =
Frusciante first attended a Red Hot Chili Peppers performance at fifteen and he rapidly became a devoted fan . He idolized guitarist Hillel Slovak — familiarizing himself with virtually all the guitar and bass parts from the Chili Peppers ' first three records . He became acquainted with Slovak ; the two spoke months before Slovak 's death and Frusciante 's subsequent joining :
... Hillel asked me , ' Would you still like the Chilis if they got so popular they played the Forum ? ' I said , ' No . It would ruin the whole thing . That 's great about the band , the audience feels no different from the band at all . ' There was this real kind of historical vibe at their shows , none of the frustration that runs through the audience when they jump around and can 't get out of their seat . I didn 't even watch the shows . I 'd get so excited that I 'd flip around the slam pit the whole time . I really felt like a part of the band , and all the sensitive people in the audience did too .
Frusciante became friends with former Dead Kennedys drummer D. H. Peligro in early 1988 . They often jammed together , and Peligro invited his friend Flea ( bassist of Red Hot Chili Peppers ) to join . Frusciante and Flea developed a musical chemistry immediately , with Flea later acknowledging that might have been the day he first played the bass riff to " Nobody Weird Like Me " . Around the same time , Frusciante intended to audition for Frank Zappa 's band , but changed his mind before the final try @-@ out as Zappa strictly prohibited illegal drug use . Frusciante said , " I realized that I wanted to be a rock star , do drugs and get girls , and that I wouldn 't be able to do that if I was in Zappa 's band . "
Slovak died of a heroin overdose in 1988 , and Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons , incapable of coping with Slovak 's death , left the group . Remaining members Flea and vocalist Anthony Kiedis regrouped , determined to persevere . The pair added Peligro on drums and DeWayne " Blackbyrd " McKnight , formerly of P @-@ Funk , on guitar . McKnight , however , failed to connect musically within the group . Flea proposed auditioning Frusciante , whose intimate knowledge of the Chili Peppers ' repertoire impressed him . Flea and Kiedis auditioned him and agreed that he would be a suitable replacement for McKnight , who was promptly fired . When Flea called Frusciante with the news of his acceptance into the Chili Peppers , Frusciante was elated ; he ran through his house screaming with joy , and jumped on a wall , leaving permanent boot marks . He was considering a contract with Thelonious Monster at the time — and had actually been playing with the act for two weeks — but his unanticipated reception into the Chili Peppers prompted him to change his plans .
However , Frusciante was not familiar with the funk genre of Red Hot Chili Peppers ' sound : " I wasn 't really a funk player before I joined the band . I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying Hillel [ Slovak 's ] playing and I just took it sideways from there . " Several weeks into the band 's new lineup , Peligro , whose performance was suffering due to extreme drug abuse , was fired . Soon after , Chad Smith was added as the group 's new drummer and the new lineup began recording their first album , 1989 's Mother 's Milk . Frusciante focused on emulating Slovak 's signature style , rather than imposing his own personal style on the group . Producer Michael Beinhorn disagreed , and wanted Frusciante to play with an uncharacteristic heavy metal tone , largely absent from the band 's three preceding records . Frusciante and Beinhorn fought frequently over guitar tone and layering , and Beinhorn 's idea ultimately prevailed as Frusciante felt pressured by the producer 's much greater knowledge of the studio . Kiedis recalls that " [ Beinhorn ] wanted John to have a big , crunching , almost metal @-@ sounding guitar tone whereas before we always had some interesting acid @-@ rock guitar tones as well as a lot of slinky , sexy , funky guitar tones . "
The Chili Peppers collaborated with producer Rick Rubin for their second record with Frusciante , Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Rubin felt that it was important to record the album in an unorthodox setting , so he suggested an old Hollywood Hills mansion , and the band agreed . Frusciante , Kiedis and Flea isolated themselves there for the duration of the recording . Frusciante and Flea seldom went outside , and spent most of their time smoking marijuana . Around this time , Frusciante started a side collaboration with Flea and Jane 's Addiction drummer Stephen Perkins called The Three Amoebas . They recorded roughly ten to fifteen hours of material , none of which has ever been released .
Blood Sugar Sex Magik was hugely successful upon its release on September 24 , 1991 . It peaked at number three on the Billboard charts , and went on to sell thirteen million copies worldwide . The unexpected success instantly turned the Red Hot Chili Peppers into rock stars . Frusciante was blindsided by his newfound fame , and struggled to cope with it . Soon after the album 's release , he began to develop a dislike for the band 's popularity . Kiedis recalled that he and Frusciante used to get into heated discussions backstage after concerts : " John would say , ' We 're too popular . I don 't need to be at this level of success . I would just be proud to be playing this music in clubs like you guys were doing two years ago . ' " Frusciante later said that the band 's rise to popularity was " too high , too far , too soon . Everything seemed to be happening at once and I just couldn 't cope with it . " He also began to feel that destiny was leading him away from the band . When the Chili Peppers began their world tour , he started to hear voices in his head telling him " you won 't make it during the tour , you have to go now . " Frusciante admitted to having once taken great pleasure in hedonism ; however , " by the age of twenty , I started doing it right and looking at it as an artistic expression instead of a way of partying and screwing a bunch of girls . To balance it out , I had to be extra @-@ humble , extra @-@ anti @-@ rock star . " He refused to take the stage during a performance at Tokyo 's Club Quattro on May 7 , 1992 , telling his bandmates that he was leaving the band . He was persuaded to perform , but left for California the next morning ; according to the guitarist , " it was just impossible for me to stay in the band any longer . It had come to the point where even though they wanted me in the band , it felt like I was forced out of the band . Not by any members in particular or management in particular , but just the direction it was going . " He was replaced by former Jane 's Addiction guitarist Dave Navarro .
In a 2015 interview , Cris Kirkwood said that following Frusciante 's departure from the Chili Peppers in 1992 he auditioned for his band the Meat Puppets . Kirkwood said " “ He showed up with his guitar out of its case and barefoot . We were on a major label then , we just got signed , and those guys had blown up to where they were at and John needed to get out . John gets to our pad and we started getting ready to play and I said , ‘ You want to use my tuner ? ’ He said , ‘ No , I ’ ll bend it in . ’ It was so far out . Then we jammed but it didn ’ t come to anything . Maybe he wasn ’ t in the right place and we were a tight little unit . It just didn ’ t quite happen but it could have worked . "
= = = 1992 – 1997 : Drug addiction = = =
Frusciante developed serious drug habits while touring with the band during the previous four years . He said that when he " found out that Flea was stoned out of his mind at every show , that inspired me to be a pothead " . Not only was Frusciante smoking large amounts of marijuana , but he began to use heroin and was on the verge of full @-@ scale addiction . Upon returning to California in the summer of 1992 , Frusciante entered a deep depression , feeling that his life was over and that he could no longer write music or play guitar . For a long time , he focused on painting , producing 4 @-@ track recordings he had made while working on Blood Sugar Sex Magik , and writing short stories and screenplays . To cope with his worsening depression , Frusciante increased his heroin use and spiraled into a life @-@ threatening dependency . His use of heroin to medicate his depression was a clear decision : " I was very sad , and I was always happy when I was on drugs ; therefore , I should be on drugs all the time . I was never guilty — I was always really proud to be an addict . " Frusciante openly admitted to being a " junkie " , believing that drugs were the only way of " making sure you stay in touch with beauty instead of letting the ugliness of the world corrupt your soul . "
In October 1993 , River Phoenix came to stay with Frusciante and the duo went on a long drug binge together , doing a lot of drugs and barely sleeping . According to Bob Forrest , the two arrived at The Viper Room together on October 31 , 1993 and continued to do drugs . Shortly after their arrival , Phoenix went into seizures and was rushed by ambulance ( accompanied by Flea ) to the hospital where he died of a drug overdose .
Frusciante released his first solo album Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt , on March 8 , 1994 . Despite the common belief that most of the tracks were recorded while he was strung out on heroin in his home in the Hollywood Hills , Frusciante has said that " That album was not recorded when I was a heroin addict . It was released when I was a heroin addict . "
The first half of Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was recorded shortly after the completion of Blood Sugar Sex Magik ; the second half between late 1991 and early 1992 , during the album 's tour . " Running Away Into You " is the only track recorded after he left the Chili Peppers . The album is a heavily experimental avant @-@ garde composition whose initial purpose was spiritual and emotional expression : " I wrote [ the record ] because I was in a really big place in my head — it was a huge , spiritual place telling me what to do . As long as I 'm obeying those forces , it 's always going to be meaningful . I could be playing guitar and I could say ' Play something that sucks , ' and if I 'm in that place , it 's gonna be great . And it has nothing to do with me , except in ways that can 't be understood . " Frusciante further asserted that the album was meant to be experienced as a cohesive unit rather than separate entities or songs . Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt was released on Rick Rubin 's label American Recordings . Warner Bros. , the Chili Peppers ' label , owned rights to the album because of the leaving @-@ artist clause in Frusciante 's Chili Peppers contract . However , because he was reclusive , the label gladly handed the rights over to Rubin , who released the album at the urging of Frusciante 's friends .
An article in the New Times LA described Frusciante as " a skeleton covered in thin skin " who at the nadir of his addictions nearly died from a blood infection . His arms became fiercely scarred from improperly shooting heroin and cocaine , leaving permanent abscesses . He spent the next three years holed up in his Hollywood Hills home , the walls of which were badly damaged and covered in graffiti . During this time , his friends Johnny Depp and Gibby Haynes went to his house and filmed a documentary short called Stuff , depicting the squalor in which he was living . The house was eventually destroyed by a fire that claimed his vintage guitar collection along with several recorded tapes of music .
Frusciante released his second solo album , Smile from the Streets You Hold , in 1997 . The album 's first track , " Enter a Uh " , was largely characterized by cryptic lyrics and hysterical screeches . Frusciante also coughs throughout the track , showcasing his deteriorating health . By his own admission , the album was released in order to get " drug money " ; he withdrew it from the market in 1999 . The album is also notable for including a recording called " Height Down " which features River Phoenix .
= = = 1998 – 2002 : Rehabilitation and return to the Chili Peppers = = =
In late 1996 , after more than five years of addiction to heroin , Frusciante quit it cold turkey . However , months later he was still unable to break addictions to crack cocaine and alcohol . In January 1998 , urged by longtime friend Bob Forrest , Frusciante checked into Las Encinas , a drug rehabilitation clinic in Pasadena , to begin a full recovery . Upon arrival , he was diagnosed with a potentially lethal oral infection , which could only be alleviated by removing all of his rotten teeth and replacing them with dental implants . He also received skin grafts to help repair the abscesses on his ravaged arms . About a month later , Frusciante checked out of Las Encinas and re @-@ entered society .
Fully recovered and once again healthy , Frusciante began living a more spiritual , ascetic lifestyle . He changed his diet , becoming more health @-@ conscious and eating mostly unprocessed foods . Through regular practice of vipassana and yoga , he discovered the effect that self @-@ discipline has on the body . To maintain his increased spiritual awareness and reduce distraction from his music , Frusciante decided to abstain from sexual activity stating : " I 'm very well without it . " All of these changes in his life have led him to a complete change in his attitude toward drugs :
I don 't need to take drugs . I feel so much more high all the time right now because of the type of momentum that a person can get going when you really dedicate yourself to something that you really love . I don 't even consider doing them , they 're completely silly . Between my dedication to trying to constantly be a better musician and eating my health foods and doing yoga , I feel so much more high than I did for the last few years of doing drugs .
At this point I 'm the happiest person in the world . These things do not fuck with me at all , and I 'm so proud of that — you don 't know how proud I am . It 's such a beautiful thing to be able to face life , to face yourself , without hiding behind drugs ; without having to have anger towards people who love you . There are people who are scared of losing stuff , but you don 't lose anything for any other reason than if you just give up on yourself .
Despite his experience as an addict , Frusciante does not view his drug use as a " dark period " in his life . He considers it a period of rebirth , during which he found himself and cleared his mind . Frusciante has since stopped practicing yoga , due to its effects on his back , but he still tries to meditate daily .
In early 1998 , the Red Hot Chili Peppers fired guitarist Dave Navarro and were on the verge of breaking up . Flea told Kiedis , " the only way I could imagine carrying on [ with the Red Hot Chili Peppers ] is if we got John back in the band . " With Frusciante free of his addictions and ailments , Kiedis and Flea thought it was an appropriate time to invite him back . When Flea visited him at his home and asked him to rejoin the band , Frusciante began sobbing and said " nothing would make me happier in the world . " With Frusciante back on guitar , the Chili Peppers began recording their next album , Californication , released in 1999 . Frusciante 's return restored a key component of the Chili Peppers ' sound , as well as a healthy morale . He brought with him his deep devotion to music , which had an impact on the band 's recording style during the album . Frusciante has frequently stated that his work on Californication was his favorite .
During the Californication world tour , Frusciante continued to compose his own songs , many of which would be released in 2001 on his third solo album To Record Only Water for Ten Days . The album was stylistically unlike his previous records , less markedly stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness or avant @-@ garde . However , the lyrics were still very cryptic and its sound was notably stripped down . The songwriting and production of To Record Only Water for Ten Days were more efficient and straightforward than on his previous recordings . The album strayed from the alternative rock he had just written with the Chili Peppers on Californication , focusing more on electronic and new wave elements . In addition to his guitar work , Frusciante experimented with a variety of synthesizers , a distinctive feature of the record .
In 2001 , Frusciante began recording his fourth album with Red Hot Chili Peppers , By the Way ( 2002 ) ; he considered the time to be among the happiest in his life . He relished the chance the album gave him to " keep writing better songs " . While working on By the Way , he also composed most of what would become Shadows Collide with People , as well as the songs created for the movie The Brown Bunny . His goal to improve his guitar playing on the album was largely driven by a desire to emulate guitar players such as Andy Partridge , Johnny Marr and John McGeoch ; or as he put it , " people who used good chords " . The album marked Frusciante 's shift to a more group @-@ minded mentality within the Chili Peppers , viewing the band as a cohesive unit rather than as four separate entities .
= = = 2002 – 2007 : The Mars Volta , 2004 recordings and Stadium Arcadium = = =
Frusciante wrote and recorded a plethora of songs during and after the By the Way tour . In February 2004 , he started a side project with Joe Lally of Fugazi and Josh Klinghoffer , called Ataxia . The group was together for about two weeks , during which they recorded about ninety minutes of material . After two days in the recording studio , they played two shows at the Knitting Factory in Hollywood , and spent two more days in the studio before disbanding . Later that year , five songs provided by Frusciante appeared on The Brown Bunny soundtrack .
Frusciante released his fourth full @-@ length solo album Shadows Collide with People on February 24 , 2004 . This featured guest appearances from some of his friends , including Klinghoffer , and Chili Peppers bandmates Smith and Flea . In June 2004 , he announced that he would be releasing six records over six months : The Will to Death , Ataxia 's Automatic Writing , DC EP , Inside of Emptiness , A Sphere in the Heart of Silence and Curtains . With the release of Curtains Frusciante debuted his only music video of 2004 , for the track " The Past Recedes " . He wanted to produce these records quickly and inexpensively on analog tape , avoiding modern studio and computer @-@ assisted recording processes . Frusciante noted , " These six records were recorded in a period of six months after coming home from touring with the Chili Peppers for one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years . I made a list of all the songs I had and they totaled about seventy . My objective was to record as many songs as I could during the break that I had . In the midst of doing that , I was writing some of my best songs , so some of these albums have as many new songs as old songs . It was definitely the most productive time of my life . "
In early 2005 , Frusciante entered the studio to work on his fifth and final studio album with the Chili Peppers , Stadium Arcadium . His guitar playing is dominant throughout the album , and he provides backing vocals on most of the tracks . Although usually following a " less is more " style of guitar playing , he began using a full twenty @-@ four track mixer for maximum effect . In the arrangements , he incorporates a wide array of sounds and playing styles , similar to the funk @-@ influenced Blood Sugar Sex Magik or the more melodic By the Way . He also changed his approach to his playing , opting to contribute solos and allow songs to be formed from jam sessions . In an interview from Guitar World , Frusciante explained how he approached his guitar solos for their album Stadium Arcadium completely differently from those for their previous albums . On Blood Sugar Sex Magik and Californication , Frusciante had a general idea how he wanted his guitar solos to sound . For Stadium Arcadium , almost every guitar solo was completely improvised by Frusciante on the spot . Several reviews have stressed that the influence of Hendrix is evident in his solos on the album , with Frusciante himself backing this up . He also expanded the use of guitar effects throughout the album , and used various other instruments such as the synthesizer and mellotron . He worked continuously with Rubin over @-@ dubbing guitar progressions , changing harmonies and using all his technical resources .
Frusciante began a series of collaborations with friend Omar Rodríguez @-@ López and his band The Mars Volta , by contributing guitar and electronic instrumentation to song " Cicatriz ESP " off their album De @-@ Loused in the Comatorium . He also contributed guitar solos on their 2005 album Frances the Mute . In 2006 , he helped The Mars Volta complete their third album Amputechture by playing guitar on seven of its eight tracks . In return , Rodriguez @-@ Lopez has played on several of Frusciante 's solo albums , as well as making a guest appearance on Stadium Arcadium .
= = = 2007 – 2009 = = =
= = = = Red Hot Chili Peppers departure and The Empyrean = = = =
Ataxia released its second and final studio album , AW II in 2007 . Following the Stadium Arcadium tour ( early May 2006 to late August 2007 ) , the Red Hot Chili Peppers agreed to a hiatus of indefinite length . In early 2008 , Anthony Kiedis finally confirmed this , citing exhaustion from constant work since Californication as the main reason . Frusciante quit the group on July 29 , 2009 , but did not publicly announce his departure until December 2009 , two months after the band ended their hiatus in October 2009 and began work on their next album with Josh Klinghoffer as their new guitarist .
Frusciante 's tenth solo album , The Empyrean , was released on January 20 , 2009 through Record Collection . The record — a concept album — was in production between December 2006 and March 2008 . The Empyrean features an array of musicians including Frusciante 's ex @-@ Chili Peppers bandmate Flea , friends Josh Klinghoffer and former Smiths guitarist Johnny Marr , as well as guest musicians including Sonus Quartet and New Dimension Singers . Frusciante stated : " I 'm really happy with [ the record ] and I 've listened to it a lot for the psychedelic experience it provides , " suggesting the album is " to be played as loud as possible and is suited to dark living rooms late at night . "
= = = 2010 – present = = =
= = = = Collaborations with Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez and induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame = = = =
Frusciante continued to collaborate with his friend Omar Rodríguez @-@ López . Along with providing guitar work to The Mars Volta 's studio albums , The Bedlam In Goliath and Octahedron , and Rodríguez @-@ López 's solo albums Se Dice Bisonte , No Búfalo and Calibration ( Is Pushing Luck and Key Too Far ) , he functioned as executive producer for Rodríguez @-@ López 's directorial film debut , The Sentimental Engine Slayer . The film debuted at the Rotterdam Film Festival in February 2010 . Along with work on the film , Frusciante and Rodríguez @-@ López have released two collaborative records in May 2010 . The first is the album Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez & John Frusciante , an album with just the two of them , the other a quartet record , Sepulcros de Miel , consisting of Rodríguez @-@ López , Frusciante , Juan Alderete and Marcel Rodríguez @-@ López .
Frusciante also contributed music to the documentary film , Little Joe , based upon Joe Dallesandro . In 2009 , Frusciante appeared in the documentary , " The Heart is a Drum Machine . " His full @-@ length , forty @-@ five @-@ minute interview is available in the special features of the DVD release .
On December 7 , 2011 , the Red Hot Chili Peppers were named 2012 inductees for the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame . In an interview that same day , Anthony Kiedis talked about Frusciante and if he would attend the ceremony . Kiedis stated , " It would be a guess on my behalf on whether or not he ’ ll come . I can ’ t imagine that he would , but it ’ s a ' you never know ' kind of thing . I haven ’ t talked to him in quite a while . I don ’ t know where he ’ s at these days . He ’ ll obviously be more than welcome , and embraced if he does . If he doesn ’ t , that ’ s cool too . " Flea also spoke about Frusciante by saying " He left us so many great gifts . He ’ s a phenomenal musician and songwriter who gave so much to our band . All the feelings I have for him not being in the band any more ... He really took us to a higher level . " Frusciante eventually declined to be present for the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April .
= = = = Switch to electronica = = = =
After his departure from the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Frusciante became more serious about his longtime dream to make electronic music . As he explained on his blog , " I started to learn how to program all the instruments we associate with Acid House music and some other hardware . [ ... ] Then I started recording , playing 10 or so synced machines through a small mixer into a CD burner . This was all experimental Acid House , my skills at making rock music playing no part in it whatsoever . I had lost interest in traditional songwriting and I was excited about finding new methods for creating music . " During that time Frusciante began an electronic trio with Aaron Funk and Chris McDonald under the name Speed Dealer Moms . Their first EP was released in December 2010 on Planet Mu Records .
In an interview with Blare Magazine Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez , when asked about possible future collaborations with John , stated : " Maybe in the future , but John ’ s in a different place right now . He ’ s in a place where he couldn ’ t care less about putting things out or about something being a product . He ’ s living by different standards right now with a different philosophy , so he doesn ’ t want to be a part of anything that he knows is going to end up being a product . A Mars Volta record definitely ends up being a product " .
Frusciante released a new EP on July 17 , 2012 , entitled Letur @-@ Lefr . As with his previous solo releases , it was released through Record Collection Music . Recorded in 2010 , Letur @-@ Lefr marked a clear departure from guitar @-@ driven sound of Frusciante 's previous albums and combined elements of abstract electronica , pop and hip hop . He followed the EP with his tenth full @-@ length studio album PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone on September 25 , 2012 . Prior to that , on the 16th of August , he also released a free download of the non @-@ album song " Walls and Doors " .
Frusciante 's new musical approach met a mixed response from fans and critics . AllMusic 's Fred Thomas in his review of PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone stated : " The ever @-@ winding path of John Frusciante 's solo career is a confusing one to say the least . [ ... ] The thing is , there 's no doubt that Frusciante is sincere in his expression with this incredibly warped music . There 's no easy explanation for these sounds , no context for a lot of the choices he makes with the rapid @-@ fire style changes and jarring production choices that come one after another after another on almost every song here . "
Frusciante released an instrumental song named " Wayne " on April 7 , 2013 through his website which was written and dedicated to the memory of his late friend , former Red Hot Chili Peppers ' tour chef Wayne Forman . Outsides , his fifth EP , was released on August 14 , 2013 in Japan , and on August 27 , 2013 worldwide . The same year , he began collaborating with Wu @-@ Tang affiliates Black Knights ( Crisis The Sharpshoota , The Rugged Monk ) . Medieval Chamber , the second album by Black Knights , was released on January 14 , 2014 . All the music featured on the record was produced by Frusciante , with a few tracks featuring his vocals as well . Frusciante also became involved in Kimono Kult , a project including his wife Nicole Turley , Omar Rodriguez @-@ Lopez , Teri Gender Bender ( Le Butcherettes , Bosnian Rainbows ) , string musician Laena Geronimo ( Raw Geronimo ) and guitarist Dante White ( Dante Vs . Zombies , Starlite Desperation ) . Their debut EP , Hiding in the Light was produced by Turley and was released on her record label Neurotic Yell in March 2014 . A track " Todo Menos El Dolor " was released on Soundcloud on January 16 . Having released " Scratch " , a single recorded during the PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone sessions , Frusciante released his eleventh studio album , Enclosure , on April 8 , 2014 . In April 2015 , Frusciante released his first album under the alias of Trickfinger . The album of the same name is Frusciante 's first experimenting with the acid house genre . He previously released an EP , Sect In Sgt under this alias in 2012 .
Acid Test Records announced on February 15 , 2016 that Frusciante would release an EP of electronic music on April 16 , 2016 entitled Foregrow . The EP will comprise four tracks and its release is set to coincide with the 2016 Record Store Day .
= = = = Releases on social music platforms = = = =
In a May 2015 interview , Frusciante said that he was finished with making music for public consumption , that he currently has no audience and in the past few years recorded music with no intention of ever releasing it . Frusciante said " For the last year and a half I made the decision to stop making music for anybody and with no intention of releasing it , which is what I was doing between 2008 and 2012 . I felt that if I took the public into consideration at all , I wasn ’ t going to grow and I wasn ’ t going to learn . Being an electronic musician meant I had to woodshed for a while , so I have a good few years worth of material from that period that ’ s never been released … At this point , I have no audience . I make tracks and I don ’ t finish them or send them to anybody , and consequently I get to live with the music . The music becomes the atmosphere that I ’ m living in . I either make really beautiful music that comes from classical , or I make music where the tempo is moving the whole time , and there ’ s no melodic or rhythmic center . ”
On November 24 , 2015 , Frusciante announced that he was releasing free unreleased songs dating from 2008 @-@ 2013 on his own official Bandcamp and Soundcloud pages . He also debunked the interview about him retiring from music industry , saying that his words were taken out of context . The announcement was made via Frusciante 's rarely updated website in an open letter titled " Hello audience , " where Frusciante provides an in @-@ depth response to the reporter who , according to him , misquoted him . He writes , " I also must clear something up . I normally don ’ t read my press , but I heard about this quote , recently taken out of context by some lame website and made into a headline , in which I said ' I have no audience ' . This has been misinterpreted , and by no fault of the excellent journalist who interviewed me for the fine publication Electronic Beats . [ ... ] Obviously I have a public audience . I am aware of them , and they know who they are . " He continues , " Reduced to a single sentence , it would have been accurate to say that , at this point , I have no particular audience in mind while I am making music . "
= = Musical style = =
Frusciante 's musical style has evolved over the course of his career . Although he received moderate recognition for his early guitar work , it was not until later in his career that music critics and guitarists alike began to fully recognize it : in October 2003 , he was ranked eighteenth in Rolling Stone 's list of the " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " . Frusciante attributes this recent recognition to his shift in focus , stating that he chose an approach based on rhythmic patterns inspired by the complexity of material Jimi Hendrix and Eddie Van Halen produced . On earlier records , however , much of his output was influenced by various underground punk and new wave musicians . In general , his sound is also defined by an affinity for vintage guitars . All the guitars that he owns , records , and tours with were made before 1970 . Frusciante will use the specific guitar that he finds appropriate for a certain song . All of the guitars he owned before quitting the band were destroyed when his house burned down in 1996 . The first guitar he bought after rejoining the Chili Peppers was a 1962 red Fender Jaguar . His most @-@ often used guitar , however , is a 1962 Sunburst Fender Stratocaster that was given to him as a gift from Anthony Kiedis after Frusciante rejoined the Chili Peppers in 1998 . He has played this guitar on every album since rejoining the Chili Peppers , and their ensuing tours . He also owns a 1955 Fender Stratocaster , his only Strat with a maple neck . Frusciante 's most highly appraised instrument is a 1955 Gretsch White Falcon , which he used twice per show during the By the Way tour . He has since stopped using it , saying there was " no room for it " . Virtually all of Frusciante 's acoustic work is played with a 1950s Martin 0 – 15 .
After leaving the Red Hot Chili Peppers , he switched to using a Yamaha SG as his primary guitar for his solo work . Frusciante has also noted his increased use of the Roland MC @-@ 202 for his electronic music , saying that he was at the point " where I thought as much like a 202ist as I did a guitarist ... " The MC @-@ 202 has been his primary melodic instrument in his electronic music .
With the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Frusciante provided backing vocals in a falsetto tenor , a style he started on Blood Sugar Sex Magik . He thoroughly enjoyed his role in the Chili Peppers as backing vocalist , and said that backing vocals are a " real art form " . Despite his commitment to the Chili Peppers , he felt that his work with the band should remain separate from his solo projects . When he returned to the Chili Peppers in 1998 , Kiedis wanted the band to record " Living in Hell " , a song Frusciante had written several years before . Frusciante refused , feeling that the creative freedom he needed for his solo projects would have conflicted with his role in the band .
= = = Technique = = =
Frusciante 's guitar playing employs emphasis on appropriate melody , tone , and structure rather than virtuosity . Although virtuoso influences can be heard throughout his career , he has said that he often minimizes this . He feels that in general , guitar mastery has not evolved much since the 1960s and considers the greatest players of that decade unsurpassed . When he was growing up in the 1980s , many mainstream guitarists focused on speed . Because of this , he thinks that the skills of many defiant new wave and punk guitarists were largely overlooked . Therefore , he accentuates the melodically @-@ driven technique of players such as Matthew Ashman of Bow Wow Wow and Bernard Sumner of Joy Division as much as possible because he thinks that their style has been overlooked and consequently underexplored . Despite this , he considers himself a fan of technique @-@ driven guitarists like Randy Rhoads and Steve Vai , but represses an urge to emulate their style : " People believe that by playing faster and creating new playing techniques you can progress forward , but then they realize that emotionally they don 't progress at all . They transmit nothing to the people listening and they stay at where Hendrix was three decades ago . Something like that happened to Vai in the 80s . " Believing that focusing only on " clean tones " is negative , Frusciante developed an interest in playing with what he calls a " grimy " sound . As a result , he considers it beneficial to " mistreat " his guitar and employ various forms of distortion when soloing . He also tries to break as many " stylistic boundaries " as he can to expand his musical horizons . He thinks that much of the output from today 's guitarists is unoriginal , and that many of his contemporaries " follow the rules with no risk " .
Frusciante has stated that he became serious about creating and engineering his own electronic music in 2007 . As he progressed in enhancing his skills with electronic instruments and techniques , he has stated that he felt comfortable with how R & B and Hip hop music integrated into his work . He has noted that these and other new techniques were all part the influences for his EP , Letur @-@ Lefr . PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone was recorded while Frusciante looked to find new ways to play the guitar with the new forms of music and production that he had been studying . In his blog post , " My Recent History , " he notes that " Aspects of PBX are the realization of combinations of styles of music I saw in my head many years ago , as potentials , but which I had no idea how to execute . "
Frusciante 's approach to album composition has changed . On his early recordings , he welcomed sonic imperfections , noting that " even on [ To Record Only Water for Ten Days ] there are off @-@ pitch vocals and out @-@ of @-@ tune guitars . " However , on later albums such as Shadows Collide With People , he pursued the opposite : " I just wanted everything to be perfect — I didn 't want anything off pitch , or off time , or any unintentional this or that . " Frusciante views songwriting as taking time , and does not force it : " If a song wants to come to me , I 'm always ready to receive it , but I don 't work at it . " Much of his solo material is first written on an acoustic or unamplified electric guitar . He also prefers to record his albums on analog tapes and other relatively primitive equipment . This preference stems from his belief that older equipment can actually speed up the recording process , and that modern computerized recording technology gives only an illusion of efficiency . Frusciante tries to streamline the recording process as much as possible , because he thinks " music comes alive when [ you ] are creating it fast " . He also enjoys the challenge of having to record something in very few takes , and believes that when musicians are unable to handle the pressure of having to record something quickly they often get frustrated or bogged down by perfectionism . With his focus on new styles of music , Frusciante describes having worked with the computer as an instrument , and having found the ability to merge old and new production techniques together . He has noted that there has been a change in how he works on an album . In the past he would work on one song at a time , but with the new " Progressive Synth Pop " that he has been working on , he feels much more comfortable to work within the album as a whole . He currently uses the music tracker Renoise as his main Digital audio workstation along with some drum machines , sequencers , and other hardware , along with his Doepher , Arp , and other modular synthesizers .
= = = Influences = = =
Frusciante 's first major influence was Jimi Hendrix . He then saw The Red Hot Chili Peppers ( at that point , The was part of their name ) in concert in 1985 , after which their then @-@ guitarist Hillel Slovak became his second major influence , with Frusciante coming to idolize Slovak . Although Hendrix and Slovak were arguably Frusciante 's most profound influences , he was also inspired by glam rock artists David Bowie , and T. Rex ; as well as avant @-@ garde acts such as Captain Beefheart , The Residents , The Velvet Underground , Neu ! , Van der Graaf Generator , Frank Zappa , and Kraftwerk .
He credits his inspiration for learning guitar to Greg Ginn , Pat Smear , and Joe Strummer , amongst others . As an adolescent , he began by focusing upon Hendrix , as well as bands like Public Image Ltd . , The Smiths , and XTC . Frusciante 's other major influence was John McGeoch of Magazine and Siouxsie and the Banshees .
During the recording of Blood Sugar Sex Magik , Captain Beefheart and the acoustic , one @-@ man blues of Lead Belly and Robert Johnson , were among the most noteworthy influences . Frusciante cites R & B singer Brandy as a musical inspiration and admires her voice , calling it “ multidimensional ” and “ inspiring . ” In describing her voice and signature sound , he said , “ You can 't hear [ the elaborate harmonies ] with your conscious ; you have to hear her voice with your subconscious . ” He also mentioned that Brandy was the “ main inspiration ” behind the guitar work on Red Hot Chili Peppers ' 2006 album , Stadium Arcadium .
On Californication and By the Way , Frusciante derived the technique of creating tonal texture through chord patterns from post @-@ punk guitarists Vini Reilly of The Durutti Column and John McGeoch , and bands such as The Smiths , Fugazi and The Cure . He originally intended By the Way to be made up of " these punky , rough songs " , drawing inspiration from early punk artists such as the Germs and The Damned . However , this was discouraged by producer Rick Rubin , and he instead built upon Californication 's melodically @-@ driven style . During the recording of Stadium Arcadium , he moved away from his new wave influences and concentrated on emulating flashier guitar players such as Jimi Hendrix and Eddie Van Halen .
With his recent solo work , he has cited electronic music — in which the guitar is often completely absent — as an influence . His electronic music influences include Aphex Twin , Depeche Mode , New Order , The Human League , Ekkehard Ehlers , Peter Rehberg , and Christian Fennesz . His interests are constantly changing , as he believes that without change he will no longer have any interest in playing : " I 'm always drawing inspiration from different kinds of music and playing guitar along with records , and I go into each new album project with a preconceived idea of what styles I want to combine . "
= = Personal life = =
In 2011 , Frusciante married Nicole Turley , drummer and lead vocalist of the experimental band Swahili Blonde . On May 8 , 2015 it was announced that Turley had filed for divorce . On October 3 , 2015 , Turley announced that she was seeking $ 75 @,@ 000 a month as part of their divorce settlement . According to court documents , Turley , who was already being paid $ 20 @,@ 000 a month , needs a higher payment to maintain her quality of living . She claims her finances are down to only $ 30 @,@ 000 . Turley said that Frusciante was worth $ 14 million and she was entitled to more money saying that together the couple owned three homes , a team of personal assistants , and a private music studio . A week later Frusciante responded to Turley 's demands saying that he refuses to pay her any more money and that she is also seeking $ 2 @,@ 600 a month for gifts and expenses for her adult brother . He also said he was done footing the bill for her musical career saying “ I don ’ t know if you can call her recording efforts a hobby or a past @-@ time … but it seems improper to characterize Nicole as a professional musician . ” On October 19 , 2015 , a judge ruled in favor of Turley saying Frusciante had to pay his former wife $ 53 @,@ 000 a month . Frusciante was also forced to pay $ 71 @,@ 000 for Turley 's legal expenses .
= = Discography = =
Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T @-@ Shirt ( 1994 )
Smile from the Streets You Hold ( 1997 )
To Record Only Water for Ten Days ( 2001 )
From the Sounds Inside ( 2001 )
Shadows Collide with People ( 2004 )
The Will to Death ( 2004 )
Inside of Emptiness ( 2004 )
A Sphere in the Heart of Silence ( 2004 )
Curtains ( 2005 )
The Empyrean ( 2009 )
PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone ( 2012 )
Enclosure ( 2014 )
Trickfinger ( 2015 )
Renoise Tracks 2009 @-@ 2011 ( 2015 )
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= Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine =
Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine ( Wadzek 's Struggle with the Steam Turbine ) is a 1918 comic novel by the German author Alfred Döblin . Set in Berlin , it narrates the futile and often delusional struggle of the eponymous industrialist Wadzek against Rommel , his more powerful competitor . In its narrative technique and its refusal to psychologize its characters , as well as in its vivid evocations of Berlin as a modern metropolis , Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine has been read as a precursor to Döblin 's better @-@ known 1929 novel Berlin Alexanderplatz .
= = Plot = =
As the novel opens , Wadzek , owner of a factory that produces steam engines , is locked in a struggle with his more powerful rival Rommel , whose much larger company manufactures turbines . He can be seen as representing a new type of entrepreneur , more technologically advanced and less scrupulous than Wadzek . Losing value , the stock of Wadzek 's company is being bought up by Rommel ; in desperation , Wadzek teams up with Schneemann , an engineer working at one of Rommel 's factories , to thwart his company 's takeover by Rommel . This effort includes the misguided theft of some of Rommel 's business correspondence . Fearing legal retribution for this theft , Wadzek , accompanied by Schneemann , flees with his wife Pauline and daughter Herta to his house in Reinickendorf , where the two men fortify the house in delusional preparation for a siege that never comes . Financially and spiritually broken , Wadzek returns to Berlin and with Schneemann attempts to turn himself in at a police station , where they learn that no warrant has even been issued for their arrest . There follows a temporary reconciliation with his estranged family and the first attempts to begin a new career in education — Wadzek would instruct his students in a new , moralistic and humane approach to technology . However , after walking in on an erotically and exotically charged debauch held in his own parlor ( the aftermath of an African @-@ themed birthday party Pauline held with her two new friends from Reinickendorf ) , Wadzek suffers a further breakdown . The novel ends aboard a ship bound for America , Wadzek eloping with Gaby , an old acquaintance and erstwhile lover of Rommel 's , to begin a new life .
= = Stylistic and thematic aspects = =
The novel , originally conceived by Döblin as a novel in " Kino @-@ Stil " ( " cinematic style " ) , is characterized by rapid shifts of perspective and the increasingly sophisticated use of montage . Döblin , having emphatically rejected the psychological novel in his 1913 essay " To novel writers and their critics , " presents the reader of Wadzek with a depiction of characters from a perspective that , rather than offering psychological motivations for their actions , opts for a " psychiatric method " that records events and processes without commenting on them or attempting to explain them . Condemned by contemporary critics for its overly @-@ detailed and grotesque descriptive language , the novel 's style has since received acknowledgment for its " radical naturalism " . Describing the narrative technique used in Wadzek , the critic Judith Ryan has written ,
At times Wadzek and his co @-@ actors are seen from without , as if by a [ ... ] camera , at times his perceptions are given from within , but regardless of the observational standpoint , we have no access to Wadzek 's psyche . What we know of his emotions and his internal responses to events is solely what we have deduced from his external actions .
Döblin 's refusal to make Wadzek a tragic figure , as well as the novel 's thematization and satire of tragedy , earned the praise of a young Bertolt Brecht , who declared , " Ich liebe das Buch . " Other themes of the novel include monopoly capitalism , modern technology , the bourgeois family , and the modern metropolis . Certain aspects of the plot , such as Schneemann 's dislike of Stettin ( Szczecin ) and Wadzek 's elopement for America , recapitulate elements of Döblin 's own biography .
= = Genesis and publication = =
By his own account , Döblin wrote Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine " in one go " from August to December 1914 , at which time he had to begin work as a military doctor near the western front in Sarreguemines . While he had originally conceived of the work as a three @-@ stage narrative about the progress of modern technology ( represented by the steam engine , the steam turbine , and the oil motor ) , his planned sequel , Der Ölmotor ( The Oil Motor ) , never came to fruition . He conducted extensive research for the novel , spending time in the facilities of AEG and learning about the construction of machines , turbines , and motors . Döblin submitted the draft to rigorous stylistic overhaul during the war years , shortening the novel considerably and radicalizing the syntax . The novel was published in May 1918 by Fischer Verlag and was not reprinted until a critical edition , based on the text of the first edition with minor corrections drawn from the manuscript and typescript , was published by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag in 1987 . The original manuscript and subsequent typescript are preserved in the German Literary Archive in Marbach . As of 2016 , no English translation is available .
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= German cruiser Prinz Eugen =
For the Austrian World War I battleship , see SMS Prinz Eugen
Prinz Eugen ( German pronunciation : [ ˈpʁɪnts ɔʏˈɡeːn ] ) was an Admiral Hipper @-@ class heavy cruiser , the third member of the class of five vessels . She served with Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . The ship was laid down in April 1936 , launched in August 1938 , and entered service after the outbreak of war , in August 1940 . She was named after Prince Eugene of Savoy , an 18th @-@ century Austrian general .
Prinz Eugen saw action during Operation Rheinübung , an attempted breakout into the Atlantic Ocean with the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 . The two ships destroyed the British battlecruiser Hood and severely damaged the battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of Denmark Strait . Prinz Eugen was detached from Bismarck during the operation to raid Allied merchant shipping , but this was cut short due to engine troubles . After putting into occupied France and undergoing repairs , the ship participated in Operation Cerberus , a daring daylight dash through the English Channel back to Germany . In February 1942 , Prinz Eugen was deployed to Norway , although her time stationed there was curtailed when she was torpedoed by the British submarine Trident days after arriving in Norwegian waters . The torpedo severely damaged the ship 's stern , which necessitated repairs in Germany .
Upon returning to active service , the ship spent several months training officer cadets in the Baltic before serving as artillery support for the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front . After the German collapse in May 1945 , she was surrendered to the British Royal Navy before being transferred to the US Navy as a war prize . After examining the ship in the United States , the US Navy assigned the cruiser to the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll . Having survived the atomic blasts , Prinz Eugen was towed to Kwajalein Atoll , where she ultimately capsized and sank in December 1946 . The wreck remains partially visible above the water approximately two miles northwest of Bucholz Army Airfield , on the edge of Enubuj . One of her screw propellers was salvaged and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany .
= = Design = =
Prinz Eugen was 207 @.@ 7 meters ( 681 ft ) long overall , and had a beam of 21 @.@ 7 m ( 71 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 24 ft ) . After launching , her straight bow was replaced with a clipper bow , increasing the length overall to 212 @.@ 5 meters ( 697 ft ) . The new bow kept her foredeck much drier in heavy weather . The ship had a design displacement of 16 @,@ 970 t ( 16 @,@ 700 long tons ; 18 @,@ 710 short tons ) and a full @-@ load displacement of 18 @,@ 750 long tons ( 19 @,@ 050 t ) . Prinz Eugen was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines , which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's top speed was 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , at 135 @,@ 619 shaft horsepower ( 101 @.@ 131 MW ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men .
The ship 's primary armament was eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 60 guns mounted in four twin turrets , placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . The ship also carried a pair of triple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure . For aerial reconnaissance , she was equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Prinz Eugen 's armored belt was 70 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick and her main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Prinz Eugen was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel . Her keel was laid on 23 April 1936 , under construction number 564 and cover name Kreuzer J. She was originally to be named after Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , the Austrian victor of the Battle of Lissa , though considerations over the possible insult to Italy , defeated by Tegetthoff at Lissa , led the Kriegsmarine to adopt Prinz Eugen as the ship 's namesake . She was launched on 22 August 1938 , in a ceremony attended by the Governor ( Reichsstatthalter ) of the Ostmark , Arthur Seyss @-@ Inquart , who made the christening speech . Also present at the launch were Adolf Hitler , the Regent of Hungary , Admiral Miklós Horthy ( who had commanded the battleship SMS Prinz Eugen from 24 November 1917 to 1 March 1918 ) , and his wife Magdolna Purgly , who performed the christening . As built , the ship had a straight stem , though after her launch this was replaced with a clipper bow . A raked funnel cap was also installed .
Commissioning was delayed slightly due to light damage sustained during a Royal Air Force attack on Kiel on the night of 1 July 1940 . Prinz Eugen suffered two relatively light hits in the attack , but she was not seriously damaged and was commissioned into service the following month on 1 August . The cruiser spent the remainder of 1940 conducting sea trials in the Baltic Sea . In early 1941 , the ship 's artillery crews conducted gunnery training . A short period in dry dock for final modifications and improvements followed . In April , the ship joined the newly commissioned battleship Bismarck for maneuvers in the Baltic . The two ships had been selected for Operation Rheinübung , a breakout into the Atlantic to raid Allied commerce .
On 23 April , while passing through the Fehmarn Belt en route to Kiel , Prinz Eugen detonated a magnetic mine dropped by British aircraft . The mine damaged the fuel tank , propeller shaft couplings , and fire control equipment . The planned sortie with Bismarck was delayed while repairs were carried out . Admirals Erich Raeder and Günther Lütjens discussed the possibility of delaying the operation further , in the hopes that repairs to the battleship Scharnhorst would be completed or Bismarck 's sistership Tirpitz would complete trials in time for the ships to join Prinz Eugen and Bismarck . Raeder and Lütjens decided that it would be most beneficial to resume surface actions in the Atlantic as soon as possible , however , and that the two ships should sortie without reinforcement .
= = = Operation Rheinübung = = =
By 11 May 1941 , repairs to Prinz Eugen had been completed . Under the command of Kapitän zur See ( KzS — Captain at Sea ) Helmuth Brinkmann , the ship steamed to Gotenhafen , where the crew readied her for her Atlantic sortie . On 18 May , Prinz Eugen rendezvoused with Bismarck off Cape Arkona . The two ships were escorted by three destroyers — Hans Lody , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , and Z23 — and a flotilla of minesweepers . The Luftwaffe provided air cover during the voyage out of German waters . At around 13 : 00 on 20 May , the German flotilla encountered the Swedish cruiser HSwMS Gotland ; the cruiser shadowed the Germans for two hours in the Kattegat . Gotland transmitted a report to naval headquarters , stating : " Two large ships , three destroyers , five escort vessels , and 10 – 12 aircraft passed Marstrand , course 205 ° / 20 ' . " The Oberkommando der Marine ( OKM — Naval High Command ) was not concerned about the security risk posed by Gotland , though Lütjens believed operational security had been lost . The report eventually made its way to Captain Henry Denham , the British naval attaché to Sweden , who transmitted the information to the Admiralty .
The code @-@ breakers at Bletchley Park confirmed that an Atlantic raid was imminent , as they had decrypted reports that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had taken on prize crews and requested additional navigational charts from headquarters . A pair of Supermarine Spitfires were ordered to search the Norwegian coast for the German flotilla . On the evening of 20 May , Prinz Eugen and the rest of the flotilla reached the Norwegian coast ; the minesweepers were detached and the two raiders and their destroyer escorts continued north . The following morning , radio @-@ intercept officers on board Prinz Eugen picked up a signal ordering British reconnaissance aircraft to search for two battleships and three destroyers northbound off the Norwegian coast . At 7 : 00 on the 21st , the Germans spotted four unidentified aircraft that quickly departed . Shortly after 12 : 00 , the flotilla reached Bergen and anchored at Grimstadfjord . While there , the ships ' crews painted over the Baltic camouflage with the standard " outboard gray " worn by German warships operating in the Atlantic .
While in Bergen , Prinz Eugen took on 764 t ( 752 long tons ; 842 short tons ) of fuel ; Bismarck inexplicably failed to similarly refuel . At 19 : 30 on 21 May , Prinz Eugen , Bismarck , and the three escorting destroyers left port . By midnight , the force was in the open sea and headed toward the Arctic Ocean . At this time , Admiral Raeder finally informed Hitler of the operation , who reluctantly allowed it to continue as planned . The three escorting destroyers were detached at 04 : 14 on 22 May , while the force steamed off Trondheim . At around 12 : 00 , Lütjens ordered his two ships to turn toward the Denmark Strait to attempt the breakout into the open waters of the Atlantic .
By 04 : 00 on 23 May , Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen and Bismarck to increase speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) to make the dash through the Denmark Strait . Upon entering the Strait , both ships activated their FuMo radar detection equipment sets . Bismarck led Prinz Eugen by about 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) ; mist reduced visibility to 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 to 13 @,@ 100 ft ) . The Germans encountered some ice at around 10 : 00 , which necessitated a reduction in speed to 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . Two hours later , the pair had reached a point north of Iceland . The ships were forced to zigzag to avoid ice floes . At 19 : 22 , hydrophone and radar operators aboard the German warships detected the cruiser HMS Suffolk at a range of approximately 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) . Prinz Eugen 's radio @-@ intercept team decrypted the radio signals being sent by Suffolk and learned that their location had indeed been reported .
Admiral Lütjens gave permission for Prinz Eugen to engage Suffolk , though the captain of the German cruiser could not clearly make out his target and so held fire . Suffolk quickly retreated to a safe distance and shadowed the German ships . At 20 : 30 , the heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk joined Suffolk , but approached the German raiders too closely . Lütjens ordered his ships to engage the British cruiser ; Bismarck fired five salvoes , three of which straddled Norfolk and rained shell splinters on her decks . The cruiser laid a smoke screen and fled into a fog bank , ending the brief engagement . The concussion from the 38 cm guns disabled Bismarck 's FuMo 23 radar set ; this prompted Lütjens to order Prinz Eugen to take station ahead so she could use her functioning radar to scout for the formation .
The British cruisers tracked Prinz Eugen and Bismarck through the night , continually relaying the location and bearing of the German ships . The harsh weather broke on the morning of 24 May , revealing a clear sky . At 05 : 07 that morning , hydrophone operators aboard Prinz Eugen detected a pair of unidentified vessels approaching the German formation at a range of 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) , reporting " Noise of two fast @-@ moving turbine ships at 280 ° relative bearing ! " . At 05 : 45 , lookouts on the German ships spotted smoke on the horizon ; these turned out to be from Hood and Prince of Wales , under the command of Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland . Lütjens ordered his ships ' crews to battle stations . By 05 : 52 , the range had fallen to 26 @,@ 000 m ( 85 @,@ 000 ft ) and Hood opened fire , followed by Prince of Wales a minute later . Hood engaged Prinz Eugen , which the British thought to be Bismarck , while Prince of Wales fired on Bismarck .
The British ships approached the Germans head on , which permitted them to use only their forward guns , while Bismarck and Prinz Eugen could fire full broadsides . Several minutes after opening fire , Holland ordered a 20 ° turn to port , which would allow his ships to engage with their rear gun turrets . Both German ships concentrated their fire on Hood . About a minute after opening fire , Prinz Eugen scored a hit with a high @-@ explosive 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) shell , detonating Unrotated Projectile ammunition and starting a large fire , which was quickly extinguished . Holland then ordered a second 20 ° turn to port , to bring his ships on a parallel course with Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . By this time , Bismarck had found the range to Hood , so Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to shift fire and target Prince of Wales to keep both of his opponents under fire . Within a few minutes , Prinz Eugen scored a pair of hits on the battleship and reported that a small fire had been started .
Lütjens then ordered Prinz Eugen to drop behind Bismarck , so she could continue to monitor the location of Norfolk and Suffolk , which were still some 10 to 12 nmi ( 19 to 22 km ; 12 to 14 mi ) to the east . At 06 : 00 , Hood was completing her second turn to port when Bismarck 's fifth salvo hit . Two of the shells landed short , striking the water close to the ship , but at least one of the 38 cm armour @-@ piercing shells struck Hood and penetrated her thin deck armor . The shell reached Hood 's rear ammunition magazine and detonated 112 t ( 110 long tons ; 123 short tons ) of cordite propellant . The massive explosion broke the back of the ship between the main mast and the rear funnel ; the forward section continued to move forward briefly before the in @-@ rushing water caused the bow to rise into the air at a steep angle . The stern similarly rose upward as water rushed into the ripped @-@ open compartments . After only eight minutes of firing , Hood had disappeared , taking all but three of her crew of 1 @,@ 419 men with her .
After a few more minutes , during which Prince of Wales scored three hits on Bismarck , the damaged British battleship withdrew . The Germans ceased fire as the range widened , though Captain Ernst Lindemann , Bismarck 's commander , strongly advocated chasing Prince of Wales and destroying her . Lütjens firmly rejected the request , and instead ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to head for the open waters of the North Atlantic . After the end of the engagement , Lütjens reported that a " Battlecruiser , probably Hood , sunk . Another battleship , King George V or Renown , turned away damaged . Two heavy cruisers maintain contact . " At 08 : 01 , he transmitted a damage report and his intentions to OKM , which were to detach Prinz Eugen for commerce raiding and to make for St. Nazaire for repairs . Shortly after 10 : 00 , Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to fall behind Bismarck to discern the severity of the oil leakage from the bow hit . After confirming " broad streams of oil on both sides of [ Bismarck 's ] wake " , Prinz Eugen returned to the forward position .
With the weather worsening , Lütjens attempted to detach Prinz Eugen at 16 : 40 . The squall was not heavy enough to cover her withdrawal from Wake @-@ Walker 's cruisers , which continued to maintain radar contact . Prinz Eugen was therefore recalled temporarily . The cruiser was successfully detached at 18 : 14 . Bismarck turned around to face the Wake @-@ Walker 's formation , forcing Suffolk to turn away at high speed . Prince of Wales fired twelve salvos at Bismarck , which responded with nine salvos , none of which hit . The action diverted British attention and permitted Prinz Eugen to slip away .
On 26 May , Prinz Eugen rendezvoused with the supply ship Spichern to refill her nearly empty fuel tanks . She had by then only some 160 tons fuel left , enough for a day . Afterwards the ship continued further south on a mission against shipping lines . However , before any merchant ship was found , defects in her engines showed and on 27 May she was ordered to give up her mission and make for a port in occupied France . On 28 May Prinz Eugen refuelled from the tanker Esso Hamburg . The same day more engine problems showed up , including trouble with the port engine turbine , the cooling of the middle engine and problems with the starboard screw , reducing her speed to maximum 28 knots . The screw problems could only be checked and repaired in a dock and thus Brest , with its large docks and repair facilities , was chosen as destination . Despite the many British warships and several convoys in the area , at least 104 units were identified on the 29th by the ship 's radio crew , Prinz Eugen reached the Bay of Biscay undiscovered , and on 1 June the ship was joined by German destroyers and aircraft off the coast of France south of Brest ; and escorted to Brest , which she reached late on 1 June where she immediately entered dock .
= = = Operation Cerberus and Norwegian operations = = =
Brest is not far from bases in southern England and during their stay in Brest Prinz Eugen and the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were repeatedly attacked by Allied bombers . The Royal Air Force jokingly referred to the three ships as the Brest Bomb Target Flotilla , and between 1 August and 31 December 1941 it dropped some 1200 tons of bombs on the port . On the night of 1 July 1941 , Prinz Eugen was struck by an armour @-@ piercing bomb that destroyed the control center deep down under the bridge . The attack killed 60 men and wounded more than 40 others . Among those killed was First Watch Officer , Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Otto Stooß . The loss of the control center also made the main guns useless and repairs lasted until the end of 1941 .
The continuous air attacks led the German command to decide Prinz Eugen , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau would have to move to safer bases as soon as they were repaired and ready . Meanwhile , the Bismarck operation had demonstrated the risks of operating in the Atlantic without air cover . In addition , Hitler saw the Norwegian theater as the " zone of destiny " , so he ordered the three ships ' return to Germany in early 1942 so they could be deployed there . The intention was use the ships to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union , as well as to strengthen the defenses of Norway . Hitler insisted they would make the voyage via the English Channel , despite the Raeder 's protests that it was too risky . Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax was given command of the operation . In early February , minesweepers swept a route through the Channel , though the British failed to detect the activity .
At 23 : 00 on 11 February , Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Prinz Eugen left Brest . They entered the Channel an hour later ; the three ships sped at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , hugging the French coast along the voyage . By 06 : 30 , they had passed Cherbourg , at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats . The torpedo boats were led by Kapitän zur See Erich Bey , aboard the destroyer Z29 . General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces ( Operation Donnerkeil ) during Cerberus . The fighters flew at masthead @-@ height to avoid detection by the British radar network . Liaison officers were present on all three ships . German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff . By 13 : 00 , the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover but , half an hour later , a flight of six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers , with Spitfire escort , attacked the Germans . The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield , and all six Swordfish were destroyed .
Off Dover , Prinz Eugen came under fire from British coastal artillery batteries , though they scored no hits . Several Motor Torpedo Boats then attacked the ship , but Prinz Eugen 's destroyer escorts drove the vessels off before they could launch their torpedoes . At 16 : 43 , Prinz Eugen encountered five British destroyers : Campbell , Vivacious , Mackay , Whitshed , and Worcester . She fired her main battery at them and scored several hits on Worcester , but she was forced to maneuver erratically to avoid their torpedoes . Nevertheless , Prinz Eugen arrived in Brunsbüttel on the morning of 13 February , completely undamaged but suffering the only casualty in all three big ships , killed by aircraft gunfire .
On 21 February 1942 , Prinz Eugen , the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer , and the destroyers Richard Beitzen , Paul Jakobi , Z25 , Hermann Schoemann , and Friedrich Ihn steamed to Norway . After stopping briefly in Grimstadfjord , the ships proceeded on to Trondheim . Two days later , while patrolling off the Trondheimsfjord , the British submarine Trident torpedoed Prinz Eugen . The torpedo struck the ship in the stern , killing 50 men - mainly passengers , causing serious damage and rendering the ship unmaneuverable . However , on her own power she managed to reach Trondheim and from there to was towed to Lofjord , where , over the next few months , emergency repairs were effected . Her entire stern was cut away and plated over and two jury @-@ rigged rudders , operated manually via capstans , were installed .
On 16 May , Prinz Eugen made the return voyage to Germany under her own power . While en route to Kiel , the ship was attacked by a British force of 19 Bristol Blenheim bombers and 27 Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers commanded by Wing Commander Mervyn Williams , though the aircraft failed to hit the ship . Prinz Eugen was out of service for repairs until October ; she conducted sea trials beginning on 27 October . Hans @-@ Erich Voss , who later became Hitler 's Naval Liaison Officer , was given command of the ship when she returned to service . In reference to her originally planned name , the ship 's bell from the Austrian battleship Tegetthoff was presented on 22 November by the Italian Contrammiraglio ( Rear Admiral ) de Angeles . Over the course of November and December , the ship was occupied with lengthy trials in the Baltic . In early January 1943 , the Kriegsmarine ordered the ship to return to Norway to reinforce the warships stationed there . Twice in January Prinz Eugen attempted to steam to Norway with Scharnhorst , but both attempts were broken off after British surveillance aircraft spotted the two ships . After it became apparent that it would be impossible to move the ship to Norway , Prinz Eugen was assigned to the Fleet Training Squadron . For nine months , she cruised the Baltic training cadets .
= = = Service in the Baltic = = =
As the Soviet Army pushed the Wehrmacht back on the Eastern Front , it became necessary to reactivate Prinz Eugen as a gunnery support vessel ; on 1 October 1943 , the ship was reassigned to combat duty . In June 1944 , Prinz Eugen , the heavy cruiser Lützow , and the 6th Destroyer Flotilla formed the Second Task Force , later renamed Task Force Thiele after its commander , Vizeadmiral August Thiele . Prinz Eugen was at this time under the command of KzS Hans @-@ Jürgen Reinicke ; throughout June she steamed in the eastern Baltic , northwest of the island of Utö as a show of force during the German withdrawal from Finland . On 19 – 20 August , the ship steamed into the Gulf of Riga and bombarded Tukums . Four destroyers and two torpedo boats supported the action , along with Prinz Eugen 's Ar 196 floatplanes ; the cruiser fired a total of 265 shells from her main battery . Prinz Eugen 's bombardment was instrumental in the successful repulse of the Soviet attack .
In early September , Prinz Eugen supported a failed attempt to seize the fortress island of Hogland . The ship then returned to Gotenhafen , before escorting a convoy of ships evacuating German soldiers from Finland . The convoy , consisting of six freighters , sailed on 15 September from the Gulf of Bothnia , with the entire Second Task Force escorting it . Swedish aircraft and destroyers shadowed the convoy , but did not intervene . The following month , Prinz Eugen returned to gunfire support duties . On 11 and 12 October , she fired in support of German troops in Memel . Over the first two days , the ship fired some 700 rounds of ammunition from her main battery . She returned on the 14th and 15th , after having restocked her main battery ammunition , to fire another 370 rounds .
While on the return voyage to Gotenhafen on 15 October , Prinz Eugen inadvertently rammed the light cruiser Leipzig amidships north of Hela . The cause of the collision was heavy fog . The light cruiser was nearly cut in half , and the two ships remained wedged together for fourteen hours . Prinz Eugen was taken to Gotenhafen , where repairs were effected with a month . Sea trials commenced on 14 November . On 20 – 21 November , the ship supported German troops on the Sworbe Peninsula by firing around 500 rounds of main battery ammunition . Four torpedo boats — T13 , T16 , T19 , and T21 — joined the operation . Prinz Eugen then returned to Gotenhafen to resupply and have her worn @-@ out gun barrels re @-@ bored .
The cruiser was ready for action by mid @-@ January 1945 , when she was sent to bombard Soviet forces in Samland . The ship fired 871 rounds of ammunition at the Soviets advancing on the German bridgehead at Cranz held by the XXVIII Corps , which was protecting Königsberg . She was supported in this operation by the destroyer Z25 and torpedo boat T33 . At that point , Prinz Eugen had expended her main battery ammunition , and critical munition shortages forced the ship to remain in port until 10 March , when she bombarded Soviet forces around Gotenhafen , Danzig , and Hela . During these operations , she fired a total of 2 @,@ 025 shells from her 20 @.@ 3 cm guns and another 2 @,@ 446 rounds from her 10 @.@ 5 cm guns . The old battleship Schlesien also provided gunfire support , as did Lützow after 25 March . The ships were commanded by Vizeadmiral Bernhard Rogge .
The following month , on 8 April , Prinz Eugen and Lützow steamed to Swinemünde . On 13 April , 34 Lancaster bombers attacked the two ships while in port . Thick cloud cover forced the British to abort the mission and return two days later . On the second attack , they succeeded in sinking Lützow with a single Tallboy bomb hit . Prinz Eugen then departed Swinemünde for Copenhagen , arriving on 20 April . Once there , she was decommissioned on 7 May and turned over to Royal Navy control the following day . For his leadership of Prinz Eugen in the final year of the war , Reinicke was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 21 April 1945 . Prinz Eugen was mentioned twice in Wehrmachtbericht during her operational career , the first time on 13 February 1942 and the second time on 18 May 1942 .
= = = Service with the US Navy = = =
On 27 May 1945 , Prinz Eugen and the light cruiser Nürnberg — the only major German naval vessels to survive the war — were escorted by the British cruisers Dido and Devonshire to Wilhelmshaven . On 13 December , Prinz Eugen was awarded as a war prize to the United States , which sent the ship to Wesermünde . The United States did not particularly want the cruiser , but it did want to prevent the Soviet Union from acquiring it . Her US commander , Captain Arthur H. Graubart , recounted later how the British , Soviet and US representatives in the Control Commission all claimed the ship and how in the end the various large prizes were divided in three lots , Prinz Eugen being one of them . The three lots were then drawn lottery style from his hat with the British and Soviet representatives drawing the lots for other ships and Graubart being left with the lot for Prinz Eugen . The cruiser was commissioned into the US Navy as the unclassified miscellaneous vessel USS Prinz Eugen with the hull number IX @-@ 300 . A composite American @-@ German crew consisting of 574 German officers and sailors , supervised by eight American officers and eighty @-@ five enlisted men under the command of Graubart , then took the ship to Boston , departing on 13 January 1946 and arriving on 22 January .
After arriving in Boston , the ship was extensively examined by the US Navy . Her very large GHG passive sonar array was removed and installed on the submarine USS Flying Fish for testing . American interest in magnetic amplifier technology increased again after findings in investigations of the fire control system of Prinz Eugen . The guns from turret Anton were removed while in Philadelphia in February . On 1 May the German crewmen left the ship and returned to Germany . Thereafter , the American crew had significant difficulties in keeping the ship 's propulsion system operational — eleven of her twelve boilers failed after the Germans departed . The ship was then allocated to the fleet of target ships for Operation Crossroads in Bikini Atoll . Operation Crossroads was a major test of the effects of nuclear weapons on warships of various types . The trouble with Prinz Eugen 's propulsion system may have influenced the decision to dispose of her in the nuclear tests .
She was towed to the Pacific via Philadelphia and the Panama Canal , departing on 3 March . The ship survived two atomic bomb blasts : Test Able , an air burst on 1 July 1946 and Test Baker , a submerged detonation on 25 July . Prinz Eugen was moored about 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) from the epicenter of both blasts and was only lightly damaged by them ; the Able blast only bent her foremast and broke the top of her main mast . She suffered no significant structural damage from the explosions but was thoroughly contaminated with radioactive fallout . The irradiated ship was towed to the Kwajalein Atoll in the central Pacific , where a small leak went unrepaired due to the radiation danger . On 29 August 1946 , the US Navy decommissioned Prinz Eugen .
By late December 1946 , the ship was in very bad condition ; on 21 December , she began to list severely . A salvage team could not be brought to Kwajalein in time , so the US Navy attempted to beach the ship to prevent her from sinking , but on 22 December , Prinz Eugen capsized and sank . Her main battery gun turrets fell out of their barbettes when the ship rolled over . The ship 's stern , including her propeller assemblies , remain visible above the surface of the water . The US government denied salvage rights on the grounds that it did not want the irradiated steel entering the market . In August 1979 , one of the ship 's screw propellers was retrieved and placed in the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany . The ship 's bell is currently held at the National Museum of the United States Navy , while the bell from Tegetthoff is held in Graz , Austria .
= = = Casualties = = =
During her operational career with the Kriegsmarine , Prinz Eugen lost 115 crew members ; 79 men were killed in action , 33 were killed in accidents and three died of other causes . Of these 115 crew members , four were officers , seven were cadets or ensigns , two were petty officers , 22 were junior petty officers , 78 were sailors and two were civilians .
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= Millennium Force =
Millennium Force is a steel roller coaster built by Intamin at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky , Ohio , United States . It was the fourteenth roller coaster to be built at the park since the Blue Streak opened in 1964 . Upon completion in 2000 , Millennium broke six world records and was the world 's first Giga Coaster , a roller coaster that exceeds 300 feet ( 91 m ) in height . It was briefly the tallest and fastest in the world until Steel Dragon 2000 opened later the same year . The ride is also the third @-@ longest roller coaster in North America after The Beast at Kings Island and Fury 325 at Carowinds . It was the first roller coaster to use a cable lift system rather than a traditional chain lift . The coaster has a 310 ft ( 94 m ) , 45 @-@ degree lift hill with a 300 ft ( 91 m ) drop and features two tunnels , three overbanked turns , and four hills . It has a top speed of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) .
Since its debut , Millennium Force has been voted the number one steel roller coaster ten times in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards . Its lowest ranking in the poll has been two , a position that it has swapped with Superman the Ride ( formerly Bizarro ) numerous times since 2001 . Although Millennium Force has been surpassed in height and speed , it remains one of the tallest and fastest in the world .
= = History = =
The planning , design and development phases of Millennium took place over five years . The first rumors that a new record @-@ breaking roller coaster would be built at Cedar Point , which included speculation about a ten inversion roller coaster from Bolliger & Mabillard and an Arrow Dynamics MegaLooper , began circulating in early 1998 . A roller coaster from D. H. Morgan Manufacturing was also rumored . On July 2 , 1999 , Cedar Fair Entertainment Company filed a trademark for the name Millennium Force , which raised more speculation about what the ride would be like . About a week later , the first track pieces were seen at the park , which confirmed that the ride would be manufactured by Intamin . Cedar Point officials also confirmed that it would not have inversions .
= = = Announcement = = =
Millennium Force was announced on July 22 , 1999 , as the tallest roller coaster in the world , taking the record from Fujiyama at Fuji @-@ Q Highland in Japan . Don Miears , General Manager of Cedar Point said , " Millennium Force introduces the world to a whole new level of roller coaster riding . " The ride cost $ 25 million to design and build . Millennium Force was built in the Frontier Trail section of the park and the Giant Wheel was relocated to make room for it . Cedar Point , Intamin , and Werner Stengel designed the layout of the ride . After the ride was announced , several disputes about whether Millennium Force or Superman : The Escape was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world arose between Cedar Point and Six Flags Magic Mountain . Superman : The Escape is 415 feet ( 126 m ) high and its speed is 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) ; however , it is a shuttle roller coaster , not a complete @-@ circuit roller coaster .
= = = Construction and opening = = =
Construction started in August 1999 when the site was cleared . The removal and relocation of the Giant Wheel began in October on closing day ; the first of 226 supports were installed on October 11 , starting at the brake run . Two hundred twenty @-@ six footers , each about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep were dug ; the largest ones were 56 by 56 feet ( 17 by 17 m ) . The concrete construction was done by Mosser Construction . The lift hill was topped off in early January 2000 .
The ride 's construction took seven months , and 120 construction workers and project managers participated . Testing took two months . The park conducted a " pull @-@ through " by pulling a train along the course to ensure proper clearance . The ride was inspected and tested with water @-@ dummies on the trains . The first media event was held on May 11 , 2000 , and the ride opened to the public on May 13 . When it opened , it broke six world records . It was the first Giga Coaster and was the world 's fastest complete @-@ circuit roller coaster , but was later overtaken by other rides . About a month after Millennium 's debut , Cedar Point introduced a new queuing system called " Ticket to Ride " to reduce the waiting times , which allowed visitors to buy a ticket then return later and wait in a shorter line . In August , Cedar Point engaged John Hancock and Associates and Stalker Radar of Indianapolis to measure the height and speed of Millennium Force . The height was measured at 310 feet 11 inches ( 94 @.@ 77 m ) , and the speed was measured at 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) , slightly faster than what the park had been advertising ( 92 mph ) .
Before the start of the 2004 season , Millennium Force 's seat belts were modified because of an incident on the Bizarro roller coaster at Six Flags New England . The new seat belts were shorter and some riders had difficulties with them . The roller coaster 's layout was repainted over a three @-@ year period of time , before the 2011 , 2012 and 2013 season . In 2012 , the park added a new LED lighting system .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
Millennium Force 's entrance is located behind the Cedar Point & Lake Erie Railroad 's Celebration Plaza station . The queue is situated between the ride 's last overbanked turn and the station . A DJ booth is provided to entertain waiting visitors ; the park 's " Jamming DJ 's " take requests for family friendly songs from people in the queue . It was then replaced by Cedar Point 's FUNtv , which plays music videos of popular songs , the Gatekeeper / Maverick shuffle , park trivia , sports news , park advertisements , weather forecasts , and popular news headlines . About a month after Millennium 's debut , Cedar Point introduced a new queue system known as " Ticket to Ride " ( later FreeWay ) to reduce the wait time . Visitors could buy tickets then return later and wait in a shorter line . This system was discontinued in 2004 after several people complained it was unfair that others were going ahead of them in line . In 2012 , Cedar Point introduced its Fast Lane queue system on the ride ; visitors can buy a wristband which enables them to wait in a shorter line . The system was tested at Kings Island the previous year , where it received positive reviews .
= = = Layout = = =
Millennium Force covers 13 acres ( 5 @.@ 3 ha ) ; it runs parallel to the shoreline of Lake Erie then travels to an island located inside the park , that also houses the former Shoot the Rapids log flume and the Dinosaurs Alive ! attractions . There are two tunnels , three overbanked turns and four hills . One cycle of the ride takes approximately 2 minutes and 20 seconds .
While the train is being loaded with passengers , the catch car for the cable lift descends the lift hill and latches onto the middle car underneath the train . Once the train is cleared , the cable lift immediately pulls the train up the 45 degree lift hill at 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) to a height of 310 feet ( 94 m ) . The train drops 300 feet ( 91 m ) at an 80 degree angle and reaches a top speed of 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) at the bottom of the hill . It then climbs 169 feet ( 52 m ) through a right overbanked turn at 122 degrees from the horizontal axis , then travels through a tunnel as it passes over the Frontier Trail . It then travels over a 182 @-@ foot ( 55 m ) parabolic hill , which provides a moment of zero gravity as it passes over a lagoon and down onto Adventure Island . While on Adventure Island , the train passes by the Dinosaurs Alive ! attraction several times . It completes a 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) , 360 @-@ degree right @-@ handed helix , followed by a left overbanked turn , passing the Shoot the Rapids water ride . It then completes a small right @-@ hand turn before traveling over another hill to leave the island . The train then travels left through a second tunnel where the on @-@ ride photo is taken , followed by a left turn and a small hill , passing by the queue . Finally , the train travels 68 feet ( 21 m ) high through another right overbanked turn over the queue and is stopped by magnetic brakes . Passengers disembark the ride at an unloading station and the train moves to a second station where it is loaded .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Manufacturer = = =
Millennium Force is a Giga Coaster model designed by Werner Stengel and built by Swiss manufacturer Intamin . It was the first of a series of roller coasters , including Top Thrill Dragster — the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world in 2003 — that Intamin built at Cedar Point . As of 2015 , Millennium Force is one of only two Giga Coasters built by Intamin .
= = = Trains = = =
Millennium Force operates with three stainless steel , stadium @-@ style seating trains colored red , blue , and yellow . Each train has nine cars that seat four passengers , allowing a maximum capacity of 36 people per train and 1 @,@ 300 riders an hour . Each seat has an individual , hydraulic , T @-@ shaped lap bar and seat belt which rests across the rider 's lap . Each train weighs 19 tons .
= = = Station = = =
The station has two platforms , one for unloading and one for loading . Two trains are loaded and unloaded while the third train is running the course . There is also a separate line in the station where riders can wait for the first seat . The loading platform has red overhead lights , which are located above the train . Millennium Force 's theme song is played in the station while riders are boarding .
= = = Track = = =
The steel tubular track is 6 @,@ 595 feet ( 2 @,@ 010 m ) long and the lift is approximately 310 feet ( 94 m ) high . The track is blue and the supports are silver , and consists of 229 pieces of track , each weighing between 11 @,@ 000 and 17 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 700 kg ) . Intamin supplied the track with hollow structural sections ( HSS ) , which is used in all the track pieces , supports and towers . Millennium uses three different track shapes . The simplest sections are two @-@ pipe track , made with two running rails connected by 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) square HSS cross @-@ members . The ride also uses three @-@ pipe track , which has two running rails with a backbone of round HSS , which forms a triangle . The third type of track forms a square and is considered the strongest . It has two running rails with two backbone tubes .
= = Lighting = =
When the ride opened in 2000 , Cedar Point chose High End Systems , headquartered in Austin , Texas , to light the ride . Rob Decker , Cedar Point ’ s Corporate Director of Planning & Design , said that they thought they would have to mount multiple floodlights on the tower . However , they were able to install thirty EC @-@ 1 floodlights at the base of the lift hill structure which provided lighting throughout the ride 's structure . Of the six main support towers , three had six EC @-@ 1s , and three towers had four EC @-@ 1s . The three tallest towers had another unit in the middle .
Over the years , the lights were not maintained and grew noticeably dimmer . In 2012 , Cedar Point introduced a new nighttime show , Luminosity — Ignite the Night ! , to " re @-@ energize " the park at the end of the day . New LED lights from Sunrise , Florida @-@ based Chauvet Professional were installed to illuminate the ride . Twenty COLORado Range and ten COLORado Ridge wash lights were installed at the base of the lift hill structure .
= = Records = =
When it opened in May 2000 , Millennium Force broke six world records and used a new magnetic braking system instead of friction brakes found on most roller coasters . This new system enabled a shorter brake run , which slows the train from 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) down to a standstill in six seconds , to be built .
Millennium Force held the records for tallest and fastest complete @-@ circuit roller coaster until August 2000 , when Steel Dragon 2000 opened . Millennium Force held the record for tallest and fastest roller coaster at Cedar Point until 2003 , when Cedar Point debuted Top Thrill Dragster , which at the time was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in the world .
As of 2015 , Millennium Force has the seventh tallest lift , the seventh fastest speed , the fifth @-@ longest track , and the seventh @-@ highest drop among steel roller coasters in the world . It is the second longest steel roller coaster in North America , and the third @-@ longest roller coaster behind The Beast at Kings Island and Fury 325 at Carowinds .
= = = Coaster records = = =
Millennium Force has held records for the following :
First ever complete @-@ circuit roller coaster to top 300 feet ( 91 m )
Tallest complete @-@ circuit roller coaster ( 310 feet ( 94 m ) )
Longest drop on a complete @-@ circuit roller coaster ( 300 feet ( 91 m ) )
Fastest complete @-@ circuit roller coaster ( 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) )
Steepest non @-@ inversion banked turn on a roller coaster ( 122 ° ) ( Half Corkscrew )
First roller coaster to utilize a cable lift system
= = = Park records = = =
Cedar Point has held records for the following ( May 2000 statistic on left and May 2013 statistic on right ) :
Most rides at an amusement park ( 68 / 73 )
Most roller coasters at an amusement park ( 14 / 16 )
Most steel roller coasters at an amusement park ( 12 / 14 )
Most feet of roller coaster track at an amusement park ( 44 @,@ 013 ft / 54 @,@ 358 ft )
= = Operation = =
As both a high altitude and high velocity ride , Millennium Force is affected by unfavorable weather conditions such as rain , lightning or strong winds ; under these conditions the ride is closed , but in light rain it can remain open . There is no minimum age requirement , but passengers must be between 48 and 78 inches ( 120 and 200 cm ) to ride . Persons over a certain weight or waist size are not allowed to ride if the seat and lapbar harness cannot accommodate them . Passengers on Millennium Force may not take loose articles onto the train and are required to wear shirts and footwear . Headphones must be removed before boarding . Passengers are advised not to ride Millennium Force if they have recently had surgery , heart trouble , high blood pressure , neck or back trouble , or any medical condition that may be aggravated by riding , or are pregnant .
= = Influence = =
Millennium Force changed the way roller coasters were built . More rides were built with cable lifts , which require less maintenance , can support more weight , and can run faster than a traditional chain lift . Millennium Force also led to more coasters over 300 feet ( 91 m ) tall being built . Top Thrill Dragster opened three years later , breaking the 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) height record . Dragster was also built by Intamin , which did not build another " Giga Coaster " until 2010 , when it built Intimidator 305 at Kings Dominion . Intimidator 305 is similar to Millennium Force ; it has a cable lift and a similar layout , but has shoulder harnesses instead of the lap bars on Millennium Force . Leviathan opened at Canada 's Wonderland in May 2012 ; it is over 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Leviathan is a Hyper Coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard , and uses a chain lift , not a cable lift .
= = Reception = =
Millennium Force has one of the longest lines in the park , with passengers waiting over four hours when the ride debuted . The ride received positive reactions from visitors , many of whom said it was smooth and very comfortable . Others said , " It 'll scare the daylights out of you " . In its first six years of operation , Millennium Force had over 10 million riders . By August 2012 , Millennium had given more than 21 million rides . Several television shows , including the Travel Channel 's Extreme Terror Rides , Bert the Conqueror , Off Limits , the Discovery Channel 's Extreme Rides , and the National Geographic Channel 's Super Coasters have featured Millennium Force . Out of over 500 roller coasters that Werner Stengel has engineered , he stated that Millennium Force is his favorite . Robb Alvey , a notable roller coaster enthusiast , called it a " milestone in roller coaster history " .
= = = Rankings = = =
Millennium Force has consistently ranked high in coaster polls and has won numerous awards . Millennium Force and Superman the Ride ( formerly Bizarro ) at Six Flags New England have held the top two places in the Golden Ticket Awards since 2001 . In the Travel Channel 's Insane Coaster Wars , Millennium Force was voted the " fan favorite " in the Extreme Heights and The Top 10 categories . In 2013 , Time ranked Millennium Force as the top roller coaster in the United States .
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= Isaac Parker =
Isaac Charles Parker ( October 15 , 1838 – November 17 , 1896 ) was an American politician and jurist . He served as the United States Congressman for Missouri 's 7th congressional district for two terms and presided over the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas for 21 years .
He became known as the " Hanging Judge " of the American Old West due to the large number of convicts that he sentenced to death . In 21 years on the federal bench , Judge Parker tried 13 @,@ 490 cases . In more than 8 @,@ 500 of these cases , the defendant either pleaded guilty or was convicted at trial . Parker sentenced 160 people to death ; 79 of them were executed .
Parker 's health deteriorated in the 1890s and the jurisdiction and power of his court were reduced by Congress . In September 1896 , Congress effectively closed the District Court for the Western District of Arkansas by removing its jurisdiction . Shortly after , on November 17 , 1896 , Parker died of complications due to Bright 's disease . He is buried in Fort Smith .
= = Early life = =
Parker was the youngest son of Joseph Parker and his wife Jane Shannon , and the great @-@ nephew of Ohio Governor Wilson Shannon . He was raised on the family farm near Barnesville , Ohio . He attended Breeze Hill Primary School , followed by the Barnesville Classical Institute , a private school . He taught in a county primary school to pay for his secondary education . At 17 , he began an apprenticeship in law , and passed the Ohio bar exam in 1859 .
Parker moved to St. Joseph , Missouri between 1859 and 1861 and worked at his maternal uncle 's law firm of Shannon and Branch . On December 12 , 1861 , Parker married Mary O 'Toole , with whom he had sons Charles and James . By 1862 , Parker had his own law firm and was working in the municipal and country courts .
= = Political career = =
In April 1861 , Parker ran as a Democrat for the St. Joseph part @-@ time city attorney . He served three one @-@ year terms from April 1861 to 1863 . The American Civil War broke out four days after Parker took office and he enlisted in a pro @-@ Union home guard unit , the 61st Missouri Emergency Regiment . He had reached the rank of corporal by the end of the war .
During the 1860s , Parker continued both his legal and political careers . In 1864 , he formally split from the Democratic Party over conflicting opinions on slavery . He ran as a Republican for county prosecutor of the Ninth Missouri Judicial District . By the fall of 1864 , he was serving as a member of the Electoral College and voted for Abraham Lincoln . In 1868 , Parker won a six @-@ year term as judge of the Twelfth Missouri Circuit .
Parker was nominated for Missouri 's 7th congressional district on September 13 , 1870 , backed by the Radical faction of the Republican party . He then resigned his judgeship and devoted his energy to his campaign . Parker won the election after his opponent withdrew two weeks prior to the vote .
The first session of the Forty @-@ second Congress convened on March 4 , 1871 . During his first term , Parker helped to secure pensions for veterans in his district and campaigned for a new federal building to be built in St. Joseph . He sponsored a failed bill designed to enfranchise women and allow them to hold public office in United States territories . He also sponsored legislation to organize the Indian Territory under a territorial government .
Parker was again elected to Missouri 's 7th district in the forty @-@ third Congress . A local paper wrote of him , " Missouri had no more trusted or influential representative in ... Congress during the past two years " . In his second term , Parker concentrated on Indian policy , including the fair treatment of the tribes residing in the Indian Territory . His speeches in support of the Bureau of Indian Affairs gained national attention .
In 1874 , Parker was the caucus nominee of the Republican Party for a Missouri Senate seat . However , the political tide had shifted in Missouri ; it seemed unlikely that he would be elected to the Senate , so he sought a presidential appointment as judge for the Western District of Arkansas .
= = District judge = =
On May 26 , 1874 , President Ulysses S. Grant nominated Parker as Chief Justice of the Utah Territory to replace James B. McKean . However , following a request from Parker , Grant instead nominated him for the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas , replacing William Story who was facing impeachment proceedings due to allegations of corruption .
Parker arrived in Fort Smith on May 4 , 1875 , initially without his family . His appointment at age 36 made him the youngest federal judge in the West . Parker 's first session as the district judge was on May 10 , 1875 , with court prosecutor W. H. H. Clayton , who remained the United States Attorney for the Western District of Arkansas for fourteen of Parker 's twenty @-@ one years on the court .
In May 1875 , Parker tried 18 men during his first session of court , all of whom were charged with murder ; 15 were convicted in jury trials . Parker sentenced eight of them to a mandatory death penalty . He ordered six of the men to be executed at the same time on September 3 , 1875 . One of those sentenced to death was killed trying to escape , and another 's sentence was commuted to life in prison due to his youth . Parker gave an interview to the St. Louis Republic on September 1 , 1896 , in which he stated that he had no say whether a convict was to be hanged due to compulsory death sentences , and that he favoured " the abolition of capital punishment " .
Parker 's court had final jurisdiction over the Indian Territory from 1875 until 1889 , as there was no court available for appeals . The legal systems and governments of the Five Civilized Tribes and other Native American tribes in the Indian Territory covered their own citizens , and federal law applied to non @-@ Indian United States citizens in the territory .
According to Congress , the federal court for the Western District of Arkansas was to meet in four separate terms each year : in February , May , August , and November . The court had such a large caseload that the four terms ran together . Parker 's court sat six days a week in order to ensure that they tried as many cases as possible each term , and often up to ten hours each day . In 1883 , Congress reduced the jurisdiction of the court , reassigning parts of the Indian Territory to federal courts in Texas and Kansas ; however , the increasing number of settlers moving into the Indian Territories actually increased the court 's workload .
From May 1 , 1889 , changes made by Congress allowed appeals of capital convictions to the United States Supreme Court . Forty @-@ four cases in which Parker imposed the death penalty were appealed to the Supreme Court , which overturned and ordered a re @-@ trial for 30 of them .
While serving as a district judge in Fort Smith , Parker served on the Fort Smith School Board and was the first president of St. John 's Hospital ( known today as Sparks Health System ) .
In his time on the court , Parker presided over a number of high @-@ profile cases , including the trial of Cherokee Bill and the " Oklahoma Boomer " case involving David L. Payne , who illegally settled on lands in the Indian Territory . In 1895 , Parker heard two cases involving Crawford Goldsby ( Cherokee Bill ) . The first involved Goldsby killing a bystander during a general @-@ store robbery in 1894 . He was convicted in a case that lasted from February 26 to June 25 , 1895 , and Parker sentenced him to death . However , while awaiting execution , Goldsby attempted to escape prison and killed a prison guard . He was again brought before Parker , who gave him a second death sentence on December 2 , 1895 . Goldsby was eventually hanged on March 17 , 1896 .
= = = Later years = = =
Keeping up with continued settlement in the West , the Courts Act of 1889 established a federal court system in the Indian Territory ; this decreased the jurisdiction of the Western District Court at Fort Smith .
Parker clashed with the Supreme Court on a number of occasions , with around two @-@ thirds of cases appealed to the Supreme Court being upheld . In 1894 , Parker gained national attention in a dispute with the Supreme Court over the case of Lafayette Hudson . Hudson was convicted of assault with intent to kill and sentenced to four years imprisonment . He appealed to the Supreme Court and was granted bail . Parker refused to release Hudson on the grounds that statute law did not provide the Supreme Court the authority to demand Hudson 's release .
In 1895 , Congress passed a new Courts Act which removed the remaining Indian Territory jurisdiction of the Western District , effective September 1 , 1896 . This effectively closed the federal court for the Western District of Arkansas by removing its jurisdiction .
= = Death and legacy = =
Parker was at home when the August 1896 term began , too sick to preside over the court , as he suffered from Bright 's disease . The jurisdiction of the court came to an end on September 1 , 1896 , over lands in the Indian Territory ; reporters wanted to interview him about his career but had to talk to him at his bedside . Parker died on November 17 , 1896 , of a number of health conditions , including heart degeneration and Bright 's disease . His funeral in Fort Smith had the highest number of attenders up to that point . He is buried at the Fort Smith National Cemetery .
In 21 years on the federal bench , Parker tried 13 @,@ 490 cases ; more than 8 @,@ 500 defendants either pleaded guilty or were convicted at trial . He sentenced 160 people to death and 79 were executed ; the others either died while incarcerated or were acquitted , pardoned , or their sentences were commuted .
Parker has been represented in a number of fictionalised portrayals of his time at Fort Smith . Charles Portis features Parker in his novel True Grit , which has twice been adapted as films of the same name . Parker is a featured character in the sequel to the first film . He was portrayed by James Westerfield in the 1969 movie and by John McIntire in the sequel . He was played by Jake Walker in the 2010 remake of True Grit . Douglas C. Jones features Parker as a supporting character in several novels about the men who " rode for Parker " . Zeke Proctor , one of Parker 's deputy marshals , is featured in Larry McMurtry 's 1997 novel Zeke and Ned .
In 1887 , November 27th My Great great Uncle Leander Dixon ( who lived in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas was in a logging camp in the Oklahoma Indian territory . He had brought his wife along in an attempt to get his sister away from the bandit Smith who was a horse thief and a peddler of illegal whiskey ( selling to indians was against the law in those days ) This is the first I have ever read this newspaper account but I was aware of the story for years . My cousin obtained all the hand written records from ( Hanging Judge Parkers court in Ft Smith Arkansas ( Parker is famous in Hollywood movies , Hang em High , True Grit etc ) I read the accounts and from surviving family and onlookers and they all contradicted the newspaper account ( which has no date or byline ) Also contradicted by my great Aunt Belle who was 4 years old at the time . She recalled her Aunt coming through the door of their Arkansas home with the news , she had bullet holes in her apron and had barely escaped being killed herself . The Federal Marshal Frank Dalton ( a brother of the infamous Dalton gang who were all killed in the famous Coffeyville Kansas bank robbery ) was the Marshal that Judge Parker sent to arrest Smith . The latest update to the story is that his brother Bob Dalton who was killed later as a bandit in Coffeyville was a Deputy at the time and was with him . Onlooker accounts said that the deputies rode up without warning and started firing into the tent killing my Great Great Aunt Mary Leander 's wife and that Leander came out with a pistol firing and killed the deputy . ( But the court depositions made no mention of Leanders firing . He was rounded and died of pneumonia in the jail which is still part of the museum in Ft Smith .. a dirt floor dungeon in those days no ventilation and filthy . I spent my childhood visiting my Grandfather in a nearby town and he was still bitter at Judge Parker and opposed honoring him with the monuments . I was never told why until many years after he died. around ten years ago I was made aware of this story and it gets more embroidered with histories on the net and I have tried to correct and give the families side but I have made little headway in getting corrections made.http : / / www.franksrealm.com / … / pa … / outlaw @-@ williamtoddpower.htm http : / / www.franksrealm.com / … / pa … / outlaw @-@ williamtoddpower.htm http : / / www.americancowboychronicles.com / … / frank @-@ dalton @-@ best … court records now are kept at
= = = Books = = =
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= New Jersey Route 182 =
Route 182 is a 0 @.@ 96 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 54 km ) state highway in Hackettstown , New Jersey , United States . The highway serves as a connector of Route 57 to U.S. Route 46 . The southern end of Route 182 is at a three @-@ way intersection , where Route 57 heads westbound towards Phillipsburg . Also present at this intersection is Warren County Route 517 , which is signed as New Jersey Route 24 , but not maintained by the state . County Route 517 runs concurrent with Route 182 to its north end at U.S. Route 46 , and turns west with US 46 before splitting in downtown Hackettstown .
Route 182 was first an alignment of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 , but was not maintained by the state . In 1927 , there was a renumbering , and it became part of New Jersey Route S @-@ 24 , which was a spur of Route 24 . Route 24 at the time went along the alignment of Route 57 , but when the second renumbering occurred in 1953 , there was yet another change . In 1953 , Route 24 was realigned onto most of Route S24 , except for a short part which was designated Route 57 . The highway went through a final change on October 9 , 1969 . On that day , there was a small renumbering of Hackettstown , with Route 24 being truncated to the three @-@ way intersection , and Route 57 reassigned onto the rest of Route 24 . The former alignment of Route 57 was reassigned as New Jersey Route 182 .
= = Route description = =
Route 182 begins at an intersection with Route 57 and County Route 517 ( CR 517 ) . Immediately at that intersection , CR 517 becomes concurrent with Route 182 , but is maintained by the NJDOT . The fourth road at that intersection is Riveredge – Mobile Home Court , which is a cul @-@ de @-@ sac . The highway progresses northward , passing some small commercial buildings and arriving at the largest free @-@ standing shopping center in Hackettstown , across from Shelley Drive . The next significant intersection is with East Avenue and an adjacent stripmall . East Avenue heads east briefly turning northeast , crosses over the Musconetcong River , passes behind the Union Cemetery , and intersects US 46 .
Route 182 continues northward , passing several small businesses and side streets , as well as the main entrance to the Union Cemetery . Route 182 ends at a three @-@ way intersection with US 46 and CR 604 . CR 604 is also signed as Willow Grove Street , and heads northwest out of the intersection . US Route 46 is also signed as Mill Street , with the eastbound side heading east @-@ southeast from the intersection and the westbound side heading northwest from the intersection . CR 517 which had been concurrent with Route 182 , continues along a concurrency with U.S. Route 46 westbound .
= = History = =
Route 182 was originally defined as a segment of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 . However , it was not maintained by the state , and instead , maintained by the county . The highway remained the same until 1927 , which is when it became a part of Route S24 , which was assigned as a spur off of Route 24 . The parent highway , Route 24 , was assigned as a highway to run from Schooley 's Mountain west to Penwell . There , Route S24 would terminate , but the direct highway was not improved by the county . Instead of the original decision , Route 24 was assigned to end at Hackettstown , where the two highways would intersect at the southern end of Route 182 .
The next change to the highway , was in 1953 , when the New Jersey State Highway Department renumbered the highway system around the state . This time , Route 24 was defined to run along the alignment of the now @-@ decommissioned Route S24 . Now , Route 24 ran along a new alignment , including a part which was supposed to be temporary . The entirety of current Route 57 was also assigned as Route 24 . That year , the state took over the alignment that was maintained by the county . The final change in highway alignment around Hackettstown occurred on October 9 , 1969 . This time Route 24 was truncated off the alignment of current Route 57 , and now ended in Hackettstown , at the three @-@ way intersection . The older alignment of Route 57 did not retain its designation , as plans developed to make a bypass of Hackettstown , continuing the highway from Phillipsburg to U.S. Route 46 just east of Hackettstown . However , plans never finished , and instead , the designation of Route 182 was assigned to the original alignment of Route 57 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Hackettstown , Warren County .
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= ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 Tarzon =
The ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 Tarzon , also known as VB @-@ 13 , was a guided bomb developed by the United States Army Air Forces during the late 1940s . Mating the guidance system of the earlier Razon radio @-@ controlled weapon with a British Tallboy 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) bomb , the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 saw brief operational service in the Korean War before being withdrawn from service in 1951 .
= = Design and development = =
Development of the VB @-@ 13 Tarzon began in February 1945 , with Bell Aircraft being awarded a contract by the United States Army Air Forces for the development of a very large guided bomb . The VB @-@ 13 was a combination of a radio @-@ command guidance system as used on the smaller VB @-@ 3 Razon ( ' Range And azimuth only ' ) guided bomb with the British @-@ developed Tallboy 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) " earthquake " bomb , known to the USAAF as M112 . The ' Tarzon ' name was a portmanteau , combining Tallboy , range and azimuth only , describing the weapon and guidance system ; and was pronounced similarly to that of " Tarzan " , the popular " ape @-@ man " fictional character .
The VB @-@ 13 , redesignated ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 in 1948 , was developed under the project code MX @-@ 674 . It had an annular wing around the midsection of its body , mounted near the weapon 's center of gravity . At the rear of the bomb was an octagonal tail surface containing the Razon control surfaces . Intended to be carryed by the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bomber , the Tarzon bomb used the combination of AN / ARW @-@ 38 [ Joint Army Navy , Piloted Aircraft , Radio , Automatic Flight or Remote Control ] command link transmitter on the B @-@ 29 and an AN / URW @-@ 2 [ Joint Army Navy , Utility , Radio , Automatic Flight or Remote Control ] receiver on the Tarzon to provide manual command guidance of range and azimuth . This was done with visual tracking of the bomb 's course , aided by a flare mounted in the tail of the weapon . Gyroscopes on board the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 aided in stabilisation , while a pneumatic system drove the bomb 's control surfaces . The guidance system was considered effective ; Tarzon proved in testing to have an accuracy of 280 feet ( 85 m ) .
In addition to the 12 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) nominal weight of the Tallboy it was based on , the annular wing and control surfaces boosted the weight of Tarzon by an additional 1 @,@ 100 pounds ( 500 kg ) . As a result , the size and weight of the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 were such that the weapon would not fit inside the bomb bay of a Superfortress ; instead , the weapon was carried in a semi @-@ recessed mounting , half the weapon being exposed to the airstream . This increased drag on the carrying aircraft , in addition to causing turbulent airflow that could affect the handling of the B @-@ 29 .
= = Operational history = =
Although the VB @-@ 13 project had not reached the testing stage by the end of World War II , it avoided being cancelled , proceeding as a low @-@ priority project . Limited testing was conducted during 1948 and 1949 ; additional testing at Alamogordo , New Mexico in 1950 led to the Tarzon being approved for operational service in the Korean War .
Tarzon saw its first combat use in December 1950 , the ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 replacing the Razon in operational service ; the smaller weapon had been determined to be too small for effective use against bridges and other hardened targets . Used solely by the 19th Bomb Group , which had previously conducted the Razon 's combat missions , the first Tarzon drop in combat took place on December 14 , 1950 .
The largest bomb used in combat during the war , Tarzon was used in strikes against North Korean bridges and other hardened targets , the Tarzon 's improved accuracy over conventional ' dumb bombs ' led to the confirmed destruction of at least six high @-@ priority targets during approximately six months of combat use ; these included a hydroelectric plant , proving the effectiveness of guided weapons against conventional targets as well as bridges .
Thirty Tarzon missions were flown between December 1950 and March 1951 ; the weapon 's success led to a contract for the production of 1 @,@ 000 additional ASM @-@ A @-@ 1 missiles . On March 29 , 1951 , however , a Tarzon strike against Sinuiju went awry ; the group commander 's aircraft was destroyed as a result of the premature detonation of the bomb when , the aircraft suffering mechanical difficulties , the weapon was jettisoned in preparation for ditching . The thirtieth , and as it proved final , mission , three weeks following the Sinuiju mission , also suffered an unintentional detonation of a jettisoned , " safed " bomb , although this time without the loss of the aircraft .
An investigation proved that the fault lay in the construction of the bomb 's tail ; breaking up on impact , a ' safed ' bomb would have its arming wire removed , rendering it ' unsafe ' and detonating the weapon . Modifications were made to solve the problem , but the damage had been done ; the safety issues , increased maintenance costs compared to conventional bombs , the fact that the bomb 's guidance system required clear @-@ day use only , rendering the bombers vulnerable to enemy fighters , and required that the weapon be released at a prime altitude for the aircraft to be in danger from enemy flak . These combined with the weapon 's poor reliability – only six of twenty @-@ eight bombs dropped successfully destroyed their targets – to result in the production order being canceled by the USAF ; following this , the Tarzon program as a whole was terminated in August 1951 .
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= Obvious Child =
Obvious Child is a 2014 American romantic comedy film written and directed by Gillian Robespierre in her directorial debut . The film stars Jenny Slate , Jake Lacy , Gaby Hoffmann and David Cross . The story follows Donna ( Slate ) , a stand @-@ up comedian , who has a drunken one @-@ night stand with a man named Max ( Lacy ) after breaking up with her boyfriend . She subsequently finds out she is pregnant and decides to have an abortion .
Obvious Child originated as a 2009 short film which was written by Robespierre , Anna Bean and Karen Maine , and also starred Slate in the main role . By making the film , Robespierre hoped to remove the stigma surrounding abortion and to correct what she perceived as a misrepresentation of unplanned pregnancy in earlier films . She finished the feature @-@ length script in 2012 . The film was financed through various production companies and filmmaking grants and it was shot in New York in 2013 .
The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 17 , 2014 , and was released in theaters on June 6 , 2014 . It grossed US $ 3 @.@ 3 million and was well received by critics . David Edelstein , Mick LaSalle and Dana Stevens praised the film 's portrayal of abortion , while A. O. Scott and Ty Burr highlighted its realism and humor . The film won numerous accolades , including two awards from the National Board of Review and two Independent Spirit Award nominations .
= = Plot = =
After performing a set at her regular comedy club , Donna Stern ( Jenny Slate ) is dumped in the bathroom by her boyfriend , Ryan ( Paul Briganti ) , who confesses he is leaving her for one of her friends . Donna tailspins into a wave of depression and later drunkenly delivers a terrible set in which she insults her ex @-@ boyfriend . Later that night , at the bar , she meets Max ( Jake Lacy ) , who is there with clients but who missed her set . Donna and Max have an instant connection and they end up having sex . In the morning Donna leaves Max 's apartment without saying goodbye .
Several weeks after their one @-@ night stand , Donna discovers that she is pregnant . Donna visits a Planned Parenthood clinic to schedule an abortion and discovers the only dates available are her mother 's birthday and Valentine 's Day ; she picks Valentine 's Day .
Max tracks Donna down at the bookstore where she works and they have the first of several awkward conversations . Donna then runs into Max when he stops by her mother 's apartment to return a book to her mother , Nancy ( Polly Draper ) , who is a former professor of his . They have lunch together where Donna is prepared to tell Max about her pregnancy and impending abortion until he makes a comment about how he wants to be a grandfather someday . He comes to Donna 's comedy show , but she leaves with another man , Sam ( David Cross ) . She has an awkward evening with Sam and quickly leaves . After her terrible night , Donna visits her mother to talk about her upcoming abortion . Her mother comforts her by telling her that she too had an abortion before Donna was conceived .
After pushing Max away , Donna finally invites him to the club to see her perform . When he arrives she performs a set , speaking about how she is pregnant and planning to have an abortion . Max leaves , but on the day of Donna 's abortion , he arrives at her home with flowers and asks if he can accompany her to her procedure . While at the clinic he tells her he supports her , and that when he said that he wanted to be a grandfather , he meant sometime far in the future . The two agree that this is one of the nicest Valentine 's Days they have ever had . After the abortion , Max takes Donna to his home where he makes her tea , and then they watch Gone with the Wind together .
= = Cast = =
Jenny Slate as Donna Stern , a comedian who works at a bookstore
Jake Lacy as Max , the object of Donna 's one @-@ night stand
Gaby Hoffmann as Nellie , Donna 's roommate and best friend
David Cross as Sam , a comedian and friend of Donna 's
Gabe Liedman as Joey , Donna and Nellie 's friend , who is also a comedian
Richard Kind as Jacob Stern , Donna 's father
Polly Draper as Nancy Stern , Donna 's mother
Paul Briganti as Ryan , Donna 's ex @-@ boyfriend
Cindy Cheung as Dr. Bernard , a physician at the Planned Parenthood clinic
Stephen Singer as Gene , owner of the bookstore at which Donna works
= = Production = =
Obvious Child originated as a short film of the same name about an unemployed woman who decides to terminate her pregnancy resulting from a one @-@ night stand , which was written by Gillian Robespierre , Anna Bean and Karen Maine . Robespierre said that the story was spawned from her frustration with what she perceived as a " misrepresentation of women on screen when it came to unplanned pregnancy " , in films such as Juno ( 2007 ) , Knocked Up ( 2007 ) and Waitress ( 2007 ) . Robespierre , Bean and Maine , feeling " disenchanted with the representation of young women 's experience with becoming pregnant " , wanted to make a film that destigmatized an abortion by featuring a woman who terminates a pregnancy without regretting her decision . Jenny Slate was cast as the lead after Robespierre and Bean saw Slate performing stand @-@ up comedy . The short was produced in 2009 and released on the video @-@ sharing website Vimeo , where it was watched by 40 @,@ 000 people .
Inspired by the responses to the short film , Robespierre decided to expand the story into a feature film , and wrote an extended screenplay with Karen Maine and Elisabeth Holm . Although the writers wanted to " stick as close ... as possible " to the original story and characters , they changed the lead character 's profession to stand @-@ up comedy . The film 's stand @-@ up scenes were written by Robespierre , who tried to emulate Jenny Slate 's style of comedy , and were revised by Slate and Gabe Liedman , another comedian , who also volunteered their own material . The script was written over an 18 @-@ month period before Robespierre and Holm began to seek financiers to fund the film 's production ; they started sending the script to potential financiers in November 2012 . It was financed through a variety of sources , including the production companies Animal Kingdom Films , Rooks Nest Entertainment , Sundial Pictures and Votiv Films , as well as grants from Rooftop Films , the Tribeca Film Institute and the San Francisco Film Society .
The film was shot by cinematographer Chris Teague over 18 days in New York during April 2013 . The filmmakers were given permission by Planned Parenthood to film for a day in the organization 's New Rochelle clinic . The film was edited by Casey Brooks in Greenpoint , Brooklyn , and the score was written by Robespierre 's boyfriend .
= = Release = =
Obvious Child premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival on January 17 , 2014 . A Kickstarter campaign to help send the film to Sundance was created by the director on December 13 , 2013 , earning a total of $ 37 @,@ 214 by January 14 , 2014 . Independent film distributor A24 Films bought the film 's North American distribution rights , while international distribution rights were purchased by The Exchange . It was released in the United States on June 6 , 2014 , and earned $ 3 @,@ 123 @,@ 963 at the box office in 18 weeks . It also earned $ 197 @,@ 361 and $ 4 @,@ 093 in the United Kingdom and New Zealand respectively , making a total gross of $ 3 @,@ 325 @,@ 417 .
Posters for the film advertised it as an " abortion comedy " . Gillian Robespierre said that she found the descriptor reductive , but also said that she was pleased that the word " abortion " was being used on the film 's poster and in headlines about the film . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Emily Blake speculated that the film 's lack of recognition in mainstream award circles may have been due to its label as " the abortion comedy " . NBC drew criticism for requesting that the word " abortion " be removed from an online advertisement for the film ; it apologized after a petition circulated by Planned Parenthood accused the network of censorship . The film was marketed in conjunction with the abortion @-@ rights organization NARAL Pro @-@ Choice America .
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on October 7 , 2014 . Extra features include an audio commentary with Robespierre , Elisabeth Holm and Jenny Slate , a featurette about the film 's production , a collection of extended scenes , and the original 2009 Obvious Child short film on which the feature was based .
= = Reception = =
Obvious Child was met with positive reviews from film critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 89 % , based on 145 reviews with an average rating of 7 @.@ 3 / 10 . The consensus from the website states , " Tackling a sensitive subject with maturity , honesty , and wit , Obvious Child serves as a deeply promising debut for writer @-@ director Gillian Robespierre . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 76 out of 100 , based on 35 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Peter Travers described Obvious Child as " uniquely special " in Rolling Stone , while The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday described it as " one of the most startlingly honest romantic comedies to appear onscreen in years " . Ty Burr of The Boston Globe found the characters sympathetic and realistic , and enjoyed the humor . The New York Times ' chief critic A. O. Scott praised the film for striking a balance between humor and sentimentality , writing , " It 's both funny and serious without trying too hard to be either , and by trying above all to be honest . " Peter Debruge described Jenny Slate as " wildly funny " in Variety , while Marc Mohan called her performance " endearing and real " in The Oregonian . The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy was also impressed by Slate 's performance and opined that the supporting cast members were equally impressive .
Numerous critics praised Obvious Child for its portrayal of abortion , including Dana Stevens of Slate , who wrote that the way Donna 's abortion was portrayed was humane and politically neutral but also that the film , " for all its lightness of tone , is radical " . In a review for The Guardian , Xan Brooks described the film as " fresh and funny and really rather brave " for handling a controversial topic that other filmmakers routinely avoid . New York critic David Edelstein called Robespierre " brave enough to be ambivalent " in choosing not to include a blatant political message in the film . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle similarly concluded that " If the movie has a political statement , it 's a subtle one " ; he also praised the film for treating the topic sincerely while still maintaining a humorous tone .
Conversely , Michelle Golberg suggested in a review for The Nation that the film 's popularity with critics was not due to its quality but rather its taboo subject matter : " If the ordinary drama of abortion were more regularly represented in the movies , Obvious Child wouldn 't be much more than an amusing hipster diversion . " Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail expressed a similar sentiment and opined that many of the film 's jokes were crude and lacking in humor . USA Today 's Scott Bowles also found Obvious Child unfunny , describing the characters as " so morbid and whiny that the jokes don 't work , even as irony " . Kyle Smith , a critic for the New York Post , found the plot uninteresting and the cinematography " ugly " , and criticized Slate 's " desperate " performance .
The film was criticized by a variety of conservative and anti @-@ abortion groups and publications , including the Family Research Council , The Heritage Foundation , and the Media Research Center , through its NewsBusters blog and Cybercast News Service . In an article for The Human Life Review , Mary Rose Somarriba dismissed the film as " obvious propaganda " . Katelyn Beaty , meanwhile , who reviewed Obvious Child for Christianity Today , wrote : " While I ultimately disagree with Robespierre 's political aims , at the least she has provided a sometimes funny , often tender portrait of many ( though not all ) women who face an unplanned pregnancy . "
= = Accolades = =
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= Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici =
Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici ( 11 August 1667 – 18 February 1743 ) was the last scion of the House of Medici . A patron of the arts , she bequeathed the Medici 's large art collection , including the contents of the Uffizi , Palazzo Pitti and the Medicean villas , which she inherited upon her brother Gian Gastone 's death in 1737 , and her Palatine treasures to the Tuscan state , on the condition that no part of it could be removed from " the Capital of the grand ducal State .... [ and from ] the succession of His Serene Grand Duke . "
Anna Maria Luisa was the only daughter of Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany , and Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , a niece of Louis XIII of France . On her marriage to Elector Johann Wilhelm II , she became Electress Palatine , and , by patronising musicians , she earned for the contemporary Palatine court the reputation of an important music centre . As Johann Wilhelm had syphilis the union produced no offspring , which , combined with her siblings ' barrenness , meant that the Medici were on the verge of extinction .
In 1713 Cosimo III altered the Tuscan laws of succession to allow the accession of his daughter , and spent his final years canvassing the European powers to agree to recognise this statute . However , in 1735 , as part of a territorial arrangement , the European powers appointed Francis Stephen of Lorraine as heir , and he duly ascended the Tuscan throne in her stead . After the death of Johann Wilhelm , Anna Maria Luisa returned to Florence , where she enjoyed the rank of first lady until the accession of her brother Gian Gastone , who banished her to the Villa La Quiete . When Gian Gastone died in 1737 , Francis Stephen 's envoy offered Anna Maria Luisa the position of nominal regent of Tuscany , but she declined . Her death , in 1743 , brought the royal House of Medici to an end . Her remains were interred in the Medicean necropolis , the Basilica of San Lorenzo , Florence , which she helped complete .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Despite her mother 's efforts to induce a miscarriage by means of riding , Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , the only daughter and second child of Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany , and his consort , Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , was born in Florence on 11 August 1667 . She was named after her maternal aunt Anne Marie Louise d 'Orléans , Duchess of Montpensier .
Her parents ' relationship was quarrelsome ; Marguerite Louise took every chance to humiliate Cosimo . On one documented occasion , she branded him " a poor groom " in the presence of the Papal nuncio . The enmity between them continued until 26 December 1674 ; after all attempts at conciliation failed , a stressed Cosimo consented to his wife 's departure for the Convent of Montmartre , France . The contract created that day revoked her privileges as a petite fille de France ) , and declared that upon her death all her assets were to be inherited by her children . Cosimo granted her a pension of 80 @,@ 000 livres in compensation . She abandoned Tuscany in June 1675 ; Anna Maria Luisa never saw her again . Although Cosimo doted on his daughter , she was raised by her paternal grandmother , Vittoria della Rovere .
= = = Electress Palatine = = =
In 1669 , Anna Maria Luisa was considered as a potential bride to Louis , le Grand Dauphin , the heir @-@ apparent of Louis XIV of France . Cosimo III did not like the idea of a French marriage , and never devoted himself fully to the cause ( she was later rejected ) . Instead , Cosimo offered her to his first choice , Peter II of Portugal . Peter 's ministers , fearing that Princess Anna Maria Luisa would dominate Peter II and fearing she might have inherited Marguerite Louise ’ s manner , declined . In fact , contemporaries thought her traits to be a combination of those of her father and paternal grandmother , Vittoria della Rovere .
Following refusals from Spain , Portugal , France and Savoy , Leopold I , Holy Roman Emperor , suggested Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine . James II of England put forward his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Francesco II d 'Este , Duke of Modena , but the Princess deemed a duke too lowly in terms of protocol for the daughter of a grand duke . The Elector Palatine obtained the style Royal Highness from the Holy Roman Emperor for Cosimo III in February 1691 . ( Cosimo had hitherto been outranked by the Duke of Savoy — much to his anger — who derived royal status from his successful pretendership to the abolished Cypriot throne ) . Consequently , Johann Wilhelm was ultimately chosen . He and Anna Maria Luisa were married by proxy on 29 April 1691 . At the accompanying festivities , a contemporary describes the Electress 's physical attributes : " In her person , she is tall , her complexion was fair , her eyes large and expressive , both those and her hair were black ; her mouth was small , with a fullness of the lips ; her teeth were as white as ivory .... "
She departed for Düsseldorf , her husband ’ s capital , on 6 May 1691 , accompanied by her younger brother , Gian Gastone . Johann Wilhelm surprised her at Innsbruck , where they officially married . The Palatinate Anna Maria Luisa arrived in was ravaged by the ongoing Nine Years ' War , in which Louis XIV assaulted the Palatinate on behalf of his brother , Philippe of France , Duke of Orléans , occupying the city of Philippsburg in the process .
The Electress became pregnant in 1692 ; however , she miscarried . It is thought that soon after arrival she contracted syphilis from the Elector , which explains why Anna Maria Luisa and Johann Wilhelm failed to produce any children . Anna Maria Luisa and Johann Wilhelm , notwithstanding , shared a harmonious marriage . The Electress spent her time enjoying balls , musical performances and other festivities . He commissioned a theatre for her where the comedies of French playwright Molière were performed . Because Anna Maria Luisa patronised many musicians , the contemporary Palatine court enjoyed regard as an international centre of music . She invited Fortunato Chelleri to court and appointed him maestro di cappella ( " music teacher " ) . Agostino Steffani , a polymath , was sponsored by the Electress from his arrival in Düsseldorf , in 1703 , until her return to Tuscany ; the Conservatorio library in Florence houses two editions of his chamber duets .
Anna Maria Luisa arranged a marriage for her younger brother at the instigation of their father : On 2 July 1697 Gian Gastone de ' Medici married Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , heiress of the eponymous duchy , in Düsseldorf . Gian Gastone 's wife repulsed him , and for that reason , they separated in 1708 .
The same year as Gian Gastone 's marriage , the Peace of Ryswick ended the Nine Years ' War : French troops withdrew from the Electoral Palatinate and Johann Wilhelm received the County of Megen . Following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , a document which had hitherto given rights to Calvinists , in 1685 , 2 @,@ 000 French Huguenots emigrated to the Electoral Palatinate . Johann Wilhelm , under criticism for his treatment of the Palatine Protestants from the Elector of Brandenburg introduced a Religionsdeklartion in 1705 , which sanctioned religious freedom .
= = = Tuscan succession = = =
Cosimo III wished to alter the male @-@ only Tuscan line of succession so as to allow the accession of his daughter , Anna Maria Luisa , in the event of a male @-@ line succession failure . But his plan was met with fierce opposition from the European powers . Charles VI , Holy Roman Emperor , Tuscany 's nominal feudal over @-@ lord , subscribed , but only if he should succeed her . Cosimo and herself were at odds with the proposal . Without a concord in sight , the " Tuscan question " became dormant .
Some years later , as the question of the succession became more urgent , Cardinal Francesco Maria de ' Medici , Cosimo III 's brother , was released from his vows and coerced into marrying the incumbent Duke of Guastalla 's elder daughter , Eleanor , in 1709 . The Electress urged him to care for his health and " give us the consolation of a little prince . " However , two years later , he died without issue , taking with him any hope of an heir .
Following the death of his heir apparent , Ferdinando , in 1713 , Cosimo deposited a bill in the Senate , Tuscany 's titular legislature , promulgating that if Cosimo and his new heir apparent , Gian Gastone , were to predecease the Electress , she would ascend the throne . Charles VI was furious ; he replied that the Grand Duchy was an imperial fief and therefore he alone possessed the prerogative to alter the laws of succession . To complicate things further , Elisabeth Farnese , heiress of the Duchy of Parma , the second wife of Philip V of Spain , as a great @-@ granddaughter of Margherita de ' Medici , exercised a claim to Tuscany . In May 1716 , Charles VI , who constantly changed his stance on the issue , told Florence that the Electress 's succession was unquestioned , but added that Austria and Tuscany must soon reach an agreement regarding which royal house was to follow the Medici .
In June 1717 , Cosimo declared his wish that the House of Este should succeed the Electress . Charles VI had previously offered the Grand Duke territorial compensation — in the form of the State of Presidi — if he chose quickly , but reneged . In 1718 , Charles VI repudiated Cosimo 's decision , declaring a union of Tuscany and Modena ( the Este lands ) unacceptable . Hereafter , a stalemate existed between them .
= = = Return to Florence = = =
The Elector Palatine died in June 1716 . His widow , Anna Maria Luisa , returned to Florence in October 1717 . Dowager Grand Princess Violante Beatrice , her brother Ferdinando 's widow , and Anna Maria Luisa did not enjoy an amiable relationship . Upon hearing of Anna Maria Luisa 's intention to return , Violante Beatrice prepared to depart for Munich , her brother 's capital , but Gian Gastone wished her to stay , so she did . To keep the two ladies from quarrelling over precedence , Cosimo III defined Violante Beatrice 's status just before the Electress 's arrival by appointing her Governess of Siena .
On 4 April 1718 England , France and the Dutch Republic ( and later Austria ) selected Don Carlos of Spain , the elder child of Elisabeth Farnese and Philip V of Spain , as the Tuscan heir ( with no mention of Anna Maria Luisa ) . By 1722 , the Electress was not even acknowledged as heiress , and Cosimo was reduced to a spectator at the conferences for Tuscany 's future . In the midst of this , Marguerite Louise , Anna Maria Luisa 's mother , died . Instead of willing her valuables to her children , as prescribed by the 1674 agreement , they went to the Princess of Epinoy , a distant relative .
On 25 October 1723 , six days before his death , Cosimo III distributed a final proclamation commanding that Tuscany shall stay independent ; Anna Maria Luisa shall succeed uninhibited after Gian Gastone ; the Grand Duke reserves the right to choose his successor . Unfortunately for Cosimo , Europe completely ignored it . Gian Gastone , now the Grand Duke , and Anna Maria Luisa were not on good terms . He despised the Electress for engineering his unhappy marriage with Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , while she detested his liberal policies : he repealed all of his father 's anti @-@ Semitic statutes and revelled in upsetting her . Consequently , the Electress was compelled to abandon her apartment in the left wing of the royal palace , the Pitti , for the Villa La Quiete . She refurbished La Quiete 's house and gardens with the assistance of Sebastiano Rapi , the gardener of the Boboli Gardens , and the architects Giovanni Battista Foggini and Paolo Giovanozzi . In the period 1722 – 1725 , the Electress embellished the villa further by commissioning twelve statues of various religious figures .
In spite of their mutual dislike , the Electress and Violante Beatrice attempted to improve Gian Gastone 's poor public image together . Rumours abounded that the Grand Duke had died ; it was a rarity for the public to see him . To dispel the said rumours , the Electress compelled him to make an appearance — his last one — in 1729 , on the feast day of the patron saint of Florence , John the Baptist . The Ruspanti , Gian Gastone 's morally corrupt entourage , hated the Electress ; and she , them . Violante Beatrice tried to withdraw the Grand Duke from their sphere of influence by organising banquets . His conduct at these literally sent those in attendance scrambling for their carriages : he vomited repeatedly into his napkin , belched and told rude jokes . These distractions ceased upon Violante Beatrice 's death in 1731 .
In 1736 , during the War of the Polish Succession , Don Carlos was banished from Tuscany as part of a territorial swap , and Francis III of Lorraine was made heir in his stead . In January 1737 , the Spanish troops , who had occupied Tuscany since 1731 , withdrew ; 6 @,@ 000 Austrian soldiers took their place .
Gian Gastone died from " an accumulation of diseases " on 9 July 1737 , surrounded by prelates and his sister . Anna Maria Luisa was offered a nominal regency by the Prince de Craon , the Grand Duke 's envoy , until Francis III could arrive in Florence , but declined . At Gian Gastone 's demise , all the House of Medici 's allodial possessions , including £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 liquid cash , a vast art collection , robes of state and lands in the former Duchy of Urbino , were conferred on Anna Maria Luisa . In regards to this , her most notable act was the Patto di Famiglia ( " Family Pact " ) , signed on 31 October 1737 . In collaboration with the Holy Roman Emperor and Francis of Lorraine , she willed all the personal property of the Medici 's to the Tuscan state , provided that nothing was ever removed from Florence .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
The " Lorrainers , " as the occupying forces were dubbed , were popularly loathed . The Viceroy , the Prince de Craon , whom the Electress disliked for his " vulgar " court , allowed the Electress to live undisturbed in her own wing of the Pitti , living in virtual seclusion , only on occasion receiving a select @-@ number of guests under a black dais in her silver @-@ clad audience room . She occupied herself financing and overseeing the construction of the Cappella dei Principi — started in 1604 by Ferdinando I de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany — to the tune of 1 @,@ 000 crowns per week , and she donated much of her fortune to charity : £ 4 @,@ 000 per annum . This is equivalent to £ 577 thousand in present @-@ day terms . On 18 February 1743 , Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , Dowager Electress Palatine , died of an " oppression on the breast " . Sir Horace Mann , 1st Baronet , a British resident in Florence , recalled in a letter that " The common people are convinced she went off in a hurricane of wind ; a most violent one began this morning and lasted for about two hours , and now the sun shines as bright as ever ... " The royal line of the House of Medici became extinct with her death . Her will , having been completed just months before , according to Sir Horace Mann , left £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of jewellery to the Grand Duke Francis and her lands in the former Duchy of Urbino to the Marquis Rinuccini , her main executor and a minister under her father , Cosimo III . She was interred in the crypt that she helped to complete in San Lorenzo ; although not entirely finished at the time of her death , her testament stipulated that part of the revenue of her estate should " be used to continue , finish and perfect ... the said famous chapel San Lorenzo " .
Anna Maria Luisa 's single most enduring act was the Family Pact . It ensured that all the Medicean art and treasures collected over nearly three centuries of political ascendancy remained in Florence . Cynthia Miller Lawrence , an American art @-@ historian , argues that Anna Maria Luisa thus provisioned for Tuscany 's future economy through tourism . Sixteen years after her death , the Uffizi Gallery , built by Cosimo the Great , the founder of the Grand Duchy , was made open to public viewing .
In 2012 after concern caused by the 1966 Flood of the Arno River , her bones were exhumed . A scientific examination found no traces of syphilis , which she had long been thought to have died from .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
11 August 1667 – 29 April 1691 : Her Highness Princess Anna Maria Luisa
29 April 1691 – 8 June 1716 : Her Serene Highness The Electress [ Palatine of the Rhine ]
8 June 1716 – 18 February 1743 : Her Serene Highness The Dowager Electress [ Palatine of the Rhine ]
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= Maryland Route 285 =
Maryland Route 285 ( MD 285 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 2 @.@ 43 miles ( 3 @.@ 91 km ) from MD 213 east to the Delaware state line within Chesapeake City . MD 285 roughly parallels the north side of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal in southern Cecil County . The state highway was paved along Biddle Street from Lock Street , then part of U.S. Route 213 ( now MD 213 ) , east to the state line around 1930 . When US 213 was moved to the Chesapeake City Bridge in the late 1940s , MD 285 was extended along Lock Street to reconnect with US 213 .
= = Route description = =
MD 285 begins at an intersection with MD 213 ( Augustine Herman Highway ) just north of the Chesapeake City Bridge . The state highway , which heads east as two @-@ lane Lock Street , curves to the south at the intersection with county @-@ maintained Hemphill Street . At the intersection with MD 284 ( Hemphill Street ) , MD 285 curves to the southwest , following Lock Street into the town of Chesapeake City to its intersection with Biddle Street . MD 285 turns east onto Biddle Street while a stub of Lock Street continues south to the edge of the canal as unsigned MD 537B . The state highway passes through a residential section of the north side of the town , meeting the other end of MD 284 . MD 285 runs through an S @-@ curve before leaving the town limits . The state highway passes through a mix of farmland and scattered residences as it parallels the north side of the canal . At Knights Corner Road , MD 285 curves northeast away from the canal to its eastern terminus at the Delaware state line . The roadway continues east as Chesapeake City Road , which heads to an intersection with Delaware Route 71 ( DE 71 ) .
= = History = =
MD 285 was constructed in three sections . The portion of Lock Street between county @-@ maintained Hemphill Street and the northern junction with MD 284 was part of the original Cecilton – Elkton highway passing through Chesapeake City that was designated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . This segment of state road was paved in 1914 . Following the expansion and straightening of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal in the 1920s , the portion of Lock Street from the northern junction with MD 284 to Biddle Street was constructed as the approach to a vertical lift bridge constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , connecting Lock Street on the north side with George Street on the south side of the town in 1926 . This new alignment became part of US 213 when the federal highway was marked through southern Cecil County around 1927 .
Biddle Street was paved from US 213 to the Delaware state line and designated MD 285 around 1930 . The vertical lift bridge used by US 213 to cross the canal was destroyed by the tanker Franz Klasen on July 28 , 1942 . A ferry was established to carry traffic across the canal until the completion of a new bridge . The Chesapeake City Bridge was completed in 1948 along with new approach roads ; US 213 was moved to the new bridge and approach roads and MD 285 was extended north on Lock Street to its present western terminus at US 213 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Cecil County .
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= Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee =
Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee is a platform video game developed by Oddworld Inhabitants and published by GT Interactive . It was released in 1997 for the PlayStation video game console , DOS and Microsoft Windows in North America , Australia and Europe . The game was released under the title Abe a GoGo ( エイブ ・ ア ・ ゴーゴー , Eibu A Gōgō ) in Japan for the PlayStation by publisher SoftBank , with a PC version following in 2001 . The Game Boy version of Abe 's Oddysee , retitled as Oddworld Adventures , was developed by Saffire Corporation and published by GT Interactive in 1998 .
The game centers on the titular Abe , a Mudokon slave at the ' RuptureFarms ' meat processing factory . When he discovers that he and his fellow Mudokons are to be slaughtered , he decides to escape and liberate as many enslaved Mudokons as he can . The player assumes the role of Abe as he attempts a perilous quest to emancipate his downtrodden people .
Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee was widely acclaimed for having innovative gameplay , good graphics , and engaging cut @-@ scenes ; however , its steep learning curve and system of saving only at checkpoints , received criticism . It was the first game in the planned five @-@ part Oddworld series , which also includes its direct sequels , Oddworld : Abe 's Exoddus , Oddworld : Munch 's Oddysee and Oddworld : Stranger 's Wrath . A remake titled Oddworld : New ' n ' Tasty ! was developed by Just Add Water and released through digital distribution in 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Abe 's Oddysee is a two @-@ dimensional platform game in which players take control of the character Abe , to travel across separate screens : solving puzzles , navigating obstacles , and avoiding enemies . Abe will die if attacked by an enemy , touched by an obstacle , dropped from too great a height , or even holding a grenade for too long , respawning at the last checkpoint . As well as jumping to navigate areas and crouching to roll under obstacles , Abe can break into a run to jump over large gaps or escape enemies , or tiptoe to avoid disturbing enemies , adding a limited stealth element to the game . Abe can also use throwable objects such as meat , rocks or grenades to bypass enemies or destroy obstacles , though grenades have a timer and , as explained , will blow up Abe if he holds one for too long .
Abe has the ability to telepathically control Sligs ( a type of non @-@ player character ) , but can only use this in safe areas . Flying orbs in certain areas also prevent Abe 's telepathy by zapping him . Once Abe successfully possesses a Slig , Abe can use them to attack other enemies and activate mechanisms dangerous to himself , and can then destroy them . Abe 's body is immobile and vulnerable whilst possessing someone else , whereas if his host is killed , control will return to Abe 's body .
Along the way , the player will encounter other Mudokons that he can rescue . By holding down the GameSpeak button and pressing various commands , Abe can command them to follow him , stay put , and activate mechanisms , as well as praise or scold them . Sometimes Abe will have to go through certain procedures to persuade a certain Mudokon , such as responding to whistles . Mudokons can be rescued by safely leading them past traps and enemies to bird portals , which can be activated by chanting . If the player rescues at least 50 Mudokons during the course of the game , Abe survives the ending .
Throughout the game , Abe is attacked by Sligs , Scrabs , and Paramites . Sligs will shoot on sight , but cannot see through dark areas ; Scrabs will attack anyone in their territory ; whilst Paramites will attack in packs and become shy alone . Elums are bipedal creatures that Abe can ride and communicate with by GameSpeak , although they will be distracted by dripping honey . Late in the game , Abe gains the ability to transform into a demigod ' Shrykull ' , which can eviscerate all on @-@ screen enemies . Abe can use this ability once after rescuing a certain amount of Mudokons at the same time .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Abe 's Oddysee includes only four named characters , and many anonymous slaves and guards . The protagonist of the game is Abe , a Mudokon slave worker born into captivity and ignorant of his people 's rich history and culture . Abe is often described as a " klutz " ; and his mouth is sewn shut , possibly to prevent his outcry .
During his adventure , Abe is joined by the Elum ( " Mule " spelled backwards ) : a stubborn , loyal assistant . Abe and Elum were originally envisioned as beginning Abe 's Oddysee together , living off the land until thrust into an industrial factory ; but the developers determined that the story was stronger should Abe come from a factory existence to self @-@ sustenance .
A mentor enters the story in Big Face , the shaman of the Mudokon people , who wears a large wooden mask from which his name is derived . He saves Abe from death and sets him to rescue his compatriots and face the trials of the Monsaic Lines , before freeing the eventual dozens of freed slaves .
The primary antagonist of the game is Molluck the Glukkon , the ruthless chief executive officer of the meat @-@ packing factory titled RuptureFarms . Because Molluck 's business empire is failing in decline of the wildlife whose meat he sells , Molluck decides to use his Mudokon slave population in his food products .
= = = Story = = =
Abe 's Oddysee begins with the eponymous protagonist as a prisoner in RuptureFarms , from which he narrates his story . He and many other Mudokons are slaves to Molluck the Glukkon , the owner of RuptureFarms : " the biggest meat @-@ processing plant on Oddworld " . Abe is a contented floor @-@ waxer First Class and currently Employee of the Year .
At the time of the story , the ingredients of the corporation 's three major " Tasty Treats " ( Scrab Cakes , Paramite Pies , and Meech Munchies ) are quickly running out , with the Meeches already extinct . While working late , Abe overhears Molluck 's plan to use the Mudokon slaves as meat products called " Mudokon Pops ! " , which frightens Abe into escaping from the factory .
Outside RuptureFarms and the surrounding Free @-@ Fire Zone , Abe sees a moon with its face in the shape of a Mudokon handprint . Thereupon he falls down a cliff , smashing his head ; and as he lies on the ground , the shaman BigFace orders Abe to rescue his enslaved brethren and " restore the lost land " , having first accomplished the Mudokons ' spiritual trials in the forests of Paramonia and the deserts of Scrabania . In each land , Abe traverses a labyrinthine , abandoned temple ; and after each of these , BigFace marks one of Abe 's hands with a scar : one representing the Paramites and one representing the Scrabs . When Abe has both scars , he can become the Shrykull , an invincible demigod .
With this new ability , Abe returns to RuptureFarms , rescues his Mudokon brethren , and deactivates most of the factory 's power . When Molluck sees this and decides to flood the entire factory with poisonous gas , Abe races to the boardroom and once there uses the Shrykull 's power to destroy the Glukkon executives ( who were summoned there under an emergency board meeting to be safe from the gas ) and terminates the gas ; but is himself captured . What happens next depends on how many Mudokons were rescued throughout the game ; if the player has rescued at least 50 Mudokon slaves in the game , the free Mudokons electrocute Molluck and BigFace rescues Abe , but if the player fails to rescue 50 Mudokons throughout the game , Molluck kills Abe instead . Subsequent games and media treat the Good Ending as canonical .
In the initial PlayStation version of the game , upon " perfect " completion of the game — completion with all 99 Mudokon slaves rescued — an extra full motion video ( FMV ) " Guardian Angel " can be viewed , which depicts a captured Abe harassed by " The Shrink " : a mechanical creature with a sophisticated artificial intelligence . The FMV is notable due to its absence from the PC version and later PlayStation releases of the game , and its introduction of a new character to the Oddworld mythos . The character was reputedly part of an early advertising campaign , which included television commercials , but was eventually abandoned .
= = Development = =
Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee began production in January 1995 under the working title of Soul Storm . After GT Interactive acquired publishing rights on September 12 , 1996 , the title was changed , first to Epic and eventually to Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee . The game had a private showing at E3 ' 96 , but it was not until E3 ' 97 that journalists took note of the game and it was generally well received . The version of the game shown at E3 ' 97 was remarkably similar to the release version , and Abe 's Oddysee had a reportedly smooth development cycle with few late changes .
The first footage creator Lorne Lanning saw of Abe 's Oddysee involved a pack of meeches chasing Abe . He said he was happy with the animation at the time but when development was nearing completion , the studio discovered that there was not enough disk space to include all of the species featured in the game . The meeches were removed from the final game and identified in the story as extinct . Another sequence under time and budget constraints concerned the moon that Abe witnesses after his escape from the Stockyards . Lanning explained that the CG sequence that occurs between Abe escaping RuptureFarms and entering the Stockyards was originally accompanied by footage of a meteor shower creating the shape of Abe 's handprint , in order to imply " greater forces that are really behind it , that are trying to send him symbols " . The budget for the game was $ 4 million .
Abe 's Oddysee was the first major GT title that the UK development team , that had been taken in by GT following the acquisition of Warner Interactive , became involved with . The testing process of the game was unusual for GT Interactive as the British team did game play testing whilst normally American games were only tested in Europe for language and other compatibility issues . The soundtrack features mostly ambient music composed by Ellen Meijers . Because of the lack of testing , the final version of the game left behind a ledge clipping through the floor glitch , a glitch which allows Abe to jump backwards behind screens ( which is also known as a ' Stop Turn ' ) , and an invincibility glitch . All of these glitches can result in skipping of Paramonia and Scrabania , which was first discovered in June 2014 on the Microsoft Windows version of the game . Similar glitches are also found in Oddworld : Abe 's Exoddus , but the invincibility death delay glitch could only work using a hidden cheat in the game . There are several other glitches that can cause Abe 's Mudokons not to follow Abe and some glitches related to levers and riding platformers . Another type of invincibility glitch was found in the re @-@ make . The ledge glitch and the stop turn glitches were fixed .
When Abe 's Oddysee was in production , the developers found that a male executive at publisher GT Interactive tried to sabotage production because he didn 't like the game being made . He took footage of the game to his boss , who loved the direction the game had , and chose to provide more funding at the expense of the executive that wanted to shut it down . Lanning later explained that in 1997 during Oddysee 's production , men in the video game industry were seen as making toys , and not taken seriously . Men were " happy to make a living , but they weren ’ t necessarily going out and bragging about it " Games began to be more about shooting and violence and blood , but Oddworld Inhabitants was " the antithesis to that " and said " we can make people feel better rather than just feel like they won . "
= = Release = =
The game saw its first release on the PlayStation , DOS and Windows on September 19 , 1997 , on a day dubbed as " Odd Friday " by the developer and publisher ; over 500 @,@ 000 units were originally released worldwide . The Japanese version followed in October .
For the release in Japan , the title of Abe 's Oddysee was changed to Abe a GoGo by the publisher SoftBank . Other changes included the art for the " Mudokon Pops ! " packaging , which originally consisted of a Mudokon head speared on a stick . Due to undisclosed current events in Japan , the design was changed to a more ambiguous , " happier " image . The design for the protagonist Abe and other Mudokons was also significantly altered . Certain Japanese pressure groups were offended by the Mudokons having four fingers and most of them working in a meat @-@ packing factory , due to a historic Japanese subclass of meat packers who were looked down upon in society . Four fingers , or showing four fingers to another person , came to insinuate the other was a member of the subclass , because it suggested the meat packers who lost fingers at work . Oddworld Inhabitants had to alter the design of Mudokons to three fingers , or else face legal battles and large fines .
Oddworld Inhabitants made the altered designs a permanent feature ; subsequent versions of Abe 's Oddysee released outside Japan included both the changed packaging and changed Mudokon hand . Future games and media ( including New ' n ' Tasty ! ) also recognise these changes as canon , although Abe 's Exoddus oddly features four @-@ fingered Mudokon sprites , and scenes from Abe 's Oddysee shown in the game were not altered .
The Game Boy port was released as Oddworld Adventures ; it was developed by Saffire Corporation and published by GT Interactive in 1998 . The game is a significantly cut @-@ down version of Abe 's Oddysee , with only a few similar levels and a condensed plot ( Abe starts out as a native Mudokon , so the opening levels in RuptureFarms are absent from this version ) .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release in 1997 , Oddworld : Abe 's Oddysee received mostly positive reviews . Edge described the game as " a tight 2D platformer that 's packed with great innovative touches and some great character design " . GameSpot gave the PlayStation version 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 and praised the game as " the ideal platformer , balancing its action and puzzle elements perfectly to make the game intelligent , engaging , and , best yet , fun " . Animation World Magazine applauded multiple aspects of the game , saying it " features some of the best graphics and animation we 've ever seen " and commenting on the " sophisticated gameplay " . The graphics struck many reviewers as being excellent , as while the game is two @-@ dimensional , all elements were rendered in 3D programs . PC Zone remarked that " the developers have created an outstanding visual environment for Abe to leap around in , " while GamePro described the graphics as " eye @-@ popping " . The game 's audio was often singled out for praise . GameSpot gave the music a score of nine out of ten .
Most criticism toward the game was directed at the save system . Edge said that " Oddworld demands a certain level of commitment to progress " , while Science Fiction Weekly claimed the game 's " innovative game play makes for a steep learning curve . This initial difficulty in figuring out how to play is aggravated by a save feature that often forces players to redo difficult sections . " PC Zone stated that " progress does seem to rely on trial and error , which involves much replaying of levels and gnashing of teeth . All this can be frustrating at times , especially when Abe is plonked right back at the start of a level when he dies " . The game 's follow @-@ up , Abe 's Exoddus , notably implemented a suspend save feature that did not require the reaching of checkpoints .
= = = Awards = = =
The game won many awards , including the " E3 Showstopper 1997 " from GamePro in August 1997 and the " Best Director " award at the World Animation Festival in 1997 . In the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ' first annual Interactive Achievement Awards it was nominated in the categories " Console Adventure Game of the Year " and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound and Music " .
= = Sequels = =
Abe 's Oddysee received two direct sequels . Oddworld : Abe 's Exoddus was released for PlayStation in November 1998 , taking place directly after Oddysee . The game continues the style of gameplay from the previous game with several improvements , such as the ability to use GameSpeak with different species and possess explosive clouds of wind . Oddworld : Munch 's Oddysee was released for Xbox in 2001 , bringing the gameplay into 3D environments as well as allowing players to play as another character , Munch .
= = = Remake = = =
A remake of Abe 's Oddysee was developed by UK studio Just Add Water . The game was built using the Unity game engine and was released on July 22 , 2014 on the PS4 on the PlayStation Network in North America and a European release on July 23 , 2014 and was subsequently released for the PC , Mac , Linux , Xbox One , PS3 , PS Vita and Wii U.
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= Montague Druitt =
Montague John Druitt ( 15 August 1857 – early December 1888 ) was one of the suspects in the Jack the Ripper murders that took place in London between August and November 1888 .
He came from an upper @-@ middle class English background , and studied at Winchester College and the University of Oxford . After graduating , he was employed as an assistant schoolmaster at a boarding school and pursued a parallel career in the law , qualifying as a barrister in 1885 . His main interest outside work was cricket , which he played with many leading players of the time , including Lord Harris and Francis Lacey .
In November 1888 , he lost his post at the school for reasons that remain unclear . One month later his body was discovered drowned in the River Thames . His death , which was found to be a suicide , roughly coincided with the end of the murders attributed to Jack the Ripper . Private suggestions in the 1890s that he could have committed the crimes became public knowledge in the 1960s , and led to the publication of books that proposed him as the murderer . The evidence against him was entirely circumstantial , however , and many writers from the 1970s onwards have rejected him as a likely suspect .
= = Early life = =
Druitt was born in Wimborne Minster , Dorset , England . He was the second son and third child of prominent local surgeon William Druitt , and his wife Ann ( née Harvey ) . William Druitt was a justice of the peace , a governor of the local grammar school , and a regular worshipper at the local Anglican church , the Minster . Six weeks after his birth , Montague Druitt was christened at the Minster by his maternal great @-@ uncle , Reverend William Mayo . The Druitts lived at Westfield House , which was the largest house in the town , and set in its own grounds with stables and servants ' cottages . Druitt had six brothers and sisters , including an elder brother William who entered the law , and a younger brother Edward who joined the Royal Engineers .
Druitt was educated at Winchester College , where he won a scholarship at the age of 13 , and excelled at sports , especially cricket and fives . He was active in the school 's debating society , an interest that might have spawned his desire to become a barrister . In debates , he spoke in favour of French republicanism , compulsory military service , and the resignation of Benjamin Disraeli , and against the Ottoman Empire , the influence of Otto von Bismarck , and the conduct of the government in the Tichborne case . He defended William Wordsworth as " a bulwark of Protestantism " , and condemned the execution of King Charles I as " a most dastardly murder that will always attach to England 's fair name as a blot " . In a light @-@ hearted debate , he spoke against the proposition that bondage to fashion is a social evil .
In his final year at Winchester , 1875 – 76 , he was Prefect of Chapel , treasurer of the debating society , school fives champion , and opening bowler for the cricket team . In June 1876 , he played cricket for the school team against Eton College , which won the match with a team including cricketing luminaries Ivo Bligh and Kynaston Studd , as well as a future Principal Private Secretary at the Home Office Evelyn Ruggles @-@ Brise . Druitt bowled out Studd for four . With a glowing academic record , he was awarded a Winchester Scholarship to New College , Oxford .
At New College , he was popular with his peers , and was elected Steward of the Junior Common Room by them . He played cricket and rugby for the college team , and was the winner of both double and single fives at the university in 1877 . In a seniors ' cricket match in 1880 , he bowled out William Patterson , who later captained Kent County Cricket Club .
Druitt gained a second class in Classical Moderations in 1878 and graduated with a third class Bachelor of Arts degree in Literae Humaniores ( Classics ) in 1880 . His youngest brother , Arthur , entered New College in 1882 , just as Druitt was following in his eldest brother William 's footsteps by embarking on a career in law .
= = Career = =
On 17 May 1882 , two years after graduation , Druitt was admitted to the Inner Temple , one of the qualifying bodies for English barristers . His father had promised him a legacy of £ 500 ( equivalent to £ 45 @,@ 000 today ) , and Druitt paid his membership fees with a loan from his father secured against the inheritance . He was called to the bar on 29 April 1885 , and set up a practice as a barrister and special pleader .
Druitt 's father died suddenly from a heart attack in September 1885 , leaving an estate valued at £ 16 @,@ 579 ( equivalent to £ 1 @,@ 615 @,@ 000 today ) . In a codicil , Druitt senior instructed his executors to deduct the money he had advanced to his son from the legacy of £ 500 . Montague received very little money , if any , from his father 's will , although he did receive some of his father 's personal possessions . Most of Dr Druitt 's estate went to his wife Ann , three unmarried daughters ( Georgiana , Edith and Ethel ) , and eldest son William .
Druitt rented legal chambers at 9 King 's Bench Walk in the Inner Temple . In the late Victorian era only the wealthy could afford legal action , and only one in eight qualified barristers was able to make a living from the law . While some of Druitt 's biographers claim his practice did not flourish , others suppose that it provided him with a relatively substantial income on the basis of his costly lease of chambers and the value of his estate at death . He is listed in the Law List of 1886 as active in the Western Circuit and Winchester Sessions , and for 1887 in the Western Circuit and Hampshire , Portsmouth and Southampton Assizes .
To supplement his income and help pay for his legal training , Druitt worked as an assistant schoolmaster at George Valentine 's boarding school , 9 Eliot Place , Blackheath , London , from 1880 . The school had a long and distinguished history ; Benjamin Disraeli had been a pupil there in the 1810s , and boys from the school had been playmates of a younger son of Queen Victoria , Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught , who as a boy in the 1860s had lived nearby at Greenwich Park . Druitt 's post came with accommodation in Eliot Place , and the long school holidays gave him time to study the law and to pursue his interest in cricket .
= = Cricket = =
In Dorset , Druitt played for the Kingston Park Cricket Club , and the Dorset County Cricket Club . He was particularly noted for his skill as a bowler . In 1882 and 1883 , he toured the West Country with a gentleman 's touring team called the Incogniti . One of Druitt 's fellow local players was Francis Lacey , the first man knighted for services to cricket . Druitt played for another wandering team , the Butterflies , on 14 June 1883 , when they drew against his alma mater Winchester College . The team included first @-@ class cricketers A. J. Webbe , J. G. Crowdy , John Frederick and Charles Seymour .
While working at Blackheath , Druitt joined the local cricket club , Blackheath Morden , and became the club 's treasurer . It was a well @-@ connected club : the President was politician Sir Charles Mills and one of its players was Stanley Christopherson , who later became President of the Marylebone Cricket Club . After the merger of the club with other local sports associations to form the Blackheath Cricket , Football and Lawn Tennis Company , Druitt took on the additional roles of company secretary and director .
The inaugural game of the new club was played against George Gibbons Hearne 's Eleven , which included many members of the famous cricketing Hearne family . Hearne 's team won by 21 runs . On 5 June 1886 , in a match between Blackheath and a gentleman 's touring team called the Band of Brothers , led by Lord Harris , Druitt bowled Harris for 14 and took three other wickets . Blackheath won by 178 runs . Two weeks later , he dismissed England batsman John Shuter , who was playing for Bexley Cricket Club , for a duck , and Blackheath won the game by 114 runs . The following year , Shuter returned to Blackheath with a Surrey County side that included Walter Read , William Lockwood , and Bobby Abel , whom Druitt bowled out for 56 . Surrey won by 147 runs .
On 26 May 1884 , Druitt was elected to the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) on the recommendation of his fellow Butterflies player Charles Seymour , who proposed him , and noted fielder Vernon Royle , who seconded his nomination . One of the minor matches he played for MCC was with England bowler William Attewell against Harrow School on 10 June 1886 . The MCC won by 57 runs . Druitt also played against MCC for Blackheath : on 23 July 1887 , he bowled out Dick Pougher for 28 runs , but he only made 5 runs before bowled out by Arnold Fothergill with a ball caught by Pougher . The MCC won by 52 runs .
In June 1888 , Lord Harris played twice for Blackheath with Druitt and Stanley Christopherson ; Blackheath won both matches easily , but Druitt was out of form and contributed neither runs nor wickets in either match . In August 1888 , Druitt played for the Gentlemen of Bournemouth against the Parsees cricket team during their tour of England , and took five wickets in the visitors ' first innings . Nevertheless , the Parsees won . On 8 September 1888 , the Blackheath Club played against the Christopherson brothers . Druitt was bowled out by Stanley Christopherson , who was playing with his brothers instead of for Blackheath , and in reply Druitt bowled out Christopherson . Blackheath won by 22 runs .
In addition to cricket , Druitt also played field hockey .
= = Death = =
On Friday 30 November 1888 , Druitt was dismissed from his post at the Blackheath boys ' school . The reason for his dismissal is unclear . One newspaper , quoting his brother William 's inquest testimony , reported that he was dismissed because he " had got into serious trouble " , but did not specify any further . In early December 1888 , he disappeared , and on 21 December 1888 the Blackheath Cricket Club 's minute book records that he was removed as treasurer and secretary in the belief that he had " gone abroad " .
On 31 December 1888 , his body was found floating in the River Thames , off Thornycroft 's torpedo works , Chiswick , by a waterman named Henry Winslade . Stones in Druitt 's pockets had kept his body submerged for about a month . He was in possession of a return train ticket to Hammersmith dated 1 December , a silver watch , a cheque for £ 50 and £ 16 in gold ( equivalent to £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 1 @,@ 600 today ) . It is not known why he should have carried such a large amount of money , but it could have been a final payment from the school .
Some modern authors suggest that Druitt was dismissed because he was a homosexual or pederast and that may have driven him to suicide . One speculation is that the money found on his body was going to be used for payment to a blackmailer . Others , however , think that there is no evidence of homosexuality and that his suicide was instead precipitated by an hereditary psychiatric illness . His mother suffered from depression and was institutionalised from July 1888 . She died in an asylum in Chiswick in 1890 . His maternal grandmother committed suicide while insane , his aunt attempted suicide . , and his eldest sister committed suicide in old age . A note written by Druitt and addressed to his brother William , who was a solicitor in Bournemouth , was found in Druitt 's room in Blackheath . It read , " Since Friday I felt that I was going to be like mother , and the best thing for me was to die . "
As was usual in the district , the inquest was held at the Lamb Tap public house , Chiswick , by the coroner Dr Thomas Bramah Diplock , on 2 January 1889 . The coroner 's jury concluded that Druitt had committed suicide by drowning while in an unsound state of mind . He was buried in Wimborne cemetery the next day . At probate , his estate was valued at £ 2 @,@ 600 ( equivalent to £ 261 @,@ 200 today ) .
It is not known why Druitt committed suicide in Chiswick . One suggested link is that one of his University friends , Thomas Seymour Tuke of the Tuke family , lived there . Tuke was a psychiatric doctor with whom Druitt played cricket , and Druitt 's mother was committed to Tuke 's asylum in 1890 . Another suggestion is that Druitt knew Harry Wilson , whose house , " The Osiers " , lay between Hammersmith station and Thornycroft 's wharf , where Druitt 's body was found .
= = Jack the Ripper suspect = =
On 31 August 1888 , Mary Ann Nichols was found murdered in the impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London , with her throat slashed . During September , three more women ( Annie Chapman on the 8th , and Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes on the 30th ) were found dead with their throats cut . On 9 November 1888 , the body of Mary Jane Kelly was discovered . Her throat had been severed down to the spine . In four of the cases the bodies were mutilated after death . The similarities between the crimes led to the supposition that they were committed by the same assailant , who was given the nickname " Jack the Ripper " . Despite an extensive police investigation into the five murders , the Ripper was never identified and the crimes remained unsolved .
Shortly after Kelly 's murder , stories that the Ripper had drowned in the Thames began to circulate . In February 1891 , the MP for West Dorset , Henry Richard Farquharson , announced that Jack the Ripper was " the son of a surgeon " who had committed suicide on the night of the last murder . Although Farquharson did not name his suspect , the description resembles Druitt . Farquharson lived 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the Druitt family and was part of the same social class . The Victorian journalist George R. Sims noted in his memoirs , The Mysteries of Modern London ( 1906 ) : " [ the Ripper 's ] body was found in the Thames after it had been in the river for about a month " . Similar comments were made by Sir John Moylan , Assistant Under @-@ Secretary of the Home Office : " [ the Ripper ] escaped justice by committing suicide at the end of 1888 " and Sir Basil Thomson , made Assistant Commissioner of the CID in 1913 : " [ the Ripper was ] an insane Russian doctor [ who ] escaped arrest by committing suicide in the Thames at the end of 1888 " . Neither Moylan nor Thomson was involved in the Ripper investigation .
Assistant Chief Constable Sir Melville Macnaghten named Druitt as a suspect in the case in a private handwritten memorandum of 23 February 1894 . Macnaghten highlighted the coincidence between Druitt 's disappearance and death shortly after the last of the five murders on 9 November 1888 , and claimed to have unspecified " private information " that left " little doubt " Druitt 's own family believed him to have been the murderer . Macnaghten 's memo was eventually discovered in his personal papers by his daughter , Lady Aberconway , who showed them to British broadcaster Dan Farson . A slightly different abridged copy of the memo found in the Metropolitan Police archive was released to the public in 1966 . Farson first revealed Druitt 's initials " MJD " in a television programme in November 1959 .
In 1961 , Farson investigated a claim by an Australian that Montague 's cousin , Lionel Druitt , had published a pamphlet in Australia entitled " The East End Murderer — I knew him " , but the claim has never been substantiated . Journalist Tom Cullen revealed Druitt 's full name in his 1965 book Autumn of Terror , which was followed by Farson 's 1972 book Jack the Ripper . Before the discovery of Macnaghten 's memo , books on the Ripper case , such as those written by Leonard Matters and Donald McCormick , poured scorn on stories that the Ripper had drowned in the Thames because they could not find a suicide that matched the description of the culprit . Cullen and Farson , however , supposed that Druitt was the Ripper on the basis of the Macnaghten memorandum , the near coincidence between Druitt 's death and the end of the murders , the closeness of Whitechapel to Druitt 's rooms in the Inner Temple , the insanity that was acknowledged by the inquest verdict of " unsound mind " , and the possibility that Druitt had absorbed the rudimentary anatomical skill supposedly shown by the Ripper through observing his father at work .
Since the publication of Cullen 's and Farson 's books , other Ripper authors have argued that their theories are based solely on flawed circumstantial evidence , and have attempted to provide Druitt with alibis for the times of the murders . On 1 September , the day after the murder of Nichols , Druitt was in Dorset playing cricket . On the day of Chapman 's murder , he played cricket in Blackheath , and the day after the murders of Stride and Eddowes , he was in the West Country defending a client in a court case . While writers Andrew Spallek and Tom Cullen argue that Druitt had the time and opportunity to travel by train between London and his cricket and legal engagements , or use his city chambers as a base from which to commit the murders , others dismiss that as " improbable " . Many experts believe that the killer was local to Whitechapel , whereas Druitt lived miles away on the other side of the River Thames . His chambers were within walking distance of Whitechapel , and his regular rail journey would almost certainly have brought him to Cannon Street station , a few minutes ' walk from the East End . It seems unlikely , however , that he could have travelled the distance in blood @-@ stained clothes unnoticed , and a clue discovered during the investigation into the murder of Catherine Eddowes ( a piece of her blood @-@ stained clothing ) indicates that the murderer travelled north @-@ east from where she was murdered , whereas Druitt 's chambers , and the railway station , were to the south @-@ west .
Macnaghten incorrectly described Druitt as a 41 @-@ year @-@ old doctor , and cited allegations that he " was sexually insane " without specifying the source or details of the allegations . Macnaghten did not join the force until 1889 , after the murder of Kelly and the death of Druitt , and was not involved in the investigation directly . Macnaghten 's memorandum named two other suspects ( " Kosminski " and Michael Ostrog ) and was written to refute allegations against a fourth , Thomas Cutbush . The three Macnaghten suspects — Druitt , Kosminski and Ostrog — also match the descriptions of three unnamed suspects in Major Arthur Griffiths ' Mysteries of Police and Crime ( 1898 ) ; Griffiths was Inspector of Prisons at the time of the Ripper murders .
Inspector Frederick Abberline , who was the leading investigative officer in the case , appeared to dismiss Druitt as a suspect on the basis that the only evidence against him was the coincidental timing of his suicide shortly after the fifth murder . Other officials involved in the Ripper case , Metropolitan Police Commissioner James Monro and pathologist Thomas Bond , believed that the murder of Alice McKenzie on 17 July 1889 , seven months after Druitt 's death , was committed by the same culprit as the earlier murders . The inclusion of McKenzie among the Ripper 's victims was contested by Abberline and Macnaghten among others , but if she was one of his victims , then Druitt clearly could not be the Ripper . Another murder occasionally included among the Ripper cases is that of Martha Tabram , who was viciously stabbed to death on 7 August 1888 . Her death coincided with the middle of Bournemouth Cricket Week , 4 – 11 August , in which Druitt was heavily involved , and was during the school holidays which Druitt spent in Dorset . In the words of one of his biographers , " It scarcely left time for a 200 @-@ mile round dash to fit in a murder . "
= = Legacy = =
Druitt was a favoured suspect in the Jack the Ripper crimes throughout the 1960s , until the advent of theories in the 1970s that the murders were not the work of a single serial killer but the result of a conspiracy involving the British royal family and Freemasonry . These theories , widely condemned as ridiculous , implicate Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , his tutor James Stephen , and their doctor Sir William Gull to varying degrees . One version of the conspiracy promoted by Stephen Knight in his 1976 book Jack the Ripper : The Final Solution supposed that Druitt was a scapegoat , chosen by officialdom to take the blame for the murders . Martin Howells and Keith Skinner followed the same line in their 1987 book The Ripper Legacy , which was panned by one critic as being based on " no evidence whatever " .
The theories attempted to link Druitt with Clarence , Gull and Stephen through a network of mutual acquaintances and possible connections . Reginald Acland , the brother of Gull 's son @-@ in @-@ law , had legal chambers in King 's Bench Walk near Druitt 's , as did Harry Stephen , who was James Stephen 's brother . Harry Stephen was good friends with Harry Wilson , who had a house in Chiswick , " The Osiers " , near to where Druitt 's body was found . Wilson and James Stephen were close friends of Clarence , and were both members of an exclusive society called the Cambridge Apostles . As a schoolboy , Druitt had played cricket against two of Wilson 's friends , Kynaston Studd and Henry Goodhart , who was also one of the Apostles . Another potential connection between Druitt and Wilson is through John Henry Lonsdale . Lonsdale 's name and Blackheath address are written in a diary belonging to Wilson now in the possession of Trinity College , Cambridge . Lonsdale 's address is a few yards from the school at which Druitt worked and lived , and Lonsdale had been a barrister and had also rented legal chambers in King 's Bench Walk . In 1887 , Lonsdale entered the church and was assigned as curate to Wimborne Minster , where the Druitt family worshiped . Lonsdale and Macnaghten were classmates at Eton , and so theorists argue that Lonsdale might have been in a position to provide " private information " to Macnaghten regarding Druitt . The connections between the Apostles and Druitt led to the suggestion that he was part of the same social set . Druitt , his mother , and his sister Georgiana , were invited to a ball in honour of Clarence at the home of Lord Wimborne on 17 December 1888 , although they did not attend because by that time Montague was dead , his mother was in an asylum , and his sister was expecting her second child . Clarence , Stephen , Wilson , Studd , and Goodhart are suggested to have been homosexual , although this is contested by historians . John Wilding 's 1993 book Jack the Ripper Revealed used the connections between Druitt and Stephen to propose that they committed the crimes together , but reviewers considered it an " imaginative tale ... most questionable " , an " exercise in ingenuity rather than ... fact " , and " lack [ ing ] evidential support " .
In his 2005 and 2006 biographies of Druitt , D. J. Leighton concluded that Druitt was innocent , but repeated some of Knight 's and Wilding 's discredited claims . Leighton suggested that Druitt could have been murdered , either out of greed by his elder brother William or , as previously suggested by Howells and Skinner , out of fear of exposure by Harry Wilson 's homosexual cronies . The propensity of theorists to associate Ripper suspects with homosexuality has led scholars to assume that such notions are based on homophobia rather than evidence .
The accusations against Clarence , Stephen , Gull and Druitt also draw on cultural perceptions of a decadent ruling class , and depict a high @-@ born murderer or murderers preying on lower @-@ class victims . Because Druitt and the other upper @-@ middle @-@ class and aristocratic Ripper suspects were wealthy , there is more biographical material on them than on the residents of the Whitechapel slums . Consequently , it is easier for writers to construct solutions based on a wealthy culprit rather than one involving a Whitechapel resident . There is no direct evidence against Druitt , and since the 1970s , the number of Jack the Ripper suspects has continued to grow , with the result that there are now over 100 different theories about the Ripper 's identity .
In fiction , Druitt is depicted as the murderer in the musical Jack the Ripper by Ron Pember and Denis de Marne . In John Gardner 's Sherlock Holmes story The Revenge of Moriarty , Professor Moriarty 's criminal exploits are hampered by increased police activity as a result of the Jack the Ripper murders . He discovers that Druitt is the murderer and so fakes his suicide in the hope that the police will lose interest once the murders cease .
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= French battleship Brennus =
Brennus was the first pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy built in the late 19th century . She was laid down in January 1889 , launched in October 1891 , and completed in 1896 . Her design was unique and departed from earlier ironclad battleship designs by introducing a number of innovations . These included a main battery of heavy guns mounted on the centerline and the first use of Belleville boilers . She formed the basis for several subsequent designs , beginning with Charles Martel .
Brennus spent the majority of her career in the Mediterranean Squadron , and she served as its flagship early in her career . In 1900 , she accidentally rammed and sank the destroyer Framée . As newer battleships were commissioned into the fleet , Brennus was relegated to the Reserve Squadron in the early 1900s . By the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , her old age and poor condition prevented her from seeing action . She was ultimately stricken from the naval register in 1919 and sold for scrap three years later .
= = Design = =
An earlier vessel , also named Brennus , was laid down in 1884 and cancelled under the tenure of Admiral Théophile Aube . The vessel , along with a sister ship named Charles Martel , was a modified version of the Marceau @-@ class ironclad battleships . After Aube 's retirement , the plans for the ships were reworked entirely for the ships actually completed , though they are sometimes conflated with the earlier , cancelled vessels . This confusion may be a result of the same shipyard working on both of the ships named Brennus , along with use of material assembled for the first vessel to build the second . The two pairs of ships were , nevertheless , distinct vessels . The second Brennus was ordered in 1888 .
Brennus was the first pre @-@ dreadnought style battleship built in the French Navy ; the previous Magenta @-@ class ships were barbette ships , a type of ironclad battleship . Brennus formed the basis for the subsequent group of five broadly similar battleships built to the same design specifications , begun with Charles Martel , though they reverted to the armament layout of the earlier Magentas which saw the main guns distributed in single turrets in a lozenge pattern .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Brennus was 110 @.@ 29 meters ( 361 ft 10 in ) long between perpendiculars , and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 28 m ( 27 ft 2 in ) . She had a displacement of 11 @,@ 190 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 013 long tons ) . As built , the ship was significantly overweight , and her draft was .38 m ( 1 ft 3 in ) greater than intended , without a full load of ammunition . Most of her armored belt was submerged . Her superstructure had to be cut down and her mainmast , intended to be a fighting mast , had to be replaced with a lighter pole mast . Unlike most battleships of the period , she was built without a ram bow . Brennus had a crew of 673 officers and enlisted men .
Brennus had two vertical triple expansion engines each driving a single screw , with steam supplied by thirty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . The decision to fit Brennus with water @-@ tube boilers was made in 1887 , and she was the first large ship to be equipped with them . Her propulsion system was rated at 13 @,@ 900 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 400 kW ) , which allowed the ship to steam at a speed of 17 @.@ 5 to 18 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 to 33 @.@ 3 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 7 mph ) . As built , she could carry 600 t ( 590 long tons ; 660 short tons ) of coal , though additional space allowed for up to 980 t ( 960 long tons ; 1 @,@ 080 short tons ) in total .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Brennus 's main armament consisted of three Canon de 340 mm / 42 Modèle 1887 guns , two in a twin turret forward , and the third in a single turret aft . Her secondary armament consisted of ten Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns , four of which were mounted in single turrets amidships ; the other six were located directly underneath them in casemates . The ship also carried four 9 @-@ pounder quick @-@ firing guns , fourteen 3 @-@ pounders , and eight 1 @-@ pounder guns , and six 1 @-@ pounder revolver cannons . Her armament suite was rounded out by four above @-@ water 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all of which were later removed .
The ship 's armor was constructed with both steel and compound armor . The main belt was 460 mm ( 18 in ) thick amidships , and tapered down to 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) at the lower edge . On either end of the central citadel , the belt was reduced to 305 mm at the waterline and 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on the lower edge ; the belt extended for the entire length of the hull . Above the belt was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick side armor . The main battery guns were protected with a maximum thickness of 460 mm of armor , and the secondary turrets had 100 mm thick sides . The main armored deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service career = =
Brennus was laid down at the Lorient dockyard in January 1889 and launched on 17 October 1891 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed in 1896 and she was commissioned into the French Navy . In 1897 , the French Navy issued a new doctrine for gunnery control . During gunnery training exercises to test the new system , Brennus and the ironclad battleships Neptune and Marceau got 26 % hits at a range of 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 to 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their success prompted the Navy to make the method the standard for the fleet in February 1898 .
In July and August 1900 , the French fleet conducted maneuvers in the English Channel . At the time , Brennus was the flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron , under Vice Admiral Fournier . On 10 August off Cape St. Vincent , while returning from the maneuvers , she collided with the destroyer Framée . The destroyer quickly sank , and only fourteen men from her crew of 50 were rescued . By 1903 , Brennus was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with three other battleships and three armored cruisers . There , she flew the flag of Rear Admiral Besson during the annual summer maneuvers in July – August 1903 .
Brennus continued on in the Reserve Squadron through 1907 , during which time she was again the flagship of Vice Admiral Fournier . Fournier was the commander in chief of the annual summer maneuvers , which began in late June and concluded on 4 August 1907 . The following year , the Mediterranean Fleet was reorganized into three squadrons ; Brennus again repeated her role as flagship , of the Third Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Germinet . Due to her age and condition by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Brennus was not mobilized and did not see action . Brennus was ultimately stricken from the naval register in 1919 and sold for scrapping in 1922 .
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= Will Middlebrooks =
William " Will " Scott Middlebrooks ( born September 9 , 1988 ) is an American professional baseball third baseman for the Milwaukee Brewers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He made his MLB debut with the Boston Red Sox on May 2 , 2012 and played with them through 2014 . He also played for the San Diego Padres .
A fifth round draft pick in the 2007 MLB draft out of Liberty @-@ Eylau High School in Texarkana , Texas , Middlebrooks signed with the Red Sox for $ 925 @,@ 000 , bypassing his commitment to Texas A & M University . Middlebrooks was originally a shortstop , but the Red Sox converted him into a third baseman in the minor leagues . He represented the United States in the 2011 All @-@ Star Futures Game . Following Middlebrooks ' emergence as the Red Sox ' starting third baseman in 2012 , the organization traded former All @-@ Star Kevin Youkilis . After struggles in the 2013 and 2014 seasons , the Red Sox traded Middlebrooks to the San Diego Padres .
= = Amateur career = =
Middlebrooks attended Liberty @-@ Eylau High School in Texarkana , Texas . Middlebrooks played shortstop and pitched for the high school baseball team . As a pitcher , he could reach 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) with his fastball . Liberty @-@ Eylau won the Class 3A state championship in 2006 , Middlebrooks ' junior season . In his senior season , Middlebrooks had a .555 batting average with 22 stolen bases and 48 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 38 games , and a 13 @-@ 0 win – loss record as a pitcher . He was named to the Class 3A All @-@ State First Team and Class 3A Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association .
In addition to baseball , Middlebrooks played American football and basketball in high school . A quarterback , placekicker and punter , he played on the school 's football team , which also featured LaMichael James . He was named an All @-@ State punter . Middlebrooks admits that he preferred football , until he realized during his junior year that he had the opportunity to be selected in the Major League Baseball Draft . In November 2006 , he committed to attend Texas A & M University on a full scholarship to play baseball and football for the Texas A & M Aggies .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
= = = = Minor Leagues = = = =
Middlebrooks had been projected as a first round talent in the 2007 Major League Baseball draft . However , the belief that he would follow through with his scholarship to Texas A & M led Middlebrooks to fall in the draft . The Boston Red Sox drafted Middlebrooks in the fifth round of the draft , selecting him as a shortstop , rather than as a pitcher . He received a $ 925 @,@ 000 signing bonus to bypass his commitment to Texas A & M.
Middlebrooks made his professional debut in 2008 with the Lowell Spinners of the Class A @-@ Short Season New York – Penn League , where he batted .254 with one home run . He described himself as developmentally behind other players at his level because of the time he had devoted to football . Initially a shortstop , Middlebrooks made the transition to third base as he added muscle , increasing from 190 pounds ( 86 kg ) at the time he was drafted to 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) .
In 2009 , Middlebrooks played for the Greenville Drive of the Class A South Atlantic League , where he batted .265 with seven home runs and 57 RBIs . He was promoted to the Salem Red Sox of the Class A @-@ Advanced Carolina League in 2010 and responded by batting .276 with 12 home runs and 70 RBIs . Middlebrooks began the 2011 season playing for the Portland Sea Dogs of the Class AA Eastern League . He played in the Eastern League All @-@ Star Game , hitting a double in the game . Middlebrooks also participated in the 2011 All @-@ Star Futures Game , starting at third base and going 1 @-@ for @-@ 2 .
Through August 2011 , Middlebrooks batted .306 with 18 home runs and 80 RBIs for Portland , at which point he was promoted to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the Class AAA International League . Joe McDonald of ESPN.com called Middlebrooks " Boston 's likely [ third baseman ] of the future " upon his promotion from Portland to Pawtucket . He hit .161 in 16 games with Pawtucket to close out the 2011 season .
After the 2011 season , the Red Sox assigned Middlebrooks to the Arizona Fall League , where he hit four home runs in 13 games and was named to the Rising Stars Game . In November 2011 , Middlebrooks , Che @-@ Hsuan Lin and Drake Britton were added to the Red Sox 40 @-@ man roster to prevent them from being selected in the Rule 5 draft .
Heading into the 2012 season , Baseball America rated Middlebrooks as the Red Sox ' best prospect and 51st best prospect overall . Starting the 2012 season with Pawtucket , Middlebrooks hit .333 with nine home runs and 27 RBIs in 24 games and 93 at @-@ bats . Meanwhile , Red Sox starting third baseman Kevin Youkilis struggled , opening the 2012 season batting .219 . As Youkilis struggled , Middlebrooks appeared to be ready for a promotion .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
The Red Sox promoted Middlebrooks to the major leagues on May 2 , 2012 , when Youkilis was placed on the disabled list . He made his MLB debut that day , drawing a walk in his first plate appearance and recording two hits . On May 6 , he hit a game @-@ tying grand slam for his first major league home run in what was eventually a 17 @-@ inning loss to the Baltimore Orioles . In his first 41 games with the Red Sox , Middlebrooks batted .326 with nine home runs and 34 RBIs , the most RBIs to start a career for a member of the Red Sox since Walt Dropo recorded 37 RBIs in his first 41 career games dating back to 1949 – 50 .
Bobby Valentine , the manager of the Red Sox , initially alternated between Middlebrooks and Youkilis at third base . However , Middlebrooks ' emergence led the Red Sox to trade Youkilis on June 23 . Middlebrooks was named American League Player of the Week for the week ending June 24 . Middlebrooks broke a bone in his right hand when he was hit by a pitch in a game against the Cleveland Indians on August 10 , ending his rookie season with a .288 batting average , 15 home runs and 54 RBIs in 75 games played .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On April 7 , 2013 , Middlebrooks hit three home runs in a 13 – 0 Red Sox victory over the Toronto Blue Jays in Toronto . Two of his home runs were hit off of pitcher R.A. Dickey . However , he lost playing time to José Iglesias after he strained his back in May . After he batted .192 on the season , the Red Sox optioned Middlebrooks to Pawtucket on June 25 , 2013 . The Red Sox opted not to promote Middlebrooks when they traded Iglesias on July 30 , using Brandon Snyder and Brock Holt instead . After Middlebrooks made adjustments , the Red Sox recalled him from Pawtucket on August 10 . In Game 3 of the 2013 World Series , Middlebrooks was ruled to have obstructed future teammate Allen Craig after diving for an errant throw at third base . The play awarded Craig the game winning run for the Cardinals . The Red Sox won the series over the Cardinals .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
In 2014 , Middlebrooks missed 19 games in April due to a strained calf . In May , he broke a finger , and again went on the disabled list . He had been struggling at the plate to begin the season hitting just .197 with two home runs in 21 games . As he rehabilitated his injury in the minor leagues , Middlebrooks began playing in the outfield , due to the Red Sox ' signing of Stephen Drew . After the Red Sox traded Drew , they hoped that Middlebrooks would improve his performance with more regular playing time . Middlebrooks continued to miss time later in the season due to lingering effects of the hand injury . He finished the 2014 season with a .191 average in 215 at @-@ bats .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
During the 2014 – 15 offseason , the Red Sox signed free agent Pablo Sandoval , a third baseman . On December 19 , 2014 , the Red Sox traded Middlebrooks to the San Diego Padres for Ryan Hanigan , whom the Padres had acquired earlier the same day . Middlebrooks competed with Yangervis Solarte to be the Padres ' starting third baseman in spring training . By July , the Padres began to use Middlebrooks at shortstop as Solarte received more playing time at third base . With Middlebrooks batting .212 on the season , the Padres optioned Middlebrooks to the El Paso Chihuahuas of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) on July 22 . On December 2 , 2015 , the Padres non @-@ tendered Middlebrooks , making him a free agent .
= = = Milwaukee Brewers = = =
On December 15 , 2015 , Middlebrooks agreed to a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Milwaukee Brewers . The Brewers assigned him to the Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the PCL to start the 2016 season . Middlebrooks batted .282 with 10 home runs and 47 RBIs for Colorado Springs , before he was promoted to the major leagues on July 4 .
= = Player profile = =
Middlebrooks is an athletic defensive player . He hits for power and is also credited for his contact skills , though he is not considered the most patient hitter . His throwing arm is well regarded , and his baserunning is rated as average .
= = Personal life = =
Middlebrooks grew up in Texarkana , Texas . His father , Tom , serves as the head baseball coach and assistant football coach at Liberty @-@ Eylau , and his younger sister , Lacey , played softball for the University of Tulsa . She is now an assistant softball coach at the University at Buffalo . Middlebrooks ' mother , Julie , and youngest sister , Mary , are artists ; Julie is an art teacher . He has been friends with Ryan Mallett of the Baltimore Ravens since they met in a football camp after Mallett moved to the Texarkana area in the seventh grade .
Middlebrooks was engaged to Ann Lux , a former Dallas Cowboys cheerleader , however they broke up in August 2012 . They are from the same hometown and have known each other since age 12 . Later in 2012 , Middlebrooks began dating Jenny Dell , a reporter who covered the Red Sox for the New England Sports Network . They became engaged in July 2014 , and were married in February 2016 .
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= USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) =
USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) ( " Mighty Mo " or " Big Mo " ) is a United States Navy Iowa @-@ class battleship and was the third ship of the U.S. Navy to be named in honor of the U.S. state of Missouri . Missouri was the last battleship commissioned by the United States and was best remembered as the site of the surrender of the Empire of Japan which ended World War II .
Missouri was ordered in 1940 and commissioned in June 1944 . In the Pacific Theater of World War II she fought in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and shelled the Japanese home islands , and she fought in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953 . She was decommissioned in 1955 into the United States Navy reserve fleets ( the " Mothball Fleet " ) , but reactivated and modernized in 1984 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan , and provided fire support during Operation Desert Storm in January / February 1991 .
Missouri received a total of 11 battle stars for service in World War II , Korea , and the Persian Gulf , and was finally decommissioned on 31 March 1992 , but remained on the Naval Vessel Register until her name was struck in January 1995 . In 1998 , she was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association and became a museum ship at Pearl Harbor .
= = Construction = =
Missouri was one of the Iowa @-@ class " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair . She was laid down at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 6 January 1941 , launched on 29 January 1944 and commissioned on 11 June with Captain William Callaghan in command . The ship was the third of the Iowa class , but the fourth and final Iowa @-@ class ship commissioned by the U.S. Navy . The ship was christened at her launching by Mary Margaret Truman , daughter of Harry S. Truman , then a United States Senator from Missouri .
Missouri 's main battery consisted of nine 16 in ( 406 mm ) / 50 cal Mark 7 guns , which could fire 2 @,@ 700 lb ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) armor @-@ piercing shells some 20 mi ( 32 @.@ 2 km ) . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in ( 127 mm ) / 38 cal guns in twin turrets , with a range of about 10 mi ( 16 km ) . With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of allied aircraft carriers ; to this end , Missouri was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns to defend allied carriers from enemy airstrikes . When reactivated in 1984 Missouri had her 20 mm and 40 mm AA guns removed , and was outfitted with Phalanx CIWS mounts for protection against enemy missiles and aircraft , and Armored Box Launchers and Quad Cell Launchers designed to fire Tomahawk missiles and Harpoon missiles , respectively .
Missouri was the last U.S. battleship to be completed . Wisconsin , the highest @-@ numbered U.S. battleship built , was completed before Missouri ; BB @-@ 65 to BB @-@ 71 were ordered but cancelled .
= = World War II ( 1944 – 1945 ) = =
= = = Shakedown and service with Task Force 58 , Admiral Mitscher = = =
After trials off New York and shakedown and battle practice in the Chesapeake Bay , Missouri departed Norfolk , Virginia on 11 November 1944 , transited the Panama Canal on 18 November and steamed to San Francisco for final fitting out as fleet flagship . She stood out of San Francisco Bay on 14 December and arrived at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii on 24 December 1944 . She departed Hawaii on 2 January 1945 and arrived in Ulithi , West Caroline Islands on 13 January . There she was temporary headquarters ship for Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher . The battleship put to sea on 27 January to serve in the screen of the Lexington carrier task group of Mitscher 's TF 58 , and on 16 February the task force 's aircraft carriers launched the first naval air strikes against Japan since the famed Doolittle raid , which had been launched from the carrier Hornet in April 1942 .
Missouri then steamed with the carriers to Iwo Jima where her main guns provided direct and continuous support to the invasion landings begun on 19 February . After TF 58 returned to Ulithi on 5 March , Missouri was assigned to the Yorktown carrier task group . On 14 March , Missouri departed Ulithi in the screen of the fast carriers and steamed to the Japanese mainland . During strikes against targets along the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan beginning on 18 March , Missouri shot down four Japanese aircraft .
Raids against airfields and naval bases near the Inland Sea and southwestern Honshū continued . When the carrier Franklin incurred battle damage , the Missouri 's carrier task group provided cover for the Franklin 's retirement toward Ulithi until 22 March , then set course for pre @-@ invasion strikes and bombardment of Okinawa .
Missouri joined the fast battleships of TF 58 in bombarding the southeast coast of Okinawa on 24 March , an action intended to draw enemy strength from the west coast beaches that would be the actual site of invasion landings . Missouri rejoined the screen of the carriers as Marine and Army units stormed the shores of Okinawa on the morning of 1 April . An attack by Japanese forces was repulsed successfully .
On 11 April , a low @-@ flying kamikaze , although fired upon , crashed on Missouri 's starboard side , just below her main deck level . The starboard wing of the plane was thrown far forward , starting a gasoline fire at 5 in ( 127 mm ) Gun Mount No. 3 . The battleship suffered only superficial damage , and the fire was brought quickly under control . The remains of the pilot were recovered on board the ship just aft of one of the 40 mm gun tubs . Captain Callaghan decided that the young Japanese pilot had done his job to the best of his ability , and with honor , so he should be given a military funeral . The following day he was buried at sea with military honors .
About 23 : 05 on 17 April , Missouri detected an enemy submarine 12 mi ( 19 km ) from her formation . Her report set off a hunter @-@ killer operation by the light carrier Bataan and four destroyers , which sank the Japanese submarine I @-@ 56 .
Missouri was detached from the carrier task force off Okinawa on 5 May and sailed for Ulithi . During the Okinawa campaign she had shot down five enemy planes , assisted in the destruction of six others , and scored one probable kill . She helped repel 12 daylight attacks of enemy raiders and fought off four night attacks on her carrier task group . Her shore bombardment destroyed several gun emplacements and many other military , governmental , and industrial structures .
= = = Service with the Third Fleet , Admiral Halsey = = =
Missouri arrived at Ulithi on 9 May and then proceeded to Apra Harbor , Guam , arriving on 18 May . USS Louisville delivered Bull Halsey ’ s 50 officers and 100 staff to USS Missouri BB 63 at Guam from Man of War . That afternoon Admiral William F. Halsey , Jr . , Commander Third Fleet , brought his command into the Missouri . She passed out of the harbor on 21 May , and by 27 May was again conducting shore bombardment against Japanese positions on Okinawa . Missouri led the 3rd Fleet in strikes on airfields and installations on Kyūshū on 2 – 3 June . She rode out a fierce storm on 5 and 6 June that wrenched the bow off the cruiser Pittsburgh . Some topside fittings were smashed , but Missouri suffered no major damage . Her fleet again struck Kyūshū on 8 June , then hit hard in a coordinated air @-@ surface bombardment before retiring towards Leyte . She arrived at San Pedro Bay , Leyte on 13 June , after almost three months of continuous operations in support of the Okinawa campaign .
Here she rejoined the powerful 3rd Fleet in strikes at the heart of Japan from within its home waters . The fleet set a northerly course on 8 July to approach the Japanese main island , Honshū . Raids took Tokyo by surprise on 10 July , followed by more devastation at the juncture of Honshū and Hokkaidō , the second @-@ largest Japanese island , on 13 – 14 July . For the first time , naval gunfire destroyed a major installation within the home islands when Missouri joined in a shore bombardment on 15 July that severely damaged the Nihon Steel Co. and the Wanishi Ironworks at Muroran , Hokkaido .
During the nights of 17 and 18 July , Missouri bombarded industrial targets in Honshū . Inland Sea aerial strikes continued through 25 July , and Missouri guarded the carriers as they attacked the Japanese home islands .
= = = Signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender = = =
Strikes on Hokkaidō and northern Honshū resumed on 9 August , the day the second atomic bomb was dropped .
After the Japanese agreed to surrender , Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser of the Royal Navy , the Commander of the British Pacific Fleet , boarded Missouri on 16 August and conferred the honour of Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire upon Admiral Halsey . Missouri transferred a landing party of 200 officers and men to the battleship Iowa for temporary duty with the initial occupation force for Tokyo on 21 August . Missouri herself entered Tokyo Bay early on 29 August to prepare for the signing by Japan of the official instrument of surrender .
High @-@ ranking military officials of all the Allied Powers were received on board on 2 September , including Chinese General Hsu Yung @-@ Ch 'ang , British Admiral @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Fleet Sir Bruce Fraser , Soviet Lieutenant @-@ General Kuzma Nikolaevich Derevyanko , Australian General Sir Thomas Blamey , Canadian Colonel Lawrence Moore Cosgrave , French Général d 'Armée Philippe Leclerc de Hautecloque , Dutch Vice Admiral Conrad Emil Lambert Helfrich , and New Zealand Air Vice Marshal Leonard M. Isitt .
Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz boarded shortly after 0800 , and General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander for the Allies , came on board at 0843 . The Japanese representatives , headed by Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu , arrived at 0856 . At 0902 , General MacArthur stepped before a battery of microphones and opened the 23 @-@ minute surrender ceremony to the waiting world by stating , " It is my earnest hope — indeed the hope of all mankind — that from this solemn occasion a better world shall emerge out of the blood and carnage of the past , a world founded upon faith and understanding , a world dedicated to the dignity of man and the fulfillment of his most cherished wish for freedom , tolerance , and justice . "
During the surrender ceremony , the deck of Missouri was decorated with a 31 @-@ star American flag that had been taken ashore by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 after his squadron of " Black Ships " sailed into Tokyo Bay to force the opening of Japan 's ports to foreign trade . This flag was actually displayed with the reverse side showing , i.e. , stars in the upper right corner : the historic flag was so fragile that the conservator at the Naval Academy Museum had sewn a protective linen backing to one side to help secure the fabric from deteriorating , leaving its " wrong side " visible . The flag was displayed in a wood @-@ framed case secured to the bulkhead overlooking the surrender ceremony . Another U.S. flag was raised and flown during the occasion , a flag that some sources have indicated was in fact that flag which had flown over the U.S. Capitol on 7 December 1941 . This is not true ; it was a flag taken from the ship 's stock , according to Missouri 's Commanding Officer , Captain Stuart " Sunshine " Murray , and it was " ... just a plain ordinary GI @-@ issue flag " .
By 09 : 30 the Japanese emissaries had departed . In the afternoon of 5 September , Admiral Halsey transferred his flag to the battleship South Dakota , and early the next day Missouri departed Tokyo Bay . As part of the ongoing Operation Magic Carpet she received homeward bound passengers at Guam , then sailed unescorted for Hawaii . She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 20 September and flew Admiral Nimitz 's flag on the afternoon of 28 September for a reception .
= = Post @-@ war ( 1946 – 1950 ) = =
The next day , Missouri departed Pearl Harbor bound for the eastern seaboard of the United States . She reached New York City on 23 October and hoisted the flag of Atlantic Fleet commander Admiral Jonas Ingram . Four days later , Missouri boomed out a 21 @-@ gun salute as President Truman boarded for Navy Day ceremonies .
After an overhaul in the New York Naval Shipyard and a training cruise to Cuba , Missouri returned to New York . During the afternoon of 21 March 1946 , she received the remains of the Turkish Ambassador to the United States , Münir Ertegün . She departed on 22 March for Gibraltar , and on 5 April anchored in the Bosphorus off Istanbul . She rendered full honors , including the firing of 19 @-@ gun salutes during the transfer of the remains of the late ambassador and again during the funeral ashore .
Missouri departed Istanbul on 9 April and entered Phaleron Bay , Piraeus , Greece , the following day for an overwhelming welcome by Greek government officials and anti @-@ communist citizens . Greece had become the scene of a civil war between the communist World War II resistance movement and the returning Greek government @-@ in @-@ exile . The United States saw this as an important test case for its new doctrine of containment of the Soviet Union . The Soviets were also pushing for concessions in the Dodecanese to be included in the peace treaty with Italy and for access through the Dardanelles strait between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean . The voyage of Missouri to the eastern Mediterranean symbolized America 's strategic commitment to the region . News media proclaimed her a symbol of U.S. interest in preserving both nations ' independence .
Missouri departed Piraeus on 26 April , touching at Algiers and Tangiers before arriving at Norfolk on 9 May . She departed for Culebra Island on 12 May to join Admiral Mitscher 's 8th Fleet in the Navy 's first large @-@ scale postwar Atlantic training maneuvers . The battleship returned to New York City on 27 May , and spent the next year steaming Atlantic coastal waters north to the Davis Strait and south to the Caribbean on various Atlantic command training exercises . On 13 December , during a target practice exercise in the North Atlantic , a star shell accidentally struck the battleship , but without causing injuries .
Missouri arrived at Rio de Janeiro on 30 August 1947 for the Inter @-@ American Conference for the Maintenance of Hemisphere Peace and Security . President Truman boarded on 2 September to celebrate the signing of the Rio Treaty , which broadened the Monroe Doctrine by stipulating that an attack on any one of the signatory American countries would be considered an attack on all .
The Truman family boarded Missouri on 7 September 1947 to return to the United States and disembarked at Norfolk on 19 September . Her overhaul in New York — which lasted from 23 September to 10 March 1948 — was followed by refresher training at Guantanamo Bay . The summer of 1948 was devoted to midshipman and reserve training cruises . Also in 1948 , the Big Mo became the first battleship to host a helicopter detachment , operating two Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 machines for utility and rescue work . The battleship departed Norfolk on 1 November 1948 for a second three @-@ week Arctic cold @-@ weather training cruise to the Davis Strait . During the next two years , Missouri participated in Atlantic command exercises from the New England coast to the Caribbean , alternated with two midshipman summer training cruises . She was overhauled at Norfolk Naval Shipyard from 23 September 1949 to 17 January 1950 .
Throughout the latter half of the 1940s , the various service branches of the United States had been reducing their inventories from their World War II levels . For the Navy , this resulted in several vessels of various types being decommissioned and either sold for scrap or placed in one of the various United States Navy reserve fleets scattered along the East and West Coast of the United States . As part of this contraction , three of the Iowa @-@ class battleships had been de @-@ activated and decommissioned ; however , President Truman refused to allow Missouri to be decommissioned . Against the advice of Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson , Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan , and Chief of Naval Operations Louis E. Denfeld , Truman ordered Missouri to be maintained with the active fleet partly because of his fondness for the battleship and partly because the battleship had been christened by his daughter Margaret Truman .
Then the only U.S. battleship in commission , Missouri was proceeding seaward on a training mission from Hampton Roads early on 17 January 1950 when she ran aground 1 @.@ 6 mi ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) from Thimble Shoal Light , near Old Point Comfort . She hit shoal water a distance of three ship @-@ lengths from the main channel . Lifted some 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above waterline , she stuck hard and fast . With the aid of tugboats , pontoons , and a rising tide , she was refloated on 1 February 1950 and repaired .
= = The Korean War ( 1950 – 1953 ) = =
In 1950 , the Korean War broke out , prompting the United States to intervene in the name of the United Nations . President Truman was caught off guard when the invasion struck , but quickly ordered U.S. forces stationed in Japan into South Korea . Truman also sent U.S.-based troops , tanks , fighter and bomber aircraft , and a strong naval force to Korea to support the Republic of Korea . As part of the naval mobilization Missouri was called up from the Atlantic Fleet and dispatched from Norfolk on 19 August to support UN forces on the Korean peninsula .
Missouri arrived just west of Kyūshū on 14 September , where she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Allan Edward Smith . The first American battleship to reach Korean waters , she bombarded Samchok on 15 September 1950 in an attempt to divert troops and attention from the Incheon landings . This was the first time since World War II that Missouri had fired her guns in anger , and in company with the cruiser Helena and two destroyers , she helped prepare the way for the U.S. Eighth Army offensive .
Missouri arrived at Incheon on 19 September , and on 10 October became flagship of Rear Admiral J. M. Higgins , commander , Cruiser Division 5 ( CruDiv 5 ) . She arrived at Sasebo on 14 October , where she became flagship of Vice Admiral A. D. Struble , Commander , 7th Fleet . After screening the aircraft carrier Valley Forge along the east coast of Korea , she conducted bombardment missions from 12 to 26 October in the Chongjin and Tanchon areas , and at Wonsan where she again screened carriers eastward of Wonsan .
MacArthur 's amphibious landings at Incheon had severed the North Korean Army ’ s supply lines ; as a result , North Korea ’ s army had begun a lengthy retreat from South Korea into North Korea . This retreat was closely monitored by the Peoples Republic of China ( PRC ) , out of fear that the UN offensive against Korea would create a US @-@ backed enemy on China ’ s border , and out of concern that the UN offensive in Korea could evolve into a UN war against China . The latter of these two threats had already manifested itself during the Korea War : U.S. F @-@ 86 Sabres on patrol in " MiG Alley " frequently crossed into China while pursuing Communist MiGs operating out of Chinese airbases .
Moreover , there was talk among the U.N. commanders — notably General Douglas MacArthur — about a potential campaign against the People 's Republic of China . In an effort to dissuade UN forces from completely overrunning North Korea , the People 's Republic of China issued diplomatic warnings that they would use force to protect North Korea , but these warnings were not taken seriously for a number of reasons , among them the fact that China lacked air cover to conduct such an attack . This changed abruptly on 19 October 1950 , when the first of an eventual total of 380 @,@ 000 People 's Liberation Army soldiers under the command of General Peng Dehuai crossed into North Korea , launching a full @-@ scale assault against advancing U.N. troops . The PRC offensive caught the UN completely by surprise ; UN forces realized they would have to fall back , and quickly executed an emergency retreat . UN assets were shuffled in order to cover this retreat , and as part of the force tasked with covering the UN retreat Missouri was moved into Hungnam on 23 December to provide gunfire support about the Hungnam defense perimeter until the last UN troops , the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division , were evacuated by way of the sea on 24 December 1950 .
Missouri conducted additional operations with carriers and shore bombardments off the east coast of Korea until 19 March 1951 . She arrived at Yokosuka on 24 March , and 4 days later was relieved of duty in the Far East . She departed Yokosuka on 28 March , and upon arrival at Norfolk on 27 April became the flagship of Rear Admiral James L. Holloway , Jr . , commander , Cruiser Force , Atlantic Fleet . During the summer of 1951 , she engaged in two midshipman training cruises to northern Europe . Under the command of Captain John Sylvester , Missouri entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard 18 October 1951 for an overhaul , which lasted until 30 January 1952 .
Following winter and spring training out of Guantanamo Bay , Missouri visited New York , then set course from Norfolk on 9 June 1952 for another midshipman cruise . She returned to Norfolk on 4 August and entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard to prepare for a second tour in the Korean combat zone .
Missouri stood out of Hampton Roads on 11 September 1952 and arrived at Yokosuka on 17 October . Vice Admiral Joseph J. Clark , commander of the 7th Fleet , brought his command onboard on 19 October . Her primary mission was to provide seagoing artillery support by bombarding enemy targets in the Chaho @-@ Tanchon area , at Chongjin , in the Tanchon @-@ Sonjin area , and at Chaho , Wonsan , Hamhung , and Hungnam during the period 25 October through 2 January 1953 .
Missouri put in to Incheon on 5 January 1953 and sailed thence to Sasebo , Japan . General Mark W. Clark , Commander in Chief , U.N. Command , and Admiral Sir Guy Russell , the Royal Navy commander of the British Far East Station , visited the battleship on 23 January . In the following weeks , Missouri resumed " Cobra " patrol along the east coast of Korea to support troops ashore . Repeated bombardment of Wonsan , Tanehon , Hungnam , and Kojo destroyed main supply routes along the eastern seaboard of Korea .
The last bombardment mission by Missouri was against the Kojo area on 25 March . On 26 March , her commanding officer – Captain Warner R. Edsall – suffered a fatal heart attack while conning her through the submarine net at Sasebo . She was relieved as the 7th Fleet flagship on 6 April by her older sister New Jersey .
Missouri departed Yokosuka on 7 April and arrived at Norfolk on 4 May to become flagship for Rear Admiral E. T. Woolridge , commander , Battleships @-@ Cruisers , Atlantic Fleet , on 14 May . She departed on 8 June on a midshipman training cruise , returned to Norfolk on 4 August , and was overhauled in Norfolk Naval Shipyard from 20 November 1953 to 2 April 1954 . As the flagship of Rear Admiral R. E. Kirby , who had relieved Admiral Woolridge , Missouri departed Norfolk on 7 June as flagship of the midshipman training cruise to Lisbon and Cherbourg . During this voyage Missouri was joined by the other three battleships of her class , New Jersey , Wisconsin , and Iowa , the only time the four ships sailed together . She returned to Norfolk on 3 August and departed on 23 August for inactivation on the West Coast . After calls at Long Beach and San Francisco , Missouri arrived in Seattle on 15 September . Three days later she entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard where she was decommissioned on 26 February 1955 , entering the Bremerton group , Pacific Reserve Fleet .
Upon arrival in Bremerton , Missouri was moored at the last pier of the reserve fleet berthing . This placed her very close to the mainland , and she served as a popular tourist attraction , logging about 180 @,@ 000 visitors per year , who came to view the " surrender deck " where a bronze plaque memorialized the spot ( 35 ° 21 ' 17 " N , 139 ° 45 ' 36 " E ) where Japan surrendered to the Allies , and the accompanying historical display that included copies of the surrender documents and photos . A small cottage industry grew in the civilian community just outside the gates , selling souvenirs and other memorabilia . Nearly thirty years passed before Missouri returned to active duty .
= = Reactivation ( 1984 to 1990 ) = =
Under the Reagan Administration ’ s program to build a 600 @-@ ship Navy , led by Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman , Missouri was reactivated and towed by the salvage ship Beaufort to the Long Beach Naval Yard in the summer of 1984 to undergo modernization in advance of her scheduled recommissioning . In preparation for the move , a skeleton crew of 20 spent three weeks working 12- to 16 @-@ hour days preparing the battleship for her tow . During the modernization Missouri had her obsolete armament removed : 20 mm and 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns , and four of her ten 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) gun mounts .
Over the next several months , the ship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available ; among the new weapons systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles , eight Armored Box Launcher ( ABL ) mounts for 32 BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk missiles , and a quartet of Phalanx Close In Weapon System ( CIWS ) Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti @-@ ship missiles and enemy aircraft . Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire control systems for her guns and missiles , and improved electronic warfare capabilities . During the modernization Missouri 's 800 lb ( 360 kg ) bell , which had been removed from the battleship and sent to Jefferson City , Missouri for sesquicentennial celebrations in the state , was formally returned to the battleship in advance of her recommissioning . Missouri was formally recommissioned in San Francisco on 10 May 1986 . " This is a day to celebrate the rebirth of American sea power " , Secretary of Defense Caspar W. Weinberger told an audience of 10 @,@ 000 at the recommissioning ceremony , instructing the crew to " listen for the footsteps of those who have gone before you . They speak to you of honor and the importance of duty . They remind you of your own traditions . " Also present at the recommissioning ceremony was Missouri governor John Ashcroft , U.S. Senator Pete Wilson , Secretary of the Navy John Lehman , San Francisco mayor Dianne Feinstein , and Margaret Truman .
Four months later Missouri departed from her new home port of Long Beach for an around @-@ the @-@ world cruise , visiting Pearl Harbor Hawaii ; Sydney , Hobart , and Perth , Australia ; Diego Garcia ; the Suez Canal ; Istanbul , Turkey ; Naples , Italy ; Rota , Spain ; Lisbon , Portugal ; and the Panama Canal . Missouri became the first American battleship to circumnavigate the globe since Theodore Roosevelt 's " Great White Fleet " 80 years before – a fleet which included the first battleship named USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 11 ) .
In 1987 , Missouri was outfitted with 40 mm grenade launchers and 25 mm chain guns and sent to take part in Operation Earnest Will , the escorting of reflagged Kuwaiti oil tankers in the Persian Gulf . These smaller @-@ caliber weapons were installed due to the threat of Iranian @-@ manned , Swedish @-@ made Boghammar cigarette boats operating in the Persian Gulf at the time . On 25 July , the ship departed on a six @-@ month deployment to the Indian Ocean and North Arabian Sea . She spent more than 100 continuous days at sea in a hot , tense environment – a striking contrast to her world cruise months earlier . As the centerpiece for Battlegroup Echo , Missouri escorted tanker convoys into the Strait of Hormuz , keeping her fire control system trained on land @-@ based Iranian Silkworm missile launchers .
Missouri returned to the United States via Diego Garcia , Australia and Hawaii in early 1988 . Several months later , Missouri 's crew again headed for Hawaiian waters for the Rim of the Pacific ( RimPac ) exercises , which involved more than 50 @,@ 000 troops and ships from the navies of Australia , Canada , Japan and the United States . Port visits in 1988 included Vancouver and Victoria in Canada , San Diego , Seattle , and Bremerton .
In the early months of 1989 , Missouri was in the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for routine maintenance . On 1 July 1989 , while berthed at Pier D , the music video for Cher 's If I Could Turn Back Time was filmed aboard Missouri and featured the ship 's crew . A few months later she departed for Pacific Exercise ( PacEx ) ' 89 , where she and New Jersey performed a simultaneous gunfire demonstration for the aircraft carriers Enterprise and Nimitz . The highlight of PacEx was a port visit in Pusan , Republic of Korea . In 1990 , Missouri again took part in the RimPac Exercise with ships from Australia , Canada , Japan , Korea , and the U.S.
= = Gulf War ( January – February 1991 ) = =
On 2 August 1990 Iraq , led by President Saddam Hussein , invaded Kuwait . In the middle of the month U.S. President George H. W. Bush , in keeping with the Carter Doctrine , sent the first of several hundred thousand troops , along with a strong force of naval support , to Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf area to support a multinational force in a standoff with Iraq .
Missouri 's scheduled four @-@ month Western Pacific port @-@ to @-@ port cruise set to begin in September was canceled just a few days before the ship was to leave . She had been placed on hold in anticipation of being mobilized as forces continued to mass in the Middle East . Missouri departed on 13 November 1990 for the troubled waters of the Persian Gulf . She departed from Pier 6 at Long Beach , with extensive press coverage , and headed for Hawaii and the Philippines for more work @-@ ups en route to the Persian Gulf . Along the way she made stops at Subic Bay and Pattaya Beach , Thailand , before transiting the Strait of Hormuz on 3 January 1991 . During subsequent operations leading up to Operation Desert Storm , Missouri prepared to launch Tomahawk Land Attack Missiles ( TLAMs ) and provide naval gunfire support as required .
Missouri fired her first Tomahawk missile at Iraqi targets at 01 : 40 am on 17 January 1991 , followed by 27 additional missiles over the next five days .
On 29 January , the Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigate Curts led Missouri northward , using advanced mine @-@ avoidance sonar . In her first naval gunfire support action of Desert Storm she shelled an Iraqi command and control bunker near the Saudi border , the first time her 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns had been fired in combat since March 1953 off Korea . The battleship bombarded Iraqi beach defenses in occupied Kuwait on the night of 3 February , firing 112 16 in ( 410 mm ) rounds over the next three days until relieved by Wisconsin . Missouri then fired another 60 rounds off Khafji on 11 – 12 February before steaming north to Faylaka Island . After minesweepers cleared a lane through Iraqi defenses , Missouri fired 133 rounds during four shore bombardment missions as part of the amphibious landing feint against the Kuwaiti shore line the morning of 23 February . The heavy pounding attracted Iraqi attention ; in response to the battleship ’ s artillery strike , the Iraqis fired two HY @-@ 2 Silkworm missiles at the battleship , one of which missed , . The other missile was intercepted by a GWS @-@ 30 Sea Dart missile launched from the British air defence destroyer HMS Gloucester within 90 seconds and crashed into the sea roughly 700 yd ( 640 m ) in front of Missouri .
During the campaign , Missouri was involved in a friendly fire incident with the Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigate Jarrett . According to the official report , on 25 February , Jarrett 's Phalanx CIWS engaged the chaff fired by Missouri as a countermeasure against enemy missiles , and stray rounds from the firing struck Missouri , one penetrating through a bulkhead and becoming embedded in an interior passageway of the ship . Another round struck the ship on the forward funnel , passing completely through it . One sailor aboard Missouri was struck in the neck by flying shrapnel and suffered minor injuries . Those familiar with the incident are skeptical of this account , however , as Jarrett was reportedly over 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away at the time and the characteristics of chaff are such that a Phalanx would not normally regard it as a threat and engage it . There is no dispute that the rounds that struck Missouri did come from Jarrett , and that it was an accident . The suspicion is that a Phalanx operator on Jarrett may have accidentally fired off a few rounds manually , although there is no evidence to support this .
During the operation , Missouri also assisted coalition forces engaged in clearing Iraqi naval mines in the Persian Gulf . By the time the war ended , Missouri had destroyed at least 15 naval mines .
With combat operations out of range of the battleship ’ s weapons on 26 February , Missouri had fired a total 783 rounds of 16 in ( 410 mm ) shells and launched 28 Tomahawk cruise missiles during the campaign , and commenced to conduct patrol and armistice enforcement operations in the northern Persian Gulf until sailing for home on 21 March . Following stops at Fremantle and Hobart , Australia , the warship visited Pearl Harbor before arriving home in April . She spent the remainder of the year conducting type training and other local operations , the latter including 7 December " voyage of remembrance " to mark the 50th anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 . During that ceremony , Missouri hosted President George H. W. Bush , the first such presidential visit for the warship since Harry S. Truman boarded the battleship in September 1947 .
= = Museum ship ( 1998 to present ) = =
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the absence of a perceived threat to the United States came drastic cuts in the defense budget , and the high cost of maintaining and operating battleships as part of the United States Navy 's active fleet became uneconomical ; as a result , Missouri was decommissioned on 31 March 1992 at Long Beach , California after 16 total years of active service . Her last commanding officer , Captain Albert L. Kaiss , wrote in the ship 's final Plan of the Day :
Our final day has arrived . Today the final chapter in battleship Missouri ’ s history will be written . It 's often said that the crew makes the command . There is no truer statement ... for it 's the crew of this great ship that made this a great command . You are a special breed of sailors and Marines and I am proud to have served with each and every one of you . To you who have made the painful journey of putting this great lady to sleep , I thank you . For you have had the toughest job . To put away a ship that has become as much a part of you as you are to her is a sad ending to a great tour . But take solace in this — you have lived up to the history of the ship and those who sailed her before us . We took her to war , performed magnificently and added another chapter in her history , standing side by side our forerunners in true naval tradition . God bless you all .
Missouri returned to be part of the reserve fleet at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard , Bremerton , Washington , until 12 January 1995 , when she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register . She remained in Bremerton , but was not open to tourists as she had been from 1957 to 1984 . In spite of attempts by citizens ' groups to keep her in Bremerton and be re @-@ opened as a tourist site , the U.S. Navy wanted to pair a symbol of the end of World War II with one representing its beginning . On 4 May 1998 , Secretary of the Navy John H. Dalton signed the donation contract that transferred her to the nonprofit USS Missouri Memorial Association ( MMA ) of Honolulu , Hawaii . She was towed from Bremerton on 23 May to Astoria , Oregon , where she sat in fresh water at the mouth of the Columbia River to kill and drop the saltwater barnacles and sea grasses that had grown on her hull in Bremerton , then towed across the eastern Pacific , and docked at Ford Island , Pearl Harbor on 22 June , just 500 yd ( 460 m ) from the Arizona Memorial . Less than a year later , on 29 January 1999 , Missouri was opened as a museum operated by the MMA .
Originally , the decision to move Missouri to Pearl Harbor was met with some resistance . The National Park Service expressed concern that the battleship , whose name has become synonymous with the end of World War II , would overshadow the battleship Arizona , whose dramatic explosion and subsequent sinking on 7 December 1941 has since become synonymous with the attack on Pearl Harbor . To help guard against this impression Missouri was placed well back from and facing the Arizona Memorial , so that those participating in military ceremonies on Missouri 's aft decks would not have sight of the Arizona Memorial . The decision to have Missouri 's bow face the Arizona Memorial was intended to convey that Missouri watches over the remains of Arizona so that those interred within Arizona 's hull may rest in peace .
Missouri was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 14 May 1971 for hosting the signing of the instrument of Japanese surrender that ended World War II . She is not eligible for designation as a National Historic Landmark because she was extensively modernized in the years following the surrender .
On 14 October 2009 , Missouri was moved from her berthing station on Battleship Row to a drydock at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard to undergo a three @-@ month overhaul . The work , priced at $ 18 million , included installing a new anti @-@ corrosion system , repainting the hull , and upgrading the internal mechanisms . Drydock workers reported that the ship was leaking at some points on the starboard side . The repairs were completed the first week of January 2010 and the ship was returned to her berthing station on Battleship Row on 7 January 2010 . The ship 's grand reopening occurred on 30 January .
= = Appearances in popular culture = =
Missouri was central to the plot of the film Under Siege , and the ship was prominently featured in another movie , Battleship . As Missouri has not moved under her own power since 1992 , shots of the ship at sea were obtained with the help of three tugboats .
= = Awards = =
Missouri received eight battle stars for her service in World War II , five for her service during the Korean War , and three for her service during the Gulf War . Missouri also received numerous awards for her service in World War II , Korea , and the Persian Gulf .
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= M @-@ 70 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 70 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . In the 1920s , the highway originally connected Sterling in southwest Arenac County with Prescott in southeast Ogemaw County . The route was later adjusted to run from M @-@ 76 near Sterling along a convoluted route through Maple Ridge and Prescott to end at M @-@ 55 in Nester 's Corners . The highway was still a gravel road when the designation was removed by 1960 .
= = Route description = =
The final route used by M @-@ 70 followed Melita Road starting at M @-@ 76 northwest of Sterling . The highway ran north and crossed the Rifle River at a point between sections of the Ogemaw State Forest . The highway turned east on Main Street Road in Melita . From there , M @-@ 70 ran east on Main Street Road to the junction with Reed Road where it turned northward to Maple Ridge Road . The highway followed Maple Ridge Road east into Maple Ridge and turned north on Briggs Road . Crossing the Ogemaw – Arenac county line , the road name changed to Sage Lake Road into the village of Prescott . From there , it turned westerly on Greenwood Road through downtown Prescott , and north on Clark Road to end at M @-@ 55 one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Nester Corners , which is the intersection of South Sage Lake Road and M @-@ 55 .
= = History = =
M @-@ 70 was first shown on a state map on July 1 , 1919 , with the debut of the Michigan state trunkline highway system . The original routing was shown between M @-@ 76 at Sterling and M @-@ 55 at Prescott . In 1929 , M @-@ 55 was shifted to run due east from Selkirk to US Highway 23 north of Whittemore . The segment east of Prescott to Whittemore was turned over to the county , but the section north of Prescott was added to M @-@ 70 . This extended M @-@ 70 north to its terminus in Nester 's Corners . The designation was decommissioned by July 1 , 1960 . At the time , the highway was still a gravel road .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Hancock ( film ) =
Hancock is a 2008 American superhero comedy @-@ drama film directed by Peter Berg and starring Will Smith , Charlize Theron , Jason Bateman and Eddie Marsan . It tells the story of a vigilante superhero , John Hancock ( Smith ) from Los Angeles whose reckless actions routinely cost the city millions of dollars . Eventually one person he saves , Ray Embrey ( Bateman ) , makes it his mission to change Hancock 's public image for the better .
The story was originally written by Vincent Ngo in 1996 . It languished in " development hell " for years and had various directors attached , including Tony Scott , Michael Mann , Jonathan Mostow , and Gabriele Muccino before going into production in 2007 . Hancock was filmed in Los Angeles with a production budget of $ 150 million .
In the United States , the film was rated PG @-@ 13 by the Motion Picture Association of America after changes were made at the organization 's request in order to avoid an R rating , which it had received twice before . The film was presented and widely released on July 2 , 2008 in the United States and the United Kingdom by Columbia Pictures . Hancock received mixed reviews from film critics and grossed more than $ 620 million in theaters worldwide .
= = Plot = =
John Hancock ( Will Smith ) is an alcoholic man with superhero powers , including flight , invulnerability , and super @-@ strength . Though he uses his powers to stop criminals in his current residence of Los Angeles , his activity inadvertently causes millions of dollars in property damage due to his constant intoxication . As a result , he is routinely jeered at the crime scenes . Hancock also ignores court subpoenas from the city of Los Angeles to address the property damage he has caused .
When public relations spokesperson Ray Embrey ( Jason Bateman ) departs from an unsuccessful meeting pitching his All @-@ Heart logo for corporations who are extraordinarily charitable , he becomes trapped on railroad tracks with an incoming freight train . Hancock saves Ray 's life , but he causes the train to derail and nearly injures another driver . Hancock is jeered by other drivers for causing more damage , but Ray steps in and publicly thanks Hancock for saving his life . Ray offers to improve Hancock 's public image , and Hancock grudgingly accepts . The spokesperson convinces the alcoholic superhero to permit himself to be jailed for outstanding subpoenas so they can show Los Angeles how much the city really needs Hancock . When the crime rate rises after Hancock 's incarceration , the superhero is contacted by the Chief of Police . With a new costume from Ray , Hancock intervenes with a bank robbery , rescuing a cop and stopping the leader of the robbers , Red Parker ( Eddie Marsan ) .
After the rescue , Hancock is applauded for handling the bank robbery . The superhero becomes popular once more , as Ray had predicted . He goes out to dinner with Ray and his wife Mary ( Charlize Theron ) , with whom he reveals his apparent immortality and his amnesia from 80 years ago . After Hancock tucks a drunken Ray in bed , he discovers that Mary also has superpowers . He threatens to expose her until she explains their origins , and she tells him that they have lived for 3 @,@ 000 years with their powers , having been called gods and angels in their time . She explains that they are the last of their kind and that their kind are paired . Mary does not tell Hancock the entire truth , and Hancock departs to tell Ray about the conversation . The exchange results in a battle between Hancock and Mary that takes them to downtown Los Angeles , causing significant damage to the area . Ray , downtown in a business meeting , sees and recognizes Mary using superhero powers like Hancock .
Hancock is later shot twice in the chest and wounded when he stops a liquor store robbery . After being hospitalized , Mary enters and explains that as the pair of immortals gets close , they begin to lose their powers . She also explains that Hancock was attacked in an alley 80 years prior , where he obtained amnesia . Mary deserted him then in order for him to recover from his injuries . When he is hospitalized , the hospital is raided by Red Parker , the bank robber , and two men that Hancock had humiliated during his incarceration . Mary , visiting Hancock , is shot in the process . Hancock is able to stop two men but is further wounded by them . When Red attempts to finish Hancock off , Ray comes to the rescue and kills the bank robber with a fire axe . With Mary nearly dying , Hancock flees from the hospital so their parting would allow her to heal with her powers . He later winds up in New York City , working as a superhero . Ray is seen walking with Mary discussing historical events such as the reign of Attila the Hun in a jovial manner . As gratitude to Ray , Hancock paints Ray 's All @-@ Heart logo on the moon and calls the spokesperson to look up to the worldwide advertisement .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Hancock , now living in New York City , confronts a fleeing criminal with the police . Cornered , the man takes a hostage and jeeringly demands Hancock escort him to safety . Hancock turns back and smiles as the credits resume .
= = Cast = =
Will Smith as John Hancock , an alcoholic superhero . Hancock is invulnerable , immortal , possesses superhuman strength , reflexes and stamina , highly developed regeneration , and can fly at supersonic speeds . He is also an amnesiac ; his first memories are of waking up alone in a hospital in 1931 . During his release , the duty nurse asked him for his " John Hancock " , which he adopted as his current alias . Smith described the character , " Hancock is not your average superhero . Every day he wakes up mad at the world . He doesn 't remember what happened to him and there 's no one to help him find the answers . " To give a realistic appearance of superhero flight , Smith was often suspended by wires 60 feet ( 18 m ) above the ground and propelled at 40 – 50 miles per hour ( 64 – 80 km / h ) . , Hancock 's character is a parody version of DC 's Superman .
Jason Bateman as Ray Embrey , a corporate public relations consultant whose life Hancock saves . Bateman said , " My character sees life through rose @-@ colored glasses so he doesn 't understand how people can 't see the positive side of Hancock . I like being the everyman . I like being the tour guide , the one who tethers whatever absurdity might be in a film and helps make that tangible to the audience . "
Charlize Theron as Mary Embrey , Ray 's wife and Hancock 's ex @-@ wife who also has powers and abilities like him , but they are both becoming weak as they are close to each other . Theron described Mary , " She makes this conscious decision to live in suburbia and be this soccer mom to her stepson and be the perfect wife — she lives in this bubble . But when people do that it usually means they are hiding some characteristic inside themselves that scares them . That is Mary 's case . She knows who she is and what she is capable of . "
Eddie Marsan as Kenneth " Red " Parker , Jr . , a bank robber who later becomes Hancock 's arch @-@ nemesis . Having previously filmed the low @-@ budget Happy @-@ Go @-@ Lucky , Marsan found the transition to the big @-@ budget Hancock to be a shock . Marsan said , " I went from being in a car with Sally Hawkins in Happy @-@ Go @-@ Lucky to blowing up a bank in downtown LA . "
Film producers Akiva Goldsman and Michael Mann appear as executives listening to Ray 's lecture . Television host Nancy Grace also has a cameo appearance .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Vincent Ngo wrote the spec script Tonight , He Comes in 1996 . The draft , about a troubled 12 @-@ year @-@ old , and a fallen superhero , was initially picked up by director Tony Scott as a potential project . Producer Akiva Goldsman came across the script , which he had considered a favorite , and encouraged Richard Saperstein , then president of development and production at Artisan Entertainment , to acquire it in 2002 . Michael Mann was initially attached to direct Tonight , He Comes , but he instead opted to direct Miami Vice . Eventually , Artisan placed the project in turnaround , and it was acquired by Goldsman .
Vince Gilligan and John August rewrote Ngo 's script , and Jonathan Mostow was attached to direct the film . Under Mostow 's supervision , a ten @-@ page treatment was written to be pitched to Will Smith to portray the lead role in the film . Neither Mostow nor Smith was yet committed to make the project an active priority at the time . Several studios pursued the opportunity to finance the film , and Columbia Pictures succeeded in acquiring the prospect in February 2005 . A second draft was scripted by Gilligan following the finalization of the deal with Columbia . The film was initially slated for a holiday 2006 release .
In November 2005 , Mostow and Smith committed to Tonight , He Comes , with production slated to begin in Los Angeles in summer 2006 . Smith 's salary in his pay or play contract for the film was $ 20 million and 20 percent of the film 's gross . The actor had also set up a pay or play contract to film I Am Legend under Warner Bros. after completion of Tonight , He Comes . Mostow eventually departed from the project due to creative differences . Italian director Gabriele Muccino filled Mostow 's vacancy in May 2006 . Since Muccino was busy editing The Pursuit of Happyness starring Smith , which Muccino had directed , Smith switched projects to film I Am Legend first for its December 2007 release , and then film Tonight , He Comes afterward . Later in the month , Muccino left the project because of an incompatibility with filming the story . Since Muccino was preparing The Pursuit of Happyness , the studio had delayed the production start for Tonight , He Comes to summer 2007 , enabling Warner Bros. to begin production of I Am Legend with Smith .
= = = Filming = = =
In October 2006 , Peter Berg was attached to direct Tonight , He Comes with production slated to begin in May 2007 in Los Angeles , the story 's setting . Berg had been midway through filming The Kingdom when he heard about the film and called Michael Mann , who had become one of its producers . The new director compared the original script 's tone to Leaving Las Vegas ( 1995 ) , calling it " a scathing character study of this suicidal alcoholic superhero " . The director explained the rewrite , " We thought the idea was cool , but we did want to lighten it up . We all did . " Before filming began , Tonight , He Comes was retitled John Hancock , and it was eventually shortened to Hancock .
Filming began on Hancock on July 3 , 2007 in Los Angeles , having a production budget of $ 150 million . Locations such as Hollywood Boulevard were designed to look damaged , having rubble , overturned vehicles , and fires . Smith 's character is also an alcoholic , so for scenes in liquor stores , the art department designed fake labels such as Pap Smear Vodka for the bottles because " brown @-@ bag brands " like Thunderbird and Night Train refused to lend their names . Reshoots were filmed in Times Square in May 2008 , the late date resulting in the cancellation of the film 's original world premiere in Australia on June 10 , 2008 .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Hancock was Peter Berg 's first film with visual effects as critical cinematic elements . He considered the computer @-@ generated fight his least favorite part of the film , citing limited control in making the scene successful . According to the director , " Once the fight starts , you 're very limited and you 're at the mercy of your effects guys ... unless they 're really technically oriented ... it 's definitely the time we have the least amount of control as directors . " He and other filmmakers worked to cut down on the fight scene , believing that the film 's success would come from the character study of Smith 's character , John Hancock , similar to Robert Downey , Jr . ' s acclaimed portrayal of Tony Stark in the previous May 's superhero release , Iron Man .
Visual effects supervisor Carey Villegas described Peter Berg 's photography as " very high energy " , to which the visual effects crew had difficulty adapting . Though the crew had estimated developing 300 visual effects shot at its initial bid , the final tally was approximately 525 shots . An unexpected shot was a scene in which Hancock shoves a prisoner 's head up another 's anus , and filmmakers initially attempted to film it conventionally , using sleight of hand techniques with cameras . Finding that doing so did not capture " the vulgarity of the gag " , the crew was enlisted to use computer @-@ generated effects . Visual effects were also applied in conjunction with the film 's choreography , incorporating palm trees , twisters , and debris in the computer @-@ generated fight scene and combining visual effects with a crane shot to portray Hancock 's derailment of a freight train .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
The New York Times noted that Hancock 's original story and controversial subject matter present a stark contrast to " a summerful of sequels and animated sure shots " and represent a gamble for " an increasingly corporate entertainment industry " . Hancock had been reviewed by the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) twice , and both times received an R rating instead of the makers ' preferred PG @-@ 13 rating to target broader audiences .
The MPAA questioned elements including Smith 's character drinking in front of a 7 @-@ year @-@ old and the character flying under the influence of alcohol . Scenes that were removed to receive a PG @-@ 13 rating from the MPAA included a scene of statutory rape , two of three uses of the word " fuck " ( the MPAA only permitted one use for the PG @-@ 13 rating ) , and intense shots of needles going into arms . The MPAA allowed scenes of Hancock shoving a prisoner 's head up another 's behind and of Hancock having explosive ejaculation during sexual intercourse , though Berg chose to save the latter scene for the DVD , explaining , " It just wasn 't that funny . Never was . You 'd put it in front of an audience and there 'd be two , maybe three people laughing . There was no way to do that and then regain even a modicum of emotional integrity . " The director kept the scene with the prisoners since a Las Vegas test screening was overwhelmingly successful : " At the end of the day , I couldn 't ignore an audience when they 're laughing that hard . " With such elements , studio executives only became comfortable with Hancock when the marketing approach focused on action and humor . Berg noted , " The ad campaign for this movie is much friendlier than the film . " The MPAA ultimately gave the film a PG @-@ 13 rating , citing " some intense sequences of sci @-@ fi action and violence and language " .
Hancock was originally titled Tonight , He Comes and later changed to John Hancock before settling on its final title . Prior to the film 's release , marketing consultants attempted to persuade Sony Pictures to again change the title Hancock because it was too vague for audiences , suggesting alternatives like Heroes Never Die , Unlikely Hero , and Less Than Hero . Despite the advice , Sony stayed with Hancock and anticipated marketing on the popularity of the film 's star , Will Smith .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
Hancock had its world premiere as the opener at the 30th Moscow International Film Festival on June 19 , 2008 . To avoid copyright infringement , organizers took " unprecedented " steps to prevent illegal reproduction of the film .
For the film , Sony created a digital camera package ( DCP ) having 4K resolution , containing four times more information than the typical DCP that possessed 2K resolution . Projectors for the higher @-@ resolution package have been installed in 200 theaters in the United States with two dozen in evaluation .
Prior to the film 's opening five @-@ day weekend in the United States and Canada , predictions for its weekend performance ranged from as low as $ 70 million to as high as $ 125 million . According to CinemaScore , Hancock was given a B + grade by audiences . The film was shown in advance screenings on July 1 , 2008 in 3 @,@ 680 theaters in the United States and Canada , grossing $ 6 @.@ 8 million . The film was widely released on July 2 , 2008 , expanding to 3 @,@ 965 theaters . At the conclusion of the five @-@ day weekend , Hancock took top placement at the box office in the United States and Canada , grossing an estimated $ 103 @.@ 8 million . The film had the third @-@ biggest opening 4th of July weekend after Transformers and Spider @-@ Man 2 . Hancock was Will Smith 's fifth film to open on a 4 July weekend and was his most successful opening to date . The film was also Smith 's eighth film in a row to take top placement in the American and Canadian box office and the twelfth film in Smith 's career to lead the box office . Hancock was also Peter Berg 's strongest opening of his directing career to date . Chad Hartigan , analyst for Exhibitor Relations , said about Smith 's successful opening , " Audiences don 't care what critics say ; they 're going to turn out for anything he does . "
Outside the United States and Canada , Hancock grossed $ 78 @.@ 3 million in its opening weekend , drawing from 5 @,@ 444 screenings across 50 markets , ranking it the third highest international opening of 2008 after Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and Iron Man . Hancock averaged $ 14 @,@ 382 per screen . It placed on top in 47 of the 50 markets in which it opened ; its strongest openings were the United Kingdom with $ 19 @.@ 3 million , Germany with $ 12 @.@ 4 million , South Korea with $ 8 @.@ 5 million , Australia with $ 7 @.@ 3 million , and China with $ 5 @.@ 5 million . The Chinese opening was the fourth @-@ biggest opening to date for the country . Other international performances included $ 3 @.@ 4 million in Brazil and $ 3 @.@ 1 million in Taiwan . In Hong Kong , the film opened in first place with $ 1 @.@ 3 million , averaging $ 37 @,@ 300 across the 35 venues . The film 's overall gross for its opening five @-@ day weekend worldwide is $ 185 @.@ 6 million .
In the following weekend of July 11 , 2008 , Hancock fell to second place in the United States and Canada behind Hellboy II : The Golden Army , grossing an estimated $ 33 million , a " modest " 47 % drop in revenue ( see second weekend in box office performance ) . The film 's recorded American and Canadian attendance was higher than the Smith feature Men in Black II in both films ' second weekend , but it was significantly less than attendance records for Smith 's other films , Independence Day and Men in Black through the same point . Internationally Hancock expanded to 8 @,@ 125 screens across 67 markets , ranking first at the box office again in 30 markets . The film 's top opening grosses for the weekend included $ 11 @.@ 4 million in Russia ( 589 screens ) , $ 9 @.@ 9 million in France ( 739 screens ) , $ 4 @.@ 6 million in Mexico ( 783 screens ) , $ 2 @.@ 2 million in India ( 429 screens ) , $ 1 @.@ 7 million in the Netherlands ( 90 screens ) , $ 1 @.@ 3 million in Belgium ( 69 screens ) , and $ 1 million in Ukraine ( 81 screens ) . In territories playing Hancock for a second weekend , the United Kingdom dropped 45 % to total $ 33 @.@ 4 million to date , Germany 37 % to total $ 24 @.@ 2 million to date , South Korea 38 % to total $ 14 @.@ 7 million to date , and Australia 47 % to total $ 14 @.@ 4 million to date . For the second weekend , with the 67 markets , Hancock accumulated an estimated $ 71 @.@ 4 million in the international box office , only a $ 7 @.@ 2 million drop from the previous weekend in territories outside the United States and Canada .
In Hancock 's third weekend of July 18 , the film took top placement in the international box office a third time , grossing an estimated $ 44 @.@ 8 million from 8 @,@ 286 screens across 71 territories . The film had beaten The Dark Knight , which premiered that weekend in 20 international markets . Hancock had tracked 32 % internationally ahead of its performance in the United States and Canada . It had opened in four new markets for the weekend , ranking first in Spain with $ 8 @.@ 6 million from 562 sites and first in Norway with $ 1 million from 60 sites . Hancock also kept top placement in France , estimating $ 4 @.@ 4 million from 741 screens for a total of $ 16 @.@ 8 million to date .
The film experienced a late resurgence in the international box office on the weekend of September 12 , grossing $ 10 @.@ 6 million from 1 @,@ 425 screens in 31 markets . Making up most of the amount was $ 8 million from the film 's premiere in Italy on 678 screens . Hancock has grossed $ 227 @,@ 946 @,@ 274 in the United States and Canada and $ 396 @,@ 440 @,@ 472 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 624 @,@ 386 @,@ 746 .
= = = Home media = = =
Hancock was part of Sony 's experiment in providing content to consumers who own a BRAVIA television equipped with an Internet connection . The film 's release over the Internet took place after its theatrical run and before its release on DVD . According to Sony executives , distributing Hancock was an opportunity to showcase BRAVIA , though the method has been perceived as an " obvious threat " to cable companies ' video on demand . The film was available to BRAVIA owners from October 28 , 2008 to November 10 , 2008 .
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on November 25 , 2008 . The single @-@ disc DVD provides a theatrical cut ( 92 minutes ) and an unrated cut ( 102 minutes ) as well as five featurettes and two documentaries . The double @-@ disc DVD includes these features , a digital copy of the film , and two additional making @-@ of extras . The Blu @-@ ray Disc includes these , an on @-@ set visual diary , and a picture @-@ in @-@ picture track . George Lang of The Oklahoman described the unrated cut as " a rare instance when deleted scenes enhance the final product " . Christopher Monfette of IGN thought that the Blu @-@ ray Disc was a " beautiful " transfer , the audio was well @-@ balanced , and the featurettes were well @-@ supplied .
In the week ending November 30 , Hancock placed first on three video charts : the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert sales chart , Home Media Magazine 's video rental chart , and Nielsen 's Blu @-@ ray Disc chart . With the year 's Black Friday shopping day on November 28 , Hancock was the top seller in the Blu @-@ ray Disc format . Over 5 @.@ 38 million DVDs were sold for a revenue of $ 91 @,@ 066 @,@ 638 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Hancock received mixed reviews from film critics . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 41 % , based on 217 reviews , with an average score of 5 @.@ 4 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Though it begins with promise , Hancock suffers from a flimsy narrative and poor execution " . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average rating , the film has received an average score of 49 out of 100 , based on 37 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Todd McCarthy of Variety felt that the film 's premise was undermined by the execution . McCarthy believed the concept ensured the film was " amusing and plausible " for its first half , but that the second half was full of illogical story developments and missed opportunities . Stephen Farber of The Hollywood Reporter said that the opening established the premise well , but that the film came undone when it began to alternate between comedy and tragedy , and introduced a backstory for Hancock that did not make sense . He said it rewrote its own internal logic in order to pander to its audience . Stephen Hunter in The Washington Post said it had begun with promise , but that the change in tone partway through was so abrupt that the film did not recover . Jim Schembri of The Age called the change in direction " an absolute killer story twist " , and David Denby of The New Yorker said it lifted the film to a new level by supplementing the jokes with sexual tension and emotional power .
Jim Schembri wrote that Berg 's direction helped to sell Hancock 's " well @-@ drawn " backstory , Todd McCarthy said the gritty visual approach adopted by Berg did not mesh well with the " vulgar goofiness " of certain scenes , and Stephen Farber said that Berg 's frantic direction compounded the storytelling errors . Stephen Hunter said that Berg had not understood that the shifting tone and plot twists were meant to be humorous , and that he had played straight what was supposed to be a dark comedy and subversive satire . David Denby said Berg 's style — especially his use of close @-@ ups — was intended to showcase " genuine actors at work " , while Manohla Dargis of The New York Times insisted Berg had taken Hancock to heart and brought gravity to the film .
David Denby described Smith 's performance as contrasting with his performances in his other films . He said , " For the first time in his life , Will Smith doesn ’ t flirt with the audience ... he stays in character as a self @-@ hating lonely guy . " Stephen Hunter argued that Smith and his co @-@ stars had misunderstood the material in the same manner as Berg . He added that the examination of Smith 's character came across at first as an examination of " phenomenally gifted " black sporting superstars who were " marginalized " , " dehumanized " and exploited as a product by society . Manohla Dargis was struck by Theron 's performance , saying that she enabled Smith to deepen the film 's emotional complexity . Todd McCarthy said that Smith 's " attitude @-@ laden quips " helped to carry the film 's superior first half , and that all three leads performed capably , but he said no opportunity was offered for the supporting characters to register . Roger Ebert writing in the Chicago Sun Times praised the three leads , saying that Smith avoided playing Hancock " as a goofball " and instead portrayed him as a more subtle and serious character . Stephen Farber said that Hancock was a good showcase for the leads , affirming that Smith shone in a film that was only sporadically worthy of his performance , while Colm Andrew of the Manx Independent said that despite the mix of themes " the laughs are frequent and genuine ( no forced slapstick ) , the fight scenes exciting and the emotional stuff quite moving " .
Jim Schembri concluded that the film was " refreshing , savvy , fun and fast " . He said it managed to mix comedy and action successfully , and that the drama came across as surprisingly genuine . Stephen Farber believed that the extended development of the film had reduced its quality , but that the visual effects were " stellar " and showed wit . McCarthy praised the effects , but said the film was " both overwrought and severely undernourished . " Roger Ebert observed the film was " a lot of fun " , and Manohla Dargis admitted that it was " unexpectedly satisfying " . She said that while it faltered and felt rushed towards its end , it had an emotional complexity and " raggedness " that spoke with sincerity about essential human vulnerabilities . Stephen Hunter concluded that Hancock was ultimately " indigestible " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Hancock won the award for " Best Summer Action / Adventure Movie " at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards . Smith 's performance won him the award for " Favorite Movie Actor " at the 2009 Kids ' Choice Awards .
= = Sequel = =
Director Peter Berg said prior to Hancock 's release that if the film pulls in as much business as predicted , a sequel , Hancock 2 , would likely follow . After the film 's release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc , actor Will Smith said that there was ongoing discussion about a possible sequel , " The ideas aren 't [ ... ] developed , but we are building out an entire world ; I think people are going to be very surprised at the new world of Hancock . " In August 2009 , Columbia Pictures hired screenwriters Adam Fierro and Glen Mazzara to write the sequel , and the studio plans to bring back the producing team from the original film . Charlize Theron confirmed that she would reprise her role , and Berg said to expect a third actor to star as another figure with powers like Smith 's and Theron 's characters .
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= History of ethanol fuel in Brazil =
The history of ethanol fuel in Brazil dates from the 1970s and relates to Brazil ’ s sugarcane -based ethanol fuel program , which allowed the country to become the world 's second largest producer of ethanol , and the world 's largest exporter . Several important political and technological developments led Brazil to become the world leader in the sustainable use of bioethanol , and a policy model for other developing countries in the tropical zone of Latin America , the Caribbean , and Africa . Government policies and technological advances also allowed the country to achieve a landmark in ethanol consumption , when ethanol retail sales surpassed 50 % market share of the gasoline @-@ powered vehicle fleet in early 2008 . This level of ethanol fuel consumption had only been reached in Brazil once before , at the peak of the Pró @-@ Álcool Program near the end of the 1980s .
= = Early experiences = =
Sugarcane has been cultivated in Brazil since 1532 , introduced in Pernambuco that year , sugar was one of the first commodities exported to Europe by the Portuguese settlers . Ethyl alcohol or ethanol is obtained as a by @-@ product of sugar mills producing sugar , and can be processed to produce alcoholic beverages , ethanol fuel or alcohol for industrial or antiseptic uses . The first use of sugarcane ethanol as fuel in Brazil dates back to the late twenties and early thirties of the 20th century , with the introduction of the automobile in the country . After World War I some experimenting took place in Brazil 's Northeast Region , and as early as 1919 , the Governor of Pernambuco mandated all official vehicles to run on ethanol . The first ethanol fuel production plant went on line in 1927 , the Usina Serra Grande Alagoas ( USGA ) , located in the Northeastern state of Alagoas , producing fuel with 75 % ethanol and 25 % ethyl ether . As other plants began producing ethanol fuel , two years later there were 500 cars running on this fuel in the country 's Northeast Region .
A decree was issued on February 20 , 1931 , mandating the blend of 5 % hydrated ethanol to all imports of gasoline by volume . The number of distilleries producing ethanol fuel went from 1 in 1933 to 54 by 1945 . Fuel @-@ grade ethanol production increased from 100 @,@ 000 liters in 1933 to 51 @.@ 5 million liters in 1937 , representing 7 % of the country 's fuel consumption . Production peaked to 77 million liters during World War II , representing 9 @.@ 4 % of all ethanol production in the country . Due to German submarine attacks threatening oil supplies , the mandatory blend was as high as 50 percent in 1943 . After the end of the war cheap oil caused gasoline to prevail , and ethanol blends were only used sporadically , mostly to take advantage of sugar surpluses , until the 1970s , when the first oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness on the dangers of oil dependence .
= = The Pro @-@ Alcohol era = =
As a response to the 1973 oil crisis , the Brazilian government began promoting bioethanol as a fuel . The National Alcohol Program -Pró @-@ Álcool- ( Portuguese : ' Programa Nacional do Álcool ' ) , launched in 1975 , was a nationwide program financed by the government to phase out automobile fuels derived from fossil fuels , such as gasoline , in favor of ethanol produced from sugar cane . The decision to produce ethanol from sugarcane was based on the low cost of sugar at the time , the idle capacity for distillation at the sugar plants , and the country 's tradition and experience with this feedstock . Other sources of fermentable carbohydrates were also explored such as manioc and other feedstocks . The first phase of the program concentrated in production of anhydrous ethanol for blending with gasoline .
After testing in government fleets with several prototypes developed by local subsidiaries of Fiat , Volkswagen , GM , and Ford , and compelled by the second oil crisis , the first 16 gasoline stations began supplying hydrous ethanol in May 1979 for a fleet of 2 @,@ 000 neat ethanol adapted vehicles , and by July , the Fiat 147 was launched to the market , becoming the first modern commercial neat ethanol @-@ powered car ( E100 ) sold in the world . Brazilian carmakers modified gasoline engines to support hydrous ethanol characteristics . Changes included compression ratio , amount of fuel injected , replacement of materials subject to corrosion by ethanol , use of colder spark plugs suitable for dissipating heat due to higher flame temperatures , and an auxiliary cold @-@ start system that injects gasoline from a small tank to aid cold starting . Six years later , approximately 75 % of Brazilian passenger cars were manufactured with ethanol engines .
The Brazilian government also made mandatory the blend of ethanol fuel with gasoline , fluctuating from 1976 until 1992 between 10 % and 22 % . Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend , pure gasoline ( E0 ) is no longer sold in the country . A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22 % anhydrous ethanol ( E22 ) in the entire country . This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre @-@ established boundaries ; since 2003 these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25 % ( E25 ) and a minimum of 20 % ( E20 ) by volume . Since then , the government has set the percentage on the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane harvest and the levels of ethanol production from sugarcane , resulting in blend variations even within the same year .
Since July 2007 the mandatory blend was 25 % of anhydrous ethanol and 75 % gasoline or E25 blend . As a result of supply shortages and high ethanol fuel prices , in 2010 the government mandated a temporary 90 @-@ day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1 , 2010 . As supply shortages took place again between the 2010 @-@ 2011 harvest seasons , some ethanol was imported from the US , and in April 2011 the government reduced the minimum mandatory blend to 18 percent , leaving the mandatory blend range between E18 to E25 .
By mid March 2015 the government raised the ethanol blend in regular gasoline from 25 % to 27 % . The blend on premium gasoline was kept at 25 % upon request by ANFAVEA , the Brazilian association of automakers , because of concerns about the effects on the higher blend on cars that were built only for E25 as the maximum blend , as opposed to flex @-@ fuel cars . The government approved the higher blend as an economic incentive for ethanol producers , due to an existing overstock of over 1 billion liters ( 264 million US gallons ) of ethanol . The implementation of E27 is expected to allow the consumption of the overstock before the end of 2015 .
The Brazilian government provided three important initial motivators for the ethanol industry : guaranteed purchases by the state @-@ owned oil company Petrobras , low @-@ interest loans for agro @-@ industrial ethanol firms , and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59 % of the government @-@ set gasoline price at the pump . These incentives made ethanol production competitive .
After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s , representing 33 % of the country 's motor vehicle fleet , ethanol production and sales of neat ethanol cars tumbled due to several factors . First , gasoline prices fell sharply as a result of the 1980s oil glut . The inflation adjusted real 2004 dollar value of oil fell from an average of US $ 78 @.@ 2 in 1981 to an average of US $ 26 @.@ 8 per barrel in 1986 . Also , by mid @-@ 1989 a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages . At the time ethanol production was tightly regulated by the government , as well as pricing of both gasoline and ethanol fuel , the latter subject to fixed producer prices . As a complement , the government provided subsidies to guarantee a lower ethanol price at the pump as compared to gasoline , as consumers were promised that ethanol prices would never be higher than 65 % the price of gasoline . As sugar prices sharply increased in the international market by the end of 1988 and the government did not set the sugar export quotas , production shifted heavily towards sugar production causing an ethanol supply shortage , as the real cost of ethanol was around US $ 45 per barrel . As ethanol production stagnated at 12 billion liters and could not keep pace with the increasing demand required by the now significant ethanol @-@ only fleet , the Brazilian government began importing ethanol from Europe and Africa in 1991 . Simultaneously , the government began reducing ethanol subsidies , thus marking the beginning of the industry 's deregulation and the slow extinction of the Pró @-@ Álcool Program .
In 1990 , production of neat ethanol vehicles fell to 10 @.@ 9 % of the total car production as consumers lost confidence in the reliability of ethanol fuel supply , and began selling or converting their cars back to gasoline fuel . By the beginning of 1997 Fiat , Ford , and General Motors had all stopped producing ethanol powered cars , leaving only Volkswagen ( who offered the Gol , Santana , Kombi and their derivatives ) . The manufacturers requested a reinstatement of a stable gasohol program and promised to develop products by 1999 .
= = The Flex @-@ fuel era = =
Confidence in ethanol @-@ powered vehicles was restored with the introduction in the Brazilian market of flexible @-@ fuel vehicles starting in 2003 . A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol @-@ gasoline mix , which made the first American M85 flex fuel vehicles too expensive . This was accomplished through the lambda probe , used to measure the quality of combustion in conventional engines , is also required to tell the engine control unit ( ECU ) which blend of gasoline and alcohol is being burned . This task is accomplished automatically through software developed by Brazilian engineers , called " Software Fuel Sensor " ( SFS ) , fed with data from the standard sensors already built @-@ in the vehicle . The technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Bosch in 1994 , but was further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli . A similar fuel injection technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems , and it is called " Multifuel . " This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time , as fuel flow needs to be decreased and also self @-@ combustion needs to be avoided when gasoline is used because ethanol engines have compression ratio around 12 : 1 , too high for gasoline .
In March 2003 , Volkswagen launched in the Brazilian market the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol . Chevrolet followed three months later with the Corsa 1 @.@ 8 Flexpower , using an engine developed by a joint @-@ venture with Fiat called PowerTrain . That year production of full flex @-@ fuel reached 39 @,@ 853 automobiles and 9 @,@ 411 light commercial vehicles . By 2008 , popular manufacturers that build flexible fuel vehicles are Chevrolet , Fiat , Ford , Peugeot , Renault , Volkswagen , Honda , Mitsubishi , Toyota and Citroën . Nissan launched its first flex fuel in the Brazilian market in 2009 and Kia Motors in 2010 . Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles were 22 % of the car sales in 2004 , 73 % in 2005 , 87 @.@ 6 % in July 2008 , and reached a record 94 % in August 2009 . The production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010 , and 15 @.@ 3 million units by March 2012 . As of December 2011 , the fleet of flex automobiles and light commercial vehicles had reached 14 @.@ 8 million vehicles , representing 21 % of Brazil 's motor vehicle fleet and 31 @.@ 8 % of all registered light vehicles .
This rapid adoption of the flex technology was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place , as around 27 @,@ 000 filling stations countrywide were available by 1997 with at least one ethanol pump , a heritage of the Pró @-@ Álcool program , and by October 2008 have reached 35 @,@ 000 fueling stations .
The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowered the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices . The rapid adoption and commercial success of " flex " vehicles , as they are popularly known , together with the mandatory blend of alcohol with gasoline as E25 fuel , have increased ethanol consumption up to the point that during the first two months of 2008 ethanol consumption increased by 56 % when compared to the same period in 2007 , and achieving a landmark in ethanol consumption in February 2008 , when ethanol retail sales surpassed the 50 % market share of the gasoline @-@ powered fleet . This level of ethanol fuel consumption had not been reached since the end of the 80s , at the peak of the Pró @-@ Álcool Program . According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , at the national level 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly use ethanol fuel , and all @-@ year @-@ long by 93 % of flex car owners in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and prices at the pump are more competitive than gasoline .
Between 1979 and 2011 , Brazil substituted around 22 million pure gasoline @-@ powered vehicles with 5 @.@ 7 million neat ethanol vehicles , 14 @.@ 8 million flex @-@ fuel vehicles and almost 1 @.@ 5 million flex motorcycles . The number of neat ethanol vehicles still in use by 2003 was estimated between 2 and 3 million vehicles , and 1 @.@ 22 million as of December 2011 . There were 80 flex car and light truck models available in the market manufactured by 12 major carmakers by December 2011 , and four flex @-@ fuel motorcycle models available .
The early technology in flex fuel engines had a fuel economy with hydrated ethanol ( E100 ) that was 25 to 35 % lower than gasoline , but flex engines are now being designed with higher compression ratios , taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol , resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency , allowing flex engines in 2008 models to reduce the fuel economy gap to 20 to 25 % that of gasoline .
= = Latest developments = =
= = = Ethanol @-@ powered diesel engine = = =
Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport ( BEST ) project , the first ethanol @-@ powered ( E95 or ED95 ) bus began operations in São Paulo city on December 2007 as a one @-@ year trial project . The bus is a Scania model with a modified diesel engine capable of running with 95 % hydrous ethanol blended with a 5 % ignition improver , with a Marcopolo body . Scania adjusted the compression ratio from 18 : 1 to 28 : 1 , added larger fuel injection nozzles , and altered the injection timing .
During the trial period performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass ( CENBIO - Portuguese : Centro Nacional de Referência em Biomassa ) at the Universidade de São Paulo , and compared with similar diesel models , with special attention to carbon monoxide and particulate matter emissions . Performance is also important as previous tests have shown a reduction in fuel economy of around 60 % when E95 is compared to regular diesel .
In November 2009 , a second ED95 bus began operating in São Paulo city . The bus was a Swedish Scania with a Brazilian CAIO body . The second bus was scheduled to operate between Lapa and Vila Mariana , passing through Avenida Paulista , one of the main business centers of São Paulo city . The two test buses operated regularly for 3 years .
In November 2010 the municipal government of São Paulo city signed an agreement with UNICA , Cosan , Scania and Viação Metropolitana " , the local bus operator , to introduce a fleet of 50 ethanol @-@ powered ED95 buses by May 2011 . The city 's government objective is to reduce the carbon footprint of the city 's bus fleet of 15 @,@ 000 diesel @-@ powered buses , with a final goal that the entire bus fleet use only renewable fuels by 2018 . Scania will manufacture the buses in its plant located in São Bernardo do Campo , São Paulo . These buses use the same technology and fuel as the 700 buses manufactured by Scania and already operating in Stockholm .
The first ethanol @-@ powered buses were delivered in May 2011 , and the 50 buses will start regular service in June 2011 . The fleet of 50 ethanol @-@ powered ED95 buses had a cost of R $ 20 million ( US $ 12 @.@ 3 million ) and due to the higher cost of the ED95 fuel , one of the firms participating in the cooperation agreement , Raísen ( a joint venture between Royal Dutch Shell and Cosan ) , will supply the fuel to the municipality at 70 % the market price of regular diesel .
= = = Flex @-@ fuel motorcycles = = =
The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel technology is the development of flex @-@ fuel motorcycles . In 2007 Magneti Marelli presented the first motorcycle with flex technology . Delphi Automotive Systems also presented in 2007 its own injection technology for motorcycles . Besides the flexibility in the choice of fuels , a main objective of the fuel @-@ flex motorcycles is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20 percent , and savings in fuel consumption in the order of 5 % to 10 % are expected .
The first flex fuel motorcycle was launched to the Brazilian market by Honda in March 2009 . Produced by its local subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia , the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US $ 2 @,@ 700 . Because the motorcycle does not have a secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do , the fuel tank must have at least 20 % of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . The motorcycle ’ s panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about the actual ethanol @-@ gasoline mix in the storage tank . During the first eight months after its market launch the CG 150 Titan Mix has sold 139 @,@ 059 motorcycles , capturing a 10 @.@ 6 % market share , and ranking second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market in 2009 .
In September 2009 , Honda launched a second flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle , the on @-@ off road NXR 150 Bros Mix . By December 2010 both Honda flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles had reached cumulative production of 515 @,@ 726 units , representing an 18 @.@ 1 % market share of the Brazilian new motorcycle sales in that year . As of January 2011 there were four flex @-@ fuel motorcycle models available in the market . During 2011 a total of 956 @,@ 117 flex @-@ fuel motorcycles were produced , raising its market share to 56 @.@ 7 % . Since their inception in 2009 almost 1 @.@ 5 million flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles had been produced in the country through December 2011 , and the two million mark was reached in August 2012 .
= = = New generation of flex engines = = =
The Brazilian subsidiaries of Magneti Marelli , Delphi and Bosch have developed and announced the introduction in 2009 of a new flex engine generation that eliminates the need for the secondary gasoline tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting , and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) , the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory . Another improvement is the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions , between 10 % to 15 % as compared to flex motors sold in 2008 . In March 2009 Volkswagen do Brasil launched the Polo E @-@ Flex , the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start . The Flex Start system used by the Polo was developed by Bosch .
= = 2009 @-@ 2013 supply shortage = =
Since 2009 the Brazilian ethanol industry has experienced financial stress due to the credit crunch caused by the economic crisis of 2008 ; poor sugarcane harvests due to unfavorable weather ; high sugar prices in the world market that made more attractive to produce sugar rather than ethanol ; and other domestic factors that resulted in a decline of its annual production despite a growing demand in the local market . Brazilian ethanol fuel production in 2011 was 21 @.@ 1 billion liters ( 5 @.@ 6 billion U.S. liquid gallons ) , down from 26 @.@ 2 million liters ( 6 @.@ 9 billion gallons ) in 2010 . A supply shortage took place for several months during 2010 and 2011 , and prices climbed to the point that ethanol fuel was no longer attractive for owners of flex @-@ fuel vehicles ; the government reduced the minimum ethanol blend in gasoline to reduce demand and keep ethanol fuel prices from rising further ; and for the first time since the 1990s , ethanol fuel was imported from the United States .
As a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis , combined with government subsidies set to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly , down from 66 % in 2009 .
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= Gas tungsten arc welding =
Gas tungsten arc welding ( GTAW ) , also known as tungsten inert gas ( TIG ) welding , is an arc welding process that uses a non @-@ consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld . The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas ( argon or helium ) , and a filler metal is normally used , though some welds , known as autogenous welds , do not require it . A constant @-@ current welding power supply produces electrical energy , which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma .
GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non @-@ ferrous metals such as aluminum , magnesium , and copper alloys . The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding , allowing for stronger , higher quality welds . However , GTAW is comparatively more complex and difficult to master , and furthermore , it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques . A related process , plasma arc welding , uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated .
= = Development = =
After the discovery of the short pulsed electric arc in 1800 by Humphry Davy and of the continuous electric arc in 1802 by Vasily Petrov , arc welding developed slowly . C. L. Coffin had the idea of welding in an inert gas atmosphere in 1890 , but even in the early 20th century , welding non @-@ ferrous materials such as aluminum and magnesium remained difficult because these metals react rapidly with the air and result in porous , dross @-@ filled welds . Processes using flux @-@ covered electrodes did not satisfactorily protect the weld area from contamination . To solve the problem , bottled inert gases were used in the beginning of the 1930s . A few years later , a direct current , gas @-@ shielded welding process emerged in the aircraft industry for welding magnesium .
Russell Meredith of Northrop Aircraft perfected the process in 1941 . Meredith named the process Heliarc because it used a tungsten electrode arc and helium as a shielding gas , but it is often referred to as tungsten inert gas welding ( TIG ) . The American Welding Society 's official term is gas tungsten arc welding ( GTAW ) . Linde Air Products developed a wide range of air @-@ cooled and water @-@ cooled torches , gas lenses to improve shielding , and other accessories that increased the use of the process . Initially , the electrode overheated quickly and , despite tungsten 's high melting temperature , particles of tungsten were transferred to the weld . To address this problem , the polarity of the electrode was changed from positive to negative , but the change made it unsuitable for welding many non @-@ ferrous materials . Finally , the development of alternating current units made it possible to stabilize the arc and produce high quality aluminum and magnesium welds .
Developments continued during the following decades . Linde developed water @-@ cooled torches that helped prevent overheating when welding with high currents . During the 1950s , as the process continued to gain popularity , some users turned to carbon dioxide as an alternative to the more expensive welding atmospheres consisting of argon and helium , but this proved unacceptable for welding aluminum and magnesium because it reduced weld quality , so it is rarely used with GTAW today . The use of any shielding gas containing an oxygen compound , such as carbon dioxide , quickly contaminates the tungsten electrode , making it unsuitable for the TIG process . In 1953 , a new process based on GTAW was developed , called plasma arc welding . It affords greater control and improves weld quality by using a nozzle to focus the electric arc , but is largely limited to automated systems , whereas GTAW remains primarily a manual , hand @-@ held method . Development within the GTAW process has continued as well , and today a number of variations exist . Among the most popular are the pulsed @-@ current , manual programmed , hot @-@ wire , dabber , and increased penetration GTAW methods .
= = Operation = =
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is a relatively difficult welding method , due to the coordination required by the welder . Similar to torch welding , GTAW normally requires two hands , since most applications require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with one hand while manipulating the welding torch in the other . Maintaining a short arc length , while preventing contact between the electrode and the workpiece , is also important .
To strike the welding arc , a high frequency generator ( similar to a Tesla coil ) provides an electric spark . This spark is a conductive path for the welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated while the electrode and the workpiece are separated , typically about 1 @.@ 5 – 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 – 0 @.@ 12 in ) apart .
Once the arc is struck , the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a welding pool , the size of which depends on the size of the electrode and the amount of current . While maintaining a constant separation between the electrode and the workpiece , the operator then moves the torch back slightly and tilts it backward about 10 – 15 degrees from vertical . Filler metal is added manually to the front end of the weld pool as it is needed .
Welders often develop a technique of rapidly alternating between moving the torch forward ( to advance the weld pool ) and adding filler metal . The filler rod is withdrawn from the weld pool each time the electrode advances , but it is always kept inside the gas shield to prevent oxidation of its surface and contamination of the weld . Filler rods composed of metals with a low melting temperature , such as aluminum , require that the operator maintain some distance from the arc while staying inside the gas shield . If held too close to the arc , the filler rod can melt before it makes contact with the weld puddle . As the weld nears completion , the arc current is often gradually reduced to allow the weld crater to solidify and prevent the formation of crater cracks at the end of the weld .
= = = Safety = = =
Welders wear protective clothing , including light and thin leather gloves and protective long sleeve shirts with high collars , to avoid exposure to strong ultraviolet light . Due to the absence of smoke in GTAW , the electric arc light is not covered by fumes and particulate matter as in stick welding or shielded metal arc welding , and thus is a great deal brighter , subjecting operators to strong ultraviolet light . The welding arc has a different range and strength of UV light wavelengths from sunlight , but the welder is very close to the source and the light intensity is very strong . Potential arc light damage includes accidental flashes to the eye or arc eye and skin damage similar to strong sunburn . Operators wear opaque helmets with dark eye lenses and full head and neck coverage to prevent this exposure to UV light . Modern helmets often feature a liquid crystal @-@ type face plate that self @-@ darkens upon exposure to the bright light of the struck arc . Transparent welding curtains , made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film , are often used to shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc .
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter . While the process doesn 't produce smoke , the brightness of the arc in GTAW can break down surrounding air to form ozone and nitric oxides . The ozone and nitric oxides react with lung tissue and moisture to create nitric acid and ozone burn . Ozone and nitric oxide levels are moderate , but exposure duration , repeated exposure , and the quality and quantity of fume extraction , and air change in the room must be monitored . Welders who do not work safely can contract emphysema and oedema of the lungs , which can lead to early death . Similarly , the heat from the arc can cause poisonous fumes to form from cleaning and degreasing materials . Cleaning operations using these agents should not be performed near the site of welding , and proper ventilation is necessary to protect the welder .
= = = Applications = = =
While the aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding , the process is used in a number of other areas . Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces , especially nonferrous metals . It is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles , and is also frequently employed to weld small @-@ diameter , thin @-@ wall tubing such as those used in the bicycle industry . In addition , GTAW is often used to make root or first @-@ pass welds for piping of various sizes . In maintenance and repair work , the process is commonly used to repair tools and dies , especially components made of aluminum and magnesium . Because the weld metal is not transferred directly across the electric arc like most open arc welding processes , a vast assortment of welding filler metal is available to the welding engineer . In fact , no other welding process permits the welding of so many alloys in so many product configurations . Filler metal alloys , such as elemental aluminum and chromium , can be lost through the electric arc from volatilization . This loss does not occur with the GTAW process . Because the resulting welds have the same chemical integrity as the original base metal or match the base metals more closely , GTAW welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking over long time periods , making GTAW the welding procedure of choice for critical operations like sealing spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial .
= = Quality = =
Gas tungsten arc welding , because it affords greater control over the weld area than other welding processes , can produce high @-@ quality welds when performed by skilled operators . Maximum weld quality is assured by maintaining cleanliness — all equipment and materials used must be free from oil , moisture , dirt and other impurities , as these cause weld porosity and consequently a decrease in weld strength and quality . To remove oil and grease , alcohol or similar commercial solvents may be used , while a stainless steel wire brush or chemical process can remove oxides from the surfaces of metals like aluminum . Rust on steels can be removed by first grit blasting the surface and then using a wire brush to remove any embedded grit . These steps are especially important when negative polarity direct current is used , because such a power supply provides no cleaning during the welding process , unlike positive polarity direct current or alternating current . To maintain a clean weld pool during welding , the shielding gas flow should be sufficient and consistent so that the gas covers the weld and blocks impurities in the atmosphere . GTAW in windy or drafty environments increases the amount of shielding gas necessary to protect the weld , increasing the cost and making the process unpopular outdoors .
The level of heat input also affects weld quality . Low heat input , caused by low welding current or high welding speed , can limit penetration and cause the weld bead to lift away from the surface being welded . If there is too much heat input , however , the weld bead grows in width while the likelihood of excessive penetration and spatter increase . Additionally , if the welding torch is too far from the workpiece the shielding gas becomes ineffective , causing porosity within the weld . This results in a weld with pinholes , which is weaker than a typical weld .
If the amount of current used exceeds the capability of the electrode , tungsten inclusions in the weld may result . Known as tungsten spitting , this can be identified with radiography and can be prevented by changing the type of electrode or increasing the electrode diameter . In addition , if the electrode is not well protected by the gas shield or the operator accidentally allows it to contact the molten metal , it can become dirty or contaminated . This often causes the welding arc to become unstable , requiring that the electrode be ground with a diamond abrasive to remove the impurity .
= = Equipment = =
The equipment required for the gas tungsten arc welding operation includes a welding torch utilizing a non @-@ consumable tungsten electrode , a constant @-@ current welding power supply , and a shielding gas source .
= = = Welding torch = = =
GTAW welding torches are designed for either automatic or manual operation and are equipped with cooling systems using air or water . The automatic and manual torches are similar in construction , but the manual torch has a handle while the automatic torch normally comes with a mounting rack . The angle between the centerline of the handle and the centerline of the tungsten electrode , known as the head angle , can be varied on some manual torches according to the preference of the operator . Air cooling systems are most often used for low @-@ current operations ( up to about 200 A ) , while water cooling is required for high @-@ current welding ( up to about 600 A ) . The torches are connected with cables to the power supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source and where used , the water supply .
The internal metal parts of a torch are made of hard alloys of copper or brass so it can transmit current and heat effectively . The tungsten electrode must be held firmly in the center of the torch with an appropriately sized collet , and ports around the electrode provide a constant flow of shielding gas . Collets are sized according to the diameter of the tungsten electrode they hold . The body of the torch is made of heat @-@ resistant , insulating plastics covering the metal components , providing insulation from heat and electricity to protect the welder .
The size of the welding torch nozzle depends on the amount of shielded area desired . The size of the gas nozzle depends upon the diameter of the electrode , the joint configuration , and the availability of access to the joint by the welder . The inside diameter of the nozzle is preferably at least three times the diameter of the electrode , but there are no hard rules . The welder judges the effectiveness of the shielding and increases the nozzle size to increase the area protected by the external gas shield as needed . The nozzle must be heat resistant and thus is normally made of alumina or a ceramic material , but fused quartz , a high purity glass , offers greater visibility . Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for special applications , such as gas lenses or valves to improve the control shielding gas flow to reduce turbulence and introduction of contaminated atmosphere into the shielded area . Hand switches to control welding current can be added to the manual GTAW torches .
= = = Power supply = = =
Gas tungsten arc welding uses a constant current power source , meaning that the current ( and thus the heat ) remains relatively constant , even if the arc distance and voltage change . This is important because most applications of GTAW are manual or semiautomatic , requiring that an operator hold the torch . Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead , since it can cause dramatic heat variations and make welding more difficult .
The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on the type of metal being welded . Direct current with a negatively charged electrode ( DCEN ) is often employed when welding steels , nickel , titanium , and other metals . It can also be used in automatic GTAW of aluminum or magnesium when helium is used as a shielding gas . The negatively charged electrode generates heat by emitting electrons , which travel across the arc , causing thermal ionization of the shielding gas and increasing the temperature of the base material . The ionized shielding gas flows toward the electrode , not the base material , and this can allow oxides to build on the surface of the weld . Direct current with a positively charged electrode ( DCEP ) is less common , and is used primarily for shallow welds since less heat is generated in the base material . Instead of flowing from the electrode to the base material , as in DCEN , electrons go the other direction , causing the electrode to reach very high temperatures . To help it maintain its shape and prevent softening , a larger electrode is often used . As the electrons flow toward the electrode , ionized shielding gas flows back toward the base material , cleaning the weld by removing oxides and other impurities and thereby improving its quality and appearance .
Alternating current , commonly used when welding aluminum and magnesium manually or semi @-@ automatically , combines the two direct currents by making the electrode and base material alternate between positive and negative charge . This causes the electron flow to switch directions constantly , preventing the tungsten electrode from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base material . Surface oxides are still removed during the electrode @-@ positive portion of the cycle and the base metal is heated more deeply during the electrode @-@ negative portion of the cycle . Some power supplies enable operators to use an unbalanced alternating current wave by modifying the exact percentage of time that the current spends in each state of polarity , giving them more control over the amount of heat and cleaning action supplied by the power source . In addition , operators must be wary of rectification , in which the arc fails to reignite as it passes from straight polarity ( negative electrode ) to reverse polarity ( positive electrode ) . To remedy the problem , a square wave power supply can be used , as can high @-@ frequency voltage to encourage ignition .
= = = Electrode = = =
The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy , because tungsten has the highest melting temperature among pure metals , at 3 @,@ 422 ° C ( 6 @,@ 192 ° F ) . As a result , the electrode is not consumed during welding , though some erosion ( called burn @-@ off ) can occur . Electrodes can have either a clean finish or a ground finish — clean finish electrodes have been chemically cleaned , while ground finish electrodes have been ground to a uniform size and have a polished surface , making them optimal for heat conduction . The diameter of the electrode can vary between 0 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 02 and 0 @.@ 25 in ) , and their length can range from 75 to 610 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 to 24 @.@ 0 in ) .
A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the International Organization for Standardization and the American Welding Society in ISO 6848 and AWS A5.12 , respectively , for use in GTAW electrodes , and are summarized in the adjacent table .
Pure tungsten electrodes ( classified as WP or EWP ) are general purpose and low cost electrodes . They have poor heat resistance and electron emission . They find limited use in AC welding of e.g. magnesium and aluminum .
Cerium oxide ( or ceria ) as an alloying element improves arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn @-@ off . Cerium addition is not as effective as thorium but works well , and cerium is not radioactive .
An alloy of lanthanum oxide ( or lanthana ) has a similar effect as cerium , and is also not radioactive .
Thorium oxide ( or thoria ) alloy electrodes offer excellent arc performance and starting , making them popular general purpose electrodes . However , it is somewhat radioactive , making inhalation of thorium vapors and dust a health risk , and disposal an environmental risk .
Electrodes containing zirconium oxide ( or zirconia ) increase the current capacity while improving arc stability and starting and increasing electrode life .
Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW , the major exception being the welding of thin materials . Filler metals are available with different diameters and are made of a variety of materials . In most cases , the filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually , but some applications call for an automatically fed filler metal , which often is stored on spools or coils .
= = = Shielding gas = = =
As with other welding processes such as gas metal arc welding , shielding gases are necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such as nitrogen and oxygen , which can cause fusion defects , porosity , and weld metal embrittlement if they come in contact with the electrode , the arc , or the welding metal . The gas also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal , and it helps start and maintain a stable arc .
The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors , including the type of material being welded , joint design , and desired final weld appearance . Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW , since it helps prevent defects due to a varying arc length . When used with alternating current , argon shielding results in high weld quality and good appearance . Another common shielding gas , helium , is most often used to increase the weld penetration in a joint , to increase the welding speed , and to weld metals with high heat conductivity , such as copper and aluminum . A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc with helium gas , and the decreased weld quality associated with a varying arc length .
Argon @-@ helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in GTAW , since they can increase control of the heat input while maintaining the benefits of using argon . Normally , the mixtures are made with primarily helium ( often about 75 % or higher ) and a balance of argon . These mixtures increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of aluminum , and also make it easier to strike an arc . Another shielding gas mixture , argon @-@ hydrogen , is used in the mechanized welding of light gauge stainless steel , but because hydrogen can cause porosity , its uses are limited . Similarly , nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help stabilize the austenite in austenitic stainless steels and increase penetration when welding copper . Due to porosity problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits , however , it is not a popular shielding gas additive .
= = Materials = =
Gas tungsten arc welding is most commonly used to weld stainless steel and nonferrous materials , such as aluminum and magnesium , but it can be applied to nearly all metals , with a notable exception being zinc and its alloys . Its applications involving carbon steels are limited not because of process restrictions , but because of the existence of more economical steel welding techniques , such as gas metal arc welding and shielded metal arc welding . Furthermore , GTAW can be performed in a variety of other @-@ than @-@ flat positions , depending on the skill of the welder and the materials being welded .
= = = Aluminum and magnesium = = =
Aluminum and magnesium are most often welded using alternating current , but the use of direct current is also possible , depending on the properties desired . Before welding , the work area should be cleaned and may be preheated to 175 to 200 ° C ( 347 to 392 ° F ) for aluminum or to a maximum of 150 ° C ( 302 ° F ) for thick magnesium workpieces to improve penetration and increase travel speed . AC current can provide a self @-@ cleaning effect , removing the thin , refractory aluminum oxide ( sapphire ) layer that forms on aluminum metal within minutes of exposure to air . This oxide layer must be removed for welding to occur . When alternating current is used , pure tungsten electrodes or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are preferred over thoriated electrodes , as the latter are more likely to " spit " electrode particles across the welding arc into the weld . Blunt electrode tips are preferred , and pure argon shielding gas should be employed for thin workpieces . Introducing helium allows for greater penetration in thicker workpieces , but can make arc starting difficult .
Direct current of either polarity , positive or negative , can be used to weld aluminum and magnesium as well . Direct current with a negatively charged electrode ( DCEN ) allows for high penetration . Argon is commonly used as a shielding gas for DCEN welding of aluminum . Shielding gases with high helium contents are often used for higher penetration in thicker materials . Thoriated electrodes are suitable for use in DCEN welding of aluminum . Direct current with a positively charged electrode ( DCEP ) is used primarily for shallow welds , especially those with a joint thickness of less than 1 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 063 in ) . A thoriated tungsten electrode is commonly used , along with a pure argon shielding gas .
= = = Steels = = =
For GTAW of carbon and stainless steels , the selection of a filler material is important to prevent excessive porosity . Oxides on the filler material and workpieces must be removed before welding to prevent contamination , and immediately prior to welding , alcohol or acetone should be used to clean the surface . Preheating is generally not necessary for mild steels less than one inch thick , but low alloy steels may require preheating to slow the cooling process and prevent the formation of martensite in the heat @-@ affected zone . Tool steels should also be preheated to prevent cracking in the heat @-@ affected zone . Austenitic stainless steels do not require preheating , but martensitic and ferritic chromium stainless steels do . A DCEN power source is normally used , and thoriated electrodes , tapered to a sharp point , are recommended . Pure argon is used for thin workpieces , but helium can be introduced as thickness increases .
= = = Dissimilar metals = = =
Welding dissimilar metals often introduces new difficulties to GTAW welding , because most materials do not easily fuse to form a strong bond . However , welds of dissimilar materials have numerous applications in manufacturing , repair work , and the prevention of corrosion and oxidation . In some joints , a compatible filler metal is chosen to help form the bond , and this filler metal can be the same as one of the base materials ( for example , using a stainless steel filler metal with stainless steel and carbon steel as base materials ) , or a different metal ( such as the use of a nickel filler metal for joining steel and cast iron ) . Very different materials may be coated or " buttered " with a material compatible with a particular filler metal , and then welded . In addition , GTAW can be used in cladding or overlaying dissimilar materials .
When welding dissimilar metals , the joint must have an accurate fit , with proper gap dimensions and bevel angles . Care should be taken to avoid melting excessive base material . Pulsed current is particularly useful for these applications , as it helps limit the heat input . The filler metal should be added quickly , and a large weld pool should be avoided to prevent dilution of the base materials .
= = Process variations = =
= = = Pulsed @-@ current = = =
In the pulsed @-@ current mode , the welding current rapidly alternates between two levels . The higher current state is known as the pulse current , while the lower current level is called the background current . During the period of pulse current , the weld area is heated and fusion occurs . Upon dropping to the background current , the weld area is allowed to cool and solidify . Pulsed @-@ current GTAW has a number of advantages , including lower heat input and consequently a reduction in distortion and warpage in thin workpieces . In addition , it allows for greater control of the weld pool , and can increase weld penetration , welding speed , and quality . A similar method , manual programmed GTAW , allows the operator to program a specific rate and magnitude of current variations , making it useful for specialized applications .
= = = Dabber = = =
The dabber variation is used to precisely place weld metal on thin edges . The automatic process replicates the motions of manual welding by feeding a cold filler wire into the weld area and dabbing ( or oscillating ) it into the welding arc . It can be used in conjunction with pulsed current , and is used to weld a variety of alloys , including titanium , nickel , and tool steels . Common applications include rebuilding seals in jet engines and building up saw blades , milling cutters , drill bits , and mower blades .
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= 8th Military Police Brigade ( United States ) =
The 8th Military Police Brigade is a military police brigade of the United States Army based at Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . It is responsible for military police units in the Pacific Ocean region .
Activated during the Vietnam War , the 8th Military Police Brigade was specifically organized to provide planning , direction and supervision for the criminal investigation work required by the U.S. Army in Vietnam . It took over from a provisional Military Police Group ( Criminal Investigation ) that had been formed on 3 November 1966 in charge of all criminal investigative work in Vietnam , except for the metropolitan Saigon area .
In July 1972 , it became the basis for the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Center , Vietnam Field Office . It served in the region for several years and earning ten campaign streamers before being deactivated during the American forces pullout from the region . The brigade was reactivated in Korea in the 1980s to provide command and control for all U.S. Pacific military police forces , and has since been moved to Hawaii , where much of U.S. Army Pacific is located .
= = Organization = =
The Brigade is a subordinate unit of U.S. Army Pacific and the Eighth Theater Sustainment Command It falls under the direct command of the 8th Theater Sustainment Command .
Currently , the 8th Military Police Brigade consists of one battalion : 728th Military Police Battalion , which contains the 57th , 58th , 552nd , 558th Military Police companies and the 39th and 13th Military Police detachments .
= = History = =
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The 8th Military Police Group was originally constituted on 8 April 1967 in the regular army and activated on 26 July at Fort Riley , Kansas . After seeing only five months of duty , the group was again deactivated on 18 December of that year .
On 24 August 1968 the group was again activated , this time in Vietnam . Its activation was part of a larger activation of several military police groups in the region to provide greater command and control for Military Police operating throughout the region . As such , the headquarters element took command of military police units already operating in the country . The Brigade provided policing duties , based in Long Binh along with the 89th Military Police Group . During that time it was a subordinate unit of the 18th Military Police Brigade . It received its distinctive unit insignia on 12 November 1969 . The group operated in Vietnam until the pullout of U.S. forces from the nation , receiving ten campaign streamers for its role in the conflict .
= = = Reactivation and South Korea = = =
The 8th Military Police Brigade ( Provisional ) was constituted in South Korea in September 1984 in response to the need for cohesive command and control element in the event of war , for the numerous non @-@ divisional Military Police units on the peninsula . At the time it consisted of the 94th Military Police Battalion in Yongsan ( Seoul ) and the 728th Military Police Battalion in Taegu ( Camp Walker ) . However , the brigade would remain provisional and would not be officially activated for another ten years while it operated in this capacity .
In 1995 , the concept plan was approved for the activation of a military police brigade headquarters in Korea . The 8th MP Brigade was officially activated on 16 April 1996 to provide command and control for the 728th Military Police Battalion and the 94th Military Police Battalion in armistice and to serve as the theater military police brigade during hostilities . The same day , it received its shoulder sleeve insignia .
In July 2006 , the 8th MP Brigade Headquarters and the 728th MP Battalion were reassigned to U.S. Army Pacific and moved from Korea to Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . It was placed under the command of the newly created 8th Theater Sustainment Command . The command is responsible for preparing the 25th Infantry Division and other 8th Army units for worldwide deployment .
= = = Global War on Terrorism = = =
= = = = Iraq War = = = =
Subordinate units of the brigade 's 728th MP Battalion deployed to Iraq in October 2004 to provide military police duties while the Army formed a clear rotational schedule for MP units coming and going from the country during Operation Iraqi Freedom . In October 2007 , the Brigade again deployed elements of the 728th MP Battalion to Iraq for 15 months in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . The units suffered several casualties , including soldiers killed in ambushes and vehicle accidents .
Brigade headquarters are scheduled to deploy to the Iraq War in fall 2008 to partake in Operation Iraqi Freedom . In July 2008 , the 8th MP Brigade began its move into Iraq with a pre @-@ deployment site survey to support the upcoming deployment into the country . The brigade headquarters was set to replace the 18th Military Police Brigade , which ended its deployment in fall of 2008 . The 8th MP brigade will continue the training and expansion of the national Iraqi Police force in the Baghdad area . On 2 December , the brigade officially took control from the 18th MP brigade and began its deployment .
= = Honors = =
= = = Campaign Participation Credit = = =
= = = Decorations = = =
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= Deus Ex =
Deus Ex [ ˈde.ʊs ɛks ] is a cyberpunk @-@ themed action role @-@ playing video game — combining first @-@ person shooter , stealth and role @-@ playing elements — developed by Ion Storm and published by Eidos Interactive in 2000 . First published for personal computers running Microsoft Windows , Deus Ex was later ported to Mac OS systems and PlayStation 2 . Set in a dystopian world during the year 2052 , the central plot follows rookie United Nations Anti @-@ Terrorist Coalition agent JC Denton , as he sets out to combat terrorist forces , which have become increasingly prevalent in a world slipping ever further into chaos . As the plot unfolds , Denton becomes entangled in a deep and ancient conspiracy , encountering organizations such as Majestic 12 , the Illuminati and the Hong Kong Triads during his journey .
The game received universal critical acclaim , including repeatedly being named " Best PC Game of All Time " in PC Gamer 's " Top 100 PC Games " in 2011 and in a poll carried out by UK gaming magazine PC Zone . It was a frequent candidate for and winner of Game of the Year awards , drawing praise for its pioneering designs in player choice and multiple narrative paths . It has sold more than 1 million copies , as of April 23 , 2009 . The game has spawned both a sequel , Deus Ex : Invisible War , released in 2003 , and three prequels : Deus Ex : Human Revolution , released in 2011 , Deus Ex : The Fall , released in 2013 , and Deus Ex : Mankind Divided , to be released in August 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Deus Ex incorporates elements from four video game genres : role @-@ playing , first @-@ person shooter , adventure , and " immersive simulation " , the last of which being a game where " nothing reminds you that you 're just playing a game " . For example , the game uses a first @-@ person camera during gameplay and includes exploration and character interaction as primary features .
The player assumes the role of JC Denton , a nanotech @-@ augmented operative of the United Nations Anti @-@ Terrorist Coalition ( UNATCO ) . This nanotechnology is a central gameplay mechanism , and allows players to perform superhuman feats .
= = = Role @-@ playing elements = = =
As the player accomplishes objectives , the player character is rewarded with " skill points " . Skill points are used to enhance a character 's abilities in eleven different areas , and were designed to provide players with a way to customize their characters ; a player might create a combat @-@ focused character by increasing proficiency with pistols or rifles , while a more furtive character can be created by focusing on lock picking and computer hacking abilities . There are four different levels of proficiency in each skill , with the skill point cost increasing for each successive level .
Weapons may be customized through " weapon modifications " , which can be found or purchased throughout the game . The player might add scopes , silencers , or laser sights ; increase the weapon 's range , accuracy , or magazine size ; or decrease its recoil and reload time . Not all modifications are available to all weapons ; for example , a rocket launcher cannot be silenced , and recoil cannot be reduced on a flamethrower .
Players are further encouraged to customize their characters through nano @-@ augmentations — cybernetic devices that grant characters superhuman powers . While the game contains eighteen different nano @-@ augmentations , the player can install a maximum of nine , as each must be used on a certain part of the body : one in the arms , legs , eyes , and head ; two underneath the skin ; and three in the torso . This forces the player to choose carefully between the benefits offered by each augmentation . For example , the arm augmentation requires the player to decide between boosting their character 's skill in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat or his ability to lift heavy objects .
Interaction with non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) was a large design focus . When the player interacts with a non @-@ player character , the game will enter a cutscene @-@ like conversation mode where the player advances the conversation by selecting from a list of dialogue options . The player 's choices often have a substantial effect on both gameplay and plot , as non @-@ player characters will react in different ways depending on the selected answer ( e.g. rudeness makes them less likely to provide assistance ) .
= = = Combat elements = = =
Deus Ex features combat similar to first @-@ person shooters , with real @-@ time action , a first @-@ person perspective , and reflex @-@ based gameplay . As the player will often encounter enemies in groups , combat often tends toward a tactical approach , including the use of cover , strafing , and " hit @-@ and @-@ run " . A USA Today reviewer found " At the easiest difficulty setting , your character is puréed again and again by an onslaught of human and robotic terrorists until you learn the value of stealth . " However , through the game 's role @-@ playing systems , it is possible to develop a character 's skills and augmentations to create a tank @-@ like combat specialist with the ability to deal and absorb large amounts of damage . Non @-@ player characters will praise or criticize the main character depending on his use of force , incorporating a moral element into the gameplay .
Deus Ex features a head @-@ up display crosshair , whose size dynamically shows where shots will fall based on movement , aim , and the weapon in use ; the reticle expands while the player is moving or shifting his or her aim , and slowly shrinks to its original size while no actions are taken . How quickly the reticle shrinks depends on the character 's proficiency with the equipped weapon , the number of accuracy modifications added to the weapon , and the level of the " targeting " nano @-@ augmentation .
Deus Ex features twenty @-@ four weapons , ranging from crowbars , electroshock weapons , and riot baton , to laser guided anti @-@ tank rockets and assault rifles ; both lethal and non @-@ lethal weapons are available . The player can also make use of several weapons of opportunity , such as fire extinguishers .
= = = Player choice = = =
Gameplay in Deus Ex emphasizes player choice . Objectives can be completed in numerous ways , including stealth , sniping , heavy frontal assault , dialogue , or engineering and computer hacking . This level of freedom requires that levels , characters , and puzzles be designed with significant redundancy , as a single play @-@ through of the game will miss large sections of dialogue , areas , and other content . In some missions the player is encouraged to avoid using deadly force , and certain aspects of the story may change depending on how violent or non @-@ violent the player chooses to be . The game is also unusual in that two of its boss villains can be killed off early in the game , or left alive to be defeated later , and this too affects how other characters interact with the player .
Because of its design focus on player choice , Deus Ex has been compared with System Shock , a game that inspired its design . Together , these factors give the game a great degree of replayability , as the player will have vastly different experiences , depending on which methods he or she uses to accomplish objectives .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Deus Ex was designed as a single player game , and the initial releases of the Windows and Macintosh versions of the game did not include multiplayer functionality . Support for multiplayer modes was later incorporated through patches . The component includes three game modes : deathmatch , basic team deathmatch , and advanced team deathmatch . Only five maps , based on levels from the single @-@ player portion of the game , were included with the original multiplayer patch , but many user @-@ created maps now exist . The PlayStation 2 release of Deus Ex does not offer a multiplayer mode . In April 2014 it was announced that Gamespy would cease their masterserver services , also affecting Deus Ex . A community @-@ made patch for the multiplayer mode has been created as a response to this .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Deus Ex takes place in the year 2052 in a world that draws heavily upon popular real world conspiracy theories for many of its plot elements . These include speculations regarding black helicopters , vaccinations , and FEMA , as well as Area 51 , the ECHELON network , Men in Black , chupacabras ( in the form of " greasels " ) , and grey aliens . Mysterious groups such as Majestic 12 , the Illuminati , the Knights Templar , the Bilderberg Group , and the Trilateral Commission also either play a central part in the plot , or are alluded to during the course of the game . This dark setting is enhanced by the fact that the entire game takes place at night , a backdrop that adds to the atmosphere of conspiracies and stealth .
The game contradicts itself in several instances regarding the exact year in which the events of the story take place , but information in the sequel Deus Ex : Invisible War reconciles this inconsistency via retroactive continuity , placing the events of Deus Ex in the year 2052 . Most of the game takes place in fictionalized versions of real @-@ world locations , including New York City , Hong Kong , Paris , Vandenberg Air Force Base , and Area 51 .
The plot of Deus Ex depicts a society on a slow spiral into chaos . There is a massive division between the rich and the poor , not only socially , but in some cities physically . A lethal pandemic known as the " Gray Death " ravages the world 's population , especially within the United States , and has no cure . A synthetic vaccine , " Ambrosia " , manufactured by the company VersaLife , nullifies the effects of the virus , but is in critically short supply . Because of its scarcity , Ambrosia is available only to those deemed " vital to the social order " , and finds its way primarily to government officials , military personnel , the rich and influential , scientists , and the intellectual elite . With no hope for the common people of the world , riots occur worldwide , and a number of terrorist organizations have formed with the professed intent of assisting the downtrodden , among them the National Secessionist Forces of the U.S. and a French group known as Silhouette .
In order to combat these threats to the world order , the United Nations has greatly expanded its governmental influence around the globe . The United Nations Anti @-@ Terrorist Coalition ( UNATCO ) is formed , with the intent of maintaining peace internationally and combating the world 's ever @-@ growing number of terrorist groups . It is headquartered near New York City in a bunker beneath Liberty Island , placed there after a terrorist strike on the Statue of Liberty . Alex Jacobson 's character model and name are based on Warren Spector 's own nephew , Alec Jacobson .
= = = Plot = = =
The player assumes the identity of JC Denton , a nanotechnologically @-@ augmented ( " nano @-@ aug " ) UNATCO agent . After completing his training , JC takes several missions given by Director Joseph Manderley to track down members of the National Secessionist Forces ( NSF ) and their stolen shipments of the " Ambrosia " vaccine , the treatment for the " Gray Death " virus . Through these missions , JC is reunited with his brother , Paul , who is also nano @-@ augmented . JC tracks the Ambrosia shipment to a private terminal at LaGuardia Airport . Paul meets JC outside the plane , and explains that he has defected from UNATCO and is now working with the NSF after learning that the Gray Death is a man @-@ made virus , with UNATCO using its power to make sure only the elite receive the vaccine .
JC returns to UNATCO headquarters and is told by Manderley that both he and Paul have been outfitted with a 24 @-@ hour kill switch , and that Paul 's has been activated due to his betrayal . Manderley orders JC to fly to Hong Kong to eliminate Tracer Tong , a hacker whom Paul has contact with , and who can disable the kill switches . Instead , JC returns to Paul 's apartment to find Paul hiding inside . Paul further explains his defection and encourages JC to also defect by sending out a distress call to alert the NSF 's allies . Upon doing so , JC becomes a wanted man by UNATCO , and his own kill switch is activated by Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) Director Walton Simons . JC is unable to escape UNATCO forces , and both he and Paul ( provided he survived the raid on the apartment ) are taken to a secret prison below UNATCO headquarters . An entity named " Daedalus " contacts JC and informs him that the prison is part of Majestic 12 , and arranges for him and Paul to escape . The two flee to Hong Kong to meet with Tong , who deactivates their kill switches . Tong requests JC infiltrate the VersaLife building . Doing so , JC discovers that the corporation is the source for the Gray Death , and he is able to steal the plans for the virus and destroy the " universal constructor " ( UC ) that produces it .
Analysis of the virus shows it was manufactured by the Illuminati , prompting Tong to send JC to Paris to try to make contact with the organization and obtain their help fighting Majestic 12 . JC eventually meets with Illuminati leader Morgan Everett , and learns that the Gray Death virus was intended to be used for augmentation technology , but Majestic 12 , led by trillionaire businessman and former Illuminatus Bob Page , was able to steal and repurpose it into its current viral form . Everett recognizes that without VersaLife 's universal constructor , Majestic 12 can no longer create the virus , and will likely target Vandenberg Air Force Base , where X @-@ 51 , a group of former Area 51 scientists , has built another one . After aiding the base personnel in repelling a Majestic 12 attack , JC meets X @-@ 51 leader Gary Savage , who reveals that Daedalus is an artificial intelligence ( AI ) borne out of the ECHELON program . Everett attempts to gain control over Majestic 12 's communications network by releasing Daedalus onto the U.S. military networks , but Page counters by releasing his own AI , Icarus , which merges with Daedalus to form a new AI , Helios , with the ability to control all global communications . After this , Savage enlists JC 's help in procuring schematics for reconstructing components for the UC that were damaged during Majestic 12 's raid of Vandenberg . JC finds the schematics and electronically transmits them to Savage . Page intercepts the transmission and launches a nuclear missile at Vandenberg to ensure that Area 51 ( now Majestic 12 's headquarters ) , will be the only location in the world with an operational UC . However , JC is able to reprogram the missile to strike Area 51 . JC then travels there himself to confront Page .
When JC locates him , Page reveals that he seeks to merge with Helios and gain full control over all nanotechnology , essentially becoming a god . JC is contacted by Tong , Everett , and the Helios AI simultaneously . All three factions ask for his help in defeating Page , while furthering their own objectives , and JC is forced to choose between them . Tong seeks to plunge the world into a second Dark Age by destroying the global communications hub and preventing anyone from taking control of the world . Everett offers Denton the chance to bring the Illuminati back to power by killing Bob Page and using the technology of Area 51 to rule the world with an invisible hand . Helios wishes to merge with Denton and rule the world as a benevolent dictator with infinite knowledge and reason . The player 's decision determines the course of the future , and brings the game to a close .
= = Development = =
After Looking Glass Technologies and Origin Systems released Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds in January 1993 , producer Warren Spector began to plan Troubleshooter , the game that would become Deus Ex . Spector found himself burnt out on fantasy and science fiction settings , and hoped to make a game set in the real world . In his 1994 proposal , he described the concept as " Underworld @-@ style first @-@ person action " in a real world setting with " big @-@ budget , nonstop action " . Spector later commented that Origin did not have the interest , nor Looking Glass the funding , to produce the game . He eventually left Origin for Looking Glass and continued to develop the game 's concept , but his project Junction Point , which was inspired by ideas from Troubleshooter , was cancelled . After Spector and his team were laid off from Looking Glass , John Romero of Ion Storm offered him the chance to make his " dream game " without any restrictions . Spector quickly joined the company .
Preproduction for Deus Ex began around August 1997 and lasted roughly six months . The six @-@ person team came from Looking Glass 's Austin studio . Spector , the team 's director and producer , saw their work as improving upon the game design ideas of Origin , Looking Glass , and Valve Corporation by doing what those companies did not . The game 's " ironic " working title was Shooter : Majestic Revelations , and it was scheduled for release on Christmas 1998 . The team developed the setting before the game mechanics . Noticing his wife 's fascination with The X @-@ Files , Spector connected the " real world , millennial weirdness , [ and ] conspiracy " topics on his mind and decided to make a game about them that would appeal to a wide audience . Shooter 's fiction was based in part on conspiracy theories related to Area 51 , CIA drug trafficking , the John F. Kennedy assassination , the Majestic 12 , and a Masonic bunker beneath Denver International Airport . The team designed over 200 characters without associated in @-@ game roles , which was both helpful when designing missions and unhelpful as they attempted to reduce their scope . Later in 1997 , Spector wrote a " manifesto " on his ideal game and the structure of role @-@ playing video games . His principles included " problems , not puzzles " , " no forced failure " , " players do ; NPCs watch " , and " areas with multiple entrance and exit points " . In retrospect , Spector believed that Deus Ex accomplished the intent of his manifesto .
The Shooter design document cast the player as an augmented agent working against an elite cabal in the " dangerous and chaotic " 2050s . It cited Half @-@ Life , Fallout , Thief : The Dark Project , and GoldenEye 007 as game design influences , and used the stories and settings of Colossus : The Forbin Project , The Manchurian Candidate , Robocop , The X @-@ Files and Men in Black as reference points . According to the document , the game would engage with " the millennial madness that 's gripping the world ... and a general fascination with conspiracy theories and the desire to play with high @-@ tech espionage toys " . The team designed a skill system that featured " special powers " derived from nanotechnological augmentation , and avoided the inclusion of die rolling and skills that required micromanagement . Augmentations were unique to the player character . By March 1998 , preproduction had generated 300 pages of documentation . The document grew to 500 pages , with " radically different " content , by the game 's April 1999 Alpha 1 deadline . Of Spector 's original design document , the marketing section was the only part left unedited .
In early 1998 , the Deus Ex team grew to 20 people and the game entered a 28 @-@ month production phase . Spector hired new staff for his Austin studio , and was assigned an art team from Ion Storm 's Dallas branch . The development team consisted of three programmers , six designers , seven artists , a writer , an associate producer , a " tech " , and Warren Spector , the producer and director . Two writers and four testers were hired as contractors . Chris Norden was the lead programmer and assistant director , Harvey Smith the lead designer , Jay Lee the lead artist , and Sheldon Pacotti the lead writer . However , Spector 's initial management structure , which involved two competing design teams and the matrix management of the Dallas art team , was a failure . According to Spector , the team was interested in multiple video game genres , and it contained both design maximalists who wanted to " do everything " and design minimalists who wanted to do a few things well . Close friends of the team who understood the intentions behind the game were invited to playtest and give feedback . The wide range of input led to debates in the office and changes to the game . Spector later concluded that the team was " blinded by promises of complete creative freedom " , and by their belief that the game would have no budget , marketing or time restraints . By mid @-@ 1998 , the game 's title had become Deus Ex , derived from the Latin literary device deus ex machina ( " god from the machine " ) in which a plot is resolved by an unpredictable intervention . Spector acknowledged its grammatical faults as a title , but he liked it because of its relevance to the in @-@ game struggle for power , to the medium 's storytelling difficulties , to the game being played on a computer , and to the " self @-@ referential " acceptance of trying one 's best to resolve affairs .
Spector felt that the best aspects of Deus Ex 's development were the " high @-@ level vision " and length of preproduction , flexibility within the project , testable " proto @-@ missions " , and Unreal Engine license . The team 's pitfalls included the management structure , unrealistic goals , underestimating risks with artificial intelligence , their handling of proto @-@ missions , and weakened morale from bad press . He referred to that period of Ion Storm as " Sturm und Drang " , because of the degree of hype and the vitriol following Daikatana 's trash talk marketing , alongside negative press in 1998 and 1999 . He said that his Austin team had " frequent " slumps in morale from taking the company 's coverage personally and seeing their private emails posted online . Eventually , the Deus Ex Austin team developed a " ' we 'll show them ' mentality " to distinguish their work and reputation from those of the Dallas branch . Deus Ex was published by Eidos Interactive and released on June 23 , 2000 for Microsoft Windows . The team planned third @-@ party ports for Mac OS 9 and Linux .
= = = Design = = =
The original 1997 design document for Deus Ex privileges character development over all other features , including experimental sequences and technology demos . The game was designed to be " genre @-@ busting " : in parts simulation , role @-@ playing game , first @-@ person shooter , and adventure . The team wanted players to consider " who they wanted to be " in the game , and for that to alter how they behaved in the game . In this way , the game world was " deeply simulated " , or realistic and believable enough that the player would solve problems in creative , emergent ways without noticing distinct puzzles . The developers also wanted to include " choice " and " consequence " , which Spector called the team 's " two most frequently uttered words " . However , the team 's simulation ultimately failed to maintain the desired level of openness , and they had to brute force " skill " , " action " , and " character interaction " paths through each level . Playtesting also revealed that their idea of a role @-@ playing game based in the real world was more interesting in theory than in reality . The team chose two real @-@ world bases for levels : " highly interconnected , multi @-@ level " spaces , and places that most cannot visit ( e.g. , the White House ) . In practice , the team found that certain aspects of the real world , such as hotels and office buildings , were not compelling in a game . Ion Storm saw Deus Ex as being about " player expression " rather than making the developers appear " clever " . They treated the player as a " collaborator " , who they sought to empower to " make choices and ... deal with the consequences " . Spector credited the 1995 role @-@ playing video game Suikoden as an inspiration , stating that the limited choices in Suikoden inspired him to expand on the idea with more meaningful choices in Deux Ex .
The game 's story changed greatly during production , but the idea of an augmented counterterrorist protagonist named JC Denton remained throughout . Though Spector originally pictured Deus Ex as akin to The X @-@ Files , lead writer Sheldon Pacotti felt that it ended up more like James Bond . Spector wrote that the team overextended itself by planning highly elaborate scenes , including a replica of downtown Austin , a reconstruction of Area 51 from satellite data , a sunken post @-@ earthquake Los Angeles , a raid to free thousands of prisoners of war from a Federal Emergency Management Agency @-@ controlled United Nations concentration camp , and over 25 missions throughout Siberia , western Europe , and the United States . Designer Harvey Smith pushed for the removal of a subplot in which Mexico invaded Texas , in order to make development easier and the narrative more personal . He also removed a largely complete White House level due to its complexity and production needs . Finished digital assets were repurposed or , in the cases of Texas and the Denver airport , abandoned by the team . Pete Davison of USgamer referred to the White House and presidential bunker as " the truly deleted scenes of Deus Ex 's lost levels " .
One of the things that Spector wanted to achieve in Deus Ex was to make JC Denton a cypher for the player , in order to create a better immersion and gameplay experience . He did not want the character to force any emotion so that whatever feelings the player may be experiencing comes from themselves rather than from JC Denton . To do this , Spector instructed voice actor Jay Anthony Franke to record his dialogue without any emotion but in a monotone voice , which is unusual for a voice acting role .
Once coded , the team 's game systems did not work as intended . Prototypes of the systems and of certain missions were built near the beginning of development , which revealed some of the team 's planning mistakes . For example , the early tests of the conversation system and user interface were flawed , but the team had time to revise them before the game 's release . The team also found augmentations and skills to be less interesting than they had seemed in the design document . Colleagues from other companies — such as Doug Church , Rob Fermier , Marc LeBlanc , and Gabe Newell — noticed and pointed out these deficiencies in game " tension " when they played the prototype . In response , Harvey Smith substantially revised the augmentations and skills . Production milestones served as wake @-@ up calls for the game 's direction . A May 1998 milestone that called for a functional demo revealed that the size of the game 's maps caused frame rate issues , which was one of the first signs that maps needed to be cut . A year later , the team reached a milestone for finished game systems that Spector nicknamed the " Wow , these missions suck " milestone , which led to better estimates for their future mission work and to the reduction of the 500 @-@ page design document to 270 pages . Spector recalled Smith 's mantra on this point : " less is more " .
One of the team 's biggest blind spots was the AI programming for NPCs . Spector wrote that they considered it in preproduction , but that they did not figure out how to handle it until " relatively late in development " . This led to wasted time when the team had to discard their early AI code . The team built atop their game engine 's shooter @-@ based AI instead of writing new code that would allow characters to exhibit convincing emotions . As a result , NPC behavior was variable until the very end of development . Spector felt that the team 's " sin " was their inconsistent display of a trustable " human AI " .
= = = Technology = = =
The game was developed on systems including dual @-@ processor Pentium Pro 200s and Athlon 800s with eight and nine gigabyte hard drives , some using SCSI . The team used " more than 100 video cards " throughout development . Deus Ex was built using Visual Studio , Lightwave , and Lotus Notes . They also built a custom dialogue editor , ConEdit . The team used UnrealEd atop the Unreal game engine for map design , which Spector wrote was " superior to anything else available " . Their trust in UnrealScript led them to code " special @-@ cases " for their immediate mission needs instead of more generalized multi @-@ case code . Even as concerned team members expressed misgivings , the team only addressed this later in the project . To Spector , this was a lesson to always prefer " general solutions " over " special casing " , such that the tool set works predictably .
They waited to license a game engine until after preproduction , expecting the benefits of licensing to be more time for the content and gameplay , which Spector reported to be the case . They chose the Unreal engine as it did 80 % of what they needed from an engine and was more economical than building from scratch . Their small programming team allowed for a larger design group . The programmers also found the engine accommodating , though it took about nine months to acclimate to the software . Spector felt that they would have understood the code better had they built it themselves , instead of " treating the engine as a black box " and coding conservatively . He acknowledged that this precipitated into the Direct3D issues in their final release , which slipped through their quality assurance testing . Spector also noted that the artificial intelligence , pathfinding , and sound propagation were designed for shooters and should have been rewritten from scratch instead of relying on the engine . He thought the licensed engine worked well enough that he expected to use the same for the game 's sequel and Thief 3 . He added that developers should not attempt to force their technology to perform in ways it was not intended , and should find a balance between perfection and pragmatism .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack of Deus Ex , composed by Alexander Brandon ( primary contributor , including main theme ) , Dan Gardopée ( " Naval Base " and " Vandenberg " ) , Michiel van den Bos ( " UNATCO " , " Lebedev 's Airfield " , " Airfield Action " , " DuClare Chateau " plus minor contribution to some of Brandon 's tracks ) , and Reeves Gabrels ( " NYC Bar " ) , was praised by critics for complementing the gritty atmosphere predominant throughout the game with melodious and ambient music incorporated from a number of genres , including techno , jazz , and classical . The music sports a basic dynamic element , similar to the iMUSE system used in early 1990s LucasArts games ; during play , the music will change to a different iteration of the currently playing song based on the player 's actions , such as when the player starts a conversation , engages in combat , or transitions to the next level . All the music in the game is tracked - Gabrels ' contribution , " NYC Bar " , was converted to a module by Brandon .
A compact disc of the Deus Ex soundtrack was included in the Game of the Year edition and is not available for separate purchase . Notably , the soundtrack is not a direct audio rip from the game itself , however ; it is a " remastering " of the soundtrack with added instruments and audio production . Originally only thirty tracks were included with the re @-@ release , with tracks thirty @-@ one through forty @-@ one considered as extras . The PlayStation 2 port featured live , orchestral renditions of some tracks .
= = Release = =
Deus Ex has been re @-@ released in several iterations since its original publication , and has also been the basis of a number of mods developed by its fan community .
The Deus Ex : Game of the Year Edition , which was released on May 8 , 2001 , contains the latest game updates and a software development kit , a separate soundtrack CD , and a page from a fictional newspaper featured prominently in Deus Ex titled The Midnight Sun , which recounts recent events in the game 's world . However , later releases of said version do not include the soundtrack CD , and contain a PDF version of the newspaper on the game 's disc .
The Macintosh version of the game , released shortly after the PC version , was shipped with the same capabilities and can also be patched to enable multiplayer support . However , publisher Aspyr Media did not release any subsequent editions of the game or any additional patches . As such , the game is only supported in Mac OS 9 and the " Classic " environment in Mac OS X , neither of which are compatible with Intel @-@ based Macs . The PC version will run on Intel @-@ based Macs using Crossover , Boot Camp , or other software to enable a compatible version of Microsoft Windows to run on a Mac .
A PlayStation 2 port of the game , retitled Deus Ex : The Conspiracy outside of Europe , was released on March 26 , 2002 . Along with pre @-@ rendered introductory and ending cinematics that replaced the original versions , it features a simplified interface with optional auto aim and motion captured character models . There are many minor changes in level design , some for the purpose of balancing gameplay , but most to accommodate loading transition areas , due to the memory limitations of the PlayStation 2 . The PlayStation 2 version was rereleased in Europe on the PlayStation 3 as a PlayStation 2 Classic on May 16 , 2012 .
Loki Games worked on a Linux version of the game , but the company went out of business before releasing it . The OpenGL layer they wrote for the port however was sent out to Windows gamers through an online patch , which also makes the game far more compatible with Wine on Linux than it would have been with only Direct3D .
Though their quality assurance did not see major Direct3D issues , players noted " dramatic slowdowns " immediately following launch , and the team did not understand the " black box " of the Unreal engine well enough to make it do exactly what they needed . Spector characterized Deus Ex reviews into two categories based on how they begin with either how " Warren Spector makes games all by himself " or that " Deus Ex couldn 't possibly have been made by Ion Storm " . He has said that the game won over 30 " best of " awards in 2001 , and concluded that their final game was not perfect , but that they were much closer for having tried to " do things right or not at all " .
= = = Mods = = =
Deus Ex is built on Unreal Engine , previous games of which saw active community involvement in modding . On September 20 , 2000 , Eidos Interactive and Ion Storm announced in a press release that they would be releasing the software development kit ( SDK ) . According to the announcement , the SDK includes all the tools used to create the original game . Several team members as well as project director Warren Spector said that they were " really looking forward to seeing what [ the community ] does with our tools " . The kit was released on September 22 , 2000 , and soon gathered community interest , followed by release of tutorials , small mods , up to announcements of large mods and conversions . While ION Storm did not hugely alter the engine 's rendering and core functionality , they introduced role @-@ playing elements .
In 2009 , a fan @-@ made mod called The Nameless Mod ( TNM ) was released by Off Topic Productions . The game 's protagonist is a user of an Internet forum , with digital places represented as physical locations . The mod offers roughly the same amount of gameplay as Deus Ex and adds several new features to the game , with a more open world structure than Deus Ex and new weapons such as the player character 's fists . The mod was developed over 7 years and has thousands of lines of recorded dialogue and two different parallel story arcs . Upon its release , TNM earned a 9 / 10 overall from PCPowerPlay magazine . In ModDB 's 2009 Mod of the Year awards , The Nameless Mod won the Editor 's Choice award for Best Singleplayer Mod .
In 2013 , a fan @-@ made mod called GMDX was released . It fixes many balance mistakes ( like the " Regeneration ' augmentation ) , adds important detail to maps , passive argumentations and improves AI . It gained ModDB 2014 mod of the year award . In 2015 eight promotional videos were released . [ 1 ]
In 2015 , during the 15th anniversary of the game 's release , Square Enix ( who had acquired Eidos earlier ) endorsed a free fan @-@ created mod , Deus Ex : Revision which was released through Steam . The mod , created by Caustic Creative , is a graphical overhaul of the original game , adding in support for newer versions of DirectX , improving the textures and the soundtrack from the original game , and adding in more world @-@ building aesthetics .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Deus Ex received critical acclaim , attaining a score of 90 out of 100 from 28 critics on Metacritic . Thierry Nguyen from Computer Gaming World said that the game " delivers moments of brilliance , idiocy , ingenuity , and frustration . " Computer Games Magazine praised the title for its deep gameplay and its use of multiple solutions to situations in the game .
Former GameSpot reviewer Greg Kasavin , though awarding the game a score of 8 @.@ 2 of 10 , was disappointed by the security and lockpicking mechanics . " Such instances are essentially noninteractive " , he wrote . " You simply stand there and spend a particular quantity of electronic picks or modules until the door opens or the security goes down . " Kasavin made similar complaints about the hacking interface , noting that , " Even with basic hacking skills , you 'll still be able to bypass the encryption and password protection ... by pressing the ' hack ' button and waiting a few seconds . "
The game 's graphics and sounds were also met with muted enthusiasm . Kasavin complained of Deus Ex 's relatively sub @-@ par graphics , blaming them on the game 's " incessantly dark industrial environments . " GamePro reviewer Chris Patterson took time to note that despite being " solid acoustically , " Deus Ex had moments of weakness . He poked fun at JC 's " Joe Friday , ' just the facts , deadpan , " and the " truly cheesy accents " of minor characters in Hong Kong and New York City . IGN called the graphics " blocky " , adding that " the animation is stiff , and the dithering is just plain awful in some spots , " referring to the limited capabilities of the Unreal Engine used to design the game. the website later on stated that " overall Deus Ex certainly looks better than your average game . "
Reviewers and players also complained about the size of Deus Ex 's save files . An Adrenaline Vault reviewer noted that , " Playing through the entire adventure , [ he ] accumulated over 250MB of save game data , with the average file coming in at over 15MB . "
The game developed a strong cult following , leading to a core modding and playing community that is still active over 15 years after its release . In an interview with IGN in July 2015 , game director Warren Spector said he never expected Deus Ex to sell many copies , but he did expect it to become a cult classic among a smaller strong community , and he continues to receive fan mail from players to date regarding their experiences and thoughts about Deus Ex .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Deus Ex received over 30 " best of " awards in 2001 , from outlets such as IGN , GameSpy , PC Gamer , Computer Gaming World , and The Adrenaline Vault . It won " Excellence in Game Design " and " Game Innovation Spotlight " at the 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards , and it was nominated for " Game of the Year " . At the Interactive Achievement Awards , it won in the " Computer Innovation " and " Computer Action / Adventure " categories and received nominations for " Sound Design " , " PC Role @-@ Playing " , and " Game of the Year " in both the PC and overall categories . The British Academy of Film and Television Arts named it " PC Game of the Year " . The game also collected several " Best Story " accolades , including first prize in Gamasutra 's 2006 " Quantum Leap " awards for storytelling in a video game .
Since its release , Deus Ex has appeared in a number of " Greatest Games of All Time " lists and Hall of Fame features . It was included in IGN 's " 100 Greatest Games of All Time " ( # 40 , # 21 and # 34 in 2003 , 2005 and 2007 , respectively ) , " Top 25 Modern PC Games " ( 4th place in 2010 ) and " Top 25 PC Games of All Time " ( # 20 and # 21 in 2007 and 2009 respectively ) lists . GameSpy featured the game in its " Top 50 Games of All Time " ( 18th place in 2001 ) and " 25 Most Memorable Games of the Past 5 Years " ( 15th place in 2004 ) lists , and in the site 's " Hall of Fame " . PC Gamer placed Deus Ex on its " Top 100 PC Games of All Time " ( # 2 , # 2 , # 1 by staff and # 4 by readers in 2007 , 2008 , 2010 and 2010 respectively ) and " 50 Best Games of All Time " ( # 10 and # 27 in 2001 and 2005 ) lists , and it was awarded 1st place in PC Zone 's " 101 Best PC Games Ever " feature . It was also included in Yahoo ! UK Video Games ' " 100 Greatest Computer Games of All Time " ( 28th place ) list , and in Edge 's " The 100 Best Videogames " [ sic ] ( 29th place in 2007 ) and " 100 Best Games to Play Today " ( 57th place in 2009 ) lists . Deus Ex was named the second @-@ best game of the 2000s by Gamasutra . In 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time , and G4tv ranked it as the 53rd best game of all time for its " complex and well @-@ crafted story that was really the start of players making choices that genuinely affect the outcome . " 1UP.com listed it as one of the most important games of all time , calling its influence " too massive to properly gauge . "
= = Legacy = =
A film adaptation based on the game was originally announced in May 2002 by Columbia Pictures . The film was being produced by Laura Ziskin , along with Greg Pruss attached with writing the screenplay . Peter Schlessel , president of production for Columbia Pictures , and Paul Baldwin , president of marketing for Eidos Interactive , stated that they were confident in that the adaptation would be a successful development for both the studios and the franchise . In March 2003 , during an interview with Greg Pruss , he informed IGN that the character of JC Denton will be " a little bit filthier than he was in the game . " He further stated that the script was shaping up to be darker in tone than the original game . Although a release date was scheduled for 2006 , the film never got past the scripting stage .
In 2012 , CBS films revived the project , buying the rights and commissioning a film inspired by the Deux Ex series ; its direct inspiration will be the 2011 game Human Revolution . C. Robert Cargill and Scott Derrickson are writing the screenplay , and Derrickson will direct the film .
A sequel to the game , entitled Deus Ex : Invisible War , was released in the United States on December 2 , 2003 , and then in Europe in early 2004 for both the PC and the Xbox game console . A second sequel , entitled Deus Ex : Clan Wars , was originally conceived as a multiplayer @-@ focused third game for the series . After the commercial performance and public reception of Deus Ex : Invisible War failed to meet expectations , the decision was made to set the game in its own universe , and Deus Ex : Clan Wars was eventually published under the title Project : Snowblind .
On March 29 , 2007 , Valve Corporation announced Deus Ex and its sequel would be available for purchase from their Steam service . Among the games announced are several other Eidos franchise titles , including Thief : Deadly Shadows and Tomb Raider .
Eidos Montreal produced a prequel to Deus Ex called Deus Ex : Human Revolution . This was confirmed on November 26 , 2007 when Eidos Montreal posted a teaser trailer for the title on their website . The game was released on August 23 , 2011 for the PC , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 platforms and received critical acclaim .
On April 7 , 2015 , Eidos announced a sequel to Deus Ex : Human Revolution and second prequel to Deus Ex entitled Deus Ex : Mankind Divided .
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= Michigan Avenue Bridge =
The Michigan Avenue Bridge ( officially DuSable Bridge ) is a bascule bridge that carries Michigan Avenue across the main stem of the Chicago River in downtown Chicago , Illinois , United States . The bridge was proposed in the early 20th century as part of a plan to link Chicago 's south side and north side parks with a grand boulevard . Construction of the bridge started in 1918 , it opened to traffic in 1920 , and decorative work was completed in 1928 . The bridge provides passage for vehicles and pedestrians on two levels ; it is an example of a fixed trunnion bascule bridge , which is also known as a " Chicago style bascule bridge " . The bridge is included in the Michigan – Wacker Historic District and has been designated as a Chicago Landmark .
The location is significant in the early history of Chicago . Events from the city 's past are commemorated with sculptures and plaques on the bridge , and exhibits in the McCormick Bridgehouse & Chicago River Museum — housed in one of the bridge tender houses — detail the history of the Chicago River .
= = Location = =
The Michigan Avenue Bridge has a north – south orientation , spanning the main stem of the Chicago River between the Near North Side and Loop community areas of Chicago . Its northern portal lies at the foot of the Magnificent Mile , between the Wrigley Building and Tribune Tower . Its southern portal is at the intersection of Michigan Avenue and Wacker Drive , overlooked by the London Guarantee Building and 333 North Michigan . The neighboring bridges are Columbus Drive Bridge to the east and Wabash Avenue Bridge to the west .
The bridge is situated in a historically significant area . The northern end of the bridge covers part of the Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite , which is commemorated by a National Historic plaque in Pioneer Court . The southern half of the bridge passes over the site of Fort Dearborn , which was constructed in 1803 . The Fort is commemorated by a large relief above the entrance of the London Guarantee Building , and brass markers positioned in the sidewalks on the south side of the bridge delineate the posited outline of the original blockhouse .
= = Name = =
The historical significance of the location has been used as the basis for a number of proposals to rename the bridge . In 1921 the Chicago Historical Society suggested that the bridge should be named Marquette – Joliet Bridge , and in 1939 it was proposed to rename the bridge as Fort Dearborn Bridge . These proposals were not adopted .
In October 2010 , the bridge was renamed DuSable Bridge in honor of Jean Baptiste Point du Sable , Chicago 's first permanent resident . A fur trader of African descent who married into the Potawatomi tribe , he established a permanent homestead and trading post near the mouth of the Chicago River in the 1780s .
= = History = =
A boulevard to link the parks on Chicago 's north and south sides was proposed as early as 1891 . An early plan called for a tunnel to link Michigan Avenue south of the river with Pine Street ( now Michigan Avenue ) north of the river . In 1903 an editorial in the Chicago Tribune proposed a new bascule bridge across the river at Michigan Avenue . Other plans suggested that the bridge should be a replica of the Pont Alexandre III that spans the Seine in Paris , or that , rather than constructing an entirely new bridge , the existing Rush Street bridge should be double @-@ decked .
Plans for the boulevard and the construction of a Michigan Avenue Bridge were further elaborated upon in Daniel Burnham 's 1909 Plan of Chicago . In 1911 a plan was selected that included the widening of Michigan Avenue from Randolph Street to the river , replacing the Rush Street bridge with a new bridge at Michigan Avenue and the construction of a double @-@ decked boulevard along Pine Street as far as Ohio Street . An ordinance to fund construction was passed in 1913 , but was declared void by the Supreme Court of Illinois . A second ordinance was passed in 1914 , but legal battles continued until the end of 1916 . Construction finally started on April 15 , 1918 , and the bridge was officially opened in a ceremony on May 14 , 1920 .
The bridge is one of the contributing properties of the Michigan – Wacker Historic District , which was listed as on the National Register of Historic Places on November 15 , 1978 . It was also designated as a Chicago Landmark on October 2 , 1991 . In 2009 the sidewalks and railings on the bridge were replaced , and the bridge was repainted ; the design of the new ornamental railings was based on the original 1920 design for the bridge 's railings , replacing more utilitarian ones that had been substituted at a later date .
= = Design and operation = =
Michigan Avenue Bridge is a double @-@ leaf , double @-@ deck , fixed counterweight , trunnion bascule bridge . It was engineered by the Chicago Department of Public Works , Bureau of Engineering ; Edward H. Bennett was the consulting architect and William A. Mulcahy the chief engineer of construction . At the time of construction it was believed to be the first double @-@ deck bridge ever built to have roadway on both levels ; faster non @-@ commercial traffic using the upper deck and slower commercial traffic that served the various industries and docks in the vicinity of the river using the lower deck .
Each of the bridge 's leaves are divided into two along the axis of the bridge such that it functions as two parallel bridges that can be operated independently of one another ; at the time of construction bridges over the Chicago River were frequently struck by vessels , and this duplex arrangement allows for leaves damaged in such a collision to be opened for repair without needing to completely close the bridge to traffic . The counterweights are below the level of the lower deck and when the bridge is opened they swing down into 40 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 12 m ) reinforced concrete tailpits that descend 34 @.@ 5 feet ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) below the surface of the river . Each of the two tailpits is supported on nine cylindrical foundation piers . One of these piers was sunk to bedrock , 108 feet ( 33 m ) below the river surface , the other 17 piers are sunk to the hardpan , which is 80 to 90 feet ( 24 to 27 m ) below the water level . On the south side of the river one of the freight tunnels of the Chicago Tunnel Company had to be re @-@ routed to make room for the tailpit . The counterweights are composed partly of concrete and partly of a concrete composite with rivet punchings ; each of the four counterweights weighs 1 @,@ 595 short tons ( 1 @,@ 447 t ) . The Michigan Avenue Bridge is made of steel .
The bridge abutments and the facing of the bridge tender houses are made of Bedford stone . There are four bridge tender houses : the northwest and southeast bridgehouses house the controls for operating the bridge ; the northeast and southwest bridgehouses are purely decorative . Two 108 horsepower ( 81 kW ) motors open and close each of the 3 @,@ 750 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 400 t ) bridge leaves . Originally the bridge was staffed 24 hours a day , and opened up to 3000 times a year to allow ships through , but since the 1970s bridge lifting has been scheduled in the spring and fall , when the bridge is raised twice weekly to allow sailboats to pass between Lake Michigan and inland boat yards where they are stored for the winter .
= = Decoration = =
In 1928 sculptures depicting scenes from Chicago 's history were added to the outward @-@ facing walls of the four bridgehouses . The sculptures on the northern bridgehouses were commissioned by William Wrigley , Jr . , and are by James Earle Fraser : The Discoverers depicts Louis Joliet , Jacques Marquette , René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti ; The Pioneers depicts John Kinzie leading a group through the wilderness . The sculptures on the southern bridgehouses were commissioned by the B. F. Ferguson Monument Fund , and are by Henry Hering : Defense depicts Ensign George Ronan in a scene from the 1812 Battle of Fort Dearborn ; Regeneration depicts workers rebuilding Chicago after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 .
The bridge is also bedecked with 28 flagpoles , usually flying the flags of the United States , Illinois and Chicago . On special occasions other banners may be displayed .
= = McCormick Bridgehouse & Chicago River Museum = =
The southwest bridgehouse has been converted into a museum . The McCormick Bridgehouse & Chicago River Museum is a 5 @-@ floor , 1 @,@ 613 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 149 @.@ 9 m2 ) museum that opened on June 10 , 2006 ; it is named for Robert R. McCormick , formerly owner of the Chicago Tribune and president of the Chicago Sanitary District . The Robert R. McCormick Foundation was the major donor that helped to provide the $ 950 @,@ 000 cost of the formation of the museum . It is run by the Friends of the Chicago River , and includes exhibits on the history of the Chicago River and the bridge . Visitors are also allowed to access the bridge 's gear room ; during the spring and fall bridge lifting visitors can see the bridge gears in operation as the leaves are raised and lowered . Due to its small size and tight access stairway only 79 people are allowed inside the museum at any one time .
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= Negative resistance =
In electronics , negative resistance ( NR ) is a property of some electrical circuits and devices in which an increase in voltage across the device 's terminals results in a decrease in electric current through it .
This is in contrast to an ordinary resistor in which an increase of applied voltage causes a proportional increase in current due to Ohm 's law , resulting in a positive resistance . While a positive resistance consumes power from current passing through it , a negative resistance produces power . Under certain conditions it can increase the power of an electrical signal , amplifying it .
Negative resistance is an uncommon property which occurs in a few nonlinear electronic components . In a nonlinear device , two types of resistance can be defined : ' static ' or ' absolute resistance ' , the ratio of voltage to current <formula> , and differential resistance , the ratio of a change in voltage to the resulting change in current <formula> . The term negative resistance refers to negative differential resistance ( NDR ) , <formula> . In general , a negative differential resistance is a two @-@ terminal component which can amplify , converting DC power applied to its terminals to AC output power to amplify an AC signal applied to the same terminals . They are used in electronic oscillators and amplifiers , particularly at microwave frequencies . Most microwave energy is produced with negative differential resistance devices . They can also have hysteresis and be bistable , and so are used in switching and memory circuits . Examples of devices with negative differential resistance are tunnel diodes , Gunn diodes , and gas discharge tubes such as neon lamps . In addition , circuits containing amplifying devices such as transistors and op amps with positive feedback can have negative differential resistance . These are used in oscillators and active filters .
Because they are nonlinear , negative resistance devices have a more complicated behavior than the positive " ohmic " resistances usually encountered in electric circuits . Unlike most positive resistances , negative resistance varies depending on the voltage or current applied to the device , and negative resistance devices can have negative resistance over only a limited portion of their voltage or current range . Therefore , there is no real " negative resistor " analogous to a positive resistor , which has a constant negative resistance over an arbitrarily wide range of current .
= = Negative resistance devices = =
Electronic components with negative differential resistance include these devices :
tunnel diode , resonant tunneling diode and other semiconductor diodes using the tunneling mechanism
Gunn diode and other diodes using the transferred electron mechanism
IMPATT diode , TRAPATT diode and other diodes using the impact ionization mechanism
unijunction transistor ( UJT )
thyristors
triode and tetrode vacuum tubes operating in the dynatron mode
Some magnetron tubes and other microwave vacuum tubes
maser
parametric amplifier
Electric discharges through gases also exhibit negative differential resistance , including these devices
electric arc
thyratron tubes
neon lamp
fluorescent lamp
other gas discharge tubes
In addition , active circuits with negative differential resistance can also be built with amplifying devices like transistors and op amps , using feedback . A number of new experimental negative differential resistance materials and devices have been discovered in recent years . The physical processes which cause negative resistance are diverse , and each type of device has its own negative resistance characteristics , specified by its current – voltage curve .
= = Definitions = =
The resistance between two terminals of an electrical device or circuit is determined by its current – voltage ( I – V ) curve ( characteristic curve ) , giving the current <formula> through it for any given voltage <formula> across it . Most materials , including the ordinary ( positive ) resistances encountered in electrical circuits , obey Ohm 's law ; the current through them is proportional to the voltage over a wide range . So the I – V curve of an ohmic resistance is a straight line through the origin with positive slope . The resistance is the ratio of voltage to current , the inverse slope of the line ( in I – V graphs where the voltage <formula> is the independent variable ) and is constant .
Negative resistance occurs in a few nonlinear ( nonohmic ) devices . In a nonlinear component the I – V curve is not a straight line , so it does not obey Ohm 's law . Resistance can still be defined , but the resistance is not constant ; it varies with the voltage or current through the device . The resistance of such a nonlinear device can be defined in two ways , which are equal for ohmic resistances :
Static resistance ( also called chordal resistance , absolute resistance or just resistance ) – This is the common definition of resistance ; the voltage divided by the current :
<formula> .
It is the inverse slope of the line ( chord ) from the origin through the point on the I – V curve . In a power source , like a battery or electric generator , positive current flows out of the positive voltage terminal , opposite to the direction of current in a resistor , so from the passive sign convention <formula> and <formula> have opposite signs , representing points lying in the 2nd or 4th quadrant of the I – V plane ( diagram right ) . Thus power sources formally have negative static resistance ( <formula> However this term is never used in practice , because the term " resistance " is only applied to passive components . Static resistance determines the power dissipation in a component . Passive devices , which consume electric power , have positive static resistance ; while active devices , which produce electric power , do not .
Differential resistance ( also called dynamic , or incremental resistance ) – This is the derivative of the voltage with respect to the current ; the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding change in current , the inverse slope of the I – V curve at a point :
<formula> .
Differential resistance is only relevant to time @-@ varying currents . Points on the curve where the slope is negative ( declining to the right ) , meaning an increase in voltage causes a decrease in current , have negative differential resistance ( <formula> ) . Devices of this type can amplify signals , and are what is usually meant by the term " negative resistance " .
Negative resistance , like positive resistance , is measured in ohms .
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance . It is measured in siemens ( formerly mho ) which is the conductance of a resistor with a resistance of one ohm . Each type of resistance defined above has a corresponding conductance
Static conductance
<formula>
Differential conductance
<formula>
It can be seen that the conductance has the same sign as its corresponding resistance : a negative resistance will have a negative conductance while a positive resistance will have a positive conductance .
= = Operation = =
One way in which the different types of resistance can be distinguished is in the directions of current and electric power between a circuit and an electronic component . The illustrations below , with a rectangle representing the component attached to a circuit , summarize how the different types work :
= = Types and terminology = =
In an electronic device , the differential resistance <formula> , the static resistance <formula> , or both , can be negative , so there are three categories of devices ( fig . 1 – 3 above , and table ) which could be called " negative resistances " .
The term " negative resistance " almost always means negative differential resistance <formula> . Negative differential resistance devices have unique capabilities : they can act as one @-@ port amplifiers , increasing the power of a time @-@ varying signal applied to their port ( terminals ) , or excite oscillations in a tuned circuit to make an oscillator . They can also have hysteresis . It is not possible for a device to have negative differential resistance without a power source , and these devices can be divided into two categories depending on whether they get their power from an internal source or from their port :
Passive negative differential resistance devices ( fig . 1 above ) : These are the most well @-@ known type of " negative resistances " ; passive two @-@ terminal components whose intrinsic I – V curve has a downward " kink " , causing the current to decrease with increasing voltage over a limited range . The I – V curve , including the negative resistance region , lies in the 1st and 3rd quadrant of the plane so the device has positive static resistance . Examples are gas @-@ discharge tubes , tunnel diodes , and Gunn diodes . These devices have no power source and in general work by converting external DC power from their port to time varying ( AC ) power , so they require a DC bias current applied to the port in addition to the signal . To add to the confusion , some authors call these " active " devices , since they can amplify . This category also includes a few three @-@ terminal devices , such as the unijunction transistor . They are covered in the Negative differential resistance section below .
Active negative differential resistance devices ( fig . 3 ) : Circuits can be designed in which a positive voltage applied to the terminals will cause a proportional " negative " current ; a current out of the positive terminal , the opposite of an ordinary resistor , over a limited range , Unlike in the above devices , the downward @-@ sloping region of the I – V curve passes through the origin , so it lies in the 2nd and 4th quadrants of the plane , meaning the device sources power . Amplifying devices like transistors and op @-@ amps with positive feedback can have this type of negative resistance , and are used in feedback oscillators and active filters . Since these circuits produce net power from their port , they must have an internal DC power source , or else a separate connection to an external power supply . In circuit theory this is called an " active resistor " . Although this type is sometimes referred to as " linear " , " absolute " , " ideal " , or " pure " negative resistance to distinguish it from " passive " negative differential resistances , in electronics it is more often simply called positive feedback or regeneration . These are covered in the Active resistors section below .
Occasionally ordinary power sources are referred to as " negative resistances " ( fig . 2 ) . Although the " static " or " absolute " resistance <formula> of active devices ( power sources ) can be considered negative ( see Negative static resistance section below ) most ordinary power sources ( AC or DC ) , such as batteries , generators , and ( non positive feedback ) amplifiers , have positive differential resistance ( their source resistance ) . Therefore , these devices cannot function as one @-@ port amplifiers or have the other capabilities of negative differential resistances .
= = Negative static or " absolute " resistance = =
A point of some confusion is whether ordinary resistance ( " static " or " absolute " resistance , <formula> ) can be negative . In electronics , the term " resistance " is customarily applied only to passive materials and components – such as wires , resistors and diodes . These cannot have <formula> as shown by Joule 's law <formula> . A passive device consumes electric power , so from the passive sign convention <formula> . Therefore , from Joule 's law <formula> . In other words , no material can conduct electric current better than a " perfect " conductor with zero resistance . For a passive device to have <formula> would violate either conservation of energy or the second law of thermodynamics , ( diagram ) . Therefore , some authors state that static resistance can never be negative .
However it is easily shown that the ratio of voltage to current v / i at the terminals of any power source ( AC or DC ) is negative . For electric power ( potential energy ) to flow out of a device into the circuit , charge must flow through the device in the direction of increasing potential energy , conventional current ( positive charge ) must move from the negative to the positive terminal . So the direction of the instantaneous current is out of the positive terminal . This is opposite to the direction of current in a passive device defined by the passive sign convention so the current and voltage have opposite signs , and their ratio is negative
<formula>
This can also be proved from Joule 's law
<formula>
This shows that power can flow out of a device into the circuit ( <formula> ) if and only if <formula> . Whether or not this quantity is referred to as " resistance " when negative is a matter of convention . The absolute resistance of power sources is negative , but this is not to be regarded as " resistance " in the same sense as positive resistances . The negative static resistance of a power source is a rather abstract and not very useful quantity , because it varies with the load . Due to conservation of energy it is always simply equal to the negative of the static resistance of the attached circuit ( right ) .
Work must be done on the charges by some source of energy in the device , to make them move toward the positive terminal against the electric field , so conservation of energy requires that negative static resistances have a source of power . The power may come from an internal source which converts some other form of energy to electric power as in a battery or generator , or from a separate connection to an external power supply circuit as in an amplifying device like a transistor , vacuum tube , or op amp .
= = = Eventual passivity = = =
A circuit cannot have negative static resistance ( be active ) over an infinite voltage or current range , because it would have to be able to produce infinite power . Any active circuit or device with a finite power source is " eventually passive " . This property means if a large enough external voltage or current of either polarity is applied to it , its static resistance becomes positive
<formula>
where <formula> is the maximum power the device can produce .
Therefore , the ends of the I – V curve will eventually turn and enter the 1st and 3rd quadrants . Thus the range of the curve having negative static resistance is limited , confined to a region around the origin . For example , applying a voltage to a generator or battery ( graph , above ) greater than its open @-@ circuit voltage will reverse the direction of current flow , making its static resistance positive so it consumes power . Similarly , applying a voltage to the negative impedance converter below greater than its power supply voltage Vs will cause the amplifier to saturate , also making its resistance positive .
= = Negative differential resistance = =
In a device or circuit with negative differential resistance ( NDR ) , in some part of the I – V curve the current decreases as the voltage increases :
<formula>
The I – V curve is nonmonotonic ( having peaks and troughs ) with regions of negative slope representing negative differential resistance .
Passive negative differential resistances have positive static resistance ; they consume net power . Therefore , the I – V curve is confined to the 1st and 3rd quadrants of the graph , and passes through the origin . This requirement means ( excluding some asymptotic cases ) that the region ( s ) of negative resistance must be limited , and surrounded by regions of positive resistance , and cannot include the origin .
= = = Types = = =
Negative differential resistances can be classified into two types :
Voltage controlled negative resistance ( VCNR , short @-@ circuit stable , or " N " type ) : In this type the current is a single valued , continuous function of the voltage , but the voltage is a multivalued function of the current . In the most common type there is only one negative resistance region , and the graph is a curve shaped generally like the letter " N " . As the voltage is increased , the current increases ( positive resistance ) until it reaches a maximum ( i1 ) , then decreases in the region of negative resistance to a minimum ( i2 ) , then increases again . Devices with this type of negative resistance include the tunnel diode , resonant tunneling diode , lambda diode , Gunn diode , and dynatron oscillators .
Current controlled negative resistance ( CCNR , open @-@ circuit stable , or " S " type ) : In this type , the dual of the VCNR , the voltage is a single valued function of the current , but the current is a multivalued function of the voltage . In the most common type , with one negative resistance region , the graph is a curve shaped like the letter " S " . Devices with this type of negative resistance include the IMPATT diode , UJT , SCRs and other thyristors , electric arc , and gas discharge tubes like thyratron tubes , fluorescent lamps and neon lights .
Most devices have a single negative resistance region . However devices with multiple separate negative resistance regions can also be fabricated . These can have more than two stable states , and are of interest for use in digital circuits to implement multivalued logic .
An intrinsic parameter used to compare different devices is the peak @-@ to @-@ valley current ratio ( PVR ) , the ratio of the current at the top of the negative resistance region to the current at the bottom ( see graphs , above ) :
<formula>
The larger this is , the larger the potential AC output for a given DC bias current , and therefore the greater the efficiency
= = = Amplification = = =
A negative differential resistance device can amplify an AC signal applied to it if the signal is biased with a DC voltage or current to lie within the negative resistance region of its I – V curve .
The tunnel diode circuit is an example . The tunnel diode TD has voltage controlled negative differential resistance . The battery <formula> adds a constant voltage ( bias ) across the diode so it operates in its negative resistance range , and provides power to amplify the signal . Suppose the negative resistance at the bias point is <formula> . For stability <formula> must be less than <formula> . Using the formula for a voltage divider , the AC output voltage is
<formula> so the voltage gain is <formula>
In a normal voltage divider , the resistance of each branch is less than the resistance of the whole , so the output voltage is less than the input . Here , due to the negative resistance , the total AC resistance <formula> is less than the resistance of the diode alone <formula> so the AC output voltage <formula> is greater than the input <formula> . The voltage gain <formula> is greater than one , and increases without limit as <formula> approaches <formula> .
= = = Explanation of power gain = = =
The diagrams illustrate how a biased negative differential resistance device can increase the power of a signal applied to it , amplifying it , although it only has two terminals . Due to the superposition principle the voltage and current at the device 's terminals can be divided into a DC bias component ( <formula> ) and an AC component ( <formula> ) .
<formula>
<formula>
Since a positive change in voltage <formula> causes a negative change in current <formula> , the AC current and voltage in the device are 180 ° out of phase . This means in the AC equivalent circuit ( right ) , the instantaneous AC current Δi flows through the device in the direction of increasing AC potential Δv , as it would in a generator . Therefore , the AC power dissipation is negative ; AC power is produced by the device and flows into the external circuit .
<formula>
With the proper external circuit , the device can increase the AC signal power delivered to a load , serving as an amplifier , or excite oscillations in a resonant circuit to make an oscillator . Unlike in a two port amplifying device such as a transistor or op amp , the amplified signal leaves the device through the same two terminals ( port ) as the input signal enters .
In a passive device , the AC power produced comes from the input DC bias current , the device absorbs DC power , some of which is converted to AC power by the nonlinearity of the device , amplifying the applied signal . Therefore , the output power is limited by the bias power
<formula>
The negative differential resistance region cannot include the origin , because it would then be able to amplify a signal with no applied DC bias current , producing AC power with no power input . The device also dissipates some power as heat , equal to the difference between the DC power in and the AC power out .
The device may also have reactance and therefore the phase difference between current and voltage may differ from 180 ° and may vary with frequency . As long as the real component of the impedance is negative ( phase angle between 90 ° and 270 ° ) , the device will have negative resistance and can amplify .
The maximum AC output power is limited by size of the negative resistance region ( <formula> in graphs above )
<formula>
= = = Reflection coefficient = = =
The reason that the output signal can leave a negative resistance through the same port that the input signal enters is that from transmission line theory , the AC voltage or current at the terminals of a component can be divided into two oppositely moving waves , the incident wave <formula> , which travels toward the device , and the reflected wave <formula> , which travels away from the device . A negative differential resistance in a circuit can amplify if the magnitude of its reflection coefficient <formula> , the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave , is greater than one .
<formula> where <formula>
The " reflected " ( output ) signal has larger amplitude than the incident ; the device has " reflection gain " . The reflection coefficient is determined by the AC impedance of the negative resistance device , <formula> , and the impedance of the circuit attached to it , <formula> . If <formula> and <formula> then <formula> and the device will amplify . On the Smith chart , a graphical aide widely used in the design of high frequency circuits , negative differential resistance corresponds to points outside the unit circle <formula> , the boundary of the conventional chart , so special " expanded " charts must be used .
= = = Stability conditions = = =
Because it is nonlinear , a circuit with negative differential resistance can have multiple equilibrium points ( possible DC operating points ) , which lie on the I – V curve . An equilibrium point will be stable , so the circuit converges to it within some neighborhood of the point , if its poles are in the left half of the s plane ( LHP ) , while a point is unstable , causing the circuit to oscillate or " latch up " ( converge to another point ) , if its poles are on the jω axis or right half plane ( RHP ) , respectively . The equilibrium points are determined by the DC bias circuit , and their stability is determined by the AC impedance <formula> of the external circuit . However , because of the different shapes of the curves , the condition for stability is different for VCNR and CCNR types of negative resistance :
In a CCNR ( S @-@ type ) negative resistance , the resistance function <formula> is single @-@ valued . Therefore , stability is determined by the poles of the circuit 's impedance equation : <formula> .
For nonreactive circuits ( <formula> ) a sufficient condition for stability is that the total resistance is positive <formula>
so the CCNR is stable for
Since CCNRs are stable with no load at all , they are called " open circuit stable " .
In a VCNR ( N @-@ type ) negative resistance , the conductance function <formula> is single @-@ valued . Therefore , stability is determined by the poles of the admittance equation <formula> . For this reason the VCNR is sometimes referred to as a negative conductance .
As above , for nonreactive circuits a sufficient condition for stability is that the total conductance in the circuit is positive <formula>
<formula>
so the VCNR is stable for
Since VCNRs are even stable with a short @-@ circuited output , they are called " short circuit stable " .
For general negative resistance circuits with reactance , the stability must be determined by standard tests like the Nyquist stability criterion . Alternatively , in high frequency circuit design , the values of <formula> for which the circuit is stable are determined by a graphical technique using " stability circles " on a Smith chart .
= = = Operating regions and applications = = =
For simple nonreactive negative resistance devices with <formula> and <formula> the different operating regions of the device can be illustrated by load lines on the I – V curve ( see graphs ) .
The DC load line ( DCL ) is a straight line determined by the DC bias circuit , with equation
<formula>
where <formula> is the DC bias supply voltage and R is the resistance of the supply . The possible DC operating point ( s ) ( Q points ) occur where the DC load line intersects the I – V curve . For stability
VCNRs require a low impedance bias ( <formula> ) , such as a voltage source .
CCNRs require a high impedance bias ( <formula> ) such as a current source , or voltage source in series with a high resistance .
The AC load line ( L1 − L3 ) is a straight line through the Q point whose slope is the differential ( AC ) resistance <formula> facing the device . Increasing <formula> rotates the load line counterclockwise . The circuit operates in one of three possible regions ( see diagrams ) , depending on <formula> .
Stable region ( green ) ( illustrated by line L1 ) : When the load line lies in this region , it intersects the I – V curve at one point Q1 . For nonreactive circuits it is a stable equilibrium ( poles in the LHP ) so the circuit is stable . Negative resistance amplifiers operate in this region . However , due to hysteresis , with an energy storage device like a capacitor or inductor the circuit can become unstable to make a nonlinear relaxation oscillator ( astable multivibrator ) or a monostable multivibrator.VCNRs are stable when <formula> .
CCNRs are stable when <formula> .
Unstable point ( Line L2 ) : When <formula> the load line is tangent to the I – V curve . The total differential ( AC ) resistance of the circuit is zero ( poles on the jω axis ) , so it is unstable and with a tuned circuit can oscillate . Linear oscillators operate at this point . Practical oscillators actually start in the unstable region below , with poles in the RHP , but as the amplitude increases the oscillations become nonlinear , and due to eventual passivity the negative resistance r decreases with increasing amplitude , so the oscillations stabilize at an amplitude where <formula> .
Bistable region ( red ) ( illustrated by line L3 ) : In this region the load line can intersect the I – V curve at three points . The center point ( Q1 ) is a point of unstable equilibrium ( poles in the RHP ) , while the two outer points , Q2 and Q3 are stable equilibria . So with correct biasing the circuit can be bistable , it will converge to one of the two points Q2 or Q3 and can be switched between them with an input pulse . Switching circuits like flip @-@ flops ( bistable multivibrators ) and Schmidt triggers operate in this region .
VCNRs can be bistable when <formula>
CCNRs can be bistable when <formula>
= = Active resistors – negative resistance from feedback = =
In addition to the passive devices with intrinsic negative differential resistance above , circuits with amplifying devices like transistors or op amps can have negative resistance at their ports . The input or output impedance of an amplifier with enough positive feedback applied to it can be negative . If <formula> is the input resistance of the amplifier without feedback , <formula> is the amplifier gain , and <formula> is the transfer function of the feedback path , the input resistance with positive shunt feedback is
<formula>
So if the loop gain <formula> is greater than one , <formula> will be negative . The circuit acts like a " negative linear resistor " over a limited range , with I – V curve having a straight line segment through the origin with negative slope ( see graphs ) . It has both negative differential resistance and is active
<formula>
and thus obeys Ohm 's law as if it had a negative value of resistance − R , over its linear range ( such amplifiers can also have more complicated negative resistance I – V curves that do not pass through the origin ) .
These are often called " active resistors " . Applying a voltage across the terminals causes a proportional current out of the positive terminal , the opposite of an ordinary resistor . For example , connecting a battery to the terminals would cause the battery to charge rather than discharge .
Considered as one @-@ port devices , these circuits function similarly to the passive negative differential resistance components above , and like them can be used to make one @-@ port amplifiers and oscillators with the advantages that :
because they are active devices they do not require an external DC bias to provide power , and can be DC coupled ,
the amount of negative resistance can be varied by adjusting the loop gain ,
they can be linear circuit elements ; the voltage is proportional to the current , so they do not cause harmonic distortion .
The I – V curve can have voltage @-@ controlled ( " N " type ) or current @-@ controlled ( " S " type ) negative resistance , depending on whether the feedback loop is connected in " shunt " or " series " .
Negative reactances ( below ) can also be created , so feedback circuits can be used to create " active " linear circuit elements , resistors , capacitors , and inductors , with negative values . They are widely used in active filters because they can create transfer functions that cannot be realized with positive circuit elements . Examples of circuits with this type of negative resistance are the negative impedance converter ( NIC ) , gyrator , Deboo integrator , frequency dependent negative resistance ( FDNR ) , and generalized immittance converter ( GIC ) .
= = = Feedback oscillators = = =
If an LC circuit is connected across the input of a positive feedback amplifier like that above , the negative differential input resistance <formula> can cancel the positive loss resistance <formula> inherent in the tuned circuit . If <formula> this will create in effect a tuned circuit with zero AC resistance ( poles on the jω axis ) . Spontaneous oscillation will be excited in the tuned circuit at its resonant frequency , sustained by the power from the amplifier . This is how feedback oscillators such as Hartley or Colpitts oscillators work . This negative resistance model is an alternate way of analyzing feedback oscillator operation . All linear oscillator circuits have negative resistance although in most feedback oscillators the tuned circuit is an integral part of the feedback network , so the circuit does not have negative resistance at all frequencies but only near the oscillation frequency .
= = = Q enhancement = = =
A tuned circuit connected to a negative resistance which cancels some but not all of its parasitic loss resistance ( so <formula> ) will not oscillate , but the negative resistance will decrease the damping in the circuit ( moving its poles toward the jω axis ) , increasing its Q factor so it has a narrower bandwidth and more selectivity . Q enhancement , also called regeneration , was first used in the regenerative radio receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1912 and later in " Q multipliers " . It is widely used in active filters . For example , RF integrated circuits use integrated inductors to save space , consisting of a spiral conductor fabricated on chip . These have high losses and low Q , so to create high Q tuned circuits their Q is increased by applying negative resistance .
= = = Chaotic circuits = = =
Circuits which exhibit chaotic behavior can be considered quasi @-@ periodic or nonperiodic oscillators , and like all oscillators require a negative resistance in the circuit to provide power . Chua 's circuit , a simple nonlinear circuit widely used as the standard example of a chaotic system , requires a nonlinear active resistor component , sometimes called Chua 's diode . This is usually synthesized using a negative impedance converter circuit .
= = = Negative impedance converter = = =
A common example of an " active resistance " circuit is the negative impedance converter ( NIC ) shown in the diagram . The two resistors <formula> and the op amp constitute a negative feedback non @-@ inverting amplifier with gain of 2 . The output voltage of the op @-@ amp is
<formula>
So if a voltage <formula> is applied to the input , the same voltage is applied " backwards " across <formula> , causing current to flow through it out of the input . The current is
<formula>
So the input impedance to the circuit is
<formula>
The circuit converts the impedance <formula> to its negative . If <formula> is a resistor of value <formula> , within the linear range of the op amp <formula> the input impedance acts like a linear " negative resistor " of value <formula> . The input port of the circuit is connected into another circuit as if it was a component . An NIC can cancel undesired positive resistance in another circuit , for example they were originally developed to cancel resistance in telephone cables , serving as repeaters .
= = = Negative capacitance and inductance = = =
By replacing <formula> in the above circuit with a capacitor ( <formula> ) or inductor ( <formula> ) , negative capacitances and inductances can also be synthesized . A negative capacitance will have an I – V relation and an impedance <formula> of
<formula>
where <formula> . Applying a positive current to a negative capacitance will cause it to discharge ; its voltage will decrease . Similarly , a negative inductance will have an I – V characteristic and impedance <formula> of
<formula>
A circuit having negative capacitance or inductance can be used to cancel unwanted positive capacitance or inductance in another circuit . NIC circuits were used to cancel reactance on telephone cables .
There is also another way of looking at them . In a negative capacitance the current will be 180 ° opposite in phase to the current in a positive capacitance . Instead of leading the voltage by 90 ° it will lag the voltage by 90 ° , as in an inductor . Therefore , a negative capacitance acts like an inductance in which the impedance has a reverse dependence on frequency ω ; decreasing instead of increasing like a real inductance Similarly a negative inductance acts like a capacitance that has an impedance which increases with frequency . Negative capacitances and inductances are " non @-@ Foster " circuits which violate Foster 's reactance theorem . One application being researched is to create an active matching network which could match an antenna to a transmission line over a broad range of frequencies , rather than just a single frequency as with current networks . This would allow the creation of small compact antennas that would have broad bandwidth , exceeding the Chu – Harrington limit .
= = Oscillators = =
Negative differential resistance devices are widely used to make electronic oscillators . In a negative resistance oscillator , a negative differential resistance device such as an IMPATT diode , Gunn diode , or microwave vacuum tube is connected across an electrical resonator such as an LC circuit , a quartz crystal , dielectric resonator or cavity resonator with a DC source to bias the device into its negative resistance region and provide power . A resonator such as an LC circuit is " almost " an oscillator ; it can store oscillating electrical energy , but because all resonators have internal resistance or other losses , the oscillations are damped and decay to zero . The negative resistance cancels the positive resistance of the resonator , creating in effect a lossless resonator , in which spontaneous continuous oscillations occur at the resonator 's resonant frequency .
= = = Uses = = =
Negative resistance oscillators are mainly used at high frequencies in the microwave range or above , since feedback oscillators function poorly at these frequencies . Microwave diodes are used in low- to medium @-@ power oscillators for applications such as radar speed guns , and local oscillators for satellite receivers . They are a widely used source of microwave energy , and virtually the only solid @-@ state source of millimeter wave and terahertz energy Negative resistance microwave vacuum tubes such as magnetrons produce higher power outputs , in such applications as radar transmitters and microwave ovens . Lower frequency relaxation oscillators can be made with UJTs and gas @-@ discharge lamps such as neon lamps .
The negative resistance oscillator model is not limited to one @-@ port devices like diodes but can also be applied to feedback oscillator circuits with two port devices such as transistors and tubes . In addition , in modern high frequency oscillators , transistors are increasingly used as one @-@ port negative resistance devices like diodes . At microwave frequencies , transistors with certain loads applied to one port can become unstable due to internal feedback and show negative resistance at the other port . So high frequency transistor oscillators are designed by applying a reactive load to one port to give the transistor negative resistance , and connecting the other port across a resonator to make a negative resistance oscillator as described below .
= = = Gunn diode oscillator = = =
The common Gunn diode oscillator ( circuit diagrams ) illustrates how negative resistance oscillators work . The diode D has voltage controlled ( " N " type ) negative resistance and the voltage source <formula> biases it into its negative resistance region where its differential resistance is <formula> . The choke RFC prevents AC current from flowing through the bias source . <formula> is the equivalent resistance due to damping and losses in the series tuned circuit <formula> , plus any load resistance . Analyzing the AC circuit with Kirchhoff 's Voltage Law gives a differential equation for <formula> , the AC current
<formula>
Solving this equation gives a solution of the form
<formula> where <formula>
This shows that the current through the circuit , <formula> , varies with time about the DC Q point , <formula> . When started from a nonzero initial current <formula> the current oscillates sinusoidally at the resonant frequency ω of the tuned circuit , with amplitude either constant , increasing , or decreasing exponentially , depending on the value of α . Whether the circuit can sustain steady oscillations depends on the balance between <formula> and <formula> , the positive and negative resistance in the circuit :
<formula> : ( poles in left half plane ) If the diode 's negative resistance is less than the positive resistance of the tuned circuit , the damping is positive . Any oscillations in the circuit will lose energy as heat in the resistance <formula> and die away exponentially to zero , as in an ordinary tuned circuit . So the circuit does not oscillate .
<formula> : ( poles on jω axis ) If the positive and negative resistances are equal , the net resistance is zero , so the damping is zero . The diode adds just enough energy to compensate for energy lost in the tuned circuit and load , so oscillations in the circuit , once started , will continue at a constant amplitude . This is the condition during steady @-@ state operation of the oscillator .
<formula> : ( poles in right half plane ) If the negative resistance is greater than the positive resistance , damping is negative , so oscillations will grow exponentially in energy and amplitude . This is the condition during startup .
Practical oscillators are designed in region ( 3 ) above , with net negative resistance , to get oscillations started . A widely used rule of thumb is to make <formula> . When the power is turned on , electrical noise in the circuit provides a signal <formula> to start spontaneous oscillations , which grow exponentially . However , the oscillations cannot grow forever ; the nonlinearity of the diode eventually limits the amplitude .
At large amplitudes the circuit is nonlinear , so the linear analysis above does not strictly apply and differential resistance is undefined ; but the circuit can be understood by considering <formula> to be the " average " resistance over the cycle . As the amplitude of the sine wave exceeds the width of the negative resistance region and the voltage swing extends into regions of the curve with positive differential resistance , the average negative differential resistance <formula> becomes smaller , and thus the total resistance <formula> and the damping <formula> becomes less negative and eventually turns positive . Therefore , the oscillations will stabilize at the amplitude at which the damping becomes zero , which is when <formula> .
Gunn diodes have negative resistance in the range − 5 to − 25 ohms . In oscillators where <formula> is close to <formula> ; just small enough to allow the oscillator to start , the voltage swing will be mostly limited to the linear portion of the I – V curve , the output waveform will be nearly sinusoidal and the frequency will be most stable . In circuits in which <formula> is far below <formula> , the swing extends further into the nonlinear part of the curve , the clipping distortion of the output sine wave is more severe , and the frequency will be increasingly dependent on the supply voltage .
= = = Types of circuit = = =
Negative resistance oscillator circuits can be divided into two types , which are used with the two types of negative differential resistance – voltage controlled ( VCNR ) , and current controlled ( CCNR )
Negative resistance ( voltage controlled ) oscillator : Since VCNR ( " N " type ) devices require a low impedance bias and are stable for load impedances less than r , the ideal oscillator circuit for this device has the form shown at top right , with a voltage source Vbias to bias the device into its negative resistance region , and parallel resonant circuit load LC . The resonant circuit has high impedance only at its resonant frequency , so the circuit will be unstable and oscillate only at that frequency .
Negative conductance ( current controlled ) oscillator : CCNR ( " S " type ) devices , in contrast , require a high impedance bias and are stable for load impedances greater than r . The ideal oscillator circuit is like that at bottom right , with a current source bias Ibias ( which may consist of a voltage source in series with a large resistor ) and series resonant circuit LC . The series LC circuit has low impedance only at its resonant frequency and so will only oscillate there .
= = = Conditions for oscillation = = =
Most oscillators are more complicated than the Gunn diode example , since both the active device and the load may have reactance ( X ) as well as resistance ( R ) . Modern negative resistance oscillators are designed by a frequency domain technique due to K. Kurokawa . The circuit diagram is imagined to be divided by a " reference plane " ( red ) which separates the negative resistance part , the active device , from the positive resistance part , the resonant circuit and output load ( right ) . The complex impedance of the negative resistance part <formula> depends on frequency ω but is also nonlinear , in general declining with the amplitude of the AC oscillation current I ; while the resonator part <formula> is linear , depending only on frequency . The circuit equation is <formula> so it will only oscillate ( have nonzero I ) at the frequency ω and amplitude I for which the total impedance <formula> is zero . This means the magnitude of the negative and positive resistances must be equal , and the reactances must be conjugate
<formula> and <formula>
For steady @-@ state oscillation the equal sign applies . During startup the inequality applies , because the circuit must have excess negative resistance for oscillations to start .
Alternately , the condition for oscillation can be expressed using the reflection coefficient . The voltage waveform at the reference plane can be divided into a component V1 travelling toward the negative resistance device and a component V2 travelling in the opposite direction , toward the resonator part . The reflection coefficient of the active device <formula> is greater than one , while that of the resonator part <formula> is less than one . During operation the waves are reflected back and forth in a round trip so the circuit will oscillate only if
<formula>
As above , the equality gives the condition for steady oscillation , while the inequality is required during startup to provide excess negative resistance . The above conditions are analogous to the Barkhausen criterion for feedback oscillators ; they are necessary but not sufficient , so there are some circuits that satisfy the equations but do not oscillate . Kurokawa also derived more complicated sufficient conditions , which are often used instead .
= = Amplifiers = =
Negative differential resistance devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes are also used to make amplifiers , particularly at microwave frequencies , but not as commonly as oscillators . Because negative resistance devices have only one port ( two terminals ) , unlike two @-@ port devices such as transistors , the outgoing amplified signal has to leave the device by the same terminals as the incoming signal enters it . Without some way of separating the two signals , a negative resistance amplifier is bilateral ; it amplifies in both directions , so it suffers from sensitivity to load impedance and feedback problems . To separate the input and output signals , many negative resistance amplifiers use nonreciprocal devices such as isolators and directional couplers .
= = = Reflection amplifier = = =
One widely used circuit is the reflection amplifier in which the separation is accomplished by a circulator . A circulator is a nonreciprocal solid @-@ state component with three ports ( connectors ) which transfers a signal applied to one port to the next in only one direction , port 1 to port 2 , 2 to 3 , and 3 to 1 . In the reflection amplifier diagram the input signal is applied to port 1 , a biased VCNR negative resistance diode N is attached through a filter F to port 2 , and the output circuit is attached to port 3 . The input signal is passed from port 1 to the diode at port 2 , but the outgoing " reflected " amplified signal from the diode is routed to port 3 , so there is little coupling from output to input . The characteristic impedance <formula> of the input and output transmission lines , usually 50Ω , is matched to the port impedance of the circulator . The purpose of the filter F is to present the correct impedance to the diode to set the gain . At radio frequencies NR diodes are not pure resistive loads and have reactance , so a second purpose of the filter is to cancel the diode reactance with a conjugate reactance to prevent standing waves .
The filter has only reactive components and so does not absorb any power itself , so power is passed between the diode and the ports without loss . The input signal power to the diode is
<formula>
The output power from the diode is
<formula>
So the power gain <formula> of the amplifier is the square of the reflection coefficient
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula> is the negative resistance of the diode − r . Assuming the filter is matched to the diode so <formula> then the gain is
<formula>
The VCNR reflection amplifier above is stable for <formula> . while a CCNR amplifier is stable for <formula> . It can be seen that the reflection amplifier can have unlimited gain , approaching infinity as <formula> approaches the point of oscillation at <formula> . This is a characteristic of all NR amplifiers , contrasting with the behavior of two @-@ port amplifiers , which generally have limited gain but are often unconditionally stable . In practice the gain is limited by the backward " leakage " coupling between circulator ports .
Masers and parametric amplifiers are extremely low noise NR amplifiers that are also implemented as reflection amplifiers ; they are used in applications like radio telescopes .
= = Switching circuits = =
Negative differential resistance devices are also used in switching circuits in which the device operates nonlinearly , changing abruptly from one state to another , with hysteresis . The advantage of using a negative resistance device is that a relaxation oscillator , flip @-@ flop or memory cell can be built with a single active device , whereas the standard logic circuit for these functions , the Eccles @-@ Jordan multivibrator , requires two active devices ( transistors ) . Three switching circuits built with negative resistances are
Astable multivibrator – a circuit with two unstable states , in which the output periodically switches back and forth between the states . The time it remains in each state is determined by the time constant of an RC circuit . Therefore , it is a relaxation oscillator , and can produce square waves or triangle waves .
Monostable multivibrator – is a circuit with one unstable state and one stable state . When in its stable state a pulse is applied to the input , the output switches to its other state and remains in it for a period of time dependent on the time constant of the RC circuit , then switches back to the stable state . Thus the monostable can be used as a timer or delay element .
Bistable multivibrator or flip flop – is a circuit with two stable states . A pulse at the input switches the circuit to its other state . Therefore , bistables can be used as memory circuits , and digital counters .
= = Other applications = =
= = = Neuronal models = = =
Some instances of neurons display regions of negative slope conductances ( RNSC ) in voltage @-@ clamp experiments . The negative resistance here is implied were one to consider the neuron a typical Hodgkin – Huxley style circuit model .
= = History = =
Negative resistance was first recognized during investigations of electric arcs , which were used for lighting during the 19th century . In 1881 Alfred Niaudet had observed that the voltage across arc electrodes decreased temporarily as the arc current increased , but many researchers thought this was a secondary effect due to temperature . The term " negative resistance " was applied by some to this effect , but the term was controversial because it was known that the resistance of a passive device could not be negative . Beginning in 1895 Hertha Ayrton , extending her husband William 's research with a series of meticulous experiments measuring the I – V curve of arcs , established that arcs had negative resistance , igniting controversy . Frith and Rodgers in 1896 with the support of the Ayrtons introduced the concept of differential resistance , dv / di , and it was slowly accepted that arcs had negative differential resistance . In recognition of her research , Hertha Ayrton became the first woman voted for induction into the Institute of Electrical Engineers .
= = = Arc transmitters = = =
George Francis Fitzgerald first realized in 1892 that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative , it would produce continuous oscillations . In the same year Elihu Thomson built a negative resistance oscillator by connecting an LC circuit to the electrodes of an arc , perhaps the first example of an electronic oscillator . William Duddell , a student of Ayrton at London Central Technical College , brought Thomson 's arc oscillator to public attention . Due to its negative resistance , the current through an arc was unstable , and arc lights would often produce hissing , humming , or even howling noises . In 1899 , investigating this effect , Duddell connected an LC circuit across an arc and the negative resistance excited oscillations in the tuned circuit , producing a musical tone from the arc . To demonstrate his invention Duddell wired several tuned circuits to an arc and played a tune on it . Duddell 's " singing arc " oscillator was limited to audio frequencies . However , in 1903 Danish engineers Valdemar Poulsen and P. O. Pederson increased the frequency into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere in a magnetic field , inventing the Poulsen arc radio transmitter , which was widely used until the 1920s .
= = = Vacuum tubes = = =
By the early 20th century , although the physical causes of negative resistance were not understood , engineers knew it could generate oscillations and had begun to apply it . Heinrich Barkhausen in 1907 showed that oscillators must have negative resistance . Ernst Ruhmer and Adolf Pieper discovered that mercury vapor lamps could produce oscillations , and by 1912 AT & T had used them to build amplifying repeaters for telephone lines .
In 1918 Albert Hull at GE discovered that vacuum tubes could have negative resistance in parts of their operating ranges , due to a phenomenon called secondary emission . In a vacuum tube when electrons strike the plate electrode they can knock additional electrons out of the surface into the tube . This represents a current away from the plate , reducing the plate current . Under certain conditions increasing the plate voltage causes a decrease in plate current . By connecting an LC circuit to the tube Hull created an oscillator , the dynatron oscillator . Other negative resistance tube oscillators followed , such as the magnetron invented by Hull in 1920 .
The negative impedance converter originated from work by Marius Latour around 1920 . He was also one of the first to report negative capacitance and inductance . A decade later , vacuum tube NICs were developed as telephone line repeaters at Bell Labs by George Crisson and others , which made transcontinental telephone service possible . Transistor NICs , pioneered by Linvill in 1953 , initiated a great increase in interest in NICs and many new circuits and applications developed .
= = = Solid state devices = = =
Negative differential resistance in semiconductors was observed around 1909 in the first point @-@ contact junction diodes , called cat 's whisker detectors , by researchers such as William Henry Eccles and G. W. Pickard . They noticed that when junctions were biased with a DC voltage to improve their sensitivity as radio detectors , they would sometimes break into spontaneous oscillations . However the effect was not pursued .
The first person to exploit negative resistance diodes practically was Russian radio researcher Oleg Losev , who in 1922 discovered negative differential resistance in biased zincite ( zinc oxide ) point contact junctions . He used these to build solid @-@ state amplifiers , oscillators , and amplifying and regenerative radio receivers , 25 years before the invention of the transistor . Later he even built a superheterodyne receiver . However his achievements were overlooked because of the success of vacuum tube technology . After ten years he abandoned research into this technology ( dubbed " Crystodyne " by Hugo Gernsback ) , and it was forgotten .
The first widely used solid @-@ state negative resistance device was the tunnel diode , invented in 1957 by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki . Because they have lower parasitic capacitance than vacuum tubes due to their small junction size , diodes can function at higher frequencies , and tunnel diode oscillators proved able to produce power at microwave frequencies , above the range of ordinary vacuum tube oscillators . Its invention set off a search for other negative resistance semiconductor devices for use as microwave oscillators , resulting in the discovery of the IMPATT diode , Gunn diode , TRAPATT diode , and others . In 1969 Kurokawa derived conditions for stability in negative resistance circuits . Currently negative differential resistance diode oscillators are the most widely used sources of microwave energy , and many new negative resistance devices have been discovered in recent decades .
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= David A. Johnston =
David Alexander Johnston ( December 18 , 1949 – May 18 , 1980 ) was an American USGS volcanologist who died during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington . A principal scientist on the monitoring team , Johnston perished while manning an observation post 6 miles ( 10 km ) away on the morning of May 18 , 1980 . He was the first to report the eruption , transmitting " Vancouver ! Vancouver ! This is it ! " before he was swept away by a lateral blast . Johnston 's remains were never found , but state highway workers discovered remnants of his USGS trailer in 1993 .
Johnston 's career took him across the United States , where he studied Augustine Volcano in Alaska , the San Juan volcanic field in Colorado , and long @-@ extinct volcanoes in Michigan . Johnston was a meticulous and talented scientist , known for his analyses of volcanic gases and their relationship to eruptions . This , along with his enthusiasm and positive attitude , made him liked and respected by many co @-@ workers . After his death , other scientists lauded his character , both verbally and in dedications and letters . Johnston felt scientists must do what is necessary , including taking risks , to help protect the public from natural disasters . His work , and that of fellow USGS scientists convinced authorities to close Mount St. Helens to the public before the 1980 eruption . They maintained the closure despite heavy pressure to re @-@ open the area ; their work saved thousands of lives . His story became intertwined within the popular image of volcanic eruptions and their threat to society , and a part of volcanology 's history . To date , Johnston , along with Harry Glicken , is one of two American volcanologists known to have died in a volcanic eruption .
Following his death , Johnston was commemorated in several ways , including a memorial fund established in his name at the University of Washington to fund graduate @-@ level research . Two volcano observatories were established and named after him : one in Vancouver , Washington , and another on the ridge where he died . Johnston 's life and death are featured in several documentaries , films , docudramas and books . Along with others who died during the eruption , Johnston 's name is inscribed on memorials dedicated to their memory .
= = Life and career = =
Johnston was born at the University of Chicago Hospital on December 18 , 1949 , to Thomas and Alice Johnston . They originally lived in Hometown , Illinois , but moved to Oak Lawn shortly after Johnston 's birth . Johnston grew up with one sister . His father worked as an engineer at a local company and his mother as a newspaper editor . Johnston often took photographs for his mother 's newspaper and contributed articles to his school 's newspaper . He never married .
After graduating from high school , Johnston attended the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . He planned to study journalism , but became discouraged after a poor grade in a large lecture class . He was intrigued by an introductory geology class , and changed his major . His first geologic project was a study of the Precambrian rock that forms Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . There he investigated the remains of an ancient volcano : a suite of metamorphosed basalts , a gabbroic sill , and volcanic roots in the form of a dioritic and gabbroic intrusion . The experience planted the seed of Johnston 's passion for volcanoes . After working hard to learn the subject , he graduated with " Highest Honors and Distinction " in 1971 .
Johnston spent the summer after college in the San Juan volcanic field of Colorado working with volcanologist Pete Lipman in his study of two extinct calderas . This work became the inspiration for the first phase of his graduate work at the University of Washington in Seattle , in which he focused on the Oligocene Cimarron andesitic volcanic complex in the western San Juans . Johnston 's reconstruction of the eruptive history of the extinct volcanoes prepared him to study active volcanoes . Johnston 's first experience with active volcanoes was a geophysical survey of Mount Augustine in Alaska in 1975 . When Mount Augustine erupted in 1976 , Johnston raced back to Alaska , shunting his former work on the Cimmaron Volcano into a master 's thesis , and making Mount Augustine the focus of his Ph.D. work . He graduated in 1978 with his Ph.D. , having shown that ( 1 ) the emplacement mechanism of the pyroclastic flows had changed over time , as they became less pumaceous , ( 2 ) the magmas contained high quantities of volatile water , chlorine , and sulfur , and ( 3 ) underground mixing of the felsic ( silicic ) magmas with less @-@ viscous mafic ( basaltic ) magmas could have triggered eruptions . Mount Augustine was also the site of an early near @-@ disaster for Johnston , when he became trapped on the mountain during an eruption after high winds grounded the first two evacuation aircraft .
During the summers of 1978 and 1979 , Johnston led studies of the ash @-@ flow sheet emplaced in the 1912 eruption of Mount Katmai in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes . The gas phase is extremely important in propelling volcanic eruptions . Because of this , Johnston mastered the many techniques required to analyze glass @-@ vapor inclusions in phenocrysts embedded in lavas , which provide information about gases present during past eruptions . His work at Mount Katmai and other volcanoes in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes paved the way for his career , and his " agility , nerve , patience , and determination around the jet @-@ like summit fumaroles in the crater of Mt . Mageik " impressed his colleagues .
Later in 1978 , Johnston joined the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , where he monitored volcanic emission levels in the Cascades and Aleutian Arc . There he helped to strengthen the theory that eruptions can be predicted , to some degree , by changes in the makeup of volcanic gases . Fellow volcanologist Wes Hildreth said of Johnston , " I think Dave 's dearest hope was that systematic monitoring of fumarolic emissions might permit detection of changes characteristically precursory to eruptions ... Dave wanted to formulate a general model for the behavior of magmatic volatiles prior to explosive outbursts and to develop a corollary rationale for the evaluation of hazards . " During this time , Johnston continued to visit Mount Augustine every summer and also assessed the geothermal energy potential of the Azores and Portugal . In the last year of his life , Johnston developed an interest in the health , agricultural , and environmental effects of both volcanic and anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere .
Johnston was based at the branch of the USGS in Menlo Park , California , but his work on volcanoes took him all over the Pacific Northwest region . When the first earthquakes shook Mount St. Helens on March 16 , 1980 , Johnston was nearby at the University of Washington , where he had pursued his doctorate . Intrigued by the possible advent of an eruption , Johnston contacted Stephen Malone , a professor of geology at the university . Malone had been his mentor when Johnston had worked at the San Juan complex in Colorado , and Johnston admired his work . Malone stated that he " put him to work " almost instantly , allowing Johnston to escort interested reporters to a place near the volcano . Johnston was the first geologist on the volcano , and soon became a leader within the USGS team , taking charge of monitoring of volcanic gas emissions .
= = Eruption = =
= = = Precursor activity = = =
Since its last eruptive activity in the mid @-@ 19th century , Mount St. Helens had been largely dormant . Seismographs were not installed until 1972 . This period of more than 100 years of inactivity ended in early 1980 . On March 15 , a cluster of tiny earthquakes rocked the area around the mountain . For six days , more than 100 earthquakes clustered around Mount St. Helens , an indication that magma was moving . There was initially some doubt as to whether the earthquakes were precursors to an eruption . By March 20 , a magnitude 4 @.@ 2 earthquake shook the wilderness around the volcano . The next day , seismologists installed three seismic recorder stations . By March 24 , volcanologists at the USGS — including Johnston — became more confident that the seismic activity was a sign of an impending eruption . After March 25 , seismic activity drastically increased . By March 26 , more than seven earthquakes over magnitude 4 @.@ 0 had been recorded , and the next day , hazard warnings were publicly issued . On March 27 , a phreatic eruption took place , ejecting a plume of ash nearly 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 134 m ) into the air .
Similar activity continued at the volcano over the following weeks , excavating the crater , forming an adjacent caldera , and erupting small amounts of steam , ash , and tephra . With each new eruption , the plumes of steam and ash from the volcano rose , eventually climbing to 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 000 m ) . By late March , the volcano was erupting up to 100 times per day . Spectators congregated in the vicinity of the mountain , hoping for a chance to see its eruptions . They were joined by reporters on helicopters , as well as mountain climbers .
On April 17 , a bulge was discovered on the mountain 's north flank , suggesting that Mount St. Helens could produce a lateral blast . Johnston was one of few people who believed this , along with a professor of geology at a Tacoma community college , Jack Hyde . Observing that Mount St. Helens did not possess visible vents , Hyde suggested that pressure would increase until the mountain exploded . Because Hyde was not a part of the USGS or in a position of responsibility , his opinion was generally dismissed . However , both were to be proven correct . Rising magma under Mount St. Helens had veered off to the north flank , creating a growing bulge on the surface .
= = = Final signs and primary blast = = =
Given the increasing seismic and volcanic activity , Johnston and the other volcanologists working for the USGS in its Vancouver branch prepared to observe any impending eruption . Geologist Don Swanson and others placed reflectors on and around the growing domes , and established the Coldwater I and II observation posts to use laser ranging to measure how the distances to these reflectors changed over time as the domes deformed . Coldwater II , where Johnston died , was located just 6 miles ( 10 km ) north of the mountain . To the astonishment of the USGS geologists , the bulge was growing at a rate of 5 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 meters ) per day .
Tiltmeters installed on the volcano 's north side displayed a northwest trending tilt for that side of the mountain , and a southwest trending tilt was observed on the south side . Worried that the amount of pressure on the magma underground was increasing , scientists analyzed gases by the crater , and found high traces of sulfur dioxide . After this discovery , they began to regularly check the fumarolic activity and monitor the volcano for dramatic changes , but none were observed . Disheartened , they instead opted to study the growing bulge and the threat an avalanche could have for humans relatively near the volcano . An evaluation of the threat was carried out , concluding that a landslide or avalanche in the Toutle River could spawn lahars , or mudflows , downstream .
At that point , the previously consistent phreatic activity had become intermittent . Between May 10 and May 17 , the only change occurred on the volcano 's north flank , as the bulge increased in size . On May 16 and 17 , the mountain stopped its phreatic eruptions completely .
The active Mount St. Helens was radically different from its dormant form , now featuring an enormous bulge and several craters . In the week preceding the eruption , cracks formed in the north sector of the volcano 's summit , indicating a movement of magma from the bulge and towards the caldera .
At 8 : 32 a.m. local time the next day ( 18 May ) , an earthquake measuring magnitude 5 @.@ 1 rocked the area , triggering the landslide that started the main eruption . In a matter of seconds , vibrations from the earthquake loosened 2 @.@ 7 cubic kilometers ( 0 @.@ 6 cu mi ) of rock on the mountain 's north face and summit , creating a massive landslide . With the loss of the confining pressure of the overlying rock , the caldera of Mount St. Helens began to rapidly emit steam and other volcanic gases . A few seconds later , it erupted laterally , sending swift pyroclastic flows down its flanks at near supersonic speeds . These flows were later joined by lahars . Before being struck by a series of flows that , at their fastest , would have taken less than a minute to reach his position , Johnston managed to radio his USGS co @-@ workers with the message : " Vancouver ! Vancouver ! This is it ! " Seconds later , the signal from the radio went silent . Initially , there was some debate as to whether Johnston had survived ; records soon showed a radio message from fellow eruption victim and amateur radio operator Gerry Martin , located near the Coldwater peak and farther north of Johnston 's position , reporting his sighting of the eruption enveloping the Coldwater II observation post . As the blast overwhelmed Johnston 's post , Martin declared solemnly , " Gentlemen , the uh ... camper and the car sitting over to the south of me is covered . It 's gonna get me , too . I can 't get out of here ... " before his radio went silent .
The extent , speed and direction of the avalanche and pyroclastic flows that overwhelmed Johnston , Martin , and others were later described in detail in a paper titled ' Chronology and Character of the 18 May 1980 Explosive Eruptions of Mount St. Helens ' , published in 1984 in a collection published by the National Research Council 's Geophysics Study Committee . In this paper , the authors examined photographs and satellite images of the eruption to construct a chronology and description of the first few minutes . Included in the paper is figure 10 @.@ 3 , a series of timed photographs taken from Mount Adams , 33 miles ( 53 km ) east of Mount St. Helens . These six photographs , taken sideways on to the lateral blast , vividly show the extent and size of the avalanche and flows as they reached northwards over and beyond Johnston 's position . Figure 10 @.@ 7 from the same paper is an overhead diagram showing the position of the pyroclastic surge front at half @-@ minute intervals , with the positions of Johnston ( Coldwater II ) and Martin included .
The eruption was heard hundreds of miles away , but some of those who survived the eruption declared that the landslide and pyroclastic flows were silent as they raced down the mountain . Krau Kilpatrick , an employee of the United States Forest Service , recalled , " There was no sound to it , not a sound . It was like a silent movie and we were all in it . " The reason for this discrepancy is a " quiet zone " , created as a result of the motion and temperature of air and , to a lesser extent , upon local topography .
Famous for telling reporters that being on the mountain was like " standing next to a dynamite keg and the fuse is lit " , Johnston had been among the first volcanologists at the volcano when eruptive signs appeared , and shortly after was named the head of volcanic gas monitoring . Though a careful analyst , Johnston strongly believed that scientists needed to take this risk for themselves in order to prevent civilian deaths , and therefore chose to take part in dangerous on @-@ site monitoring . He and several other volcanologists prevented people from being near the volcano during the few months of pre @-@ eruptive activity , and successfully fought pressure to re @-@ open the area . Their work kept the death toll at a few tens of individuals , instead of the thousands who possibly could have died had the region not been closed off . Johnston supported the lateral blast theory : he believed the explosive eruption would be ejected sideways out of the volcano , not upward . He also believed that the eruption would originate from the bulge . Because of this , he was more aware than most of the threat of a north @-@ directed eruption .
= = = USGS team and rescue efforts = = =
Many USGS scientists worked on the team monitoring the volcano , but it was graduate student Harry Glicken who had been manning the Coldwater II observation post for the two and a half weeks immediately preceding the eruption . The evening before the eruption he was scheduled to be relieved by USGS geologist Don Swanson in order to visit the graduate school at the University of California . Swanson , however , wanted to meet with a German graduate student who was returning to Germany on May 18 . Two days before the eruption , Swanson ran into Johnston in the hallway and asked him to take his place . Johnston hesitantly agreed to man the base for one day . That Saturday , the day before the eruption took place , Johnston ascended the mountain and went on a patrol of the volcano with geologist Carolyn Driedger . Tremors shook the mountain . Driedger was supposed to camp on one of the ridges overlooking the volcano that night , but Johnston told her to head home and said that he would stay on the volcano alone . While at Coldwater II , Johnston was to observe the volcano for any further signs of an eruption . Just prior to his departure , at 7 p.m. on the evening of May 17 , 13 ½ hours before the eruption , Glicken took the famous photograph of Johnston sitting by the observation post trailer with a notebook on his lap , smiling .
The following morning , May 18 , at 8 : 32 a.m. , the volcano erupted . Immediately , rescue workers were dispatched to the area . The official USGS pilot , Lon Stickney , who had been flying the scientists to the mountain , conducted the first rescue attempt . He flew his helicopter over the scarred remains of trees , valleys , and the Coldwater II observation post ridge , where he saw bare rock and uprooted trees . Because he saw no sign of Johnston 's trailer , Stickney began to panic , becoming " emotionally distraught " .
Frantic and guilt @-@ stricken , Harry Glicken convinced three separate helicopter pilots to take him up on flights over the devastated area in a rescue attempt , but the eruption had so changed the landscape that they were unable to locate any sign of the Coldwater II observation post , which had been swept away and buried in the blast . He and the helicopter crew did manage to find a car with people in it at a logging camp , but when they landed to attempt an evacuation , skin fell off the dead victims ' hands . Shortly after the eruption , Don Swanson found Johnston 's backpack and parka buried in the rubble , but he hid the discovery from all but a few people for fear that scavengers ( who were already removing and selling souvenirs of victims of the volcano ) would find and remove his friend 's body or belongings . In 1993 , while building a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) extension of Washington State Route 504 ( also called " Spirit Lake Memorial Highway " ) to lead to the Johnston Ridge Observatory , construction workers discovered pieces of Johnston 's trailer . His body , however , has never been recovered .
= = = Consequences and response = = =
The public was shocked by the extent of the eruption , which had lowered the elevation of the summit by 1 @,@ 313 feet ( 400 m ) , destroyed 230 square miles ( 596 km2 ) of woodland , and spread ash into other states and Canada . The lateral blast that killed Johnston started at 220 miles per hour ( 354 km / h ) and accelerated to 670 miles per hour ( 1 @,@ 078 km / h ) . Even USGS scientists were awed . With a Volcanic Explosivity Index value of 5 , the eruption was catastrophic . More than 50 people were killed or missing , including Johnston , mountain resident Harry Randall Truman , and National Geographic photographer Reid Blackburn .
The disaster was the deadliest and most destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the United States of America . A total of 57 people are known to have died , and more were left homeless when the ash falls and pyroclastic flows destroyed or buried 200 houses . In addition to the human fatalities , thousands of animals perished . The official estimate from the USGS was 7 @,@ 000 game animals , 12 million salmon fingerlings , and 40 @,@ 000 salmon .
Two years after the eruption , the United States government set aside 110 @,@ 000 acres ( 450 km2 ) of land for the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument . This protected area , which includes the Johnston Ridge Observatory and several other research and visitor centers , serves as an area for scientific research , tourism , and education .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Scientific = = =
Johnston , known to his friends as Dave , was commemorated by both his fellow scientists and by the government . Known for his diligent and particular nature , he was called " an exemplary scientist " by a USGS dedication paper , which also described him as " unaffectedly genuine , with an infectious curiosity and enthusiasm " . He was quick to " dissipate cynicism " and believed that " careful evaluation and interpretation " was the best approach to his work . An obituary notice for Johnston stated that at the time of his death he had been " among the leading young volcanologists in the world " and that his " enthusiasm and warmth " would be " missed at least as much as his scientific strength " . Co @-@ worker Andrew Alden states that Johnston had great potential , declaring that he " had many friends and a bright future " . Following the eruption , Harry Glicken and other geologists at the USGS dedicated their work to Johnston .
Because Johnston was believed to be safe at the Coldwater II observation post , the fact that he died shocked his friends and co @-@ workers alike . However , most of his colleagues and family asserted that Johnston died " doing what he wanted to do . " His mother stated in an interview shortly after the eruption , " Not many people get to do what they really want to do in this world , but our son did . ... He would tell us he may never get rich but he was doing what he wanted . He wanted to be near if the eruption came . In a phone call on Mother 's Day , he told us it 's a sight very few geologists get to see . " Dr. Stephen Malone agreed that Johnston died doing what he loved , and stated that he " was very good at his work " .
Johnston 's role in the study of the volcano in the weeks leading up to the eruption was acknowledged in 1981 in a chronology of the eruption , published as part of the USGS report titled ' The 1980 Eruptions of Mount St. Helens , Washington ' :
Among the many contributors of data , none was more essential to the systematic reconstruction of the events of 1980 at Mount St. Helens than David Johnston , to whose memory this report is dedicated . Dave , who was present through all of the activity up to the climactic eruption and who lost his life in that eruption , provided far more than data . His insights and his thoroughly scientific attitude were crucial to the entire effort ; they still serve as a model for us all .
Since Johnston 's death , his field of volcanic eruption prediction has advanced significantly , and volcanologists are now able to predict eruptions based on a number of precursors that become apparent between days and months in advance . Geologists can now identify characteristic patterns in seismic waves that indicate particular magmatic activity . In particular , volcanologists have used deep , long @-@ period earthquakes that indicate that magma is rising through the crust . They can also use carbon dioxide emission as a proxy for magma supply rate . Measurements of surface deformation due to magmatic intrusions , like those that were conducted by Johnston and the other USGS scientists at the Coldwater I and II outposts , have advanced in scale and precision . Ground deformation monitoring networks around volcanoes now consist of InSAR ( interferometry ) , surveys of networks of GPS monuments , microgravity surveys in which scientists measure the change in gravitational potential or acceleration because of the intruding magma and resulting deformation , strain meters , and tiltmeters . Though there is still work to be done , this combination of approaches has greatly improved scientists ' abilities to forecast volcanic eruptions .
In addition to his work , Johnston himself has become part of the history of volcanic eruptions . With Harry Glicken , he is one of two volcanologists from the United States to die in a volcanic eruption . Glicken was being mentored by Johnston , who relieved Glicken of his watch at the Coldwater II observation post 13 hours before Mount St. Helens erupted . Glicken died in 1991 , eleven years later , when a pyroclastic flow overran him and several others at Mount Unzen in Japan . Despite the deaths of other volcanologists in later eruptions at Mount Unzen and Galeras , prediction methods similar to Johnston 's allowed scientists to convince residents of settlements near the Mount Pinatubo volcano to evacuate , preventing thousands of deaths .
= = = Commemoration = = =
Early acts of commemoration included two trees that were planted in Tel Aviv , Israel , and the renaming of a community center in Johnston 's hometown as the " Johnston Center " . These actions were reported in newspapers during the first anniversary of the eruption in May 1981 .
On the second anniversary of the eruption , the USGS office in Vancouver ( which had been permanently established following the 1980 eruption ) was renamed the David A. Johnston Cascades Volcano Observatory ( CVO ) in his memory . This volcano observatory is the one most responsible for monitoring Mount St. Helens , and helped to predict all of the volcano 's eruptions between 1980 and 1985 . In a 2005 open day , the lobby area of the CVO included a display and painting commemorating Johnston .
Johnston 's connections with the University of Washington ( where he had carried out his masters and doctoral research ) are remembered by a memorial fund that established an endowed graduate @-@ level fellowship within what is now the department of Earth and Space Sciences . By the time of the first anniversary of his death , the fund had exceeded $ 30 @,@ 000 . Known as the ' David A. Johnston Memorial Fellowship for Research Excellence ' , a number of awards of this fellowship have been made over the years since it was launched .
Following the eruption , the area where the Coldwater II observation post had been was sectioned off . Eventually , an observatory was built in the area in Johnston 's name , and opened in 1997 . Located just over 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the north flank of Mount St. Helens , the Johnston Ridge Observatory ( JRO ) allows the public to admire the open crater , new activity , and the creations of the 1980 eruption , including an extensive basalt field . Part of the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument , the JRO was constructed for $ 10 @.@ 5 million , equipped with monitoring equipment . Visited by thousands of tourists annually , it also includes tours , a theater , and an exhibit hall .
There are several public memorials where Johnston 's name is inscribed in a list of those known to have died in the eruption . These memorials include a large curved granite monument at an outside viewing area at the Johnston Ridge Observatory , which opened in 1997 , and a plaque at the Hoffstadt Bluffs Visitor Center , which was unveiled in a memorial grove in May 2000 .
= = = Depictions = = =
There have been several tellings of Johnston 's story in documentaries , films and docudramas about the eruption . Documentaries such as The Eruption of Mount St. Helens ! ( 1980 ) appeared the same year , while a movie was filmed in the year following the eruption and released to coincide with the first anniversary . The story of Mount St. Helens and Johnston continues to be told in documentaries and reconstructions several decades after the eruption took place .
In the 1981 film St. Helens , actor David Huffman starred as a renamed Johnston ( David Jackson ) . Controversially , Huffman 's character became involved in a love affair and was killed by the blast while on top of the mountain . Johnston 's parents criticized the production of the film , arguing that it possessed not " an ounce of David in it " and portrayed " him as a daredevil rather than a careful scientist " . They threatened to sue over the fact that they felt their son 's memory had been contaminated . Johnston 's mother stated that the film had changed many true aspects of the eruption , and depicted her son as " a rebel " with " a history of disciplinary trouble " .
Prior to the film 's release during the one @-@ year anniversary of the eruption , 36 scientists who knew Johnston signed a letter of protest . They wrote that , " Dave 's life was too meritorious to require fictional embellishments , " and that , " Dave was a superbly conscientious and creative scientist . " Don Swanson , a USGS geologist who was Johnston 's friend and who , due to other commitments , had convinced Johnston to take his place at the Coldwater II observation post on the day of the eruption , believed that a movie based on Johnston 's true life and exploits would have been a hit because of his friend 's character .
Several documentaries and docudramas have covered the history of the eruption , including archive footage and dramatisations of Johnston 's story . These include Up From the Ashes ( 1990 ) by KOMO @-@ TV , an episode of the 2005 second series of Seconds From Disaster broadcast by the National Geographic Channel , and an episode of the 2006 series Surviving Disaster , broadcast on the BBC and Discovery Channel .
= = Publications = =
Johnston , David A. ; Donnelly @-@ Nolan , Julie , eds . ( 1981 ) . Guides to Some Volcanic Terranes in Washington , Idaho , Oregon , and Northern California . U.S. Geological Survey Circular 838 . United States Geological Survey . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 04 @-@ 10 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1979 ) . " Volcanic gas studies at Alaskan volcanoes " . U. S. Geological Survey Circular ( Report ) ( Reston , Virginia , US : United States Geological Survey ) . C 0804 @-@ B : B83 – B84 . ISSN 0364 @-@ 6017 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1979 ) . " Revision of the recent eruption history of Augustine Volcano ; elimination of the " 1902 eruption " " . U. S. Geological Survey Circular ( Report ) ( Reston , Virginia , US : United States Geological Survey ) . C 0804 @-@ B : B80 – B84 . ISSN 0364 @-@ 6017 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1979 ) . " Onset of volcanism at Augustine Volcano , lower Cook Inlet " . U. S. Geological Survey Circular ( Report ) ( Reston , Virginia , US : United States Geological Survey ) . C 0804 @-@ B : B78 – B80 . ISSN 0364 @-@ 6017 .
Johnston , David A. ( 1978 ) . Volatiles , magma mixing , and the mechanism of eruption of Augustine Volcano , Alaska . Ph.D. Thesis . Seattle , Washington , US : University of Washington .
Johnston , David A. ( 1978 ) . Volcanistic facies and implications for the eruptive history of the Cimarron Volcano , San Juan Mountains , SW Colorado . Master 's Thesis . Seattle , Washington , US : University of Washington .
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= Tupolev Tu @-@ 70 =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 70 ( NATO reporting name : Cart ) was a Soviet passenger variant of the Tu @-@ 4 bomber ( which was a reverse @-@ engineered copy of the American @-@ made Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress ) designed immediately after the end of World War II . It used a number of components from Boeing B @-@ 29s that had made emergency landings in the Soviet Union after running out of fuel after bombing Japan . It had the first pressurized fuselage in the Soviet Union and first flew on 27 November 1946 . The aircraft was successfully tested , recommended for serial production , but ultimately not produced because of more pressing military orders and because Aeroflot had no requirement for such an aircraft .
= = Design and development = =
After basic design work was completed on the Tu @-@ 4 bomber Tupolev decided to design a passenger variant with a pressurized fuselage given the internal designation of Tu @-@ 70 . It was intended to use as many Tu @-@ 4 components as possible to reduce costs and save development time . It was a low @-@ wing cantilever monoplane with a tricycle landing gear powered by four Shvetsov ASh @-@ 73TK radial engines . Design work on a mock @-@ up began in February 1946 and the Council of Ministers confirmed an order for a single prototype the following month . A production decision for the Tu @-@ 12 , as it was to be known , would be made after testing .
To speed up construction of the prototype a number of components were utilized from two B @-@ 29s . These included the outer wing panels , the engine cowlings , the flaps , the undercarriage , the tail assembly and some of the internal equipment . The wing center section was redesigned and its span increased . The pressurized fuselage was entirely new and changed the wing 's position from mid @-@ wing to low @-@ wing . The aircraft 's windscreen was changed to a more conventional " stepped " configuration . Three different configurations were proposed for the cabin layout , a government VIP version , a mixed @-@ class 40 – 48 passenger model and an airliner configuration with 72 seats . The prototype appears to have been built in the mixed @-@ class configuration , but that cannot be confirmed .
The Tu @-@ 70 was completed in October 1946 , but did not make its first flight until 27 November . It began manufacturer 's trials in October , but an engine fire on the fourth flight caused it to make a crash @-@ landing . This was traced to a design defect in the American @-@ built supercharger control system , but identifying the problem and fixing it prolonged the manufacturer 's trials through October 1947 . It was redesignated as the Tu @-@ 70 when it went through the State acceptance trials which ended on 14 December . It met all the design goals , but was not accepted for production as all the factories were already committed to building aircraft with a higher priority and Aeroflot had no requirement for the type , being fully satisfied with its existing Lisunov Li @-@ 2 and Ilyushin Il @-@ 12 airliners .
It was sent to the NII VVS ( Russian : Научно @-@ Исследовательский Институт Военно @-@ Воздушних Сил – Scientific @-@ Research Institute of the Air Forces ) for evaluation as a military transport aircraft in December 1951 . Afterward it was used during a variety of tests before being scrapped in 1954 . Its design was modified into a military transport as the Tupolev Tu @-@ 75 , but this was not placed into production either .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Gunston , Tupolev Aircraft since 1922
General characteristics
Crew : 6
Capacity : up to 72 passengers
Length : 35 @.@ 4 m ( 116 ft 1 ¾ in )
Wingspan : 44 @.@ 25 m ( 145 ft 2 ⅛ in )
Height : ( )
Wing area : 166 @.@ 1 m ² ( 1 @,@ 788 ft ² )
Empty weight : 38 @,@ 290 kg ( 84 @,@ 414 lb )
Loaded weight : 51 @,@ 400 kg ( 113 @,@ 316 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 60 @,@ 000 kg ( 132 @,@ 275 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Shvetsov ASh @-@ 73TK radial engines , 1 @,@ 800 kW ( 2 @,@ 400 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 568 km / h ( 307 kn , 353 mph )
Range : 4 @,@ 900 km ( 2 @,@ 646 nmi , 3 @,@ 045 mi )
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 000 m ( 36 @,@ 090 ft )
Wing loading : 361 kg / m ² ( 74 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 120 W / kg ( 0 @.@ 070 hp / lb )
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= Russian monitor Veschun =
Veshchun ( Russian : Вещун ) was an Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in Belgium in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . She was one of two ships of the class to be built in Belgium and assembled in Russia . Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . She was stricken in 1900 from the Navy List , converted into a coal barge in 1903 and renamed Barzha No. 44 then Barzha No. 327 . Abandoned by the Soviets in Finland in 1918 , the ship was later scrapped by the Finns .
= = Description = =
Veshchun was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 t ) , and her crew numbered eight officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder , horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by the Belgian Cockerill Company . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Veshchun 's sea trials on 21 July 1864 , she reached a maximum speed of 6 @.@ 75 knots ( 12 @.@ 50 km / h ; 7 @.@ 77 mph ) . The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Veshchun was designed to be armed with a pair of 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns .
All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . This armor was backed by a wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) . The gun turret and the pilothouse above it was protected by eleven layers of armor . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight , but Veshchun 's deck was later prepared for the addition of 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) armor plates , although they were never installed .
= = Construction and career = =
Construction of Veshchun began on 9 November 1863 by the Belgian firm of Cockerill for assembly in Saint Petersburg . The ship was laid down on 9 December 1863 and she was launched on 8 May 1864 . She entered service on 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 237 @,@ 000 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she , and all of her sister ships except Latnik , made a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich .
Sometime after Veshchun was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s .
Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . Veshchun was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . During 1903 , the ship was converted into a coal barge by the removal of her turret , her side armor , and its wooden backing , and by the division of her hull into three holds . She was redesignated as Barzha No. 44 and , in 1914 , Barzha No. 327 . The ship was abandoned by the Soviets when they were forced to withdraw from Finland in April 1918 according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk and was later scrapped by the Finns .
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= Storm surge =
A storm surge is a coastal flood or tsunami @-@ like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low pressure weather systems ( such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones ) , the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path , and the timing of tides . Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges .
The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward the storm , and a low @-@ pressure @-@ induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm 's center .
= = Historic storm surges = =
The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone , which killed up to 500 @,@ 000 people in the area of the Bay of Bengal . The low @-@ lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones . The deadliest storm surge in the twenty @-@ first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis , which killed more than 138 @,@ 000 people in Myanmar in May 2008 . The next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) , which killed more than 6 @,@ 000 people in the central Philippines in 2013 and resulted in economic losses estimated at $ 14 billion ( USD ) .
The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 , a Category 4 hurricane that struck Galveston , Texas , drove a devastating surge ashore ; between 6 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 lives were lost , making it the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States .
The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina , estimated at almost 44 ft ( 13 metres ) at Bathurst Bay , Australia , but research published in 2000 saw the majority of this was likely wave run @-@ up , due to the steep coastal topography . In the United States , one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by 2005 's Hurricane Katrina , which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 ft ( 8 metres ) in the communities of Waveland ( 41 @.@ 5 ft ) , Bay St. Louis ( 38 ft ) , Diamondhead ( 30 ft ) and Pass Christian ( 35 ft ) in Mississippi . Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from Hurricane Camille in August 1969 , with the highest storm tide of record noted from a high water mark as 24 @.@ 6 ft ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) , also found in Pass Christian ( the back side of St. Louis Bay got up to 35 ft ) . A high storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012 , with a high tide of 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 2 m ) .
= = Mechanics = =
At least five processes can be involved in altering tide levels during storms : the pressure effect , the direct wind effect , the effect of the Earth 's rotation , the effect of waves , and the rainfall effect . The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the water level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure and fall in regions of high atmospheric pressure . The rising water level will counteract the low atmospheric pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant . This effect is estimated at a 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) increase in sea level for every millibar ( hPa ) drop in atmospheric pressure .
Strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45 degree angle to the wind direction , by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral . Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as " wind set @-@ up " , which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore , and to decrease at the upwind shore . Intuitively , this is caused by the storm simply blowing the water towards one side of the basin in the direction of its winds . Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water , the effect is inversely proportional to depth . The pressure effect and the wind set @-@ up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the same way as the astronomical tide .
The Earth 's rotation causes the Coriolis effect , which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere . When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore it can amplify the surge , and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge .
The effect of waves , while directly powered by the wind , is distinct from a storm 's wind @-@ powered currents . Powerful wind whips up large , strong waves in the direction of its movement . Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water , they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore . When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach , they carry considerable water shoreward . As they break , the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking .
The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries . Hurricanes may dump as much as 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas , and higher rainfall densities in localized areas . As a result , watersheds can quickly surge water into the rivers that drain them . This can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm @-@ driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing from the estuary .
Surge and wave heights on shore are affected by the configuration and bathymetry of the ocean bottom . A narrow shelf , or one that has a steep drop from the shoreline and subsequently produces deep water in proximity to the shoreline tends to produce a lower surge , but a higher and more powerful wave . This situation well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida . The edge of the Floridian Plateau , where the water depths reach 91 metres ( 299 ft ) , lies just 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) offshore of Palm Beach , Florida ; just 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) offshore , the depth increases to over 180 m ( 590 ft ) . The 180 m ( 590 ft ) depth contour followed southward from Palm Beach County lies more than 30 @,@ 000 m ( 98 @,@ 000 ft ) to the east of the upper Keys .
Conversely , coastlines along North America such as those along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Texas to Florida , and Asia such as the Bay of Bengal , have long , gently sloping shelves and shallow water depths . On the Gulf side of Florida , the edge of the Floridian Plateau lies more than 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) offshore of Marco Island in Collier County . Florida Bay , lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland , is also very shallow ; depths typically vary between 0 @.@ 3 m ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) and 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . These areas are subject to higher storm surges , but smaller waves . This difference is because in deeper water , a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane . However , upon entering a shallow , gently sloping shelf , the surge cannot be dispersed , but is driven ashore by the wind stresses of the hurricane . Topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent . Areas where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level are at particular risk from storm surge inundation .
For a given topography and bathymetry the surge height is not solely affected by peak wind speed ; the size of the storm also affects the peak surge . With any storm the piled up water has an exit path to the sides and this escape mechanism is reduced in proportion to the surge force ( for the same peak wind speed ) as the storm covers more area .
In the Asian region , the Philippines are one of the most affected by storm surges of typhoons as it lies in the path of tradewinds @-@ entrained typhoons heading toward Japan , Taiwan , China , Vietnam , and Cambodia .
= = = Extratropical storms = = =
Similar to tropical cyclones , extra @-@ tropical storms cause an offshore rise of water . However , unlike most tropical cyclone storm surge , extra @-@ tropical storms can cause higher water levels across a large area for longer periods of time , depending on the system . This is due to many factors , such as storm size and different steering winds , which could keep a system in a storm @-@ surge prone area for longer periods of time .
Another component of extra @-@ tropical storm surge is the phenomenon of negative water levels . If strong winds are blowing offshore , situations can arise where mean water levels in a bay fall significantly , which poses a serious threat for ships tied up at piers . If negative water levels are severe enough , ships tied up at docks can actually sit on the seafloor , preventing them from leaving port .
In North America , extra @-@ tropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts , and north of 31 ° N on the Atlantic Coast . Extra @-@ tropical storm surges may be possible for the Gulf coast mostly during the wintertime , when extra @-@ tropical cyclones affect the coast , such as in the March 1993 Storm of the Century .
November 9 – 13 , 2009 marked a significant extratropical storm surge event on the US east coast when the remnants of Hurricane Ida developed into a Nor 'easter off the Southeast US coast . During the event , storm force winds from the east were present along the northern periphery of the low pressure center for a number of days , forcing water into locations such as Chesapeake Bay . Water levels rose significantly , and remained as high as 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal in numerous locations throughout the Chesapeake for a number of days as water was continually built @-@ up inside the estuary from the onshore winds and freshwater rains flowing into the bay . In many locations , water levels were shy of records by only 0 @.@ 1 feet ( 3 cm ) .
= = Measuring surge = =
Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water . Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone . This was first tested for Hurricane Rita in 2005 . These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged , and can accurately measure the height of water above them .
After surge from a cyclone has receded , teams of surveyors map high @-@ water marks ( HWM ) on land , in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photos and written descriptions of the marks . HWMs denote the location and elevation of flood waters from a storm event . When HWMs are analyzed , if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified , then that mark can be classified as storm surge . Otherwise , it is classified as storm tide . HWMs on land are referenced to a vertical datum ( a reference coordinate system ) . During evaluation , HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark ; only HWMs evaluated as " excellent " are used by NHC in post storm analysis of the surge .
Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements . Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum ( NGVD 29 or NAVD 88 ) . Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement due to tides , storm surge is measured using tidal predictions , with the assumption that the tide prediction is well @-@ known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge . Since tides are a localized phenomenon , storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station . Tidal bench mark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level ( MSL ) at that location , then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height .
= = SLOSH = =
The National Hurricane Center in the US , forecasts storm surge using the SLOSH model , which stands for Sea , Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes . The model is accurate to within 20 percent . SLOSH inputs include the central pressure of a tropical cyclone , storm size , the cyclone 's forward motion , its track , and maximum sustained winds . Local topography , bay and river orientation , depth of the sea bottom , astronomical tides , as well as other physical features are taken into account , in a predefined grid referred to as a SLOSH basin . Overlapping SLOSH basins are defined for the southern and eastern coastline of the continental U.S. Some storm simulations use more than one SLOSH basin ; for instance , Katrina SLOSH model runs used both the Lake Ponchartrain / New Orleans basin , and the Mississippi Sound basin , for the northern Gulf of Mexico landfall . The final output from the model run will display the maximum envelope of water , or MEOW , that occurred at each location . To allow for track or forecast uncertainties , usually several model runs with varying input parameters are generated to create a map of MOMs , or Maximum of Maximums . And for hurricane evacuation studies , a family of storms with representative tracks for the region , and varying intensity , eye diameter , and speed , are modeled to produce worst @-@ case water heights for any tropical cyclone occurrence . The results of these studies are typically generated from several thousand SLOSH runs . These studies have been completed by USACE , under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency , for several states and are available on their Hurricane Evacuation Studies ( HES ) website . They include coastal county maps , shaded to identify the minimum SSHS category of hurricane that will result in flooding , in each area of the county .
= = Mitigation = =
Although meteorological surveys alert about hurricanes or severe storms , in the areas where the risk of coastal flooding is particularly high , there are specific storm surge warnings . These have been implemented , for instance , in the Netherlands , Spain , the United States , and the United Kingdom .
A prophylactic method introduced after the North Sea Flood of 1953 is the construction of dams and floodgates ( storm surge barriers ) . They are open and allow free passage but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge . Major storm surge barriers are the Oosterscheldekering and Maeslantkering in the Netherlands which are part of the Delta Works project , the Thames Barrier protecting London and the Saint Petersburg Dam in Russia .
Another modern development ( in use in the Netherlands ) is the creation of housing communities at the edges of wetlands with floating structures , restrained in position by vertical pylons . Such wetlands can then be used to accommodate runoff and surges without causing damage to the structures while also protecting conventional structures at somewhat higher low @-@ lying elevations , provided that dikes prevent major surge intrusion .
For mainland areas , storm surge is more of a threat when the storm strikes land from seaward , rather than approaching from landwards .
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= Marbled electric ray =
Not to be confused with Torpedo sinuspersici , also known as the marbled electric ray .
The marbled electric ray ( Torpedo marmorata ) is a species of electric ray in the family Torpedinidae found in the coastal waters of the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the North Sea to South Africa . This benthic fish inhabits rocky reefs , seagrass beds , and sandy and muddy flats in shallow to moderately deep waters . It can survive in environments with very little dissolved oxygen , such as tidal pools . The marbled electric ray has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc and a muscular tail that bears two dorsal fins of nearly equal size and a large caudal fin . It can be identified by the long , finger @-@ like projections on the rims of its spiracles , as well as by its dark brown mottled color pattern , though some individuals are plain @-@ colored . Males and females typically reach 36 – 38 cm ( 14 – 15 in ) and 55 – 61 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) long respectively .
Nocturnal and solitary , the marbled electric ray can often be found lying the sea floor buried except for its eyes and spiracles . This slow @-@ moving predator feeds almost exclusively on small bony fishes , which it ambushes from the bottom and subdues with strong electric bursts . It defends itself by turning towards the threat , swimming in a loop , or curling up with its underside facing outward , while emitting electric shocks to drive off the prospective predator . Its paired electric organs are capable of producing 70 – 80 volts of electricity . This species is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk and histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Mating takes place from November to January , and females bear litters of 3 – 32 pups every other year after a gestation period of 9 – 12 months . The newborn ray is immediately capable of using electricity to hunt .
The electric shock delivered by a marbled electric ray can be severe but is not directly life @-@ threatening . Its electrogenic properties have been known since classical antiquity , when live rays were used to treat conditions such as chronic headaches . This and other electric ray species are used as model organisms in biomedical research . Various coastal demersal fisheries take the marbled electric ray as bycatch ; captured rays are usually discarded as they have little commercial value . The impact of fishing on its population is uncertain , and thus International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this ray under Data Deficient . In the Mediterranean Sea , it remains the most common electric ray and in some areas may be increasing in number .
= = Taxonomy = =
French naturalist Antoine Risso described the marbled electric ray as Torpedo marmorata in his 1810 Ichtyologie de Nice , ou histoire naturelle des poissons du département des Alpes maritimes ( Ichthyology of Nice , or natural history of fishes in the Alpes @-@ Maritimes ) . The specific epithet marmorata means " marbled " in Latin , and refers to the ray 's color pattern . Because no type specimens are known , in 1999 Ronald Fricke designated Risso 's original illustration as the species lectotype .
Within the genus Torpedo , the marbled electric ray belongs to the subgenus Torpedo , which differs from the other subgenus Tetronarce in having fringed margins on their spiracles and generally ornate dorsal coloration . Other common names for this species include common crampfish , marbled torpedo , numbfish , and spotted torpedo .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Widely distributed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean , the marbled electric ray is found from Scotland and the southern North Sea southward to the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa , including all around the Mediterranean Sea . It prefers temperatures cooler than 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . This species is typically found at depths of 10 – 30 m ( 33 – 98 ft ) off Britain and Ireland , 20 – 100 m ( 66 – 328 ft ) off Italy , and down to 200 m ( 660 ft ) off Tunisia . It has been recorded from as deep as 370 m ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) . The marbled electric ray tends to be found deeper than the common torpedo ( T. torpedo ) , which shares the southern portion of its range .
Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the marbled electric ray inhabits rocky reefs and seagrass beds , as well as nearby areas with sandy or muddy bottoms . During warm summer months , pregnant females are known to migrate into Arcachon Bay in northwestern France , where they are commonly found in very shallow , muddy pools near oyster beds . This species may conduct a northward migration in summer and autumn , into the waters of the British Isles .
= = Description = =
The body of the marbled electric ray is soft and flabby , and entirely lacks dermal denticles . The thick pectoral fin disc is nearly circular and comprises about 59 – 67 % of the total length ; the paired kidney @-@ shaped electric organs are visible beneath the skin , outside of the small eyes . Immediately posterior to each eye is a large , oval spiracle , which bears 6 – 8 long , finger @-@ like projections on the rim that almost meet at the center . On the " nape " behind the spiracles , there are 5 – 7 prominent mucous pores . Between the nostrils , there is a quadrangular curtain of skin much broader than long , that almost reaches the small , arched mouth . The teeth are small with a single pointed cusp , and are arranged with a quincunx pattern into a pavement @-@ like band in either jaw . The five pairs of gill slits are small and located beneath the disc .
The two dorsal fins have rounded apexes and are placed close together ; the base of each fin measures about two @-@ thirds its height . The rear of the first dorsal fin base is located behind the rear of the pelvic fin bases . The second dorsal fin is only slightly smaller than the first . The short , robust tail has skin folds running along either side , and terminates in a large caudal fin shaped like a triangle with blunt corners . The upper surface has a dark mottled pattern on a light to dark brown background ; some individuals are uniformly brown . The underside is plain off @-@ white with darker fin margins . This species can grow up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , though few exceed 36 – 38 cm ( 14 – 15 in ) long for males and 55 – 61 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) long for females . The much larger sizes attained by females can be attributed to the resource investment needed for reproduction . There seems to be little geographic variation in maximum size . The maximum weight on record is 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Solitary and slow @-@ moving , the marbled electric ray may remain motionless for several days at a time . It is more active at night and spends much of the day buried in sediment with only the eyes and spiracles showing . Consistent with its sluggish nature , the marbled electric ray has a low blood oxygen carrying capacity and heart rate ( 10 – 15 beats / min ) , and consumes less oxygen than other sharks and rays of similar size . It is highly tolerant of being deprived of oxygen ( hypoxia ) , allowing it to cope with deoxygenated bottom waters or being stranded in small pools by the falling tide . The ray stops breathing entirely when the oxygen partial pressure in the water drops below 10 – 15 Torr , and can survive such a state for at least five hours . It deals with extreme hypoxia by coupling anaerobic glycolysis to additional energy @-@ producing pathways in its mitochondria , which serves to slow down the accumulation of potentially harmful lactate within its cells .
Like other members of its family , the marbled electric ray can produce a strong electric shock for attack and defense , produced by a pair of electric organs derived from muscle tissue . Each electric organ consists of 400 – 600 vertical columns , with each column composed of a stack of roughly 400 jelly @-@ filled " electroplates " that essentially act like a battery . This ray has been measured producing up to 70 – 80 volts , and the maximum potential of the electric discharge has been estimated to be as high as 200 volts . The strength of the electric shock declines progressively as the ray becomes fatigued . Experiments in vitro have found that the nerves innervating the electric organ essentially stop functioning at temperatures below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . As the water temperature in the wild regularly drops below this threshold in winter , it is possible that the ray does not use its electric organ for part of the year . Alternately , the ray may have a yet @-@ unknown physiological mechanism to adapt electric organ function to the cold .
Known parasites of the marbled electric ray include the tapeworms Anthocephalum gracile and Calyptrobothrium riggii , the leeches Pontobdella muricata and Trachelobdella lubrica , the monogeneans Amphibdella torpedinis , Amphibdelloides kechemiraen , A. maccallumi , A. vallei , Empruthotrema raiae , E. torpedinis , and Squalonchocotyle torpedinis , and the nematodes Ascaris torpedinis and Mawsonascaris pastinacae .
= = = Feeding = = =
The marbled electric ray is an ambush predator that employs electricity to capture prey . Vision is of little importance in hunting , as the ray 's eyes are often obscured as it lies buried on the bottom . Instead , it likely relies on the mechanoreceptors of its lateral line , as it only attacks moving prey . The electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini may also contribute to prey detection .
Small , benthic bony fishes constitute over 90 % of the marbled electric ray 's diet by weight ; these include gobies , hake , sea bass , mullets , jack mackerel , sea breams , goatfish , damselfish , wrasses , conger eels , and flatfish . Cephalopods such as European squid ( Loligo vulgaris ) and elegant cuttlefish ( Sepia elegans ) are a minor secondary food source . There is a single record of an individual that had swallowed a penaeid prawn , Penaeus kerathurus , and a study of captive rays found that they reject live Macropodia crabs . Off southern France , by far the most important prey species is the leaping mullet ( Liza saliens ) . Food items are swallowed whole ; there is a record of a ray 41 cm ( 16 in ) long that had consumed a three @-@ bearded rockling ( Gaidropsarus vulgaris ) 34 cm ( 13 in ) long .
Two distinct types of prey capture behavior have been observed in the marbled electric ray . The first is " jumping " , used by the ray to attack prey fish that swim close to its head , typically no farther than 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . In the " jump " , the ray pulls back its head and then thrusts its disc upwards , reaching about two or three times as high as the prey fish is from the bottom . Simultaneously , it makes a single tail stroke and produces a high @-@ frequency ( 230 – 430 Hz , increasing with temperature ) burst of electricity . The initial electric burst is very short , containing only 10 – 64 pulses , but is still strong enough to cause tetanic contraction in the body of the prey fish , often breaking its vertebral column . As the ray glides forward , the motion of the jump sweeps the now @-@ paralyzed prey beneath it , whereupon it is enveloped by the disc and maneuvered to the mouth . Electric bursts continues to be produced during this process ; the total number of electric pulses over a single jump increases with size , ranging from 66 in a newborn 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long to 340 in an adult 45 cm ( 18 in ) long . The jump lasts no more than two seconds .
The second type of prey capture behavior is " creeping " , used by the ray for stationary or slow @-@ moving prey ; this includes stunned prey that may have drifted out of reach from a jumping attack . In creeping , the ray makes small up and down motions of its disc coupled with small beats of its tail . The raising of the disc draws water beneath it and pulls the prey towards the ray , while the lowering of the disc and the tail beats move the ray towards the prey in small increments . When it reaches the prey , the ray opens its mouth to suck it in . Short electric bursts are produced as necessary , depending on the movement of the prey , and continue through ingestion .
= = = Defense = = =
Because of its size and electrical defenses , the marbled electric ray does not often fall prey to other animals such as sharks . This species exhibits different defensive behaviors depending on whether a prospective predator grasps it by the disc or the tail . A ray touched on the disc will quickly turn toward the threat while producing electric shocks ; this is followed by it fleeing in a straight line , after which it may re @-@ bury itself . A ray touched on the tail will propel itself upward into a loop ; if it has not escaped after the maneuver , the ray will curl into a ring with the belly facing outward , so as to present the area of its body with the highest electric field gradient ( the underside of the electric organs ) towards the threat ; these behaviors are accompanied by short , strong electric shocks . The ray tends to produce more electric bursts when protecting its tail than when protecting its disc .
= = = Life history = = =
The marbled electric ray exhibits aplacental viviparity , in which the developing embryos are nourished initially by yolk , which is later supplemented by nutrient @-@ rich histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Adult females have two functional ovaries and uteruses ; the inner lining of the uterus bears a series of parallel lengthwise folds . The reproductive cycle for females is probably biennial , while males are capable of mating every year . Mating occurs from November to January , and the young are born the following year after a gestation period of 9 – 12 months . The litter size ranges from 3 to 32 , increasing with the size of the female .
The electric organs first appear when the embryo is 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 75 – 0 @.@ 91 in ) long , at which time it has distinct eyes , pectoral and pelvic fins , and external gills . At an embryonic length of 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 – 0 @.@ 106 in ) , the gill clefts close dorsally , leaving the gill slits beneath the disc as in all rays . At the same time , the four blocks of primordial cells that make up each electric organ rapidly coalesce together . The embryo 's pectoral fins enlarge and fuse with the snout at a length of 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 5 in ) , giving it the typical circular electric ray shape . When the embryo is 3 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) long , the external gills are resorbed and pigmentation develops . The embryo can produce electric discharges by a length of 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 3 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 9 in ) . The strength of the discharge increases by a magnitude of 105 over the course of gestation , reaching 47 – 55 volts by an embryonic length of 8 @.@ 6 – 13 cm ( 3 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) , close to that of an adult .
Newborns measure approximately 10 – 14 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , and are immediately capable of performing characteristic predatory and defensive behaviors . Males mature sexually at approximately 21 – 29 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 4 in ) long and five years of age , while females mature significantly larger and older at 31 – 39 cm ( 12 – 15 in ) long and twelve years of age . The maximum lifespan is 12 – 13 years for males and around 20 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
The shock delivered by the marbled electric ray can be painful but is seldom life @-@ threatening , although there is a danger of a shocked diver becoming disoriented underwater . Its electrogenic properties have been known since classical antiquity , leading it and other electric fishes to be used in medicine . The ancient Greeks and Romans applied live rays to those afflicted with conditions such as chronic headaches and gout , and recommended that its meat be eaten by epileptics .
The marbled electric ray is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , trammel nets , and bottom longlines ; it has little economic value and is mostly discarded at sea when captured . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks enough population and fishery data to assess its conservation status beyond Data Deficient . At least in the northern Mediterranean , surveys have found that it remains the most common electric ray , and is perhaps becoming more abundant in Italian waters . This and other electric ray species are used as model organisms in biomedical research because their electric organs are rich in acetylcholine receptors , which play an important role in the human nervous system .
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= Saskatchewan Highway 2 =
Highway 2 is a provincial highway in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan . It is the longest Saskatchewan Highway , at 809 km ( 503 mi ) . The highway is partially divided and undivided . However , only about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) near Moose Jaw , 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) near Chamberlain , and 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) near Prince Albert are divided highway . Highway 2 is a major north @-@ south route , beginning at the Canadian @-@ American border at the Port of West Poplar River , and Opheim , Montana customs checkpoints . Montana Highway 24 continues south . The town of La Ronge delimits the northern terminus with Highway 102 continuing north . It passes through the major cities of Moose Jaw in the south and Prince Albert in the north . Highway 2 overlaps Highway 11 between the towns of Chamberlain and Findlater . This 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) section of road is a wrong @-@ way concurrency . The highway ends at La Ronge , where it becomes Highway 102 .
The highway started as a graded road in the 1920s which followed the grid lines of the early survey system and was maintained by early homesteaders of each rural municipality . Paving projects of the 1950s created all weather roads . Technological advances have paved the way for cost @-@ effective methods of improvements to highway surfaces to meet the wear and tear of increased tourist and commercial highway traffic . The stretch of Highway 2 from Moose Jaw to Prince Albert was designated in 2005 as Veterans Memorial Highway . The designation coincided with Veterans Week 2005 . The CanAm Highway comprises Saskatchewan Highways 35 , 39 , 6 , 3 , and 2 .
= = Route description = =
Saskatchewan Highway 2 departs the Canada – United States border in a northerly direction . Montana Highway 24 continues in a southerly direction in the United States . The United States border crossing is in Opheim , Montana and the Canadian is at West Poplar River .
Nearby there are campgrounds available , and a point of information regarding the crossing of Poplar River . The area is rich in history , this is the Big Muddy Badlands area which featured the hideouts of outlaws and rum runners of the nineteenth and early twentieth century . This area remained above the Quaternary age ice sheets , being pushed and folded by the glacier movement resulting in glaciotectonic hills . The highway winds up , down and around these hills along the way . The Big Muddy Badlands are within the Missouri Coteau . At km 12 @.@ 2 the highway reaches Kildeer , and the intersection with Highway 18 . Access to Wood Mountain Post Provincial Historical Park is obtained by following Highway 18 north for 17 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 8 mi ) . This section of Highway 2 begins as a Class 4 highway and is under the jurisdiction of the Saskatchewan Highways and Transportation ( SHT ) South West Transportation Planning Council . The highway is a secondary weight highway with a thin membrane surface type as it only has an average of 390 vehicles per day ( vpd ) according to the 2007 Average Annual Daily Traffic ( AADT ) count which was taken north of Rockglen . Highway 2 begins a concurrency with Highway 18 in a northeasterly direction . Alfalfa and alfalfa mixtures , hay and fodder crops and spring wheat are the main crops in Old Post rural municipality ( RM ) . There is a point of information at km 42 @.@ 3 . This area is known as the Wood Mountain Uplands where there are mining endeavours undertaken such as coal , bentonite , kaolinitic and ceramic clays . Paleontological digs have uncovered a 63 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old sea turtle which has been excavated in the Killdeer region . Rockglen is located at km 49 @.@ 7 , and Highway 2 now extends in a northerly direction again . Rockglen ( Population 450 in 2001 and 360 in 2006 ) and Assiniboia ( 2 @,@ 483 in 2001 and 2 @,@ 305 in 2006 ) are the two largest centers between the border and the city of Moose Jaw . This geographical region of Highway 2 from Rockglen to Assiniboia has been upgraded to a Class 3 highway as it carries approximately 800 vehicles per day counted to the south of Assiniboia . Therefore , the surface type before Assiniboia is a granular road surface which is a structural pavement with a hot mix surface coating . The highway type , surface , maintenance and construction projects are looked after by the SHS South Central Traffic Planning Committee . Fife Lake is located to the north east of the highway . The St. Victor Petroglyph Historic Park is located just to the west of Highway 2 by 10 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) . These unique petroglyph features carved into the sandstone are slowly disappearing .
At 104 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 65 @.@ 1 mi ) is the town of Assiniboia where 1 @,@ 260 vpd results in the highway designated as an asphalt concrete ( AS ) Class 2 primary weight highway all the way to Moose Jaw . Junction with Highway 13 , the Redcoat Trail occurs at km 106 @.@ 4 , providing access to Lafleche . Vantage is located to the west of the highway along this stretch , with access provided at km 129 @.@ 2 . Mossbank is located at the intersection with Highway 718 . Here is the southeast portion of Old Wives Lake , which is a part of the Chaplin , Old Wives Lake , Reed Lakes ( Hemispheric ) - Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network ( WHSRN ) Site , a designated Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network , protecting three saline lakes , saline and freshwater marshes . Ardill is located near the northern extremity of Lake of the Rivers . Highway 36 is located at km 176 @.@ 4 , which provides access to Crestwynd , and the Jean Louis Legare Regional Park . At km 184 @.@ 5 , is the junction with Highway 716 west providing access to Briercrest .
= = = Veteran 's Memorial Highway = = =
The home of the Snowbirds , the Canadian Forces 431 Air Demonstration Squadron is at CFB Moose Jaw , Bushell Park at the km 204 @.@ 4 junction with Highway 363 . Before entering the city of Moose Jaw is an 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) divided or twinned highway section . The city of Moose Jaw does not have a cloverleaf , and highway 2 goes through the centre of the city . Moose Jaw , a city of 32 @,@ 132 features large roadside attractions such as Capone 's Car , Moose Family and Mac the moose . Temple Gardens Mineral Spa Resort , Tunnels of Moose Jaw , and History of Transportation Western Development Museum. are major sites of interest of this city . The Saskatchewan Highway 1 intersection with Highway 2 is north of Moose Jaw . At km 230 @.@ 9 , access to Buffalo Pound Provincial Park is provided to the east of Highway 2 by traveling another 11 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) . Access to the small town of Tuxford is provided at km 232 @.@ 8 , at the Highway 42 junction . The SHS Central Area Transportation Planning Committee monitors this primary weight highway between Moose Jaw and Meacham . Between the two national highway systems of the Trans Canada Saskatchewan Highway 1 and Saskatchewan Highway 11 , Highway 2 is also designated as a Class 1 AC national connector highway . There is a point of information on the south side of the Qu 'Appelle Valley , km 246 @.@ 3 . A second point of information is on the northern bank of the Qu 'Appelle Valley at km 250 @.@ 0 . Buffalo Pound Lake , a eutrophic prairie lake was formed by glaciation 10 @,@ 000 years ago . At the junction of highway 11 , is the town of Chamberlain where the highway which travels north begins a southeast 11 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) wrong @-@ way concurrency at Chamberlain . Where these two national highways overlap , a divided highway segment handles the AADT which is about 4500 vpd . There is a rest area at km 281 @.@ 1 south of Chamberlain with an historical marker . To the west of the highway are afforded views of the Arm River valley . At km 276 @.@ 1 , the highway takes a sharp turn to continue north as it leaves the Highway 11 concurrency . After the concurrency , Highway 2 is a class 3 AC primary weight highway until Watrous . The junction of Highway 733 in 11 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) provides access to Last Mountain Lake ( Long Lake ) traveling east . Holdfast is accessed at the Highway 732 junction . Penzance is east of the highway at km 305 @.@ 0 , where Highway 732 turns north , forming the beginning of a 18 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 11 @.@ 3 mi ) concurrency . Liberty is a small community at km 320 @.@ 5 . Located near Stalwart is the Stalwart National Wildlife Area , a wetlands region . Watertown ( 1903 – 1910 ) provides easy access to Etter 's Beach on Long Lake . The settlers of Watertown established a post office named Harkness Post Office , Assiniboia , North West Territories . With the arrival of the rail , the village became known as Imperial . The town of Imperial is the largest center west of Last Mountain Lake with a population around 300 and an AADT of close to 650 vpd . The village of Simpson is also along the highway which runs parallel to Last Mountain Lake . There are several roadside turnouts to access Last Mountain Lake from Highway 2 . The Last Mountain Lake Sanctuary was the first federal bird sanctuary . Highway 15 provides access to Nokomis to the east , and Kenaston to the west .
The small hamlet of Amazon is located before Watrous . Watrous is a tourist destination due to its proximity to Manitou Beach and the ehdorheic Little Manitou Lake . Watrous , in the Land of Living Waters , is a tourist destination due to its proximity to Manitou Beach , home of the world @-@ famous Mineral Spa and Danceland dance hall ( known as the " Home of the World Famous Dance Floor Built on Horsehair " ) . The AADT near this tourist town of 1 @,@ 800 people raises to about 1 @,@ 250 vpd which ranks it as a class 2 highway . Highway 2 continues in a northwest direction to circumnavigate around Little Manitou until it gets to the Young and the junction of Highway 670 . Young and Zelma were two communities that were part of the alphabet railway of the Canadian National Railway ( CNR ) . The Yellowhead Highway is at km 426 @.@ 3 . Colonsay is located to the west , and Plunkett to the east . Colonsay is the location of one of several potash mines in Saskatchewan , a major employer of the region . Potash evaporites were laid down during the geological formation of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin . The SHS North Central Transportation Planning Committee tends to highway maintenance and construction decisions north of the Yellowhead highway . Highway 2 from the Yellowhead through to Prince Albert is a class 2 primary weight AC highway . Over 1 @,@ 000 vehicles travel Highway 2 between Watrous and Meacham , and of these less than 100 of them are trucks . The majority of commercial trucks near the Highway 2 and 5 intersection travel Highway 5 . The AADT after the intersection is under 350 vpd .
Highway 5 provides access to the city of Saskatoon , the largest city in the province . There is a 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) concurrency between Highway 5 and 2 upon which there are close to 2 @,@ 000 vpd . Highway 5 east provides access to the city of Humboldt . Meacham at km 442 @.@ 0 is located in the Aspen Parkland ecoregion . Throughout the Aspen Parkland ecoregion are trembling aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) bluffs ( small islands or shelter belts ) within the prairie region . Deer and other large ungulates are a hazard to traffic resulting in potential animal or human deaths , especially in the autumn mating months or when deer are searching for feeding grounds in the spring . The defense mechanism of deer in the face of a threat is to freeze . There are over 3 @,@ 500 deer - auto collisions per year in Saskatchewan . A number of measures have been implemented to increase awareness such as fencing , feeding programs , automobile whistles . Deer mirrors along the edges of highways were installed for reducing deer @-@ vehicle collisions . The Wildlife Warning System is triggered by highway vehicles , setting off lights , sounds and or odours ahead of the approaching vehicle to frighten away animals . Some systems that detect vehicles , where others detect large animals and sets off a warning system to drivers of vehicles alerting them that an animal is on or near the highway ahead of time . The junction with Highway 27 occurs at km 468 @.@ 0 providing access west to the village of Prud 'homme and off to the east is Muskiki Lake . Cudworth is located at the Highway 777 intersection , bearing east on highway 777 provides access to Middle Lake . The intersection of Highway 41 is located at Wakaw , which features a golf course , campground and recreation site at Wakaw Lake . The community considered a proposal to construct a canal between the lake and the town to be developed into a marina - resort - tourism area . Traffic around this tourist town of 864 increases between 650 and 1050 vpd .
At the junction of Highway 25 is the town of St. Louis where there is a historical paranormal phenomenon called the St. Louis Light or the St. Louis Ghost Train . Domremy , located at the junction of Highway 320 and Highway 225 , constructed a park to commemorate the province 's centennial celebrations . Highway 225 provides access to the Batoche National Historical Site , which was the site of the last stand of Metis rights activist Louis Riel prior to his subsequent trial and death in 1885 . The village of Hoey is located at km 529 @.@ 6 . St. Louis was recently the site of the discovery of a large archaeological site of aboriginal artifacts .
The South Saskatchewan River is crossed at this point via the St. Louis Bridge . Traffic around St. Louis averaged about 1 @,@ 500 and escalates to 6 @,@ 000 after the junction with the Highway 11 , the Louis Riel Trail occurs just south of Prince Albert at km 562 @.@ 9 .
= = = CanAm Highway = = =
Highway 3 joins with Highway 2 at km 568 @.@ 4 , becoming a concurrency for 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) After crossing the North Saskatchewan River the concurrency of Highway 2 and 3 end at the interchange with Highway 55 . There is a 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) divided or twinned highway segment north of Prince Albert . Highway 2 continues northward as an AC primary weight CanAm international highway from this point northward taking over from the highway 3 segment . Prince Albert , a city of over 34 @,@ 000 , is a part of the boreal transition ecoregion , agricultural fields and forested areas border the highway rural areas . At km 593 @.@ 9 , Highway 2 meets with the intersection of Highway 325 . To the northwest of this intersection is Little Red River Indian Reserve 106C and Montreal Lake 106B Indian Reserves . Christopher Lake is at the km 610 @.@ 0 junction of Highway 791 east and Highway 263 west . Highway 263 provides access to the Prince Albert National Park .
This ecoregion is a part of the mid @-@ boreal upland . At km 646 @.@ 9 , Highway 2 meets with Highway 264 which provides access to Waskesiu Lake in the Prince Albert National Park . At km 660 @.@ 5 there is an intersection with Highway 969 , another access to the Park westerly , and eastern access to Montreal Lake 106 Indian Reserve . There are fewer roads in the southern boreal forest . Highway 2 makes the next highway connection at km 693 @.@ 1 with Highway 916 .
There are over 10 @,@ 000 lakes across Saskatchewan , with the main lake region being north of the tree line in the Canadian Shield . Montreal Lake is located west of Highway 2 , its northern shores near Weyakwin at km 716 @.@ 2 , then at km 758 @.@ 5 Highway 2 meets with Highway 165 which travels north to Morin Lake 217 Indian Reserve . Lac la Ronge 156 Indian Reserve is at km 805 @.@ 9 before the ending terminus in the northern boreal forest at La Ronge and the junction with Highway 102 .
= = History = =
From 1876 , the South Saskatchewan river crossing at St. Louis was via ferry . In 1912 , the railway built a rail bridge across the river , and in 1928 , the vehicle lanes were added . After 1907 , the highway was constructed south of Chamberlain and reached Buffalo Pound . At this time two horse scrapers and walking plows were the implements of road construction technology . This highway received an improvement in 1926 which then used an elevating grader , 16 horses and a dump wagon .
The Saskatchewan Highway Act was established in 1922 , in compliance with the 1919 Canadian highway act . At the initial stages of the Saskatchewan Highway Act , 10 miles ( 16 km ) of highway were gravel and the rest were earth roads . The road allowances were laid out as a part of the Dominion Land survey system for homesteading . In 1929 , the R.M. of Wood Creek # 281 conducted roadwork with three graders , 53 slush scrapers , 15 wheel scrapers and five ploughs . Development of highways began in the 1920s and was virtually halted in the depression years of the 1930s . Early homesteaders , such as John Abrey , would do road maintenance work themselves in this era . In the 1930s seeing a car was rare , Alexander Black remembers taking 150 bushels on a grain tank with a four horse hitch . When they reached highway 2 , the horses bolted through town until they snagged on the railway switch by the elevators . Travel along the Provincial Highway 5 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and rail lines . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 @-@ degree , right @-@ angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads .
The two industrial revolutions first and second combined with advancements made during the war years resulted in the largest impetus in highway construction of all weather roads following World War II . The creation of the highway south of Chamberlain to Moose Jaw was completed in 1953 . Paving projects followed within a short time period . In 1955 parts of Highway 2 were already paved ; Between Vantage and Tuxford , either side of Moose Jaw ; north of Watrous along the Little Manitou Lake shoreline ; and north of the junction with Highway 27 to Montreal Lake , either side of Prince Albert . In 1956 a North @-@ South International Highway proposal regarding a highway between El Paso , Texas , and LaRonge via Wakaw was discussed . The CanAm Highway northern segment into La Ronge finished construction in 1977 ; however , the CanAm didn 't go through Wakaw , rather it comprised several different routes making the CanAm . Highway 2 , which does go through Wakaw , does link to the CanAm highway at Prince Albert when Highway 2 becomes the last portion of the CanAm highway . In 1952 , Highway 2 was re @-@ routed ; rather than winding its way through the town of Wakaw , the highway 's new route went straight along the western limit of town .
Agriculture is Saskatchewan 's main industry and taking grain to elevators was first accomplished by horse and cart , to be replaced around World War I by truck travel . Long haul trucking flourished between 1950 and 1970 . Since the 1970s , 17 times the number of grain trucks and 95 percent of goods transported now are hauled by truck across the Saskatchewan .
In 1999 , the granular pavement section of Highway 2 south of Watrous was tested with a cold in @-@ place recycling or “ CIR ” method to rehabilitate highways . This CIR process is a cost @-@ effective method which recycles the top surface of a road . This pulverized material is mixed with asphalt emulsion and spread and compacted back onto the highway surface . This surface is then recovered with a new seal dependent on traffic volume .
In 2001 , 6 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 1 mi ) were resurfaced near the Cudworth access road , as well 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) km north of the Highway 27 junction . " Highway 2 near Cudworth has seen an increase in truck traffic that is leading to deterioration on this highway ... It 's important to keep our highways in good driving condition to ensure the safety of the travelling public . " -Highways and Transportation Minister Maynard Sonntag . As recently as 2002 , this section of Highway 2 was improved 10 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) south of the Yellowhead . At km 398 @.@ 1 is access to Zelma . ' Highway 2 has seen an increase in truck traffic , leading to wear and tear on this highway ... We are paving a section of this highway as it has deteriorated over the past number of years . Saskatchewan Highways and Transportation is working hard to fix roads across the province to improve driver safety . - " Highways and Transportation Minister Mark Wartman
= = = Veterans Memorial Highway = = =
Veterans Memorial Highway is the official name of Highway 2 between Moose Jaw and Prince Albert .
As a tribute to Saskatchewan veterans , Premier Lorne Calvert , Highways and Transportation Minister Eldon Lautermilch and Past Provincial President of the Royal Canadian Legion , Saskatchewan Command , John Henderson together unveiled the new highway sign on November 10 , 2005 . The ceremony was held during veteran 's week , November 5 – 11th , and also commemorates The Year of the Veteran , 2005 . The highway designation coincides with Veterans Week ( November 5 – 11 ) and was one of several significant honours bestowed to veterans in 2005 , The Year of the Veteran . The Year of the Veteran commemorates the 60th Anniversary of the end of the World War II . The Royal Canadian Legion , Saskatchewan Command and Saskatchewan Remembers Committee came together to select this particular highway of Saskatchewan because of the history of a military presence along the route . Royal Canadian Legion branches are located at Moose Jaw , Penance - Holdfast , Young - Zelma , Watrous , Simpson , and Prince Albert . A military history museum is located at the Watrous , as well military memorabilia is held at Prince Albert Royal Canadian Legion branch . Moose Jaw Royal Canadian Air Force RCAF and 15 Wing military base is located 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Moose Jaw .
= = = CanAm Highway = = =
The northern 176 @.@ 3 miles ( 283 @.@ 7 km ) of Saskatchewan Highway 2 contribute to the CanAm Highway . The Highway 2 segment designated as the CanAm Highway is located between Prince Albert and La Ronge .
The entire length of the CanAm Highway route is 4 @,@ 122 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 561 mi ) and extends from El Paso , TX at Mexican Border ( MX 45 ) to La Ronge at the Saskatchewan Highway 2 - SK 102 intersection . The North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) super corridors connect Mexico , United States , and Canada . The CanAm highway was a concept that began in the 1920s . A stretch of highway between Amazon and Watrous is slated for maintenance between 208 and 2009 , as well as the Highway 5 - Highway 2 concurrency which carries about 2 @,@ 000 vpd on average through the year . Also the 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) segment between Highways 264 and 969 is a 2008 @-@ 09 maintenance project .
= = Intersections from south to north = =
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= Banner of Poland =
Throughout most of the history of Poland , the banner of Poland was one of the main symbols of the Polish State , normally reserved for use by the head of state . Although its design changed with time , it was generally a heraldic banner , i.e. , one based directly on the national coat of arms : a crowned White Eagle on a red field ( Gules an eagle Argent crowned Or ) . The banner should not be confused with the flag of Poland , a white and red horizontal bicolor , officially adopted in 1919 .
Derived from early Slavic flag @-@ like objects , a royal banner of arms dates as far back as the 11th century CE . A symbol of royal authority , it was used at coronations and in battles . In the interwar period , it was replaced with the Banner of the Republic of Poland , which was part of the presidential insignia . A national banner is not mentioned in the current ( 2007 ) regulations on Polish national symbols , although today 's presidential jack is based directly on the pre @-@ war design for the Banner of the Republic .
= = History = =
= = = From stanica to chorągiew = = =
The banner of Poland traces its origins to the early Slavic vexilloids known as stanice ( pronounced [ staˈɲit ͡ sɛ ] ; singular : stanica ) , probably used at least as early as the 10th century CE . Although no specimens or images are preserved , a stanica was probably a cloth draped vertically from a horizontal crosspiece attached to a wooden pole or spear , resembling the Roman vexillum . It was both a religious and military symbol ; the stanice were kept either inside or outside pagan temples in peacetime and were taken to war as military insignia .
With Poland 's conversion to Christianity in the late 10th century , the pagan stanice were probably Christianized by replacing pagan symbols with Christian ones such as images of patron saints , or a Chi @-@ Rho or dove symbolizing the Holy Spirit . In 1000 CE , during his pilgrimage to the tomb of Saint Adalbert in Gniezno , the capital of Poland until about 1040 , Emperor Otto III officially recognized Duke Boleslaus the Brave as King of Poland ( see Congress of Gniezno ) , crowning him and presenting him with a replica of the Holy Lance , also known as Saint Maurice 's Spear . This relic , together with the vexillum attached to it , was probably the first insignia of the nascent Kingdom of Poland , a symbol of King Boleslaus 's rule , and of his allegiance to the Emperor . It remains unknown what images , if any , were painted or embroidered on the vexillum .
A royal banner was used as early as the reign of Boleslaus the Generous ( r . 1076 @-@ 1079 ) . The earliest mention of a banner ( Polish : chorągiew , pronounced [ xɔˈrɔŋɡʲɛf ] ) bearing the sign of an eagle is found in Wincenty Kadłubek 's Chronicle which says that Duke Casimir the Just fought the Ruthenians in 1182 " under the sign of the victorious eagle " . A seal of Duke Premislaus II from 1290 shows the ruler holding a banner emblazoned with a crowned eagle . Five years later , Premislaus was crowned King of Poland , and he made the crowned White Eagle a national coat of arms . During the reign of King Ladislaus the Elbow @-@ High ( r . 1320 – 1333 ) , the red cloth with the White Eagle was finally established as the Banner of the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : chorągiew Królestwa Polskiego ) . The orientation of the eagle on the banner varied ; its head could point either upwards or towards the hoist . The actual rendering of the eagle changed with time according to new artistic styles .
The national banner was identical with that of Lesser Poland , the territory where Kraków , the capital of Poland until 1596 , is located . It was therefore carried by the Standard @-@ bearer of Kraków until that office was replaced by the Grand Standard @-@ Bearer of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland ( Polish : chorąży wielki koronny , Latin : vexillifer regni ) .
= = = Polish @-@ Lithuanian union = = =
One of the most famous standard @-@ bearers of Kraków was Marcin of Wrocimowice ( d . 1442 ) who carried the national banner in the Battle of Grunwald ( Tannenberg ) in 1410 . The military unit ( chorągiew ) that went to the battle under that banner comprised the elite of Polish knights , including such chivalrous celebrities as Zawisza the Black , which is a clear sign that the banner , described by the chronicler Jan Długosz as " the great banner of Kraków Territory " , was also the insignia of the entire kingdom . During the course of the battle , according to Długosz , the national banner slipped out of Marcin 's hand and fell to the ground , but it was quickly picked up and saved from destruction by the Polish army 's most valiant knights , which further motivated the Poles to strive for victory over the Teutonic Knights .
With the establishment of a dynastic union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1386 , it became customary to use two banners — Polish and Lithuanian — as equally important insignia of royal authority . In the mid @-@ 16th century , before the creation of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( real union ) in 1569 , a single banner for the entire entity also came into use . The Commonwealth banner was initially plain white emblazoned with the arms of the Commonwealth which combined the heraldic charges of Poland ( White Eagle ) and Lithuania ( Pursuer ) . During the 17th century , the banner was often divided into three or four horizontal stripes of white and red , ending with swallowtails . Elective kings ' dynastic arms were often placed in an inescutcheon . Variants with the White Eagle and the Pursuer placed side by side without an escutcheon directly in the field or with the Eagle on the obverse and the Pursuit on the reverse side of the banner were also used .
During royal coronations , however , separate banners for each of the two constituent nations of the Commonwealth were still used . Crown ( i.e. , Polish ) and Lithuanian standard @-@ bearers carried the furled banners in a procession to the royal cathedral where , shortly after the anointment and just before the crowning of the king @-@ elect , they handed the banners to the primate who unfurled them and handed them to the kneeling king . The king would then stand up and give the unfurled banners back to the standard @-@ bearers .
= = = Time of partitions = = =
Partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century brought an end to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1815 , the Congress of Vienna established a semi @-@ independent Kingdom of Poland ( known as Congress Kingdom ) under control of and in personal union with the Russian Empire . The King ( Tsar ) of Poland at that time used a white royal banner emblazoned with the arms of the Congress Kingdom — a black double @-@ headed Russian eagle with the Polish White Eagle in an inescutcheon .
= = = Interbellum = = =
In August 1919 , the Sejm ( lower house of parliament ) of the renascent Republic of Poland adopted a law defining the Banner of the Republic of Poland ( chorągiew Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) . The banner was part of the insignia of the head of state — the State Leader ( Naczelnik Państwa ) and , later , President of the Republic . It was plain red emblazoned with the crowned White Eagle and bordered with a wężyk generalski , a wavy line used in the Polish military as a symbol of general 's rank . It was modified on December 27 , 1927 to reflect the adoption of a new official rendering of the national coat of arms .
As a symbol of presidential authority , the banner was carried or flown to mark the presence of the head of state and , at the same time , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief . It was flown on the president 's official residence , and used as a car flag and instead of number plates on the president 's vehicle . The banner was also used on special national occasions including the welcome ceremony for Ignacy Paderewski in Poznań in 1918 and Poland 's wedding to the Baltic Sea in Puck in 1920 . It also draped the coffins of Henryk Sienkiewicz in 1924 , the Unknown Soldier in 1925 , and Marshal Józef Piłsudski in 1935 .
= = = Second World War and People 's Poland = = =
Following the German @-@ Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939 , President Ignacy Mościcki fled to Romania , taking the presidential insignia , including two specimens of the Banner of the Republic , with him . The banners were kept by the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London until after the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989 .
Meanwhile , the new Communist authorities at home used a modified version of the banner with a crownless White Eagle and a wider border . It was first used during the celebrations of the anniversary of the battle of Grunwald in 1945 . Officially abandoned in 1955 , the banner continued to be used in practice by the prime minister and , during the 1960s , by the Council of State , a collective head of state of the time .
= = = Third Republic = = =
On December 22 , 1990 , the last Polish president @-@ in @-@ exile , Ryszard Kaczorowski , handed the presidential insignia , including one of the banners rescued by Mościcki in 1939 , to Lech Wałęsa , the first democratically elected president of post @-@ war Poland . The ceremony , held at the Royal Castle in Warsaw was seen as a symbol of the Third Republic 's continuity with the pre @-@ war Second Republic . However , since legal regulations on national symbols did not recognize a national banner at that time , the banner brought by Kaczorowski did not become the presidential insignia again but was instead donated to the Royal Castle museum where it is now on display . The other of the two banners remains in the Sikorski Institute in London . Today , a kilim embroidered with the design of the pre @-@ war Banner of the Republic is hanging in the Senate chamber , above the chair reserved for the President of Poland .
In 1996 , the Minister of National Defense established a jack of the President of the Republic of Poland with the purpose of flying it on Polish Navy ships while the commander @-@ in @-@ chief is on board . The jack is identical in its design to the former Banner of the Republic of Poland . In 2005 , the use of the presidential jack was extended to all branches of the Polish Armed Forces . It was first flown on land during a Constitution Day ceremony at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Warsaw on May 3 , 2005 .
= = Gallery = =
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= River Welland =
The River Welland is a lowland river in the east of England , some 65 miles ( 105 km ) long . It drains part of the Midlands eastwards to The Wash . The river rises in the Hothorpe Hills , at Sibbertoft in Northamptonshire , then flows generally northeast to Market Harborough , Stamford and Spalding , to reach The Wash near Fosdyke . It is a major waterway across the part of the Fens called South Holland , and is one of the Fenland rivers which were laid out with washlands . There are two channels between widely spaced embankments with the intention that flood waters would have space in which to spread while the tide in the estuary prevented free egress . However , after the floods of 1947 , new works such as the Coronation Channel were constructed to control flooding in Spalding and the washes are no longer used solely as pasture , but may be used for arable farming .
Significant improvements were made to the river in the 1660s , when a new cut with 10 locks was constructed between Stamford and Market Deeping , and two locks were built on the river section below Market Deeping . The canal section was known as the Stamford Canal , and was the longest canal with locks in Britain when it was built . The river provided the final outlet to the sea for land drainage schemes implemented in the seventeenth century , although they were not completely successful until a steam @-@ powered pumping station was built at Pode Hole in 1827 . Navigation on the upper river , including the Stamford Canal , had ceased by 1863 , but Spalding remained an active port until the end of the Second World War .
The Environment Agency is the navigation authority for the river , which is navigable as far upstream as Crowland , and with very shallow draught to West Deeping Bridge , where further progress is hindered by the derelict lock around the weir . The traditional head of navigation was Wharf Road in Stamford . The management of the lower river has been intimately tied up with the drainage of Deeping Fen , and the river remains important to the Welland and Deepings Internal Drainage Board , for whom it provides the final conduit to the sea for pumped water .
Wildlife in the river varies along its length , the faster headwaters being a habitat for trout and the slower lower reaches for perch . The estuary conditions and flat landscapes beyond Fosdyke favour wading birds and migratory species .
= = Geography = =
The River Welland , with its tributaries , form a river system with a catchment area of 609 square miles ( 1 @,@ 580 km2 ) . Within this area , 257 miles ( 414 km ) of waterway are designated as " main river " , and are therefore managed for flood control by the Environment Agency under the River Welland Catchment Flood Management Plan ( CFMP ) . Of this total , the 14 miles ( 23 km ) below Spalding are tidal , and have sea walls to protect the adjacent land from flooding , while 56 miles ( 90 km ) are fresh water , but run through low @-@ lying land , and are therefore embanked . Within the catchment area , 179 square miles ( 460 km2 ) are below sea level , and would be flooded without such defences .
The basin runs in a broadly south @-@ west to north @-@ east direction , with an extension to the north around the West Glen and East Glen rivers . The underlying geology consists of Lias clays at the western end of the catchment , with Lincolnshire limestone in the centre , including the valleys of the Glen . The eastern third is mostly alluvial soils , and it is this part that relies on artificial pumping to prevent flooding . Rainfall over the area varies between 26 and 30 inches ( 660 and 760 mm ) per year , which is quite light , and because the land is efficiently drained during the winter months , there are few reserves , making the area prone to drought in the summer months .
For much of its length the Welland forms the county boundary between Northamptonshire and Leicestershire or Rutland , and lower down between Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire .
= = Course = =
The Welland rises in the Hothorpe Hills , close to the 540 @-@ foot ( 160 m ) contour , near Welland Rise , Sibbertoft in Northamptonshire . Within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , the small stream forms the border between Northamptonshire and Leicestershire . It flows westwards , before looping round , passing through the grounds of Hothorpe Hall in Theddingworth , now a conference centre , to flow generally eastwards through Lubenham to Market Harborough . One of the driveways to Thorpe Lubenham Hall is carried over the river by an early nineteenth century ashlar bridge which is a Grade II listed structure . To the east of Lubenham , the river passes Old Lubenham Hall , part of an H @-@ plan house built in the late sixteenth century and modified in the early eighteenth century . King Charles I is believed to have stayed there before the Battle of Naseby . Three arms of a square moat surround the house , and the site is a scheduled ancient monument .
= = = Market Harborough to Stamford = = =
The county border leaves the river on the west side of Market Harborough , as the town is wholly in Leicestershire , and picks it up again on the east side . The River Jordan joins the Welland in the centre of Market Harborough , flowing northwards to the railway station . Langton Brook and Stonton Brook join from the west near Welham . The county border meanders from side to side across relatively straight sections of the river , suggesting that the channel has been engineered . A three @-@ arched bridge , built in 1881 of fine ashlar masonry , with a causeway to the south , carries the Welham to Weston by Welland road over the river , while a four @-@ arched bridge dating from the early nineteenth century carries the Ashley to Medbourne road . Macmillan Way , a long distance footpath , crosses on its way from Abbotsbury in Dorset to Boston , Lincolnshire . Medbourne Brook joins from the north , after which the river approaches a dismantled railway and is joined by the Stoke Albany Brook , approaching from the south . The river remains on the south side of the railway , while the county border follows a meandering course to the north of it , but rejoins the river near the Bringhurst to Cottingham road . The bridge over the river is plain , but to the north of it is an eighteenth @-@ century causeway , some 110 yards ( 100 m ) long , which is made of stone and pierced by seven large arches and numerous smaller arches for drainage pipes . The causeway has two large semi @-@ circular passing places on its western side .
The Welland passes to the north of Corby near Rockingham , and then to the south of Caldecott , where it becomes the county border between Northamptonshire and Rutland , and the Eye Brook , which has been dammed to form the Eyebrook Reservoir , joins from the north . As it flows past Harringworth , the river forms two channels , with the county border following the smaller , northern channel . It is crossed by the 1 @,@ 275 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 166 m ) Welland Viaduct , with its 82 brick arches , which was completed in 1879 , and carries the Oakham to Kettering Line over the valley . Apart from viaducts carrying suburban lines into London , it is the longest railway viaduct to be built in Britain . Uppingham Brook flows eastwards from Uppingham to join on the north bank , and the Jurassic Way long distance footpath crosses the river at Turtle Bridge . This probably dates from the fourteenth century , although it was widened in 1793 , and a parapet has been added subsequently . On the road from Barrowden to Wakerley , there is a medieval bridge with five pointed arches , which was widened in the eighteenth century . Gretton Brook flows from the south to join the river near Duddington , where there is a well @-@ known mill building of earliest known date 1664 . A limestone ashlar bridge with four arches crosses the river , dating from the fifteenth century but widened in 1919 . After the river passes under a railway bridge at Ketton , its flow is swelled by the River Chater . The county border again leaves the river to the west of Stamford while below the town the river forms the border between Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire .
= = = Stamford to Spalding = = =
Just before Stamford , the Great North Road , now labelled the A1 , crosses the river , and a pumping station on the north bank at Stamford Meadows has pumped large quantities of water to the Rutland Water reservoir since its construction in 1975 . Stamford was the lowest point at which the river could be forded so the Roman Ermine Street crossed the Welland there . The A16 road crosses the river by a three @-@ arched stone bridge designed by Edward Browning in 1845 . Below it , Albert Bridge is made of iron with stone piers , and was erected by Stamford Town Council in July 1881 , to replace an earlier bridge which was washed away in a flood . Beyond Stamford , the river passes the site and ruins of the Benedictine St Leonard 's Priory . Hudd 's Mill marks the point at which the Stamford Canal left the river . The present mill building dates from 1751 and 1771 . The River Gwash , which the canal crossed on the level , joins from the north , and the remains of the canal follow the river on its north bank . Below Uffington , the county border follows the old course of the river , first to the south to Tallington and then to the north , while the main course now flows along the Maxey Cut to Peakirk . The old course consists of two streams , fed by sluices from the Maxey Cut , which meander to The Deepings . The eastern stream supplied power to Lolham and Maxey mills , while the western stream did the same for Tallington Mill , which dates from around 1700 , West Deeping mill , and Molecey 's mill , which still retains its seventeenth @-@ century undershot waterwheel , modified in the 19th century to Poncelet 's improved design , and the only surviving waterwheel of its type in Lincolnshire . At the western edge of Market Deeping the two streams join , and they are also joined by the Greatford Cut , which has carried the diverted waters of the West Glen river since the early 1950s .
This section is crossed by King Street , which follows the course of a Roman road . Where it crosses the Maxey Cut , to the south of the original channels , there are a series of 14 arches which comprise Lolham Bridges . They are grouped into five structures to cross the channels in the area , and were funded by the County of Northamptonshire in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . The longest span is 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , and the cutwaters carry inscribed stones recording the County 's involvement . To the north , an early nineteenth century stone rubble arched bridge carries the road over a drainage ditch near Lolham Mill , while an eighteenth @-@ century bridge , probably rebuilt in the following century , crosses the mill stream . Another pair of early nineteenth @-@ century bridges , built of coursed limestone with ashlar dressings , carry the road over the northernmost channel .
The bridge at Deeping Gate carries the date 1651 , and is a Grade II * listed stone structure with three round arches . After the remains of Deeping High lock and Deeping Low lock , there is a junction where the old course , the Maxey Cut , the South Drain and the Folly River , also a drain , meet . The river is officially navigable below this point . Through Crowland and Cowbit to the edge of Spalding , the river is laid out with washlands , which were historically used as pasture , because the river was allowed to flood the land when tidal levels prevented the water discharging into the sea . The river is bounded on the north and west by a bank , while the New River , a drainage channel to the south and east of it , is bounded by another bank . The land between the channels forms Crowland High Wash , Crowland Fodder Lots and Cowbit Wash . The southern bank is variously named Corporation Bank , Wash Bank and Barrier Bank . These wash lands were designed to be flooded in extremis , although the building of the Coronation flood relief channel has made this purpose obsolete .
= = = Spalding to the Wash = = =
Passing through Spalding , where most of the flow is diverted through the Coronation channel , the town is protected by Marsh Road sluice and a sea lock to the east . Below the town , it is approached by Vernatt 's Drain , which runs parallel to the river carrying water pumped from Deeping Fen , and is crossed by the A16 road bridge . Nearby is Pinchbeck Marsh Pumping Station , which houses the last beam engine and scoop wheel to be used in the Fens for land drainage . It was built in 1833 , and ran until 1952 , when it was replaced by electric pumps . It now forms part of a museum of land drainage run by the Welland and Deepings Internal Drainage Board , in partnership with South Holland District Council . Vernatt 's Drain passes through a sluice to join the river , while the sluice that protects the entrance to the River Glen is navigable , to allow boats to reach Tongue End , some 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) upstream from its mouth . There are pumping stations for Sea Dike and Lords Drain , and the outfalls of the Risegate Eau and Five Towns drainage channels before the final bridge at Fosdyke is reached . After it is joined by the Holbeach River , it is bordered by salt marshes , and finally flows into The Wash at The Cots in Fosdyke Wash .
Beyond the river banks , much of the fertile arable land is composed of marine silt , which suits the bulb @-@ growing for which Spalding is famous . The commercial growing of bulbs was pioneered in the 1880s , with the first large @-@ scale tulip fields introduced by Sam Culpin in 1907 . At its peak in 1939 , there were 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) of bulb fields , and 3000 tons of flowers were exported through Spalding railway station . Tulips were grown on around 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) in 1965 , but this had reduced to less than 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) by 1999 .
= = = Points on course = = =
= = History = =
The origin of the name for the river is unknown but appears to be Pre @-@ English . In Old English the form was Weolud and may have changed to the Middle English form due to folk @-@ etymology or Scandinavian influence . The Welland ( Weolud ) is first mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle for 921 AD .
Richard de Rulos , who was Lord of Deeping Fen during the reign of William the Conqueror erected a strong embankment to prevent flooding of the meadows adjoining the river , which then became fertile fields and a pleasure garden . During the reign of Henry III ( 1207 – 1272 ) , complaints were made that of the two channels below Crowland , the one to Spalding was more favourable to the passage of barges , but the Abbot of Crowland had obstructed and narrowed its course by planting willow trees . In the fourteenth century , Spalding was charged with failing to scour and repair the river , causing damage to the king 's liege people , but argued that because it was tidal at this point , it was an arm of the sea , and so they were not responsible .
The river was one of the earlier rivers to be granted an act of parliament for improvements , to allow navigation to Stamford . The act was granted in the reign of Elizabeth I in 1571 , and detailed how Stamford had prospered as a result of the river , but also stated that mills built between Stamford and Deeping had resulted in it no longer being navigable , as they had diverted the water . Powers were granted to restore the river using either the old channel or the new one , although it is not clear exactly what was meant by this . There is no evidence that any work was carried out under the terms of the act .
The powers were revived in 1620 , when Stamford Corporation was given permission by the Commission of Sewers to build a new 9 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) artificial cut , which would run from the eastern edge of Stamford near Hudd 's Mill , to Market Deeping , where it would rejoin the river . The decision was ratified in 1623 by a grant of James I , and the corporation expected to have the work completed by 1627 . However , they were unable to find a suitable contractor to carry out the work , and failed to reach agreement on terms with David Cecil in 1636 , and two other potential contractors after that . Finally in 1664 , an alderman from Stamford called Daniel Wigmore took the job . He built the cut and 12 locks , which included the High Lock and the Low Lock on the river at Deeping St James , at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 000 . In return for his expenditure , he was given the lease of the tolls for the next 80 years , for which he paid a rent of one shilling ( five pence ) . The cut , known as the Stamford Canal , is one of the earliest post @-@ Roman canals in England . It opened in 1670 , around 100 years before the start of the Industrial Revolution which brought about the " golden age for canals " in Britain . When built , it was the longest canal with locks in Britain , and was very busy with barges carrying flour , malt , coal , timber and limestone .
The people of Market Deeping , Deeping Gate and Deeping St James , together with other villages along the river presented a petition to Elizabeth I , requesting that the fens should be drained , as the banks of the river and of the neighbouring Glen were in a poor state of repair . They suggested that Thomas Lovell should undertake the work , which he did , at a cost of £ 12 @,@ 000 , for which he received 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ) of the land which was reclaimed as a result of the work . Unrest in the early 1600s resulted in most of the works being destroyed , but in 1632 a group of adventurers led by the Earl of Bedford were granted permission to drain Deeping Fen , South Fen and Crowland . The work included making the Welland deeper and wider from Deeping St James to its outfall beyond Spalding , and the construction of side drains . These included a drain running from Pode Hole to below Spalding , which is still known as Vernatt 's Drain , after one of the adventurers called Sir Philibert Vernatti . Although declared completed in 1637 , efficient drainage would have to wait until the construction of Pode Hole pumping station in 1827 .
At Crowland the river used to split into two channels , one broadly following the present course of the river , and the other joining the old South Ea to reach the River Nene near Wisbech . Dugdale , writing in 1662 , described the Spalding channel as " a most slow course " . The river no longer flows through Crowland , but the unique triangular Trinity Bridge , which spanned the junction , remains in the centre of the town .
Spalding had been a port from before any of the river improvements were made . The townspeople had refused to repair the river during the reign of Henry III , as they claimed it was part of the sea here . Its importance as a port increased with the river improvements and the Stamford Canal , and although it did not have a customs house , by 1695 it had various officials who acted as customs officers for goods arriving at the quays and warehouses . Exports included oats , coleseed , rape oil , hides and wool , with a much greater variety of imports , including stone , timber , coal , groceries , glass and beeswax . More exotic imports included French and Spanish wines , and some of the first imports of tea , coffee and chocolate .
= = = Deeping Fen = = =
The drainage of Deeping Fen was again addressed in 1664 , when the Deeping Fen Act awarded the Earl of Manchester and others 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) of land in return for the drainage works . They were also obliged to maintain the banks of the river , to ensure that both the Welland and the Glen were kept clean and free @-@ flowing , and to ensure that no tolls were charged for navigation on any part of the river below East Deeping . The inadequacy of the outfall and a spate of bad weather stopped them from completing their task . They tried renting out the land they had been granted , but many tenants were unable to pay the rent , due to the poor state of the drainage which reduced crop yields . In April 1729 , the Deeping Fen Adventurers received a letter from Captain John Perry , expressing the opinion that the only way to improve the drainage was to improve the river outfalls , and proposing the construction of scouring sluices on the river at Spalding , on Vernatt 's drain at its outfall , and on the River Glen at Surfleet . Perry was an engineer of some repute , who had set the standard for engineering reports in 1727 , when he published his recommendations for the North Level of the Fens . His plans were approved , and the Adventurers offered to give him land covering nearly 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) in payment for the work . He sold one @-@ third of the land to finance the project , and began work in 1730 . Cowbit sluice on the Welland had six 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide gates which were operated by chains connected to a treadwheel . At high tide , water was penned in Cowbit Wash , between banks which were set well back from the main channel . The bed of the river below the sluice was loosened by dragging wooden rollers with iron spikes over it . At low tide , the sluice gates were opened , and the flow scoured out the silt for some 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) downstream . A navigation lock was constructed beside the sluice , so that vessels could still gain access to the river above . Perry died in February 1733 , and was buried in Spalding churchyard . The lock lasted until it was removed by the Welland commissioners in 1813 .
Perry was succeeded by John Grundy , Sr. , who published a paper in 1734 on flow in open drains . He calculated theoretic flow rates , and then used observation in the field to modify the results . He oversaw a programme of repairs to the Deeping Bank , which ran for 12 miles ( 19 km ) along the north and west side of the river , while John Scribo was employed to do the same for the Country Bank , which ran for 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) on the south and east . Grundy made the river deeper above Spalding , and also constructed a sluice and reservoir at the mouth of the Glen . The reservoir covered 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) and provided water to scour the channel below the sluice . His son , John Grundy , Jr . , took over after the death of his father in 1748 , and spent nearly £ 10 @,@ 000 on bank repairs between then and 1764 . He rebuilt Perry 's sluice soon after 1750 , with taller doors and a set of tide gates to prevent the tide moving upstream , and rebuilt the navigation lock in 1754 . After 1764 , Thomas Hogard became the surveyor of works , but Grundy continued to act as a consultant engineer .
Hogard devised a scheme to cut a new channel from the junction of the Welland and the Glen to Wyberton , on the estuary of the River Witham below Boston . At the end of the 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) cut , there would be a huge sluice and a navigation lock . The Adventurers asked Thomas Tofield for a second opinion , who suggested a shorter 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) cut from Spalding to Fosdyke . They requested help from Grundy , who proposed a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) cut to Fosdyke , and that the outfall of Vernatt 's drain should be moved 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) downstream . Improvements to the drain were carried out under an act of parliament obtained in 1774 , and an act was obtained in 1794 to sanction the Wyberton cut , although the work was not carried out , and Grundy 's cut was built under a new act of 1801 .
Several prominent civil engineer considered the problems of Deeping Fen and the river outfall at the end of the 1700s . Two reports were produced , one by George Maxwell , and the second by Edward Hare , who had been assisted by William Jessop and John Rennie . They formed the basis for the Deeping Fen Act of 1801 . The channel above Spalding was made deeper , the north bank was made stronger , and the North and South Drove Drains were enlarged through the fen . One of Rennie 's recommendations had been to replace the windmills which drove the drainage pumps with a steam pumping station at Pode Hole , but this was not implemented . After reports by Rennie and Thomas Pear in 1815 , and by Rennie alone in 1818 and 1820 , the provision of steam engines was authorised by an act in 1823 . The trustees appointed by the 1801 act continued to manage Deeping Fen until they were replaced in 1939 by the Deeping Fen , Spalding and Pinchbeck Internal Drainage Board , subsequently renamed the Welland & Deepings Internal Drainage Board .
= = = The Outfall = = =
Plans to re @-@ route the outfall along a new channel which would meet the River Witham at The Scalp , near Boston , were authorised in 1794 , but the money could not be raised at the time , due to the financial crisis caused by the French Wars . Grundy 's shorter channel had been finished by 1810 , improving both drainage and navigation . James Walker reported in 1835 on further improvements , making the recommendation that the river below Spalding should be constrained between high banks , so that the scouring action of the water would dredge its own channel . Rather than excavating , which he estimated would cost £ 70 @,@ 000 , he suggested using fascines made of thorn branches , around which silt would be deposited . Such a scheme would only cost £ 13 @,@ 000 , and the work went on for many years . The effects of the embankments had resulted in the bed of the river below Fosdyke being around 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) lower by 1845 . In 1867 , the River Welland Outfall Act enabled the trustees to raise money to repair the walls where the tide had washed away some of the fill behind the fascines . A dredger was employed between 1889 and 1890 , which had been invented by a Mr Harrison , the superintendent of works .
With the passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 , the Welland Catchment Board was created . They had spent £ 91 @,@ 537 on the outfall by 1937 . Towards the end of the Second World War , E. G. Taverner , the chief engineer for the drainage board , devised a plan to relieve flooding in Spalding by creating a bypass channel , and building the Greatford Cut to divert the waters of the West Glen river into the Welland upstream of Market Deeping . The scheme cost £ 723 @,@ 000 , with much of the work being carried out by W. & C. French , and the Coronation Channel around Spalding was opened in September 1953 . Fulney lock was constructed at the same time to exclude the tide from the upper river , as was the Maxey Cut , an embanked channel that bypasses the villages of Market Deeping , Deeping Gate and Deeping St James . During the 1960s and 1970s , several sections of the river above Stamford were made straighter and deeper , to reduce the risk of flooding of agricultural land . To address the habitat and environmental issues causes by such engineering work , the Welland Rivers Trust , a limited company and charitable trust , was set up in 2010 . They are seeking to direct regeneration of the river by co @-@ ordinating various organisations , which are known collectively as the Welland Valley Partnership . They published a major document outlining their proposals in February 2013 .
= = Navigation = =
The river as far as Stamford was used by the Romans for navigation , as it formed part of a system including the Car Dyke , which ran along the western edge of the Fens and crossed the river near the modern Folly River . Navigation to Stamford was improved by the canal . Boats used on the canal were small lighters , around 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wide , capable of carrying from seven to fourteen tons , and normally worked in trains of four vessels . With the arrival of the railways , river trade declined . The Midland Railway reached Peterborough in 1846 , and opened their line to Melton Mowbray , passing through Stamford , in 1848 . Carriage of coal on the upper river stopped , and the locks deteriorated . By April 1863 , all traffic had ceased , and Stamford Corporation tried to sell the line at auction , but failed because their ownership of it was disputed .
Trade on the lower river was carried in barges and keels . During the early 1800s as trade was increasing , so the river was simultaneously silting up . Around 1800 , vessels carrying 60 tons could reach the port facilities at Spalding ; however , by the 1820s , ships could only be loaded with 40 tons each as the river silting had worsened . Trade records indicate that in 1829 , vessels carried just under 20 @,@ 000 tons to and from Spalding , and by 1835 this had increased to over 34 @,@ 000 tons . There was pressure from merchants to cater for larger vessels , and with later improvements , carried out under an act of parliament obtained in 1837 , barges and sloops of up to 120 tons could use the port . Because the river was maintained for drainage , some commercial traffic continued despite the railways , and tolls of £ 478 were collected on 11 @,@ 690 tons in 1888 . Coal for Spalding gasworks arrived by boat until the early 1900s , and the last regular trade was the carriage of corn , hay and straw from Spalding to Fosdyke , where the cargo was transferred to larger ships . All commercial carrying had ceased by the end of the Second World War .
In July 2005 a water taxi service was launched in Spalding . Its route is from just off Spalding 's High Street upstream along the river , turning onto the Coronation Channel , and going to Springfields Outlet Shopping & Festival Gardens , and back .
Vessels of 110 by 30 feet ( 33 @.@ 5 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) and drawing 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) can still proceed along the estuary at high water , and can travel inland as far as Fulney lock . They cannot pass through the lock as it is only 62 @.@ 3 by 27 @.@ 8 feet ( 19 @.@ 0 by 8 @.@ 5 m ) and at normal summer water levels , can accommodate boats drawing 2 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 79 m ) . The river is officially navigable to the point at which the Folly River joins it , but the length of boats allowed on this section is restricted to 35 feet ( 11 m ) long , considerably less than the lock dimensions would suggest . Navigation on this stretch was severely restricted by Four Mile Bar footbridge , which provided just 5 @.@ 25 feet ( 1 @.@ 60 m ) of headroom , but this was increased when a new single @-@ span arched bridge was installed in early 2007 by the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership . Smaller boats such as canoes , which can be carried around obstructions , can continue up to Stamford , but they must use the old course of the river through the Deepings , rather than the Maxey cut .
Below Spalding , there were no restrictions on headroom , which allowed small coasters to reach the town . The bridge at Fosdyke was a swing bridge , to comply with the provisions of the Fosdyke Bridge Act of 1870 . The demise of such traffic allowed it to be replaced by a fixed bridge with headroom of 16 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) , but the powers of the original act had to be rescinded , and the Port of Fosdyke Act was obtained in 1987 to allow this to happen . The redundant wharfs at Fosdyke have been developed to provide moorings for yachts and other pleasure craft . The lock at Fulney has three sets of gates , two pointing towards the sea , and a third between them which points upriver . The lock can thus only be used when the level below it is higher than the level above it , and as the tide falls , the intermediate gate closes to prevent its use .
The principle of there being no tolls for use of the river was established by the 1664 act of parliament . This was reversed by the 1794 act , which imposed high tolls , until they were reduced by the provisions of an act of Parliament obtained in 1824 . The river is now managed by the Environment Agency between Stamford and just below Fosdyke bridge , and a licence is required to use it . From there to the Wash , it was managed by the Port of Fosdyke Authority , but since they went into administration , the Environment Agency have also managed the section from Fosdyke Bridge to below the Holbeach River .
= = Wildlife = =
The river , in its upper reaches , supports a wild brown trout population . Chub and perch dominate the middle reaches around Stamford , with pike , perch and zander inhabiting the lower lengths around Spalding .
A collaboration between the Welland Rivers Trust , the Wild Trout Trust and the Environment Agency has resulted in the construction of a rock ramp , to allow migrating sea trout to pass up the river beyond the weir on the Maxey Cut , which was acting as a barrier . Some 300 tons of rock , with 50 tons of finer material forming a top layer , were used to create the ramp . The finer material ensures that water mainly flows over the ramp , rather than through it . The ramp also enables young eels or elvers to move up the river , and provides habitat for stone loach and bullheads .
Large numbers of swans and geese use the river around Crowland , and out to sea . Smaller populations of each can be seen around the Stamford Meadows , and further upstream .
In 2015 a common grey seal found its way from the Wash up the river and spent a few weeks sleeping in gardens next to the river in Deeping St James . The seal was spotted further downstream in Spalding as it eventually made its way back to the sea .
On the south bank of the river below Fosdyke bridge , the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust have established Moulton Marsh nature reserve , on a strip of land where soil was excavated to raise the banks in 1981 . Habitat is provided by some broad @-@ leafed woodland , covering 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) , several salt @-@ water lagoons and tidal scrapes , covering 35 acres ( 14 ha ) , and 40 acres ( 16 ha ) of saltmarsh . A variety of birds can be seen , including little grebe and water rail , which spend the winter on the lagoons , while the scrapes , which consist of shallow pools and muddy shorelines , are visited by common redshank and little egret .
Between the river mouth and the River Witham , a large expanse of saltmarsh provides breeding grounds for common redshank , Eurasian oystercatcher and reed bunting in the summer , and Eurasian wigeon , mallard , common shelduck and common teal in the winter . Birds of prey such as hen harrier and merlin feed on the flocks of linnet and twite , while the mudflats support dunlin , whimbrel , and bar @-@ tailed godwit . The Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust have a reserve there , which is next to RSPB Frampton Marsh , a reserve managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds .
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= Guitar Hero : Metallica =
Guitar Hero : Metallica is a music rhythm game developed by Neversoft , published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane . The game was released in North America on the PlayStation 3 , Wii , and Xbox 360 on March 29 , 2009 and on PlayStation 2 on April 14 , 2009 , with an Australian and European release in May 2009 . Guitar Hero : Metallica is the second game of the Guitar Hero series to focus on the career and songs of one band following Guitar Hero : Aerosmith .
The game is based on Guitar Hero World Tour , with support for lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . The game has many of the same features from World Tour , including single @-@ player and band Career modes , online competitive modes , and the ability to create and share songs through " GHTunes " . In addition to the normal difficulty levels presented in Guitar Hero World Tour , Guitar Hero : Metallica provides an " Expert + " difficulty for drums that allows the use of a second bass drum pedal to match the drumming style of Metallica 's Lars Ulrich . The game features 28 master recordings spanning Metallica 's career and an additional 21 songs selected by members of Metallica . The band performed extensive motion capture for the game for their in @-@ game avatars and performances . The game includes several extras including behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos of the motion capture sessions , tour and concert videos of the band , and Pop @-@ Up Video @-@ like facts for many of the songs on the game disc .
Guitar Hero : Metallica received positive reviews , with critics stating it to be a strong tribute to the band and Neversoft 's best work on the Guitar Hero series to date . The difficulty throughout the game was praised , found to be more enjoyable to players of all skill levels than the more @-@ difficult Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock . Reviewers noted the lack of additional downloadable content , save for the pre @-@ existing Death Magnetic songs , the cartoonish storyline for the Career mode , and the overall value of the game as some of the negatives to the experience .
= = Gameplay = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica , like other games in the Guitar Hero series , allows players to simulate the playing of rock music using special instrument controllers . The game is based on the band approach presented in Guitar Hero World Tour , and features parts of lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . To successfully complete songs and score , players must use the instruments to play notes that scroll on @-@ screen in time with the music . For lead and bass guitar players , this is done by holding down colored fret buttons on the guitar neck while striking a strum bar ; for the drum players , this requires the player to strike the appropriate drum pad or kick with the bass drum pedal ; for vocals , the player must attempt to match the pitch of the notes through a microphone . Players earn scoring multipliers for playing several consecutive notes or phrases correctly , and by correctly completing marked phrases , players can earn Star Power which can be released for a higher scoring multiplier . If players miss too many notes , they will eventually fail the song and will have to retry it .
Lead developer Alan Flores has stated that the difficulty of the game is much harder than previous games and is designed to challenge the hard @-@ core player . To meet the " ferocity " of Metallica 's songs , the game features , in addition to the same five difficulty levels in World Tour , an " Expert + " mode for drummers that allows them to add a second bass drum pedal , though results of this mode is not tracked through online modes . Additional drum pedals and a splitter , to allow two pedals to be used , were made available upon the game 's release and as part of pre @-@ ordering bonuses . While the game allows two guitar players to play lead and bass guitar , it does not give the players the option to play lead and rhythm guitar , which does not allow for notable " Hetfield / Hammett riff @-@ trading " on certain songs . Lead designer Alan Flores explained that the decision not to track the lead and rhythm ( in addition to the single player guitar , bass , drums , and vocals ) " was simply a workload issue . "
Similar to Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , Metallica presents songs from Metallica 's history roughly in chronological order , but it focuses more on the group today than the band 's history . The songs in the game are presented in a linear series of sets as with older Guitar Hero games such as Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , instead of the gig progression used in World Tour . However , instead of being required to finish a certain number of songs in each set , the player has to earn a total number of stars ( earned from their performance on the individual songs ) in a given set to progress to next one . The game 's story is based on a band that wants to follow in Metallica 's footsteps , and the group accepting them as leading acts for them on a tour ; as such , they are better able to order the songs in difficulty comparable to other Guitar Hero games , as Metallica 's earlier works frustrate the player enough to " throw the controller against the wall and stop playing " . Flores described the difficulty for most of the game to be comparable to Guitar Hero : Aerosmith and World Tour after the complaints of the difficulty level in Guitar Hero III , but further noted that the most difficult songs in the games will be very challenging . Real @-@ life venues are used for the game , including The Stone nightclub in San Francisco , the Hammersmith Odeon in London , Tushino Airfield in Moscow , and The Forum in Los Angeles , and one final venue representing the pinnacle of Metallica 's success . The game was completed before Metallica 's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , and thus does not include reference to this event . The game 's interface remain similar to World Tour with some Metallica @-@ based artwork added to it . Two changes have been made from World Tour ; individual performance and Star Power meters are now located next to each track on screen instead of grouped together to make it easier to keep track of one 's own performance , and when the band 's performance is failing , the edges of the screen glow red to indicate this .
The music creation mode from World Tour is available , giving the player the option of using tones from Hetfields ' ESP Truckster guitar and Slayer 's Tom Araya 's ESP Bass in addition to Metallica drum sounds . The " GHTunes " services , which allows players to share songs created in the music creation mode , is cross @-@ compatible with both World Tour and Metallica . In the new " Drum Over " mode for this game , players can select any song , and play drums without any fixed drum track or without any failure , allowing them to create their own drum line using the song 's existing drum kit sounds .
The Battle mode of the game , based on that from Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , has been slightly altered to add Metallica influences ; for example , a power @-@ up named " Fade to Black " completely blackens the note tracks for the opposing player , " Trapped Under Ice " , which freezes the whammy bar , and an electrical attack called " Ride the Lightning " ( based on the " Amp Overload " attack from Guitar Hero III ) is added .
= = Development = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica was revealed to be in production when an analyst for Wedbush Morgan Securities discovered mention of the game in Activision 's 2008 SEC filings , slated to be released in " fiscal 2009 " . The band was approached in April 2008 , who quickly agreed to the game as a " no brainer " . Development for the game began in the second quarter of 2008 , according to lead designer Alan Flores . Two posts made to Metallica 's website in June 2008 also referred to the " not so top secret GH thing " , and that Guitar Hero players could expect " a pile of ' Tallica songs . " Lars Ulrich , when asked about the game during an interview with MTV , stated that " the people at ‘ Guitar Hero ’ and Activision are rapidly becoming our best new friends in the world . You can put the rest of it together yourself . " Ulrich stated that the idea for the Metallica @-@ themed Guitar Hero game came from the influence the original Guitar Hero games had on Ulrich and James Hetfield 's children , learning about music and older bands such as Deep Purple and Black Sabbath .
The game was officially announced at the 2008 E3 conference during Microsoft 's presentation , along with the announcement that Metallica 's newest album , Death Magnetic , would be made as content for download for both Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock and Guitar Hero World Tour . A trailer for the game is included as an extra feature in Guitar Hero World Tour with " Master of Puppets " playing in the background and " Ride the Lightning " as the tagline .
As with Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , members of Metallica , including Kirk Hammett , Lars Ulrich , James Hetfield and Robert Trujillo performed six songs and band and audience chatter for motion capture for their in @-@ game avatars ; the detailed motion capture included the band 's lip syncing to the lyrics and the motion of Trujillo 's hair braids . Ulrich and Hetfield performed additional motion capturing sessions to help the developers . Metallica members appear as their modern day incarnations , but unlockable skins are available to reflect the band 's history . Former band members Jason Newsted and the late Cliff Burton are not represented in the game as the band felt their inclusion would slight Trujillo . However , the game still includes trivia about both former members . The game includes DVD @-@ style content such as photos , videos , and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , as well as " Metallifacts " , Pop @-@ up Video @-@ style trivia displayed on screen during the various Metallica tracks . Some Metallica songs in the game have an accompanying video of the band performing the song , with the quality ranging from fan @-@ made videos at small clubs to large @-@ scale video productions . Both Motörhead vocalist / bassist Lemmy and Mercyful Fate singer King Diamond have contributed to the game in both providing motion capture for unlockable player characters and providing re @-@ recorded tracks of their songs " Ace of Spades " and " Evil " , respectively due to the original master tapes not being located for use in the game 's production . King Diamond 's notable face makeup and jewellery was altered with direct input from King Diamond to avoid offending the religion of any of the business partners involved with the game .
During the game 's development , the team encountered problems trying to create the drum tracks . Flores noted they normally try to map a note for every drum beat but could not easily replicate it for the double bass often used in Metallica 's songs . As a result , they decided to create a splitter for the bass drum pedal and offer a second pedal with the game to allow the double bass kicks to be retained . The game 's career mode , in which the players are part of an opening band for Metallica , is based on a real @-@ life group that followed Metallica during a European tour , eventually becoming enamored by the band and performing in an opening act with them .
No plans have been announced for special bundled versions of Guitar Hero : Metallica with the instrument controllers within North America , though Activision does plan to release Metallica @-@ branded faceplates for existing instrument controllers as well as a double @-@ bass pedal attachment for the drum controller . Guitar Hero : Metallica will also support the wireless microphones from Lips through a future title patch . A European @-@ exclusive bundle includes the game , wireless guitar controller , and Metallica faceplate .
= = = Promotion = = =
Players that pre @-@ ordered Guitar Hero : Metallica through GameStop stores received a second kickpedal with pre @-@ orders . Other stores offered Guitar Hero : Metallica @-@ branded drumsticks with pre @-@ orders .
A demo version of the game was released on Xbox Live on March 20 , 2009 , with four playable songs : Metallica 's " Sad but True " and " Seek & Destroy " , Alice in Chains ' " No Excuses " and Queen 's " Stone Cold Crazy " . All four instruments are playable . There is no Expert + for the drums in the demo . Metallica made an appearance at the 2009 SXSW Music Festival held a week before the game 's release for a " not @-@ so @-@ secret " performance , with demonstration stations set up to allow attendees to play the game . The game was the primary sponsor for Aric Almirola 's Number 8 car in the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Goody 's Fast Relief 500 run during the weekend of the game 's release . Two television commercials , in the same style as those for Guitar Hero World Tour that parody the scene from Risky Business where Tom Cruise dances in his underwear during Bob Seger 's song " Old Time Rock and Roll " , were prepared for the game and were directed by Brett Ratner . The ads , which first aired during the 2009 NCAA Basketball Tournament , features NCAA coaches Bob Knight , Mike Krzyzewski , Roy Williams , and Rick Pitino along with the current members of Metallica .
= = Soundtrack = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica features 49 songs based on master recordings , 28 by Metallica , and the other 21 songs by bands that are " their personal favorites and influences from over the years " , including those that appeared on their Garage Inc. album . All of the Metallica songs in the game are from original masters , though locating some masters proved troublesome . Though Metallica were prepared to re @-@ record songs as Aerosmith had done for Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , they were able to find the masters for their debut album Kill ' Em All in the basement of their former manager Johny Zazula . While other downloadable content from Guitar Hero III or Guitar Hero World Tour is not usable in Guitar Hero : Metallica , the game will detect and incorporate the songs from the Death Magnetic downloadable content into the game 's setlist ( however , the song " All Nightmare Long " is available in the game as part of its main setlist ) . The PlayStation 2 and Wii versions of the game do not support downloadable content , but include " Broken , Beat & Scarred " , " Cyanide " and " My Apocalypse " from Death Magnetic in addition to the game 's existing tracks . The 1998 medley of covers of the band Mercyful Fate 's songs " Mercyful Fate " is the longest track included in the game , running at around 11 minutes .
Metallica selected songs from their catalog that " pretty evenly represent all the different phases " of the band . Lars Ulrich noted that the band stood up for the inclusion of the band Slayer against Microsoft 's concerns on the explicit lyrical content of the group 's songs . Alan Flores , lead designer for the game , noted that they had originally cleared Slayer 's " Angel of Death " but had to pull it at a late date due to pressure on the song 's background , instead , at the urging of Ulrich , successfully cleared " War Ensemble " and rushed to include it in the game . Ulrich also sought Mercyful Fate 's " Evil " and " Curse of the Pharaohs " directly by King Diamond , but the latter was unable to find the masters ; instead , King Diamond was able to bring the band together , though with Bjarne T. Holm replacing Kim Ruzz on drums , to record new masters for both songs . " Evil " was ultimately used over " Curse of the Pharaohs " due to gameplay @-@ friendliness . Kirk Hammett stated that the band wanted to have songs from UFO and The Misfits , but could not get these groups due to legal reasons , and instead settled on songs from Michael Schenker Group and Samhain , bands that were started by former members of those respective bands .
Thirty @-@ nine songs from the on @-@ disc soundtrack of Guitar Hero : Metallica will be importable as playable tracks for Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock .
= = Reception = =
Guitar Hero : Metallica has received favorable reviews from game critics , and has been described as the best Guitar Hero game in the series since Neversoft took over development of the franchise . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica noted that with numerous other Guitar Hero titles , Guitar Hero : Metallica could have been " just another way to cash @-@ in on the hype cheaply " , but the overall quality of the game shows that " the design team adores Metallica " . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer stated that Guitar Hero : Metallica " sets the benchmark " for future band @-@ specific games from either Guitar Hero or Rock Band .
Reviews have primarily praised the game for a " stellar " set list that " [ reads ] like the quintessential ' Best Of ' track list for the band " , and consider " the best hit to miss ratio of any music game to date " . The difficulty of the songs was also warmly received , with reviews noting that Metallica 's songs can " [ translate ] really well to a plastic guitar " , and that " the songs here are a treat on any skill level " . However , the game still provides a difficult challenge for experienced players , and the introduction of the Expert + difficulty for drums and the Drum Over mode were seen as good additions . Reviews commented favorable on the new career progression , noting that one can complete the career mode without having to play " Metallica ’ s earliest , shreddiest , most brutal stuff " , and allows the player to " skip right past the early stuff and quickly get to the big tracks " .
The overall presentation of the game was highly praised , noting that " a lot of care was put into making sure this was a die @-@ hard fan 's game " and praising the devotion to the motion capture work done by the band . The added features such as Metallifacts and additional behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos were attributed to " ensuring that this isn 't just a slapped @-@ together take on World Tour with Metallica songs " .
The game was criticized for the lack of downloadable content beyond the existing Death Magnetic album , and its price was also called into question , costing the same as World Tour but with fewer songs . The career mode 's " cartoon storyline " describing the player 's Metallica 's @-@ wannabe band was seen as being out of place in the game and was considered as the game 's " biggest weakness " . Chris Roper of IGN noted that the PlayStation 2 version of the game suffers from several graphical problems , including poor video compression , the inability to read or zoom in on handwritten tour and lyric sheets , and some stuttering on the display on the note highway , and considers it the weakest release across all the game 's platforms . Roper also cites video compression and problems with viewing the extras in the Wii version .
As of March 2010 , the game has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , with approximately 1 million copies from North American sales .
Pushead has designed the faceplate that comes with the solo guitar edition of the game .
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= Mega Man ( video game ) =
Mega Man , known as Rockman ( ロックマン , Rokkuman ) in Japan , is an action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . The first game of the Mega Man franchise and original video game series , it was released on December 17 , 1987 in Japan , and localized for North America in December 1987 and Europe in May 1990 , respectively . Mega Man was produced by a small team specifically for the home console market , a first for Capcom , who previously focused on arcade titles .
The game begins the struggle of the humanoid robot and player @-@ character Mega Man against the mad scientist Dr. Wily and the six Robot Masters under his control . Mega Man 's nonlinear gameplay lets the player choose the order in which to complete its initial six stages . Each culminates in a " Robot Master " boss battle that awards the player @-@ character a unique weapon .
Critics praised Mega Man for its overall design , though the game was not a commercial success . Mega Man established many of the gameplay , story , and graphical conventions that define the ensuing sequels , subseries , and spin @-@ offs . It is also known for its high difficulty . The game has since been included in game compilations and rereleased on mobile phones , console emulation services , and PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) .
= = Plot = =
In the year 200X , robots developed to assist mankind are commonplace thanks to the efforts of renowned robot designer Dr. Light . However , one day these robots go out of control and start attacking the populace , among them six advanced humanoid robots made by Dr. Light for industrial purposes : Cut Man , Guts Man , Ice Man , Bomb Man , Fire Man , and Elec Man . He realizes the culprit is his old rival Dr. Wily ( who plots to take over the world ) , but is unsure of what to do . His helper robot Rock , having a strong sense of justice , offers to be converted into a fighting robot to stop Dr. Wily 's plan , becoming Mega Man . In time , he defeats the six robots and recovers their central cores , then confronts Dr. Wily within his Pacific @-@ based robot factory ( which happens to be mass @-@ producing Light 's robots ) . After a final showdown , Wily is defeated and Mega Man returns to his family .
The initial Western release of the game , while keeping the basic plot the same , significantly changed some details from the original Japanese manual . In this version , Dr. Light and Dr. Wily ( here Light 's assistant turned disloyal ) co @-@ create the humanoid robot Mega Man alongside the six advanced robots , each of whom were designed for the benefit of Monsteropolis 's citizens ( no such place existed in the original plot ) . Dr. Wily grows disloyal of his partner and reprograms these six robots to aid himself in taking control of the world . Dr. Light sends Mega Man to defeat his fellow creations and stop Dr. Wily .
= = Gameplay = =
Mega Man consists of six side @-@ scrolling platformer levels freely chosen by the player . In each level , the player @-@ character , Mega Man , fights through various enemies and obstacles before facing a " Robot Master " boss at the level 's end . Upon defeating the boss , the player assimilates the Robot Master 's signature attack , or " Special Weapon " , into Mega Man 's arsenal for the rest of the game . Unlike the standard Mega Buster , the Robot Master powers have limited ammunition replenished by collecting ammunition cells dropped by defeated enemies at random . Enemies also drop energy cells that replenish Mega Man 's health gauge . While the player is free to proceed through the game in any order , each Robot Master is especially vulnerable to a specific weapon , which encourages the player to complete certain stages before others . The player can also revisit cleared levels .
Besides the weapons taken from the Robot Masters , the player is able to pick up a platform generator item known as the " Magnet Beam " in Elec Man 's stage . Mega Man also features a scoring system where players score points for defeating enemies , and earn extra points for collecting power @-@ ups from fallen enemies and for clearing each stage . When all six Robot Master stages are completed , the seventh and last stage appears in the middle of the stage select menu . This stage , in which the player traverses Dr. Wily 's robot factory , is a chain of four regular stages linked together , each containing at least one new boss . During these final stages , the six Robot Masters must also be fought again in a predetermined order before the final confrontation against Dr. Wily .
= = Development = =
Before Mega Man , Capcom primarily made arcade games , and their console releases were mostly ports of these titles . In the mid @-@ 1980s , Capcom made plans to develop Mega Man specifically for the Japanese home console market . They decided to bring in fresh , young talent for the small team , including artist Keiji Inafune , a recent college graduate who started on the Street Fighter team . Inafune recalled that the Mega Man development team worked extremely hard to complete the final product , with a project supervisor and lead designer who sought perfection in every possible aspect of the game .
The development team for Mega Man consisted of only six people . Inafune ( credited as " Inafuking " ) designed and illustrated nearly all of the game 's characters and enemies , as well as the Japanese Rockman logo , box art , and instruction manual . He was also responsible for rendering these designs into graphical sprite form . " We didn ’ t have [ a lot of ] people , so after drawing character designs , I was actually doing the dotting ( pixelation ) for the Nintendo , " Inafune stated . " Back then , people weren ’ t specialized and we had to do a lot of different things because there was so few people , so I really ended up doing all the characters . " Inafune was influenced by the eponymous protagonist of Osamu Tezuka 's manga Astro Boy in his Mega Man designs . Mega Man is colored blue due to the NES console 's technical limitations : the color has the most shades in the console 's limited 56 @-@ color palette , and the expanded selection was used to enhance Mega Man 's detail . Although he is often credited for designing the character , Inafune insists that he " only did half of the job in creating him " , as his mentor developed the basic character concept before Inafune 's arrival . The basic sprites for Roll and Dr. Light were created before Inafune joined the project , and the designs for Cut Man , Ice Man , Fire Man , and Guts Man were in process . Aside from normal enemies , Inafune 's first character was Elec Man , inspired by American comic book characters . The artist has commented that Elec Man has always been his favorite design . The designs for Dr. Light and Dr. Wily were based on Santa Claus and Albert Einstein , respectively ; the latter character was meant to represent an archetypal " mad scientist " .
The team decided to incorporate anime elements for the game 's animation . Inafune explained , " [ Mega Man 's ] hand transforms into a gun and you can actually see it come out of his arm . We wanted to make sure that the animation and the motion was realistic and actually made sense . So with Mega Man , we had this perfect blending of game character with animation ideas . " The gameplay for Mega Man was inspired by the game rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors . The project supervisor wanted a simple system that offered " deep gameplay " . Each weapon deals a large amount of damage to one specific Robot Master , others have little to no effect against them , and there is no single weapon that dominates all the others . Mega Man was originally able to crouch , but the team decided against it since it made players ' ability to determine the height of onscreen projectiles more difficult . Naoya Tomita ( credited as " Tom Pon " ) began work on the Mega Man 's scenic backgrounds immediately after his Capcom training . Tomita proved himself amongst his peers by overcoming the challenges of the console 's limited power through maximizing the use of background elements .
Mega Man was scored by Manami Matsumae ( credited as " Chanchacorin Manami " ) , who composed the music , created the sound effects , and programmed the data in three months , using a sound driver programmed by Yoshihiro Sakaguchi ( credited as " Yuukichan 's Papa " ) . The musical notes were translated one by one into the computer language . Matsumae was challenged by the creative limits of three notes available at any one time , and when she was unable to write songs , she created the sound effects . The production team chose a music motif when naming characters in Mega Man due to the worldwide recognition of music . They began with the main characters : the protagonist 's original name is Rock and his sister 's name is Roll , a play on the term " rock and roll " . This type of naming would later extended to many characters throughout the series . Before finalizing the name , Capcom had considered names such as " Mighty Kid " , " Knuckle Kid " , and " Rainbow Man " . When the game was localized for distribution in America , Capcom changed the title of the game from Rockman to Mega Man . This moniker was created by Capcom 's then @-@ Senior Vice President Joseph Marici , who claimed it was changed merely because he did not like the original name . " That title was horrible , " Marici said . " So I came up with Mega Man , and they liked it enough to keep using it for the U.S. games . " 1UP.com 's Nadia Oxford attributed this change to Capcom 's belief that American children would be more interested in a game with the latter title .
= = Reception = =
Critics received Mega Man well , though the game sold poorly . AllGame described the NES version of the game as a " near @-@ perfect blend of action , challenge and audio @-@ visual excellence " and awarded it five stars , their highest rating . Lucas M. Thomas of IGN described the game as an " undeniable classic " for the NES , noting its graphics , innovative weapon @-@ based platform gameplay , and music . IGN editor Matt Casamassina proclaimed , " Mega Man is one of the best examples of great graphics , amazing music and near @-@ perfect gameplay rolled into one cartridge " . GameSpot writers Christian Nutt and Justin Speer identified the game as a " winner in gameplay " granted its " low @-@ key presentation " . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com likewise outlined it as a " charming ( if slightly rough ) start for the series " . Whether positive or negative , Mega Man has been commonly received as very difficult . IGN 's Casamassina found the game the hardest in the franchise , and among the hardest titles on the NES . IGN 's Thomas observed that its combination of high difficulty and short length hurt its replayability . According to 1UP.com , the " Nintendo @-@ hard " Mega Man bosses set the game apart from its two immediate and more popular sequels . Total ! retrospectively characterized the game as " an overhard and unenjoyably frustrating platform nightmare " .
Mega Man has additionally received various honors from video game journals and websites . IGN listed the game at number 30 on its " Top 100 NES Games of All Time " . Nintendo Power ranked Mega Man at number 20 on its " 100 Best Nintendo Games of All Time " in its September 1997 100th issue , then at number 61 in its " Top 200 Games " in its February 2006 200th issue . 1UP.com included it in their " Top 5 Overlooked Videogame Prequels " and as number 17 on its " Top 25 NES Games " list . British magazine The Games Machine awarded it the " Star Player " accolade after its launch in PAL regions .
= = Legacy = =
While Mega Man 's release sales were low overall , they were higher than Capcom 's expectations . Inafune blamed the game 's poor performance in North American markets on its region @-@ specific cover art , which visualized elements not found in the game : Mega Man himself resembles a middle @-@ aged man rather than a boy , his costume is colored yellow and blue instead of being entirely blue , and he is holding a handgun instead of having his arm cannon . Over the years , the cover art became infamous in the gaming community . It has been considered one of the worst game covers of all time by publications including GameSpy , Wired , and OC Weekly . The cancelled Mega Man Universe featured a " Bad Box Art " Mega Man playable character alongside the classic 8 @-@ bit Mega Man . The " Bad Box Art " Mega Man design has since become a playable character in Street Fighter X Tekken .
With little press coverage save for a full @-@ page advertisement in Nintendo Fun Club News , the game became a sleeper hit overseas spread by word of mouth . While Mega Man was not a large commercial accomplishment for Capcom , the company decided to allow the development team to create a sequel , Mega Man 2 , for a 1988 Japanese release . Many of the design elements cut from the original Mega Man were included in the follow @-@ up game . Mega Man 2 proved to be such a success that it solidified Mega Man as one of Capcom 's longest @-@ running franchises . Due to " overwhelming demand " , Capcom reissued the original Mega Man in North America in September 1991 . Capcom carried the same 8 @-@ bit graphics and sprites present in the original Mega Man into the next five games in the main series . Even though the sequels feature more complex storylines , additional gameplay mechanics , and better graphics , the core elements initiated by Mega Man remain the same throughout the series . Mega Man 9 and Mega Man 10 would later revert to the familiar graphical style set forth by this title . The scoring system in Mega Man has not been present in any of its sequels .
According to GamesRadar , Mega Man was the first game to feature a nonlinear " level select " option , as a stark contrast to linear games like Super Mario Bros. and open world games like The Legend of Zelda and Metroid . GamesRadar credits the " level select " feature of Mega Man as the basis for the nonlinear mission structure found in most multi @-@ mission , open world , sidequest @-@ heavy games , such as Grand Theft Auto , Red Dead Redemption , and Spider @-@ Man : Shattered Dimensions .
= = Remakes and re @-@ releases = =
Mega Man has been re @-@ released several times since its 1987 debut . A version with enhanced graphics and arranged music was included alongside Mega Man 2 and Mega Man 3 in the Sega Mega Drive compilation Mega Man : The Wily Wars . Another adaptation of the game was released in Japan on the PlayStation as part of the Rockman Complete Works series in 1999 . This version also features arranged music in addition to a special " Navi Mode " that directs the player in certain portions of the levels . Mega Man was compiled with nine other games in the series in the North American Mega Man Anniversary Collection released for the PlayStation 2 and GameCube in 2004 and the Xbox in 2005 . A mobile phone rendition of Mega Man developed by Lavastorm was released for download in North America in 2004 . A separate , 2007 Japanese mobile phone release received a 2008 update adding the option to play as Roll . Mega Man for the NES was reissued on the Virtual Console service for three different systems : the Wii in Europe in 2007 and in North America and Japan in 2008 , the 3DS in 2012 , and for the Wii U in 2013 . The Complete Works version of the game was made available on the PlayStation Store in both Japan and North America .
An enhanced remake titled Mega Man Powered Up — known as Rockman Rockman ( ロックマン ロックマン ) in Japan — was released worldwide for the PSP in 2006 . The game features a graphical overhaul with 3D chibi @-@ style character models with large heads and small bodies . Inafune had originally planned to make Mega Man look this way , but could not due to the hardware constraints of the NES . Producer Tetsuya Kitabayashi stated that redesigning the character models was a result of the PSP 's 16 : 9 widescreen ratio . The larger heads on the characters allowed the development team to create visible facial expressions . " The concept for these designs was ' toys ' . We wanted cute designs geared towards little kids ... the kinds of characters that you 'd see hanging off of keychains and such , " character designer Tatsuya Yoshikawa explained . " Not only that , I made sure to tell the designers not to skimp on any of the original Mega Man details . We wanted their proportions and movements to be accurately reflected in these designs as well . " As the size of the remake 's stages are not proportional to those of the original , the widescreen ratio also presented the developers with more space to fill .
Mega Man Powered Up features two styles of gameplay : " Old Style " is comparable to the NES version aside from the updated presentation , and " New Style " uses the PSP 's entire widescreen and contains storyline cutscenes with voice acting , altered stage layouts , remixed music , and three difficulty modes for each stage . This mode also adds two new Robot Masters ( Oil Man and Time Man ) . The NES version was originally intended to have a total of eight Robot Masters , but was cut down to six due to a tight schedule . Additionally , the remake lets players unlock and play through the game as the eight Robot Masters , Roll , and Protoman . The New Style stages differ in structure from that of Old Style , with some pathways only accessible to specific Robot Masters . Mega Man Powered Up also features a Challenge Mode with 100 challenges to complete , a level editor for creating custom stages , and an option to distribute fan @-@ made levels to the PlayStation Network online service . Mega Man Powered Up received generally positive reviews , with aggregate scores of 83 % on GameRankings and 82 out of 100 on Metacritic as of May 2010 . The remake sold poorly at retail , and was later released as a paid download on the Japanese PlayStation Network digital store and as a bundled with Mega Man Maverick Hunter X in Japan and North America . Capcom additionally translated Mega Man Powered Up into Chinese for release in Asia in 2008 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Archie Comics = = =
The first story arc of the Mega Man comic series adapts the original Mega Man game , though with certain artistic liberties , such as Dr. Wily 's robot factory reusing the design of Mega Man 2 's Wily Castle , Mega Man becoming obsessed with stopping the reprogrammed Robot Masters to the point of having an identity crisis , and Dr. Light mistaking a Sniper Joe controlled by Dr. Wily for Proto Man .
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= Cyclone Nadia =
Cyclone Nadia was a powerful tropical cyclone that struck both Madagascar and Mozambique in March 1994 . It formed on March 16 and moved westward for the first ten days of its duration . Warm waters and low wind shear allowed for the storm to gradually strengthen . After developing a well @-@ defined eye , Nadia intensified to reach winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 minute sustained ) early on March 22 , according to Météo @-@ France ( MF ) . In contrast , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated winds of about 220 km / h ( 140 mph 1 minute sustained ) . On March 23 , the cyclone struck northern Madagascar , causing flooding and localized damage where it moved ashore . There were 12 deaths in the country . Nadia emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a weakened storm , although it reintensified slightly before making landfall in northeastern Mozambique on March 24 . The storm turned southward through the country , emerging over water on March 26 . It turned to the northeast and meandered over waters before dissipating on April 1 .
Damage was heaviest in Mozambique , estimated at about $ 20 million ( 1994 USD ) . Cyclone Nadia severely affected four provinces in the country , primarily Nampula Province where it moved ashore . There , 85 % of the houses were destroyed , and across its path , the cyclone left 1 @.@ 5 million people homeless . High winds caused widespread power outages , left areas without water , and significantly damaged crops , notably the cashew crop . The storm struck before the harvest , and lack of food resulted in 300 deaths in the months after the storm . Across Mozambique , Nadia directly caused 240 deaths and injured thousands . Effects spread as far inland as Malawi .
= = Meteorological history = =
A disturbance in the Indian Ocean intertropical convergence zone became evident southeast of the Chagos Archipelago on March 16 after two cyclones moved away from the region . Based on analysis from MF , the system slowly organized while moving westward , its movement influenced by a subtropical ridge to the south . On March 17 , the JTWC also began tracking the system . Due to cool , dry air , the system initially did not intensify , although its passage over warmer sea surface temperatures on March 19 allowed for strengthening . On March 19 , MF classified the disturbance as Tropical Storm Nadia after rainbands developed . A day later , the JTWC designated Nadia as Tropical Cyclone 23S .
After becoming a tropical storm , Nadia quickly intensified , developing a central dense overcast and later an eye . With minimal wind shear , the storm strengthened into a tropical cyclone early on March 21 . That day , the JTWC estimated winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) , or the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , and late on March 21 , MF upgraded Nadia into an intense tropical cyclone . While the cyclone was approaching northern Madagascar on March 22 , MF estimated Nadia attained maximum sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 minute sustained ) early on March 22 . At around the same time , the JTWC estimated winds of about 220 km / h ( 140 mph ( 1 @-@ minute sustained ) ) . While at peak intensity , Nadia had well @-@ defined outflow and an eye no larger than 30 km ( 19 mi ) . At about 0100 UTC on March 23 , Nadia made landfall on northern Madagascar near Vohemar , having weakened slightly from its peak .
While located over Madagascar , Nadia weakened into a tropical storm due to the mountainous terrain . With warm temperatures , the storm re @-@ intensified slightly after entering the Mozambique Channel , and it passed about 100 km ( 62 mi ) south of Mayotte at 1900 UTC on March 23 . At 1700 UTC the next day , Nadia made its second landfall on Mozambique , about halfway between Nacala and Moçambique . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC discontinued advisories . Despite moving further inland , Nadia retained a well @-@ organized circulation and convection . The storm turned to the south and re @-@ emerged into the Mozambique Channel late on March 26 near the mouth of the Zambezi River . Nadia gradually re @-@ intensified while curving to the southeast , and it re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on March 28 , the same day the JTWC resumed issuing advisories . The storm strengthened to reach a secondary peak intensity of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ( 10 minute sustained ) ) , according to MF . After reaching a position about halfway between Mozambique and Madagascar , Nadia turned to the southwest on April 1 and lost its remaining convection . The JTWC and MF discontinued advisories that day , and the circulation dissipated a day later .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
While crossing northern Madagascar , Nadia produced widespread flooding . In Vohemar where it moved ashore , the storm destroyed most public buildings , although local churches provided assistance in the aftermath . Across the region , the storm downed power lines and destroyed more than 540 tonnes ( 600 tons ) of rice . The cyclone killed 12 people and caused about $ 200 @,@ 000 damage ( 1994 USD ) .
Upon striking Mozambique , Nadia produced heavy rains and strong wind gusts , causing widespread tree damage and flooding . The city of Nampula recorded 126 mm ( 4 @.@ 96 in ) of rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period . Damage was heaviest in Nampula , Zambezia , Manica , and Sofala provinces . In Nampula Province , Nadia destroyed 85 % of the houses and 75 % of the crops , mostly cashew trees . The city of Nacala was heavily damaged , with about 170 @,@ 000 people losing their houses . Many residents evacuated Nacala , and temporary shelters were provided for those who stayed . At the port in Nacala , the local harbor was wrecked and two ships sank ; one of the damaged ships spilled oil into the Bay of Nacala . The city lost power and water , and its primary hospital was destroyed . About 130 km ( 81 mi ) of power lines were cut between Nampula and Nacala , and widespread road and bridge damage disrupted transportation . In the area along Nadia 's path , over 120 schools were damaged destroyed , affecting over 46 @,@ 864 students . Across the country , roughly 1 @.@ 5 million people were left homeless . A World Food Programme building in the city was destroyed , wrecking 642 tonnes ( 708 tons ) of stored food . Overall , Nadia killed 240 people in Mozambique and injured thousands . Damage was estimated at $ 20 million ( 1994 USD ) .
Damage from Nadia extended as far inland as Malawi .
After the storm , about 300 @,@ 000 people in Nampula Province in Mozambique required food and other goods . Officials sent relief to the affected areas , including iron sheeting and medical teams . Due to damage to sanitation facilities , there were outbreaks of diarrhea and cholera in the weeks after the storm . By April 20 , most primary roads were cleared , bridge reconstruction had commenced , and power was being restored . Heavy crop damage depleted food supplies , The cyclone struck shortly before the annual harvest , causing heavy crop damage that depleted food supplies . Some residents who evacuated during the country 's civil war returned late to assist in harvesting the remaining crops . In the six months after the storm , about 300 people died due to starvation . Many secondary roads remained blocked in the weeks after the storm , forcing relief supplies to be transported by boat . The country appealed to the international community for assistance , and by Mary 6 , various international agencies and governments donated about $ 1 @.@ 4 million in cash ( 1994 USD ) . The French government sent $ 48 @,@ 000 worth of medicine , blankets , and food , the United Kingdom sent $ 373 @,@ 134 for generators , water tanks , and roofing materials , and the Spanish government sent about $ 117 @,@ 000 worth of food and tents . The charity organization Concern Worldwide sent 54 @,@ 000 sets of clothing to the country . The government of Japan sent 6 @,@ 000 blankets and 1 @,@ 800 bars of soap , while the Italian government sent five generators , eight water tanks , and 1 @,@ 150 agricultural tools . Donated generators assisted in restoring water in Nacala . In June 1994 , the World Bank provided $ 20 million in assistance to the country due to the storm . Cyclone Nadia contributed to fishing exports decreasing by $ 11 million during the year .
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= Mussie =
Mussie , also known as Hapyxelor or Hapaxelor , is a cryptid , an animal whose existence is the subject of folklore but has not been proven , that is rumored to live in Muskrat Lake in the Canadian province of Ontario . The creature 's age , gender , and physical appearance are not agreed upon ; it is variously described , for example , as a walrus or as a three @-@ eyed Loch Ness Monster @-@ like creature . It is also not agreed upon whether Mussie is a single creature or a species .
The legend of Mussie likely began around 1916 , though folk tales claim that Canadian pioneer Samuel de Champlain wrote about it in the early seventeenth century . Despite the futility of numerous attempts to locate or capture Mussie , it has become a part of the local culture and a fixture in the local tourism industry .
= = Characteristics = =
Mussie 's name is a diminutive form of the name of its reported location : Muskrat Lake , a large , deep lake near the village of Cobden , Ontario , and about 75 miles northwest of Ottawa . Muskrat Lake is home to another paranormal phenomenon : local legends state that an Atomic Energy of Canada bus driver saw an extraterrestrial spacecraft landing on a spot atop a hill and leaving . There is indeed a dark @-@ colored , circular outline on this hill where grass does not grow , with no widely accepted cause .
There is no single accepted portrayal of Mussie 's age , its gender , or even whether it is a single , long @-@ lived creature or a species . Some residents claim that a single , very old Mussie — or a member of its species — first arrived in the area , then covered by the ocean , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . In this tale , glaciers and , later , solid landmasses built up around it , forming the lake , and Mussie was trapped . Mussie 's diet , according to self @-@ proclaimed observer Donnie Humphries , consists at least partially of cattails found near the edge of the lake .
Descriptions of Mussie 's physical appearance are inconsistent . In local folklore , it has variously been portrayed as akin to a walrus ; a sturgeon or other fish ; or a Loch Ness Monster with three eyes and sharper teeth . Another oft @-@ cited description from local historian James F. Robison is as follows :
= = History = =
The presence of a large , unusual creature in Muskrat Lake has been the subject of anecdotes since 1916 . The creature 's name was originally cited as Hapyxelor , alternately spelled Hapaxelor , but changed simply to Mussie , short for The Monster of Muskrat Lake , sometime later . Humphries , a man from Cobden , was a well @-@ known proponent of Mussie 's existence . Around the area , many people 's knowledge of the creature come from his vehement , albeit inconsistent , tales of observing it once .
Some residents claim that , independent of the truth of the Mussie legend , the legend 's origins are older : supposedly , early settler Samuel de Champlain wrote of the creature 's existence in the early seventeenth century . However , no concrete evidence of such writings has been uncovered , even though Champlain did write of loud screams from sea monsters living in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland .
Author Michael Bradley and friend Deanna Theilmann @-@ Beann searched for Mussie in the Nepenthe , a boat with sonar technology . With their sonar , they found two creatures they hypothesized could be two marine mammals , three metres long . Bradley concluded that at least one creature compatible with Mussie 's description lived in the lake , though he did not investigate the creatures further . Scientists have also surveyed the area and found nothing , though the definitive nonexistence of a Mussie @-@ like creature is difficult to establish because some of the trenches in Muskrat Lake extend to over 60 metres .
= = In culture = =
Mussie has become a cultural mascot of the area , appearing on signs welcoming visitors to Cobden and in front of the Home Hardware store in the village . It is not usually portrayed as fearsome ; it is given seasonal accessories to mark holidays , like a Santa Claus hat for Christmas . The creature 's economic value through the tourism industry has caused it to be described as " recession @-@ fighting " in local folk songs .
Every year , visitors in the Muskrat Lake area search for Mussie in the lake ; none have yet captured evidence of its existence . In the 1990s , a tourism marketing campaign for the area offered CAN $ 1 million to anyone who could capture a live specimen , but no one did . Mussie is referenced in travel pamphlets for the Whitewater Region area ; one suggests that it can be caught by a fishing rod .
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= A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again =
" A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " is the 19th episode of the 23rd season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 29 , 2012 . In the episode , the Simpson family goes on cruise after being convinced by a bored Bart. He enjoys himself on the vacation until Rowan Priddis , the director of the cruise , performs a song called " Enjoy It While You Can " that makes him realize the cruise is soon to be over and he has to return to his boring life . Bart decides to trick the crew and the passengers on the ship that the world is coming to an end back on land because of a pandemic and that the ship therefore has to stay out at sea . He manages to do this with the help of a large television screen , on which he displays a scene from the film The Pandora Strain that features a general officer named William Sullivan warning humanity about a deadly virus .
Treat Williams guest starred in the episode as film character William Sullivan , while Steve Coogan made a guest appearance as the cruise director Rowan Priddis . " Enjoy It While You Can " was produced for the episode by Broadway composer Robert Lopez , who also co @-@ wrote the song with the writers of The Simpsons . Other songs played in the episode include " Boy from School " by Hot Chip and " Winter 's Love " by Animal Collective . Since airing , " A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " has received generally positive reviews from television critics , being praised for showing an emotional side of Bart. Around five million viewers tuned in to watch the episode during its original US broadcast .
= = Plot = =
After another boring week in his life , Bart sees a commercial on television for a fun cruise and begs Homer and Marge for a family vacation . They tell him that the family is low on cash , so Bart chooses to sell everything he owns to fund the vacation himself . He comes up well short of the needed amount , so Marge and Lisa help by selling one valuable item apiece . Together the three have enough money to book the family into an economy cabin ; once the cruise starts , though , a series of free upgrades places them in a deluxe cabin . They enjoy the wide range of activities onboard , but Bart 's spirits sink when he hears the cruise director , Rowan Priddis , sing a song to the passengers telling them to enjoy the rest of the cruise while they can before they go back to their normal lives . Bart fears that the remainder of his life will be painfully boring and decides to make the vacation last forever .
Later , a huge onboard television screen displays an emergency message from a military officer , warning the crew and passengers about a deadly virus that has started to spread on the mainland . He says that all ships must remain at sea to ensure that humanity survives . The message is actually taken from a movie in the Simpson cabin 's DVD library , set up by Bart to broadcast all over the ship . He also disables communications with the mainland by pouring hot fudge on a control panel . As the ship stays at sea , conditions deteriorate and the food supply starts to run out . Eventually , the cruise turns into a post @-@ apocalyptic civilization , with gladiator arenas , marauders , capital punishment , and Priddis claiming kingship over the passengers .
Marge and Lisa discover Bart 's deception and inform the passengers that the virus is a hoax . As punishment , the furious passengers maroon the Simpsons in Antarctica and head home . While hiking toward a research station for help , they notice a group of penguins ; Lisa is fascinated by the chance to see them up close , but Bart thinks that their lives are boring and says that the ice slide they are riding down is just one isolated moment of fun . Lisa tells him that capturing and enjoying the best moments in life can make it fun , and Bart realizes she is right after Homer pushes him down the ice slide , with the whole family joining in . The final scene is a flash @-@ forward to an elderly Bart in a retirement home , commenting on how much fun his life has been .
= = Production = =
" A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " was written by Matt Warburton and directed by Chris Clements as part of the 23rd season of The Simpsons ( 2011 – 12 ) . The title and parts of the plot are a reference to the 1997 essay " A Supposedly Fun Thing I 'll Never Do Again " by American writer David Foster Wallace that describes his experiences on a cruise . In one scene , a character appears in the background that supposedly resembles Foster Wallace . American actor Treat Williams guest starred in the episode as himself playing William Sullivan , the character in the film The Pandora Strain that Bart uses to trick everyone into believing a deadly virus has actually spread .
A guest appearance by English actor and comedian Steve Coogan as Rowan Priddis , the director of the cruise , is also featured . In the episode , when the Simpsons are having dinner at the restaurant on the ship , the character makes a stage performance of a song called " Enjoy It While You Can " that prompts Bart to make sure the cruise lasts forever . This song was a contribution by Tony Award @-@ winning Broadway composer and lyricist Robert Lopez , who produced it in New York City in 2011 for the episode . Coogan recorded the song in New York as well . The writers of the show provided Lopez their suggestion for the song 's lyrics , which " he then tweaked " , according to William Keck of TV Guide . Lopez told Keck that he and the Simpsons staff decided to create something " cheesy that actually could be performed on a cruise ship . We went in a Carnival Cruise , ' Feelin ' Hot Hot Hot ' direction . " According to The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma , Lopez produced " Enjoy It While You Can " with a " synthesizer band " and The Simpsons composer Alf Clausen " added a Vegas @-@ style house orchestra arrangement for the final version . "
The episode features two songs in addition to " Enjoy It While You Can " . " Boy from School " by English electronic music band Hot Chip is played at the start of the episode during a montage that shows a boring week in the life of Bart , including his time at school . When the Simpsons go down the penguins ' ice slide at the end of the episode , " Winter 's Love " by American neo @-@ psychedelia band Animal Collective is heard . " A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " also includes two classical music pieces . Warburton decided to use French composer François @-@ Adrien Boieldieu 's " Concerto for Harp and Strings " for the first shot of the cruise ship in the episode . As described by Ledesma on his blog , this piece reappeared in a " more dire and dark treatment " later in the episode during a shot of the rundown ship . Russian composer Mikhail Glinka 's overture from his Ruslan and Lyudmila opera is played over a montage that shows Bart taking part in the fun activities on the cruise .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 29 , 2012 . It was watched by approximately five million people during this broadcast , and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 2 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating and a seven percent share . The episode became the second highest @-@ rated broadcast in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing higher than new episodes of The Cleveland Show and Bob 's Burgers but lower than a new Family Guy episode ( which acquired a 2 @.@ 8 rating and was seen by 5 @.@ 63 million people ) . For the week of April 23 – 29 , 2012 , " A Totally Fun Thing That Bart Will Never Do Again " placed 17th in the ratings among all prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic , and sixth among all Fox prime @-@ time broadcasts .
Reception of the episode by television critics has been generally positive . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club praised the episode , gave a A- and commented that it is " good to see The Simpsons try an ambitious episode , and great to see those ambitions largely fulfilled . " He added that episodes that " give Bart extra depth ( ' Bart Sells His Soul ' especially ) are among my favorite Simpsons half @-@ hours , " and noted that this episode features " a side of Bart that we rarely see : someone living outside the moment . Imagining himself on his deathbed and thinking of how his whole life outside of the cruise was wasted is the sort of device typically reserved for the Simpson women , particularly Lisa . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote that in the episode there " are elements that will be familiar – it 's another episode where a Simpson family vacation verges on disaster – but the main emotional storyline involving Bart is one The Simpsons hasn 't touched on before , as a fantastic luxury cruise makes him uneasy about the state of the rest of his life . " Sepinwall concluded that he is " always a fan of single @-@ story Simpsons episodes , as well as ones built around an emotional issue facing a member of the family , and this has both – in addition to being funny and sweet and clever in its depiction of the Best Cruise Ever . "
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= Lindsay Merritt Inglis =
Major General Lindsay Merritt Inglis CB , CBE , DSO & Bar , MC , ED ( 16 May 1894 – 17 March 1966 ) was a New Zealand military leader , lawyer and magistrate .
Born in Mosgiel , Inglis volunteered for service in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force during the First World War . He served on the Western Front and won the Military Cross for his actions during the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette . He ended the war as a company commander and returned to New Zealand in 1919 . In civilian life , he was a solicitor and barrister in Timaru but also served in the Territorial Force . He volunteered for service during the Second World War and commanded the 4th Infantry Brigade in the campaigns in Crete and North Africa . He had two periods in command of the 2nd New Zealand Division . After the war , he was appointed to a military court of the Allied Control Commission , which administered occupied Germany . He later served as chief judge of the Allied Control Commission 's Supreme Court from 1947 to 1950 .
= = Early life = =
Inglis was born in Mosgiel , Otago , New Zealand on 16 May 1894 to a banker and his wife . After completing his education at Waitaki Boys ' High School in Oamaru , he commenced legal studies at the University of Otago in 1913 .
= = Military career = =
In late April 1915 , Inglis volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) . He had some military experience , having served as an officer in the Territorial Force with the 2nd ( South Canterbury ) Regiment . Posted to the New Zealand Rifle Brigade , he served in Egypt and on the Western Front . As a company commander in his battalion , he participated in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette during the Somme Offensive in September 1916 . He was awarded the Military Cross for his part in the battle , after which he was the only surviving officer from his section of the front line .
Inglis later transferred to the New Zealand Machine Gun Corps , in which he commanded a company for the remainder of the war . Present at the capture of Le Quesnoy in late 1918 , he was discharged from the NZEF in April 1919 and returned to New Zealand .
= = Interwar period = =
Inglis resumed his legal studies , completing them in 1920 . He also became married to his fiancée , Agnes , and the couple had two children . Now a solicitor , he moved his young family to Timaru and established a legal practice there . He remained involved with the Territorial Force , and in 1926 was commander of 1st Battalion , Canterbury Regiment , with the rank of lieutenant colonel . Promoted to colonel in 1931 , he commanded 3rd New Zealand Infantry Brigade before retiring from the Territorial Force in 1936 . As a long serving member of the territorials , he was awarded the Efficiency Decoration . In 1935 , he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal .
= = Second World War = =
Inglis enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) following the outbreak of the Second World War . He needed to have treatment on his thyroid before he could go on active service . He commanded the 27th Machine @-@ Gun Battalion , part of the first echelon of the 2NZEF which had been shipped to Egypt , from December 1939 to August 1940 . In early 1941 , Inglis was promoted to brigadier and given command of the 9th Infantry Brigade , composed largely of training battalions .
= = = Crete = = =
Having missed the Battle of Greece , Inglis was appointed commander of the 4th Infantry Brigade of 2nd New Zealand Division in May 1941 . During the Battle of Crete , his brigade served as the reserve for the Allied forces , codenamed Creforce and commanded by Major General Bernard Freyberg , on Crete . The battle ended in the evacuation of Creforce to Egypt . Freyberg selected Inglis to travel to the War Office in London and provide a report on the battle . When he met with Winston Churchill the month after the evacuation from Crete , Inglis was critical of Freyberg 's conduct of the battle and made a number of inaccurate and misleading statements . However , Inglis ' own conduct in the battle had not been exemplary . At one stage , he disobeyed an order to take over a newly created reserve and remained at divisional headquarters , possibly with hopes of taking over command of the division .
= = = North Africa = = =
Despite this show of disloyalty to his commander , Inglis remained in command of 4th Brigade through much of the North African Campaign . He led his brigade in the capture of Belhamed , a hill adjacent to Sidi Rezegh , which resulted in the opening of a corridor to Tobruk during Operation Crusader , for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
After being reformed during the early part of 1942 , 4th Brigade spent time in Syria with most of the 2nd New Zealand Division . In June , the New Zealanders were rushed back to Egypt after the Panzer Army Afrika attacked Gazala , near Tobruk , to begin an advance into Egypt in pursuit of the retreating Eighth Army . The division made a stand at Minqar Qaim and was surrounded by German forces on 27 June . As the Germans probed the perimeter of the New Zealand positions , Freyberg was wounded . Inglis assumed temporary command of the division and successfully led it in an outbreak from Minqar Qaim that night . He would remain as divisional commander for the next two months as Freyberg recovered , and was later awarded a bar to his DSO which acknowledged his leadership of the division during this period .
However , during this time Inglis ' relationship with his brigade commanders , particularly Brigadier Howard Kippenberger deteriorated . Kippenberger had become highly rated as a field commander during the war and Inglis may have become resentful . This was uncomfortable for Kippenberger , who had served under Inglis in the Territorial Force and considered him a mentor in the art of warfare . This was further exacerbated on 30 June when Inglis went to Cairo without informing his staff who , in his absence , subsequently asked Kippenberger to take temporary command of the division . Inglis returned on 1 July having become lost when returning from Cairo .
Prior to the First Battle of Ruweisat Ridge , which commenced on 14 – 15 July , Inglis failed to adjust his artillery support following concerns raised by Kippenberger and Jim Burrows , the commanders of the brigades involved in the planned advance on the defended ridge . Instead , he chose to rely on assurances from his corps commander , Lieutenant General William Gott , that British armour would provide any necessary assistance . This proved to be a mistake ; although the brigades manage to seize the ridge , they were unable to hold it in the face of stronger than expected counterattacks , and the expected armour support never fully eventuated . Afterwards , while Inglis was critical of the conduct of the brigades and laid primary blame for the failure on them and the lack of armour , he overlooked the influence of his own role as divisional commander on the outcome of the battle . An attack mounted a few days later by 6th Brigade was a further failure and highlighted Inglis ' failings as a divisional commander by not ensuring adequate support from his corps commander .
In September 1942 , Inglis reverted to command of 4th Brigade , and it was decided that the brigade would be converted to an armoured formation . As an infantry brigade , it had suffered heavy losses at Ruweisat Ridge . Inglis oversaw 4th Brigade 's transition to armour , a process which took a nearly a year . He was again acting divisional commander from June to July 1943 when Freyberg was occupied elsewhere . Afflicted with dysentery , Inglis was repatriated to New Zealand in November 1943 for treatment .
= = = Italy = = =
Inglis returned to 4th Brigade , now in Italy , in March 1944 . For much of the Italian Campaign the brigade did not participate in large @-@ scale operations ; instead , his armoured regiments were deployed piecemeal in support of infantry operations . In the absence of Inglis while he recovered from his illness the previous three months , Kippenberger had become the preferred acting divisional commander . Kippenberger , commanding the division while Freyberg commanded the New Zealand Corps , was wounded shortly after Inglis arrived in Italy . Command of the division passed to another brigade commander , despite Inglis ' seniority . Again overlooked as temporary divisional commander in September , Inglis requested to be relieved of his command and he was promptly sent home to New Zealand . For his wartime services , he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
= = Later life = =
After the end of the war in Europe , Inglis was one of New Zealand 's delegates for the Allied Control Commission for Germany , which administered the now occupied country . He was appointed president of a military court in the British @-@ controlled area of Germany dealing with crimes committed by the occupying forces . After six months in this role , in February 1947 he was promoted to major general and made chief judge of the Allied Control Commission 's Supreme Court . The following year he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath .
In 1950 , Inglis ended his appointment as chief judge and returned to New Zealand . He became a magistrate in Hamilton in 1953 , and retired in 1965 . He died in Hamilton the following year . His collection of military history books was donated to the Kippenberger Research Library in the QEII Army Memorial Museum at Waiouru .
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= Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children =
Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children ( Japanese : ファイナルファンタジーVII アドベントチルドレン , Hepburn : Fainaru Fantajī Sebun Adobento Chirudoren ) is a 2005 Japanese computer @-@ animated science fantasy film directed by Tetsuya Nomura , written by Kazushige Nojima , and produced by Yoshinori Kitase and Shinji Hashimoto . Developed by Visual Works and Square Enix , Advent Children is part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series of media , which is based in the world and continuity of the highly successful 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children was released on DVD and Universal Media Discs with Japanese voice acting in Japan on September 14 , 2005 , and on April 25 , 2006 , with English voice acting in North America and Europe .
Advent Children takes place two years after the events of Final Fantasy VII and focuses on the appearance of a trio that kidnaps children infected with an unknown disease . Former Final Fantasy VII hero Cloud Strife , suffering from the same disease , goes to rescue the children . He discovers that the trio plan to resurrect the villain Sephiroth using the remains of the extraterrestrial villain Jenova , and he and his compatriots from the game fight to stop them . The film 's voice acting cast includes Takahiro Sakurai , Ayumi Ito , and Toshiyuki Morikawa in Japanese , and Steve Burton , Rachael Leigh Cook , and George Newbern in English .
The film has been released in multiple versions ; Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children Complete , released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in 2009 , is the last version and adds 25 minutes of new and expanded scenes to the 100 @-@ minute original . The film has received mixed reviews . Critics have praised its animation and CGI work , but the plot has been criticized as both incomprehensible to viewers who did not play Final Fantasy VII and as a thin connection between action scenes . It received the " Maria Award " at the Sitges Film Festival in 2005 and the " Best Anime Feature " at the 2007 American Anime Awards . The original release was one of the best @-@ selling animated movies in its release year in both Japan and the United States , and the Complete release was noted as driving a large increase in sales of the PlayStation 3 console in its release week . By May 2009 , the DVD and Universal Media Disc releases had sold over 4 @.@ 1 million copies worldwide .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Advent Children takes place two years following the events of the 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII , during which the antagonist Sephiroth attempted to absorb the Lifestream ( the lifeblood and soul of the planet ) and be reborn as a god . He was defeated by Cloud Strife and his companions but Sephiroth 's final spell , Meteor , destroyed the city of Midgar .
Since the end of the game , the survivors of Midgar founded the new city of Edge where Cloud and his childhood friend Tifa Lockhart now run a courier service and are the caretakers of orphans Denzel and Marlene . Cloud is still haunted by his role in the death of Aerith Gainsborough , who was killed by Sephiroth . In addition , both he and Denzel are infected with a mysterious new ailment known as " Geostigma " , which has no known cure . When the film opens , Cloud has recently moved out and isolated himself from his friends .
= = = Story = = =
Cloud is contacted through Tifa and summoned to a meeting with the Shinra Company 's former president Rufus Shinra , who was presumed killed in Final Fantasy VII . Rufus asks for Cloud 's help to stop Kadaj , Loz , and Yazoo . The trio are physical manifestations of Sephiroth 's surviving spirit , and are seeking to resurrect him using the remains of the extraterrestrial villain Jenova . Cloud refuses to help and leaves .
Meanwhile , Kadaj and his colleagues are recruiting children infected with Geostigma . Denzel falls in with the group , attracted by their promises of a cure for the disease . Loz follows Tifa and Marlene to Aerith 's church , where they had gone looking for Cloud , and attacks them . Tifa is knocked unconscious in the fight and Loz kidnapped Marlene . All the kidnapped children are taken to the ruins of the mystical Forgotten City , where Kadaj embraces them as brethren and announces his intention for them all to be reunited with Jenova . When Cloud arrives to rescue them , he is overpowered by Kadaj 's gang , but is rescued by his old comrade Vincent Valentine . Demoralized by his failure , Cloud asks if sin can ever be truly forgiven , to which Vincent nonchalantly replies that he has never tried to forgive . Cloud decides to keep fighting and returns to the city , where Kadaj has summoned Bahamut SIN and other monsters to terrorize the population . With the help of his companions from Final Fantasy VII , Cloud engages and defeats the monsters .
Kadaj confronts Rufus Shinra , who reveals he possesses the box containing Jenova 's remains . He attempts to destroy it , but Kadaj manages to save it and flees the city with his companions . Yazoo and Loz are apparently destroyed along the way by an explosive planted by Shinra 's agents . Cloud chases Kadaj down and engages him in battle , ultimately subduing him . Outmatched , Kadaj opens Jenova 's box and fuses with its contents , transforming into Sephiroth . He then tells Cloud that he will be able to use the life essences of Geostigma sufferers to achieve complete domination over the planet . He and Cloud then fight , and throughout the whole encounter Sephiroth appears to have the upper hand , flinging Cloud repeatedly into walls and finally impaling him through the shoulder . He asks Cloud to tell him what he most cherishes , so that he can have the pleasure of taking it away . To this , Cloud replies that he cherishes everything , then pulls out Sephiroth 's sword and deals him a hail of devastating blows . Sephiroth 's spirit departs , leaving behind the mortally wounded Kadaj . As he lies dying in Cloud 's arms , a healing rain starts falling across the land , curing the people of their Geostigma . Yazoo and Loz appear and confront Cloud ; he charges at them , and they set off a massive explosion engulfing the three .
Cloud has a vision of his deceased friends Aerith and Zack Fair , who say that his time to join them has not yet come . He then awakens in the church , healed of his injuries and surrounded by his friends . Behind them , he sees Aerith and Zack leaving the church and hears Aerith 's voice say , " You see , everything 's all right . " He agrees : " I know . I 'm not alone ... not anymore . "
= = Cast = =
Advent Children was released with a Japanese voice track in Japan , and an English voice track elsewhere .
Takahiro Sakurai / Steve Burton as Cloud Strife . Sakurai and Burton had already performed the role in the video game Kingdom Hearts .
Ayumi Ito / Rachael Leigh Cook as Tifa Lockhart . Nomura felt that Ito 's " husky " voice would offer a good contrast with Maaya Sakamoto .
Maaya Sakamoto / Mena Suvari as Aerith Gainsborough .
Shōgo Suzuki / Steve Blum as Vincent Valentine . Nomura wanted Cloud and Vincent to have noticeably different voices because the characters were otherwise quite similar . Since Vincent was older and more mature than Cloud , his role was given to Suzuki , who has a very low voice .
Shotaro Morikubo / Steve Staley as Kadaj . Morikubo had difficulties voicing him because of the character 's unstable personality and needed time to adjust to the role .
Kenji Nomura / Fred Tatasciore as Loz . Nomura was told by the staff to voice Loz as an " idiot " character .
Yūji Kishi / Dave Wittenberg as Yazoo .
Toshiyuki Morikawa / George Newbern as Sephiroth . Morikawa was instructed to pronounce Sephiroth 's lines in such a way that his words would convey his feelings of superiority . In tandem with this , the voice director and Morikawa agreed to make Sephiroth 's voice sound always calm , as if he never fears the slightest possibility of defeat .
Yumi Kakazu / Christy Carlson Romano as Yuffie Kisaragi .
Masahiro Kobayashi / Beau Billingslea as Barret Wallace .
Keiji Fujiwara / Quinton Flynn as Reno .
Taiten Kusunoki / Crispin Freeman as Rude .
Tōru Ōkawa / Wally Wingert as Rufus Shinra .
Kenichi Suzumura / Rick Gomez as Zack Fair .
Hideo Ishikawa / Greg Ellis as Cait Sith
Masachika Ichimura / Liam O 'Brien as Red XIII / Nanaki
Kazuhiro Yamaji / Chris Edgerly as Cid Highwind
= = Production = =
Advent Children began as a short film by Visual Works , a company used by Square to develop CGI scenes for their video games , based on Final Fantasy VII . Kazushige Nojima , who had written the script for the game , was brought on to write a 20 @-@ minute script , and he decided to write " a story about Cloud and Tifa and the kids " . The film was developed as a part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , a set of different media content intended to expand upon the world of Final Fantasy VII . Square 's research and development department worked with Visual Works on the piece , and VII 's director Tetsuya Nomura joined the crew after VII 's producer Yoshinori Kitase called him . Early in pre @-@ production , the team thought about making Advent Children into a game , but Nomura decided against it , partially because Visual Works had no experience with making a full game . The creators had no prior experience working on films , so they fell back on their knowledge of in @-@ game movies .
The film was planned to focus on the characters of Cloud and Tifa in a similar way to how other titles from Compilation of Final Fantasy VII centered on certain characters ; for example , Before Crisis focuses on the Turks , Crisis Core on Zack Fair , and Dirge of Cerberus on Vincent . Nomura says the film was , in its first manifestation , only going to be 20 minutes long . The original story featured someone requesting a message to be sent to Cloud ; the message is then relayed to Cloud through several children , and , when the message finally reaches Cloud , it is revealed who the messenger is . Nomura very much liked the original script , and it became the foundation of the final version . He decided to make the project longer and more grand in scope when early word of the film generated great interest amongst Final Fantasy VII fans , the majority of whom wanted something feature length . The film 's length was expanded to 100 minutes .
Takeshi Nozue and Nomura , who had first worked together on the video game Kingdom Hearts , split the role of directing , as Nomura felt this would add depth to the film . In designing the battle scenes they first discussed the setting and layout , and then went to the staff with their ideas , deciding which were the best and developing them further . The battle between Cloud 's group and Bahamut was the most difficult to design due to the size of the area and the number of objects the staff had to add to the scene to keep it realistic . The alternating positions of the characters , including Bahamut itself , took the staff a long time to complete in order to give the scene a sense of flow . Nomura stated that the team decided not to worry about making the fight sequences realistic , as they felt this would restrict their ability to give the film a " cool look " . Therefore , they worked by creating their " own rules " . Motion capture was used for many of the film 's battle scenes ; maneuvers that were not physically possible for live actors to perform were constructed digitally .
While designing the characters , the staff discovered that it was impossible to directly translate the Final Fantasy VII designs into the film , and thus some identifying characteristics had to be discarded . Cloud 's redesign was a combination of eight different designs , from his super deformed appearance in the game to his more realistic appearance in the film . The difficulties in making Sephiroth led the staff to reduce his appearances in the film , as it took them two years to develop and refine his look . Nozue also had difficulty developing a framework for Tifa 's body that was " balanced , yet showed off her feminine qualities " . In April 2003 , it was decided that Kadaj , Loz , and Yazoo would be manifestations of Sephiroth 's spirit — his cruelty , strength , and allure respectively . In contrast to Sephiroth , the trio was meant to be younger than Cloud , so as to focus on the " next generation " theme . By October 2003 , Nomura said that the film was 10 % complete , stating that while the script was written , not all the characters were designed .
Nomura felt that Advent Children differed from Hollywood films where the meaning of most scenes tends to be explained . With Advent Children , however , the staff wanted viewers to be able to interpret scenes themselves , allowing them to come to different conclusions . Nojima described the theme of the film as " survival " . Other themes with which Nomura and Nojima were concerned include Cloud 's feelings of guilt and regret for not being able to save his friends Zack and Aerith . These feelings are symbolized by a grey wolf that appears whenever Cloud thinks about them . The wolf disappears at the end of the film as Cloud comes to terms with his feelings . The word " children " was used in the title to refer to the film 's children , as they represent the " next generation " .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Final Fantasy VII Advent Children was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , Keiji Kawamori , Kenichiro Fukui , and Tsuyoshi Sekito , and arranged by Fukui , Sekito , Kawamori , Shirō Hamaguchi , and Kazuhiko Toyama . Upon hearing each track , Nomura would make some changes , and have the composers re @-@ record the piece . The end theme , " Calling " , was written and performed by former Boøwy vocalist Kyosuke Himuro . The soundtrack includes both pieces original to the film and arrangements of works from Final Fantasy VII , originally composed by Uematsu . Some of the arrangements , including " Advent : One @-@ Winged Angel " , are performed by The Black Mages , a rock band formed by Uematsu , Fukui , and Sekito . Both the pieces original to the film and the film arrangements cover a variety of musical styles , including orchestral , choral , classical piano , and rock music ; Variety noted that the styles vary between " sparse piano noodlings , pop metal thrashings and cloying power ballads " . The 2005 soundtrack album Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Original Soundtrack collects 26 tracks of music from the film on two discs . It was published by Square Enix on September 28 , 2005 . In addition to the regular release , a limited edition was produced containing alternative cover art and a booklet of credits and lyrics . The soundtrack album reached position # 15 on the Japanese Oricon music charts , and stayed on the charts for 10 weeks .
A mini @-@ album entitled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete Mini Album was released on April 10 , 2009 , to coincide with the release of the Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete version of the film . This version of the film included a new ending theme , " Safe and Sound " , by Kyosuke Himuro and My Chemical Romance singer Gerard Way . " Water " was replaced with a new song , " Anxious Heart " . Tracks on the album included new versions of " The Chase of Highway " , " Those Who Fight Further " , " Sign " , " Advent : One @-@ Winged Angel " , and " On the Way to a Smile " . A larger album , Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete : Reunion Tracks , was released with 21 tracks on September 16 , 2009 . This album contains the tracks from the mini @-@ album , as well as several pieces that were lengthened for the Complete film version but not rearranged . Reunion Tracks appeared on the Oricon charts for a single week at position # 108 .
= = Promotion and release = =
Advent Children and the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series were first announced at the 2003 Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 . The movie was announced as a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film . The first trailer for the movie was featured in the international version of the video game Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , released in February 2004 . The trailer used a motion capture that was altered in the final film . Advent Children was initially scheduled for a September 13 , 2005 release in North America and a September 14 , 2005 release in Japan , but the North American release date was pushed back several times . It was first moved to November 2005 , then to January 2006 , and finally scheduled for April 25 , 2006 for release on DVD and Universal Media Discs for the PlayStation Portable .
Prior to the film 's release in Japan , Panasonic produced a cell phone identical to the one Cloud uses in the film ; the phone contained several features related to Advent Children such as wallpapers and ringtones . Alongside the film 's release , Shueisha published a 118 @-@ page book about the film 's story titled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Prologue Book . In 2006 , SoftBank Creative published a guidebook entitled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Reunion Files , which contains interviews with the film 's staff and information regarding development of the film .
A limited edition of the film titled Final Fantasy VII Advent Pieces was released in Japan at the same time as Advent Children ; only 77 @,@ 777 sets were produced . The edition contains various pieces of merchandising , a copy of the script , the original Final Fantasy VII game , a strategy guidebook for the game , and a disc containing the original video animation ( OVA ) Last Order : Final Fantasy VII . Nomura stated that meaning of the name Advent Pieces was that " advent " means " the recognition and commemoration of something " , while " pieces " was added in order to bring special meaning to the release . A special one @-@ time @-@ only theatrical screening of the English version of the film took place on April 3 , 2006 , at the Arclight Theatre in Los Angeles . The event was promoted via email to those who subscribed to the Square Enix mailing list . The screening included trailers of the video games Kingdom Hearts II and Dirge of Cerberus , and featured appearances from the English language cast and the Japanese developers .
The DVD release of the film is a 2 @-@ disc set that contains several bonus features , including Last Order . Sony later announced Final Fantasy VII Advent Children ( Limited Edition Collector 's Set ) for release in North America on February 20 , 2007 . The set included more bonus material than the previous DVD releases , including a copy of the script , several postcards with imagery from the film , and the first three stories from the On the Way to a Smile short story series .
= = = Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children Complete = = =
At the 2006 Tokyo Game Show , Square Enix showed a trailer of a director 's cut of the film , entitled Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete , for release on the Blu @-@ ray format sometime in 2007 . No more specific release date was announced until the 2008 Square Enix DKΣ3713 Party , where a release date for Advent Children Complete in Japan was given as March 2009 . The new edition of the film was released in Japan on April 16 , 2009 . A separate version was sold that included a demo of Final Fantasy XIII . Both editions included the first HD trailers of Final Fantasy Versus XIII and Final Fantasy Agito XIII , though a third edition without the extra videos or demos was also released . On April 11 and 12 , 2009 , days before Advent Children Complete 's release , Square Enix held four special screenings of Advent Children Complete at the Ginza Sony Building in Tokyo . There were 800 seats , available to those who reserved the Blu @-@ ray or the PlayStation 3 bundle at the Square Enix e @-@ store , and were members of Square Enix 's online website .
Advent Children Complete has a higher visual quality than the original release , is 25 minutes longer than the original cut of the film , and also contains roughly one thousand revised scenes . Themes expanded in Advent Children Complete include Cloud 's development , Denzel 's background , and a more in @-@ depth view of the Turks and Rufus Shinra . The film 's staff wanted to add links to the other titles in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII that had been released since the original film . There is more violence in this version , specifically more blood during the fights , as the staff wanted to bring a " dirtier " look to the film , with characters ' faces and clothes getting darker and dirtier throughout the battles . Additionally , the fight between Cloud and Sephiroth was expanded by several minutes , and includes a scene in which Sephiroth impales Cloud on his sword and holds him in the air , mirroring the scene in the game where he performs the same action .
Advent Children Complete was released in North America on June 2 , 2009 , and in Europe on July 27 , 2009 . The North American and European versions come with a new trailer for Final Fantasy XIII rather than a demo . The releases in all regions also feature an animated piece entitled " On the Way to a Smile - Episode : Denzel " , as well as the story digests " Reminiscence of Final Fantasy VII " and " Reminiscence of Final Fantasy VII Compilation " . The Japanese and English voice actors had to return to record additional dialogue for the new and expanded scenes . Nomura stated there were no major problems with this process , noting that Sakurai and Morikawa were already used to their characters from voicing them in other media . However , some of the child characters , most notably Denzel and Marlene , had to be recast and have all their lines re @-@ recorded , as the original performers ' voices now sounded too old in both languages . Nomura has stated that while Advent Children Complete did not represent the end of Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , as the staff still had more ideas , it marked " the end of the Advent Children saga " as there would be no more re @-@ releases or extended versions .
= = Tie @-@ ins = =
= = = Last Order : Final Fantasy VII = = =
Last Order : Final Fantasy VII is an original video animation directed by Morio Asaka , written by Kazuhiko Inukai , and animated by Madhouse . It depicts an alternate rendition of two flashbacks found within Final Fantasy VII . It was originally released in Japan on the Advent Pieces DVD , on September 14 , 2005 . It was released in North America in the Limited Edition Collector 's Set on February 20 , 2007 . Thus far , it has not been released on any DVD editions of the film outside Japan or North America . There is currently no English dub for the film , and the North America version is subtitled .
= = = On the Way to a Smile = = =
On the Way to a Smile is a series of short stories that take place between the time of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VII Advent Children . Written by Kazushige Nojima , the first story , " Case of Denzel " , was released in episodic form on the official Japanese Advent Children website . " Case of Denzel " is told indirectly from the perspective of Denzel , who has requested an interview with Reeve Tuesti in the hopes that he may become part of Reeve 's newly formed World Regenesis Organization , an army devoted to rebuilding the planet . Denzel tells his life story , including how he became an orphan , the events leading up to his becoming afflicted with Geostigma , and how he came under the care of Tifa and Cloud . " Case of Denzel " was adapted into On the Way to a Smile - Episode : Denzel , a short OVA that was released with Advent Children Complete .
The second short story , " Case of Tifa " , is Tifa 's account of the events following Meteor 's destruction and her life with Cloud , overlapping in part with Denzel 's story . A third On the Way to a Smile story , " Case of Barrett " , involves Barret and his struggles to try to find a new energy source for the people of the world . To coincide with the release of Advent Children Complete in 2009 , four more stories were written : " Case of Yuffie " , " Case of Red XIII " , " Case of Shinra " , and " Case of Lifestream - Black & White " . All the stories were released together as a book titled On the Way to a Smile at the same time that Advent Children Complete was released .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
The DVD releases of Advent Children sold over 410 @,@ 000 copies in Japan during their first week on sale , with roughly half of the sales coming from the limited edition . The DVD and UMD releases combined sold over 700 @,@ 000 units in Japan in the first three weeks , and over one million copies by January 2006 . In a 2005 Oricon Japanese sales report , the regular edition of the DVD ranked twelfth on the best seller list in Japan for the entire year after one week of sales , and the limited edition ranked fifteenth . The two editions ranked third and fourth on the animated feature sublist . The English language DVD sold over 960 @,@ 000 units , which translated to almost $ 15 million in revenue , by the fifth week of release . The DVD ranked a " surprise " # 2 during its first week on the American Nielsen VideoScan sales charts after being released in North America . Nielsen 's " Top Selling Anime Releases of 2006 " report had Advent Children ranked first , and the 2006 report by the Japan External Trade Organization also ranked the film as the best @-@ selling Japanese anime DVD in the United States . In the 2007 list , the DVD was at the tenth spot . In June 2006 , Square Enix and Sony announced that the DVD and UMD releases combined had sold over 2 @.@ 4 million units worldwide , with 1 million units sold in Japan , 1 @.@ 3 million in North America , and 100 @,@ 000 in Europe . By May 2009 , just prior to the release of Advent Children Complete , the film had sold over 4 @.@ 1 million copies across all versions .
On its first day of release , over 100 @,@ 000 Blu @-@ ray copies of Advent Children Complete were sold in Japan across all three versions . During its initial week , the Blu @-@ ray was # 2 on the American Nielsen VideoScan Blu @-@ ray bestseller list , with 274 @,@ 774 units sold . During 2009 , the regular version of Advent Children Complete sold 49 @,@ 000 units in Japan according to Oricon , ranking second in their category " Animation / Special Effects Blu @-@ ray Discs " . It ranked eighth in the category " Overall Blu @-@ ray Discs , by Yen " with 310 million yen ( US $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) sold in 2009 . Gaming sites Gamasutra and Kotaku cited Advent Children Complete as one of the main reasons why sales of the PlayStation 3 video game console radically increased during the film 's first week of release .
= = = Critical response = = =
Advent Children has received mixed reviews . The computer @-@ animated graphics were generally praised ; 1UP.com 's James Mielke , who awarded the film an " A- " , said the quality and clarity of the CG visuals was " genuinely amazing " . Anime News Network writer Carlo Santos praised the animation while awarding the film a " B " , calling it " outstanding " , and About.com 's Roger Altizer , while giving the film overall 2 and a half stars out of 5 , cited the visuals as one of its few positive points . The film 's plot was generally criticized as confusing ; Leslie Felperin of Variety , in a sharply negative review , described the plot as " soulless " and " utterly impenetrable " to anyone who had not played the game , and Anime News Network 's Santos agreed that people who had not played Final Fantasy VII would not understand the story . Mania Entertainment 's John Eriani also found the plot confusing to non @-@ players , though they liked how the characters were further explored in the film . Todd Douglass Jr. from DVD Talk , while " highly recommending " the film , praised Cloud 's character development in particular . About.com 's Altizer summarized the plot and dialogue as " weak " , and IGN 's Chris Carle , in their 9 out of 10 review , felt that the plot was just as excuse to get to the next action sequence . The story digest " Reminiscence of Final Fantasy VII " , included with the DVD to explain the plot of Final Fantasy VII , was described by Anime News Network 's Santos as " just as confusing as the movie " , and of no help in explaining the plot to anyone who had not already played the game , though Carle of IGN felt it was helpful to those who had not played the game in a while .
The action scenes were generally praised . RPGamer 's Michael Beckett , while giving the film a 4 out of 5 , lauded the film 's fighting scenes , calling them " mesmerizing " and the primary focus of the movie . Anime News Network 's Santos also heavily praised the action sequences , and Felperin of Variety felt they were the only point to the movie , which they felt focused entirely on the technical aspects of the action . The music received mixed reviews ; Eriani of Mania Entertainment heavily praised it , as did Santos of Anime News Network , but 1UP.com 's Mielke called it " a bit sappy " . Douglass Jr. from DVD Talk concluded that Advent Children " is pretty much the film that fans all over the world have been waiting for " , RPGamer 's Beckett said that " the film feels very much like a love letter to the fans of Final Fantasy VII " , and IGN 's Carle summed up the film as " glorious , beautiful , well @-@ executed fan service . "
The director 's cut , Advent Children Complete , was generally praised over the original version . Joystiq 's Andrew Yoon found Advent Children Complete a better film , feeling it was more accessible to people who had not played Final Fantasy VII . Blu @-@ ray.com 's Dustin Somner called it " a nice improvement on an entertaining film " , and DVD Talk 's Todd Douglass Jr. said it was " the best version of the film " due to its audio quality , the new scenes , and the expansion of Cloud 's battle against Sephiroth . Douglass also found the addition of On the Way to a Smile - Episode : Denzel to be a welcome edition , though he felt that the bonus features as a whole were underwhelming , belying the " Complete " title . Yoon of Joystiq felt that the new scenes helped give more depth to Cloud 's development , to the point of " humanizing " him , though he felt the change in pacing for some scenes made the plot hard to follow . Kotaku writer AJ Glasser , however , summed up the director 's cut as " 26 extra minutes and it still doesn 't make any sense " , saying that the new scenes did little to improve the plot of the film itself .
= = = Legacy = = =
Advent Children received the Honorary Maria Award at the Sitges Film Festival on October 15 , 2005 . The film was also awarded " best anime feature " at the 2007 American Anime Awards . IGN placed it second in their " Top 10 Straight @-@ to @-@ DVD Animated Movies " list . In 2007 , the music video for the song " 유혹의 소나타 " ( " Sonata of Temptation " ) by Korean singer Ivy recreated the fight between Tifa and Loz . The director of the video stated that it was just a parody of the film but was unable to get in contact with Square Enix to get official permission . The video was subsequently banned from airing on Korean television after a copyright lawsuit by Square Enix . OverClocked ReMix 's four disc Final Fantasy VII unofficial tribute album , Voices of the Lifestream , contains one disc remixing music from the film . Final Fantasy XIII director Motomu Toriyama has stated that he felt the film showed " battles that have not been achievable in FF so far " , and so tried to design the battle system for Final Fantasy XIII to create cinematic battles like the film 's . In addition , Cloud 's outfit from the movie was added to Super Smash Bros for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U in December 2015 .
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= Ontario Highway 73 =
King 's Highway 73 , commonly referred to as Highway 73 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route began in Port Bruce and progressed north through Aylmer , encountering Highway 401 immediately before terminating east of Dorchester . The route was established in mid @-@ 1937 , remaining unchanged for nearly six decades before being transferred to Elgin County and Middlesex County in 1997 and 1998 . Today the route is known as Elgin County Road 73 and Middlesex County Road 73 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 73 began near the Lake Erie shoreline in Port Bruce , at Colin Street . From there it crossed Catfish Creek and veered east to Copenhagen , where it turned northward . The route progressed north through Elgin County , serving the communities of Candyville and Dunboyne en route to the town of Aylmer , where it intersected Highway 3 . From there it continued north through Little Aylmer and Lyons before crossing into Middlesex County .
Within Middlesex County , the highway served the communities of Harrietsville and Mossley , crossing a Canadian Pacific rail line immediately south of the latter . It encountered an interchange with Highway 401 ( Exit 203 ) southwest of Dorchester , ending soon thereafter at an intersection with Middlesex County Road 29 .
= = History = =
The Port Bruce to Dorchester Road was assumed by the Department of Highways on August 25 , 1937 . Initially only the portion of the route within Aylmer was paved . However , by 1942 the highway had been paved north to the Springfield cutoff ( now Ron McNeil Line ) . Between 1949 and 1952 , the section south of Aylmer to Port Bruce was paved . The remainder was paved by 1953 .
The routing of the highway remained unchanged for nearly sixty years . However , it was decommissioned entirely during the 1997 and 1998 highway transfers . On April 1 , 1997 , the highway south of Aylmer was transferred to the jurisdiction of Elgin County , and the highway north of the Highway 401 interchange was transferred to Middlesex County . Eight months later , on January 1 , 1998 , the remainder of the highway was transferred to the two counties .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 73 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Expedition to the Barrier Peaks =
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks is a 1980 adventure module for the Dungeons & Dragons roleplaying game written by Gary Gygax . While Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) is typically a fantasy game , the adventure includes elements of science fiction , and thus belongs to the science fantasy genre . It takes place on a downed spaceship ; the ship 's crew has died of an unspecified disease , but functioning robots and strange creatures still inhabit the ship . The player characters fight monsters and robots , and gather the futuristic weapons and colored access cards that are necessary for advancing the story .
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks was first played at the Origins II convention in 1976 , where it was used to introduce Dungeons & Dragons players to the science fiction game Metamorphosis Alpha . In 1980 , TSR published the adventure , updated for first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . The adventure was not updated for later rules systems , but a Wizards.com article did provide a conversion to Future Tech . It included a separate booklet of illustrations , in both color and black and white . The adventure is an old @-@ time favorite of many Dungeons & Dragons fans , including Stephen Colbert . It was ranked the fifth @-@ best Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , and received positive reviews from White Dwarf and The Space Gamer magazines . The other adventures in the S series include S1 Tomb of Horrors , S2 White Plume Mountain , and S4 Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth .
= = Plot summary = =
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks takes place on a spaceship in the Barrier Peaks mountain range of the World of Greyhawk campaign setting . In the adventure 's introduction , it is explained that the Grand Duchy of Geoff is under constant attack by a succession of monsters that have been emerging from a cave in the mountains . The Grand Duke of Geoff has hired the characters to discover the origin of the creatures , and stop their incursions .
The cave is actually an entrance to a downed spacecraft whose inhabitants have succumbed to a virus , leaving them dead . Many of the ship 's robots are still functioning , however , and the players must either avoid or defeat them ; some may also be ignored . As later seen in video games , " plot coupons " need to be collected . The adventure requires the players to gather colored access cards ( the " coupons " ) to advance to the next story arc : entering restricted areas , commanding robots , and other actions are all dependent on the cards . Expedition to the Barrier Peaks comes with a booklet of 63 numbered illustrations , depicting the various monsters , high tech devices , and situations encountered in the adventure . Much of the artwork for the adventure , including the cover , was produced by Erol Otus . Several of his contributions were printed in full color . Jeff Dee , Greg K. Fleming , David S. LaForce , Jim Roslof and David C. Sutherland III provided additional illustrations for the adventure .
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks 's 32 @-@ page adventure guide is divided into six sections . These describe the crew 's quarters , the lounge area , the gardens and menagerie , and the activity deck . Along the way , the characters find colored access cards and futuristic devices such as blaster rifles and suits of powered armor that they can use to aid their journey . The first two sections involve various monsters , vegepygmys — short humanoid plant creatures — who have commandeered the crew 's quarters , and a repair robot that follows instructions before its batteries run out . There is also a medical robot trying in vain to find a cure for the virus that killed the ship 's crew . In the lounge area , a " Dining Servo Robot " still works , although the " food " it serves is now moldy poison .
The gardens and menagerie area includes an encounter with a " cute little bunnyoid on the stump " . It looks like a horned rabbit on a tree stump , but when approached , the stump develops fangs and its roots become tentacles , which it then uses to attack the characters . The next encounter involves a froghemoth , a large alien frog @-@ like creature with tentacles and three eyes on an eyestalk . In the sixth and final section , the activity deck , the players ' characters must contend with various sports robots , including a " boxing and wrestling trainer " and a " karate master " . If the characters can communicate with the karate master and tell it that boxing is superior to karate , it will attack the boxing robot until both are destroyed , else they will both attack the characters . The last area of the activity deck is the loading area , where the characters can leave the spaceship . The adventure then ends , with no postscript .
= = Publication history = =
While D & D is a fantasy roleplaying game , Expedition to the Barrier Peaks introduces science fiction elements into the game . Work on the adventure began in 1976 , when TSR was considering publishing a science fantasy role playing game . James M. Ward had shown them his rough notes on Metamorphosis Alpha . Gary Gygax thought it would be a good idea to introduce science fiction / science fantasy concepts to D & D players through the use of a tournament scenario at the 1976 Origins II gaming convention in Baltimore , Maryland . Gygax started with his old Greyhawk Castle campaign material and added a spaceship , which Rob Kuntz helped him populate with monsters . Kuntz is further credited for " inspiration " for the module ; his " Machine Level " having been incorporated into Greyhawk Castle and Tim Kask having played in a D & D game with science fantasy content run by Kuntz at GenCon VII in 1974 .
According to Gygax , both the scenario that became Expedition to the Barrier Peaks and Metamorphosis Alpha were successful at the convention . Although Metamorphosis Alpha became available to the general public in mid @-@ 1976 , only a few copies of the Expedition to the Barrier Peaks tournament adventure survived after the convention .
When Metamorphosis Alpha was updated and expanded into Gamma World , it seemed the right time for Gygax to reintroduce Expedition to the Barrier Peaks to the public . Said Gygax , " What could be more logical than to make available a scenario which blends the two role playing approaches into a single form ? " Gygax updated the scenario to Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) rules , hoping it could serve as a primer on how to integrate science into one 's fantasy role playing game . In 1980 , the updated version was published as Expedition to the Barrier Peaks . At the time of Expedition to the Barrier Peaks 's release , each Dungeons & Dragons module was marked with an alphanumeric code indicating the series to which it belonged . The 32 @-@ page adventure bears the code S3 ( " S " for " special " ) . The module included a 36 @-@ page book and a 32 @-@ page book , with two outer folders ; it was one of the first deluxe scenario modules , and included a book of illustrations intended to be shown to the players during the game , including four color paintings . This module was included as part of the Realms of Horror abridged compilation produced in 1987 . Although an article on the Wizards.com web site did provide a conversion to Future Tech , the adventure never received an official sequel and was not updated for the D & D version 3 @.@ 5 rules ( Wizards of the Coast periodically alters the rules of Dungeons & Dragons and releases a new version ) . It was made into a novel of the same name by Roland J. Green for the Greyhawk Classics series . The adventure has also been referenced in the Nodwick comic series . Unlike the other S series adventures , Expedition to the Barrier Peaks was not included in the Dungeon Survival Guide by author Bill Slavicsek because to him it was a " wonderful adventure " , but not " a D & D adventure . Once you add ray guns and power armor to the game , you have a fundamentally different experience . " Other products that have introduced futuristic elements into D & D include the adventure City of the Gods ( 1987 ) and the novel Tale of the Comet ( 1997 ) .
All four modules of the S @-@ series were included as part of the Dungeons of Dread hardcover collection , released on March 19 , 2013 . Lawrence Schick wrote in the foreword : " Vegepygmies and robots . What more could you need to hear ? Let ’ s go ! S3 Expedition to the Barrier Peaks was Gary in full @-@ on funhouse mode , having a high old time mixing elements of Jim Ward 's Gamma World with fantasy to create a rollicking and memorable AD & D adventure . "
= = Reception = =
Expedition to the Barrier Peaks received favorable reviews and was ranked the 5th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game . Judge Bill Slavicsek felt the adventure was a " classic clash of genres " . It was not something he felt should be done often , but it made a " memorable diversion " . Judge Mike Mearls described how he felt the first time he read Expedition to the Barrier Peaks . " I had this terrible , terrible conflict within myself to immediately tell my friends about it at war with a maniacal , desperate drive to keep it hidden at all costs . " Judge Keith Baker was most impressed with the adventure 's art . He liked that it came with a separate book of art ; in particular the before and after illustrations of the carnivorous plant with a " built @-@ in bunny lure " . This was later featured in a Wizards.com " Ask Wizards " segment . According to the Dungeon editors , the adventure 's defining moment was its froghemoth creature , and its full page color illustration .
Two gaming magazines reviewed Expedition to the Barrier Peaks in 1981 . Reviewer Marcus L. Rowland said in White Dwarf # 26 that he found the adventure " very enjoyable , with ideas and creatures eminently suitable for wider use " . He gave it 9 / 10 overall , but complained that some of the maps were printed on both sides of the same sheet , making them useless as a Dungeon Master 's shield ( a visual barrier that allows dice rolls and other activities to be conducted without the players knowing the outcome ) . He recommended at least a week 's study by the Dungeon Master before attempting to play it . He also notes that the cover " reveals the secret of the creatures " . Kirby Griffis reviewed the adventure in The Space Gamer # 36 . Griffis noted that it is full of " surprises and new monsters " , and felt that its one drawback was that Gygax presented standard D & D monsters as natives of other planets . In summary , he found it interesting and " full of spice and flavor " ; recommending it to anyone interested in " something new " or wanting to include science fiction in their D & D game .
According to Creighton Broadhurst , author of Exemplars of Evil : Deadly Foes to Vex Your Heroes , the adventure is one of the most popular " old time " Greyhawk adventures . Game designer Daniel Kaufman remembers " the famous backward @-@ firing guns " as one of the adventure 's highlights , and Stephen Colbert , who played Dungeons & Dragons as a child , chose this adventure as his personal favorite .
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= Backlash ( 2004 ) =
Backlash ( 2004 ) was the sixth annual Backlash professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by Square Enix 's Drakengard . It took place on April 18 , 2004 at the Rexall Place in Edmonton , Alberta and was a Raw brand @-@ exclusive event . This was the first Backlash event held outside the United States .
The main event was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship involving reigning champion Chris Benoit , Triple H , and Shawn Michaels , which Benoit won after forcing Michaels to submit to the sharpshooter . One of the predominant matches on the card was Randy Orton versus Cactus Jack in a Hardcore match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . Orton won the match and retained the title after pinning Cactus following an RKO . Another primary match on the undercard was Edge versus Kane , which Edge won by pinfall after executing a spear .
= = Background = =
The main feud heading into Backlash was between Chris Benoit , Triple H , and Shawn Michaels over the World Heavyweight Championship . Chris Benoit won the title one month prior at WrestleMania XX when he defeated Michaels and then @-@ champion Triple H in a Triple Threat match . Benoit won the match by forcing Triple H to submit to the Crippler Crossface . The following night on Raw , Benoit and Michaels defeated Evolution ( Randy Orton , Ric Flair , and Batista ) in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 Handicap tag team match . Benoit and Michaels won the match after Benoit forced Batista to submit to the Sharpshooter . On March 22 , Triple H was drafted over to the SmackDown ! brand , and Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff announced that Michaels would receive a World title match against Benoit at Backlash . Four days later on the March 25 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown ! General Manager Kurt Angle announced that Triple H had been traded back to Raw in exchange for The Dudley Boyz and Booker T. The next week on Raw , Bischoff made the one @-@ on @-@ one World Heavyweight Championship match between champion Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels , a Triple Threat match also involving Triple H.
The other main match on the card was a Hardcore match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship between Randy Orton and Cactus Jack . Three months prior at the Royal Rumble , after Mick Foley eliminated Orton from the Royal Rumble match , Orton hit Foley with a steel chair , and the two brawled up the ramp and into the back . In March at WrestleMania XX , Evolution ( Orton , Batista , and Ric Flair ) faced off against The Rock ' n ' Sock Connection ( Foley and The Rock ) in a Handicap match . Evolution won the match when Orton pinned Foley after an RKO . Two weeks later , Foley challenged Orton to a Hardcore match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship at Backlash , which Orton accepted that same night .
Another feud heading into the event was between Chris Jericho and Christian and Trish Stratus . At WrestleMania XX , Christian defeated Jericho . After the match , Stratus , Jericho 's on @-@ screen girlfriend at the time , turned on Jericho and joined Christian . On April 5 , Christian announced that he would be teaming up with Stratus to take on Jericho in a Handicap match at Backlash .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Val Venis defeated Matt Hardy in a match taped for Sunday Night Heat . The first match that aired was between Shelton Benjamin and Ric Flair . After back and forth action between the two , Flair attempted to use brass knuckles on Benjamin , though Benjamin splashed Flair from behind . Benjamin then performed a clothesline on Flair off the top rope to get the pin on Flair . Next was a match between Jonathan Coachman and Tajiri . During the match , Garrison Cade interfered on Coachman 's behalf , allowing Coachman to roll @-@ up on Tajiri for the win .
The third match of the event was Chris Jericho versus Christian and Trish Stratus in a Handicap match . Jericho won the match by pinning Christian after throwing him onto Stratus followed by executing an enziguiri kick . The match that followed was for the WWE Women 's Championship between Victoria and Lita . The match was evenly controlled by both Victoria and Lita . The match ended when Victoria pinned Lita with an Inside Cradle . After the match , Molly Holly and Gail Kim attacked both Lita and Victoria .
Next was a Hardcore match between Randy Orton and Cactus Jack for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . One spot in the match saw Cactus lie a barbed wire baseball bat between Orton 's legs and perform a leg drop . Cactus continued to use the bat , as he poured gasoline on it and tried to light it on fire . Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff , however , interrupted and informed Cactus that he would be disqualified and the event would end if he lit the bat on fire . Towards the end of the match , Orton managed to execute an RKO on Cactus onto the barbed wire baseball bat . Orton pinned Cactus afterwards to win the match and retain the WWE Intercontinental Championship .
The sixth match was a tag team match in which The Hurricane and Rosey defeated La Résistance ( Robért Conway and Sylvain Grenier ) . After a back and forth match , Hurricane pinned Conway after an Eye of the Hurricane . The match that followed was between Edge and Kane . The match was controlled by Kane , as he focused on Edge 's injured left hand . Edge , however , reversed attacks from Kane , whom he then attempted to spear . Kane was able to dodge the spear , which in turn caused Edge to spear the referee . Edge used his cast to knock Kane out and followed by performing a spear . Edge pinned Kane afterwards for the win .
The main event was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Chris Benoit , Shawn Michaels and Triple H. One spot in the match saw Michaels miss a flying bodypress and saw him crash into the Spanish Announcing team 's table . Another included , Triple H assaulting Michaels with a sledgehammer . The last moments in the match saw Michaels submit to the sharpshooter which was applied by Benoit . As a result of the win , Benoit retained the World title .
= = Aftermath = =
On April 19 on Raw , General Manager Eric Bischoff scheduled a World Heavyweight Championship match between Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels for the May 3 episode of Raw . On the same night , an impromptu team of Benoit and Edge defeated Evolution ( Ric Flair and Batista ) for the World Tag Team Championship , making Benoit a double champion . Two weeks later on Raw , Benoit retained the World Heavyweight title in a scheduled match against Shawn Michaels , after interference by Triple H. On May 10 , a match between Shelton Benjamin and Triple H , resulted in Michaels attacking Triple H. Michaels actions resulted in a suspension from Eric Bischoff . Prior to Raw that night , Bischoff informed Triple H that he would face Benoit for the World title the following week on Raw . The following week , Benoit defeated Triple H to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . Also that night , a Battle Royal took place , in which the winner would go on to face Benoit at Bad Blood for the World title . During the match , Triple H , one of the participants in the match , was eliminated by Michaels , who was not a participant in the match .
On the May 24 episode of Raw , Bischoff lifted Michaels suspension , after Triple H pleaded that Michaels be reinstated . On the same night , Michaels confronted Bischoff wanting to know if he was scheduled in a match with Triple H at Bad Blood . Bischoff assured Michaels , but Triple H attacked Michaels from behind , after Michaels attacked Triple H outside the arena 's parking lot . Bischoff gave orders to Raw superstars to attack Triple H and Michaels , if seen fighting . The roster tried breaking the fight up , but were unsuccessful in doing so . The result of the fight gave Bischoff the authority to schedule a Hell in a Cell match between Triple H and Michaels at Bad Blood . At Bad Blood , Triple H defeated Michaels by pinfall after executing two Pedigrees .
Following Backlash , Lita and Kane were put in angle , which involved Matt Hardy . It saw Hardy attack Kane to an attempt to prevent Kane from harming Lita . In the following weeks on Raw , Kane began repeatedly assaulting Hardy and attempting to seduce Lita . One incident saw Kane kayfabe kidnap Lita and hold her tied up backstage , where he supposedly asked her a " question . " Later that night , Kane won a number one contenders Battle Royal match , in which he received a title shot at Bad Blood . At Bad Blood , Benoit was successful in defending the World Heavyweight title , after he pinned Kane with a roll @-@ up .
During a match between Christian and Chris Jericho , Christian defeated Jericho after interference by Tyson Tomko ; Tomko was revealed to be the " problem solver " for Christian and Trish Stratus . The following weeks on Raw , Tomko assaulted Jericho , until May 10 , when Jericho defeated Christian in a Steel Cage match when he made Christian submit to the Walls of Jericho . As a result of the Steel Cage match , Christian suffered a legitimate back injury . After defeating Randy Orton and Batista in a tag team match , Tomko attacked Jericho , in which he powerbombed Jericho through the announcers table . On the June 7 episode of Raw , Bischoff booked a match at Bad Blood between Tomko and Jericho . At Bad Blood , Jericho pinned Tomko , after an Enzuigiri .
= = Results = =
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= Spinosaurus =
Spinosaurus ( meaning " spine lizard " ) is a genus of theropod dinosaur that lived in what now is North Africa , during the lower Albian to lower Cenomanian stages of the Cretaceous period , about 112 to 97 million years ago . This genus was known first from Egyptian remains discovered in 1912 and described by German paleontologist Ernst Stromer in 1915 . The original remains were destroyed in World War II , but additional material has come to light in recent years . It is unclear whether one or two species are represented in the fossils reported in the scientific literature . The best known species is S. aegyptiacus from Egypt , although a potential second species , S. maroccanus , has been recovered from Morocco .
Spinosaurus was among the largest of all known carnivorous dinosaurs , possibly larger than Tyrannosaurus and Giganotosaurus . Estimates published in 2005 , 2007 , and 2008 suggested that it was between 12 @.@ 6 – 18 metres ( 41 – 59 ft ) in length and 7 to 20 @.@ 9 tonnes ( 7 @.@ 7 to 23 @.@ 0 short tons ) in weight . A new estimate published in 2014 and based on a more complete specimen , supported the earlier research , finding that Spinosaurus could reach lengths greater than 15 m ( 49 ft ) . The skull of Spinosaurus was long and narrow , similar to that of a modern crocodilian . Spinosaurus is known to have eaten fish , and most scientists believe that it hunted both terrestrial and aquatic prey ; evidence suggests that it lived both on land and in water as a modern crocodilian does . The distinctive spines of Spinosaurus , which were long extensions of the vertebrae , grew to at least 1 @.@ 65 meters ( 5 @.@ 4 ft ) long and were likely to have had skin connecting them , forming a sail @-@ like structure , although some authors have suggested that the spines were covered in fat and formed a hump . Multiple functions have been put forward for this structure , including thermoregulation and display .
= = Description = =
Since its discovery , Spinosaurus has been a contender for the longest and largest theropod dinosaur . Both Friedrich von Huene in 1926 and Donald F. Glut in 1982 listed it as among the most massive theropods in their surveys , at 15 meters ( 49 ft ) in length and upwards of 6 t ( 5 @.@ 9 long tons ; 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) in weight . In 1988 , Gregory Paul also listed it as the longest theropod at 15 meters ( 49 ft ) , but gave a lower mass estimate of 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) .
Dal Sasso et al . ( 2005 ) assumed that Spinosaurus and Suchomimus had the same body proportions in relation to their skull lengths , and thereby calculated that Spinosaurus was 16 to 18 meters ( 52 to 59 ft ) in length and 7 to 9 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 9 to 8 @.@ 9 long tons ; 7 @.@ 7 to 9 @.@ 9 short tons ) in weight . The Dal Sasso et al. estimates were criticized because the skull length estimate was uncertain , and ( assuming that body mass increases as the cube of body length ) scaling Suchomimus which was 11 meters ( 36 ft ) long and 3 @.@ 8 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 2 short tons ) in mass to the range of estimated lengths of Spinosaurus would produce an estimated body mass of 11 @.@ 7 to 16 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 12 @.@ 9 to 18 @.@ 4 short tons ) .
François Therrien and Donald Henderson , in a 2007 paper using scaling based on skull length , challenged previous estimates of the size of Spinosaurus , finding the length too great and the weight too small . Based on estimated skull lengths of 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 75 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 7 ft ) , their estimates include a body length of 12 @.@ 6 to 14 @.@ 3 meters ( 41 to 47 ft ) and a body mass of 12 to 20 @.@ 9 tonnes ( 11 @.@ 8 to 20 @.@ 6 long tons ; 13 @.@ 2 to 23 @.@ 0 short tons ) . The lower estimates for Spinosaurus would imply that the animal was shorter and lighter than Carcharodontosaurus and Giganotosaurus . The Therrien and Henderson study has been criticized for the choice of theropods used for comparison ( e.g. , most of the theropods used to set the initial equations were tyrannosaurids and carnosaurs , which have a different build than spinosaurids ) , and for the assumption that the Spinosaurus skull could be as little as 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length . Improvement of the precision of size estimates for Spinosaurus requires the discovery of more complete remains as available for some other dinosaurs , especially the limb bones of Spinosaurus which are " hitherto unknown " .
= = = Neural spines = = =
Very tall neural spines growing on the back vertebrae of Spinosaurus formed the basis of what is usually called the animal 's " sail " . The lengths of the neural spines reached over 10 times the diameters of the vertebral bodies from which they extended . The neural spines were slightly longer front to back at the base than higher up , and were unlike the thin rods seen in the pelycosaur finbacks Edaphosaurus and Dimetrodon , contrasting also with the thicker spines in the iguanodontian Ouranosaurus .
Spinosaurus sails were unusual , although other dinosaurs , namely the ornithopod Ouranosaurus , which lived a few million years earlier in the same general region as Spinosaurus , and the South American sauropod Amargasaurus , might have developed similar structural adaptations of their vertebrae . The sail may be an analog of the sail of the Permian synapsid Dimetrodon , which lived before the dinosaurs even appeared , produced by convergent evolution .
The structure may also have been more hump @-@ like than sail @-@ like , as noted by Stromer in 1915 ( " one might rather think of the existence of a large hump of fat [ German : Fettbuckel ] , to which the [ neural spines ] gave internal support " ) and by Jack Bowman Bailey in 1997 . In support of his " buffalo @-@ back " hypothesis , Bailey argued that in Spinosaurus , Ouranosaurus , and other dinosaurs with long neural spines , the spines were relatively shorter and thicker than the spines of pelycosaurs ( which were known to have sails ) ; instead , the dinosaurs ' neural spines were similar to the neural spines of extinct hump @-@ backed mammals such as Megacerops and Bison latifrons .
= = = Skull = = =
The skull had a narrow snout filled with straight conical teeth that lacked serrations . There were six or seven teeth on each side of the very front of the upper jaw , in the premaxillae , and another twelve in both maxillae behind them . The second and third teeth on each side were noticeably larger than the rest of the teeth in the premaxilla , creating a space between them and the large teeth in the anterior maxilla ; large teeth in the lower jaw faced this space . The very tip of the snout holding those few large anterior teeth was expanded , and a small crest was present in front of the eyes . Using the dimensions of three specimens known as MSNM V4047 , UCPC @-@ 2 , and BSP 1912 VIII 19 , and assuming that the postorbital part of the skull of MSNM V4047 had a shape similar to the postorbital part of the skull of Irritator , Dal Sasso et al . ( 2005 ) estimated that the skull of Spinosaurus was 1 @.@ 75 meters ( 5 @.@ 7 ft ) long . The Dal Sasso et al. skull length estimate was questioned because skull shapes can vary across spinosaurid species .
A 2013 made study performed by scientists Andrew R. Cuff and Emily Rayfield showed that Spinosaurids like Spinosaurus had relatively poor resistance in their skulls for torsion compared to other members of this group ( Baryonyx ) and modern alligators , thus showing Spinosaurus preyed more regularly on fish than it did on land animals , although considered predators of the former too .
= = Classification = =
Spinosaurus gives its name to the Spinosauridae family of dinosaurs , which includes two subfamilies : Baryonychinae and Spinosaurinae . The Baryonychinae include Baryonyx from southern England and Suchomimus from Niger in central Africa . The Spinosaurinae include Spinosaurus , Irritator from Brazil , and Angaturama ( which is probably synonymous with Irritator ) from Brazil . The Spinosaurinae share unserrated straight teeth that are widely spaced ( e.g. , 12 on one side of the maxilla ) , as opposed to the Baryonychinae which have serrated curved teeth that are numerous ( e.g. , 30 on one side of the maxilla ) .
The following cladogram shows an analysis of Tetanurae simplified to show only Spinosauridae from Allain et al . ( 2012 ) :
= = Discovery and naming = =
= = = Naming of species = = =
Two species of Spinosaurus have been named : Spinosaurus aegyptiacus ( meaning " Egyptian spine lizard " ) and Spinosaurus maroccanus ( meaning " Moroccan spine lizard " ) .
The first described remains of Spinosaurus were found and described in the early 20th century . In 1912 , Richard Markgraf discovered a partial skeleton of a dinosaur in the Bahariya Formation of western Egypt . In 1915 , German paleontologist Ernst Stromer published an article assigning the specimen to a new genus and species Spinosaurus aegyptiacus .
Fragmentary additional remains from Bahariya , including vertebrae and hindlimb bones , were designated by Stromer as " Spinosaurus B " in 1934 . Stromer considered them different enough to belong to another species , and this has been borne out . With the advantage of more expeditions and material , it appears that they pertain either to Carcharodontosaurus or to Sigilmassasaurus .
S. maroccanus was originally described by Dale Russell in 1996 as a new species based on the length of its neck vertebrae . Specifically , Russell claimed that the ratio of the length of the centrum ( body of vertebra ) to the height of the posterior articular facet was 1 @.@ 1 in S. aegyptiacus and 1 @.@ 5 in S. maroccanus . Later authors have been split on this topic . Some authors note that the length of the vertebrae can vary from individual to individual , that the holotype specimen was destroyed and thus cannot be compared directly with the S. maroccanus specimen , and that it is unknown which cervical vertebrae the S. maroccanus specimens represent . Therefore , though some have retained the species as valid without much comment , most researchers regard S. maroccanus as a nomen dubium or as a junior synonym of S. aegyptiacus .
= = = Specimens = = =
Six main partial specimens of Spinosaurus have been described .
BSP 1912 VIII 19 , described by Stromer in 1915 from the Bahariya Formation , was the holotype . The material consisted of the following items , most of which were incomplete : right and left dentaries and splenials from the lower jaw measuring 75 centimeters ( 30 in ) long ; a straight piece of the left maxilla that was described but not drawn ; 20 teeth ; 2 cervical vertebrae ; 7 dorsal ( trunk ) vertebrae ; 3 sacral vertebrae ; 1 caudal vertebra ; 4 thoracic ribs ; and gastralia . Of the nine neural spines whose heights are given , the longest ( " i , " associated with a dorsal vertebra ) was 1 @.@ 65 meters ( 5 @.@ 4 ft ) in length . Stromer claimed that the specimen was from the early Cenomanian , approximately 97 million years ago .
This specimen was destroyed in World War II , specifically " during the night of 24 / 25 April 1944 in a British bombing raid of Munich " that severely damaged the building housing the Paläontologisches Museum München ( Bavarian State Collection of Paleontology ) . However , detailed drawings and descriptions of the specimen remain . Stromer 's son donated Stromer 's archives to the Paläontologische Staatssammlung München in 1995 , and Smith et al. analyzed two photographs of the Spinosaurus holotype specimen BSP 1912 VIII 19 discovered in the archives in 2000 . On the basis of a photograph of the lower jaw and a photograph of the entire specimen as mounted , Smith concluded that Stromer 's original 1915 drawings were slightly inaccurate . In 2003 , Oliver Rauhut suggested that Stromer 's Spinosaurus holotype was a chimera , composed of vertebrae and neural spines from a carcharodontosaurid similar to Acrocanthosaurus and a dentary from Baryonyx or Suchomimus . This analysis was rejected in at least one subsequent paper .
NMC 50791 , held by the Canadian Museum of Nature , is a mid @-@ cervical vertebra which is 19 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) long from the Kem Kem Beds of Morocco . It is the holotype of Spinosaurus maroccanus as described by Russell in 1996 . Other specimens referred to S. maroccanus in the same paper were two other mid @-@ cervical vertebrae ( NMC 41768 and NMC 50790 ) , an anterior dentary fragment ( NMC 50832 ) , a mid @-@ dentary fragment ( NMC 50833 ) , and an anterior dorsal neural arch ( NMC 50813 ) . Russell stated that " only general locality information could be provided " for the specimen , and therefore it could be dated only " possibly " to the Albian .
MNHN SAM 124 , housed at the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle , is a snout ( consisting of partial premaxillae , partial maxillae , vomers , and a dentary fragment ) . Described by Taquet and Russell in 1998 , the specimen is 13 @.@ 4 to 13 @.@ 6 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 4 in ) in width ; no length was stated . The specimen was located in Algeria , and " is of Albian age . " Taquet and Russell believed that this specimen along with a premaxilla fragment ( SAM 125 ) , two cervical vertebrae ( SAM 126 @-@ 127 ) , and a dorsal neural arch ( SAM 128 ) , belonged to S. maroccanus .
BM231 ( in the collection of the Office National des Mines , Tunis ) was described by Buffetaut and Ouaja in 2002 . It consists of a partial anterior dentary 11 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 53 in ) in length from an early Albian stratum of the Chenini Formation of Tunisia . The dentary fragment , which included four alveoli and two partial teeth , was " extremely similar " to existing material of S. aegyptiacus .
UCPC @-@ 2 in the University of Chicago Paleontological Collection consists mainly of two narrow connected nasals with a " fluted crest " from the region between the eyes . The specimen , which is 18 @.@ 0 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 09 in ) long , was located in an early Cenomanian part of the Moroccan Kem Kem Beds in 1996 and described in the scientific literature in 2005 by Cristiano Dal Sasso of the Civic Natural History Museum in Milan and colleagues .
MSNM V4047 ( in the Museo di Storia Naturale di Milano ) , described by Dal Sasso et al. in 2005 , consists of a snout ( premaxillae , partial maxillae , and partial nasals ) 98 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 38 @.@ 9 in ) long from the Kem Kem Beds . Like UCPC @-@ 2 , it is thought to have come from the early Cenomanian .
FSAC @-@ KK 11888 is a partial subadult skeleton recovered from the Kem Kem beds of North Africa . Described by Ibrahim et al . ( 2014 ) and designated as the neotype specimen ( although Evers et al . 2015 reject the neotype designation for FSAC @-@ KK @-@ 11888 ) . It includes cervical vertebrae , dorsal vertebrae , neural spines , a complete sacrum , femora , tibiae , pedal phalanges , caudal vertebra , several dorsal ribs , and fragments of the skull . The body proportions of this specimen have been debated as the hind limbs are disproportionately shorter in the specimen than in previous reconstructions . However , it has been demonstrated by multiple paleontologists that the specimen is not a chimaera , and is indeed a specimen of Spinosaurus that suggests that the animal had much smaller hind limbs than previously thought Other known specimens consist mainly of very fragmentary remains and scattered teeth . These include :
A 1986 paper described prismatic structures in tooth enamel from two Spinosaurus teeth from Tunisia .
Buffetaut ( 1989 , 1992 ) referred three specimens from the Institut und Museum für Geologie und Paläontologie of the University of Göttingen in Germany to Spinosaurus : a right maxilla fragment IMGP 969 @-@ 1 , a jaw fragment IMGP 969 @-@ 2 , and a tooth IMGP 969 @-@ 3 . These had been found in a Lower Cenomanian or Upper Albian deposit in southeastern Morocco in 1971 .
Kellner and Mader ( 1997 ) described two unserrated spinosaurid teeth from Morocco ( LINHM 001 and 002 ) that were " highly similar " to the teeth of the S. aegyptiacus holotype .
Teeth from the Chenini Formation in Tunisia which are " narrow , somewhat rounded in cross @-@ section , and lack the anterior and posterior serrated edges characteristic of theropods and basal archosaurs " were assigned to Spinosaurus in 2000 .
Teeth from the Echkar Formation of Niger were " tentatively " referred to Spinosaurus in 2007 .
A partial tooth 8 cm long purchased at a fossil trade show , reportedly from the Kem Kem Bed of Morocco and attributed to Spinosaurus maroccanus , showed 1 – 5 mm wide longitudinal striations and micro @-@ structures ( irregular ridges ) among the striations in a 2010 paper .
= = = = Possible specimens = = = =
Possible material belonging to Spinosaurus has been reported from the Turkana Grits of Kenya .
Some scientists have considered the genus Sigilmassasaurus a junior synonym of Spinosaurus . In Ibrahim et al . ( 2014 ) , the specimens of Sigilmassasaurus was referred to Spinosaurus aegyptiacus together with " Spinosaurus B " as the neotype and Spinosaurus maroccanus was considered as a nomen dubium following the conclusions of the other papers . A 2015 re @-@ description of Sigilmassasaurus disputed these conclusions , and considered the genus valid .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Function of neural spines = = =
The function of the dinosaur 's sail or hump is uncertain ; scientists have proposed several hypotheses including heat regulation and display . In addition , such a prominent feature on its back could make it appear even larger than it was , intimidating other animals .
The structure may have been used for thermoregulation . If the structure contained abundant blood vessels , the animal could have used the sail 's large surface area to absorb heat . This would imply that the animal was only partly warm @-@ blooded at best and lived in climates where nighttime temperatures were cool or low and the sky usually not cloudy . It is also possible that the structure was used to radiate excess heat from the body , rather than to collect it . Large animals , due to the relatively small ratio of surface area of their body compared to the overall volume ( Haldane 's principle ) , face far greater problems of dissipating excess heat at higher temperatures than gaining it at lower . Sails of large dinosaurs added considerably to the skin area of their bodies , with minimum increase of volume . Furthermore , if the sail was turned away from the sun , or positioned at a 90 degree angle towards a cooling wind , the animal would quite effectively cool itself in the warm climate of Cretaceous Africa . However , Bailey ( 1997 ) was of the opinion that a sail could have absorbed more heat than it radiated . Bailey proposed instead that Spinosaurus and other dinosaurs with long neural spines had fatty humps on their backs for energy storage , insulation , and shielding from heat .
Elaborate body structures of many modern @-@ day animals usually serve to attract members of the opposite sex during mating . It is quite possible that the sails or humps of these dinosaurs were used for courtship , in a way similar to a peacock 's tail . Stromer speculated that males and females may have differed in the size of the neural spine .
Gimsa et al . ( 2015 ) suggest that the dorsal sail of Spinosaurus was homologous to the dorsal fins of sailfish and served a hydrodynamic purpose . Gimsa and others point out that more basal , long @-@ legged spinosaurids have otherwise round or crescent @-@ shaped dorsal sails , whereas in Spinosaurus , the dorsal neural spines form a shape that is roughly rectangular and similar in shape to the dorsal fins of sailfish . They therefore argue that Spinosaurus used its dorsal neural sail in the same manner as Sailfish , and that it also employed its long narrow tail to stun prey like a modern Thresher shark Sailfish employ their dorsal fins for herding schools of fish into a " bait hall " where they cooperate to trap the fish into a certain area where the sailfish can snatch the fish with their bills . The sail could have possibly reduced yaw rotation by counteracting the lateral force in the direction opposite to the slash as suggested by Gimsa et al . ( 2015 ) . Gimsa and colleagues specifically wrote :
Spinosaurus anatomy exhibits another feature that may have a modern homology : its long tail resembled that of the thresher shark , employed to slap the water to herd and stun shoals of fish before devouring them ( Oliver et al.2013 ) . The strategies that sailfish and thresher sharks employ against shoaling fish are more effective when the shoal is first concentrated into a ‘ bait ball ’ ( Helfman , Collette & Facey , 1997 ; Oliver et al.2013 ; Domenici et al.2014 ) . Since this is difficult for individual predators to achieve , they cooperate in this effort . When herding a shoal of fish or squid , sailfish also raise their sails to make themselves appear larger . When they slash or wipe their bills through shoaling fish by turning their heads , their dorsal sail and fins are outstretched to stabilize their bodies hydrodynamically ( Lauder & Drucker , 2004 ) . Domenici et al . ( 2014 ) postulate that these fin extensions enhance the accuracy of tapping and slashing . The sail can reduce yaw rotation by counteracting the lateral force in the direction opposite to the slash . This means that prey is less likely to recognize the massive trunk as being part of an approaching predator ( Marras et al.2015 ; Webb & Weihs 2015 ) . Film footage available online impressively demonstrates the hunting strategies of sailfish and thresher sharks . Interestingly , Spinosaurus exhibited the anatomical features required to combine all three hunting strategies : a sail for herding prey more efficiently , as well as flexible tail and neck to slap the water for stunning , injuring or killing prey . The submerged dorsal sail would have provided a strong centreboard @-@ like counterforce for powerful sidewards movements of the strong neck and long tail , as performed by sailfish ( Domenici et al.2014 ) or thresher sharks ( Oliver et al.2013 ) . While smaller dorsal sails or fins make the dorsal water volume better accessible for slashing , it can be speculated that their smaller stabilization effect makes lateral slashing less efficient ( e.g. for thresher sharks ) . Forming a hydrodynamic fulcrum and hydrodynamically stabilizing the trunk along the dorsoventral axis , Spinosaurus ’ sail would also have compensated for the inertia of the lateral neck by tail movements and vice versa not only for predation but also for accelerated swimming . This behaviour might also have been one reason for Spinosaurus ’ muscular chest and neck reported by Ibrahim et al . ( 2014 ) . " Finally , it is quite possible that the sail or hump combined these functions , acting normally as a heat regulator , becoming a courting aid during the mating season , being used to cool itself and , on occasions , turning into an intimidating device when an animal was feeling threatened .
= = = Diet = = =
It is unclear whether Spinosaurus was primarily a terrestrial predator or a piscivore , as indicated by its elongated jaws , conical teeth and raised nostrils . The hypothesis of spinosaurs as specialized fish eaters has been suggested before by A. J. Charig and A. C. Milner for Baryonyx . They base this on the anatomical similarity with crocodilians and the presence of digestive acid @-@ etched fish scales in the rib cage of the type specimen . Large fish are known from the faunas containing other spinosaurids , including the Mawsonia , in the mid @-@ Cretaceous of northern Africa and Brazil . Direct evidence for spinosaur diet comes from related European and South American taxa . Baryonyx was found with fish scales and bones from juvenile Iguanodon in its stomach , while a tooth embedded in a South American pterosaur bone suggests that spinosaurs occasionally preyed on pterosaurs , but Spinosaurus was likely to have been a generalized and opportunistic predator , possibly a Cretaceous equivalent of large grizzly bears , being biased toward fishing , though it undoubtedly scavenged and took many kinds of small or medium @-@ sized prey . A study by Cuff and Rayfield ( 2013 ) concluded that bio @-@ mechanical data suggests that Spinosaurus was not an obligate piscivore and that its diet was more closely associated with each individual 's size . The characteristic rostral morphology of Spinosaurus allowed its jaws to resist bending in the vertical direction , however its jaws were poorly adapted with respect to resisting lateral bending .
In 2009 , Dal Sasso et al .. reported the results of X @-@ ray computed tomography of the MSNM V4047 snout . As the foramina on the outside all communicated with a space on the inside of the snout , the authors speculated that Spinosaurus had pressure receptors inside the space that allowed it to hold its snout at the surface of the water to detect swimming prey species without seeing them .
A 2010 isotope analysis by Romain Amiot and colleagues found that oxygen isotope ratios of spinosaurid teeth , including teeth of Spinosaurus , indicate semiaquatic lifestyles . Isotope ratios from tooth enamel and from other parts of Spinosaurus ( found in Morocco and Tunisia ) and of other predators from the same area such as Carcharodontosaurus were compared with isotopic compositions from contemporaneous theropods , turtles , and crocodilians . The study found that Spinosaurus teeth from five of six sampled localities had oxygen isotope ratios closer to those of turtles and crocodilians when compared with other theropod teeth from the same localities . The authors postulated that Spinosaurus switched between terrestrial and aquatic habitats to compete for food with large crocodilians and other large theropods respectively .
= = = Posture = = =
Although traditionally depicted as a biped , it has been suggested since the mid @-@ 1970s that Spinosaurus was at least an occasional quadruped . This has been bolstered by the discovery of Baryonyx , a relative with robust arms . Because of the mass of the hypothesized fatty dorsal humps of Spinosaurus , Bailey ( 1997 ) was open to the possibility of a quadrupedal posture , leading to new restorations of it as such . The hypothesis that Spinosaurus had a typical quadrupedal gait has fallen out of favor , though spinosaurids may have crouched in a quadrupedal posture .
Theropods , including spinosaurids , could not pronate their hands ( rotate the forearm so the palm faced the ground ) , but a resting position on the side of the hand was possible , as shown by fossil prints from an Early Jurassic theropod . A 2014 paper describing new material of Spinosaurus , proposed that its legs were too short for it to move effectively on land . The reconstruction used in the study was an extrapolation based on different sized individuals , scaled to what was assumed to be the correct proportions . Palaeontologist John Hutchinson of the Royal Veterinary College of the University of London has expressed scepticism to the new reconstruction , and cautioned that using different specimens can result in inaccurate chimaeras . Scott Hartman also expressed criticism because he believes the legs and the pelvis were inaccurately scaled ( 27 % too short ) and don 't match the published lengths . However , responses from Ibrahim et al. to Mark Witton have been positively received as reliable . The 2015 re @-@ description of Sigilmassasaurus Evers et al . 2015 doubted whether the material assigned to Spinosaurus by Ibrahim et. al. belonged to it .
= = Locomotion = =
Previous theories on how Spinosaurus moved through the water showed it paddling like a duck or crocodile through the water . However , a new hypothesis suggests Spinosaurus could not swim at all , but instead hopped on the bottom of rivers . It states that , since Spinosaurus has dense bones , it would most likely hang low in the water column , and that it moved around by running on the bottom of rivers such as hippos , tapir , and indian rhinos . Spinosaurus shows many other traits in common with hippos such as partial webbed toes , flat unguals , and a barrel shaped body which are traits that are usually attributed animals that use this kind of locomotion . The animal may have had thick skin to achieve this as well . The environment that Spinosaurus lived in is similar to the environment of thick skinned aquatic mammals and it is possible that Spinosaurus may have had this thick skin to achieve the kind of locomotion .
= = Paleoecology = =
The environment inhabited by Spinosaurus is only partially understood , and covers a great deal of what is now northern Africa . The region of Africa Spinosaurus is preserved in dates from 112 to 97 million years ago . A 1996 study concluded from Moroccan fossils that Spinosaurus , Carcharodontosaurus , and Deltadromeus " ranged across north Africa during the late Cretaceous ( Cenomanian ) . " Those Spinosaurus that lived in the Bahariya Formation of what is now Egypt may have contended with shoreline conditions on tidal flats and channels , living in mangrove forests alongside similarly large dinosaurian predators Bahariasaurus and Carcharodontosaurus , the titanosaur sauropods Paralititan and Aegyptosaurus , crocodylomorphs , bony and cartilaginous fish , turtles , lizards , and plesiosaurs . In the dry season it might have resorted to preying on pterosaurs . This situation resembles that in the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation of North America , which boasts up to five theropod genera over one tonne in weight , as well as several smaller genera ( Henderson , 1998 ; Holtz et al . , 2004 ) . Differences in head shape and body size among the large North African theropods may have been enough to allow niche partitioning as seen among the many different predator species found today in the African savanna ( Farlow & Pianka , 2002 ) .
= = In popular culture = =
Spinosaurus appeared in the 2001 film Jurassic Park III , replacing Tyrannosaurus as the main antagonist . The film 's consulting paleontologist John R. Horner was quoted as saying : " If we base the ferocious factor on the length of the animal , there was nothing that ever lived on this planet that could match this creature [ Spinosaurus ] . Also my hypothesis is that T @-@ rex was actually a scavenger rather than a killer . Spinosaurus was really the predatory animal . " ( He has since retracted the statement about T. Rex being a scavenger . ) In the film , Spinosaurus was portrayed as larger and more powerful than Tyrannosaurus : in a scene depicting a battle between the two resurrected predators , Spinosaurus emerges victorious by snapping the tyrannosaur 's neck . In the fourth film Jurassic World , there is a nod to this fight where the T @-@ Rex smashes through the skeleton of a Spinosaurus in the climatic fight near the end of the film .
Spinosaurus has long been depicted in popular books about dinosaurs , although only recently has there been enough information about spinosaurids for an accurate depiction . After an influential 1955 skeletal reconstruction by Lapparent and Lavocat based on a 1936 diagram by Stromer , it has been treated as a generalized upright theropod , with a skull similar to that of other large theropods and a sail on its back , even having four @-@ fingered hands .
In addition to films , action figures , video games , and books , Spinosaurus has been depicted on postage stamps such as ones from Angola , The Gambia , and Tanzania .
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= Cherry Pop =
" Cherry Pop " is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her sophomore studio album , Unlocked ( 2014 ) . It was made available for digital download on 28 May 2015 through Roton as the second single from Unlocked . " Cherry Pop " was written by Stan herself , Lukas Hällgren and Erik Lidbom , while production was handled by both Hällgren and Lidbom . The track was recorded in Bucharest , Romania at the Fonogram Studios and was additionally engineered at Lidbom 's Hotfire Production .
" Cherry Pop " was described as a J @-@ Pop song during one of Stan 's interviews prior to the track 's release . An accompanying music video for " Cherry Pop " premiered on 28 May 2015 on Stan 's YouTube channel ; Khaled Mokhtar was both the clip 's director and director of photography . It was shot in Buftea , Romania and portrays Stan and her background dancers performing choreography created by performer Emil Rengle . The song reached number 64 on the Japan Hot 100 and became the most sought ringtone on the largest Japanese profile site , Recochoku .
= = Background and composition = =
" Cherry Pop " was written by Stan herself , Lukas Hällgren and Erik Lidbom , while production was handled by both Hällgren and Lidbom . It was recorded at the Fonogram Studios in Bucharest , Romania and was additionally mixed and engineered at Lidbom 's Hitfire Production in Uppsala , Sweden . Further 's work on the track was done during FonoCamp2013 , the first Romanian international songwriting camp held in Azuga . Fellow Romanian and international singers were also present at the two @-@ weeks event , such as Delia Matache , Mohombi , Smiley and Deepcentral . The track was described as a J @-@ pop song during one of Stan 's interviews prior to the release of " Cherry Pop " ; she also noticed influences to Eurodance . An administrator of IasiFun commended the recording as being influenced by house , while also describing the song 's instrumentation as " electric " and " vibrant " . Anthony Easton , a writer for The Singles Jukebox , described the song as a " popluxe " , while Ian Mew compared it to " Bubble Pop ! " by South Korean singer Hyuna . According to Popdust , " Cherry Pop " uses dubstep for its breakdown . The main idea for the song was based on Stan 's first kiss which , according to her , " tasted like candy " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Cherry Pop " received generally mixed reviews from music critics upon release . The Singles Jukebox gave the song an overall rating of 5 / 10 . A writer of The Singles Jukebox , Andy Hutchins , confessed that " a better title for the song might have been ' Dr. Pepper ' " . Website Popdust described the song as " outdated " , but at the same time catchy and funny . Hitfire praised the song 's refrain as being " earwhormy " and " trashy " . They went on saying that " Cherry Pop " " doesn 't reach the standards like of her previously launched songs , ' Mr. Saxobeat ' , ' Get Back ( ASAP ) ' and ' Lemonade ' " . Music website Pop Shock described the single as a " grower track " , while Robin Catling of Everything Express criticized " Cherry Pop " for being " irritating " . He went on saying that " the verse let down by an horrific chorus and a truly nasty backing track " . Website Adictivoz praised overall her album Unlocked , mentioning also that the song is " ironic " .
= = Commercial performance = =
According to the biggest Japanese profile site , Recochoku , " Cherry Pop " became the most sought ringtone on their website within two hours . The news that " Cherry Pop " achieved so much success in Japan came to Stan when she was on tour in Turkey . There , the organizers of her show displayed the sentence " Congratulations , Alexandra Stan , you 're number 1 ! " on the main screen of the club . The song entered the Japan Hot 100 at number 64 on 5 July 2014 . It subsequently leaved the chart after just one week . " Cherry Pop " debuted at number 82 on the Romanian Radio Airplay Chart ; it lasted for six weeks on that chart , with it reaching its peak position at number 44 . The track peaked at number two on the Turkish Number One Top 20 compiled on 6 September 2014 .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " Cherry Pop " was uploaded onto Stan 's YouTube channel on 28 May 2014 , where it has since amassed a total of 5 million views . The clip was shot by Khaled Mokhtar in Buftea , Romania in a set built specially for this project . The accompanying choreography was choreographed by Romanian performer Emil Rengle and the eight " shiny and glam " different outfits used for the video were designed by Andra Moga . Particularly , Stan described the video as incorporating " both a futuristic and a retro point of view " .
The video opens with Stan and some of her male back @-@ up dancers being presented in a dark white room . Subsequently , the room becomes enlightened and Stan is seen wearing transparent sunglasses , a white sweatband and a silver jacket . Following this , she retrieves a tennis racket from one of her background dancers and holds it in front of her face before returning the racket to a nearby dancer . Next , Stan performs the pre @-@ refrain of the song , while two female performers clutch a hair dryer in their hands . For the refrain , she and ten other female background dancers are performing synchronized dances , with them having wigs on , and dressing white clothing and red accessories . Following this , Stan is presented standing on a yellow plate which is kept in the air by two threads . She wears a silver leotard and a multicolored wig . Next , Stan is shown walking into a tennis field , whereon she plays a tennis match against herself . For the breakdown of " Cherry Pop " , the video gets introduced into a dark @-@ lighted room . There , her previously shown male background dancers are presented ; the video continues with Stan dancing accompanied by her dancers . The clip finally ends with a pink tennis ball dropping out of the ceiling , while the screen becomes black .
= = Live performances = =
On 12 December 2014 , Stan performed both " Cherry Pop " and " Vanilla Chocolat " on an episode of Vocea României . Shortly after her performance , juror Tudor Chirilă expressed how he was very disappointed by Stan 's act , as she didn 't provide live vocals . In an interview with Cancan , Stan confessed that " [ her ] conditions of appearance at Vocea României were previously discussed with the producers of the show , so no one should have been surprised about [ her ] performing playback " . " Cherry Pop " was included on the tracklist of her Unlocked Tour ( 2014 ) and her Cherry Pop Summer Tour ( 2014 ) .
= = Track listings = =
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= 1878 FA Cup Final =
The 1878 FA Cup Final was a football match between Wanderers and Royal Engineers on 23 March 1878 at Kennington Oval in London . It was the seventh final of the world 's oldest football competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( known in the modern era as the FA Cup ) . Wanderers had won the Cup in the previous two seasons and on four previous occasions in total , including the first FA Cup Final , in 1872 , in which they defeated the Engineers . The Engineers had also won the Cup , having defeated Old Etonians in the 1875 final .
Wanderers , who were considered firm favourites to win the Cup for the third consecutive season , took the lead after only five minutes through Jarvis Kenrick , but the Engineers quickly equalised . The cup @-@ holders regained their lead before half @-@ time and added a third goal after the interval to secure a 3 – 1 victory . Under the original rules of the competition , the Cup was retired and presented to the club on a permanent basis to mark their third straight win , but the Wanderers returned the Cup to The Football Association on the condition that it never again be won outright by any club .
= = Route to the final = =
Wanderers were the reigning cup holders and had also won the tournament in 1872 , 1873 and 1876 . In the first of these victories they had defeated the Royal Engineers . The Engineers had won the competition in 1875 . Both teams entered the competition at the first round stage . Wanderers were allocated a home tie against Panthers and easily defeated their opponents 9 – 1 , proceeding to the second round where they were paired with High Wycombe and again recorded a high @-@ scoring victory , winning 9 – 0 . Their opponents in the third round , Barnes , proved stronger opposition , particularly as key players such as Hon. Arthur Kinnaird were unavailable for the cup @-@ holders . The match ended in a 1 – 1 draw [ 1 ] necessitating a replay , which Wanderers ( back to full strength ) won 4 – 1 . In the quarter @-@ finals Wanderers defeated Sheffield 3 – 0 and then , with an uneven number of teams remaining in the competition , the team received a bye into the final .
The Engineers ' scheduled first round opponents were Highbury Union , but they withdrew from the competition , giving the Engineers a walkover victory . The " Sappers " , as the Royal Engineers regiment is traditionally nicknamed , went on to defeat Pilgrims 6 – 0 and Druids 8 – 0 , with hat @-@ tricks in both matches from Lieut . Robert Hedley , to reach the quarter @-@ finals where their opponents were 1874 cup @-@ winners Oxford University . The initial match finished in a 3 – 3 draw , and the replay also finished without a victor , ending 2 – 2 . Finally , the Engineers emerged victorious in a second replay , winning 4 – 2 . This set up a semi @-@ final match against Old Harrovians , the team for former pupils of Harrow School . The match was played at Kennington Oval and the Engineers reached the final by defeating the Harrovians 2 – 1 .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Wanderers , who were considered the firm favourites by the book @-@ makers , won the coin toss and chose to defend the Harleyford Road end of The Oval . The match drew a crowd estimated at 4 @,@ 500 spectators , the highest yet recorded for an FA Cup Final . Both teams played with two full @-@ backs , two half @-@ backs and six forwards ; the team captains were the Hon. Arthur Kinnaird and Lieut . Robert Hedley . The cup @-@ holders immediately dominated the game and Kinnaird quickly had an unsuccessful shot on goal . After only five minutes Henry Wace crossed the ball from a wide position and Jarvis Kenrick kicked the ball past the Engineers ' goalkeeper Lieut . Lovick Friend to give the Wanderers the lead . Approximately ten minutes later , Wanderers goalkeeper James Kirkpatrick suffered a broken arm during a tussle on the goal @-@ line , but managed to keep the ball out of the goal , and went on to play the remainder of the match despite his injury . In the 20th minute of the game , the Engineers scored an equalising goal . Some modern sources state that Lieut . William Morris scored the goal , however contemporary newspaper reports in The Field , The Sporting Life and Bell 's Life in London all state that Morris took a throw @-@ in which led to a " scrimmage " or " bully " in front of the Wanderers ' goal , out of which the ball was forced over the goal @-@ line .
Towards the end of the first half , the Wanderers were awarded a free kick . Kinnaird took the kick , which led to a second goal for the cup @-@ holders . Modern sources list Kinnaird as the goalscorer , but some contemporary reports suggest that , following his free kick , another " scrimmage " ensued in front of the Engineers ' goal before the ball was forced over the line . Shortly after the half @-@ time break , the Engineers ' captain Robert Hedley appeared to have scored a goal , but it was disallowed due to an infringement of the offside rule . After around twenty minutes of the second half , Kenrick scored his second goal following some skilful play by Hubert Heron , giving Wanderers a 3 – 1 lead which they retained until the end of the game .
= = = Details = = =
Match rules :
90 minutes normal time .
30 minutes extra @-@ time if scores are level , at captains ' discretion .
Replay if scores still level .
No substitutes .
= = Post @-@ match = =
As was the norm until 1882 , the winning team did not receive the trophy at the stadium on the day of the match , but later in the year at their annual dinner . Under the original rules of the competition , if a team won the Cup three times in succession , it would be retired and become their " absolute property " . Wanderers secretary C. W. Alcock , however , returned the Cup to The Football Association on the condition that the rule be removed and no other team permitted to win the Cup outright . The only other team to win the Cup in three successive seasons to date is Blackburn Rovers , who won it three times in a row in the 1880s . On this occasion the club was presented with a commemorative shield .
Three weeks after the Cup final , Wanderers played Scottish Cup winners Vale of Leven at Kennington Oval in a match for the unofficial " championship of Britain " . In front of a crowd of around 2 @,@ 000 spectators , Wanderers turned in what was regarded by the press as a sub @-@ standard performance and were defeated 3 – 1 .
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= Italian cruiser Ettore Fieramosca =
Ettore Fieramosca was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) built in the 1880s . She was the fourth and final member of the Etna class , which included three sister ships of slightly smaller dimensions . Named for the condottiero of the same name , she was the only member of her class not named for a volcano . The ship was laid down in December 1885 , launched in August 1888 , and was commissioned in November 1889 . She was armed with a main battery of two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) and six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , and could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Ettore Fieramosca had a relatively uneventful career ; her first decade in service was confined to the normal peacetime routine of training with the Italian fleet . She thereafter spent most of her career abroad , including a deployment to China to help suppress the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 and tours in African and North American waters in the mid @-@ 1900s . She was stricken from the naval register in July 1909 and sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
Compared to her half @-@ sisters , Ettore Fieramosca was almost 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) longer at 290 feet ( 88 @.@ 4 m ) between perpendiculars , and 10 inches ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) wider with a beam of 43 feet 4 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) . She had a mean draft of 18 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) and displaced 3 @,@ 538 long tons ( 3 @,@ 595 t ) . Her crew numbered 17 officers and 298 men . Designed to be a half @-@ knot faster than her sisters , the ship had two horizontal compound steam engines , each driving a single propeller , with steam provided by four double @-@ ended cylindrical boilers . Ettore Fieramosca was the fastest ship in her class and reached a maximum speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) from 7 @,@ 000 ihp ( 5 @,@ 200 kW ) during her sea trials . She had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the ships consisted of two Armstrong 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) , 30 @-@ caliber breech @-@ loading guns mounted in barbettes fore and aft . She was also equipped with six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , 32 @-@ caliber , breech @-@ loading guns that were carried in sponsons along the sides of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defense , Ettore Fieramosca was fitted with six 57 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . Ettore Fieramosca was also armed with three 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with an armored deck below the waterline with a maximum thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . The conning tower had .5 in ( 13 mm ) worth of armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Ettore Fieramosca was built by the Regia Marina shipyard in Livorno . Her keel was laid down on 31 December 1885 and her completed hull was launched on 30 August 1888 . After fitting @-@ out work was finished , she was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 16 November 1889 . Ettore Fieramosca and her sisters Vesuvio and Stromboli participated in the 1893 naval maneuvers as part of the Squadron of Maneuvers . Stomboli and Ettore Fieramosca next participated in the 1896 naval maneuvers as part of the Maneuver Fleet . In 1897 , Enrico Toti served aboard the ship . Ettore Fieramosca and Vesuvio were sent to China in 1900 to assist the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance in putting down the Boxer Rebellion there .
Ettore Fieramosca returned to Italy and made a cruise off East Africa in 1905 . She then sailed across the Atlantic and made a number of port visits in South America . The ship was then assigned to the American Squadron and refitted in Boston in November 1906 . In 1908 she visited Bridgeport in the United States for celebrations on Columbus Day . There , bluejackets from Ettore Fieramosca and the US battleship USS New Hampshire marched in a parade . Upon her return to Italy in 1909 Ettore Fieramosca was struck off the naval register on 15 July 1909 and sold for scrap .
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= Mike Jackson ( right @-@ handed pitcher ) =
Michael Ray " Mike " Jackson ( born December 22 , 1964 ) is a former professional baseball player whose career spanned 19 seasons , 16 of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Jackson , a relief pitcher for the majority of his career , compiled a career earned run average ( ERA ) of 3 @.@ 42 , allowing 451 earned runs off of 983 hits , 127 home runs , and 464 walks while recording 1 @,@ 006 strikeouts over 1 @,@ 005 games pitched .
Standing 6 feet 1 inch ( 185 cm ) and weighing 185 pounds ( 84 kg ) , he made his professional debut in 1984 for the minor @-@ league Spartanburg Suns , an affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies . After battling arm injuries in the early 1990s , Jackson reestablished himself as a top relief pitcher for the Reds in 1995 and went on to pitch in the 1997 World Series for the Indians . After one @-@ year stints with the Astros , Twins , and White Sox , Jackson retired from baseball in 2005 .
= = Early life = =
Jackson was born on December 22 , 1964 , in Houston , Texas . He attended high school at Forest Brook , and later attended college at Hill College in Texas .
= = Career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies ( 1984 – 1987 ) = = =
Jackson entered the Major League Baseball Draft in 1983 , where he was selected by the Philadelphia Phillies in the 29th round . He did not sign with the Phillies , and reentered the draft in 1984 where was again drafted by the Phillies in the second round of the January Secondary amateur draft . Jackson signed a $ 60 @,@ 000 contract with the club on April 27 , 1984 .
Jackson began playing minor league baseball for the single @-@ A Spartanburg Suns , a minor league affiliate of the Phillies , in 1984 . Over 80 @.@ 2 innings pitched , Jackson recorded an earned run average ( ERA ) of 2 @.@ 68 , third best on his team . While batting , he recorded the best batting average and slugging percentage on the team , hitting .368 and slugging .526 .
Jackson continued his minor league career in 1985 , playing for the Peninsula Pilots of the Carolina League . Unlike the previous year where he started all 14 games he pitched , Jackson roughly split the 1985 season between starting games and serving as a reliever , starting 18 games but pitching in 31 . For the season , Jackson led the Pilots in losses , with nine , while allowing the most hits , runs , and earned runs among team members .
In 1986 , he played in three different leagues : Double @-@ A , Triple @-@ A , and in the Major Leagues . In Double @-@ A , Jackson played for the Reading Phillies , recording a 1 @.@ 66 ERA over 43 @.@ 1 innings pitched . He played Triple @-@ A ball for the Portland Beavers before making his major league debut for the Philadelphia Phillies on August 11 , 1986 . For his debut , Jackson pitched a perfect inning in relief of Dan Schatzeder in a game against the New York Mets . Jackson finished the 1986 Major League season with a 3 @.@ 38 ERA , allowing five runs off of 12 hits and becoming the seventh youngest player in the National League that year .
Jackson played almost the entire 1987 season for the Philadelphia Phillies , also making two starts for the Maine Guides . During the season , he compiled a 4 @.@ 20 ERA with three wins and 10 losses . After the season , on December 9 , 1987 , Jackson was traded , along with Glenn Wilson and Dave Brundage , to the Seattle Mariners . In exchange , the Phillies received pitcher Tim Fortugno , who never made a professional appearance for the Phillies , and an outfielder , Phil Bradley . Author Rich Westcott would later call Jackson " a good one who got away " in reference to the Phillies trade .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = =
From 1988 to 1991 , Jackson played for the Seattle Mariners . In 1988 and 1989 , Jackson finished in the top ten in the American League for most games pitched , with 62 and 65 , respectively , while recording a 2 @.@ 90 ERA over 198 @.@ 2 innings pitched for the two seasons . In 1991 , while facing the Kansas City Royals , he allowed Stu Cole 's only Major League hit while pitching in the bottom of the 13th inning .
After spending four seasons with the Mariners , Jackson was traded , along with Bill Swift and Dave Burba , to the San Francisco Giants . The Mariners , in return for Swift , Burba , and Jackson , acquired outfielder Kevin Mitchell and pitcher Mike Remlinger . This trade received criticism , being called " possibly the worst trade in [ Mariners ] history . "
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 1992 – 1994 ) = = =
Jackson , now with a salary of $ 1 @,@ 666 @,@ 667 , made his debut for the Giants on April 7 , 1992 , in a game against the Los Angeles Dodgers . Jackson allowed one walk in one inning pitched , while finishing the 1992 season with a 3 @.@ 73 ERA , 80 strikeouts , and one save . He led his team in games pitched , with 67 , the second highest total in his Giants career .
In 1993 he led the Major Leagues in games pitched , with 81 , while also leading the Majors in holds , with 33 . The 1994 MLB season was Shortened to 115 games for the Giants ; however , over 36 games pitched , Jackson led National League relievers in ERA ( 1 @.@ 49 ) , opponents average ( .164 ) , and hits per 9 @.@ 0 innings pitched ( 4 @.@ 9 ) while finishing second in strikeouts per 9 @.@ 0 innings pitched ( 10 @.@ 84 ) . The already shortened season was again shortened for Jackson due to tendinitis in his right elbow . This led to two stints on the disabled list : one from June 17 until July 2 , and another from July 6 until the end of the season . On October 17 , 1994 , Jackson was granted free agency .
= = = Cincinnati Reds ( 1995 ) = = =
Jackson signed with the Cincinnati Reds on April 8 , 1995 . Again he struggled with injury , and was placed on the disabled list once for tendinitis in his right shoulder and once for a strained rib cage muscle . In his only year with the club , Jackson posted a team @-@ best 2 @.@ 39 ERA , while recording 41 strikeouts over 40 games . Jackson and the Reds made the playoffs , winning the National League Divisional Series but losing the National League Championship Series to the Atlanta Braves in four games . Jackson was granted free agency on November 3 , 1995 .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 1996 ) = = =
In 1996 , Jackson signed a $ 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 contract , which included a $ 400 @,@ 000 earned bonus , with the Seattle Mariners . Jackson averaged nearly nine strikeouts per 9 @.@ 0 innings pitched ( 70 strikeouts / 72 @.@ 0 innings pitched ) . After the season , Baseball Digest called Jackson " a competent and underappreciated setup man " . The Mariners did not resign Jackson , on the grounds that Jackson 's new contract would be too expensive .
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = =
In 1997 , Jackson signed a three year , six million dollar contract with the Cleveland Indians . Jackson served as the primary setup man to closer José Mesa for the first half of the season , but took over the closer position while Mesa answered to charges of rape . Finishing the year with an 86 – 75 record , the Indians finished first in the American League Central and made the playoffs . After winning against the New York Yankees in the American League Divisional Series ( ALDS ) and the Baltimore Orioles in the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) , the Indians played in the World Series against the Florida Marlins . In the World Series , Jackson recorded an ERA of 1 @.@ 93 over four games pitched , although the Indians lost the World Series , four games to three .
After the Indians traded Mesa to the Giants in July 1998 , Jackson became the Indians primary closer , recording 40 saves over 64 @.@ 0 innings pitched and leading the team in games finished , saves , and games pitched . The Indians again made the postseason , but were eliminated by the New York Yankees in the ALCS .
Jackson finished the 1999 season with Cleveland , ranking fourth in the American League in saves , with 39 . Jackson recorded his 100th career save against the Minnesota Twins on April 11 , and made his 800th career appearance on July 3 against the Kansas City Royals before he was granted free agency on October 28 of that year .
= = = 2000 onward = = =
Jackson signed with the Phillies in 2000 but did not pitch due to discomfort in his right shoulder the first time Jackson warmed up to pitch in a game for Philadelphia . On May 26 , Jackson had season @-@ ending arthroscopic surgery to repair a SLAP tear in his right shoulder .
Jackson signed with the Houston Astros the next year . The Astros , National League Central champions , earned a spot in the playoffs , but were eliminated by the Atlanta Braves in the Divisional series . After his season with the Astros , in 2002 , Jackson signed as a non @-@ roster invitee with the Minnesota Twins , helping them to finish 94 – 67 and leading them to a playoff appearance , where he recorded a 27 @.@ 00 ERA over three games pitched in the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) . The Twins lost the ALCS in five games . Jackson was granted free agency later that year .
On January 29 , 2003 , Jackson signed for the Arizona Diamondbacks , but did not play a major league or minor league game for the franchise . The Diamondbacks released Jackson on March 29 , 2003 , before the season began . Jackson later stated :
I know it 's a numbers game and nothing I could control , but I was disappointed that I had to sit at home [ for the 2003 season ] . If teams want to base their decision about me on spring training as opposed to what I ’ ve accomplished over the years , then I don ’ t know what to say .
In his last professional season , Jackson signed as a non @-@ roster invitee with the Chicago White Sox . For the season , Jackson recorded an ERA of 5 @.@ 01 , allowing 31 runs over 46 @.@ 2 innings pitched . The White Sox released Jackson on September 2 , 2004 .
= = Personal life = =
Jackson is married to Tammy Jackson and has four children : Lindsey , Ryan , Amber and Michael .
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= M @-@ 212 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 212 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway was designated in order to provide access from M @-@ 33 to both the small community of Aloha on the eastern shore of Mullett Lake , as well as to Aloha State Park , where the highway ends . M @-@ 212 is the shortest signed state highway in Michigan , beating out the second shortest , M @-@ 239 , which registers at 1 @.@ 136 miles ( 1 @.@ 828 km ) . M @-@ 212 even beats out Michigan 's shortest signed business route , BUS M @-@ 32 in Hillman , which comes in at 0 @.@ 738 miles ( 1 @.@ 188 km ) , only about six @-@ thousandths of a mile longer , or about 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) .
M @-@ 212 was assigned on December 29 , 1937 , from the intersection with Second Street to an intersection with US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) . In 1940 , the state of Michigan rerouted US 23 and replaced it with M @-@ 33 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 212 begins at an intersection with Second Street and the Tromble Trail north of the entrance to Aloha State Park in the community of Aloha . The community was originally a stop on the Detroit and Mackinac Railway that was named after a trip to Hawaii by the local sawmill owner . Progressing eastward , M @-@ 212 intersects with Third Street and Fourth Street , both of which are just separated by woodlands and residences . To the north of the highway , there is all woodlands and residences . To the south , there are just a few residences . After a while , there is a large clearing , which gives way to a farm to the north and more residences to the south . After the farm there is a large field and M @-@ 212 terminates at an intersection with M @-@ 33 in Aloha Township .
= = History = =
The Michigan State Highway Department assigned M @-@ 212 to its current alignment in Aloha Township from what was then US 23 on December 29 , 1937 . The route has remained mainly intact since its assignment . Originally , US 23 ran along the highway at the eastern terminus of M @-@ 212 , but the highway department realigned the highway onto an alignment along the shore of Lake Huron in 1940 ; that year , the highway department replaced the former US 23 alignment with the designation of M @-@ 33 , which has remained there since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Aloha Township , Cheboygan County .
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= Brunette Coleman =
Brunette Coleman was a pseudonym used by the poet and writer Philip Larkin . In 1943 , towards the end of his time as an undergraduate at St John 's College , Oxford , he wrote several works of fiction , verse and critical commentary under that name . The style he adopted parodies that of popular writers of contemporary girls ' school fiction , but the extent of the stories ' homoerotic content suggests they were written primarily for adult male titillation .
The Coleman oeuvre consists of a completed novella , Trouble at Willow Gables , set in a girls ' boarding school ; an incomplete sequel , Michaelmas Term at St Brides , set in a women 's college at Oxford ; seven short poems with a girls ' school ambience ; a fragment of pseudo @-@ autobiography ; and a critical essay purporting to be Coleman 's literary apologia . The manuscripts were stored in the Brynmor Jones Library at the University of Hull , where Larkin was chief librarian between 1955 and 1985 . Their existence was revealed to the public when Larkin 's Selected Letters and Andrew Motion 's biography were published in 1992 and 1993 respectively . The Coleman works themselves were finally published , with other Larkin drafts and oddments , in 2002 .
At Oxford Larkin underwent a period of confused sexuality and limited literary output . The adoption of a female persona appeared to release him from his creative inhibitions , as in the three years following the Coleman phase he published under his own name two novels and his first poetry collection . Thereafter , although he gradually established his reputation as a poet , his career as a prose writer declined , and despite several attempts he completed no further fiction . Critical reaction to the publication of the Coleman material was divided between those who saw no value in these juvenilia , and those who considered that they cast useful light on the study of the mature Larkin .
= = Origins = =
In October 1940 Philip Larkin began studying English at St John 's College , Oxford . A prolific writer since childhood , his primary ambition as an undergraduate was to be a novelist rather than a poet . As well publishing articles and poems in Cherwell and Oxford Poetry , he wrote additional unpublished material that included fragments of semi @-@ autobiographical stories exploring homosexual relationships among groups of undergraduates . According to Larkin 's biographer Andrew Motion these writings , while of no literary value , give an indication of Larkin 's confused sexuality at that time , and his growing distaste for what he terms " this buggery business " .
From 1942 the character of much of Larkin 's private writing changed , as a result of his friendship with a fellow undergraduate from St John 's , Kingsley Amis , who arrived at the university that summer . Amis , a much more confident and assertive character than Larkin , disguised his serious concerns behind a facade of jokes and comic ironies . Larkin soon adopted that style as his own , joining with Amis in composing obscene rhymes and parodies of the Romantic poets they were required to study . In time they extended their efforts to soft @-@ porn fantasies in which , typically , " girls roll [ ed ] around together twanging elastic and straps " . After Amis 's departure for the army in early 1943 , Larkin made his first attempt at writing from a specifically feminine perspective in a story called " An Incident in the English Camp " , which he subtitled " A Thoroughly Unhealthy Story " . Lacking any salacious content despite its subtitle , the work is written in a pastiche of sentimental women 's magazine prose . It depicts an undergraduate girl 's parting from her soldier lover , and ends : " She walked in exaltation through the black streets , her heart glowing like a coal with deep love " .
= = Writing = =
From his general reading , Larkin had acquired a considerable knowledge of girls ' school fiction , and had formed definite views on the authors of such works : " stupid women without a grain of humour in their minds " , who lacked " erotic sensibility " and treated the lesbian perspective " too casually " . His intention to write in this genre is expressed in a letter to his friend Norman Iles , dated 5 June 1943 , just before Larkin sat his degree Finals : " I am spending my time doing an obscene Lesbian novel in the form of a school story " . The novel was Trouble at Willow Gables , a school adventure story in the manner of Dorita Fairlie Bruce or Dorothy Vicary , which Larkin completed at home while awaiting his Finals results . That was the prelude to a busy summer 's writing : " Leaving Oxford was like taking a cork out of a bottle . Writing flooded out of me " , Larkin later told his biographer .
Larkin 's letter to Iles does not mention a female pseudonym , although the idea of using one had been in his mind for months . The previous March he had begun writing the imagined autobiography of a supposed lady novelist , " Brunette Coleman " , adapting the name of a well @-@ known contemporary female jazz musician , Blanche Coleman . Larkin tentatively titled the autobiography " Ante Meridian " ; he soon abandoned it , but held on to the Coleman name . According to James Booth , who prepared the Coleman texts for publication in 2002 , the adoption of a female persona was in line with the pose of " girlish narcissism " that Larkin was affecting in the summer of 1943 : " I am dressed in red trousers , shirt and white pullover , and look very beautiful " . In his letters to Amis , Larkin maintained a straight @-@ faced pretence that Coleman was a real person . Thus in one letter he wrote " Brunette is very thrilled " with a poem written in her name , and in another , " Brunette can stand healthy criticism " .
As he waited for offers of employment through the summer and autumn of 1943 , Larkin added more works to the Coleman oeuvre . He began a sequel to Trouble at Willow Gables , set in a women 's college at Oxford and entitled Michaelmas Term at St Bride 's , but did not finish it : " All literary inspiration has deserted me " , he informed Amis on 13 August . Nevertheless , a week later he told Amis that Brunette was helping him to write a novel , provisionally entitled Jill , about " a young man who invents an imaginary sister , and falls in love with her " . With this letter Larkin sent a Coleman poem , " Bliss " , the first of seven written in the girls ' school idiom . As late as 19 October he reported to Amis that " Brunette is working on a little monograph about girls ' school stories " . This is a reference to the putative literary manifesto " What Are We Writing For " , which became the final Coleman work . Thereafter , Motion records , she disappeared , " to be mentioned only fleetingly in later accounts of his university life ... She ended up as an occasional comic reminder of lost youth " .
= = Works = =
The works which Larkin attributed to Brunette Coleman comprise a short piece of supposed autobiography , a complete short novel , an incomplete second novel , a collection of poems and a literary essay .
= = = " Ante Meridian " = = =
This fragment of spoof autobiography is distinct from the rest of the Coleman oeuvre in having no relation to girls ' school fiction . It records Brunette 's early life as the daughter of an eccentric priest , brought up in a tumbledown Cornish cliff @-@ top house . Apart from descriptions of the house and its contents ( some of which may be drawn from Larkin 's own childhood home in Coventry ) , much of the narrative is taken up with a comical description of an attempt to launch the local lifeboat . Larkin 's biographer Richard Bradford is struck by the distinctive tone in the fragment , different from anything else written under Coleman 's name . The text breaks off suddenly ; Motion surmises that Larkin abandoned it because he was eager to begin work on the first Coleman novel . Booth describes the prose as " a mix of Daphne du Maurier nostalgia and surreal farce " .
= = = Novel : Trouble at Willow Gables = = =
= = = = Synopsis = = = =
Marie Moore , a junior pupil at Willow Gables , receives a birthday present of £ 5 from an aunt . After the banknote is retained for safe keeping by the headmistress , Miss Holden , Marie slyly recovers it but is quickly found out , and is coerced by Miss Holden into giving the money to the school 's gymnasium fund . When later the banknote goes missing from the fund 's collection box , Marie is suspected , but protests her innocence despite a savage beating from Miss Holden with assistance from two burly school prefects . Only her friend Myfanwy believes her . Confined in the school 's punishment room , Marie manages to escape with the help of a domestic servant , and runs away .
Hilary Russell , a prefect and predatory lesbian , lusts after Mary Beech , the school 's cricket captain . On a night expedition in pursuit of Mary , Hilary catches Margaret Tattenham , a junior , in the act of replacing the £ 5 note in Miss Holden 's room . Margaret says she originally took the money as a prank ; Hilary agrees not to report her to Miss Holden in return for sexual favours , to which Margaret reluctantly consents . The following morning , Hilary denounces her anyway ; Margaret responds by revealing Hilary 's sexual harassment but is not believed , and is taken to the punishment room where Marie 's absence is revealed .
Hilary is sent with a search party to find the missing girl . Meanwhile , Margaret makes a daring escape via the window , and rides off on the school horse . She finds Marie , who is miserable and frightened and wants to return to the school whatever the consequences . Margaret confesses that she borrowed the £ 5 to bet on a horse , and has won £ 100 . She means to leave Willow Gables for good , and apologises to Marie for the trouble she has caused her . This conversation is overheard by Hilary 's search party , and after a scuffle the truants are captured . On the way back to school they hear cries from the river ; it is Myfanwy , who has got into difficulties while swimming . Margaret frees herself from her captors ' clutches , dives in and saves her drowning friend .
Back at the school , Miss Holden overlooks the theft in view of Margaret 's heroism , although she confiscates the £ 100 winnings and donates the money to a new swimming pool fund . Marie is exonerated , and her £ 5 is returned . Mary Beech comes forward to corroborate Margaret 's accusations against Hilary , who is summarily expelled . Marie and Myfanwy enjoy an emotional reunion in the school sickroom , as life at the school returns to normal , with friendship and forgiveness all round .
= = = = Commentary = = = =
The typescript begins with a dedication page " To Jacinth " ( Brunette Coleman 's imagined secretary ) . There follows an untitled poem which later appears , slightly altered , as " The School in August " in Sugar and Spice , the Coleman poetry collection . In the story the surnames of the headmistress and principal girls have been altered in ink throughout the typescript ; some of the original names belonged to Larkin 's real @-@ life acquaintances at Oxford . The presence of a publisher 's inkstamp on the wallet containing the typescript indicates that the story may have been submitted by Larkin for publication .
Booth argues that , whatever Larkin 's motive in writing it , the story follows the parameters of schoolgirl fiction with some fidelity . Its main characters all have models within the genre ; Marie has much in common with Dorita Fairlie Bruce 's recurrent character " Dimsie " , while Hilary is likewise based on Dorothy Vicary 's villainous " Una Vickers " in Niece of the Headmistress . The usual themes of friendships , rivalries and injustices are explored , and the ending in reconciliation and future hope is entirely true to type . Some scenes — the savage beating endured by Marie , the lingering descriptions of girls dressing and undressing , Hilary 's smouldering sexuality — may , Booth asserts , be written with " the lusts of the male heterosexual gaze " in mind but , he continues , the reader looking for explicit pornography will be disappointed . Bradford notes three prose styles combining in the narrative : " cautious indifference , archly overwritten symbolism ... and ... its writer 's involuntary feelings of sexual excitement " . Motion finds the tone of the prose frivolous on the surface , yet fundamentally cold and cruel : " Once its women have been arraigned for pleasure they are dismissed ; once they have been enjoyed they are treated with indifference " .
= = = Novel : Michaelmas Term at St Brides = = =
= = = = Synopsis = = = =
In this incomplete story Mary , Marie , Margaret and Myfanwy , friends from Willow Gables , are new undergraduates at St Bride 's College , Oxford . Mary is disconcerted to find that she is sharing her rooms with Hilary , her old adversary from the school . However , although Hilary still has a roving lesbian eye , she has lost most of her predatory instincts and the two become friends . Mary falls foul of Mary de Putron , the aggressive and authoritarian college games captain ; in the hockey trials de Putron makes Mary play out of her normal position , so that performs badly . Hilary subsequently avenges Mary 's humiliation by seducing de Putron 's boyfriend , a gauche Royal Air Force officer called Clive , whom she then dumps unceremoniously .
Of Myfanwy 's doings we learn relatively little . Margaret , still fascinated with horse @-@ racing , sets up her own bookmaking business . Marie discovers psychoanalysis and tries to cure her sister Philippa 's leather belt fetish . After various efforts prove unsuccessful , the sisters seek solace in alcohol . The later stages of the story introduce Larkin 's real @-@ life friend , Diana Gollancz , and recount her preparations for a fashionable party . In the final scenes the narrative becomes surreal , as on their alcoholic quest Marie and Philippa are confronted by the knowledge that they are characters in a story , while " real life " is going on in the next room . Marie takes a peep at real life , and decides she would rather stay in the story , which breaks off at this point with a few pencil notes indicating possible ways in which it might have continued .
= = = = Commentary = = = =
Only the first dozen pages of the manuscript are typed ; the remainder is handwritten . The surnames of the characters , which were changed in Trouble at Willow Gables , are unaltered . The script carries a dedication to " Miriam and Diana " : Miriam was an acquaintance with whom Larkin had discussed lesbian relationships , while Diana Gollancz ( " Diana G. " in the story ) , the daughter of the publisher Victor Gollancz , supplied him with many anecdotes from her schooldays . According to Motion , " St Bride 's " is recognisably based on Somerville College , Oxford .
In his analysis of the Coleman fiction , Stephen Cooper notes that , as with Willow Gables , the narrative voice switches from character to character so that different thoughts , attitudes and perspectives can be expressed . Cooper argues that as the narrative progresses , Larkin 's concerns ( in his Coleman voice ) move beyond sexual titillation ; he is no longer interested in describing lesbian encounters in voyeuristic detail . Hilary emerges as saviour rather than seducer , as a campaigner against male oppression , and as a figure who " deviates from the cultural norms [ yet ] can triumph over those who adopt conventional attitudes " . The scenes with sexual content or innuendo are largely confined to the earlier parts of the story . The later parts , which introduce the male characters " Clive " and Hilary 's other admirer , the contemptible " Creature " are , according to Motion , overlaid with male self @-@ disgust , a theme apparent in Larkin 's two published novels and in his later poetry . Motion suggests that the loss of erotic impetus , and Larkin 's apparent fading of interest , are the main reasons why the story peters out .
= = = Sugar and Spice : A Sheaf of Poems = = =
The typescript of Sugar and Spice consists of six poems , which in sequence are : " The False Friend " , " Bliss " , " Femmes Damnées " , " Ballade des Dames du Temps Jadis " , " Holidays " and " The School in August " . A seventh poem in pencil , " Fourth Form Loquitur " has been loosely inserted into the typescript . " Femmes Damnées " , which was printed by John Fuller at the Sycamore Press , Oxford , in 1978 , is the only Coleman work published in Larkin 's lifetime . This poem , and " The School in August " , were included in Larkin 's Collected Poems published in 1988 ; " The School in August " was omitted from the 2003 revised edition of the collection although , according to Amis , it is the poem that best gives the flavour of the Coleman pastiche . " Bliss " was included in Larkin 's Selected Letters ( 1992 ) , as part of a letter to Amis .
Motion describes the Coleman poems as " a world of comfortless jealousies , breathless bike @-@ rides and deathless crushes " , mixing elements from writers and poets such as Angela Brazil , Richmal Crompton , John Betjeman and W.H. Auden . Larkin 's own attitude to these poems appears equivocal . He expresses pleasure that his friend Bruce Montgomery liked them , especially " The School in August " . However , to Amis he writes : " I think all wrong @-@ thinking people ought to like them . I used to write them whenever I 'd seen any particularly ripe schoolgirl ... Writing about grown women is less perverse and therefore less satisfying " . Booth finds the poems the most impressive of all the Coleman works , in their evidence of Larkin 's early ability to create striking and moving images from conventional school story clichés . They are an early demonstration of Larkin 's talent for finding depths in ordinariness , an ability that characterised many of his later poems . Booth draws specific attention to the elegiac quality of the final lines of " The School in August " : " And even swimming groups can fade / Games mistresses turn grey " . In Booth 's view the Coleman poems are among the best Larkin wrote in the 1940s , well beyond anything in his first published selection The North Ship ( 1945 ) .
= = = " What Are We Writing For " = = =
The typescript of the essay is headed by an epigraph , attributed to The Upbringing of Daughters by Catherine Durning Whethem . It reads : " The chief justification of reading books of any sort is the enlargement of experience that should accrue therefrom " . The text which follows is , in Motion 's words , " a homily on how and how not to write for children " . It argues for the need for well @-@ drawn heroines , and for unrepentant villainesses : " To be tenacious in evil is the duty of every villain ... Let her hate the heroine wholeheartedly , and refuse , yes , even on the last page , to take her hand in forgiveness " . The story should not be about schoolgirls , but about a school with girls in it . The school must be English ; foreign settings or trips abroad are disparaged . Larkin , in Coleman 's voice , pleads for " the Classic Unities " : Unity of Place , which is the school and its inhabitants ; Unity of Time , normally the term in which the action occurs ; and Unity of Action , whereby every recorded incident contributes in some way to the telling of the story . The essay is laden with quotations from many writers of the genre , among them Joy Francis , Dorita Fairlie Bruce , Elsie J. Oxenham , Elinor Brent @-@ Dyer and Nancy Breary .
Motion argues that aside from the sometimes facetious tone , the opinions expressed by Larkin in his Coleman persona , particularly the mild xenophobia that enters the essay , foreshadow his own mature prejudices . Bradford believes that the essay reads as a serious , well @-@ researched paper on the genre of early twentieth century boarding school literature , worthy of inclusion in F. W. Bateson 's Essays and Criticism had that journal existed in 1943 .
= = Critical reception = =
Shortly before his death in 1985 Larkin instructed his companion Monica Jones to burn his diaries . His instructions did not cover other writings , therefore the Coleman material remained in the archives of the Brynmor Jones Library at the University of Hull , where Larkin had worked as chief librarian since 1955 . The existence of these papers was first made public in 1992 , when Larkin 's Selected Letters was published . In the following year extensive extracts from the Coleman works appeared in Motion 's biography of Larkin , and became the subject of literary analysis by M. W. Rowe , in his 1999 essay " Unreal Girls : Lesbian Fantasy in Early Larkin " . Rowe saw Larkin 's adoption of a female persona as an outlet , compensating for his sexual awkwardness and lack of success with Oxford women . The punishment scenes , in which women punish women , were a means of subduing Larkin 's feelings of anger and frustration with his personal sexual failures . More significantly , according to Rowe , Larkin 's invention of Coleman was the catalyst which broke the writing block that had afflicted him for most of his Oxford years . The few months of her creative life in 1943 were , Larkin later acknowledged , the prelude to " the intensest time of my life " ; in the three subsequent years his poetry collection The North Ship and his novels Jill and A Girl in Winter were published .
The complete Coleman material , in a collection edited by James Booth , was finally published in 2002 . Booth thought that the material would probably cause " a huge amount of confusion and smoke because the politically correct brigade will jump on it " . Anticipating the publication , Emma Hartley and Vanessa Thorpe in The Observer doubted the literary value of the works , citing Motion 's view that the stories were " little more than mild pornography " which the mature poet would never have wished to see published . On publication , Booth 's collection provoked a particularly hostile reaction from The Guardian 's critic Jenny Diski , whose review dismissed the Coleman writings as " drivel " and " sad ramblings " , unworthy of publication or critical attention , and not even valid pornography : " Not a breast , not a clitoris is seen or mentioned . " Unlike serious pornographers , " Larkin sketches a mere outline and then walks away with a snigger " . Diski mocks Booth 's reverential descriptions of the typescripts " as though they were slivers of the True Cross " , and concludes : " Let this be a lesson , at least , to anyone who hasn 't got around to chucking out the crap they wrote in their teens and early twenties . "
Other critics were more positive . The New Statesman 's Robert Potts found the stories " entertaining and intriguing for readers familiar with their background and with the genre " , and for the most part charmingly innocent , " especially when compared with the reality of boarding @-@ school life " . The evocation of adolescent homoeroticism was deliberate and playful rather than pornographic . In a similar vein , Richard Canning in The Independent found the Willow Gables fiction vibrant , well @-@ constructed and entertaining , and praised Larkin 's " sly Sapphic spin " . In a more recent analysis Terry Castle , writing in the journal Daedalus , disagrees profoundly with the notion expressed by Adam Kirsch in The Times Literary Supplement , that the publication of the Coleman works was damaging to Larkin 's reputation . On the contrary , argues Castle , " the Brunette phase speaks volumes about the paradoxical process by which Philip Larkin became ' Larkinesque ' — modern English poetry 's reigning bard of erotic frustration and depressive ( if verse @-@ enabling ) self @-@ deprecation " .
= = Influences = =
The effects of Larkin 's Coleman phase are clearly evident in his first novel , Jill , in which he makes copious use of Willow Gables material . The novelist 's protagonist , a shy Oxford undergraduate called John Kemp , invents a schoolgirl sister called Jill , initially to impress his arrogant and dismissive room @-@ mate , Christopher Warner . Although Warner displays little interest , the non @-@ existent " Jill " comes to obsess Kemp . He imagines her at Willow Gables School , and writes long letters to her there . In the form of a short story he details her life at the school — now located in Derbyshire rather than Wiltshire as it had been in the Coleman works . The girls ' names are different , but their speech and attitudes closely reflect those of the earlier stories . A lesbian element is introduced through Jill 's fascination with the cool , detached senior girl Minerva Strachey . Kemp 's fantasy is disturbed when he meets a real @-@ life Jill , or Gillian ; his attempts to match his flight of fancy to reality end in embarrassment and humiliation .
Reviewing the published Coleman material , The Independent 's Richard Canning suggests that the influence of these early works is often discernible in Larkin 's poetry . Likewise Stephen Cooper , in his 2004 book Philip Larkin : Subversive Writer , argues that the stylistic and thematic influences of Trouble at Willow Gables and Michaelmas Term at St Brides anticipate the poetry 's recurrent concern with rebellion and conformity . Among examples , Cooper cites Marie 's refusal in Willow Gables to compromise with an unjust authority as reflecting the sentiments expressed in Larkin 's poem " Places , Loved Ones " ( 1954 ) . The reader , says Cooper , " is invited to identify with Marie 's plight in a manner that foreshadows the empathy felt for the rape victim in ' Deception ' " ( 1950 ) . When Marie , having escaped from the school , discovers that her freedom is an illusion , she longs to return to the familiar paths . These sentiments are present in poems such as " Poetry of Departures " ( 1954 ) , " Here " ( 1961 ) , and " High Windows " ( 1967 ) .
The spirit though not the name of Brunette was briefly revived during 1945 – 46 , when Larkin renewed his friendship with Amis . Among the stillborn projects planned by the pair was a story about two beautiful jazz @-@ loving lesbian undergraduates . According to Booth , the " feeble plot [ was ] merely the excuse for lesbian scenes ... far indeed from the originality of Larkin 's Brunette works of 1943 " . Jill , completed in 1944 , was finally published in October 1946 by The Fortune Press , whose eccentric proprietor Reginald Caton reportedly accepted the book without reading it . Larkin was disappointed by the book 's critical reception , but by this time his second novel , A Girl in Winter , had been accepted by Faber and Faber , and was duly published in February 1947 . It received better reviews than Jill , and achieved moderately good sales ; Booth calls it Larkin 's " most original and adventurous experiment in fiction " . It is written from the viewpoint of its main female character , Katherine , but otherwise is unrelated to the Coleman phase . Over the following years Larkin began but failed to finish several more novels , in the last of which , A New World Symphony , he returned once again to the device of a female protagonist @-@ narrator . The novel was finally abandoned around 1954 .
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= Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Miami =
The Archdiocese of Miami is a particular church of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States of America . Its ecclesiastic territory includes Broward , Miami @-@ Dade , and Monroe counties in the U.S. state of Florida . The archdiocese is the metropolitan see for the Ecclesiastical Province of Miami , which covers Florida . The archbishop is Thomas Wenski . As archbishop , he also serves as pastor of the Cathedral of Saint Mary , the mother church of the archdiocese . Also serving are 428 priests , 160 permanent deacons , 50 religious brothers and 300 religious sisters who are members of various religious institutes . These priests , deacons and persons religious serve a Catholic population in South Florida of 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in 118 parishes and missions .
Because of the vast number of immigrants , Mass is offered in at least a dozen languages in parishes throughout the archdiocese . Educational institutions consist of two schools for the disabled , 60 elementary / middle schools , 13 high schools , two universities , and two seminaries . Radio , print , and television media outlets owned and operated by the archdiocese supplement teaching , communication , and ministries .
Several social service organizations are operated by the archdiocese which include two hospitals , nine health care centers , three homes for the aged , and two cemeteries . Charities include homeless shelters , legal services for the poor , an HIV / AIDS ministry , and the Missionaries of Charity and Society of Saint Vincent de Paul ministries to the poor . Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Miami is a separate non @-@ profit organization operated by the archdiocese . It claims to be the largest non @-@ governmental provider of social services to the needy in South Florida .
= = History = =
Before 1952 , the entire State of Florida was under the jurisdiction of one diocese , the Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Augustine . In the 1950s and early 1960s , Saint Augustine bishop Joseph Patrick Hurley purchased land throughout South Florida in anticipation of a future population boom . Today , these once remote areas are thriving cities . Dozens of Catholic churches , schools and cemeteries built on the land purchased by Hurley dot these areas .
The Diocese of Miami was created on October 7 , 1958 , with Coleman Carroll installed as bishop . The diocese included the 16 southern counties in Florida , with a Catholic population of 200 @,@ 000 . It encompassed one half of the area of the state . Less than a year after the creation of the diocese , Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba . This set off a mass exodus of Cuban exiles to South Florida , increasing church membership in the region . The Catholic Welfare Bureau , created by Carroll , played a significant part in helping these waves of Cuban immigrants . Between 1960 and 1962 , 14 @,@ 000 Cuban children were sent to the United States . Operation Pedro Pan , created by Monsignor Bryan O. Walsh , placed them with friends , relatives or the Catholic Welfare Bureau . In 1996 , the Catholic Welfare Bureau changed its name to Catholic Charities . Today it claims to be the largest non @-@ governmental provider of social services in South Florida . It served over 17 @,@ 000 families in the tri @-@ county area of Broward , Dade and Monroe counties in 2006 .
Due to an increased population , the diocese was divided in 1968 . Eight counties became part of the Diocese of St. Petersburg and the new Diocese of Orlando . Miami was made an archdiocese by Pope Paul VI , and was named Metropolitan See for all of Florida . Carroll became an archbishop on March 2 , 1968 . He participated in the church reforms of Vatican II as one of the Council Fathers . During the civil rights struggles of the 60 's , Carroll was influential in stemming threatened racial riots in Miami and in desegregating Catholic schools roughly 10 years before the rest of the State . He became a founder of the Community Relations Board which worked to " quell waves of misunderstanding , discrimination and discontent which often threatened to flood South Florida 's multi @-@ ethnic community . "
Upon the death of Carroll on July 26 , 1977 , Bishop Edward Anthony McCarthy was appointed as Miami 's archbishop . McCarthy oversaw the construction of the Pastoral Center for the archdiocese and restructured most senior operational divisions . He established the Office of Lay Ecclesial Ministry , the Office of Evangelization and the Permanent Diaconate program . In 1980 , he offered support and assistance during the Mariel Boat Lift . The following year , he supported the rights of Haitian immigrants who were detained under the Wet Foot , Dry Foot policy . Responding to the needs of this new immigration , he opened the Pierre Toussaint Haitian Catholic Center . McCarthy retired in 1994 at the required age of 75 .
On November 3 , 1994 , Pope John Paul II appointed John C. Favalora as the third archbishop of Miami . During his tenure , he built two new high schools and nine grade schools . Favalora also initiated the Vision 2000 campaign , a five @-@ year fundraising campaign that created an endowment fund to support Catholic education and outreach institutions in the archdiocese . The effort raised $ 90 million ( USD ) . On July 11 , 2003 , Pope John Paul II appointed Miami auxiliary bishop Thomas Gerard Wenski to lead the Roman Catholic Diocese of Orlando . With substantial immigration of predominantly Catholic South and Central Americans to the South Florida area , the Catholic population there is 25 % of the total population . Waves of immigrants from other parts of the world , including Asian and African countries , have led to Mass being celebrated in over a dozen different languages in parishes throughout the archdiocese .
In 2009 , Father Fernando Isern , of Our Lady of Lourdes , Kendall , was named the next bishop of Pueblo . He is the 11th priest from the archdiocese to be so designated since its creation in 1958 .
On April 20 , 2010 , Pope Benedict XVI accepted the resignation of Archbishop John Favalora eight months early and appointed Bishop Thomas Wenski of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Orlando as his successor . On June 1 , 2010 , Archbishop Wenski was installed as the fourth archbishop of the Archdiocese of Miami at the Cathedral of Saint Mary .
= = Education = =
= = = Schools = = =
As of 2008 , the Archdiocese of Miami provides a parochial school education to almost 40 @,@ 000 students in 60 elementary / middle schools , 13 high schools and two non @-@ residential schools for the disabled located throughout Broward , Miami @-@ Dade and Monroe counties .
The high schools supported by the archdiocese are :
The archdiocese offers religious education classes in all of its 111 parishes for children who attend public and other non @-@ religious schools . According to the 2007 Official Catholic Directory , there were 95 @,@ 837 students enrolled in these classes . This same source lists as teachers 2760 laity , 58 religious sisters , and 43 priests and religious brothers . Religious education classes are also offered to adults throughout the archdiocese . In 1997 , Archbishop Favalora adopted a policy requiring all volunteers , employees , teachers and priests to be fingerprinted and have a background check before they could work with children . Several years later , this policy was enshrined and adopted by all U.S. Bishops in the Charter for Protection of Young People .
= = = Universities = = =
The Archdiocese of Miami oversees and administers the Catholic university of St. Thomas University in Miami . St. Thomas University offers Bachelor of Arts , Master of Arts , Master 's degree , Master of Business Administration , M.Acc. , Doctor of Education , and Doctor of Philosophy. programs through its college and various schools . It offers several joint degree programs and an accelerated B.A. / J.D. as well . The School of Law at St. Thomas was fully accredited by the American Bar Association in February 1995 , and offers the Juris Doctor degree ( J.D. ) as well as the Masters of Law ( LL.M ) .
= = = Seminaries = = =
St. John Vianney College Seminary and St. Vincent de Paul Regional Seminary serve priestly formation needs . Candidates to the Catholic priesthood must have a college degree plus another four to five years of seminary formation . This formation includes not only academic classes but also human , spiritual and pastoral education . St. John Vianney Seminary , which is located in Miami , states as its fundamental purpose " to provide an undergraduate education for students whose stated objective is to serve the Catholic Church as priests " , but it also offers education to lay ministers and to " others who may be enriched by its services " . St. Vincent de Paul Regional Seminary , located in Boynton Beach , offers a master 's degree in Theology and Theological Studies and a First Professional Degree in Divinity and Ministry . Priests serving in the Archdiocese of Miami are required to speak both Spanish and English , and these two seminaries are the only bilingual seminaries in the United States . As of August 2007 , there are 126 seminarians in priestly formation at both seminaries .
= = Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Miami = =
Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Miami is a separate non @-@ profit organization operated by the Archdiocese of Miami . It is part of a national network of organizations that are operated in each U.S. diocese . This organization claims to be the largest nongovernmental provider of services to the needy in South Florida . It began in 1931 during the Great Depression with four Miami @-@ area pastors and lay members of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul . It employs over 600 staff and operates on an annual budget of over $ 38 million . In 2006 , it served over 17 @,@ 000 families in the tri @-@ county area of Broward , Miami @-@ Dade and Monroe Counties . Some of these services include transitional housing , homeless shelters , elderly day care , child day care , addiction recovery , HIV / AIDS programs , family and school counseling , meals for the elderly and various immigrant and refugee help programs among others .
= = Catholic Health Services = =
Archdiocese of Miami Catholic Health Services operates 26 facilities in Broward and Miami @-@ Dade Counties . According to the 2007 Archdiocese of Miami Official Catholic Directory , the two Catholic hospitals , Mercy Hospital in Miami and Holy Cross Hospital in Ft . Lauderdale , served 1 @,@ 278 @,@ 516 people ; three CHS health care centers served 7 @,@ 896 ; three homes for the aged assisted 2 @,@ 578 senior citizens ; two residential care centers for children served 376 ; seven day @-@ care centers served 1 @,@ 885 ; two specialized homes assisted 383 ; twelve special centers for social services served 81 @,@ 320 ; and eleven other institutions served 1 @,@ 432 people in 2007 . Catholic Hospice Care is a partnership between the Archdiocese of Miami and Mercy Hospital . It provides end of life care to terminally ill patients and their families throughout Miami @-@ Dade and Monroe counties . Catholic Health Services also operates two Catholic cemeteries , Our Lady Queen of Heaven in Broward County and Our Lady of Mercy in Miami @-@ Dade .
= = Outreach = =
= = = Lay movements and ministries = = =
Over 60 movements and ministries are run by laity ( those who are not ordained priests or religious brothers and sisters ) , " There may be hundreds more ... " according to Miami auxiliary bishop Felipe Estevez . There are 17 categories of ministries listed under the archdiocese Office of Lay Apostolate are : Airport Ministry , Apostleship of the Sea , Ascending Life , Campus ministry , Charismatic Renewal , Courage Ministry ( " Ministry to Persons With Same @-@ Sex Attraction " ) , Council of Catholic Women , Cursillo , Family Life , Knights of Columbus , Lay ministry , Lay movements , Marian movements , Missions , Prison ministry , Respect Life , and Youth Ministries . Some other lay movements and ministries include various prayer and support groups , an Emmaus , and groups which provide worship , social and religious formation for men , women and teenagers . Some parishes provide groups for single Catholics , divorced or separated people , drug and alcohol addiction help , learning Spanish or English as a second language and parish outreach services to the poor and needy through parish pantries and need @-@ specific donor drives .
The archdiocese also supports , in conjunction with other Christian communities , two pro @-@ life crisis pregnancy centers which provide aid to pregnant women and encourage them not to have abortions . A post @-@ abortion counseling program called Project Rachel is also provided .
= = = Retreats = = =
Morning Star Renewal Center is a retreat house operated by lay people with the support of the archdiocese . The center provides facilities for group retreats and offers spiritual formation activities year round . Facilities include a 60 guest capacity , a conference room , a chapel , and overnight and cafeteria accommodations .
= = = Charities = = =
Several Charities are run by the archdiocese and staffed by both employees and volunteers . These include Camillus House , Catholic Legal Services , an HIV / AIDS shelter , the Missionaries of Charity , Society of Saint Vincent de Paul , and social advocacy groups .
= = Media = =
The archdiocese uses several types of media to fulfill its evangelization efforts :
= = = Radio ministry = = =
Radio Paz is a Spanish @-@ language radio ministry of the Archdiocese of Miami founded in December 1990 . In South Florida , it is broadcast on WACC 830 AM . Radio Peace — the sister station of Radio Paz — is an English @-@ language radio ministry founded in January 1993 and broadcast on WLVJ 1040 AM . These stations also broadcast over the Internet at RadioPeace.org. The stations were founded by Archdiocese of Miami priest Fr . Federico Capdepon , who envisioned a radio station " to respond to the call of Pope John Paul II to evangelize through the media . "
= = = Newspaper = = =
A localized version of the Florida Catholic newspaper is published 26 times a year . Each issue contains a message from the Archbishop , spiritual reflections on the scripture readings for the week , news reporting on various events happening around the archdiocese and the world , and a digest of upcoming events featured around the archdiocese among other features . The newspaper is also published online . A series produced for the Miami edition entitled " Building the City of God " which profiles the personal side of priests won a Communicator Award of Distinction for print media " Marketing / Promotion / Campaign " .
= = = Television = = =
One part of Communications office of the archdiocese is television and video production . English and Spanish masses air Sundays on local television stations . Additionally , the television center produces content for the internet and video . One video , entitled " Walking in the Light of Christ , " received a Videographer Award of Excellence from the Association of Marketing and Communication Professionals .
= = Leadership = =
= = = Archbishops = = =
Bishop ( later Archbishop ) Coleman Carroll ( 1958 – 1977 )
Archbishop Edward Anthony McCarthy ( 1977 – 1994 )
Archbishop John Favalora ( 1994 – 2010 )
Archbishop Thomas Wenski ( since 2010 )
= = = Auxiliary bishops = = =
Bishop Norbert Dorsey ( 1986 – 1990 ) ; appointed Bishop of Orlando
Bishop Felipe Estévez ( 2004 @-@ 2011 ) ; appointed Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine , Florida , on Wednesday , April 27 , 2011
Bishop Gilberto Fernandez ( 1997 @-@ 2002 ) ; resigned
Bishop John Fitzpatrick ( 1968 – 1971 ) ; appointed Bishop of Brownsville
Bishop René Gracida ( 1968 – 1975 ) ; appointed Bishop of Pensacola @-@ Tallahassee
Bishop John Nevins ( 1979 – 1984 ) ; appointed Bishop of Venice , Florida
Bishop John Noonan ( 2005 @-@ 2010 ) ; appointed Bishop of Orlando
Bishop Agustin Roman ( 1979 @-@ 2013 ) ; retired
Bishop Thomas Wenski ( 1997 – 2003 ) ; appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Orlando ; served as Bishop of Orlando before returning in 2010 as Archbishop of Miami
Bishop Peter Baldacchino ( 2014 – present )
= = = Priests of the diocese who became bishops = = =
Ambrose De Paoli appointed nuncio , and titular Archbishop , in 1983
Fernando Isern appointed Bishop of Pueblo in 2009
Robert Nugent Lynch appointed Bishop of Saint Petersburg , Florida in 1996
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= Thomas F. Bayard =
Thomas Francis Bayard ( October 29 , 1828 – September 28 , 1898 ) was an American lawyer , politician , and diplomat from Wilmington , Delaware . A Democrat , he served three terms as United States Senator from Delaware and made three unsuccessful bids for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States . In 1885 , President Grover Cleveland appointed him Secretary of State . After four years in private life , he returned to the diplomatic arena as Ambassador to the United Kingdom .
Born in Delaware to a prominent family , Bayard learned politics from his father , James A. Bayard , Jr . , who also served in the Senate . In 1869 , the Delaware legislature elected Bayard to the Senate upon his father 's retirement . A Peace Democrat during the Civil War , Bayard spent his early years in the Senate in opposition to Republican policies , especially the Reconstruction of the defeated Confederacy . His conservatism extended to financial matters , as he became known as a staunch supporter of the gold standard and an opponent of greenbacks and silver coinage , which he believed would cause inflation . Bayard 's conservative politics made him popular in the South and with Eastern financial interests , but never popular enough to obtain the Democratic nomination for President , which he attempted to win in 1876 , 1880 , and 1884 .
In 1885 , President Cleveland appointed Bayard Secretary of State . Bayard worked with Cleveland to promote American trade in the Pacific while avoiding the acquisition of colonies at a time when many Americans clamored for them . He sought increased cooperation with Great Britain , working to resolve disputes over fishing and seal @-@ hunting rights in the American @-@ Canadian border waters . As ambassador , Bayard continued to strive for Anglo @-@ American friendship . This brought him into conflict with his successor at the State Department , Richard Olney , when Olney and Cleveland demanded more aggressive diplomatic overtures than Bayard wished in the Venezuela Crisis of 1895 . His term at the American embassy ended in 1897 , and he died the following year .
= = Early life and family = =
Thomas F. Bayard was born in Wilmington , Delaware in 1828 , the second son of James A. Bayard , Jr. and Anne née Francis . The Bayard family was prominent in Delaware : Bayard 's father would be elected to the United States Senate in 1851 . Among Thomas Bayard 's ancestors were his grandfather , James A. Bayard , also a Senator ; and great @-@ grandfather , Richard Bassett , who served as Senator from , and Governor of , Delaware . Several other relatives served in high office , including Bayard 's uncle , Richard H. Bayard , another Delaware Senator , and his great @-@ great @-@ uncle , Nicholas Bayard , who was Mayor of New York City . On his mother 's side , Bayard descended from Philadelphia lawyer and financier Tench Francis , Jr .
Thomas Bayard was educated in private academies in Wilmington and , after his father moved to New York City for business reasons , in Flushing , New York . James Bayard returned to Delaware in 1843 , but Thomas remained in New York , working as a clerk in the mercantile firm of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , August Schermerhorn . In 1846 , his father secured him a job in a banking firm in Philadelphia , and Bayard worked there for the next two years . Bayard was unsatisfied with his progress at the firm , and returned to Wilmington to read law at his father 's office .
Bayard was admitted to the bar in 1851 , the year his father was elected to the United States Senate . Thomas took on greater responsibilities in the family law office , and rose quickly in the legal profession . In 1853 , after the election of a Democratic president , Franklin Pierce , Thomas Bayard was appointed United States Attorney for Delaware . He spent only a year in the position before moving to Philadelphia to open a practice with his friend William Shippen , a partnership that lasted until Shippen 's death in 1858 . While in Philadelphia , Bayard met Louise Lee , whom he married in October 1856 . The marriage produced twelve children .
= = Civil War and Reconstruction = =
Thomas Bayard 's return to Wilmington in 1858 brought greater involvement in the political scene . James Bayard was a delegate to the 1860 Democratic National Convention , and Thomas attended with him . The elder Bayard supported Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia for the nomination . When the convention deadlocked and the Southern Democrats split from the main party , James Bayard adhered to the regular Democrats , but told Thomas that he thought the nominee , Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois , was untrustworthy . The subsequent election of Republican Abraham Lincoln and secession of the seven states of the Deep South led both Bayards to fear for the future of the Union , and the elder Bayard to propose a convention of all the states to resolve their differences . In the meantime , as four more Southern states seceded , James Bayard encouraged his son to help organize an independent militia unit , the Delaware Guard ; Thomas Bayard was commissioned as its First Lieutenant .
In 1860 , Delaware occupied an unusual position in the free state @-@ slave state divide ; nominally a slave state , Delaware 's slave population had been in steep decline for decades and represented just 1 @.@ 6 % of the state 's people . Opinion on secession was mixed in Delaware , but the Bayards were Peace Democrats and leaned to the Southern perspective . They blamed the war on abolitionist Republicans and believed that secession , while unwise , should not be suppressed with military force . Thomas Bayard spoke at a public meeting in Dover in June 1861 , saying that " with this secession , or revolution , or rebellion , or by whatever name it may be called , the State of Delaware has naught to do . " Even after the Civil War 's first battles erupted in Virginia , Bayard continued to hope for peace . By early 1862 , the Delaware Guard came under suspicion of Southern sympathies , and Major General Henry du Pont , commander of the state militia , ordered it disarmed . When Bayard refused to comply , he was briefly arrested before being released on parole .
Bayard 's father was reelected to the Senate in 1862 , but resigned shortly thereafter in protest of the new oath of office , which demanded that Senators swear they had never borne arms against the United States nor given aid and encouragement to its enemies . Bayard and his father continued in private law practice through the war . Both were pleased with the Democrats ' peace platform in 1864 , but disappointed in the choice of nominee , Major General George B. McClellan , a War Democrat . In 1866 , Thomas Bayard successfully represented four South Carolinians in habeas corpus cases against the military . The following year , Senator George R. Riddle died and the legislature elected James Bayard to fill the remainder of the term , which ended in 1869 .
Thomas Bayard became more politically active , speaking at a public meeting in September 1867 against constitutional proposals for ending racial discrimination in voting rights . The following year , he condemned the impeachment proceedings against President Andrew Johnson , who had succeeded to the presidency in 1865 after Lincoln 's assassination and had threatened the Republican Congress 's plans for Reconstruction of the Southern states . Both Bayards attended the 1868 Democratic National Convention and , although they were unenthusiastic about the nominee , Horatio Seymour , supported the unsuccessful ticket that fall .
= = United States Senator = =
= = = Reaction to Reconstruction = = =
James Bayard retired from the Senate when his term ended in 1869 , and the legislature elected his son to the seat with little opposition . Thomas Bayard entered a Senate in which his fellow Democrats were greatly outnumbered by Republicans ; the new president , Ulysses S. Grant , was also a Republican . In the Reconstruction Era , Bayard took up the cause of the defeated South , speaking against the continued military rule of the conquered states and advocating a return to civilian ( and conservative ) government . He protested the requirement that readmitted Southern states ratify the Fourteenth Amendment , which guaranteed equal protection of the laws to all Americans . Bayard also inveighed against the continued presence of federal troops in the South . He spoke against each of the three Enforcement Acts , which increased the federal government 's power to protect black Southerners ' civil and political rights in the face of rising violence by the Ku Klux Klan and other groups .
Although his protests were to little effect , Bayard continued to voice opposition to the majority party 's plans for reconstructing the South . In 1871 , he was named to a joint committee sent by Congress to investigate conditions in the South . The committee , like the Congress , had a Republican majority , and their report detailed many of the Klan 's outrages against the newly freed slaves . Bayard dissented , questioning the veracity of the witnesses ' testimony and stating that there were few incidents of lawlessness and that the South was generally at peace . The majority disagreed , and their findings were the basis for the Third Enforcement Act later that year .
As more Democrats returned to the Senate , and as Republican goals shifted elsewhere , Bayard 's ideas gained some traction , but were still largely in vain . In 1873 , the Senate passed a resolution he introduced that demanded that Grant disclose how much government money was being expended in enforcing Reconstruction laws in the South , and to whom it was paid ; the President ignored the resolution . The next year , Bayard opposed a Republican bill authorizing federal supervision of the upcoming election in Louisiana , attacking the Republican administration there as corrupt ; he was unsuccessful , and the election was supervised by federal troops . He spoke forcefully against the proposed Civil Rights Act of 1875 , which was to be the last such act for nearly a century . Again , he was unsuccessful and the bill , which guaranteed equal treatment in public accommodations regardless of race , passed Congress and became law . Although ultimately unsuccessful , Bayard 's actions endeared him to his conservative constituents , and he was elected to another six @-@ year term in 1874 .
= = = Specie resumption = = =
From the start of his congressional career , Bayard was an advocate of hard money , i.e. , a dollar backed by gold . During the Civil War , Congress had authorized a new form of currency , redeemable not in specie ( gold or silver coin ) but in 6 % government bonds . These United States Notes , popularly known as " greenbacks , " had helped to finance the war when the government 's gold supply did not keep pace with the expanding costs of maintaining the armies . When the crisis had passed , many in Congress ( including Bayard ) wanted to return the nation 's currency to a gold standard as soon as possible . The process of retiring the greenbacks had already begun when Bayard was elected , but stopped when many congressmen thought the fiscal contraction too severe , and likely to be harmful to the economy . In 1869 , Congress passed the Public Credit Act of 1869 , which required that the government pay its bond holders in gold , not greenbacks . Bayard thought the bill not strong enough , since it did not require removing greenbacks from circulation , and he voted against it .
In 1873 , a business depression ( known as the Panic of 1873 ) , increased the pressure for retaining greenbacks , as some in Congress believed that inflating the currency would ease the economic problems . Grant 's Treasury Secretary , William Adams Richardson , reissued $ 26 million of the redeemed greenbacks , reversing the administration 's previous policy of removing them from circulation . This ignited a four @-@ month debate in the Senate over whether and when the government should return to backing all of its currency with gold — including the remaining greenbacks . The majority , including Bayard , favored resumption , but in wording the resolution that passed the Senate , Republican John Sherman of Ohio left vague the exact timing ; Bayard feared it would be put off indefinitely . The Sherman bill also proposed to remove greenbacks from circulation by exchanging them for bonds payable in gold ; in response , Bayard proposed an amendment limiting the amount of debt the government could incur . When the amendment was rejected , Bayard voted against the bill ( known as the Specie Payment Resumption Act , ) believing that it was likely to cause inflation .
= = = Election of 1876 = = =
Bayard 's popularity with his party had grown during his time in the Senate , and by 1875 he was seen as a contender for the presidency . His advocacy of hard money had won him friends in some of the Northern cities , and his stance against Reconstruction made him popular throughout the South . Competing for those same factions of the Democratic party was New York governor Samuel J. Tilden , who had gained national fame for fighting the political corruption of William M. Tweed 's Tammany Hall machine in New York City . Other contenders included Governor Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana and Major General Winfield Scott Hancock . Tilden 's wealth and national renown helped gather delegates to his cause , and in June 1876 , he entered the convention with 404 ½ votes ; Bayard placed fifth with 33 . Tilden was nominated on the second ballot .
Displeased with the result , Bayard nonetheless supported the Democratic nominee against Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio , the Republican candidate , speaking to large crowds in cities across the North and Midwest . On election day , the vote was close , but appeared to favor a Tilden victory . Three days later , Tilden looked to have won 184 electoral votes , one short of a majority , while Hayes appeared to have 166 votes , with the votes of Florida , Louisiana , and South Carolina still in doubt . Each party sent their people to observe the vote in the disputed states . Abram Hewitt , chairman of the Democratic National Committee , asked Bayard to travel to Louisiana along with several others , but Bayard refused to go .
The counts of the disputed ballots were inconclusive , with each state producing two sets of returns , one signed by Democratic officials , the other by Republicans , each claiming victory for their man . There was debate about which person or house of Congress was authorized to decide between the competing slates of electors , with the Republican Senate and the Democratic House each claiming priority . By January 1877 , with the question still unresolved , Congress and President Grant agreed to submit the matter to a bipartisan Electoral Commission , which would be authorized to determine the fate of the disputed electoral votes . Bayard supported the idea , and visited Tilden in New York to convince him that it was the only alternative to stalemate and possible renewed civil war . The bill passed , with Bayard 's vote , and provided for a commission of five representatives , five senators , and five Supreme Court justices . To ensure partisan balance , there would be seven Democrats and seven Republicans ; the fifteenth member was to be a Supreme Court justice chosen by the other four on the commission ( themselves two Republicans and two Democrats ) . Justice David Davis , an independent respected by both parties , was expected to be their choice . Bayard was among the seven Democrats chosen .
Davis upset the careful planning by accepting election to the Senate by the state of Illinois and refusing to serve on the commission . The remaining Supreme Court justices were all Republicans and , with the addition of Justice Joseph P. Bradley to the place intended for Davis , the commission had an 8 @-@ 7 Republican majority . The commission met and considered all of the disputed ballots , awarding each to Hayes by an 8 @-@ 7 party @-@ line vote . Bayard and his fellow Democrats were outraged , and the Democratic majority in the House threatened to filibuster to prevent the results from being accepted . As the March 4 inauguration day approached , leaders of both parties met at Wormley 's Hotel in Washington to negotiate a compromise . Republicans promised that , in exchange for Democratic acquiescence in the Committee 's decision , Hayes would order federal troops to withdraw from the South and accept the election of Democratic governments in the remaining " unredeemed " states there . The Democrats agreed and the filibuster ended . Tilden later blamed Bayard , among others , for his role in creating the Electoral Commission , but Bayard defended his position , believing that the only alternative to the result was civil war .
= = = Gold standard = = =
In 1873 , Congress had passed a Coinage Act that regulated which coins were legal tender . The list of legal coins duplicated that of the previous coinage act , leaving off only the silver dollar and three smaller coins . The rationale in the Treasury report accompanying the draft bill was that to mint a gold dollar and a silver dollar with different intrinsic values was problematic ; as the silver dollar did not circulate and the gold did , it made sense to drop the unused coin . The bill passed easily , with Bayard 's support , but quickly thereafter became unpopular . Opponents of the bill would later call this omission the " Crime of ' 73 , " and would mean it literally , circulating tales of bribery of Congressmen by foreign agents .
Over the next few years , pressure to reintroduce silver coinage grew , and cut across party lines . In 1877 , Republican Senator Stanley Matthews of Ohio introduced a resolution to pay the national debt in silver instead of gold . Bayard joined several Republicans in speaking and voting against the measure , calling it " folly , " but it passed the Senate 42 to 20 . Meanwhile , Democrat Richard P. Bland of Missouri furthered the silver cause from the House , proposing a free silver bill that would require the United States buy as much silver as miners could sell the government and strike it into coins , a system that would increase the money supply and aid debtors . In short , silver miners would sell the government metal worth fifty to seventy cents , and receive back a silver dollar . William B. Allison , a pro @-@ silver Republican from Iowa , offered an amendment in the Senate requiring the purchase of two to four million dollars per month of silver , but not allowing private deposit of silver at the mints . Thus , the seignorage , or difference between the face value of the coin and the worth of the metal contained within it accrued to the government 's credit , not private citizens . Bayard saw the whole effort as the path to inflation and economic ruin . Again , he spoke against the bill , but like the Matthews resolution , the Bland – Allison Act passed both houses of Congress in 1878 . President Hayes shared Bayard 's fear of inflation , and vetoed the bill , but Congress mustered the two @-@ thirds vote necessary to overturn the veto , and it became law .
= = = Clashes with Hayes = = =
The elections of 1878 returned control of both houses of Congress to the Democrats for the first time since before the Civil War . The new Democratic majority passed an army appropriation bill in 1879 with a rider that repealed the Enforcement Acts . Those Acts , passed during Reconstruction , made it a crime to prevent someone from voting because of his race and allowed the use of federal troops to supervise elections . Bayard supported the effort , which passed both houses and sent to the President . Hayes was determined to preserve the law to protect black voters , and he vetoed the appropriation . Bayard spoke in favor of the bill , believing the time had come to end the military 's involvement in Southern politics . The Democrats did not have enough votes to override the veto , but they passed a new bill with the same rider . Hayes vetoed this as well , and the process was repeated three times more . Finally , Hayes signed an appropriation without the rider , but Congress refused to pass another bill to fund federal marshals , who were vital to the enforcement of the Force Acts . The election laws remained in effect , but the funds to enforce them were cut off .
Bayard also clashed with Hayes on the issue of Chinese immigration . In 1868 , the Senate had ratified the Burlingame Treaty with China , allowing an unrestricted flow of Chinese immigrants into the country . As the economy soured after the Panic of 1873 , Chinese immigrants were blamed for depressing workmen 's wages . During the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 , anti @-@ Chinese riots broke out in San Francisco , and a third party , the Workingman 's Party , was formed with an emphasis on stopping Chinese immigration . Bayard favored some restriction on Chinese immigration and voted in favor of a Chinese Exclusion Act in 1879 , which passed both houses that year . Hayes vetoed the bill , believing that the United States should not abrogate treaties without negotiation . The veto drew praise among eastern liberals , but Hayes was bitterly denounced in the West . After the veto , Assistant Secretary of State Frederick W. Seward suggested that both countries work together to reduce immigration . Congress passed a new law to that effect , the Chinese Exclusion Act , in 1882 . Bayard supported this new act , which became law with President Chester A. Arthur 's signature that year .
= = = Election of 1880 = = =
As the election of 1880 drew near , Bayard was again regarded as a likely candidate . Hayes had pledged himself to a one @-@ term presidency , which meant the Republicans would not have the advantage of incumbency . On the Democratic side , Tilden was regarded as the natural choice , as many Democrats were still convinced he had been robbed of the office in 1876 . Tilden 's supporters saw Bayard as a rival , and sought to smear him by suggesting he had colluded with Republicans to defeat Tilden in 1876 . Meanwhile , in the House , Tilden supporter Clarkson Nott Potter of New York began an investigation into the 1876 election , hoping that evidence of Republican malfeasance would harm that party 's candidate in 1880 . In fact , the Potter committee 's investigation had the opposite effect , uncovering telegrams from Tilden 's nephew , William Tilden Pelton , that offered bribes to Southern Republicans in the disputed states to help Tilden claim their votes . The telegrams doomed Tilden 's hopes for the nomination , and boosted Bayard 's chance among the erstwhile Tilden supporters .
As Tilden 's star began to fade , many Democrats looked to Bayard . He remained popular in the Eastern cities for his conservatism and hard money beliefs , but many in the South , including Senator Augustus Hill Garland of Arkansas , advised Bayard to embrace silver to help halt the defections of Southern and Western Democrats to the new Greenback Party . Bayard declined to do so . He was also reluctant to strike a deal with John Kelly of New York , whose Tammany faction of the Democratic party was currently at odds with the Tilden machine there . After the party rift caused the defeat of the Democratic governor in New York 's 1879 election , many Tilden adherents began to think their candidate could not win his home state , and drifted to Bayard , among others . Tilden 's supporters attempted to weaken Bayard in February 1880 by publishing the speech he gave in Dover in 1861 , in which he said that the United States should acquiesce in Southern secession . At the same time , Bayard 's uncompromising stance on the money question pushed some Democrats to support Major General Winfield Scott Hancock , who had not been identified with either extreme in the gold @-@ silver debate and had a military record that appealed to Northerners .
Leading up to the convention in Cincinnati , Tilden remained ambiguous about his intentions . George Gray , Delaware 's attorney general , placed Bayard 's name in nomination , calling the senator " a veteran , covered in scars of many a hard @-@ fought battle , where the principles of constitutional liberty have been at stake ... Bayard is a statesman who will need no introduction to the American people . " When the convention took its first ballot on June 23 , Bayard placed second with 153 ½ votes , trailing only Hancock , who had 171 . On the second ballot , the delegates broke for Hancock , and he was nominated . The Southern delegates , whom Bayard thought would be most loyal to him , were among the first to desert him . The convention nominated William Hayden English of Indiana , a Bayard supporter and hard @-@ money man , for vice president , and then closed . Bayard 's supporters were disappointed , but he supported the ticket as usual , in the interest of party unity . Hancock and English fought to a near @-@ draw in the popular vote , but lost the electoral vote to James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur by 214 to 155 .
= = = Budget surplus and civil service reform = = =
The Delaware legislature re @-@ elected Bayard to the Senate for a third term in 1881 without serious opposition . The Senate in the 47th Congress was evenly divided between Republicans and Democrats , with the new vice president , Arthur , holding the tie @-@ breaking vote . After spending the special session of March 1881 in an intra @-@ Republican Party fight over the confirmation of Garfield 's cabinet nominees , the Senate went into recess until October . By that time , Garfield had been assassinated and Arthur was president . When the Senate reconvened , the Democrats held the majority briefly , and Bayard was elected president pro tempore on October 10 ; Republicans regained the majority three days later as Republican latecomers arrived and were sworn in , and David Davis took over the office .
Among the issues confronting the Senate was the surplus of government funds . With high revenue held over from wartime taxes , the federal government had collected more than it spent since 1866 ; by 1882 the surplus reached $ 145 million . Opinions varied on how to balance the budget ; the Democrats wished to lower tariffs , in order to reduce revenues and the cost of imported goods , while Republicans believed that high tariffs ensured high wages in manufacturing and mining . They preferred the government spend more on internal improvements and pensions for Civil War soldiers while reducing excise taxes . Bayard did not oppose some veterans ' pensions , but worried that pensions would require continued high tariffs , which he opposed . He supported the movement for a commission to examine the tariff and suggest improvements , but opposed the resulting Tariff of 1883 , which reduced tariffs by an average of 1 @.@ 47 % . Congressional Republicans also sought to deplete the surplus through a Rivers and Harbors Act that increased spending on internal improvements ; Bayard opposed the bill and was gratified when Arthur vetoed it against his own party 's wishes .
Bayard and Arthur also agreed on the need for civil service reform . Garfield 's assassination by a deranged office seeker amplified the public demand for civil service reform . Leaders of both parties , including Bayard , realized that they could attract the votes of reformers by turning against the spoils system and , by 1882 , a bipartisan effort began in favor of reform . In 1880 , Democratic Senator George H. Pendleton of Ohio introduced legislation that required selection of civil servants based on merit as determined by an examination , but the bill did not pass . After the 1882 congressional elections , in which Democrats campaigned successfully on the reform issue , the Pendleton bill was proposed again , and again Bayard supported it , saying that " the offices of this Government are created ... for the public service and not for the private use of incumbents . " The Senate approved the bill 38 – 5 and the House soon concurred by a vote of 155 – 47 . Arthur signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law on January 16 , 1883 .
= = = Election of 1884 = = =
Despite his rebukes at the Democratic national conventions in 1876 and 1880 , Bayard was again considered among the leading candidates for the nomination in 1884 . Tilden again was ambiguous about his willingness to run , but by 1883 New York 's new governor , Grover Cleveland , began to surpass Tilden as a likely candidate . After Tilden definitively bowed out in June 1884 , many of his former supporters began to flock to Bayard . Many Democrats were concerned with Cleveland 's ability to carry his home state after he , like Tilden before him , became embroiled in a feud with the Tammany Hall wing of the party . At the same time , the Tammany Democrats became more friendly to Bayard .
By the time the Democrats had assembled in Chicago on July 8 , 1884 to begin their convention , the Republicans had already picked their nominee : James G. Blaine of Maine . Blaine 's nomination turned many reform @-@ minded Republicans ( known as Mugwumps ) away from their party . Bayard and Cleveland , seen as honest politicians , were the Democrats most favored by the renegade Republican faction . Bayard was optimistic at the start of the convention , but the results of the first ballot ran heavily against him : 170 votes to Cleveland 's 392 . The reason was the same as in 1880 : as Congressman Robert S. Stevens of New York said , " I believe if he were President his Administration would be one in which every American citizen would take pride . I believe he is a patriot , but it would be a suicidal attempt to nominate him . His [ 1861 ] Dover speech would be sent into every household in the North . " The voting the next day demonstrated the point , as Cleveland was nominated on the second ballot .
The resulting campaign between Cleveland and Blaine focused more on scandal and mudslinging than the issues of the day . In the end , Cleveland eked out a narrow victory . Carrying New York was crucial for the Democrat ; a shift of just 550 votes in that state would have given the election to Blaine . Instead , Cleveland carried his home state and a Democrat was elected president for the first time since 1856 . Cleveland recognized Bayard 's status in the party hierarchy by offering him the top spot in his cabinet : Secretary of State . Bayard did not think himself an expert in foreign affairs and enjoyed the sixteen years he had spent in the Senate ; even so , he accepted the post and joined the administration .
= = Secretary of State = =
= = = Samoa and Hawaii = = =
Among the first foreign policy challenges Bayard and Cleveland faced was that concerning American influence in the Samoan Islands . The United States , Great Britain , and Germany all had treaties with the Samoan government that guaranteed their right to trade and establish naval bases there . In the 1880s , German chancellor Otto von Bismarck began to increase German influence in Samoa , and attempted to replace the Samoan king , Malietoa Laupepa , with Tamasese Titimaea , a claimant to the throne who favored German suzerainty . Bayard and Cleveland opposed any change that would undermine Samoan independence , as did the British government . Bayard filed a note of protest with the German government , and the three powers agreed to meet for a conference in Washington in June 1887 , but they failed to achieve any agreement .
Shortly thereafter , Tamasese 's unpopularity led another claimant , Mata 'afa Iosefo , to start a rebellion that led to the Samoan Civil War . When Tamasese 's German guards were killed , Bismarck considered it an attack on Germany , and sent warships to Samoa . Cleveland dispatched three American warships , Nipsic , Trenton , and Vandalia , in response , and a British warship joined them . As the threat of war grew , Bismarck backed down and agreed to another conference in 1889 ; two weeks later , a hurricane struck the harbor and all of the German and American warships were damaged or sunk . As tempers cooled , the parties met in conference in Berlin . By that time , Cleveland had been defeated for re @-@ election and James G. Blaine took Bayard 's place as Secretary of State . The three powers agreed to a tripartite protectorate of Samoa with Malietoa Laupepa restored as king ; that situation prevailed until 1899 , when renewed civil war led to a second convention partitioning the islands between Germany and the United States .
In the Kingdom of Hawaii , Bayard and Cleveland pursued a similar goal of maintaining the Hawaiian kingdom 's independence while expanding access for American trade . As a Senator , Bayard had voted for free trade with Hawaii , but the treaty was allowed to lapse in 1884 . As Secretary of State the following year , Bayard hoped to again have free trade with Hawaii , and also endorsed the idea of establishing an American naval base there , although he preferred Midway Atoll to the eventual location , Pearl Harbor . A treaty to that effect passed the Senate in 1887 by a 43 – 11 vote . As in Samoa , the administration sought to curb foreign influence , encouraging the Hawaiian government to reject a loan from Britain that would have required pledging future government revenues toward its repayment .
= = = Relations with Britain = = =
Despite their agreement on Samoa , much of Bayard 's term of office was taken up in settling disputes with Great Britain . The largest of these concerned the Canadian fisheries off the Atlantic coasts of Canada and Newfoundland . The rights of American fisherman in Canadian waters had been disputed since American independence , but the most recent disagreement stemmed from Congress 's decision in 1885 to abrogate part of the 1871 treaty that governed the situation . Under that treaty , American fishermen had the right to fish in Canadian waters ; in return , fishermen from Canada and Newfoundland had the right to export fish to the United States duty @-@ free . Protectionists in Congress thought the arrangement hurt American fisherman , and convinced their colleagues to repeal it . In response , Canadian authorities fell back on an interpretation of the earlier Treaty of 1818 , and began to seize American vessels . In 1887 , the lame duck 49th Congress then passed the Fisheries Retaliation Act , which empowered the president to bar Canadian ships from American ports if he thought Canadians were treating American fishermen " unjustly ; " Cleveland signed the bill , but did not enforce it and hoped he and Bayard would be able to find a diplomatic solution to the escalating trade war .
= = = Bayard @-@ Chamberlain Treaty = = =
Britain agreed to negotiate , and a six @-@ member commission convened in Washington in June 1887 . Bayard led the American delegation , joined by James Burrill Angell , president of the University of Michigan , and William LeBaron Putnam , a Maine lawyer and international law scholar . Joseph Chamberlain , a leading statesman in the British Parliament , led their delegation , which also included Lionel Sackville @-@ West , the British ambassador to the United States , and Charles Tupper , a prominent politician from Nova Scotia . By February 1888 , the commission agreed on a new treaty , which would create a mixed commission to determine which bays were open to American fishermen . Americans could purchase provisions and bait in Canada if they purchased a license , but if Canadian fisherman were allowed to sell their catch in the United States duty @-@ free , then the Americans ' licenses to fish in Canada would be free . Bayard believed that the treaty , " if observed honorably and honestly , will prevent future friction ... between the two nations . " The Senate , controlled by Republicans , disagreed , and rejected the treaty by a 27 – 30 vote . Aware of the risk that the treaty might be rejected , Bayard and Chamberlain agreed on a two @-@ year working agreement , allowing Americans to continue their fishing in Canadian waters by paying a fee . This arrangement was renewed every two years until 1912 , when a permanent solution was found .
= = = Seal hunting = = =
A similar dispute with Britain arose in the Pacific , over the rights of Canadians to hunt seals in waters off the Pribilof Islands , a part of Alaska . While only Americans had the right to take seals on the islands , the right to hunt in the waters around them was less well @-@ defined , and Americans believed foreign sealers were depleting the herd too quickly by hunting off @-@ shore . Bayard and Cleveland believed the waters around the islands to be exclusively American , but when Cleveland ordered the seizure of Canadian ships there , Bayard tried to convince him to search for a diplomatic solution instead . The situation remained unresolved when the administration left office in 1889 , and remained so until the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 .
= = = 1888 presidential election = = =
Relations with Britain were also impaired when Sackville @-@ West intervened in the 1888 election . A Republican , posing as a British immigrant to the United States , asked Sackville @-@ West whether voting for Cleveland or his Republican opponent , Benjamin Harrison , would best serve British interests . Sackville @-@ West wrote that Cleveland was better for Britain ; Republicans published the letter in October 1888 , hoping to diminish Cleveland 's popularity among Irish @-@ Americans . Cleveland 's cabinet discussed the matter and instructed Bayard to inform the ambassador his services would no longer be required in Washington . Bayard attempted to limit the electoral damage , and gave a speech in Baltimore condemning Republicans for scheming to portray Cleveland as a British tool . Cleveland was defeated for re @-@ election the following month in a close election .
= = Return to private life = =
Bayard 's term as Secretary of State ended in March 1889 after Cleveland 's defeat , and he returned to Wilmington to resume his law practice . He lived in " very comfortable circumstances " there , with a fortune estimated at $ 300 @,@ 000 , although his income from the law practice was modest . His wife having died in 1886 , Bayard remarried in 1889 to Mary Willing Clymer , the granddaughter and namesake of the Philadelphia socialite Mary Willing Clymer . Bayard remained involved with Democratic politics and stayed informed on foreign affairs . When Cleveland was re @-@ elected in 1892 , many assumed Bayard would resume his position in the cabinet . Instead , Cleveland selected Judge Walter Q. Gresham of Indiana for the State Department and appointed Bayard Ambassador to Great Britain , the first American envoy to Britain to hold that rank ( his predecessors had been envoys ) . Bayard accepted the appointment , which the Senate quickly confirmed .
= = Ambassador to Great Britain = =
On June 12 , 1893 , Lord Rosebury , the British Foreign Minister , received Bayard in London . Bayard began his tenure as ambassador with an " instinctive feeling of friendship for England , " and a desire for peace and cooperation between the two nations . That desire was quickly impaired when Cleveland took the side of Venezuela when that nation insisted on taking a boundary dispute between it and British Guiana to international arbitration . The exact boundary had been in dispute for decades , but Britain had consistently denied any arbitration except over a small portion of the line ; Venezuela wished the entire boundary included in any arbitration .
Bayard spent the summer of 1894 in the United States conferring with Gresham . The tension in the Venezuelan boundary dispute continued to escalate , while British disagreements with Nicaragua also threatened to involve the United States . Britain had once ruled the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua ( the Mosquito Coast ) but had abandoned it in 1860 . Nicaragua had annexed the area while guaranteeing the inhabitants ( the Miskito people ) a degree of autonomy . When Nicaragua expanded their control of the area in 1894 , the Miskito chief , Robert Henry Clarence , protested with the support of the British ambassador . Bayard agreed with Cleveland and Gresham that the British were not attempting to reestablish their colony , but Nicaraguans ( and many Anglophobic Americans ) saw a more sinister motive , including a possible British @-@ controlled canal through Nicaragua . Returning to England , Bayard met with the new Foreign Minister , Lord Kimberley , to emphaisize Nicaragua 's right to govern the area .
The tension over Nicaragua soon abated , but the May 1895 death of Secretary Gresham , who like Bayard had favored cooperation with the British , led to increased disagreement over the Venezuela issue . Cleveland appointed Richard Olney to take over the State Department , and Olney soon proved more confrontational than his predecessor . Olney 's opinion , soon adopted by Cleveland , was that the Monroe Doctrine not only prohibited new European colonies , but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere . Olney drafted a long dispatch on the history of the problem , declaring that " to @-@ day the United States is practically sovereign on this continent , and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition ... " Bayard delivered the note to the British Prime Minister ( Lord Salisbury , who was also serving as Foreign Minister ) on August 7 , 1895 .
Olney 's note was met with vehement disagreement and delay , but when tempers cooled , the British agreed to arbitration later that year . Bayard disagreed with the bellicose tone of the message , which he attributed to an effort to satisfy Anglophobia among " Radical Republicans and the foolish Irishmen . " Olney , for his part , thought Bayard soft @-@ pedaled the note and asked Cleveland to remove Bayard from office , which Cleveland declined . The House of Representatives agreed with Olney , and passed a resolution of censure against Bayard in December 1895 . Britain and Venezuela formally agreed to arbitration in February 1897 , one month before the Cleveland administration came to an end . The panel 's final judgement , delivered in 1899 , awarded Britain almost all of the disputed territory .
= = Death and legacy = =
Bayard remained in London until the arrival of his successor , John Hay , in April 1897 . He returned to Wilmington that May and visited ex @-@ President Cleveland at his home in Princeton the following month , remaining friendly with him despite their differences on the Venezuela question . Bayard 's health had begun to decline in England , and he was often ill after his return to the United States . He died on September 28 , 1898 , while visiting his daughter Mabel Bayard Warren in Dedham , Massachusetts . Bayard was buried in the Old Swedes Episcopal Church Cemetery at Wilmington . He was survived by his second wife and seven of his twelve children , including Thomas F. Bayard , Jr . , who would serve in the United States Senate from 1922 to 1929 .
Thirteen years after his death , the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica said of Bayard that " his tall dignified person , unfailing courtesy , and polished , if somewhat deliberate , eloquence made him a man of mark in all the best circles . He was considered indeed by many Americans to have become too partial to English ways ; and , for the expression of some criticisms regarded as unfavorable to his own countrymen , the House of Representatives went so far as to pass ... a vote of censure on him . The value of Bayard 's diplomacy was , however , fully recognized in the United Kingdom where he worthily upheld the traditions of a famous line of American ministers . " In 1929 , the Dictionary of American Biography described Bayard , as a Senator , as being " remembered rather for his opposition to Republican policies ... than for constructive legislation of the successful solution of great problems " , and said that he had " the convictions of an earlier day ... and was never inclined , either politically or socially , to seek popularity with the country at large . " Charles C. Tansill , a conservative historian , found much to praise in Bayard ; he published a volume on Bayard 's diplomatic career in 1940 and another about his congressional career in 1946 , the only full @-@ length biographies to appear since Bayard 's death . Later historians took a dimmer view of Bayard 's diplomatic career ; in a 1989 book , Henry E. Mattox numbered Bayard among the Gilded Age foreign service officers who were " demonstrably incompetent . "
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= How the Ghosts Stole Christmas =
" How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " is the sixth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 13 , 1998 . It was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter , and featured guest appearances by Edward Asner and Lily Tomlin . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 , being watched by 17 @.@ 3 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics , although some reviews criticized the episode for over @-@ simplyfing the characters .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this Christmas @-@ themed episode , Mulder and Scully stake out a reputed haunted house . The duo soon discover a pair of lovelorn spectres living inside the house who are determined to prove how lonely the holidays can be .
Carter based the episode around an idea he and fellow writer Frank Spotnitz had been working on , featuring a haunted house . Featuring the smallest cast of an X @-@ Files episode — with only four actors — and a single set , " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " was the cheapest sixth season episode . The drastic reduction in the budget , however , put more strain on the main actors .
= = Plot = =
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) calls Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) on Christmas Eve to investigate a haunted house in Maryland . He explains that during Christmas of 1917 , a young couple living in the house agreed to a lover 's pact , one killing the other and the remaining one committing suicide . He explains that they could not stand the thought of being alone after the other died and during the afterlife ; they wanted to experience it all together . Now , Mulder claims , they want to make couples who venture into their mansion have the same fate .
Scully , who is busy wrapping presents , ultimately relents to Mulder 's request . Inside the house , the agents experience strange phenomena : the door to the mansion slams shut , creaks are heard in the ceiling from the upper floor , and the shadow in the form of an old woman in a nightgown is seen , among other occurrences . Mulder and Scully reluctantly decide to investigate the floor above them . There , they find a massive library storing two corpses that have the same clothes and hairstyles as the agents , along with two gunshot wounds . They decide to go search other rooms , only to find that every door they walk through is the same library room they first entered . They then decide to split up , hoping to find a way out of the room .
While separated , they meet the inhabitants of the mansion — Maurice ( Ed Asner ) and Lyda ( Lily Tomlin ) . The ghosts soon turn the agents against each other . Scully is told that Mulder will kill her . Scully meets back up with Mulder , only for him to pull out a gun and shoot her . Scully , completely confused , loses consciousness , and the perspective shifts . It is revealed that Lyda is actually the one carrying out these actions and , through her ghostly ability to create apparitions , causes Scully to see Mulder instead . Meanwhile , Mulder comes upon a bleeding Scully lying on the floor . When he leans over her to try to help her , she shoots Mulder in the stomach . Again , the audience sees that it is Lyda pretending to be Scully , manipulating Mulder .
Both Mulder and Scully stumble down the stairs in hope of just getting outside to die . They meet up by the door , both crawling on the floor , covered in massive amounts of blood . Scully claims he shot her , while Mulder claims she shot him . Mulder realizes that that could not have happened and stands up . The illusion is broken , and the two leave the house . Maurice and Lyda sit by the fire , holding hands , saying that they almost had the two agents . Meanwhile , at Mulder 's apartment , Mulder and Scully exchange gifts , even though they told each other they would not .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Writer , director , and series creator Chris Carter based the episode around an idea he and fellow writer Frank Spotnitz had been working on , featuring a haunted house . The only scene that the two had completely planned out was the climax , which features Mulder and Scully pulling themselves across the floor , bleeding profusely . Carter wanted to keep all the action on one set , with the episode featuring only one location . To do this , production designer Corey Kaplan proposed that the episode be filmed in Scully 's apartment , a set that the crew had not used for season six . Carter , however , wanting to keep the haunted house motif , asked Kaplan if she could design a mansion set . Kaplan was tasked with designing a set that was " bleak , but not too bleak [ ... ] decrepit , but not too decrepit , " and " deserted , but not too deserted . "
= = = Casting and filming = = =
" How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " features the smallest cast in X @-@ Files history , with only David Duchovny , Gillian Anderson , and the two guest stars present in the episode . Lily Tomlin , who played the part of Lyda , had originally approached the casting agents for The X @-@ Files several seasons prior to season six . Her agent expressed her interest in a part . Carter agreed to meet her and the two discussed possible ideas for futures episodes . After several years of thinking , Carter decided to write " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " as a vehicle for her . Originally , Carter wanted Bob Newhart to play the part of Maurice . However , Newhart was not interested . The crew , instead , approached veteran actor Ed Asner , who readily agreed to take part in the episode .
The episode was filmed without multiple sets , out @-@ of @-@ studio locations , or a large amount of extras . In addition , the budget for the episode was kept to a minimum . Because of this , " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " was the cheapest episode filmed for the sixth season . Carter readily admits that making the episode was a challenge . The drastic reduction in the budget put more strain on the main actors and several key individuals involved in the production . The outside scenes were filmed in front of the Piru Mansion in Piru , California , where the sixth season episode " The Rain King " was filmed . The day before filming was slated to begin , a brush fire ignited on the hill behind the mansion . Location manager Ilt Jones rushed to the scene in the middle of the inferno , but after an hour , the local firemen were able to bring the blaze under control by digging a fire break . The fire stopped a mere 300 feet from the house .
= = = Effects and music = = =
The gunshot wounds that Scully , and later Mulder , discover on Maurice and Lyda were created on a computer . Special effects editor Bill Millar was tasked with designing the " bloodless bullet holes " that were on Asner 's head and Tomlin 's stomach . To create this effect , Millar attached orange fluorescent cloth to the places that would become the bullet wounds . An ultraviolet light was then added to the set lighting so that the invisible reflected light would function as tracking data . The orange cloth was then excised during post @-@ production and the computerized bullet wounds were inserted in their place . Millar admits that the technique was borrowed from the 1992 movie Death Becomes Her , although he sarcastically admitted that , " we did it better and with less money . " Gillian Anderson was later critical of the fake blood used for the episode because the sheer quantity soon coagulated and formed a " gummy mess . "
Mark Snow , the composer for the episode , admitted to " ripping off " Joseph Haydn 's " Toy " Symphony to create the eerie Baroque @-@ inspired harpsichord score . Snow also admits that another major influence for the episode was Johnny Mandel 's " brilliant " score for the 1982 movie Deathtrap .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " first aired in the United States on December 13 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 30 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 11 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 70 million viewers and was the fourth most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " This holiday season ... share the gift of terror . " Corey Kaplan later won an award of excellence from the Society of Motion Picture and Television Art Directors for his work on " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas . "
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics , with some detractors . Sight on Sound called the episode " one of the best Christmas episodes of any series . " The review called “ How the Ghosts Stole Christmas , ” " an extremely creative , arguably bitter Holiday treat , perfect for [ Christmas ] with its blend of horror , comedy and hints of romance . " Static Mass writer Patrick Samuel awarded the episode five stars and said , " As [ Mulder and Scully ] gleefully unwrap their presents at the end , this episode is something that really makes my own Christmases feel that little bit more complete . " Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson , in a review of " Monday , " said , " Season six included some more excellent episodes [ and ] classic comedy episodes including , " How The Ghosts Stole Christmas . " DVD.net called " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " a " classic " standalone episode . SFX named the episode the sixth best " SF [ Sci @-@ Fi ] & Fantasy Christmas Episodes " and noted that it was full of " classic lines , some neat tricks " .
Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it a grade of an A. He noted that the episode was written in a similar manner to the earlier , Carter @-@ penned " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " . Handlen wrote that both entries " have a gleeful , everybody @-@ gets @-@ out @-@ okay @-@ in @-@ the @-@ end vibe " . He , however , concluded that the " episode lives and dies on the strength of its two guest stars " before writing that " Asner and Tomlin are more than up to the task . " Earl Cressey from DVD Talk called " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " one of the " highlights of season six . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode more of a mixed to positive review , noting the lack of darkness in the episode . He wrote , " OK , I liked a lot of this episode . [ … ] But while I 've enjoyed the sheer entertainment value of the past three shows , I really am longing for something a bit sinister and darker . "
Not all reviews were so positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris was unhappy with the way Maurice and Lyda were characterized , noting that their method of trying to get Mulder and Scully to kill each other resulted in " endless psychobabble dialogue " . Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom , in a review of the sixth season , described " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " as " hokey " and " over @-@ the @-@ top . " She identified it as the weakest episode of the sixth season .
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= Wavering Radiant =
Wavering Radiant is the fifth and final full @-@ length album by American post @-@ metal group ISIS , released by Ipecac Recordings in 2009 and produced by Joe Barresi . It stands as Isis ' last full @-@ length album , as the band split just over a year after its release . The album continues Isis ' history of lengthy songwriting , yet presents a slight departure from the soft @-@ loud dynamics and post @-@ metal aesthetic which characterized previous releases .
Reviewers noted a continued increase in melody from previous releases , and many were quick to note an increased prominence of keyboardist Bryant Clifford Meyer 's work , using a Hammond B3 organ . In keeping with Isis ' retinue of concept albums , a thematic strand runs throughout , dealing with dreams and Jungian psychology . Critical appraisal was largely positive , with some critics deeming it Isis ' finest album ; it also appeared on a handful of best @-@ of lists at the close of the year . Commercially , it was Isis ' most successful release ever , breaching the Billboard 200 for the first time and gaining international chart presence . It was ranked in the year @-@ end lists by a number of reputed publications . To promote the album , Isis embarked on a world tour and shot a music video for the sixth track " 20 Minutes / 40 Years . "
= = Writing and recording = =
From conception to final release in 2009 , drummer Aaron Harris estimates that the creation and execution of Wavering Radiant took about two and a half years . During the writing of the record , all of Isis ' members were residing permanently within Los Angeles ; a situation in contrast to their previous full @-@ length , 2006 's In the Absence of Truth ; band members were divided between New York and Los Angeles throughout that album 's inception and creation . The entire band felt a degree of dissatisfaction with In the Absence of Truth , and Harris felt that the logistical change was beneficial to the writing process , allowing for more time : " rather than feeling like we had limited time to capture something , I felt like we could take our time with the songs , and come back the next day to work on things rather than in a few weeks " . The resulting sound was described by guitarist Michael Gallagher as " more live [ ... ] a little bit dirtier – almost , for lack of a better word , sloppy . But in a good way . We spent a lot of time getting all of our takes as close to perfect as we could on previous records . On this one , we went more with the vibe of the particular take in question . "
During the composition phase , Harris multitrack recorded the rehearsals , allowing the band to listen to the material and re @-@ examine it , allowing them greater room to jam while writing " without the worry of forgetting something or not fully understanding what [ they were ] doing " . This , coupled with the lack of a deadline , meant that the process was more open @-@ ended for the band , allowing more freedom to abandon failed avenues and giving ideas time to evolve . This attitude was extended to the manner in which the vocals were tracked – until Wavering Radiant , the vocals had normally been recorded last . Instead , more time was spent recording them ; this allowed Turner , who had steadily grown in confidence as a vocalist , to relax and enjoy the process .
The recording process for the album began in November 2008 and lasted around three months , helmed by Joe Barresi . Isis ' previous full @-@ lengths since Celestial had been produced by Matt Bayles , but for this record , it was decided that a change was needed . Although the professional parting of ways was peaceable , working with Bayles had become , in the words of Harris , " routine " and " old hat " . Barresi was selected thanks to his work with bands such as Tool , Queens of the Stone Age and Melvins , and upon the album 's completion , Harris felt that Barresi " brought out some aspects of the band that even we didn 't fully understand . " Harris ' drums and keyboardist Bryant Clifford Meyer 's Hammond B3 lines were tracked over three and a half days at Sound City in Van Nuys ; the same studio in which the seminal Nirvana record Nevermind was tracked . This marked the first time a specialist drum tech was utilised by the band ; Jerry Johnson , a veteran of projects with Def Leppard and Linkin Park , was recruited .
The involvement of Tool 's Adam Jones as a guest musician was revealed at the same time as the album 's official announcement . Jones contributes additional guitar on " Hall of the Dead " and keyboards on " Wavering Radiant " , whereas Tool member Justin Chancellor had contributed to Isis ' 2004 album , Panopticon , and Isis supported Tool during a 2006 tour .
Two additional tracks were recorded during the Wavering Radiant sessions , but failed to make it onto the final cut of the album . " The Pliable Foe " was selected for the Metal Swim compilation released by Adult Swim , as well as Isis ' split with the Melvins , both released in 2010 . " Way Through Woven Branches " saw release as an addition to the Japanese edition as a bonus track , as well as making its way onto the split with the Melvins .
= = Theme = =
Reviewers have discussed the presence of a theme , with Milton Savage deducing that " track titles would imply an underlying conceptual framework to Wavering Radiant , with ' Hall of the Dead ' preceding ' Ghost Key ' , and ' Threshold of Transformation ' closing the album in epic circumstances – Turner , it seems , has left our world behind for exploration of another beyond the lives led by mortal men . " Isis releases have always had a thematic basis ; as Andrew Rennie dissects , " Isis 's four previous full @-@ lengths have clear story arcs , but Wavering Radiant 's themes are open to interpretation , giving it added appeal . " Over time , Turner has become reluctant to divulge the thematic particulars of any given album and on Wavering Radiant he has been equivocal . The act of explaining the thematic basis of an album erodes Turner 's " connection " with the music , and he has spoken of how that relationship is something he " wishes to preserve " . He also asserts that retaining this synergy with the music allows him to commit more to the album 's live performances . Similarly , he has also spoken of how " [ p ] eople have a tendency to focus on one narrow aspect of the overall concept or misinterpret it . "
Although reluctant to give any specifics , he has expressed snippets of conceptual background at times ; this , however , doesn 't extend to the reasoning behind the album 's title , which he declined to elaborate upon . When asked to describe the album in three words , he stated that it was a " path of exploration " . Bassist Jeff Caxide has revealed that Turner noted Carl Jung as a major influence on the concept and lyrics . Jung 's 1961 work , Memories , Dreams , Reflections , served as a specific source of inspiration for Turner , as he noted on his blog in a post preceding the album 's release . Beyond Jung , he has spoken of how the album is closely related to dreams , and that he had been keeping a dream journal during the album 's compositional phase . He gave up smoking marijuana in 2008 , which he says enabled him to remember his dreams more clearly and , according to J. Bennett , " tap into an internal consciousness " . All of the album 's official lyrics , deemed almost entirely indecipherable , were revealed in celebration of the album 's first anniversary .
= = Music = =
Wavering Radiant , at 54 minutes , is Isis ' shortest release since their 2000 studio début Celestial . The standard release contains seven tracks , ranging from less than two minutes to more than ten . It continues Isis ' use of non @-@ standard time signatures , opening in 5 / 4 time with " Hall of the Dead " .
Milton Savage tussled with the challenge of defining Isis ' sound : " If it 's not heavy – ' dense ' is better description – and the band 's purer metal roots have grown into a towering trunk from which sprout the most tangled of branches , both sturdy and incredibly delicate , then how does one take in the full picture and condense twelve years of unfaltering advancement to a single adjective ? " Roque Strew , of Pitchfork Media , struggles in the same vein : " pin a single label , style , adjective on Isis and it slips right off . "
While reviewers were troubled with categorizing the band , much time was spent deliberating upon the album 's sound when held in comparison with other Isis material . Robin Jahdi , writing for FACT Magazine , holds that the album presents a shift in dynamic . " It takes a while to realise , but [ Wavering Radiant ] is pretty different to what 's come before from Aaron Turner and co . The last time this happened was 2002 , when they transformed from brutal sludge metal to something altogether more delicate . " Here , he references the transition brokered when Isis released Oceanic , a critically acclaimed departure from the sound of 2000 's Celestial . Other differences from some of Isis ' previous material have been noted ; on a broad scale , the album was deemed " less punishing than Panopticon , from 2004 , and less ponderous than In the Absence of Truth , from 2006 " , but closer examination also led Slant 's Matthew Cole to suggest differences . " On past releases , Isis employed loud / soft dynamics to stunning effect , and while that element remains central to their sound , the best parts of Wavering Radiant suggest a more sophisticated integration . Rather than playing on the line between pretty and heavy , tracks like ' Stone to Wake a Serpent ' and ' 20 Minutes / 40 Years ' dissolve it . " Not all reviews held the album to be such a departure – for instance , Andrew Hartwig feels that " Wavering Radiant continues in the direction that Isis have been travelling since their inception , with an increasing prominence of melody and a greater focus on placid sections to balance out their signature crushing heaviness " .
Although Turner 's lyrics are found to be " far from wholly discernable " , his vocals have " mellowed " . Robin Jahdi writes that " Turner 's vocals are growing as well , sounding eerily like Steve Brodsky , from Isis ' peers Cave In . These journeys into melody are so successful ( vocal harmonies , no less ) that you wonder why Turner still bothers with the pseudo @-@ death metal vocals at all . They add little to the music and must serve to turn off more potential fans than they attract . " Nate Chinen , however , sees this variety as a vital component of the album 's success , attesting that " Aaron Turner expertly alternates between a death @-@ metal roar and a more human wail , using whichever better suits the needs of a song " .
According to William Ruhlmann , " a big difference is provided by keyboardist Clifford Meyer , who provides texture , filling up the overall sound and also adding ethereal touches that sometimes make Isis reminiscent of Pink Floyd . " This view is shared by Roque Strew , who argues that " equally vital to the record 's dense , hypnotic shape is Clifford Meyer 's command of the keyboard [ ... ] His blissful , knotty phrases , played on a dusty Hammond B3 or Rhodes , often recreate moments from the psychedelic and prog @-@ rock past . " However , Chris Norton of Tiny Mix Tapes contends that " the prominent keyboard tones sound pretty hokey on this album . " Praise was spared for drummer Aaron Harris also ; on this release , " everyone is playing off Harris and following his lead dynamically . His sense of moment is perfect ; knowing exactly when and where to jump in or cut back , and just how much . "
The influence of several contemporary bands was deemed apparent upon the sound of the album . Robin Jahdi writes that " the Isis sound , debuted proper on the 2002 album , is still present and correct , but there 's more subtle shifts in mood here , most interestingly when they take influence from outside ( Tool 's Adam Jones plays on two songs ) . The basslines bounce and jolt with that familiar elasticity , but the seismic six @-@ string shifts on songs like ' Hand of the Host ' and ' 20 Minutes / 40 Years ' are the sort not heard from this band in years . It is no coincidence that these are highlights . " The rhythms of " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " are described as " Pelican @-@ like " by NME reviewer Ben Patashnik , and No Ripcord 's Sean Caldwell compares the album to Mastodon 's Blood Mountain , citing its potential for " crossover " appeal .
= = Promotion and release = =
In late December 2008 , Isis began to introduce a previously unheard track into their live setlists , prompting speculation from fans and critics as video versions circulated on the Internet . Turner went on to announce the track 's title as " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " on 30 December . The album was officially announced on 22 January 2009 , and its title a week later . The album artwork and tracklist were published shortly afterwards , in early February . On 24 March , Isis added the song " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " to their MySpace page , and a week before the album 's release , made the entire record available for streaming . To promote the album in the build @-@ up to its release , Isis released a series of teaser videos , consisting of footage of the band recording , but no musical content . A limited edition run of signed CD booklets were made available to those pre @-@ ordering the album , as well as album @-@ related merchandise .
The album was released by Ipecac Recordings on limited vinyl on 21 April 2009 , and in CD format on 5 May . European distribution was undertaken by Conspiracy Records , while a special Japanese edition was handled by Daymare Recordings .
Following the album 's release , Isis embarked on a tour of North America , supported by Pelican and Tombs . They then went on to tour the UK and Europe through late 2009 , supported variously by bands including Keelhaul , Dälek and Circle . They toured Australia , New Zealand and Japan with Baroness before returning to the United States to tour with Melvins , Jakob and Cave In from May to June . This American leg of the tour included an appearance at 2010 's Bonnaroo festival in Manchester , Tennessee , while the Pacific portion took in the Soundwave Festival in Australia .
Having shot videos for tracks from their previous two albums , Isis went on to record another for " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " . Described as a " seven and a half minute epic " , the video , directed by Matt Santoro and released in November 2009 , opens with ferromagnetic fluid moving through an ambiguous , dark setting . A masked figure , trapped inside a translucent box , watches its interplay . The fluid enters the box , where it is subsumed by the figure . As the song reaches its crescendo , the box rises through the earth and breaks out of the surface into the sunlight , and its captive is freed . It received airplay on MTV2 's Headbanger 's Ball .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical response to the album was , overall , fairly laudatory . Its score of 79 out of 100 – or ' generally favorable ' – on Metacritic attests to decent reception . Regarding its place in Isis ' catalog , it has been described as their " most accomplished and complete album to date " by Ali Maloney of The Skinny , as their " smartest and richest record " and as " the toughest and catchiest Isis record " since their debut full @-@ length , Celestial . " Beyond the band 's own repertoire , it was described as " metal played at its arresting best " , and Andrew Rennie of NOW went as far as declaring it " close to perfect " . Not all reviews were so glowing , as the NME characterized it as " 45 minutes of awesomeness stretched out to a slightly bloated hour [ ... ] the unsettling Toolisms of ' Ghost Key ' meander just too long and ' Hand of the Host ' spends half of its 11 minutes repeating itself without really juddering into the granite riff golem it threatens to be . " Similarly , Chris Norton of Tiny Mix Tapes feels that the album " isn 't the band 's best by a really long shot , even if it ain 't bad . " Accessibility was a similarly divisive issue , with the album being characterized as " perhaps their most rewarding yet , but simultaneously their hardest to immediately access given its prioritising of subtle nuances over senses @-@ numbing assaults " and " a slow @-@ burning success " . Conversely , it has also been declared to be " easily the band 's most accessible effort " . Allmusic 's William Ruhlmann felt that with regards to structure , " Wavering Radiant works as a single piece of music rather than a series of songs " , as Milton Savage of Drowned in Sound concurred that Isis have " construct [ ed ] their latest so that it 's best experienced as a whole " .
The success of the album was deemed contingent upon balance . The Guardian 's Jamie Thomson posits that " the Isis of old gave the impression they were enjoying their meandering jams just a little too much , leaving the listener a tad lost . Here , they rein them in perfectly , and reward you with a colossal chorus for staying the distance " , while Nate Chinen , of The New York Times , feels that the release " upholds a deliberative truce between brute physicality and moody rumination " .
Critical selection of album highlights has provided multiple standout tracks : Milton Savage unequivocally declares that " ' Stone to Wake a Serpent ' is an obvious selection : its ominous , horror @-@ movie keyboard tones duel with Turner 's most ferocious performance in some years " , a pick Andrew Rennie of NOW shared . Other selections include " 20 Minutes / 40 Years " and " Hall of the Dead " , which Roque Strew argues " may be the lushest , most astutely crafted opener in the Isis discography " .
Turner himself had this to say of the album , fully cognizant that it would be the band 's last : " I don 't know if looking back many years from now if Wavering Radiant will be my favorite Isis record or not , but I certainly feel like it 's the best record we were capable of making at the time , and I also feel like we didn 't compromise in any really significant way the spirit or ideology behind the band in making it . And sonically speaking , I think it sounds really good , so that makes me happy , too . "
= = = Commercial reception = = =
On 13 May the album entered the Billboard 200 at number 98 and the Top Independent Albums chart in tenth spot , representing the band 's highest placing to date . In the United States , the album sold 5 @,@ 800 copies in the first week of its release . It entered the BBC Radio 1 Top 40 Rock Albums chart at number 17 , the Norwegian National Chart at number 37 , and the German charts at number 96 , providing Isis with their first chart exposure outside the United States and United Kingdom .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Isis .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
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= Loyal Order of Moose =
The Loyal Order of Moose is a fraternal and service organization founded in 1888 , with nearly 1 million men in roughly 2 @,@ 400 Lodges , in all 50 U.S. states and four Canadian provinces as well as Bermuda ; along with its female auxiliary , Women of the Moose with more than 400 @,@ 000 members in roughly 1 @,@ 600 Chapters in the same areas and the Loyal Order of Moose in Britain these organizations make up the Moose International . It is headquartered in Mooseheart , Illinois .
Moose International supports the operation of Mooseheart Child City & School , a 1 @,@ 023 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 14 km2 ) community for children and teens in need , located 40 miles ( 64 km ) west of Chicago ; and Moosehaven , a 63 @-@ acre ( 250 @,@ 000 m2 ) retirement community for its members near Jacksonville , Florida . Also , Moose Lodges and Chapters conduct approximately $ 75 million worth of community service ( counting monetary donations and volunteer hours worked ) annually .
Additionally , the Moose organization conducts numerous sports and recreational programs , in local Lodge / Chapter facilities called either Moose Family Centers or Activity Centers , in the majority of 44 State and Provincial Associations , and on a fraternity @-@ wide basis .
= = History = =
The Loyal Order of Moose was founded in Louisville , Kentucky , in the spring of 1888 by Dr. John Henry Wilson . Originally intended purely as a men 's social club , lodges were soon founded in Cincinnati , Ohio , St. Louis , Missouri and Crawfordsville and Frankfort , Indiana . The early order was not prosperous . Dr. Wilson himself was dissatisfied and left the order of the Moose before the turn of the century . When Albert C. Stevens was compiling his Cyclopedia of Fraternities in the late 1890s he was unable to ascertain whether it was still in existence .
In the fall of 1906 the Order only had the two Indiana lodges remaining . On October 27 of that year James J. Davis became the 247th member of the Order . Davis was a Welsh immigrant who had come to the US as a youth and worked as an iron puddler in the steel mills of Pennsylvania , and an active labor organizer ( he later became Secretary of Labor in the Harding administration ) . He saw the Order as a way to provide a social safety net for a working class membership , using a low annual membership fee of $ 10 – $ 15 . After giving a rousing address to the seven delegates of the 1906 Moose national convention , he was appointed " Supreme Organizer " of the Order . Davis and a group of organizers set out to recruit members and establish lodges throughout the US and Canada . He was quite successful and the Order grew to nearly half a million members in 1 @,@ 000 lodges by 1912 .
= = = Mooseheart & Moosehaven = = =
At the 1911 convention in Detroit , Davis , who now “ Director General ” of the Order , recommended that the LOOM acquire property for an " Institute " , " School " or " College " that would be a home , schooling , and vocational training for the orphans of LOOM members . For months offers came in and a number of meetings were held regarding the project . It was eventually agreed that the center should be located somewhere near the center of population , adjacent to both rail and river transportation and within a day 's travel to a major city . On December 14 , 1912 the leaders of the organization decided to purchase the 750 @-@ acre Brookline Farm . Brookline was a dairy farm near Batavia , Illinois . It was close to the Fox River , two railway lines and the ( then dirt ) Lincoln Highway . The leadership also wished to buy additional real estate to the west and north owned by two other families , for a total of 1 @,@ 023 acres . Negotiations for the purchases were held in January and February 1913 , and legal possession of the property was taken on March 1 . The name " Mooseheart " had been adopted for the school at the suggestion of Ohio Congressmen and Supreme Council member John Lentz by a unanimous joint meeting of the Supreme Council and Institute Trustees on Feb. 1 . Mooseheart was dedicated on July 27 , 1913 . Vice President Thomas R. Marshall gave a speech for the occasion .
While Mooseheart began as a school , it soon grew to become a small incorporated village and hub of the organization , housing the headquarters of the LOOM , as well as the Women of the Moose . The population of Mooseheart would grow to 1 @,@ 000 by 1920 , reach a peak of 1 @,@ 300 during the Great Depression and go down to approximately 500 , the campus ' current maximum capacity , in 1979 .
In addition to Mooseheart , the LOOM also runs a retirement center , Moosehaven , located in Orange Park Florida . This project was inaugurated in the Autumn of 1922 with 26 acres of property and 22 retired Moose residents . It has grown to a 63 @-@ acre community with over 400 residents .
= = Organization = =
Local units are called " Lodges " , state groups are " State Associations " and the national authority is the " Supreme Lodge of the World " , which meets annually . In 1923 there were 1 @,@ 669 lodges " promulgated in every civilized country controlled by the Caucasian race " . In 1966 3 @,@ 500 lodges were reported in every US state , Guam , Canada , Bermuda and England . In 1979 the Order had 36 State Associations and over 4 @,@ 000 Lodges . Today it has 1 @,@ 800 Lodges , in all 50 states and four Canadian provinces , as well as Bermuda and the United Kingdom .
The entire membership is sometimes referred to as the " Moose Domain " .
= = Membership = =
In the early 1920s membership was restricted to white men of " sound mind and body , in good standing in the community , engaged in lawful business who are able to speak and write the English language " . In June 1972 the Supreme Court handed down a decision in the Order 's favor , saying that a Moose Lodge in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania , could not be denied a state liquor license because they refused to serve a black guest .
In the early 1920s the LOM reportedly had over half a million members with 32 @,@ 570 in the Mooseheart Legion and 5 @,@ 178 in the Junior Order of Moose . In 1928 this had grown to 650 @,@ 000 members with 59 @,@ 000 in the ladies ' auxiliary . There were slightly more than a million in 1966 . In 1979 the LOM had 1 @,@ 323 @,@ 240 members . In 2013 there were 800 @,@ 000 .
= = Rituals = =
An important ritual for the Moose is the " 9 o 'clock Ceremony " . At nine o 'clock , all Moose are directed to face toward Mooseheart with bowed heads and folded arms and repeat a silent prayer " Suffer little children to come unto me and forbid them not for such is the Kingdom of Heaven . God bless Mooseheart . " At that same time the children of Mooseheart kneel at their bedside in prayers as well . There are also the ten " thou shalts . " These begin with " Thou shalt believe in God and worship Him as thy conscience dictates . Thou shalt be tolerant to let others worship each in his own way " . Other " thou shalts " pertain to patriotism , service to fellowmen , protection of the weak , avoidance of slander to a brother Moose , love of the LOM , faithfulness and humility
James Davis drew up the initiation ritual for the order . It is relatively short , usually taking 45 minutes . The governor of the lodge asks the Sergeant @-@ at @-@ Arms to administer the Moose obligation . After candidates are asked if they believe in a Supreme Being , and if they are willing to assume the obligation they take the oath with their left hand on their heart and their right hand raised . Among other things , this obligation pledges the candidate not to " communicate or disclose or give any information - concerning anything - I may hereafter hear , see or experience in this lodge or in any other Lodge " . At this point the lodge performs the 9'O 'Clock Ceremony , and then the lodge chaplain or prelate explains the ten " thou shalts " . Next the governor grasps the hands of the candidates while the members sing Blest Be the Tie that Binds . Finally , the governor administers the second part of the obligation , the candidates promise to support Mooseheart , Moosehaven , help fellow Moose , settle disputes within the order and not to join any unauthorized Moose organizations . The prelate offers another prayer at the altar , and all then join in singing Friendship We Now Extend .
There are also death and graveside services , granted on request of the family of deceased Moose , as well as a Memorial Day ceremony every first Sunday in May . The lodge altar is draped in black and white cloth , a Bible , a flower and drapes are placed on the lodge charter and the lodge prelate leads the members in prayers and the singing of Nearer , My God , to Thee .
= = = Gustin @-@ Kenny incident = = =
The Moose rituals took a tragic turn on July 24 , 1913 , when two candidates for membership , Donald A. Kenny and Christopher Gustin , died during an incident at their initiation ceremony in Birmingham , Alabama . Kenny was the president of the local Chauffeurs Union and Gustin was an iron moulder . Both men were made to look upon a red hot emblem of the Order , then blindfolded , disrobed and had a chilled rubber version of the emblem applied to their chests , while a magneto was attached to their legs and an electric current was applied to them by a wire to their shoulders . The aim was evidently to make them believe that they were being branded . Both men fainted , but , as it was thought that they were feigning , the lodge officers did not stop the initiation until it was evident that the two were dying and the lodge physician was unable to revive them .
= = Benefits and philanthropy = =
The LOOM has historically supported numerous charitable and civic activities . It has sponsored medical research for muscular dystrophy , cerebral palsy , cancer and cardiology , as well as the March of Dimes . It has also supported Boy Scout and Girl Scout programs .
= = Independent , Benevolent and Protective Order of Moose = =
In 1925 the LOOM brought a suit against the Independent , Benevolent and Protective Order of Moose , an African American order . They attempted to obtain a legal injunction to keep them from using the Moose name , ritual , emblem and titles of its officers . The New York Court of Appeals restrained the African American order from using the name " Moose " , but allowed them to continue using the same fraternal titles and colors . The I , BPOM was apparently an all woman order .
= = Religious objections = =
By 1966 the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Synod forbade membership in the Loyal Order of Moose . The Catholic Church , however , has never explicitly objected to the Moose , despite having condemned similar organizations , such as the Freemasons for their oaths and other rituals .
= = Notable Moose members = =
= = = Presidents = = =
Warren G. Harding - U.S. President — Marion , Ohio : Lodge 889
Franklin D. Roosevelt - U.S. President — New York City : Lodge 15
Theodore Roosevelt - U.S. President
Harry S. Truman - U.S. President
= = = Other politicians = = =
Evan Bayh - Former U.S. Senator / Governor of Indiana — Elkhart , Indiana Lodge : 599
Robert C. Byrd - U.S. Senator — Beckley , West Virginia : Lodge 1606
Tom Corbett - Governor of Pennsylvania — Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : Lodge 2699
Richard J. Daley - Mayor of Chicago 1955 @-@ 1976 — Greater Chicago , Illinois : Lodge 3
Joe Manchin III - US Senator , State of West Virginia — Charleston , West Virginia : Lodge 1444
C.L. " Butch " Otter - Governor , State of Idaho 2007 — Boise , Idaho : Lodge 337
Tommy Thompson - Former U.S. Secretary of Health & Human Services — Juneau County , Wisconsin : Lodge 1913
Earl Warren - Chief Justice U.S. Supreme Court ( Holder of the Pilgrim Degree of Merit ) -- Oakland , California : Lodge 324
= = = Entertainers = = =
Bud Abbott & Lou Costello Radio , TV Movie Entertainers — Atlantic City , New Jersey : Lodge 216
Ernest Borgnine - Oscar @-@ Winning Actor — Junction City , Oregon : Lodge 2238
Charles Chaplin - Motion Picture Actor / Director / Producer — Los Angeles , California : Lodge 134
Harry Cording - Motion Picture Actor @-@ Van Nuys , California : Lodge 306
Erik Estrada - Television Actor ; National Spokesman , Safe Surfin ' USA — Bedford , Virginia : Lodge 1897
Dr. Ralph Stanley - Bluegrass Recording Artist — Dinwiddle , Virginia : Lodge 1993
Ralph Stanley II - Bluegrass Recording Artist — Dinwiddle , Virginia : Lodge 1993
James Stewart - Oscar @-@ Winning Actor — Indiana , Pennsylvania : Lodge 174
Danny Thomas - Entertainer — Indianapolis , Indiana : Lodge 17
Darryl Worley - Country Music Artist — Savannah , Tennessee : Lodge 1918
= = = Athletes = = =
Ed Beard - Middle Linebacker , San Francisco 49ers — South Norfolk , Virginia : Lodge 464
Raymond Berry - NFL Hall @-@ of @-@ famer , Baltimore Colts / Super Bowl XX Coach , New England Patriots — Montgomery County , Virginia : Lodge 1470
Larry Bird - NBA Hall @-@ of @-@ famer — Orange County , Indiana : Lodge 2530
Walter Blum - Hall of Fame Jockey with 4 @,@ 382 wins — Lauderdale Lakes , Florida : Lodge 2267
Manute Bol - NBA 's tallest @-@ ever player — Chicopee Falls , Massachusetts : Lodge 1849
Jason Couch - Hall of Fame Professional Bowler — South Lake County , Florida : Lodge 1615
Jack Ham - NFL Hall of Fame linebacker , Pittsburgh Steelers — Indiana , Pennsylvania : Lodge 174
Woody Hayes - Ohio State University Football Coach — Columbus , Ohio : Lodge 11
Ted Hendricks - NFL Hall of fame Linebacker — Hialeah , Florida : Lodge 1074
Bob Huggins - Men 's Basketball Coach , West Virginia — Charleston , West Virginia : Lodge 1444
Pete Johnson - Fullback , Ohio State & Cincinnati Bengals — Gahanna , Ohio : Lodge 2463
Jerry Lucas - Basketball Hall of Fame ; NBA Rookie of the Year 1964 ; Sports Illustrated " Sportsman of the Year " 1961 ; Only Three @-@ Time Big Ten Conference Player of the Year — Bucyrus , Ohio : Lodge 669
Rocky Marciano - Boxer
Billy Martin - All @-@ Star Infielder , Manager — Oakland , California : Lodge 324
Zach Miller - Tight End , Jacksonville Jaguars — Mooseheart , Illinois : Lodge 2655
Arnold Palmer - Golfer — Greensburg , Pennsylvania : Lodge 1151
Cal Ripken Sr. - Baseball Manager — Aberdeen , Maryland : Lodge 1450
Gale Sayers - NFL Hall of Famer — Elkhart , Indiana : Lodge 599
Billy Sims - 1978 Heisman Trophy Winner ; Running back , University of Oklahoma ( 1975 – 79 ) and Detroit Lions ( 1980 @-@ 84 ) ; Member , College Football Hall of fame — Grand Rapids @-@ Sparta , Michigan : Lodge 50
Bill " Moose " Skowron - Major League Baseball Player ( 1954 – 1967 ) -- River Park , Illinois : Lodge 2578
Bill Stewart - Head Football Coach of West Virginia University — New Martinsville , West Virginia : Lodge 931
Tony Stewart - NASCAR Driver — Columbus , Indiana : Lodge 398
Gene Tunney - Boxer — Cincinnati , Ohio : Lodge 2
Bill Veeck - Major League Baseball Executive — Greater Chicago , Illinois : Lodge 3
Honus Wagner - Baseball Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer — Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : Lodge 46
Donnell Woolford - Pro Bowl Cornerback , Chicago Bears — Batavia , Illinois : Lodge 682
= = = Other = = =
Eugene Cernan - Astronaut ; " the last man on the moon " in December 1972 — Bellwood , Illinois : Lodge 777
Jean Davidson - Author and granddaughter of Harley @-@ Davidson co @-@ founder Walter Davidson — Mooseheart , Illinois : Chapter 3001
Henry Ford - Inventor of the mass @-@ produced automobile — Detroit , Michigan : Lodge 160
Virgil I. " Gus ” Grissom – Astronaut : Warwick , Virginia : Lodge 1711
Darell Hammond - Founder / CEO , KaBOOM ! Inc . - Builder of playgrounds worldwide ( and , member of Mooseheart High School Class of 1989 ) -- Batavia , Illinois : Lodge 682
Lt. Col. Edward A. Silk - Mooseheart Class of 1935 ; Recipient of the Medal of Honor in World War II — Johnstown , Pennsylvania : Lodge 48
|
= Quebec referendum , 1995 =
The 1995 Quebec referendum was the second referendum to ask voters in the Canadian province of Quebec whether Quebec should proclaim national sovereignty and become an independent country , with the condition precedent of offering a political and economic agreement to Canada .
The culmination of multiple years of debate and planning after the failure of the Meech Lake and Charlottetown constitutional accords , the referendum was launched solely by the provincial Parti Québécois government of Jacques Parizeau . Despite initial predictions of a heavy sovereignist defeat , an eventful and complex campaign followed , with the " Yes " side flourishing after being taken over by charismatic Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard .
The fast rise of the " Yes " campaign and apparent inability of the personalities of the " No " campaign to counter their message created an atmosphere of great uncertainty , both in the federal government and across Canada .
Voting took place on October 30 , 1995 , and featured the largest voter turnout in Quebec 's history ( 93 @.@ 52 % ) . The " No " option carried by 54 @,@ 288 votes ( 50 @.@ 58 % ) . Parizeau , who retired the following day , would later state that he would have quickly proceeded with a unilateral declaration of independence had the result been affirmative and negotiations failed or been refused , the latter of which was later revealed as the federal position in the event of a " Yes " victory .
Controversies over both the provincial vote counting and direct federal financial involvement in the final days of the campaign reverberated in Canadian politics for over a decade after the referendum took place . In the aftermath of the close result , the federal government , after unilaterally recognizing Quebec as a distinct society and amending the federal constitutional veto procedure , referred the issue to the Supreme Court of Canada , which stated that the unilateral secession contemplated in the referendum was illegal .
= = Background = =
Quebec , a province in Canada since its foundation in 1867 , has always been the sole majority French @-@ speaking province . Long ruled by forces ( such as the Union Nationale ) that focused on affirmation of the province 's French and Catholic identity within Canada , the Quiet Revolution of the early 1960s prompted a surge in civic and economic nationalism , as well as voices calling for the independence of the province and the establishment of a nation state . Among these was René Lévesque , who would eventually found the Parti Québécois with like @-@ minded groups seeking independence from Canada . After arriving in power in 1976 , the PQ government held a referendum in 1980 seeking a mandate to negotiate " sovereignty @-@ association " with Canada that was decisively defeated .
In response to the referendum result , Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau declared that he would seek to " patriate " the Canadian Constitution and bring about what would eventually become the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . During tense negotiations in November 1981 , an agreement was reached between Trudeau and nine of the ten premiers by Trudeau , but not Lévesque . The Constitution Act of 1982 was enacted without the Quebec National Assembly 's symbolic approval .
Trudeau 's successor as Prime Minister , Brian Mulroney , and Quebec Liberal premier Robert Bourassa sought a series of Constitutional amendments designed to address Quebec 's concerns . In what became known as the Meech Lake Accord , the Federal government and all provincial premiers agreed to a series of amendments that decentralized some powers and recognized Quebec as forming a distinct society . The Accord , after fierce debate in English Canada , fell apart in dramatic fashion in the summer of 1990 , prompting outrage in Quebec and a surge in support for sovereignty . While the Accord was collapsing , Lucien Bouchard , a cabinet minister in Mulroney 's government , led a coalition of Progressive Conservative and Liberal members of parliament from Quebec to form a new federal party devoted to Quebec sovereignty , the Bloc Québécois .
Following these events , Bourassa proclaimed that a referendum would occur in 1992 , with either sovereignty or a new Constitutional agreement as the subject . This prompted a national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord of 1992 , a series of amendments that included the proposals of Meech Lake as well as concerns of the broader Canadian federation . The Accord failed in Quebec and English Canada .
In the 1993 federal election , as the Liberals returned to power with a majority government under Jean Chrétien , who had been Minister of Justice during the 1980 @-@ 81 constitutional discussions . The Bloc Québécois won 54 seats with 49 @.@ 3 % of Quebec 's vote . The result made the Bloc the second largest party in the House of Commons , giving it the role of Official Opposition and allowing Bouchard to be able to confront Chrétien in Question Period on a daily basis .
In Quebec , the 1994 provincial election brought the sovereigntist Parti Québécois back to power , led by Jacques Parizeau . The party 's platform promised to hold a referendum on sovereignty during his term in office as premier . The PQ won a majority government with 44 @.@ 75 % of the popular vote .
= = Prelude = =
In preparation for the referendum , every household in Quebec was sent a draft of the Act Respecting the Future of Quebec ( also referred to as the Sovereignty Bill ) , with the announcement of the National Commission on the Future of Quebec to commence in February 1995 . The Commission was boycotted by the Liberal Party of Quebec , the Liberal Party of Canada , and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada .
The primary issue of debate within the sovereignty movement became on what terms sovereignty would be put before the electorate . Parizeau , long identified with the independantiste wing of the party , was opposed to the PQ 's general historical preference for an economic relationship with the rest of Canada to be offered alongside sovereignty , as he thought this would encourage the Federal government to simply refuse to negotiate and cast the project as doomed , as had happened in 1980 . As a practical matter , Parizeau believed that given the emotional circumstances of separation a special partnership was unlikely , and that given free trade agreements and other multilateral institutions it was unnecessary .
Parizeau 's stance created opposition in the sovereignty movement , which coalesced around Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard . A popular and charismatic figure , Bouchard had come close to death from necrotizing fasciitis and lost his left leg . His recovery , and subsequent public appearances on crutches , provided a rallying point for sovereigntists and the public at large . Bouchard thought a proposal lacking a partnership would doom the project among soft nationalists ( such as himself ) who worried about the economic consequences of separation .
As polls showed Parizeau 's approach as highly unlikely to even exceed 40 % support in a referendum , leaders of the movement engaged in a heated public debate . After Parizeau moved the planned referendum date to the fall , Deputy Premier Bernard Landry aroused ire by stating he would not want to be involved in a " charge of the light brigade . " During the Bloc 's April conference , after a speech demanding a change in direction , Bouchard expressed ambivalence to a radio show about participating if a partnership proposal was not included . Mario Dumont , leader of the new Action démocratique du Québec , also stated that he would only consider participation in the referendum if a partnership was made part of the question .
The final findings of the National Commission , issued April 19 , included a statement that the public generally desired an economic partnership with Canada . Fearing Bouchard and Dumont would further dilute their position as the referendum wore on , Parizeau agreed to negotiate a broader approach , and would agree to a statement that included partnership with Dumont and Bouchard on June 12 , 1995 . The Agreement contained details of the partnership negotiation process , and a general plan of seeking " sovereignty " while requiring an economic and social partnership offer be negotiated and presented to the rest of Canada . Most importantly for Parizeau , the agreement also allowed the government to declare immediate independence if negotiations were not successful or heard after a successful referendum .
= = = Bertrand v. Quebec = = =
The looming referendum prompted a number of actions in the Quebec Superior Court , which were consolidated under the application of prominent lawyer Guy Bertrand . Bertrand asked for interim and permanent injunctions against the holding of the referendum . The Federal Attorney General declined to intervene , and after failing in a motion to strike the application , the Quebec Attorney General unilaterally withdrew from the hearing . The government moved the September sitting of the National Assembly two days forward to be sure that parliamentary immunity would prevent MNAs from being summoned to testify .
Justice Lesage of the Court found that secession could only legally be performed by constitutional amendment pursuant to Section V of the Constitution Act , 1982 , and that a unilateral declaration of independence would be " manifestly illegal . " Lesage refused to issue an injunction to stop the referendum , as he believed that to do so could paralyze the workings of government and cause more disorder than the referendum being held . The Court opted for declaratory relief , declaring that the Sovereignty Bill and the referendum constituted a serious threat to Bertrand 's Charter rights
Parizeau denounced the decision as undemocratic , stated that the Constitution Act , 1982 did not apply to Quebec , and refused to move the referendum timetable . Quebec Attorney General Paul Bégin stated that he believed an extra @-@ constitutional referendum was legal pursuant to international law . Daniel Johnson announced the following day that the ruling would not change the strategy of the " No " campaign . Some Federal officials questioned if their level of government could be involved after the declaration , but ultimately the Federal government decided to participate .
= = = Referendum question = = =
In a dramatic reading at the Grand Théâtre de Québec on September 6 , the final version of the Sovereignty Bill was unveiled . The bill would be tabled in the National Assembly awaiting the result of the referendum .
The question in the 1980 referendum , in an attempt to build a broad coalition , had sought only the authority to negotiate sovereignty with the Canadian government , and promised a second referendum to ratify the results of any negotiation . Parizeau believed a second referendum was unnecessary and would only encourage the remainder of Canada to use delaying tactics . The draft initial Act featured a question only asking for the authority to declare Quebec sovereign .
Pursuant to the partnership agreement with Bouchard and Dumont , the referendum question was changed to incorporate the partnership agreement . It was presented on September 7 , 1995 to be voted on October 30 , 1995 . In English , the question on the ballot asked :
Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign after having made a formal offer to Canada for a new economic and political partnership within the scope of the bill respecting the future of Quebec and of the agreement signed on June 12 , 1995 ?
The question came under immediate fire from federalists , who had no input in the drafting . Quebec Liberal leader Daniel Johnson stated it was confusing and at the very least should have contained the word " country . " Prominent federalists argued that the referendum question should not have mentioned " partnership " proposals , because no Canadian political leaders outside Quebec had shown any interest in negotiating a possible partnership agreement with an independent Quebec , and arguably no entity capable of undertaking such negotiations actually existed .
Other federalists argued that the question erroneously implied an agreement had been reached between Canada and Quebec regarding a partnership on June 12 , 1995 . Parizeau would later express regret that the agreement had to be cited in the question , but noted that the June 12 , 1995 agreement had been sent to every registered voter in the province .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Participants = = =
Pursuant to Quebec 's Referendum Act ( enacted by the National Assembly prior to the referendum of 1980 ) , the campaign would be conducted as a provincially governed election campaign , and all campaign spending had to be authorized and accounted for under " Yes " ( Le Comité national du OUI ) or " No " ( Comité des Québécoises et des Québécois pour le NON ) umbrella committees . Each committee had an authorized budget of $ 5 million . Campaign spending by any person or group other than the official committees would be illegal after the official beginning of the referendum campaign .
After the agreement of June 12 , the " Yes " campaign would be headed by Jacques Parizeau . The official " No " campaign would be chaired by Liberal leader Daniel Johnson Jr .
Making matters more complex , especially for the " No " camp , was the federal nature of Canada . The governing Liberal Party of Canada and its leader , Prime Minister Jean Chrétien were not strongly represented in the province outside of Montreal . Chrétien 's involvement in the 1982 negotiations and his stance against the Meech Lake Accord made him unpopular with moderate francophone federalists and sovereignists , who would be the swing voters in the referendum . Lucienne Robillard , a nationalist former Bourassa @-@ era cabinet minister , would serve as the federal Liberal representative on the " No " committee . Jean Charest , leader of the Federal Progressive Conservative Party , would be prominently featured , as he and the PCs had closely and productively cooperated with the Quebec Liberals in the Meech Lake negotiations .
Fearing missteps by politicians not used to Quebec that had occurred during the Meech Lake and Charlottetown debates , Johnson and the campaign heavily controlled appearances by Federal politicians , including Chrétien . Johnson bluntly banned any appearance by the Reform Party or its leader , Preston Manning . This would go unchallenged by Ottawa for the majority of the campaign , but created much frustration within the governing Liberals in Ottawa . Prominent Chrétien adviser Eddie Goldenberg believed that the " No " campaign at some points was more focused on the future election position of the Quebec Liberals rather than the referendum itself .
= = = Early days = = =
The campaign officially began on October 2 , 1995 , with a televised address by both leaders . Parizeau emphasized that he believed this might be the last opportunity for sovereignty for the foreseeable future , while Johnson chose to forecast the uncertainty that a " Yes " vote could provoke .
Johnson 's campaign focused on the practical problems created by the sovereignty process , emphasizing that an independent Quebec would be in an uncertain position regarding the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) and not be able to control the Canadian dollar . Prominent business figures such as Power Corporation president Paul Desmarais and Bombardier Inc. head Laurent Beaudoin spoke that they believed a " Yes " victory could spell doom for their Quebec business interests .
The initial campaign for the " Yes " was led by Parizeau , with Dumont campaigning separately . In addition to the traditional themes of the movement 's appeal to Quebec nationalism , his campaign attempted to highlight the slim possibility of any future reform to Canada 's federal system . Parizeau bitterly attacked business leaders for intervening in the referendum , calling it a betrayal of their Quebec customers and workers . While Parizeau 's responses were highly popular with " Yes " stalwarts , it was generally seen that speeches against business leaders were only highlighting the economic uncertainty that worried swing voters .
Polls in the first week were highly disappointing for the " Yes " camp , as they showed them behind by 5 @-@ 7 percentage points among decided voters , with an even larger gap if " undecided " voters were weighed toward the " No " side as would generally be expected . Parizeau , a general fixture in Quebec politics for decades whose strong views of sovereignty were well known among the populace , was under pressure to create a spark .
= = = Appointment of Bouchard = = =
In an unannounced ceremony on October 7 at the Université de Montréal , Parizeau made a surprise announcement : He appointed Bouchard as " Chief Negotiator " for the partnership talks following a " Yes " vote . The move came as a dramatic surprise to the campaign , promoting the popular Bouchard to the fore and simultaneously emphasizing the " partnership " aspect of the question .
Bouchard , already popular , became a sensation : in addition to his medical struggles and charisma , his more moderate approach and prominent involvement in the Meech Lake Accord while in Ottawa reminded undecided nationalist voters of Federal missteps from years past . Politicians on both sides described his appeal as messianic and almost impossible to personally attack , in contrast to the well worn figures on both sides of the referendum . " No " advisor John Parisella noted that at focus groups , when presented with statements Bouchard had made that they did not like , participants would refuse to believe he meant them . New polls eventually showed a majority of Quebecers intending to vote " Yes "
" No " forces , including Johnson , were shocked by the development , which required wholesale changes in strategy three weeks before the vote . Unwilling to believe Parizeau had given up his leadership role voluntarily , most in the " No " camp and Ottawa had assumed a coup had taken place , though the maneuver had been pre @-@ planned and voluntary . The dramatic events prompted many Federal politicians to lobby for similarly dramatic intervention from Ottawa and the Federal government , which were refused by the " No " committee , who believed that with Bouchard 's introduction the margin for error was dramatically reduced . The " No " campaign continued to focus on the economic benefits of Federation .
Bouchard 's speeches asked Quebecers to vote " Yes " to give a clear mandate for change , and that only the clarity a " Yes " vote would provide a final solution to Canada 's long standing constitutional issues and a new partnership with English Canada for the betterment of both . Bouchard 's popularity was such that his remarks that the Québécois were the " white race " with the lowest rate of reproduction , which threatened to cast the project as focused on ethnic nationalism , were traversed with ease . Bloc Québécois MP Suzanne Tremblay was less successful in this regard , and apologized after answering journalist Joyce Napier 's question of how minority francophones outside of Quebec would be helped by independence by stating that Napier 's last name and lack of a Québécois accent made her ignorant of the subject .
= = = Midcampaign = = =
Pursuant to the Referendum Act , both committees were required to contribute to a brochure sent to every voter describing their positions . The official " No " brochure , written by the Quebec Liberals , stated that Quebec was a distinct society , and that Quebec should enjoy full autonomy in areas of provincial jurisdiction . Parizeau , while speaking in Hull , challenged Chrétien to tell voters that , if " No " won , Ottawa would withdraw from all provincial jurisdictions , prompting a vague response from the " No " campaign .
On October 21 in Longueuil , Johnson , hoping to defuse the issue , ad libbed a challenge to Chrétien to declare his position on distinct society recognition . When presented with the request Chrétien , in New York for a United Nations meeting , responded , " No . We 're not talking about the Constitution , we 're talking about the separation of Quebec from the rest of Canada . " The remarks in direct contradiction to Johnson were portrayed in the press as a blunt refusal .
Chrétien 's position was far more difficult than Johnson 's : Part of the 1993 Liberal election platform had been moving the country away from large scale constitutional debates . Provincial governments were also far more hostile to the constitutional process than they had been in the decade prior , with even the federal government 's typical ally , Ontario , being firmly against any pursuit of constitutional accommodation .
French President Jacques Chirac , while answering a call from a viewer in Montreal on CNN 's Larry King Live , declared that , if the " Yes " side were successful , the fact that the referendum had succeeded would be recognized by France .
At a federalist rally of about 12 @,@ 500 people was held at the Verdun Auditorium on October 24 , Chrétien introduced a focus on Quebec 's emotional attachment to Canada , promised reforms to give Quebec more power , and in a more startling announcement , declared that he would support enshrinement of Quebec as a distinct society and that he would support reforms to the Canadian constitution . The sudden reversal of Chrétien 's long @-@ standing position on the issue , along with Chrétien 's wan complexion and atypically nervous appearance , sparked considerable comment . Charest further emphasized his commitment to constitutional reform if a " No " victory was achieved .
= = = Aboriginal activism = = =
In response to the referendum , aboriginal peoples in Quebec strongly affirmed their own right to self @-@ determination . First Nations chiefs said that forcing their peoples to join an independent Quebec without their consent would violate international law , violating their rights to self @-@ determination . Aboriginal groups also demanded to be full participants in any new constitutional negotiations resulting from the referendum .
The Grand Council of the Crees in Northern Quebec was particularly vocal and prominent in its resistance to the idea of being included in an independent Quebec . Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come issued a legal paper , titled Sovereign Injustice , which sought to affirm the Cree right to self @-@ determination in keeping their territories in Canada . On October 24 , 1995 , the Cree organized their own referendum , asking the question : " Do you consent , as a people , that the Government of Quebec separate the James Bay Crees and Cree traditional territory from Canada in the event of a Yes vote in the Quebec referendum ? " 96 @.@ 3 % of the 77 % of Crees who cast ballots voted to stay in Canada . The Inuit of Nunavik held a similar local vote , asking , " Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign ? " , with 96 % voting No . First Nations communities contributed significantly to the tense debate on a hypothetical partition of Quebec .
= = = October 25 , 1995 : Three addresses = = =
Five days before the vote , United States President Bill Clinton , while recognizing the referendum as an internal issue of Canada , gave a minute @-@ long statement extolling the virtues of a united Canada , ending with " Canada has been a great model for the rest of the world , and has been a great partner of the United States , and I hope that can continue . " While the statement provided relief in sovereignist circles for not being a stronger endorsement of the " No " position , the implication of Clinton , who was popular in Quebec and the leader of the province 's most important trading partner , endorsing Canadian unity had strong reverberations in the electorate .
The same night , Prime Minister Jean Chrétien gave a televised address to the nation in English and French . Broadly similar in both languages , Chrétien promoted the virtues of Canadian federalism to Quebec , touched on the shared values of the country , warned that Parizeau would use the referendum result as a mandate to declare independence from Canada ( while explicitly not stating the result would be accepted ) , and announced that Quebec would be recognized as a distinct society and that any future constitutional reform that impacted Quebec would be made with the province 's consent .
The " Yes " side was provided airtime for a rebuttal in English and French . Lucien Bouchard was given the task in both languages , with the " Yes " campaign stating that a federal politician should give the response . Bouchard 's French address recounted the previous animosities of the constitutional debate , specifically targeting Chrétien 's career and actions , including showing a newspaper headline from the aftermath of the 1982 Constitution that featured Trudeau and Chrétien laughing . Bouchard then focused on the details of the partnership aspect of the proposal . He used his English address to ask Canadians to understand the " Yes " side and to announce an intention to negotiate in good faith .
= = = Unity Rally = = =
Fisheries Minister Brian Tobin , expressing anxiety to his staff about the referendum the week before , was told about a small rally planned in Place du Canada in Montreal for businesspersons on October 27 . Asked by Federal advisor John Rae , Pierre Claude Nolin agreed to allow Tobin to invite Canadians outside Quebec to the rally , provided Quebec 's referendum laws were adhered to . Tobin then encouraged fellow caucus members to send as many people as possible .
After gaining permission from the Prime Minister ( over the objections of Quebec members of Cabinet ) , Tobin then appeared on the national English @-@ language Canada AM , and while disavowing any connection with the " No " organization , announced that the " No " side would be holding a rally in Montréal on October 27 , and implored Canadians from around the country to attend the rally to support the " crusade for Canada . " Tobin noted that committees were being formed in Ottawa and Toronto , charter aircraft were being ordered , and that Canadian Airlines had a 90 % off " unity " sale . Tobin proceeded to call the chairman of Air Canada in his capacity as a private citizen and suggest planes be made available at the same rate , a request that was granted .
Tobin 's Canada AM appearance resulted in calls flooding MP 's offices in English Canada , and bus companies volunteered hundreds of vehicles to take Canadians from outside of Quebec to Montreal . The rally at Place du Canada was estimated to have between 50 @,@ 000 and 125 @,@ 000 attendees , with estimates varying wildly as the crowd grew and shrank throughout the day . Jean Chrétien , Jean Charest and Daniel Johnson spoke to the crowd for the occasion , which would become known as the " Unity Rally " . Images of the large crowd with an oversized Canadian flag became iconic . Charest felt the rally helped to keep momentum for the " No " campaign moving .
The federal government 's intervention in the rally attracted strident protests from the " Yes " side , who felt the discounts and coordination were an illegal intervention in the referendum . Bouchard publicly contrasted the rally with what he believed was the inattention of English Canada to the collapse of the Meech Lake Accord . Nolin regretted granting permission for the " No " committee once the scale became known , and Johnson felt the rally only exacerbated tensions with regard to English Canada . Opinions on whether the rally had an impact were divided and unable to be gauged , as the rally happened while the final polls for the Monday referendum were being produced .
= = = Opinion polling = = =
During the campaign , polls were reported by all pollsters and press outlets with a general guideline of having undecided voters split unevenly in favour of the " No " side : This ranged from 2 / 3 to 3 / 4 of the undecided vote .
= = Result = =
93 @.@ 52 % of the 5 @,@ 087 @,@ 009 registered Quebecers voted in the referendum , a higher turnout than any provincial or federal election in Canada 's history . The proposal of June 12 , 1995 was rejected by voters , with 50 @.@ 58 % voting " No " and 49 @.@ 42 % voting " Yes " . The margin was significantly smaller than the 1980 referendum . The " Yes " side was the choice of French speakers by an estimated majority of about 60 % . Anglophones and allophones ( those who do not have English or French as a first language ) voted " No " by a margin of 95 % .
There was a majority " Yes " vote in 80 out of 125 National Assembly ridings . The " Yes " side was strongest in Saguenay – Lac @-@ Saint @-@ Jean , the Gaspé , the Centre @-@ du @-@ Québec , and generally the suburbs of Quebec City and Montreal . While there was disappointment in the results of Montreal and the Beauce , Quebec City 's soft support for " Yes " was the greatest surprise for the " Yes " side . This prompted speculation that provincial government officials did not want the uncertainty a " Yes " would bring , especially after Parizeau had promised to integrate displaced Federal civil servants in a sovereign Quebec .
The heavily populated West Island ridings of Montreal , home to a large anglophone population , voted " No " by margins eclipsing 80 % ; some polling stations even showed literally no " Yes " votes at all . The far North , the Outaouais , the Beauce , and the Eastern Townships also generally voted " No " .
The riding with the highest " Yes " result was Saguenay along the northern shore with 73 @.@ 3 % voting yes ; The riding with the highest " No " result was D 'Arcy @-@ McGee in the West Island with 96 @.@ 38 % voting " No " ; The riding with the closest result was Vimont in Laval , which the " Yes " won by 6 votes .
= = Immediate responses = =
" No " supporters gathered at Métropolis in Montreal , Johnson expressed hope for reconciliation in Quebec and stated he expected the Federal government to pursue Constitutional changes . Prime Minister Chrétien echoed similar sentiments to Johnson , and stated that he " extended his hand " to Quebec 's premier and government .
" Yes " supporters met at the Palais des congrès de Montréal on referendum night . After the result became known , Dumont and Bouchard made speeches accepting the result as part of the movement 's democratic convictions and expressing hope that a subsequent referendum would bring a " Yes " victory .
Jacques Parizeau , who had not prepared a concession speech , rejected one prepared by Jean @-@ François Lisée and spoke without notes . Noting that 60 % of French @-@ speakers had voted yes , he stated that he would address French @-@ speaking Québécois as nous ( " we " ) , and that they had spoken clearly in favour of the " Yes . " He then stated that the only thing that had stopped the " Yes " side was " money and ethnic votes " and that the next referendum would be successful with only a few percentage more of French speakers onside . The remarks , widely lambasted in the Canadian and international press as ethnocentric , sparked surprise and anger in the " Yes " camp , as the movement had gone to great lengths to disown ethnic nationalism .
Bernard Landry confronted Parizeau at a Cabinet meeting the next morning about the remarks , stating that the movement " had to hide its head in shame . " Parizeau , after canvassing opinions , then told his Cabinet that he would resign as premier and leader of the Parti Québécois . It was later revealed that he had declared he would retire anyway if the " Yes " side lost , in an embargoed interview with TVA taped days before the referendum .
Five days after the referendum , André Dallaire , a schizophrenic " Yes " supporter upset at the result , broke into Chrétien 's Ottawa residence armed with a knife . Dallaire attempted to find Chrétien and kill the prime minister in his bed before being discovered by Aline Chrétien , who barricaded the bedroom door . Chrétien was unharmed , and Dallaire would eventually be found not criminally responsible by reason of mental defect .
= = Contingency preparation for a " Yes " victory = =
= = = Sovereignists = = =
Sovereignists believed that a " Yes " vote of 50 % plus one vote was a binding result pursuant to the Referendum Act and the Sovereignty Bill , as well as the general international law principle of self @-@ determination . In the event of a " Yes " victory , Parizeau had said he intended to return to the National Assembly of Quebec within two days of the result and seek support for a motion recognizing the result of the referendum . In a speech he had prepared in the event of a " Yes " victory , he said a sovereign Quebec 's first move would be to " extend a hand to its Canadian neighbour " in partnership pursuant to the wording of the referendum .
Parizeau 's immediate plans after the referendum relied upon what he felt would be general pressure from economic markets and the business community in English Canada to stabilize the situation as quickly as possible , which he believed would mitigate any catastrophic initial events ( such as blockades ) and prepare for negotiations .
Despite the prominent placement of Bouchard in the referendum campaign , Parizeau planned to retain all authority with regard to negotiations , and to appoint most members of the negotiation team if they were to occur . Parizeau also believed federalist Quebecers such as Chrétien and Charest would be quickly disregarded and replaced at negotiations by representatives from the other nine provinces . If the Federal government refused to negotiate , or if negotiations were to exceed October 30 , 1996 , Parizeau stated that he would proceed with a unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) for an independent Quebec pursuant to Section 26 of the Sovereignty Bill .
Parizeau 's hopes for international recognition , a practical requirement of statehood , rested with France and the Francophonie . He believed that if Quebec declared independence in these circumstances , President of the French National Assembly Philippe Séguin , a powerful Gaullist power broker who was sympathetic to the sovereignty movement , would pressure President Chirac to recognize the declaration . He counted on a French recognition to spread quickly to the Francophonie and bring the issue to a head . Benoit Bouchard , Canada 's ambassador at the time , believed that the plan was irrational as he doubted Séguin , who was supposed to be a neutral figure in his role , could bring sufficient pressure in the country 's semi @-@ presidential system .
In interviews conducted in 2014 , Bouchard and Dumont both believed that negotiations would have resulted had the " Yes " side won and that Quebec would have remained in Canada with a more autonomous status . Bouchard , while approving of Parizeau 's intention to unilaterally declare independence should negotiations be refused , implied that he and Dumont would have been able to control negotiations and offer a subsequent referendum on a new agreement . Dumont noted that international recognition would have been difficult had two of the three leaders of the " Yes " campaign been against a UDI , and that he and Bouchard were willing to slow the process down if necessary . For his part , Bernard Landry believed that nothing short of a seat at the United Nations would have been accomplished had the " Yes " won .
= = = Federalists = = =
= = = = Recognition = = = =
As the referendum was only of force and effect pursuant to a provincial law , neither the provincially sanctioned " No " committee or the Federal government had any input on the question of the referendum . Federalists strongly differed on how or if a " Yes " referendum result would be recognized . " No " campaign head Daniel Johnson disputed the " Yes " side 's position that a simple majority was sufficient to declare independence , as he believed the question was too vague and gave negotiators too broad a mandate given the enormity of the issue and the uncertainty of negotiations .
Jean Chrétien refused to publicly comment or consider contingencies regarding a possible " Yes " victory , and at no point stated the referendum bound the Federal government to negotiations or permitted a unilateral declaration of independence . His wording of speeches during the referendum noted that Parizeau would interpret a " Yes " vote as a mandate to separate Quebec from Canada , but never offered recognition that this was legal or recognizable . A speech drafted for Chrétien in the event of a " Yes " vote stated that the question was too ambiguous to be binding and that only dissatisfaction with the status quo had been stated .
Reform party leader Preston Manning , a prominent proponent of direct democracy , would have recognized any result , with critics suspecting he preferred a " Yes " vote for electoral gain . Jean Charest recognized the referendum 's legitimacy , although a draft post @-@ referendum speech had him interpreting a " Yes " vote as a call for drastic reform of Canadian federation instead of separation . The New Democratic Party 's official position was that the result had to be recognized .
= = = = Negotiations = = = =
Little planning was made for the possibility of a " Yes " vote by the Canadian federal government , with the general consensus being that the referendum would be easily won and that planning would spark panic or give the referendum undeserved legitimacy . Some members of the federal cabinet met to discuss several possible scenarios , including referring the issue of Quebec 's independence to the Supreme Court . Senior civil servants met to consider the impact of a vote for secession on issues such as territorial boundaries and the federal debt . A dispute arose as to whether Jean Chrétien and many prominent members of Cabinet who had been elected in a Quebec ridings could represent Canada at a hypothetical partnership negotiation .
Manning intended to immediately call for Chrétien 's resignation and for a general election if the referendum was successful , even though the Liberals , independent of their Quebec seats , had a sizable majority in the House of Commons . There was also some doubt that Chrétien would be able to assure the Governor General that he retained enough support within his party to remain the Prime Minister of Canada . Chrétien 's intention was , whatever the result , to stay in office . New Brunswick Premier Frank McKenna later confirmed that he had been invited into a hypothetical " National Unity " cabinet if the " Yes " side was victorious , with a general understanding that former Ontario Premier Bob Rae was to be included as well .
= = Controversies post @-@ referendum = =
= = = Rejected ballots = = =
When the counting was completed , approximately 86 @,@ 000 ballots were rejected by Deputy Returning Officers , alleging that they had not been marked properly by the voter . Each polling station featured a Deputy Returning Officer ( appointed by the " Yes " ) who counted the ballots while a Poll Clerk ( appointed by the " No " ) recorded the result of the count .
Controversy arose over whether the Deputy Returning Officers of the Chomedey , Marguerite @-@ Bourgeois and Laurier @-@ Dorion ridings had improperly rejected ballots . In these ridings the " No " vote was dominant , and the proportion of rejected ballots was 12 % , 5 @.@ 5 % and 3 @.@ 6 % . Thomas Mulcair , member of the Quebec National Assembly for Chomedey , told reporters that there was " an orchestrated attempt to steal the vote " in his riding . A study released months after the referendum by McGill University concluded that ridings with a greater amount of " No " votes had a higher percentage of rejected ballots . Directeur général des élections du Québec ( DGEQ ) , Pierre F. Cote , launched an inquiry into the alleged irregularities , supervised by the Chief Justice of the Quebec Superior Court , Alan B. Gold . All ballots of the three ridings plus a sample of ballots from other ridings were examined . The inquiry concluded that some ballots had been rejected without valid reasons , but the incidents were isolated . The majority of the rejected ballots were " No " votes , in proportion to the majority of the valid votes in those districts .
Two Deputy Returning Officers were charged by the DGEQ with violating elections laws , but in 1996 were found not guilty ( a decision upheld by the Quebec Court of Appeal ) , after it was found that the ballots were not rejected in a fraudulent or irregular manner , and that there was no proof of conspiracy . A Quebec Court judge acquitted a Deputy Returning Officer charged with illegally rejecting 53 % of the ballots cast at his Chomedey polling district .
In 2000 , the Quebec Superior Court denied an application by Alliance Quebec that attempted to force the DGEQ to give access to all 5 million ballots , ruling that the only authority that could do so expired in 1996 . The referendum ballots were incinerated in 2008 after appeals were exhausted . In May 2005 , former PQ cabinet minister Richard Le Hir said that the PQ coordinated the ballot rejections , which PQ officials denied .
= = = Citizenship and Immigration Canada = = =
Citizenship Court judges from across Canada were sent into the province to ensure as many qualified immigrants living in Quebec as possible had Canadian citizenship before the referendum , and thus were able to vote . The goal was to have 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 outstanding citizenship applications processed for residents of Quebec by mid @-@ October . 43 @,@ 855 new Quebecers obtained their Canadian citizenship during 1995 , with about one quarter of these ( 11 @,@ 429 ) were granted their citizenship during the month of October . When confronted about the issue by a Bloc Québécois MP who suggested shortcuts were being taken to hurry citizenship applications for immigrants who would most likely vote " No " , Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Sergio Marchi responded that this was common before provincial election campaigns in other provinces .
= = = Spending limits and Option Canada = = =
The Canadian Unity Council incorporated a Montreal @-@ based lobbying group called Option Canada with the mandate to promote federalism in Quebec . Option Canada received $ 1 @.@ 6 million in funding from the Canadian Heritage Department in 1994 , $ 3 @.@ 35 million in 1995 and $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 1996 . The Montreal Gazette reported in March 1997 that the group also had other funds from undeclared sources . A Committee to Register Voters Outside Quebec was created to help citizens who had left Quebec before the 1995 vote register on the electoral list . The Committee handed out pamphlets during the referendum , including a form to be added to the list of voters . The pamphlet gave out a toll @-@ free number as contact information , which was the same number as the one used by the Canadian Unity Council .
After the referendum , the DSEQ filed 20 criminal charges of illegal expenditures by Option Canada and others on behalf of the " No " side , which were dropped after the Supreme Court of Canada in Libman vs. Quebec @-@ Attorney General ruled sections of the Referendum Act restricting third @-@ party expenditures were unconstitutionally restrictive under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms .
Aurèle Gervais , communications director for the Liberal Party of Canada , as well as the students ' association at Ottawa 's Algonquin College , were charged with infractions of Quebec 's Election Act after the referendum for illegally hiring buses to bring supporters to Montreal for the rally . Environment Minister Sergio Marchi told reporters that Gervais should wear [ the charges against him ] like a badge of honour . " Two years later , the Quebec Superior Court dismissed the charges , stating that the actions took place outside of Quebec and so the Quebec Election Act did not apply .
The DSEQ asked retired Quebec court judge Bernard Grenier in 2006 to investigate Option Canada after the publishing of Normand Lester and Robin Philpot 's " The Secrets of Option Canada " , which alleged over $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 had been spent helping the " No " campaign . Grenier determined that C $ 539 @,@ 000 was illegally spent by the " No " side during the referendum , although he drew no conclusions over the " Unity Rally . " Grenier said there was no evidence of wrongdoing by Jean Charest or that the rally was part of a plan to sabotage the sovereigntist movement . Grenier urged Quebecers in his report to move on . The Bloc Québécois called for a federal inquiry , which did not occur .
= = = Responses = = =
After the referendum , the ballot for Quebec elections was redesigned to reduce the size of the space where voters could indicate their choice and the rules on allowable markings were relaxed , so that Deputy Returning Officers would have fewer grounds for rejecting ballots . The Quebec government also changed the Electoral Act so that voters would need to show a Canadian passport , Quebec drivers ' license or Quebec provincial health care card at the polling station for identification purposes in future elections .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Quebec = = =
Parizeau 's resignation led to Bouchard becoming the leader of the PQ and Premier unopposed . While Bouchard maintained a third referendum was forthcoming provided " winning conditions " occurred , his government 's chief priority became reform of the Quebec economy . Daniel Johnson would resign as leader of the Liberal Party of Quebec , and after significant pressure in English Canada , Charest resigned as national PC leader and was acclaimed as leader of the Liberals . Bouchard would defeat Charest in the 1998 election , and subsequently continue his government 's focus on austerity .
Bouchard retired in 2001 , and was replaced by Bernard Landry , who promises a more robust stance on the sovereignty issue . Charest would become Premier in the 2003 Quebec election .
= = = Distinct society and veto = = =
After the referendum , Chrétien attempted to pursue constitutional recognition of distinct society , but was stopped by the blunt refusal of Ontario Premier Mike Harris to discuss any constitutional matters . Not wanting to engage the same negotiations with provincial governments that had dominated the Trudeau and Mulroney governments , Chrétien opted to pursue unilateral Federal changes to fulfill his government 's commitments . This included the Act respecting constitutional amendments , which required permission from the provinces of Quebec , Ontario , British Columbia for Federal approval to be granted to any Constitutional amendment , granting Quebec a de facto veto . The federal parliament also officially recognized Quebec as a distinct society . Both changes , not being constitutional amendments , are theoretically reversible by future parliaments .
= = = " Plan B " = = =
Chrétien also pursued what he called " Plan B , " hoping to convince Quebec voters that economic and legal obstacles would follow if Quebec were to declare itself sovereign , whose public face would become professor Stéphane Dion . This included a reference to the Supreme Court of Canada , which followed Federal intervention post @-@ referendum into the Bertrand case : The 1998 Reference Re Secession of Quebec stated that unilateral secession was illegal , would require a constitutional amendment , and that only a clear majority on a clear question could bring about any sort of obligation on the federal and provincial governments to negotiate secession .
After the decision , the Liberal government passed the Clarity Act , which stated that any future referendum would have to be on a " clear question " and that it would have to represent a " clear majority " for the federal Parliament to recognize its validity . Section 1 ( 4 ) of the Act stated that questions that provided for only a mandate for negotiation or envisioned other partnerships with Canada would be considered unclear , and thus not recognized . The National of Assembly of Quebec passed Bill 99 , proclaiming the right of self @-@ determination pursuant to the Referendum Act . Bill 99 's constitutionality is currently being litigated .
= = = Sponsorship scandal = = =
Following the narrow victory , the Chrétien government established a pro @-@ Canada advertising campaign . The aim was to sponsor hunting , fishing and other recreational events , and in doing so promote Canada within Quebec . While many of the events sponsored were legitimate , a large sum of money was mismanaged . Auditor General Sheila Fraser released a report in November 2003 , outlining the problems . This eventually led to the Gomery Commission 's investigation of the Sponsorship Scandal . Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe argued that Canada was trying to " buy " federalism and using it as an excuse to channel dirty money into Liberal @-@ friendly pockets . This scandal 's extensive coverage in Quebec contributed support to the sovereignty movement .
= = Consulted Works / Further Reading = =
Argyle , Ray . Turning Points : The Campaigns That Changed Canada - 2011 and Before ( 2011 ) excerpt and text search ch 15
Cardinal , Mario ( 2005 ) . Breaking Point : Quebec , Canada , The 1995 Referendum . Montreal : Bayard Canada Books . ISBN 2 @-@ 89579 @-@ 068 @-@ X.
Chrétien , Jean ( 2007 ) . My Years as Prime Minister . Toronto : Vintage Canada . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 676 @-@ 97901 @-@ 5 .
CBC documentary Breaking Point ( 2005 )
Robin Philpot ( 2005 ) . Le Référendum volé . Montreal : Les éditions des intouchables . ISBN 2 @-@ 89549 @-@ 189 @-@ 5 .
Haljan , David ( 2014 ) . Constitutionalising Secession . Portland : Bloomsbury Publishing . ISBN 9781782253303 .
Hébert , Chantal ( With Jean Lapierre ) ( 2014 ) . The Morning After : The 1995 Referendum and the Day that Almost Was . Toronto : Alfred A Knopf Canada . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 80762 @-@ 5 .
Paul Jay documentary Neverendum Referendum
Fox , John ; Andersen , Robert ; Dubonnet , Joseph ( 1999 ) . " The Polls and the 1995 Quebec Referendum " . Canadian Journal of Sociology 24 ( 3 ) : 411 – 424 . JSTOR 3341396 .
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= Zack Greinke =
Donald Zackary " Zack " Greinke ( / ˈɡrɪŋki / GRAIN @-@ kee ; born October 21 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He previously played for the Kansas City Royals , Milwaukee Brewers , Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , and Los Angeles Dodgers .
The Royals selected Greinke in 2002 MLB draft after he won the Gatorade National Player of the Year Award as a high school senior . After playing in the minor leagues , he made his MLB debut in 2004 . His career was almost derailed by his battles with depression and anxiety in 2005 – 2006 , and he missed most of the 2006 season . He returned in 2007 as a relief pitcher before rejoining the starting rotation in 2008 and developing into one of the top pitchers in the game . In 2009 , he appeared in the MLB All @-@ Star Game , led the major leagues in earned run average , and won the American League Cy Young Award .
= = Early life and high school = =
Donald Zackary Greinke was born in Orlando , Florida , the son of teachers Donald and Marsha Greinke . He was active in Little League and also excelled in tennis and golf tournaments as a youth . As a teenager , Greinke helped lead his team to the Senior League World Series title in 1999 . He played shortstop for the team and his coach estimated that he hit close to .700 in the tournament .
Greinke was primarily a shortstop when he started playing baseball at Apopka High School . He hit over .400 with 31 home runs in his high school career . He worked as a relief pitcher as a sophomore and junior , before becoming a starting pitcher as a senior . During his senior season , in 2002 , Greinke compiled a 9 – 2 win @-@ loss record , a 0 @.@ 55 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 118 strikeouts in 63 innings . He also held opposing batters to a .107 average . He led his team to a 32 – 2 record and their third straight district title , and he was selected as Gatorade National Player of the Year . After the high school season ended , he played in the Florida Athletic Coaches Association All @-@ Star Classic and impressed pro scouts with his performance against some of the best hitters in the country .
Greinke was selected in the first round of the 2002 Major League Baseball draft by the Kansas City Royals , who felt he was a polished player who could move quickly through their system . Greinke turned down a scholarship offer from Clemson University to sign with the Royals for a $ 2 @.@ 5 million signing bonus .
= = Minor leagues = =
Greinke pitched in six minor league games for the Royals farm teams in 2002 : three games for the Gulf Coast Royals , two for the Low @-@ A Spokane Indians , and two innings for the High @-@ A Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Carolina League . He had a 3 @.@ 97 ERA in 111 ⁄ 3 innings .
In 2003 , Greinke opened the season with Wilmington , where he was 11 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 14 ERA in 14 starts . Those numbers earned spots on the Carolina League mid @-@ season and post @-@ season all @-@ star teams as well as Carolina League Pitcher of the Year award . The Blue Rocks ' manager , Billy Gardner , Jr . , remarked that Greinke was " the best pitcher I 've ever seen at this level of the minor leagues . " He was promoted in July to the AA Wichita Wranglers of the Texas League , where in nine starts he was 4 – 3 with a 3 @.@ 23 ERA . He had a couple of games where he struggled at Wichita and gave up a lot of runs . However , he bounced back and helped them make the playoffs with a victory in the final game of the season .
Greinke was named the organization 's Minor League Pitcher of the Year for 2003 . He was promoted by the Royals in 2004 to the Omaha Royals of the Pacific Coast League , where he was 1 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 51 ERA in six starts .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Kansas City Royals = = =
Greinke was called up to the major leagues on May 22 , 2004 , and made his major league debut against the Oakland Athletics , allowing two runs in five innings . At 20 years old he was the youngest player in the majors and came close to picking up the win , but the team 's closer , Jeremy Affeldt , gave up the lead with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning .
Greinke recorded his first career win on June 8 , when he pitched seven scoreless innings against the Montreal Expos . His first major league hit was a home run off Arizona Diamondbacks pitcher Russ Ortiz in a 12 – 11 loss on June 10 , 2005 ; however he also allowed 15 hits in that game , which tied a club record .
Greinke was quiet and sometimes awkward in the clubhouse . To alleviate some of his anxiety and solitude , the Royals arranged for him to live with Royals Hall of Fame third baseman George Brett . Still , Greinke 's uneasiness grew . By the 2005 – 2006 offseason , he almost quit baseball . Greinke later remarked that , at the time , he did not expect to return to baseball . He left spring training for personal reasons in late February 2006 . It was later revealed that he was suffering from social anxiety disorder and depression . He reported back to the Royals ' spring training facility in Surprise , Arizona , on April 17 , where he underwent ongoing pitching sessions . He was placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list due to psychological issues and took time away from baseball entirely . He began seeing a sports psychologist and taking anti @-@ depressant medication .
In 2007 , Greinke returned to the Royals rotation at the start of the season , but was sent to the bullpen in early May . Greinke returned to the rotation in 2008 and performed well that season . His 3 @.@ 47 ERA was the best by a full @-@ time Royals starter in 11 years . On January 26 , 2009 , he agreed to a four @-@ year contract with the Royals worth $ 38 million .
After ending the 2008 season with 15 scoreless innings , Greinke started off 2009 by not allowing a run in his first 24 innings , which meant that for 39 innings in a row , he had not given up a run . Greinke was named American League ( AL ) Pitcher of the Month for April , his five wins , 0 @.@ 50 ERA and 44 strikeouts all tops in the Majors . On August 25 , Greinke struck out 15 batters , breaking Mark Gubicza 's team record for strikeouts in a single game . On August 30 , Greinke had a one @-@ hit complete game against the Seattle Mariners .
Greinke 's record for the 2009 season was 16 – 8 , and he posted an ERA of 2 @.@ 16 , the lowest in MLB . On October 21 , he was named American League Pitcher of the Year by Sporting News . On October 28 , Greinke was awarded the MLBPA Players Choice AL Pitcher of the Year . On November 17 , 2009 , he won the AL Cy Young Award . Greinke credited some of his performance to his use of " modern pitching metrics " — statistics on team defense and defense independent pitching statistics — to calibrate his own approach to pitching . Greinke specifically mentioned FIP ( fielding independent pitching ) , an indicator developed by sabermetrician Tom Tango , as his favorite statistic . " That 's pretty much how I pitch , to try to keep my FIP as low as possible .
= = = Milwaukee Brewers = = =
On December 17 , 2010 , Greinke reportedly asked the Royals to trade him , claiming that he was not motivated to play for a rebuilding team . The Royals were unlikely to afford signing Greinke to a long @-@ term deal once he became a free agent , so they agreed to trade him for some quality prospects . On December 19 , he was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers with Yuniesky Betancourt and $ 2 million for Alcides Escobar , Lorenzo Cain , Jeremy Jeffress , and Jake Odorizzi . He was given the number 13 , instead of his preferred number 23 , due to number 23 already being issued to Rickie Weeks . Greinke would later admit that he handled the trade request poorly , that he was " pretty rude " on the way out , but the deal worked out well for both teams .
In February 2011 , before reporting to his first spring training with the Brewers , Greinke suffered a fractured rib while playing basketball . He started the 2011 season on the disabled list .
Greinke made his Brewers debut in the second game of a doubleheader on May 4 , 2011 . Despite missing the first month of the season because of his injury , Greinke finished second on the team in wins with a 16 – 6 record . He also had a 3 @.@ 83 ERA , and 201 strikeouts ( 7th in the National League ( NL ) ) in 171 innings pitched while surrendering 45 walks . Greinke became only the fifth Brewer pitcher to strike out 200 + batters in a season . He was fourth in the NL in won @-@ lost percentage ( .727 ) and sixth in wins . He went a perfect 11 – 0 in his starts at Miller Park , the Brewers ' home stadium .
On April 7 , 2012 , the Brewers defeated the Cardinals 6 – 0 in Greinke 's first start of the season after he pitched seven scoreless innings while giving up four hits and striking out 7 .
In an oddity , Greinke became the first pitcher to start three straight games in the Majors in 95 years . On July 7 , he was ejected from the game after just 4 pitches for angrily throwing the ball into the ground following a close play at first base . The following day , Greinke started again , but lasted only until the third inning . The All @-@ Star break followed , and Greinke was the Brewers ' starter on July 13 , the team 's next game . Greinke 's third start ended after 5 innings . Before this , the most recent pitcher to start three consecutive games was Red Faber in the 1917 , who started both games of a September 3 doubleheader , throwing just six innings in total , followed by a complete game win the following day .
Greinke never recorded a loss in any of his starts at Miller Park .
= = = Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim = = =
Despite his success with the Brewers , the team was struggling and not likely to make a playoff run . When talks on a contract extension broke down , the team traded Greinke to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on July 27 in exchange for top infield prospect Jean Segura and pitchers Ariel Peña and Johnny Hellweg . Brewers General Manager Doug Melvin remarked that it was one of the tougher decisions he had to make because he was very fond of Greinke .
Greinke made his first start for the Angels on July 29 . After a stretch of four unproductive starts from August 3 – 19 ( 1 – 1 , 7 @.@ 20 ERA in 25 innings ) , Greinke followed up with four consecutive starts of at least seven innings and two or fewer runs — all of them wins . In those starts , he produced a 1 @.@ 88 ERA in 281 ⁄ 3 innings .
Greinke became the first pitcher since 1920 to record 13 strikeouts in five innings or less in a game against the Seattle Mariners on September 25 . He then combined with four other Angels pitchers to tie an American League record by striking out 20 batters in a nine @-@ inning game . He finished his time with the Angels with a 6 – 2 record and a 3 @.@ 53 ERA in 13 starts .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
Greinke agreed to a six @-@ year free agent contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers worth $ 147 million , on December 8 , 2012 . The deal , which was finalized on December 10 , was the largest ever for a right @-@ handed pitcher at the time it was signed . It was surpassed a year later by Félix Hernández 's seven @-@ year $ 175 million contract extension with the Seattle Mariners . Greinke later claimed that he chose the Dodgers over the Texas Rangers , who also were pursuing him , primarily because they offered more money .
On April 11 , 2013 , Greinke fractured his left collarbone in a brawl with Carlos Quentin of the San Diego Padres after Quentin was hit by an inside pitch and charged the mound . He was placed on the disabled list and it was revealed that he would require surgery , which was performed on April 13 . It was estimated that he would miss eight weeks of the season . However , he returned to action on May 10 when he pitched in a rehab game for the Class @-@ A Rancho Cucamonga Quakes . He returned to the Dodgers on May 15 .
On June 11 , 2013 , Greinke was hit in the head and neck area by Arizona Diamondbacks pitcher Ian Kennedy , leading to a bench @-@ clearing brawl . Because Greinke did not participate in the fight , he was not ejected .
Greinke picked up his 100th career win on August 5 , 2013 , against the St. Louis Cardinals . He was 5 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 23 ERA during the month of August and was selected as National League Pitcher of the Month . Greinke finished his first season with the Dodgers with a 15 – 4 record and 2 @.@ 63 ERA in 28 starts . He also batted .328 , the highest batting average for a Dodgers pitcher since Orel Hershiser in the 1993 season . He was awarded with the Silver Slugger Award as the best hitting pitcher in the National League .
Greinke began the 2014 season by setting an MLB record with 22 straight starts ( dating back to July 2013 ) where he allowed two or fewer earned runs . He was selected to the National League squad at the 2014 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game and finished the season with a 17 – 8 record and a 2 @.@ 71 ERA in 32 starts , the highest win total in his career . He won the Gold Glove Award as the best fielding pitcher in the National League .
When Justin Upton of the San Diego Padres homered against Greinke in the eighth inning on June 13 , 2015 , it was the last run he surrendered until the All @-@ Star break . Greinke was then selected to the All @-@ Star Game , his second straight appearance , and subsequently chosen to be the starting pitcher for the National League squad . At that point in the season , Greinke carried a major league @-@ leading 1 @.@ 48 ERA with a 7 – 2 record and 35 2 ⁄ 3 consecutive scoreless innings . After Greinke retired 28 consecutive batters over a span of two starts , Nationals outfielder Michael Taylor ended the streak in the third inning on July 19 . His scoreless inning streak lasted until a July 26 start against the New York Mets at Citi Field . He shared the NL player of the week honors with his teammate Clayton Kershaw for July 13 – 19 . Greinke finished the 2015 season with a 19 – 3 record , 200 strikeouts and a major league best 1 @.@ 66 ERA . His ERA was the second lowest in Dodgers history behind Rube Marquard in 1916 , and his ERA + ( 225 ) and WHIP ( 0 @.@ 844 ) were the best in franchise history .
Greinke pitched in two games in the 2015 National League Division Series against the New York Mets . He allowed five runs in 13 2 ⁄ 3 innings and took the loss in the deciding fifth game in the series . At the conclusion of the series , it was announced that he would opt out of the last three years of his contract with the Dodgers and become a free agent . He officially opted out on November 3 .
After the season , Greinke was selected as the Outstanding National League Pitcher at the Players Choice Awards , and won his second Gold Glove Award . Greinke finished second in the NL Cy Young Award voting to Jake Arrieta .
= = = Arizona Diamondbacks = = =
On December 8 , 2015 , Greinke signed a six @-@ year , $ 206 @.@ 5 million contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks . Greinke started on Opening Day 2016 at Chase Field against the Colorado Rockies ; he gave up seven runs in four innings , including two home runs to rookie shortstop Trevor Story , who was making his MLB debut . The Diamondbacks lost the game 10 – 5 . In his second start , on April 9 , Greinke matched up against Kyle Hendricks and the Chicago Cubs . He allowed three runs in the first inning , and struggled through the rest of his outing . The Diamondbacks lost the game 4 – 2 . Greinke got his first win as a Diamondback on April 19 , 2016 against the San Francisco Giants , allowing just one run in over six innings of work . On July 3 , 2016 , Greinke was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a left oblique strain .
= = Pitching style = =
Greinke throws six different pitches :
Four @-@ seam fastball — 91 to 96 miles per hour ( 146 – 154 km / h )
Two @-@ seam fastball — 91 to 95 miles per hour ( 146 – 153 km / h )
Cutter — 88 to 91 miles per hour ( 142 – 146 km / h )
Slider — 83 to 87 miles per hour ( 134 – 140 km / h )
Curveball — 68 to 77 miles per hour ( 109 – 124 km / h )
Changeup — 87 to 90 miles per hour ( 140 – 145 km / h )
His curveball , like his divisional rival Madison Bumgarner , has two speeds with different types of movement , though he throws his slow curveball much more frequently than does Bumgarner , and will sometimes throw a curve that is more in the middle range combining the types of movement . His two @-@ seamer is his most @-@ used pitch against right @-@ handed hitters and is used more frequently than against lefties , as is his slider . His changeup is only thrown to left @-@ handed hitters . Greinke 's curveball is typically used early in the count , while his slider is his most common 2 @-@ strike pitch .
Greinke 's slider has been one of his more effective pitches . Hitters have only a .154 batting average and .230 slugging percentage against the pitch . It has produced 51 % of his strikeouts . Its whiff rate is 42 % , and more than half the pitches put in play are ground balls . However , he limits the use of the slider in order to not put excessive strain on his arm .
Greinke has produced good strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratios throughout his career , finishing in his league 's top 10 five times and ranking fifth among active pitchers in the category , at 3 @.@ 5 : 1 as of the start of the 2014 season .
Greinke has been described as a " scientist as a pitcher " and is known for preparing for each start more extensively than most .
= = Personal life = =
Greinke is married to Emily Kuchar , whom he met while attending Apopka High School . Kuchar is a former Dallas Cowboys Cheerleader and was Miss Daytona Beach USA 2008 . On April 17 , 2015 , Kuchar announced via Twitter that they were expecting their first child . Their son , Bode , was born on July 23 , 2015 .
His younger brother , Luke , was also a pitcher . Luke played college baseball at Auburn University and was drafted by the New York Yankees in the 12th round of the 2008 MLB draft , but was out of baseball a year later because of injuries .
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= Heavy Crown ( song ) =
" Heavy Crown " is a song recorded by Australian rapper Iggy Azalea featuring English singer Ellie Goulding , recorded for Reclassified ( 2014 ) , the reissue of Azalea 's debut studio album The New Classic ( 2014 ) . Azalea and Goulding co @-@ wrote the song with its producers , Salt Wives and The Invisible Men , with additional writing from Jon Turner . " Heavy Crown " received generally positive reviews from critics , who commended Azalea 's delivery on the track , finding it to be superior to that of her earlier songs .
" Heavy Crown " was used as the backing track for the trailer to the 2014 film Kingsman : The Secret Service . In the week of the album 's release , " Heavy Crown " charted at number 9 on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and entered two digital urban subsidiary charts , the Hot Digital R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , where it peaked at 37 , and the Hot Digital Rap Songs , where it peaked at 23 . The track also peaked on the lower ends of the Czech Republic and Slovakian digital singles charts .
= = Background = =
Azalea first announced the song in September 2014 , in one of many tweets she made where she discussed Reclassified , one in @-@ particular reading " Me and Ellie Goulding have a nice little numberrrr together on there . FYI " . During the promotional campaign leading up to the release of Reclassified , Azalea revealed that she would be collaborating with Ellie Goulding on a track titled " Heavy Crown " featured in the film Kingsman : The Secret Service . In October 2014 , while giving an interview with Radio.com , Azalea mentioned her longtime desire to work with Goulding , and after meeting her several times , was approached about a song that would eventually become " Heavy Crown " . She recalled one meeting , " she played it for me and I was in love with it and just felt it was so kind of appropriate for this to be our collaboration " , because it " brings out something different in both artists that you don 't usually see . " On 14 November , a preview of " Heavy Crown " was uploaded to Azalea 's VEVO channel . In December 2014 , " Trouble " was announced to be the next single from Reclassified , as opposed to " Heavy Crown " . Fans reacted badly , leading to Azalea releasing a statement explaining that test audiences had preferred " Trouble " over " Heavy Crown " , and that the duet with Goulding was not " formatted for pop or rhythmic radio " .
= = Composition = =
" Heavy Crown " is a hip @-@ hop , pop , electronica track that runs for a total duration of three minutes and fifty @-@ two seconds . Bianca Gracie from Idolator observed that " the hard @-@ hitting , thumping tune finds Azalea switching up her usually laid @-@ back flow with a snarled , teeth @-@ baring rap — which is juxtaposed by Goulding 's chilling vocals . " , while Jonathan Viray from HypeTrak described the song as an " aggressive , warmongering track dedicated to her haters . " Jim Farber from the New York Daily News commented that " ' Heavy Crown ' has a tribal rock beat and a cocky cameo vocal from Ellie Goulding " , and went on to analyse the lyrics , referring to Azalea 's dispute with Snoop Dogg , " one new verse from Iggy addresses a recent , and light @-@ hearted , beef . ' Get rid of the makeup / let ’ s be just who you is , ' Azalea raps at one point , alluding to a series of tit @-@ for @-@ tat spats in October with Snoop Dogg . " . Latin Post writer Esther Jang described Goulding 's delivery of the chorus as her using her " signature echo @-@ y voice " , going on to describe the tracks production as " ' 70s bass guitar @-@ heavy rock " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Heavy Crown " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Kevipod from Direct Lyrics described the song as " the most @-@ anticipated track " from Reclassified , writing " love the contrast between the menacing , raucous Iggy Azalea verses to the vulnerable Ellie choruses " . When the track premiered ahead of the release of Reclassified , one writer from Capital wrote that " it doesn 't disappoint ! " . Carl Smith from SugarScape described the track as " SASS CENTRAL " , ending his review with " it 's generally just our new office jam " . The track was also well received by Jim Farber of the New York Daily News , who commended the tracks instrumental and Goulding 's " cocky " cameo . In a positive review , Nolan Feeney from TIME commented that " ' Heavy Crown ' won ’ t change the minds of anyone who ’ s already written off the rapper , but Iggy 's double @-@ time rap over the militaristic march seems more at ease than the occasionally clunky verses on early singles . " He went on to describe Azalea 's first verse in the song as " unforgettable " , and described Goulding 's vocals as " smooth " . A writer for Fuse commented that " Iggy and Ellie know they 're on top and aren 't planning on moving from their spot anytime soon . "
Upon Reclassified 's release , many critics deemed " Heavy Crown " to be a standout cut from the album . Idolator 's Mike Wass said that of the new material on the re @-@ release , it " stands out as another future hit " . Allan Raible of ABC News picked the track as one of three ' focus tracks ' from Reclassified , writing " ' Heavy Crown ' is interesting because during the verses , the beat is really hard @-@ hitting and during the chorus , the music recedes to give Goulding a lush minimalist backdrop . It creates an interesting bit of contrast . " A writer for The Cavalier Daily also thought of " Heavy Crown " as a standout track from Reclassified , and described it as a harsher alternative to Azalea 's 2014 single " Black Widow " , specifically the song 's " much harder beat drop " .
In a mixed review of the song , Daryl Nelson from The Boombox thought that Azalea seemed " pissed " on the track , and questioned the over @-@ usage of the term " hater " . Jake Rickun , a writer for the Badger Herald , panned Reclassified . In his review , he described " Heavy Crown " as an ironic statement , " but it ’ s on ' Heavy Crown , ' in a candid moment of irony , where Azalea is most telling . ' Get rid of the makeup let us just see who you is , ' she raps . For an Australian @-@ born rapper who denies her roots and sits comfortably in American culture , Azalea seems to forget how much proverbial makeup she cakes on herself " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Digital Spy named " Heavy Crown " as one of their weekly ' 10 Tracks You Need To Hear ' , placing the song at number three on their list , writing " together they deliver a hardline and bolshy hip @-@ hop number that is sure to help secure that chart throne for a little longer yet " . Fuse placed the track at number eleven on their list of the ' 12 Best Female Collaborations Of 2014 ' , describing the track as a " ( tragically ) under @-@ appreciated jam " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Reclassified liner notes .
Locations
Recorded at Sarm West Coast and Grove Studios . ( London , UK )
Personnel
= = Charts = =
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= Eilat Airport =
Eilat Airport ( Hebrew : שְׂדֵה הַתְּעוּפָה אֵילַת , Namal HaTe 'ufa Eilat ; Arabic : مطار إيلات ) , also known as J. Hozman Airport ( IATA : ETH , ICAO : LLET ) , is an Israeli airport located in the city of Eilat , and named for Arkia Airlines founder Yakov Hozman ( Jacob Housman ) . Eilat Airport is located in the central area of the city , next to Route 90 ( The Arava Road ) . It mostly handles domestic flights to Tel Aviv and Haifa with international flights operating instead to Ovda International Airport , but a few international flights on aircraft that can handle the relatively short runway use Eilat as well .
The airport is expected to cease civilian operations by 2017 when Eilat 's new international airport , Ramon Airport , should become operational .
= = History = =
Eilat Airport was established in 1949 by the Israel Air Force , following the 1948 Israeli War of Independence . During its early years , the airport aimed to establish a comprehensive set of connections to towns across the country , most notably with Tel Aviv and Haifa . Consequently , a regular route from Eilat to Lod Airport ( now Ben Gurion International Airport ) was started . Soon after , a route to Haifa Airport became operational . In December 1950 , following their establishment , Arkia Israel Airlines became the largest domestic operator at Eilat Airport , taking the position of the former companies Eilata and Aviron . To this day , they retain this position . Later , in 1964 the runway was expanded to 1500 m , and a passenger terminal was built . Five years later , the runway was further expanded increasing the length to 1900 m . In 1975 , Eilat Airport started to attract Scandinavian airlines . The first international flight arrival to Eilat , of the Danish airline , Sterling Airlines landed in this year . Since then , many international routes have been established directly linking Eilat with Europe , however , the airport is still unable to handle landings of large aircraft which have to fly to Ovda International Airport .
In the 1994 Peace Agreement between Israel and Jordan it was decided that operations were supposed to be transferred from Eilat Airport to Aqaba Airport . The original plan was to rename Aqaba Airport as Aqaba @-@ Eilat Peace International Airport . The agreement was never followed , however , and an agreement between the two countries in March 1997 , stipulated that domestic flights would continue to use Eilat Airport , whilst no further action to move international flights took place .
In August 2005 , a Katyusha rocket fired from Jordan landed near a taxi traveling just 15 yards ( 14 m ) from the airport perimeter fence . On August 8 , 2013 , the Israeli Military instructed the airport to cancel all landings and departures after a security assessment . Militants in Egypt 's Sinai Peninsula had fired rockets towards the city in recent years , but it was not immediately clear if that was the reason for the closure .
= = The airport today = =
Today , Eilat Airport sustains peak loads concentrated into Thursdays , Saturdays , and Sundays . On Thursdays and Sundays , flights are handled in a period of a few hours in the mornings and on Saturdays only the evening hours are used . Often there are days when 10 @,@ 000 passengers on 120 flights are channelled through the 2 @,@ 800 m2 terminal , counting as one of the highest peak loads worldwide in this category .
International passenger traffic decreased from magnitude of 20 @,@ 000 in a year in late 2000s to 5 @,@ 000 in a year in 2010s .
Although the airport is capable of handling Boeing 767 aircraft , for large numbers of these aircraft , significant investment would be needed . Consequently , the largest aircraft regularly flying to the airport are Boeing 757 . The main problem at the airport is the lack of ramp space , with just two parking positions for large aircraft . As a result , El Al operates regular shuttle flights to Ben Gurion International Airport carrying passengers from around the world on 757s and 737s .
The small size of the airport is perhaps best illustrated with the fact that a Boeing 757 cannot taxi past another aircraft to parking positions . As a result , controllers are responsible not only for ensuring that valuable space is utilised , but also ensuring that other aircraft are kept circling until larger aircraft are parked . Despite these limitations , the airport successfully handles ten to twenty times more traffic than airports of a comparable size . It is for this reason that plans to relocate the airport are so important in the short @-@ term scale . In 2006 , a NIS 5 @.@ 5 million renovation programme of Eilat Airport 's terminal and runway was undertaken , designed to sustain the airport until it is replaced in the near future .
= = The future = =
Since the beginning of the 1990s the authorities in Eilat have considered relocating the airport , approximately 20 km north of Eilat , to the Ora Well area near Be 'er Ora . There were numerous reasons behind this idea . Primarily , the fact that safety would be improved as in its current location , there is the chance of aircraft crashing into buildings in the city . Other reasons were the pure value of the land which the airport occupies , and the fact that the airport is dividing the city of Eilat into two parts with the hotels and tourist areas on one side , and the residential buildings on the other .
On 24 July 2011 the Israeli cabinet approved the construction of a new airport to be built in Timna , 18 km ( 11 mi ) north of Eilat , next to Be 'er Ora . It will have a 3 @,@ 600 m ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) runway , longer than the runway in Eilat , which will allow large aircraft to land . The airport is due to open in 2017 and will be named after the first Israeli astronaut Ilan Ramon and his son Assaf Ramon , who died six years later when his F @-@ 16 fighter jet crashed over the West Bank .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = Statistics = =
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= Sarah Trimmer =
Sarah Trimmer ( née Kirby ; 6 January 1741 – 15 December 1810 ) was a writer and critic of 18th @-@ century British children 's literature , as well as an educational reformer . Her periodical , The Guardian of Education , helped to define the emerging genre by seriously reviewing children 's literature for the first time ; it also provided the first history of children 's literature , establishing a canon of the early landmarks of the genre that scholars still use today . Trimmer 's most popular children 's book , Fabulous Histories , inspired numerous children 's animal stories and remained in print for over a century .
Trimmer was also an active philanthropist . She founded several Sunday schools and charity schools in her parish . To further these educational projects , she wrote textbooks and manuals for women interested in starting their own schools . Trimmer 's efforts inspired other women , such as Hannah More , to establish Sunday school programs and to write for children and the poor .
Trimmer 's works are dedicated to maintaining many aspects of the social and political status quo . As a high church Anglican , she was intent on promoting the established Church of England and on teaching young children and the poor the doctrines of Christianity . Her writings outlined the benefits of social hierarchy , arguing that each class should remain in its God @-@ given position . Yet , while supporting many of the traditional political and social ideologies of her time , Trimmer questioned others , such as those surrounding gender and the family .
= = Early life = =
Sarah Trimmer was born on 6 January 1741 in Ipswich , England to Joshua Kirby and Sarah ( née Bell ) ; her father was a noted artist and served as President of the Society of Artists of Great Britain . Trimmer had one younger brother , William ; she was apparently the better writer , for she would sometimes compose his school essays for him . As a young girl , Trimmer attended Mrs. Justiner ’ s boarding school in Ipswich , an experience she always remembered fondly . In 1755 , the family moved to London when her father , who had written several important works on perspective , became the tutor of perspective to the Prince of Wales . Because of her father 's connections within the artistic community , Trimmer was able to meet the painters William Hogarth and Thomas Gainsborough as well as the by @-@ then legendary writer and critic Samuel Johnson . She made a favourable impression on Johnson when she immediately produced her pocket copy of John Milton 's Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) to help settle a dispute between her father and Johnson over a particular passage . Johnson , delighted that she admired Milton enough to carry his works with her at all times , " subsequently invited her to his house and presented her with a volume of his famous periodical The Rambler " . In 1759 , at the urging of his former pupil the Prince of Wales ( soon to be George III ) , her father was made Clerk of the Works to the Royal Household at Kew Palace and the family moved to Kew . There she met James Trimmer , whom she married on 21 September 1762 ; after their marriage , the couple moved to Old Brentford .
= = Motherhood and philanthropy = =
Trimmer was close to her parents ; after her marriage , she walked to visit her father every day , later accompanied by her eldest children . She and her husband had 12 children in all — six boys and six girls . Trimmer was responsible for her children 's education and it was the combination of her duties as a mother and a teacher that initially sparked her interest in education .
Inspired by Robert Raikes , Trimmer also became active in the Sunday school movement , founding the first Sunday school for poor children in Old Brentford in 1786 . She and two of the ministers in her parish , Charles Sturgess and Charles Coates , organized a fund drive and established several schools for the poor children of the neighborhood . Initially , five hundred boys and girls wanted to attend Trimmer 's Sunday school ; unable to accommodate such numbers , she decided to exclude those under five years of age and restricted each family to one pupil . The parish set up three schools , each with about thirty students — one for older boys , one for younger boys and one for girls . While some other educational reformers of the period such as Mary Wollstonecraft argued for co @-@ educational instruction , Trimmer was opposed to such pedagogical changes ; she believed in educating the sexes separately . The students were taught to read , with the aim of teaching them to read the Bible . The students were also encouraged to keep clean — " a present of a brush and comb was given to all who desired them " . Trimmer 's schools became so well known and admired that Raikes , Trimmer 's initial inspiration , recommended those who needed assistance organizing a Sunday school to turn to Trimmer ; even Queen Charlotte asked Trimmer 's advice on founding a Sunday school at Windsor .
After her visit to the queen , Trimmer was inspired to write The Œconomy of Charity , which describes how readers , specifically women , can establish Sunday schools in their own communities . However , her book accomplished much more than this . While proponents of Sunday schools such as Raikes and Trimmer claimed that the schools would help control the growing social unrest of the poor , critics claimed that these schools would only encourage the social upheaval they were trying to quell . The Hon. John Byng , for example , issued the dire warning that " not only would education ' teach them to read seditious pamphlets , books and publications against Christianity ' … but it would render them unfit for ' the laborious employment to which their rank in society had destined them ' " . Trimmer agreed that the poor were " destined " by God to be poor but would argue that her schools reinforced that divine social hierarchy . The Sunday school debate was waged in churches , in Parliament and in print ; in publishing The Œconomy of Charity , Trimmer was entering this vigorous debate .
As scholar Deborah Wills has argued : " [ The Œconomy of Charity ] is actually informed by a highly politicized subtext which anticipates , subverts , and counters anti @-@ Sunday School arguments . [ Trimmer ] outlines a programme through which the Sunday School , when properly administered , can serve as a means of instituting social control and intensifying hierarchy . … Trimmer ’ s carefully modest and unassuming text is thus revealed as a middle @-@ class manifesto for the appropriation of social , political , and religious power in the name of moral instruction . "
For example , Trimmer contends that Sunday schools teach their pupils not merely to read the Bible but how to draw the proper theological and political conclusions from it . Furthermore , Trimmer argues that the responsibility for educating the poor rests on the shoulders of the middle class alone . By eliminating the aristocracy from an active role in her philanthropic programs , " Trimmer ensures that those who actually regulate the Sunday School curriculum are those who will both embody and perpetuate bourgeois culture " . As Wills points out , this distinguishes her from other philanthropists of the time such as Hannah More .
Trimmer also founded and oversaw charity schools in her neighborhood . She directed promising students from her Sunday schools , which met only once a week , to these charity schools , which met several times a week . As she wrote in her journal , these schools seemed to her to " afford a happy prospect of rescuing many poor children from vice and profligacy " . While the Sunday schools were funded by subscription , that is , donations from people within the parish , the charity schools were largely funded by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge ( SPCK ) , which had funded the first charity schools around a century earlier . Trimmer criticized the rote learning that went on in traditional charity schools and tried to institute a more dynamic catechetical method in her own schools that would stimulate students to ask questions . She wrote in her journal , " my earnest desire is to compose a course of teaching for Charity Schools , by which the children may learn in reality , and not by rote , the principles of the Christian Religion , as taught in the Scriptures " . Trimmer also established schools of industry to which she directed her less promising pupils . These schools would teach girls , for example , how to knit and spin . Initially , Trimmer believed that the schools would turn a profit since the girls would spin and knit all day long ; however , the girls were unskilled and turned out poor products that could not be sold . Trimmer viewed this project as a failure .
Wilfried Keutsch , a modern scholar of the 18th century , has criticized Trimmer 's projects as naive and moralistic :
[ There is ] no indication that Sarah Trimmer based her many efforts to instruct and improve the children of the poor on detailed social analysis , but it is apparent that she was deeply disturbed not only by their needs but also about the increasing pauperization of the country . Whether she understood that society was changing from a more feudal to a more modern bourgeois structure , in which many of the stabilizing old personal ties were removed and replaced by the cash @-@ nexus , is not clear . … on the whole she displays no interest in the social and economic causes of poverty . Instead she offers a model of improvement which rests on a rigorous division of the working people and the poor into black and white : the deserving and the undeserving poor , the godly and the ungodly , the respectable and dutiful and the rebellious and undutiful , the idle and the industrious , that is , on an alternating identification of poverty with virtue and vice .
Although Sunday schools such as the ones established by Trimmer have often been characterized by modern scholars as a repressive device used by the middle class to impose their morality on the lower classes , Thomas Laqueur has argued that the poor embraced this opportunity to obtain literacy and disregarded many of the moral lessons forced upon them .
= = Literary career = =
In a literary career that spanned more than a quarter of a century , Trimmer authored somewhere between 33 and 44 texts . She wrote in a wide range of genres : textbooks , teaching manuals , children 's literature , political pamphlets and critical periodicals . While many of her texts were for children , some of her works , such as The Œconomy of Charity , were also for specific adult audiences . Still others were written for both children and adults , such as The Servant ’ s Friend ( 1786 – 7 ) , which was meant to instruct servants of all ages .
Throughout her career , Trimmer worked with four different publishers — John Marshall , T.N. Longman , G. Robinson , and Joseph Johnson — and , by 1800 , she had the most works of any author in the Newbery catalogue , the catalogue that sold the most children 's literature . Eventually , Trimmer stopped publishing with Joseph Johnson , because she disagreed with his politics — he was a supporter of the French Revolution and was publishing works that she considered subversive .
= = = An Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature = = =
Trimmer 's first book was An easy introduction to the knowledge of nature , and reading the holy scriptures , adapted to the capacities of children ( 1780 ) , which built on the revolution in children 's literature begun by Anna Laetitia Barbauld . In the " Preface " , Trimmer writes that Isaac Watts 's Treatise on Education was the inspiration for the work and that " a book containing a kind of general survey of the works of Nature would be very useful , as a means to open the mind by gradual steps to the knowledge of the SUPREME BEING , preparatory to their reading the holy scriptures " . In the text , the reader follows a mother and her two children , Charlotte and Henry ( perhaps named after two of Trimmer 's own children ) , on a series of nature walks during which the mother describes the wonders of God 's creation . In 1793 , a version of this book was added to the catalogue of the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge ; after 77 years , it had sold over 750 @,@ 000 copies .
Aileen Fyfe , a historian interested in the relationship between science and religion , has argued that Trimmer 's text , although inspired by Barbauld 's books , differs dramatically from Barbauld 's in its religious orientation . Barbauld was a Dissenter and more inclined , according to Fyfe , to " encourage curiosity , observation , and reasoning " . In contrast , Trimmer , as a high church Anglican , depicted nature as " awe @-@ inspiring " and as a reflection not only of God 's divinity but also of his goodness . These beliefs are reflected even in the structure of the text ; Trimmer 's aim was to convey a sense of the awe , therefore her text does not progress in an orderly fashion through a study of the natural world . Barbauld 's texts , however , emphasize the slow accumulation of knowledge as well as logical thinking . Thus Evenings at Home , which she co @-@ wrote with her brother , John Aikin , has a " systematic structure " . Another difference between the two writers lies in the role of authority : whereas Barbauld 's texts and those she wrote with her brother , emphasize dialogues between teacher and pupil , Trimmer 's textual conversations , Fyfe notes , were " controlled by the parent " .
However , Donelle Ruwe , a scholar of 18th @-@ century children 's literature , has pointed out that An Easy Introduction is not entirely a conservative text — it challenges 18th @-@ century notions of the proper roles for women laid out in conduct manuals such as those written by John Gregory and James Fordyce . The mother in Trimmer 's text acts as a " spiritual leader " and demonstrates that a woman is capable of " theological reasoning " . Such depictions challenge Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's claims that women are capable only of memorizing religious dogma and not of sophisticated reasoning . Furthermore , Trimmer 's mother tries to educate her children in a straightforward manner instead of employing the " manipulative " tricks of the tutor in Rousseau 's Emile .
A few years later , inspired by Madame de Genlis 's Adèle et Théodore ( 1782 ) , Trimmer commissioned sets of illustrations of the Bible for which she provided the commentary ; she also published print / commentary sets of ancient history and British history . These various sets were very popular and could be purchased together ( commentary and prints ) or individually . The prints were usually hung on walls or bound into books .
= = = Relations with John Marshall = = =
The children ’ s publisher John Marshall & Co. produced The footstep to Mrs. Trimmer 's Sacred history : for the instruction and amusement of little children in 1785 . Trimmer had always advocated the use of pictorial material in books for children , and the publisher , who was experienced in producing cheap popular prints , was in a good position to publish them for her . In May 1786 Marshall published A series of prints of scripture history , " designed as ornaments for those apartments in which children receive the first rudiments of their education . " The prints were sold " pasted on boards , for hanging up in nurseries " at 1s 6d , in sheets for 8d , sewed in marbled paper ‘ for the pocket , ’ for 10d. or else neatly bound in read leather at 1s 2d . They were also published with an accompanying small book entitled , A description of a set of prints of scripture history , which was also available in different bindings . The venture proved to be successful and these two works were quickly followed by the publication of five similar ‘ Series of Prints ’ together with accompanying ‘ Descriptions ’ , compiled by Mrs Trimmer , on the subjects of Ancient history ( 1786 ) , Roman history ( 1789 ) , English history ( 1789 ) , the New Testament ( 1790 ) and the Old Testament ( 1797 ) . These were hugely popular and were reprinted by the Marshalls and their successors at regular intervals over the next thirty years .
In January ( 1788 ) Mrs Trimmer and John Marshall announced a new joint venture , The family magazine ; or a repository of religious instruction and rational amusement . It was a monthly periodical " designed to counteract the pernicious tendency of immoral books & c. which have circulated of late years among the inferior classes of people , " and usually included one engraved plate . The content consisted of ‘ religious tales for Sunday evenings ’ and ‘ moral tales for weekdays ’ ; advice on the management of infants and on childrearing was given together with a comparative view of other nations to demonstrate that ‘ the poor in England possess privileges , and enjoy many comforts , which persons of their rank … in other countries cannot enjoy . ’ Descriptions of animals were also included , ' in order to check the practice of cruelty to brute creation . ' The final section of the magazine contained ' a selection of Ballads , Songs & c . , both ancient and modern , of a Moral Tendency . ' Thus , in both its objects and content , this publication introduced many of the ideas which would later bear fruit in Hannah More ’ s more ambitious and well @-@ known scheme for Cheap Repository Tracts of 1795 . The family magazine survived for eighteen months with Trimmer as both the editor and the principal contributor , but eventually she had to give it up seemingly through exhaustion
= = = Books for charity schools = = =
Because , in Trimmer 's opinion , there was a dearth of good educational material to use in charity schools , she decided to write her own . The series of books she produced between 1786 and 1798 were used in Britain and its colonies well into the 19th century . Trimmer was an able promoter of her materials ; she knew that her books would not reach large numbers of poor children in charity schools unless they were funded and publicized by the SPCK . She wrote in her journal " my scheme without its aid , will fall to the ground " . Thus , she joined the society in 1787 . In 1793 , she sent 12 copies of her treatise Reflections upon the Education in Charity Schools with the Outlines of a Plan Appropriate Instruction for the Children of the Poor to the subcommittee that chose the books funded by the organization . In the treatise , she argued that the current charity school curriculum was outdated ( it was over 100 years old ) and needed to be replaced . She suggested a list of seven books that she herself would write :
A Spelling Book in two Parts
Scripture Lessons from the Old Testament
Scripture Lessons from the New Testament
Moral Instructions from the Scriptures
Lessons on the Liturgy from the Book of Common Prayer
Exemplary Tales
The Teacher 's Assistant
The committee largely accepted her proposal . The Charity School Spelling Book was printed first and was the most widely used . It was one of the first children 's books for the poor that was small but still had large type and large margins ( features often considered appropriate only for books for more privileged readers ) . The stories themselves were also innovative : they emphasized the ordinary lives of ordinary children — " these children climbed trees , played with fire , threw cricket bats at sheep and begged in the streets " . The book was adopted by Andrew Bell around 1800 for his Madras system of education and by various educational societies throughout Britain and its colonies ; it was even used to educate adult slaves in Antigua and Jamaica .
The proposed " Scripture Lessons " became Trimmer 's An Abridgement of Scripture History , consisting of Lessons selected from the Old Testament , for the Use of Schools and Families which was an anthology of selections from the Bible . Like the Charity School Spelling Book , it was adopted throughout the British educational system and was part of school life well into the mid @-@ 19th century . In 1798 SPCK published Scripture Catechisms , Part I and II ; these works were intended to aid the teacher while the Abridgements ( a shorthand name for the Scripture Histories of both the Old and New Testament that Trimmer eventually published ) were intended to aid the pupil . The " Exemplary Tales " seem not to have been written exactly as planned but Trimmer 's Servant 's Friend and Two Farmers fulfilled the purpose she outlined in her plan of publishing pleasurable moral tales . These two books served as Sunday school prizes as well . The Teacher 's Assistant was an instruction aid and was also widely adopted throughout British schools . The only texts not published by the SPCK were Trimmer 's adaptations and commentaries on the Book of Common Prayer , which she had printed elsewhere .
= = = Fabulous Histories = = =
Fabulous Histories ( later known as The Story of the Robins ) , Trimmer 's most popular work , was first published in 1786 , and remained in print until the beginning of the 20th century . It tells the story of two families , a robin family and a human family , who learn to live together congenially . Most importantly , the human children and the baby robins must learn to adopt virtue and to shun vice . For Trimmer , practising kindness to animals as a child would hopefully lead one to " universal benevolence " as an adult . According to Samuel Pickering , Jr . , a scholar of 18th @-@ century children 's literature , " in its depiction of 18th @-@ century attitudes toward animals , Mrs. Trimmer ’ s Fabulous Histories was the most representative children ’ s book of the period " . The text expresses most of the themes that would come to dominate Trimmer 's later works , such as her emphasis on retaining social hierarchies ; as Tess Cosslett , a scholar of children 's literature explains , " the notion of hierarchy that underpins Fabulous Histories is relatively stable and fixed . Parents are above children in terms of authority , and humans above animals , in terms both of dominion and compassion : poor people should be fed before hungry animals … [ but ] the hierarchical relation of men and women is not so clearly enforced . " Moira Ferguson , a scholar of the 18th and 19th centuries , places these themes in a larger historical context , arguing that " the fears of the author and her class about an industrial revolution in ascendance and its repercussions are evident . Hence , [ the ] text attacks cruelty to birds and animals while affirming British aggression abroad . … The text subtly opts for conservative solutions : maintenance of order and established values , resignation and compliance from the poor at home , expatriation for foreigners who do not assimilate easily . " A second overarching theme in the text is rationality ; Trimmer expresses the common fear of the power of fiction in her preface , explaining to her childish readers that her fable is not real and that animals cannot really speak . Like many social critics during the 18th century , Trimmer was concerned about fiction 's potentially damaging impact on young readers . With the rise of the novel and its concomitant private reading , there was a great fear that young people and especially women would read racy and adventurous stories without the knowledge of their parents and , perhaps even more worrisome , interpret the books as they pleased . Trimmer therefore always referred to her text as Fabulous Histories and never as The Story of the Robins in order to emphasize its reality ; moreover , she did not allow the book to be illustrated within her lifetime — pictures of talking birds would only have reinforced the paradox of the book ( it was fiction parading as a history ) . Yarde has also speculated that most of the characters in the text are drawn from Trimmer 's own acquaintances and family .
= = = The Guardian of Education = = =
Later in her life , Trimmer published the influential Guardian of Education ( June 1802 – September 1806 ) , which included ideas for instructing children and reviews of contemporary children 's books . Although one previous attempt had been made to regularly review children 's books in Britain , according to Matthew Grenby , " it was a far less substantial and sustained enterprise than Trimmer ’ s " . The Guardian included not only reviews of children 's books but also extracts from texts Trimmer thought would edify her adult readers . She aimed " to assess the current state of educational policy and praxis in Britain and to shape its future direction " . To do so , she evaluated the educational theories of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , John Locke , Mary Wollstonecraft , Hannah More , Madame de Genlis , Joseph Lancaster , and Andrew Bell , among others . In her " Essay on Christian Education , " also published separately later , she proposed her own comprehensive educational program .
Trimmer took her reviewing very seriously and her over 400 reviews constitute a set of distinct values . As Grenby puts it , " her initial questions of any children ’ s books that came before her were always first , was it damaging to religion and second , was it damaging to political loyalty and the established social hierarchy " . Religion was always Trimmer 's first priority and her emphasis on Biblical inerrancy illustrates her fundamentalism . She criticized books that included scenes of death , characters who were insane , and representations of sexuality , as well as books that might frighten children . She typically praised books that encouraged intellectual instruction , such as Anna Barbauld 's Lessons for Children ( 1778 – 79 ) .
Trimmer 's fundamentalism , Grenby argues , does not necessarily mark her as the rigid thinker that many critics have presumed her to be . Grenby points out that Trimmer , like Rousseau , believed children were naturally good ; in this , she was arguing against centuries of tradition , particularly Puritanical attitudes towards raising children . She also agreed with " Rousseau ’ s key idea [ while ironically attacking Rousseau 's works themselves ] , later taken up by the Romantics , that children should not be forced to become adults too early " .
The Guardian of Education established children 's literature as a genre with her reviews . Moreover , in one of her early essays , " Observations on the Changes which have taken place in Books for Children and Young Persons " , Trimmer wrote the first history of children 's literature , setting out the first canon of children 's literature . Its landmark books are still cited today by scholars as important in the development of the genre .
= = = = Fairy tales = = = =
Trimmer is perhaps most famous now for her condemnation of fairy tales , such as the various translations of Charles Perrault 's Histoires ou contes du temps passé ( originally published in 1697 ) , because they endorsed an irrational view of the world and suggested that children could become successful too easily ( in other words , they did not have to work ) . Chapbooks were the literature of the poor and Trimmer was attempting to separate children 's literature from texts she associated with the lower classes ; she also feared that children might gain access to this cheap literature without their parents ' knowledge . Trimmer criticized the values associated with fairy tales , accusing them of perpetuating superstition and unfavourable images of stepparents . Rather than seeing Trimmer as a censor of fairy tales , therefore , Nicholas Tucker has argued , " by considering fairy tales as fair game for criticism rather than unthinking worship , Mrs Trimmer is at one with scholars today who have also written critically about the ideologies found in some individual stories " .
One of the reasons Trimmer believed fairy tales were dangerous was because they led child readers into a fantasy world where adults could not follow and control their exposure to harmful experiences . She was just as horrified by the graphic illustrations included with some fairy tale collections , complaining that " little children , whose minds are susceptible of every impression ; and who from the liveliness of their imaginations are apt to convert into realities whatever forcibly strikes their fancy " should not be allowed to see such scenes as Blue Beard hacking his wife 's head off .
= = = = French revolution and religion = = = =
In the pages of The Guardian of Education , Trimmer denounced the French revolution and the philosophers whose works she believed underpinned it , particularly Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . She argued that there was a vast conspiracy , organized by the atheistic and democratic revolutionaries of France , to overthrow the legitimate governments of Europe . These conspirators were attempting to overturn traditional society by " endeavouring to infect the minds of the rising generation , through the medium of Books of Education and Children 's Books " ( emphasis Trimmer 's ) . Her views were shaped by Abbé Barruel 's Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism ( 1797 – 8 ) ( she extracted large sections from this text into the Guardian itself ) but also by her fears of the ongoing wars between France and Britain during the 1790s . Trimmer emphasized Christianity above all in her writings and maintained that one should turn to God in times of trial . As M. Nancy Cutt argues in her book on children 's literature , Trimmer and writers like her " claimed emphatically that the degree of human happiness was in direct proportion to the degree of submission to the divine Will . Thus they repudiated the moralists ’ view that learning should exalt reason and work to the temporal happiness of the individual , which was governed by the best interests of society " . Trimmer and her allies contended that French pedagogical theories led to an immoral nation , specifically , " deism , infidelity and revolution " .
= = = Bell vs. Lancasterian school system debate = = =
In 1789 , Andrew Bell invented the Madras system of education to order to instruct British colonial subjects in India ; it was a disciplinary system which employed a hierarchy of student monitors and very few teachers ( economical for the colonies , Bell argued ) . He published a book , Experiment in Education ( 1797 ) , in order to explain his system , one that he thought could be adapted for the poor in England ( in it he endorsed many of Trimmer 's own books ) . A year after reading the Experiment , an English Quaker , Joseph Lancaster , adopted many of its principles for his school in London and then published his own book , Improvements in Education ( 1803 ) , which repeated many of Bell 's ideas . Because of his Quaker sympathies , Lancaster did not encourage the teaching of the doctrines of the Established Church . Trimmer , appalled by the suggestion that British children did not need to be brought up within the Established Church , wrote and published her Comparative View of the two systems in 1805 , creating a schism between two very similar systems . According to F. J. Harvey Darton , an early scholar of children 's literature , " her effect upon English education … was very considerable , even extraordinary . The two rival systems , Bell ’ s and Lancaster ’ s , were hotly debated all over the country , and the war between Bell and the Dragon , as a cartoonist labelled it , raged in all the magazines , even in the Edinburgh Review . " Out of the debate " arose the two great societies – the National Society for Promoting the Education of the Children of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church , and the British and Foreign School Society – upon whose work , fundamentally , the whole of [ Britain 's ] later elementary school system was based " .
= = Death = =
Trimmer 's husband died in 1792 ; this affected her quite deeply , as is evidenced in her journal . In 1800 , she and some of her daughters were forced to move to another house in Brentford . This was painful for Trimmer , who wrote in her diary :
Alas , a widow , unacquainted with the ways of the world , ignorant of legal matters , can do but little on occasions like these which now occur . After more than thirty years ’ residence in a house , in which I have known many comforts , and in a neighbourhood where I have endeavoured to make myself respected , I am likely to be obliged to seek for a new habitation ; and there is not one within so short a distance as to enable me to fulfil the wishes of my heart by attending to the schools . Should I find it necessary to change my abode , the schools will , I fear , unavoidably decline . I shall also be removed to a distance , from some of my children , whose society would comfort my declining years .
She died in Brentford on 15 December 1810 , and was buried at St Mary 's , Ealing . There is a plaque memorializing her at St. George 's , Brentford :
To the memory of SARAH relict of James Trimmer , resident in this parish nearly 50 years , during which she adorned the doctrine of God our Saviour in all things , by her practice a constant attendant in God ’ s House of Prayer . In her own house an example to Christian Matrons , in her neighbourhood ministering to the necessities of all ; the destitute , the afflicted and the ignorant , seeking their moral improvement by imparting Christian instruction both in private and also in the Church School raised by her exertions and fostered by her care . By her writings , edifying the members of that branch of Christ ’ s Holy Church in which she was born and which she loved with an ardent but well tempered zeal . She obtained rest from her labours on 15 December 1810 in the seventieth year of her age .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Trimmer 's most popular book , Fabulous Histories , was reprinted for at least 133 years and had a profound impact on generations of readers and writers . In 1877 , when the firm of Griffith and Farran published it as part of their " Original Juvenile Library , " they advertised it as " the delicious story of Dicksy , Flapsy , and Pecksy , who can have forgotten it ? It is as fresh today as it was half a century ago . " Tess Cosslett has also suggested that the names of Trimmer 's birds — Dicksy , Pecksy , Flapsy and Robin — bear a striking resemblance to the rabbits — Flopsy , Mopsy , Cottontail and Peter — in Beatrix Potter 's children 's books .
Trimmer also influenced the children 's writers of her own age ; William Godwin 's Fables , Ancient and Modern ( 1805 ) , for example , imitates Trimmer 's Ladder to Learning . Among her contemporary admirers was Frances Burney , who remarked in a letter to her sister Esther about the education of the latter 's 10 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , " Mrs. Trimmer I should suppose admirable for a girl " ( as an introduction to the Scriptures ) .
While Trimmer was highly respected for her charity work during her lifetime and for her books long after her death , her reputation began to wane at the end of the 19th century and plummeted during the 20th century . One reason for this is that her textbooks , so widely used during the first half of the century , were replaced by secular books in the second half of the century . The tone of her books was no longer seen as consonant with British society . An early scholar of children 's literature , Geoffrey Summerfield , describes her this way : " Of all the morally shrill women active in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , she was probably the shrillest . Unbalanced , frenetic , paranoid , she may have been , but no one could deny her energy and perseverance in defending the souls of the children of England from the assaults of the devil . " Recently , however , children 's literature scholars have attempted to view 18th @-@ century children 's literature within its historical context rather than judge it against modern tastes ; scholars such as Grenby , Ruwe , Ferguson , Fyfe and Cosslett have reassessed Trimmer 's work . Because Trimmer does not fit the mold of 20th @-@ century feminism — that is , since she did not rebel against the social mores of her society as did Mary Wollstonecraft — she did not attract the attention of early feminist scholars . However , as Ruwe points out , " by the confluence of political , historical , and pedagogical events at the turn of the century , a woman such as Trimmer was able to gain a greater visibility in the realm of public letters than was perhaps typical before or after " ; Trimmer was a " role model for other women authors " , and these later authors often acknowledged their debt explicitly , as did the author of The Footsteps to Mrs. Trimmer ’ s Sacred History .
= = Trimmer 's children = =
Trimmer and her husband had twelve children .
= = List of works = =
This list of works has been taken from Deborah Wills ' entry on Trimmer in the Dictionary of Literary Biography . Other entries have been added if they appear in other academic articles or database collections under Trimmer 's name .
An Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature , and Reading the Holy Scriptures , adapted to the Capacities of Children ( 1780 )
Sacred History ( 1782 – 5 ) ( 6 volumes )
The Œconomy of Charity ( 1786 )
Fabulous Histories ; Designed for the Instruction of Children , Respecting their Treatment of Animals ( 1786 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of Scripture History : Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1786 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of Ancient History : Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons . In Two Parts ( 1786 )
The Servant ’ s Friend ( 1786 )
The Two Farmers ( 1787 )
The Œconomy of Charity ( 1787 )
The Sunday @-@ School Catechist , Consisting of Familiar Lectures , with Questions ( 1788 )
The Sunday @-@ scholar 's Manual ( 1788 )
The Family Magazine ( 1788 – 9 ) ( periodical )
A Comment on Dr. Watts ’ s Divine Songs for Children with Questions ( 1789 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of Roman History , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1789 )
The Ladder of Learning , Step the First ( 1789 )
A Description of a Set of Prints Taken from the New Testament , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1790 )
Easy Lessons for Young Children ( c.1790 ) [ not on Wills ' list ]
Sunday School Dialogues ( 1790 ) ( edited by Trimmer )
A Companion to the Book of Common Prayer ( 1791 )
An Explanation of the Office for the Public Baptism of Infants ( 1791 )
An Attempt to Familiarize the Catechism of the Church of England ( 1791 )
The Little Spelling Book for Young Children ( 4th ed . , 1791 ) [ not on Wills ' list ]
Reflections upon the Education of Children in Charity Schools ( 1792 )
A Friendly Remonstrance , concerning the Christian Covenant and the Sabbath Day ; Intended for the Good of the Poor ( 1792 )
The Ladder of Learning , Step the Second ( 1792 )
A Description of a Set of Prints of English History , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1792 )
An Abridgement of Scripture History ; Consisting of Lessons Selected from the Old Testament ( 1792 )
A Scriptures Catechism ( 1797 ) ( 2 parts ) [ not on Wills ' list ]
A Description of a Set of Prints Taken from the Old Testament ( c.1797 ) [ not on Willis ' list ]
The Silver Thimble ( 1799 )
An Address to Heads of Schools and Families ( 1799 ? )
The Charity School Spelling Book ( c.1799 ) ( 2 parts )
The Teacher 's Assistant : Consisting of Lectures in the Catechised Form ( 1800 )
A Geographical Companion to Mrs. Trimmer 's Scripture , Antient , and English Abridged Histories , with Prints ( 1802 )
A Help to the Unlearned in the Study of the Holy Scriptures ( 1805 )
An Abridgement of the New Testament ( 1805 ? )
A Comparative View of the New Plan of Education Promulgated by Mr. Joseph Lancaster ( 1805 )
The Guardian of Education ( 1802 – 6 ) ( periodical )
A New Series of Prints , Accompanied by Easy Lessons ; Being an Improved Edition of the First Set of Scripture Prints from the Old Testament ( 1808 )
A Concise History of England ( 1808 )
Instructive Tales : Collected from the Family Magazine ( 1810 )
An Essay on Christian Education ( 1812 ) ( posthumous )
Sermons , for Family Reading ( 1814 ) ( posthumous )
Some Account of the Life and Writings of Mrs. Trimmer ( 1814 ) ( posthumous )
A Description of a Set of Prints of the History of France , Contained in a Set of Easy Lessons ( 1815 ) ( posthumous )
A Selection from Mrs. Trimmer 's Instructive Tales ; The Good Nurse ... ( 1815 ) ( posthumous )
Miscellaneous Pieces , Selected from the Family Magazine ( 1818 ) ( posthumous )
Prayers and Meditations Extracted from the Journal of the Late Mrs. Trimmer ( 1818 ) ( posthumous )
A Selection from Mrs. Trimmer 's Instructive Tales ; The Rural Economists ... ( 1819 ) ( posthumous )
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= Regina Maria Pia @-@ class ironclad =
The Regina Maria Pia class was a group of four ironclad warships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1860s . The class comprised four ships , Regina Maria Pia , San Martino , Castelfidardo , and Ancona . They were built by French shipyards , since Italian yards were unable to meet the demand of the rapidly expanding Italian fleet . The ships were broadside ironclads and mounted a battery of twenty @-@ six muzzle loading guns .
All four ships saw action at the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 . Regina Maria Pia was badly burned in the battle , but the other three vessels were not seriously damaged . The ships served in a variety of roles for the remainder of their long careers ; they were modernized in the late 1880s and thereafter used as a training ships . Regina Maria Pia , San Martino , and Ancona were discarded in 1903 – 04 , and Castelfidardo joined them in the breaker 's yard in 1910 .
= = Design = =
Following the unification of Italy in 1861 , the new Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) began a construction program to prepare a fleet of ironclad warships capable of defeating the Austrian Navy . Italy considered the Austrian Empire to be its main rival , since it controlled predominantly Italian areas , including Venice . The nascent Italian shipyards were incapable of building the number of ships the new fleet would require , so most of this first generation of ironclads were built by foreign ship builders . In 1862 , the four ships of the Regina Maria Pia class were ordered from French shipyards , under the direction of Vice Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , then the Italian Navy Minister . These ships were designed by the French builders .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Regina Maria Pia class varied in their dimensions . Regina Maria Pia and San Martino , built by the same shipyard , were identical in size , while Castelfidardo and Ancona , though each built by different shipyards , also were identical . The first two ships were 75 @.@ 48 meters ( 247 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 81 @.@ 2 m ( 266 ft ) long overall , and they had a beam of 15 @.@ 24 m ( 50 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 35 m ( 20 @.@ 8 ft ) . Castelfidardo and Ancona were 76 m ( 249 ft ) between perpendiculars and 81 @.@ 8 m ( 268 ft ) overall , with a beam of 15 @.@ 16 m ( 49 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 35 m . The first two ships displaced 4 @,@ 201 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 135 long tons ; 4 @,@ 631 short tons ) normally and up to 4 @,@ 527 t ( 4 @,@ 456 long tons ; 4 @,@ 990 short tons ) at full load , while Castelfidardo displaced 4 @,@ 191 t ( 4 @,@ 125 long tons ; 4 @,@ 620 short tons ) normally and 4 @,@ 527 t ( 4 @,@ 456 long tons ; 4 @,@ 990 short tons ) at full load . Curiously , Ancona was the lightest ship normally , at 4 @,@ 157 t ( 4 @,@ 091 long tons ; 4 @,@ 582 short tons ) , but the heaviest at full load , at 4 @,@ 619 t ( 4 @,@ 546 long tons ; 5 @,@ 092 short tons ) .
The ships were constructed with iron hulls . They were protected by iron belt armor that was 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull at the waterline . The battery deck was protected by 4 @.@ 3 in ( 109 mm ) of iron plate . Each vessel had a crew of 480 – 485 officers and men . The ships were initially schooner @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine , though their masts were later reduced to a barque rig . Ultimately , they lost their sailing rig completely , having it replaced with a pair of military masts with fighting tops .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion , two @-@ cylinder steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel placed amidships . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 96 knots ( 24 @.@ 00 km / h ; 14 @.@ 91 mph ) from 2 @,@ 924 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 180 kW ) . Each ship had a capacity of 485 t ( 477 long tons ; 535 short tons ) of coal , which allowed them to steam for 2 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 3 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Regina Maria Pia class were broadside ironclads , and they were initially armed with a main battery of four 72 @-@ pounder smooth @-@ bore 8 in ( 203 mm ) muzzle @-@ loading guns and twenty @-@ two 32 @-@ pounder rifled 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) muzzle loaders , though their armament changed throughout her career . Most of these guns were placed on the broadside , but two of the 164 mm guns were mounted in an armored bunker forward and a third was placed in a similar mount at the stern , as chase guns . The ships were also fitted with a ram bow that was 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long .
In 1871 , all four ships were re @-@ armed with two 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) muzzle @-@ loading guns and eight 8 in muzzle @-@ loading guns , with a ninth 8 in gun added in 1880 . Regina Maria Pia and San Martino were later re @-@ equipped with eight 6 in ( 150 mm ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , five 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) QF guns , four 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) QF guns , and eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolver cannon . In 1884 , Castelfidardo received the same battery of light guns , though she had a sixth 4 @.@ 7 in gun . When Ancona was similarly re @-@ armed , she only had two of the 37 mm revolver cannon . All four ships were also equipped with three torpedo tubes , with the exception of Castelfidardo , which received two tubes .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
All four ships of the class entered service in time to see action during the Third Italian War of Independence against the Austrian Navy in 1866 . Persano , now the commander of the Italian fleet , adopted a cautious strategy and conducted only one major offensive operation , which was directed at the island of Lissa . There , the Austrian fleet under Wilhelm von Tegetthoff attacked the Italians . The four Regina Maria Pias all took part in the ensuing Battle of Lissa . Regina Maria Pia had been set on fire and badly burned in the battle , and minor fires were started by Austrian shells aboard San Martino and Castelfidardo , but neither were seriously damaged . Ancona emerged relatively unscathed , with only minor damage to her iron plates .
After the war , the Italian naval budget was slashed ; the cuts were so severe that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home . As the Italian fleet began to rebuild in the 1870s , the Regina Maria Pias returned to active service in a variety of roles , both in the main fleet and in Italy 's overseas empire . All four ships were modernized in the late 1880s , and were thereafter used as training ships . Regina Maria Pia , Ancona , and San Martino were stricken from the naval register in 1903 – 04 , while Castelfidardo lingered on as a torpedo training ship until 1910 , when she too was sold for scrapping .
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= Ulla Salzgeber =
Ulla Salzgeber ( born 5 August 1958 in Oberhausen ) is a German equestrian and Olympic champion who competes in the sport of dressage . Competing in the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics , she won two team gold medals , one individual silver and one individual bronze . She also won numerous medals at the World Equestrian Games , Dressage World Cup and European Dressage Championships . After the retirement of her Olympic horse , Rusty , after the 2004 Games , and unexpected death of her second international @-@ level mount in 2005 , Salzgeber struggled to find a new Grand Prix @-@ level horse .
In 2005 , she took time from competition to act as the dressage training adviser to the Australian national equestrian team , but resigned from that position in late 2006 . In 2008 , she began riding Herzruf 's Erbe at major events , but the horse has been plagued by injuries that have required him to miss many competitions . Salzgeber announced a change in her training base in early 2010 , moving to new stables in Blonhofen , Bavaria , which she said would allow her to accept more students . In 2013 , after returning Herzruf 's Erbe to competition , Salzgeber was again named to the German equestrian squad 's A @-@ team .
= = Personal life = =
Born 5 August 1958 in Oberhausen as Ulla Helbing , Salzgeber began riding at age 10 , competing in the sport of vaulting . In 1977 , at age 19 , she was the Young Riders European Championships . She attended college , graduating from law school before building a training stable in Bad Worishofen , Germany , that focuses on dressage . Salzgeber is married to Sebastian Salzgeber , and has one daughter , Kim .
= = Career = =
Salzgeber rode the same horse to all of her Olympic , World Equestrian Games and European Championship medals . Rusty 47 , nicknamed Rusty , was a Latvian warmblood gelding who was named Rotors when he was purchased by Salzgeber from a German show jumping barn . The pair came to international attention at the 1997 European Championships , with a sixth place individual finish and a team gold . They repeated team gold at the 1998 World Equestrian Games , while also taking a bronze medal in individual competition . The German team , with Salzgeber , rode to another team gold at the 1999 European Championships , and Salzgeber and Rusty also took individual silver . After Gigolo , a horse ridden by Isabell Werth , was retired in 2000 , Salzgeber and Rusty became the top dressage pair in Germany . At the 2000 Summer Olympics , she won the bronze medal in the individual dressage competition . She also rode as part of the gold @-@ medal winning German team , but as the lowest @-@ scoring member , her score was not used to determine the team 's standing . During the finals , in her musical kur performance , Salzgeber 's selected music stopped playing , but she continued riding and finished the event . The music to which the pair performed , Carmina Burana , was used by Salzgeber and Rusty in all their competitions and became " tightly linked to the horse with its signature pirouettes and to date still best one @-@ tempi changes ever . "
The 2001 and 2003 European Championships brought four gold medals in team and individual competition , while the 2001 and 2002 Dressage World Cup competitions brought two additional golds . The 2002 World Equestrian Games brought a repeat of 1998 , with team gold and individual bronze medals . In 2003 , however , Salzgeber became mired in doping charges after Rusty tested positive for testosterone propionate at the 2003 World Cup finals , losing what would have been a third successive gold . Rusty 's veterinarian claimed the drug was given to him to treat a hormonal imbalance , but the pair was banned from competition for two months by the German Equestrian Federation . An exception was made for the 2004 German Dressage Championships , which allowed them to qualify for the 2004 Olympic Games . She was not allowed to compete in qualifying events for the 2004 World Cup , and she did not ride in the event . At the 2004 Summer Olympics , she improved her individual performance to win a silver medal , and rode with the German team to a second successive gold in the team competition . Rusty was retired soon after the 2004 Olympics , and was euthanized in 2013 at the age of 25 . Months before his death , it was announced that Rusty had been cloned , resulting in two young stallions , nicknamed " Rusty Clone 1 " and " Rusty Clone 2 " .
In mid @-@ 2005 , Salzgeber 's then @-@ current Grand Prix mount , Wall Street , was euthanized following an episode of colic . This , combined with the recent retirement of Rusty , left her with no Grand Prix @-@ level horses . Wall Street , while a relatively successful dressage horse , had suffered health problems and had never been able to compete with Rusty as Salzgeber 's top horse . In 2008 , Salzgeber again began competing at the Grand Prix level on Herzruf 's Erbe , who would develop into one of her top international horses . In that year , the pair won the Otto Lorke Prize , given each year to the best German Grand Prix horse under 10 years old . During 2008 , Salzgeber and Herzruf 's Erbe had won 10 Grand Prix competitions . In 2009 , the pair were expected to compete at the European Dressage Championships , but were not chosen for the German team after Herzruf 's Erbe sustained an injury at a competition in July . The immediate diagnosis was a severely pulled tendon , although a later diagnosis was that the horse had strained a suspensory muscle , expected to heal in about three months . By early 2010 , the horse was again able to be ridden , but was still not in top condition .
In June 2011 , Salzgeber announced that she would be selling one of her top @-@ level horses , Wakana , to a student , leaving Herzruf 's Erbe as her only horse prepared to compete at the international level . Later that month , Salzgeber removed herself from consideration for competition at the 2011 CHIO Aachen and European Dressage Championships . She announced that she had decided to take a break from competition and focus more on training and her personal life . In 2012 , she announced that she would not be seeking a spot on the German team for the 2012 Summer Olympics , saying that her training duties had not given her time to properly prepare Herzruf 's Erbe . She had ridden the horse at competitions during the 2011 @-@ 2012 winter , and stated that she planned to compete at additional competitions during the winter of 2012 @-@ 2013 . However , in late 2012 , the horse was put into a one @-@ year rest period to help him recover from the injuries that had troubled him throughout his career . In October 2013 , Salzgeber brought Herzruf 's Erbe back into competition , winning a national show in Germany . The pair was successful at subsequent competitions , and in December 2013 , it was announced that they had been returned to the German equestrian squad 's A @-@ team .
= = = Coaching and training = = =
In 2005 , Salzgeber was named as the new dressage training adviser to the Australian national equestrian team . In the role , Salzgeber held training camps , approved team members ' training programs and helped choose team members for international competitions . In late 2006 , she resigned , citing a mix of training duties at home in Europe and disagreements with the Equestrian Federation of Australia . Under her tenure , however , the Australian team made their best @-@ ever placing at the 2006 World Equestrian Games , finishing 9th .
In early 2010 , Salzgeber announced that she would be moving her base of training from the stables in Bad Worishofen where she had been located since she graduated from college . The new facilities , nearby in Blonhofen , Bavaria , offered more room and extensive natural therapy facilities , including aquatherapy , acupuncture , osteopathy , and homeopathics . Salzgeber said the new , larger , base would allow her to give more training clinics and accept more students .
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= Shiver ( Coldplay song ) =
" Shiver " is a song written and recorded by British alternative rock band Coldplay . British record producer Ken Nelson and Coldplay produced the track for their debut album Parachutes . Vocalist Chris Martin admitted that " Shiver " was written for a specific woman , from whom the media has generated several speculations . The song contains influences attributed to American singer @-@ songwriter Jeff Buckley , whom Coldplay 's early influences were drawn from .
The song was released as the album 's lead single in the United Kingdom , and second in the United States following the hit single " Yellow " . The single reached number 35 on the UK Singles Chart , and its critical reception has been generally positive .
= = Production and composition = =
" Shiver " was written two years before its release . Accordingly , Martin wrote the song while thinking of Australian singer @-@ songwriter Natalie Imbruglia , the woman he was linked to , but later denied it . Some accounts have claimed , however , that Imbruglia was indeed not Martin 's inspiration in writing the song . Instead , he appeared to have been inspired with girlfriends in his teenage days and early 20s . Martin actually wrote the song in a " glum " day , when he felt he would never find the right woman for him . He described it as something of a " stalking song " , admitting he wrote it for a specific woman . In addition , Martin wrote the song while listening to music of Buckley , and had claimed it is their " most blatant rip @-@ off song " .
" Shiver " was recorded in Rockfield Studios in Wales , United Kingdom , where the band was booked by A & R representative Dan Keeling to begin working on the band 's debut album , Parachutes . Keeling was disappointed with the early demos presented to him , saying it " didn 't have any of their passion , their energy " , a result of the band 's freshly resolved internal pressure in the time . Keeling deemed the demos as " limp " and asked the band to redo it . Smaller parts of the song were recorded at Parr Street Studios in Liverpool , England , where the band relocated after Christmas in 1999 .
The song was produced by Coldplay and British record producer Ken Nelson . As with most songs in the album , Nelson used an analogue desk in recording " Shiver " . The guitar was re @-@ dubbed in search of perfection , while Martin de @-@ tuned his guitar to easily generate complex chord sequences . Martin 's vocals were recorded in more than one take , but the band chose the one with a single take .
" Shiver " is in the alternative rock genre . A review claims that Coldplay 's indie rock inclinations are obvious in the song . " Shiver " has been perceived to have influences of Buckley , whom Coldplay 's early song influences were drawn from . Martin later said of the song that it was " a blatant Jeff Buckley attempt , not quite as good , that 's what I think " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Shiver " is one of the older songs in Coldplay 's catalogue , and had been performed at their early concerts in 1999 . Later , it was initially released as an EP in the spring of 2000 . It was released as the album 's lead single in the United Kingdom on 6 March 2000 , months before the release of the album . The single had been picked up for B @-@ play lists on some European prominent radio stations . In the United States , it was released as the second single , following the hit single " Yellow " . Website IGN posted a video at the 2008 Games Convention in Leipzig , Germany , revealing " Shiver " to be part of the song list in the video game Guitar Hero World Tour .
The single 's reception was generally positive . It reached number 35 on the UK Singles Chart . It also reached number 26 at the US Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks . The song remains , to this day , an audience favorite in live performances . It has earned the band praise from critics . Adrian Denning , in his review of the album , wrote , " ' Shiver ' has a vocal that could be Jeff Buckley influenced , the soaring vocals are a joy over a reasonably guitar rock based instrumental track . " A review by David DeVoe in Hybridmagazine.com reads , " ' Shiver ' is a delightfully laid back tune , full of that great guitar sound that I have come to appreciate this band for . " Spencer Owen of Pitchfork noted , " It 's the only truly decent song on Parachutes , but simultaneously , it 's the only one that blatantly shows its influences . In fact , the influence can even be pinned to a single song : Jeff Buckley 's ' Grace . ' "
The music video for " Shiver " was directed by English film director and cinematographer Grant Gee . It features Coldplay performing in a small studio . The yellow globe featured on the Parachutes cover can be seen on top of an amplifier in the video . The music video received " strong exposure " on MTV .
In 2003 , " Shiver " was featured on Coldplay 's live album Live 2003 .
= = Track listing = =
CD
" Shiver " – 5 : 02
" For You " – 5 : 45
" Careful Where You Stand " – 4 : 47
= = Chart performance = =
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= Blacklock ( horse ) =
Blacklock ( 1814 – 24 February 1831 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse who won seventeen of his twenty @-@ three races . As a two @-@ year @-@ old in 1816 he was undefeated in three starts . In his first race as a three @-@ year @-@ old he finished second in the St. Leger , a neck behind Ebor . He then won four races in two weeks , including the Gascoigne Stakes and Dundas Stakes . In 1818 he recorded several wins including two of the Great Subscription Purses at York . He won a third Great Subscription Purse in 1819 , along with the York Gold Cup . After retiring from racing , Blacklock became a successful stallion and was champion sire of Great Britain in 1829 , the year his son Voltaire won the Doncaster Cup . He was owned by Thomas Kirby as a two @-@ year @-@ old , before being purchased by Richard Watt , who owned him for the remainder of his racing career . Blacklock was trained by Tommy Sykes .
= = Background = =
Blacklock was a bay colt bred by Francis Moss and foaled in 1814 . He was sired by Whitelock , who won a number of races in the north of England . Whitelock was a son of St. Leger and dual Doncaster Cup winner Hambletonian , who was only defeated once in his career . Blacklock 's dam was a daughter of Coriander . He was the seventh of her nine foals , the youngest of which being 1822 St. Leger winner Theodore . Francis Moss had bought Blacklock 's dam for £ 3 in 1803 .
Blacklock was not thought to be a good @-@ looking horse . He was described as having " a head like a half @-@ moon " and being calf @-@ kneed . Thomas Kirby purchased him from Moss for £ 40 .
= = Racing career = =
= = = 1816 : Two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Blacklock , who was then unnamed and raced under the name " Mr. Kirby 's b. c. by Whitelock , dam by Coriander " , made his racecourse debut on 23 August 1816 at York in a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each for two @-@ year @-@ olds . After starting at the price of about 3 / 1 he won the race , with the judge being unable to place any of his five rivals . On 11 September at Pontefract , he faced three opponents for a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each over one mile ( 1609 metres ) . He started as the 13 / 8 favourite and won the race . Shylock finished in second place , with Angelica in third . Blacklock was then purchased by Richard Watt . Racing in Watt 's colours ( Harlequin ) and ridden by jockey J. Jackson , Blacklock made his final start as a two @-@ year @-@ old at Doncaster on the 24 September when he competed in another sweepstakes of 20 guineas each . He started as the 4 / 7 favourite and won the race from the Young Woodpecker colt , who was followed by Eglinton . Blacklock apparently won the race easily .
= = = 1817 : Three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Blacklock , still unnamed , had his first race as a three @-@ year @-@ old in the St. Leger Stakes at Doncaster on Monday 22 September . He did not arrive at Doncaster until the Saturday before , and after reports that he was amiss his odds had lengthened to as much as 10 / 1 in the betting . After arriving , he had a gallop in the afternoon and soon shortened in the betting . After another of the pre @-@ race favourites , Stainborough , was withdrawn due to illness Blacklock was sent off as the short @-@ priced favourite at about evens . Blacklock appeared like he was going to win easily and Jackson eased him up in the final furlong ( 200 metres ) of the race . However , Ebor and Restless began to quickly close down his lead . By the time Jackson realised , Blacklock could not accelerate quick enough and Ebor came out on top , beating Blacklock by a neck . Restless finished in third place and was the only other runner that could be placed by the judge . Blacklock had a crack in one of his hind heels , which was thought to have affected him in the race .
Two days after the St. Leger , Blacklock faced St. Helena over the same course and distance in the Gascoigne Stakes , which he won easily . Twenty @-@ four hours later , Blacklock lost to The Duchess in the Doncaster Club Stakes over two miles . On 8 October at Richmond he won a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each , beating four rivals , with Boroughman finishing second . Later in the day Blacklock won the Dundas Stakes , beating Rasping , D.I.O and Shepard into second , third and fourth respectively .
= = = 1818 : Four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Blacklock , racing under his name for the first time , started the 1818 season much earlier than he had done the previous two seasons , with his first race coming on 18 May at the York Spring Meeting in a sweepstakes of 20 guineas each over two miles . He started as the 1 / 2 favourite , but could only finish third behind St. Helena . Two days later he started as the 4 / 6 favourite for the Constitution Stakes over a mile @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter . He biggest rival was expected to be the Duke of Leeds 's Rasping , who was priced at 2 / 1 . Blacklock won the race from Rasping , with Hornby in third and Whiff last of the four runners .
Blacklock did not race again until August at York , where he ran in the four @-@ mile Great Subscription Purse for four @-@ year @-@ olds . He started as the evens favourite and faced three rivals ; Agatha , St. Helena and a filly by Orville . Blacklock won the race by over 100 yards ( 91 metres ) without being asked for an effort , causing some people to proclaim " nothing has been seen at all equal to Mr. Watt 's Blacklock since the days of Eclipse . " This referring to the ease with which Eclipse won his races . Agatha finished the race in second place and St. Helena in third . The race was won in a time of 7 minutes 23 seconds . The next day he beat Silenus to win the four @-@ mile Great Subscription Purse for four and five @-@ year @-@ olds . Later in the same day he started as the 1 / 2 favourite in a two @-@ mile sweepstakes of 25 guineas each , where he faced four opponents . Despite it being his third race in two days he won , beating Rasping into second place .
Blacklock then went to Doncaster , where on 23 September , he started 1 / 2 favourite and beat The Duchess to win the Doncaster Stakes over four miles . The same day he also walked over for a sweepstakes of 50 guineas each over the St. Leger course . Twenty @-@ four hours later he beat Rasping to win a sweepstakes of 25 guineas each over four miles . , and then went on to beat The Duchess to win the Doncaster Club Stakes . This was his fourth race in the space of two days . At Richmond in October he won his second Dundas Stakes , this time beating King Corney . Later in the day Blacklock finished last of four runners behind winner Doctor Syntax in the Richmond Cup over four miles . Doctor Syntax had started in the lead , but was overtaken by Blacklock after only 200 yards . Blacklock held the lead until about half a mile from the finish , when Doctor Syntax joined him again . Blacklock then swerved out of line , allowing Doctor Syntax to win easily . By the time The Richmond Cup was run Blacklock was apparently unwell and was coughing repeatedly during the race .
= = = 1819 : Five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
On 17 May 1819 at York , Blacklock finished second of seven in a two @-@ mile sweepstakes of 20 guineas each . The race was won by The Marshall . On 18 May he started as the evens favourite for the two @-@ mile Gold Cup . He won the race , with Paulowitz finishing second , Torch @-@ bearer third and Otho fourth . At the York August Meeting , Blacklock faced three rivals in the four @-@ mile Great Subscription Purse for five @-@ year @-@ olds and older . The Duchess started as the 5 / 2 favourite , with Blacklock and St. Helena both at 3 / 1 and Magistrate at 4 / 1 . Blacklock won the race from Magistrate , with The Duchess finishing in third place . Blacklock 's final race came two days later , when he finished second to St. Helena in a sweepstakes of 25 guineas each over two miles . During his racing career Blacklock had twenty @-@ three races , winning seventeen of those , placing second four times and third once .
= = Race record = =
a Only the winner could be placed by the judge .
= = Stud career = =
Blacklock was retired to stud , where he became a successful stallion . He first stood at Bishop Burton in Yorkshire , with his fee initially set at 15 guineas and half a guinea for the groom ( Thomas Barrow ) . He was then leased to Thomas Kirkby in York for four seasons where he stood for a much lower fee . In 1827 he was at Bildeston in Suffolk and was commanding a stud fee of twelve guineas . His fee reached up to 25 guineas .
Blacklock was champion sire of Great Britain in 1829 . His progeny included :
Brutandorf ( 1821 ) – won the Tradesmen 's Cup and Stand Cup at Chester in 1826 . As a sire he produced the Grand National winner Gaylad and Hetman Platoff , who won several cups . He was also grandsire of Derby winner Cossack .
Brownlock ( 1822 ) – won 25 races .
Belzoni ( 1823 ) – won the York St. Leger and later became a successful sire of hunters . He produced Vanguard , who won the Grand National in 1843 .
Laurel ( 1824 ) – won the Doncaster Cup in 1828 . Through one of his unnamed daughters he was the damsire of Oaks winners Rhedycina and Governess .
Robin Hood ( 1825 ) – won ten races including two Newcastle Gold Cups .
Belinda ( 1825 ) – finished second in the St. Leger at Doncaster . As a broodmare she foaled Gimcrack Stakes winner Tuscan , as well as Lollypop , who became the dam of Doncaster Cup winner Sweetmeat .
Miss Pratt ( 1825 ) – foaled Echidna , who was the dam of The Baron . The Baron won the St. Leger and sired the influential stallion Stockwell .
Velocipede ( 1825 ) – won the York St. Leger , York Gold Cup and Liverpool Cup . He sired Derby winner Amato , Oaks and St. Leger winner Queen of Trumps and 2000 Guineas winner Meteor .
Tranby ( 1826 ) – won the Oatlands Stakes in 1832 and ran four four @-@ mile legs in George Osbaldeston 's successful attempt to ride 200 miles in 10 hours .
Voltaire ( 1826 ) – won the Doncaster Gold Cup and finished second in the St. Leger in 1829 . He sired Derby and St. Leger winner Voltigeur . Voltigeur 's son Vedette was the grandsire of the undefeated St. Simon , who became Champion sire nine times . It is mainly through St. Simon that Blacklock 's sire line survives today .
Moss Rose ( 1827 ) – won the Dee Stakes at Chester .
Belshazzar ( 1830 ) – finished third in an Ascot Gold Cup . He sired 1000 Guineas winner Cara and was later sent to America .
Blacklock mare – foaled Progress , who was the dam of Derby winner Attila .
Blacklock died on 24 February 1831 at Bishop Burton after rupturing a blood vessel when covering a mare . His death was described as " instantaneous " . In total Blacklock sired the winners of 442 races and over £ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Pedigree = =
Note : b . |
= Bay , br . =
Brown , ch . |
= Chestnut , gr . =
Grey
* Blacklock was inbred 3 × 4 to Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . This means that the stallion appears once in the third generation and once in the fourth generation of his pedigree . He was also inbred 3 × 4 to Highflyer , 4 × 4 × 4 to Herod and 4 × 4 to Eclipse .
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= Chester Rows =
Chester Rows consist of covered walkways at the first floor behind which are entrances to shops and other premises . At street level is another set of shops and other premises , many of which are entered by going down a few steps . The Rows , found in each of the four main streets of the city of Chester , Cheshire , England , are unique ; nothing precisely similar exists anywhere else in the world .
Dating from the medieval era , the Rows may have been built on top of rubble remaining from the ruins of Roman buildings , but their origin is still subject to speculation . In some places the continuity of the Rows has been blocked by enclosure or by new buildings , but in others modern buildings have retained the Rows in their designs . Undercrofts or " crypts " were constructed beneath the buildings in the Rows . The undercrofts were in stone while most of the buildings in the Rows were in timber .
Today about 20 of the stone undercrofts still exist , but at the level of the Rows very little medieval fabric remains . Many of the buildings containing portions of the Rows are listed and some are recorded in the English Heritage Archive . The premises on the street and Row levels are used for a variety of purposes ; most are shops , but there are also offices , restaurants , cafés , and meeting rooms . Chester Rows are one of the city 's main tourist attractions .
= = Description = =
At street level the shops and other premises are similar to those found in other towns and cities , although many of the premises are entered by going down a few steps . On the first floor level are more shops and other premises , set back from the street , in front of which is a continuous walkway . The storey above this overlaps the walkway , which makes it a covered walkway , and this constitutes what is known as the " Row " . On the street side of the walkways are railings and an area which was used as shelves or stalls for the display of goods . The floors above the level of the Rows are used for commercial or domestic purposes , or for storage . The Rows are present , to a greater or lesser degree , in all the streets radiating from Chester Cross , namely Watergate Street , Northgate Street , Eastgate Street and Upper Bridge Street . They are continuous on both sides of Upper Bridge Street , along most of Watergate and Eastgate Street , but only for a short stretch along the east side of Northgate Street . Originally there were also Rows in Lower Bridge Street but these were blocked during the 17th and 18th centuries .
As the ground floor buildings are usually lower than the street level , they are sometime known as " crypts " . However , as the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner points out , this is not a strictly accurate description because the level of the floors of the buildings is a half @-@ storey rather than a full @-@ storey level below the street .
= = Origins = =
Rows were built in the four main streets leading from Chester Cross , each of which originated during the settlement 's early development . In the Roman period the main street , now Watergate Street and Eastgate Street , lay on an east @-@ west axis . It was joined at what is now Chester Cross by the main road from the south , present @-@ day Bridge Street . During the Saxon period a road to the north was added , now called Northgate Street . Dendrochronological evidence shows that the Rows go back as far as the 13th century , but it is unlikely that they originated before 1200 . The first record of the Rows appears in 1293 , although it is uncertain whether it refers to a Row as it would be recognised today . The " earliest unambiguous instance " of the use of the term for an elevated walkway is in 1356 .
Because the Chester Rows are unique and their precise origins are unknown , they have been the subject of speculation . Chester has suffered from a series of fires . In 1278 the fire was so severe that almost the entire town within the walls was destroyed . It has been suggested that following this fire , the owners were ordered to make their ground floors fireproof , leading to the stone @-@ lined undercrofts . From this , the suggestion has been made that there was " a general undertaking by the citizens of Chester ... to improve the commercial potential of their property by providing two @-@ level access for customers " .
Another theory links the Rows with the debris left from the Roman occupation of Chester . The rubble from the Roman buildings which had fallen into ruin was piled up alongside the streets . It is suggested that in the medieval period buildings were constructed along the top of this debris . The buildings were set back from the street , a footpath passed in front of them , and wheeled vehicles passed along the street below . In time , the properties were improved and , possibly during the 13th century , cellars or undercrofts were excavated in the debris beneath them . When the buildings were further improved , upper stories were built which overlapped the lower storey , providing a covered walkway . Stalls or shelves were added on the street side of the walkway for the display of goods , and so the system of Rows was developed . In a few places , for example at the corner of Eastgate Street and Northgate Street , another building was constructed between the walkway and the street . It is thought that , apart from a relatively small number of later buildings , the system of the Rows had reached its full extent by about 1350 .
= = Medieval period = =
During the medieval period the Rows gave access to living accommodation . The doorway led into a hall , which was usually at right angles to the street . In some cases the front portion of the hall was used as a separate shop , and in other cases the whole hall was the shop . In the storey above the hall was the solar , a room providing private accommodation for the residents . In some cases , where the hall was larger , there were several shops on its frontage . Below the Rows , at street level , were crypts or undercrofts . Many of these were stone @-@ lined with ribbed vaults , and they were used for storage or for selling more valuable goods . Behind the hall , on the level of the Rows , was more domestic accommodation . Normally the kitchen was a separate building in the yard behind the house . The back yard was also used for cesspits and for the disposal of rubbish .
= = Subsequent development = =
Although many of the Rows are still continuous , in some areas they have been blocked . In Lower Bridge Street there was originally a continuous Row ; the first building to break the sequence was at the north end of the street , the public house now known as The Falcon . In the 17th century this was the town house of the Grosvenor family . It was rebuilt in 1626 , maintaining its section of the Row . However in 1643 , during the Civil War siege of Chester , Sir Richard Grosvenor moved his family there from his country estate at Eaton Hall . In order to increase the size of the house he gained permission to enclose the Row . This set the fashion for other houses in Lower Bridge Street to enclose their sections of the Row . Later , completely new houses were constructed which did not incorporate the Row . One of these was Bridge House , built by Lady Calveley in 1676 ; it was the first house in Chester to be designed in neoclassical style . In 1699 John Mather , a lawyer , gained permission to build a new house at 51 Lower Bridge Street , which also resulted in the loss of part of the Row . In 1728 Roger Ormes , rather than building a new house , enclosed the Row at his home , Tudor House , making it into an additional room .
During the Georgian era more sections of the Rows were blocked , especially by commercial development on the north side of Watergate Street . In 1808 Thomas Harrison designed the Commercial Coffee Room in Northgate Street in neoclassical style , with an arcade at the ground @-@ floor level , rather than continuing the Row on the first floor . In 1859 – 60 Chester Bank was built in Eastgate Street , again obliterating its part of the Row . However other architects continued the tradition of maintaining the Rows in their designs ; examples include the Georgian Booth Mansion of 1700 in Watergate Street , T. M. Penson 's Gothic Revival Crypt Chambers of 1858 in Eastgate Street , and buildings in modern style constructed in Watergate Street in the 1960s .
= = Today = =
About 20 stone undercrofts still exist , some of them vaulted , dating from the 13th or early 14th century . One of the finest is Cowper House at No. 12 Bridge Street , with an undercroft of six bays built in sandstone rubble . It has plain rib @-@ vaulting on plain corbels ; the ribs are single @-@ chamfered . On the other side of Bridge Street , at No. 15 , is another undercroft , this one having two double @-@ chamfered arches . The Falcon , in Lower Bridge Street , has an undercroft which formerly had three bays but which has now been divided into two chambers . At No. 11 Watergate Street is a two @-@ naved undercroft with four bays . Also in Watergate Street are undercrofts at Nos. 23 and 37 , the latter having 5 ½ bays . Crypt Chambers , at No. 28 Eastgate Street , has a four @-@ bay undercroft .
At the Row level , the medieval building was usually built in timber , and few examples remain . One which does remain is the building known as Three Old Arches . Consisting of three arches , the frontage of this shop is stone and is probably the earliest identified shopfront in England . The building also retains its undercroft and hall , the latter also built in stone .
According to the records in the English Heritage Archive , 14 buildings incorporate sections of Chester Rows . The records in the National Heritage List for England show that at least 95 of the buildings containing sections of the Rows are listed ; 9 of these are listed as Grade I , 20 as Grade II * , and 66 as Grade II . The National Heritage List for England records the uses made by the premises at street level and in the Rows . Most of these are shops , but other uses include offices , restaurants and cafés , and private dwellings . The building at No. 1 Bridge Street has shops at both street and Row levels . A department store occupies the street and Row levels ( and the storey above ) of Crypt Chambers . Bishop Lloyd 's House in Watergate Street has a shop at the street level and above this there are meeting rooms , and the office of Chester Civic Trust . As of 2010 , Booth Mansion , also in Watergate Street , contains a solicitors ' office . The former St Michael 's Church , which is now a heritage centre , includes part of Bridge Street Row in the lowest stage of its tower . A remaining example of a section of a Row with a building between the walkway and the street is No. 22 Eastgate Street .
Since 1995 access to the Rows has been improved by a pedestrianisation scheme , which affects all the streets containing Rows . Most vehicles are prohibited from using the area between 08 : 00 and 18 : 00 , although unloading is allowed until 10 : 30 and from 16 : 30 . Chester Rows are a major tourist attraction in the city because of their unique nature , their attractive appearance , and the covered shopping experience they provide .
On 7 July 2010 it was announced that Chester Rows were being considered as an applicant for the new United Kingdom Tentative List for World Heritage status by the Department of Culture Media and Sport .
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= Sally ( Flight of the Conchords ) =
" Sally " is the pilot episode of the American television sitcom Flight of the Conchords . It first aired on HBO on June 17 , 2007 . In this episode , New Zealanders Jemaine Clement and Bret McKenzie of the band Flight of the Conchords have moved to New York City to try to make it in the United States . At a party , Jemaine falls for , and subsequently begins dating , Sally — Bret 's former girlfriend . As Jemaine 's attentions focus on Sally , a lonely Bret is forced to deal with the advances of Mel ( Kristen Schaal ) , the band 's obsessed — and only — fan . Meanwhile , Murray ( Rhys Darby ) , the band 's manager , helps the band film their first music video , although they cannot afford decent costumes or proper video equipment .
" Sally " received largely positive reviews from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Sally " drew over 1 @.@ 2 million viewers . Several of the songs from the episode , most notably " Robots " , " Not Crying " , and " Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) " received positive critical acclaim . All three songs were released on the band 's EP The Distant Future , although " Robots " appeared in a live form . " Robots " later was re @-@ recorded and released on the band 's debut album Flight of the Conchords , along with " Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) . " The latter was later nominated for an Emmy award for Outstanding Original Music And Lyrics .
= = Plot = =
Jemaine ( Jemaine Clement ) and Bret ( Bret McKenzie ) attend a party thrown by their friend Dave ( Arj Barker ) . In the crowd Jemaine spots a beautiful woman , Sally ( Rachel Blanchard ) , inspiring him to sing " Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) " . Jemaine and Sally leave the party and eventually go back to the band 's apartment , but just as they begin kissing , Bret disturbs them by turning on the light , and an embarrassed Sally leaves . The next morning , Jemaine blames her departure on " the whole situation with the light " . However , Bret suggests it was because he used to date her himself .
Bret and Jemaine go to a band meeting with their manager Murray ( Rhys Darby ) in his office in the New Zealand Consulate . Murray criticizes Jemaine for dating his bandmate 's ex , and discusses the need to increase the group 's fan base , which currently consists of only one person : the obsessive Mel ( Kristen Schaal ) . Bret suggests they film a music video . However , unable to afford real video equipment and robot costumes like Daft Punk , they are forced to rely on a camera phone and disappointing cardboard costumes made by Murray . Regardless , they manage to film a video for " Robots " .
Over the following week , Jemaine spends more time with Sally , leaving Bret feeling lonely and neglected . When Bret suggests hanging out sometime , Jemaine invites him along on a dinner date with Sally , but they all feel a " bit weird " and Bret leaves early . On the way home , Mel tries to cheer him up but fails miserably . Immediately after dinner , Sally breaks up with Jemaine , leading him to sing " Not Crying " with Bret .
= = Production = =
" Sally " was written by series co @-@ creators James Bobin , Jemaine Clement , and Bret McKenzie , the latter two starring as the titular Flight of the Conchords . Bobin directed the episode . The episode is the first of the series to feature Rachel Blanchard as Sally . The character returns to disrupt Bret and Jemaine 's lives in the fifth episode , " Sally Returns " . In " Sally " , the character Mel shows Bret that she carries around a picture of Jemaine 's lips in her wallet . This was inspired by an incident that happened to the band during the filming of their documentary A Texan Odyssey which covered their trip to the 2006 South by Southwest ( SXSW ) festival in Austin , Texas . The incident was caught on camera and is included in the documentary . Judah Friedlander has a cameo appearance in this episode , playing the role of the man who tries to sell Dave a cake .
The episode contains several cultural references . Murray is wearing a New Zealand All Blacks rugby shirt when the band is in Dave 's pawn shop obtaining a camera . In the same scene , Murray and Bret have a conversation about the band Fleetwood Mac and their album " Rumours " . Rhys Darby , who played Murray , later asked Mick Fleetwood , the drummer for the band , if he heard the joke and whether or not he enjoyed it . Fleetwood admitted that he " appreciate [ d ] " the joke . During the filming of the video for " Robots " , Jemaine tells Murray that he wanted robot costumes " like Daft Punk " rather than the amateur versions hand @-@ crafted by Murray . Murray replies with a characteristic lack of musical knowledge : " I don 't know who he is . "
= = = Songs = = =
The first song featured in the episode is " The Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) . " The song , also known as " Part @-@ Time Model " , was based on the conceit of a man " who 's not very good at compliments . " The song begins after Jemaine sees Sally from across the room at Dave 's party . Jemaine details his seduction of Sally , describing her as being so beautiful she could be a " part @-@ time model " . This song was voted number 60 in the 2008 Triple J Hottest 100 . Later , the song was nominated for an Emmy award for Outstanding Original Music And Lyrics .
The second song featured in the episode is " Robots " . The song , also known as " Humans Are Dead " , is sung by both Bret and Jemaine . It is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic " distant future " , humorously stated to be the year 2000 , where all humans are dead and robots have taken over the world . Within the context of the plot of the show , it is the band 's first music video . Since the band has very limited funds , Murray constructs the robot costumes himself and films the video using a cell phone .
The third and final song featured is " Not Crying " . The song begins as Sally breaks up with Jemaine . Jemaine denies that he is crying by offering excuses such as " it 's just been raining on my face " . All three of the songs were released on The Distant Future EP in 2007 , however , " The Most Beautiful Girl ( In the Room ) " and " Robots " appeared in live form . The two were subsequently re @-@ recorded in studio form for the band 's debut album , Flight of the Conchords in 2008 .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Sally " debuted on the internet , a month before the show premiered on HBO . The network , in conjunction with MySpace , iTunes , Yahoo ! TV , Movielink , Comcast.net and Roadrunner.com , allowed a promotional version of the episode to be streamed as part of an online marketing campaign to build up word @-@ of @-@ mouth for the series . On television , " Sally " debuted on the HBO in the United States at 10 : 30 PM on Sunday , June 17 , 2007 in the time slot preceded by Entourage , and vacated by the last episode of the final season of The Sopranos . The episode received over 1 @.@ 2 million viewers .
The episode received largely positive reviews from critics . IGN , in an advanced review of the episode , awarded " Sally " an " amazing " 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 rating and called the series " The funniest show you haven 't seen yet . " The review noted that , " Flight of the Conchords deserves the buzz it is slowly building . This is a very funny show . " Blogcritics reviewer Daniel J. Stasiewski noted that the series was different for HBO , writing , " Flight of the Conchords isn ’ t Entourage or Sex in the City or even Extras . It ’ s different . And sometimes different is just good . " Stasiewski , however , did note that the availability of the band 's music on video sites like YouTube meant that watching the series was not worth the cost of a cable subscription . Further more , Stasiweski noted that while " the fun , quirky music videos that pop @-@ up can make this long half @-@ hour worth watching [ ... ] the 10 or so minutes in between numbers aren ’ t groundbreaking comedy . " Chris Schonberger from Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a largely positive review . He called the new series " the funniest hour of comedy on television " and noted that the performance of Rhys Darby as Murray Hewitt was excellent , calling his character " scene @-@ stealing " . Finally , Schonberger positively compared the episode to the 2004 comedy film Napoleon Dynamite , writing , " Indeed , the whole pilot vaguely reminded me of Napoleon in the way that the characters just sort of lurk around and pour their limited energy into absurd activities " .
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= History of Liverpool F.C. ( 1892 – 1959 ) =
The history of Liverpool Football Club from 1892 to 1959 covers the period from the club 's foundation , through their first period of success from 1900 to the 1920s , to the appointment of Bill Shankly as manager .
Liverpool Football Club was formed on 15 March 1892 following a disagreement between the directors of Everton Football Club and its president , John Houlding , who owned the club 's ground , Anfield . A dispute over rent resulted in Everton moving to Goodison Park , which left Houlding with an empty stadium . Thus , he founded Liverpool F.C. , and they joined the Lancashire League . After winning the league title in their first season , Liverpool were accepted into the Football League for the 1893 – 94 season , following the resignations of Accrington and Bootle .
The appointment of Tom Watson as the club 's manager in 1896 led to the club 's first period of sustained success . Liverpool consolidated their position in the Football League following promotion to the First Division , and won their first League championship in 1901 . A further championship followed in 1906 , and in 1914 the club reached their first FA Cup final , losing to Burnley . Watson died suddenly in 1915 of pneumonia after the outbreak of the First World War . The club won two further championships in 1922 and 1923 when football resumed after the war .
An expansion to the Spion Kop terracing in the 1920s increased Anfield 's capacity . Liverpool 's fortunes declined during the inter @-@ war years , when the club often finished in midtable . Liverpool became League champions again in 1947 , in the first season after the Second World War , but following a slow downturn in performance the club was relegated to the Second Division in 1954 . By the time of Shankly 's appointment in 1959 , Liverpool had been in the Second Division for five seasons .
= = Formation = =
Liverpool 's origins lie with their neighbours Everton . Founded in 1878 , Everton moved to Anfield in 1884 , a facility owned by the club 's president , John Houlding , a former Lord Mayor of Liverpool . In 1892 a dispute arose between Houlding and the Everton board of directors , over the club 's tenancy of the ground . The annual rent had risen from £ 100 in 1884 to £ 250 in 1892 ; Houlding wanted to sell the ground to the club , which in turn wished to agree a long @-@ term rental . Houlding would only agree to this on the basis of a rent at a level unacceptable to the club . Negotiations having failed , the directors decided to leave Anfield and find another ground , leaving Houlding with an empty stadium . His response was to form a new football club to occupy the stadium . He attempted to retain the team name " Everton " by registering the name " Everton Football Club and Athletic Grounds Company , Limited " with Companies House , but the Football League decided that the name belonged to the departed Everton club , which acquired new premises at Goodison Park . Houlding therefore adopted the name " Liverpool Football Club " for his new venture .
Having established his new club , Houlding applied for membership of the First Division of the Football League , rather than the newly formed Second Division . The League , unimpressed with this premature application , refused to admit the club , which instead joined the Lancashire League . Liverpool played their first match on 1 September 1892 , a pre @-@ season friendly match against Rotherham Town , which they won 7 – 1 . The team Liverpool fielded against Rotherham was composed entirely of Scottish players – manager John McKenna had recruited the players after a scouting trip to Scotland – so they became known as the " team of Macs " . Liverpool 's first match in the Lancashire League , which they won 8 – 0 , was against Higher Walton . 200 spectators attended the match , but as the twenty @-@ two match season proceeded , and Liverpool continued to win , attendances increased . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 people watched Liverpool defeat South Shore in the penultimate match of the season at Anfield .
Liverpool 's first season was successful , as the club narrowly won the Lancashire League title on goal average , over Blackpool . They also won the Liverpool District Cup by defeating Everton . The subsequent theft of the league and cup trophies cost the club £ 130 to replace them . Following their success , Liverpool reapplied to the Football League . This application was successful , mainly because of the resignations of Accrington and Bootle from the Second Division . Liverpool 's original strip had been blue and white chequered shirts and white shorts , similar to those of their neighbours Everton . From 1894 they changed to red shirts and white shorts .
The club 's first match in the Football League was against Middlesbrough Ironopolis on 2 September 1893 , which they won 2 – 0 , with Malcolm McVean scoring Liverpool 's first goal in League football . Liverpool 's first season in the Football League saw them unbeaten in 28 matches , 22 of which they won . They finished at the top of the Second Division , but as at that time there was no automatic promotion to the First Division , they were entered into the test match system . This involved a knockout match with the bottom team in the First Division , Newton Heath ( later renamed Manchester United ) . Liverpool won , and took their place in the First Division . Their stay in the division lasted only a season , as they finished in bottom position , with seven wins from thirty matches . They were relegated to the Second Division , after facing Bury in the test match and losing 1 – 0 , despite Bury playing most of the match with ten men after their goalkeeper was sent off .
= = Consolidation = =
As more people began to watch Liverpool , the ground capacity was expanded . The Main Stand was built , which helped to bring regular attendances of around 20 @,@ 000 . Liverpool 's stay in the Second Division was brief , as they secured promotion to the First Division during the 1895 – 96 season – twelve wins in their final fourteen matches gave them a first @-@ place finish , followed by success in the test matches over Small Heath ( later renamed Birmingham City ) and West Bromwich Albion . The club reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup for the first time in the 1896 – 97 season ; they were drawn against Aston Villa , and with Everton in the other semi @-@ final , there was the prospect of a first all @-@ Merseyside cup final . However , while Everton won their tie , Liverpool were defeated 3 – 0 . After winning promotion , the club appointed Tom Watson , who was managing Sunderland , as their new manager . Watson 's record of three League championships in four seasons with Sunderland convinced Houlding to make Watson the highest @-@ paid manager in England , with a yearly salary of £ 300 . Following Watson 's appointment , McKenna remained at the club as an administrator .
During the next two seasons Liverpool consolidated their place in the First Division , with fifth and ninth @-@ place finishes . Performances improved in the 1898 – 99 season , when the club went into their final game with a chance of winning their first League championship . They faced Aston Villa , with whom they were level on points , although Villa 's goal average advantage of 0 @.@ 02 meant that they only needed to draw the match to win the League title . In the event , Villa won 5 – 0 , to leave Liverpool as the runners @-@ up . Liverpool also reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final , where they faced Sheffield United . The match finished in a 2 – 2 draw ; the first replay at Burnden Park also finished with the sides equal at 4 – 4 , and a second replay at the small Fallowfield Stadium was abandoned when overcrowding caused fans to spill onto the pitch . The tie was finally decided at the Baseball Ground , which Sheffield United won 1 – 0 .
Liverpool won their first League championship in 1901 . Integral to their success were their captain Alex Raisbeck , and striker Sam Raybould . Raisbeck , a centre @-@ half , had been signed from Hibernian in 1898 . He became club captain a year later , and was often the focal point of the team , as an important defensive player and the instigator of many of Liverpool 's attacks . Raybould was signed from local club New Brighton Tower , and in the 1899 – 1900 season scored seven times as the club won nine of their last eleven matches , to finish in tenth place . He would go on to score 128 goals in 226 matches for Liverpool . Success in the 1900 – 01 season looked unlikely in February , at which point Liverpool had lost eight games and conceded 31 goals . However , they won nine and drew three of their next twelve matches , while only conceding four goals , to achieve their first League title . They were less successful in the following two seasons , finishing in eleventh and fifth places respectively . The 1903 – 04 season saw the club relegated to the Second Division ; like the previous relegation it was only for one year as they won the division the following season . On their return in the 1905 – 06 season they became the first team to win the Second and First Division in successive seasons . They also reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup , where they faced Everton and lost 2 – 0 .
Houlding died in 1902 , and in 1905 the ownership of the club was restructured . Of the existing 3 @,@ 000 shares , 2 @,@ 000 were held by the Houlding family . The club owed a debt of £ 10 @,@ 000 to Houlding , and a further £ 5 @,@ 000 bank overdraft was guaranteed by his family . The family offered to give up the 2 @,@ 000 shares and wipe out the debt , if the club relieved them of the bank loan guarantee . The board agreed , and a new share issue was released in 1906 with 15 @,@ 000 shares available for £ 1 each . Following the share issue , McKenna became chairman of the club .
Following the club 's successes , a new stand was erected along the Walton Breck Road end of the ground . The stand became known as the Spion Kop – it was originally given this name by local journalist Ernest Edwards , the sports editor of the Liverpool Daily Post and the Echo , after a famous hill in South Africa , where a local regiment had suffered heavy losses during the Boer War . More than 300 men had died , many of them from Liverpool , as the British army attempted to capture the strategic hilltop .
In the seasons following their second league title , Liverpool enjoyed limited success , generally finishing in midtable . They finished in second place behind Aston Villa in the 1909 – 10 season , the last for their captain , Raisbeck , who returned to his native Scotland to play for Partick Thistle . Liverpool 's form declined after his departure , with their best performance in the League a 12th @-@ place finish in the 1912 – 13 season . There was improvement in 1914 when the club reached their first FA Cup final , which they lost 1 – 0 to Burnley at Crystal Palace.The following season four Liverpool players were implicated in the 1915 British football betting scandal , which involved a match with Manchester United . A 2 – 0 victory for United was required to win the bet , in which players from both sides were involved . With the score at 2 – 0 , Liverpool 's Fred Pagnam hit the crossbar with a shot , at which several of his teammates gestured angrily towards him . Subsequently , Tom Fairfoul , Tom Miller , Bob Pursell and Jackie Sheldon were found guilty by a Football Association ( FA ) enquiry of conspiring with three Manchester United players ( Sandy Turnbull , Arthur Whalley and Enoch West ) to fix a United win . All the players involved were banned for life . Following the end of the First World War , in which Turnbull was killed at the Battle of Arras in 1917 , the FA lifted the surviving players ' bans in recognition of their service in the conflict .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Three weeks after visiting his hometown of Newcastle to celebrate his 56th birthday , Liverpool 's manager Tom Watson developed a severe chill , which developed into pneumonia . He died on 6 May 1915 ; Raisbeck and two other former Liverpool stars , Ned Doig and Arthur Goddard , were pallbearers at the funeral .
During the First World War , with normal Football League activity suspended , Liverpool competed in a regional league , the Lancashire Section . The competition was split into two parts : " Principal Tournament " and the " Supplementary Competition " . Liverpool won the former in the 1916 – 17 season , and the latter in the 1917 – 18 and 1918 – 19 seasons . A number of Liverpool players fought in the war , including Philip Bratley , Robert Crawford and Wilfred Bartrop . Bartrop was the only one to be killed , dying on 7 November 1918 while fighting in Belgium .
When football resumed after the war for the 1919 – 20 season , Watson 's post as manager was taken by David Ashworth . Liverpool finished in fourth place . During the season George V became the first reigning monarch to watch a League match , when Liverpool played Manchester City . Liverpool repeated their fourth @-@ place finish in 1920 – 21 , before regaining the League championship in the 1921 – 22 season . Liverpool had looked certain title winners , before the loss of three of their last six games put their chances in doubt . A 4 – 1 victory over West Bromwich Albion in the last match of the season was enough to secure Liverpool 's third League championship .
Ashworth left Liverpool midway through the following season , to manage Oldham Athletic – he wished to be closer to his wife and daughter , who lived in nearby Stockport . His replacement was the former Liverpool player Matt McQueen , a club director . McQueen was intended as a temporary appointment , but he kept the job as Liverpool retained the League championship . This success owed much to the form of their goalkeeper Elisha Scott , who conceded only 31 goals during the season , a league record at the time . Liverpool 's total of 60 points in the season equalled the record set by West Bromwich Albion three seasons earlier . Following their successive championships , Liverpool 's fortunes declined as their side aged . Some of the players had begun their careers before the war ; goalkeeper Scott had been in the side since 1912 . The club began the 1923 – 24 season aiming to win three league titles in a row , but finished in twelfth place . They achieved fourth place the following season , which was to be their best finish until after the Second World War . Changes to the offside rule in the 1925 – 26 season resulted in an increase in the number of goals scored during matches . Liverpool contributed to this , with big victories over Manchester United and Newcastle United , but could only manage a seventh @-@ place finish .
In 1920 , the Kop had been redesigned and extended to hold 30 @,@ 000 spectators , all standing . At the time , the Kop was the biggest football stand in the country , able to hold more spectators than the entire capacity of some grounds . The increase in spectators did not fully restore Liverpool 's fortunes ; they scored 90 goals during the 1928 – 29 season , striker Gordon Hodgson scoring thirty of them , yet finished in fifth place . McQueen was unable to replicate his early triumphs with the club , and retired in 1928 after his leg was amputated following a road accident . He was replaced as manager by club secretary George Patterson . The club 's fortunes did not improve under Patterson 's leadership ; they generally finished midtable . Their results were inconsistent ; in September 1930 , they lost 7 – 0 at West Ham United , yet nine days later they beat Bolton Wanderers 7 – 2 at Anfield .
During the 1930s Liverpool 's form continued to deteriorate , and they avoided relegation in the 1933 – 34 season by only four points . Scott left the club at the end of what had been a poor season for the veteran goalkeeper . In ten matches from the start of 1934 , Liverpool won only once with Scott in goal , and after a 9 – 2 defeat against Newcastle United , he was replaced by Arthur Riley . The change of goalkeepers brought an upturn in form , with a 6 – 2 victory over Birmingham City and a 4 – 1 win against Middlesbrough . Scott , who joined Belfast Celtic after 24 years at Liverpool , remains the club 's longest @-@ serving player . As they became used to finishing in the lower part of the league table , Liverpool began to lose their best players . Hodgson , who had scored 233 goals in 358 league games , was sold to Aston Villa in 1936 and the club struggled to replace him . They finished 19th in the season following his departure . Also in 1936 , Patterson resigned as manager for health reasons , and resumed his role as the club 's secretary . His replacement , Southampton manager George Kay , did not initially fare much better ; Liverpool narrowly avoided relegation in the 1936 – 37 season , and finished in 11th place in each of the following two seasons . By the outbreak of the Second World War , Liverpool had become accustomed to finishing midtable .
Soon after the outbreak of war in 1939 , the 1939 – 40 season was cancelled and all first @-@ class football in Britain temporarily suspended . When matches resumed , competitions were played on a regional basis as in the previous war , and teams often did not complete a full season . Liverpool participated in the Football League North , which they won in the 1942 – 43 season . Many footballers served in the armed forces , away from their clubs for long periods , and would often appear as " guests " for other clubs . Two Liverpool players were decorated for their wartime service ; Berry Nieuwenhuys received the Czech Medal of Merit , and Bill Jones was awarded the Military Medal after rescuing wounded comrades under fire .
= = Post @-@ war decline = =
League football in England resumed in the 1946 – 47 season , after seven seasons ' suspension due to the war . Before the resumption , Liverpool embarked on an eight @-@ week tour of the United States and Canada , scoring 70 goals in the ten matches played . In escaping from post @-@ war food rationing while on tour , the Liverpool players were able to eat more , and by the end of the trip had gained in weight an average of 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) a man . The New York Times reporter who followed the team on the tour noted the " perceptible gain in strength on the playing field . "
The first game played at Anfield after the war was against Middlesbrough , on 4 September 1946 , which Liverpool lost 1 – 0 before a crowd of 34 @,@ 140 . Despite this defeat , Liverpool finished the 1946 – 47 season as League champions . Vital to this success were their attacking players ; after a 5 – 0 defeat to Manchester United the club bought Albert Stubbins from Newcastle United , to augment the attack alongside Jack Balmer and Billy Liddell . Balmer typified this new attacking strength by scoring hat @-@ tricks in three successive matches . However , the club were unable to match this success in the two seasons that followed , and finished in 11th and 12th places respectively . The 1949 – 50 season brought another disappointing league campaign . The season started well , as the club was unbeaten in their first 19 matches and was top of the league at the turn of the year . Their form declined thereafter , and they finished eighth . This did not hinder their progress in the FA Cup , as they reached their second final ( their first at Wembley ) , against Arsenal . They were unable to win their first FA Cup ; two goals from Arsenal striker Reg Lewis meant Liverpool lost 2 – 0 .
After their FA Cup final appearance , Liverpool 's fortunes declined steadily . Kay resigned through ill @-@ health , and was replaced by Don Welsh . Welsh 's first season did not go smoothly , as Liverpool were knocked out of the FA Cup in the third round by Norwich City of the Third Division South . The following year , 61 @,@ 905 spectators watched Liverpool beat Wolverhampton Wanderers 2 – 1 in the fourth round of the FA Cup , the biggest attendance ever recorded at Anfield . Under Welsh 's stewardship the club gradually slipped further down the table , and were relegated to the Second Division in the 1953 – 54 season , after finishing in bottom place . Their relegation came after 50 uninterrupted years in the top division of English football . The side 's decline did not prevent John Moores , owner of retail company Littlewoods , from investing in the club with a 51 % stake .
Liverpool 's first season in the Second Division in 1954 – 55 brought them an 11th @-@ place finish . During this season the club suffered the biggest defeat in its history , a 9 – 1 loss to Birmingham City . Although in the following season they improved to third place , it was not enough for Welsh to keep his job and he was sacked at the end of the season . His replacement was Phil Taylor , a former captain of the club and a member of the coaching staff . Taylor signed players such as Ronnie Moran , Alan A 'Court and Jimmy Melia , who would become mainstays of the club for seasons to come , but was unable to guide Liverpool back to the First Division . The Liverpool board persisted with him , despite the club 's loss to non @-@ League side Worcester City in the third round of the FA Cup in January 1959 . His tenure ended during the 1959 – 60 season ; after a good start , their form began to tail off mid @-@ season , and after a defeat to Huddersfield Town , Taylor resigned . The man who replaced him was Huddersfield 's manager , Bill Shankly .
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= Lambert – Eaton myasthenic syndrome =
Lambert – Eaton myasthenic syndrome ( LEMS , also Lambert – Eaton syndrome , or Eaton – Lambert syndrome ) is a rare autoimmune disorder that is characterized by muscle weakness of the limbs . It is the result of an autoimmune reaction in which antibodies are formed against presynaptic voltage @-@ gated calcium channels , and likely other nerve terminal proteins , in the neuromuscular junction ( the connection between nerves and the muscle that they supply ) . The prevalence is 3 @.@ 4 cases per million . Around 60 % of those with LEMS have an underlying malignancy , most commonly small cell lung cancer ; it is therefore regarded as a paraneoplastic syndrome ( a condition that arises as a result of cancer elsewhere in the body ) .
LEMS usually occurs in people over 40 years of age , but it may occur any age . The diagnosis is usually confirmed with electromyography and blood tests ; these also distinguish it from myasthenia gravis ( MG ) , a related autoimmune neuromuscular disease .
If the disease is associated with cancer , direct treatment of the cancer often relieves the symptoms of LEMS . Other treatments often used are steroids , azathioprine , which suppress the immune system , intravenous immunoglobulin , which outcompetes autoreactive antibody from Fc receptors and pyridostigmine and 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine , which enhance the neuromuscular transmission . Occasionally , plasma exchange is required to remove the antibodies .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The weakness from LEMS typically involves the muscles of the proximal arms and legs ( the muscles closer to the trunk ) . In contrast to myasthenia gravis , the weakness affects the legs more than the arms . This leads to difficulties climbing stairs and rising from a sitting position . Weakness is often relieved temporarily after exertion or physical exercise . High temperatures can worsen the symptoms . Weakness of the bulbar muscles ( muscles of the mouth and throat ) is occasionally encountered . Weakness of the eye muscles is uncommon . Some may have double vision , drooping of the eyelids and difficulty swallowing , but generally only together with leg weakness ; this too distinguishes LEMS from myasthenia gravis , in which eye signs are much more common . In the advanced stages of the disease , weakness of the respiratory muscles may occur . Some may also experience problems with coordination ( ataxia ) .
Three quarters of people with LEMS also have disruption of the autonomic nervous system . This may be experienced as a dry mouth , constipation , blurred vision , impaired sweating , and orthostatic hypotension ( falls in blood pressure on standing , potentially leading to blackouts ) . Some report a metallic taste in the mouth .
On neurological examination , the weakness demonstrated with normal testing of power is often less severe than would be expected on the basis of the symptoms . Strength improves further with repeated testing , e.g. improvement of power on repeated hand grip ( a phenomenon known as " Lambert 's sign " ) . At rest , reflexes are typically reduced ; with muscle use , reflex strength increases . This is a characteristic feature of LEMS . The pupillary light reflex may be sluggish .
In LEMS associated with lung cancer , most have no suggestive symptoms of cancer at the time , such as cough , coughing blood and unintentional weight loss . It has been suggested that LEMS associated with lung cancer is more severe .
= = Causes = =
LEMS is often associated with lung cancer ( 50 – 70 % ) , specifically small @-@ cell carcinoma , making LEMS a paraneoplastic syndrome . Of the people with small cell lung cancer , 1 – 3 % have LEMS . In most of these cases , LEMS is the first symptom of the lung cancer , and it is otherwise asymptomatic .
LEMS may also be associated with autoimmune diseases , such as hypothyroidism ( an underactive thyroid gland ) or diabetes mellitus type 1 . Myasthenia gravis , too , may happen in the presence of tumors ( thymoma , a tumor of the thymus in the chest ) ; people with MG without a tumor and people with LEMS without a tumor have similar genetic variations that seem to predispose them to these diseases . HLA @-@ DR3 @-@ B8 ( an HLA subtype ) , in particular , seems to predispose to LEMS .
= = Mechanism = =
In normal neuromuscular function , a nerve impulse is carried down the axon ( the long projection of a nerve cell ) from the spinal cord . At the nerve ending in the neuromuscular junction , where the impulse is transferred to the muscle cell , the nerve impulse leads to the opening of voltage @-@ gated calcium channels ( VGCC ) , the influx of calcium ions into the nerve terminal , and the calcium @-@ dependent triggering of synaptic vesicle fusion with plasma membrane . These synaptic vesicles contain acetylcholine , which is released into the synaptic cleft and stimulates the acetylcholine receptors on the muscle . The muscle then contracts .
In LEMS , antibodies against VGCC , particularly the P / Q @-@ type VGCC , decrease the amount of calcium that can enter the nerve ending , hence less acetylcholine can be released from the neuromuscular junction . Apart from skeletal muscle , the autonomic nervous system also requires acetylcholine neurotransmission ; this explains the occurrence of autonomic symptoms in LEMS . P / Q voltage @-@ gated calcium channels are also found in the cerebellum , explaining why some experience problems with coordination . The antibodies bind particularly to the part of the receptor known as the " domain III S5 – S6 linker peptide " . Antibodies may also bind other VGCCs . Some have antibodies that bind synaptotagmin , the protein sensor for calcium @-@ regulated vesicle fusion . Many people with LEMS , both with and without VGCC antibodies , have detectable antibodies against the M1 subtype of the acetylcholine receptor ; it is thought that their presence participates in a lack of compensation for the weak calcium influx .
Apart from the decreased calcium influx , there is also a disruption of active zone vesicle release sites , which is also thought to be antibody @-@ dependent since people with LEMS have antibodies to components of these active zones ( including voltage @-@ dependent calcium channels ) . Together , these abnormalities lead to the decrease in muscle contractility . Repeated stimuli over a period of about 10 seconds eventually lead to sufficient delivery of calcium , and an increase in muscle contraction to normal levels , which can be demonstrated using an electrodiagnostic medicine study called needle electromyography by increasing amplitude of repeated compound muscle action potentials .
It has been shown that the antibodies found in LEMS associated with lung cancer also bind to calcium channels in the cancer cells , and it is presumed that the antibodies originally develop as a reaction to these cells . It has been suggested that the immune reaction to the cancer cells suppresses their growth and improves the prognosis from the cancer .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis is usually made on electromyography ( EMG ) , which is one of the standard tests in the investigation of otherwise unexplained muscle weakness . This involves the insertion of small needles into the nerves supplying several muscles , administering small electrical impulses through these needles , and measuring the electrical response of the muscle in question . Two EMG investigations can be characteristic in LEMS : compound motor action potentials ( CMAP ) and single @-@ fiber examination .
CMAP shows small amplitudes but normal latency and conduction velocities . If repeated impulses are administered ( two per second or 2 Hz ) , it is normal for CMAP amplitudes to become smaller as the acetylcholine in the motor end plate is depleted . In LEMS , this decrease is larger than observed normally . Eventually , stored acetylcholine is made available , and the amplitudes increase again . In LEMS this remains insufficient to reach a level sufficient for transmission of an impulse from nerve to muscle ; all can be attributed to insufficient calcium in the nerve terminal . A similar pattern is witnessed in myasthenia gravis . In LEMS , in response to exercising the muscle , the CMAP amplitude increases greatly ( over 200 % , often much more ) . This also occurs on the administration of a rapid burst of electrical stimuli ( 20 impulses per second for ten seconds ) . This is attributed to the influx of calcium in response to these stimuli . On single @-@ fiber examination , features may include increased jitter ( seen in other diseases of neuromuscular transmission ) and blocking .
Blood tests may be performed to exclude other causes of muscle disease ( elevated creatine kinase may indicate a myositis , and abnormal thyroid function tests may indicate thyrotoxic myopathy ) . Antibodies against voltage @-@ gated calcium channels can be identified in 85 % of people with EMG confirmed LEMS . Once LEMS is diagnosed , investigations such as a CT scan of the chest are usually performed to identify any possible underlying lung tumors . 50 – 60 % of these are discovered immediately after the diagnosis of LEMS . The remainder is diagnosed later , but usually within two years and typically within four years . As a result , scans are typically repeated every six months for the first two years after diagnosis . While CT of the lungs is usually adequate , a positron emission tomography ( PET ) scan of the body may also be performed to search for an occult tumour , particularly of the lung .
= = Treatment = =
If LEMS is caused by an underlying cancer , treatment of the malignancy usually leads to resolution of the symptoms . Treatment usually consists of chemotherapy , with radiation therapy in those with limited disease .
Three treatment modalities aimed at improving LEMS symptoms directly , namely pyridostigmine , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine ( amifampridine ) and guanidine , work to improve neuromuscular transmission . Pyridostigmine decreases the degradation of acetylcholine after release into the synaptic cleft , and thereby improves muscle contraction . In LEMS , the potassium channel blocker 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine base or the water @-@ soluble formulation , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine phosphate , ( marketed under the name Firdapse ) are also used . Both 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine formulations delay the repolarization of nerve terminals after a discharge , thereby allowing more calcium to accumulate in the nerve terminal . In the United States , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine phosphate ( Firdapse ) a more stable formulation of 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine that does not require refrigeration and 3 @.@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine free base are undergoing clinical trials to treat LEMS . Pending completion of these trials and submission to the FDA , both formulations are available to people with LEMS in the U.S. : the free base is available under a compassionate distribution program by Jacobus Pharmaceutical Company , and the phosphate salt is available to people with LEMS under an expanded access program by Catalyst Pharmaceuticals . Compounding pharmacies may also be a source of 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine salts in the U.S. In Europe , 3 @,@ 4 @-@ diaminopyridine phosphate is sold by BioMarin under the name Firdapse , and the free base is compounded , usually by hospital pharmacies . An older agent , guanidine , causes many side @-@ effects and is not recommended . 4 @-@ Aminopyridine ( dalfampridine ) , an agent related to 3 @,@ 4 @-@ aminopyridine , causes more side @-@ effects than 3 @,@ 4 @-@ DAP and is also not recommended .
Immune suppression tends to be less effective than in other autoimmune diseases . Prednisolone ( a glucocorticoid or steroid ) suppresses the immune response , and the steroid @-@ sparing agent azathioprine may replace it once therapeutic effect has been achieved . Intravenous immunoglobulin ( IVIG ) may be used with a degree of effectiveness . Plasma exchange ( or plasmapheresis ) , the removal of plasma proteins such as antibodies and replacement with normal plasma , may provide improvement in acute severe weakness . Again , plasma exchange is less effective than in other related conditions such as myasthenia gravis , and additional immunosuppressive medication is often needed . According to a systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration , the best evidence in the treatment of LEMS exists for 3 @,@ 4 @-@ aminopyridine and IVIG .
= = History = =
Anderson and colleagues from St Thomas ' Hospital , London , were the first to mention a case with possible clinical findings of LEMS in 1953 , but Lambert , Eaton and Rooke at the Mayo Clinic were the first physicians to substantially describe the clinical and electrophysiological findings of the disease in 1956 . In 1972 , the clustering of LEMS with other autoimmune diseases led to the hypothesis that it was caused by autoimmunity . Studies in the 1980s confirmed the autoimmune nature , and research in the 1990s demonstrated the link with antibodies against P / Q @-@ type voltage @-@ gated calcium channels .
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= Mitt Romney =
Willard Mitt Romney ( " Mitt " ) ( born March 12 , 1947 ) is an American businessman and politician , who was the 70th Governor of Massachusetts from 2003 to 2007 and the Republican Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 election .
Raised in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , by his parents , George and Lenore Romney , he spent 2 @.@ 5 years in France as a Mormon missionary , starting in 1966 . He married Ann Davies in 1969 , and they have five sons . By 1971 , he had participated in the political campaigns of both parents . In 1971 , he earned a Bachelor of Arts at Brigham Young University ( BYU ) , Provo , Utah , and in 1975 , he earned a joint Juris Doctor and Master of Business Administration at Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts .
Romney entered the management consulting industry , and in 1977 secured a position at Bain & Company . Later serving as Bain 's Chief Executive Officer ( CEO ) , he helped lead the company out of a financial crisis . In 1984 , he cofounded and led the spin @-@ off company , Bain Capital , a highly profitable private equity investment firm that became one of the largest of its kind in the nation . Active in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) , he served during his business career as the bishop of his ward ( head of his local congregation ) and then stake president in his home area near Boston .
After stepping down from Bain Capital and his local leadership role in the LDS Church , Romney ran as the Republican candidate in the 1994 Massachusetts election for U.S. Senate . Upon losing to longtime incumbent Ted Kennedy , he resumed his position at Bain Capital . Years later , a successful stint as President and CEO of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics led to a relaunch of his political career .
Elected Governor of Massachusetts in 2002 , Romney helped develop and enact into law the Massachusetts health care reform legislation , the first of its kind in the nation , which provided near @-@ universal health insurance access through state @-@ level subsidies and individual mandates to purchase insurance . He also presided over the elimination of a projected $ 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 billion deficit through a combination of spending cuts , increased fees , and the closure of corporate tax loopholes . He did not seek re @-@ election in 2006 , instead focusing on his campaign for the Republican nomination in the 2008 U.S. presidential election . He won several primaries and caucuses ; however , he lost to the eventual nominee , Senator John McCain . His considerable net worth , estimated in 2012 at $ 190 – 250 million , helped finance his political campaigns prior to 2012 .
Following his term as Governor of Massachusetts in 2007 , Romney was the Republican Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 election . He won the 2012 Republican presidential nomination , becoming the first Mormon to be a major party presidential nominee . He was defeated by incumbent Democratic President Barack Obama in the November 2012 general election , losing by 332 – 206 electoral college votes . The popular vote margin was 51 – 47 percent in Obama 's favor . Following the election , he initially kept a low profile , and later became more visible politically .
In 2012 , Time magazine included Romney in their List of The 100 Most Influential People in the World .
= = Early life and education = =
= = = Heritage and youth = = =
Willard Mitt Romney was born on March 12 , 1947 , at Harper University Hospital in Detroit , Michigan , one of four children born to automobile executive George W. Romney ( 1907 – 1995 ) and homemaker Lenore Romney ( née LaFount ; 1908 – 1998 ) . His mother was a native of Logan , Utah , and his father was born to American parents in a Mormon colony in Chihuahua , Mexico . Of primarily English descent , he also has Scottish and German ancestry . A fifth @-@ generation member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) , he is a great grandson of Miles Park Romney and a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Miles Romney , who converted to the faith in its first decade . Another great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , Parley P. Pratt , helped lead the early Church .
Romney has three elder siblings ; Margo , Jane , and Scott ( Mitt followed them after a gap of nearly six years ) . His parents named him after a family friend , businessman J. Willard Marriott , and his father 's cousin , Milton " Mitt " Romney , a former quarterback for the Chicago Bears . Romney was referred to as " Billy " until kindergarten , when he indicated a preference for " Mitt " . In 1953 , the family moved from Detroit to the affluent suburb of Bloomfield Hills . His father became the chairman and CEO of American Motors the following year , soon helping the company avoid bankruptcy and return to profitability . By 1959 , his father had become a nationally known figure in print and on television , and the youngster idolized him .
Romney attended public elementary schools until the seventh grade , when he enrolled as one of only a few Mormon students at Cranbrook School in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , a traditional private boys ' preparatory school . Many students there came from backgrounds even more privileged than his . Not particularly athletic , he also did not distinguish himself academically . He participated in his father 's successful 1962 Michigan gubernatorial campaign , and later worked for him as an intern in the Governor 's office . Romney took up residence at Cranbrook when his newly elected father began spending most of his time at the state capitol .
At Cranbrook , Romney helped manage the ice hockey team , and he joined the pep squad . During his senior year , he joined the cross country running team . He belonged to eleven school organizations and school clubs overall , including the Blue Key Club , a booster group he had started . During his final year there , he improved academically but fell short of excellence . Romney became involved in several pranks while attending Cranbrook . He has since apologized , stating that some of the pranks may have gone too far . In March of his senior year , he began dating Ann Davies ; she attended the private Kingswood School , the sister school to Cranbrook . The two became informally engaged around the time of his June 1965 graduation .
= = = University , France mission , marriage , and children : 1965 – 75 = = =
Romney attended Stanford University during the academic year of 1965 – 66 . He was not part of the counterculture of the 1960s then taking form in the San Francisco Bay Area . As opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War grew , a group staged a May 1966 sit @-@ in at the university administration building to demonstrate against draft status tests ; Romney joined a counter @-@ protest against that group . He continued to enjoy occasional pranks .
In July 1966 , he left the U.S. for a thirty @-@ month stay in France as a Mormon missionary , a traditional rite of passage in his family . He arrived in Le Havre , where he shared cramped quarters under meager conditions . Rules against drinking , smoking , and dating were strictly enforced . Most individual Mormon missionaries do not gain many converts and Romney was no exception : he later estimated ten to twenty for his entire mission . He initially became demoralized and later recalled it as the only time when " most of what I was trying to do was rejected . " He soon gained recognition within the mission for the many homes he called on and the repeat visits he was granted . He was promoted to zone leader in Bordeaux in early 1968 , and soon thereafter became assistant to the mission president in Paris . Residing at the Mission Home for several months , he enjoyed a mansion far more comfortable than the lodgings he had elsewhere in the country . When the French expressed opposition to the U.S. role in the Vietnam War , Romney debated them in return , and his views were reinforced by those who yelled and slammed their doors .
In June 1968 , an automobile he was driving in southern France was hit by another vehicle , seriously injuring him and killing one of his passengers , the wife of the mission president . Romney was not at fault in the accident . He became co @-@ president of a mission that had become demoralized and disorganized after the May 1968 general strike and student uprisings and the car accident . With Romney rallying the others , the mission met a goal of 200 baptisms for the year , the most for them in a decade . By the end of his stint in December 1968 , he was overseeing the work of 175 others . As a result of his stay , Romney developed a lifelong affection for France and its people , and has remained fluent in French .
At their first meeting following his return , Romney and Ann Davies reconnected and decided to get married . Romney began attending Brigham Young University ( BYU ) , where she had been studying . The couple married on March 21 , 1969 , in a civil ceremony in Bloomfield Hills . The following day , they flew to Utah for a Mormon wedding ceremony at the Salt Lake Temple ( Ann had converted to the faith while he was away ) .
Mitt had missed much of the tumultuous American anti @-@ Vietnam War movement while away in France . Upon his return , it surprised him to learn that his father had joined the movement during his unsuccessful 1968 presidential campaign . George was now serving in President Richard Nixon 's cabinet as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development . In a June 1970 newspaper profile of children of cabinet members , Mitt said that U.S. involvement in the war had been misguided – " If it wasn 't a political blunder to move into Vietnam , I don 't know what is " – but supported Nixon 's ongoing Cambodian Incursion as a sincere attempt to bring the war to a conclusion . During the U.S. military draft for the Vietnam War , Romney sought and received two 2 @-@ S student deferments , then a 4 @-@ D ministerial deferment while living in France as a Mormon missionary . He later sought and received two additional student deferments . When those ran out , the result of the December 1969 draft lottery ensured he would not be selected .
At culturally conservative BYU , Romney remained isolated from much of the upheaval of that era . He became president of the Cougar Club booster organization and showed a new @-@ found discipline in his studies . During his senior year , he took a leave to work as driver and advance man for his mother Lenore Romney 's eventually unsuccessful 1970 campaign for U.S. Senator from Michigan ; together , they visited all 83 Michigan counties . He earned a Bachelor of Arts in English with highest honors in 1971 , giving commencement addresses to both the College of Humanities and to the whole of BYU .
The Romneys ' first son , Taggart , was born in 1970 while they were undergraduates at BYU and living in a basement apartment . Ann subsequently gave birth to Matthew ( 1971 ) and Joshua ( 1975 ) . Benjamin ( 1978 ) and Craig ( 1981 ) would arrive later , after Romney began his career .
Mitt Romney wanted to pursue a business career , but his father advised him that a law degree would be valuable to his career even if he did not become a lawyer . Thus , he enrolled in the recently created joint Juris Doctor / Master of Business Administration four @-@ year program coordinated between Harvard Law School and Harvard Business School . He readily adapted to the business school 's pragmatic , data @-@ driven case study method of teaching . Living in a Belmont , Massachusetts house with Ann and their two children , his social experience differed from most of his classmates ' . He was nonideological and did not involve himself in the political issues of the day . He graduated in 1975 cum laude from the law school , in the top third of that class , and was named a Baker Scholar for graduating in the top five percent of his business school class .
= = Business career = =
= = = Management consulting = = =
Recruited by several firms , Romney joined the Boston Consulting Group ( BCG ) , reasoning that working as a management consultant for a variety of companies would better prepare him for a future position as a chief executive . Part of a 1970s wave of top graduates who chose to go into consulting rather than join a large company directly , he found his legal and business education useful in his job . He applied BCG principles such as the growth @-@ share matrix , and executives viewed him as having a bright future there . At the Boston Consulting Group , he was a colleague of Benjamin Netanyahu , with whom he formed a thirty @-@ year friendship .
In 1977 , he was hired by Bain & Company , a management consulting firm in Boston formed a few years earlier by Bill Bain and other ex @-@ BCG employees . Bain would later say of the thirty @-@ year @-@ old Romney , " He had the appearance [ sic ] of confidence of a guy who was maybe ten years older . " Unlike other consulting firms , which issued recommendations and then departed , Bain & Company immersed itself in a client 's business and worked with them until changes were implemented . Romney became a vice @-@ president of the firm in 1978 , and worked with clients such as the Monsanto Company , Outboard Marine Corporation , Burlington Industries , and Corning Incorporated . Within a few years , the firm considered him one of their best consultants and clients sometimes sought to use him over more senior partners .
= = = Minor political issues = = =
Two family incidents during this time later came to light during Romney 's political campaigns . A state park ranger in 1981 told Romney his motorboat had an insufficiently visible license number and he would face a $ 50 fine if he took the boat onto the lake . Disagreeing about the license and wanting to continue a family outing , Romney took it out anyway , saying he would pay the fine . The ranger arrested him for disorderly conduct . The charges were dropped several days later . In 1983 , on a twelve @-@ hour family road trip , he placed the family 's dog in a windshield @-@ equipped carrier on the roof of their car , and then washed the car and carrier after the dog suffered a bout of diarrhea . The dog incident in particular later became fodder for Romney 's critics and political opponents .
= = = Private equity = = =
In 1984 , Romney left Bain & Company to cofound the spin @-@ off private equity investment firm , Bain Capital . He had initially refrained from accepting Bill Bain 's offer to head the new venture , until Bain rearranged the terms in a complicated partnership structure so that there was no financial or professional risk to Romney . Bain and Romney raised the $ 37 million in funds needed to start the new operation , which had seven employees . Romney held the titles of president and managing general partner . The sole shareholder of the firm , publications also referred to him as managing director or CEO .
Initially , Bain Capital focused on venture capital investments . Romney set up a system in which any partner could veto one of these potential opportunities , and he personally saw so many weaknesses that few venture capital investments were approved in the initial two years . The firm 's first significant success was a 1986 investment to help start Staples Inc . , after founder Thomas G. Stemberg convinced Romney of the market size for office supplies and Romney convinced others ; Bain Capital eventually reaped a nearly sevenfold return on its investment , and Romney sat on the Staples board of directors for over a decade .
Romney soon switched Bain Capital 's focus from startups to the relatively new business of leveraged buyouts : buying existing companies with money mostly borrowed from banking institutions using the newly bought companies ' assets as collateral , then taking steps to improve the companies ' value , and finally selling those companies once their value peaked , usually within a few years . Bain Capital lost money in many of its early leveraged buyouts , but then found deals that made large returns . The firm invested in or acquired Accuride Corporation , Brookstone , Domino 's Pizza , Sealy Corporation , Sports Authority , and Artisan Entertainment , as well as some lesser @-@ known companies in the industrial and medical sectors . Much of the firm 's profit was earned from a relatively small number of deals ; Bain Capital 's overall success @-@ to @-@ failure ratio was about even .
Romney discovered few investment opportunities himself ( and those that he did , often failed to make money for the firm ) . Instead , he focused on analyzing the merits of possible deals that others brought forward and on recruiting investors to participate in them once approved . Within Bain Capital , Romney spread profits from deals widely within the firm to keep people motivated , often keeping less than ten percent for himself . Data @-@ driven , Romney often played the role of a devil 's advocate during exhaustive analysis of whether to go forward with a deal . He wanted to drop a Bain Capital hedge fund that initially lost money , but other partners disagreed with him and it eventually gained billions . He opted out of the Artisan Entertainment deal , not wanting to profit from a studio that produced R @-@ rated films . Romney served on the board of directors of Damon Corporation , a medical testing company later found guilty of defrauding the government ; Bain Capital tripled its investment before selling off the company , and the fraud was discovered by the new owners ( Romney was never implicated ) . In some cases , Romney had little involvement with a company once acquired .
Bain Capital 's leveraged buyouts sometimes led to layoffs , either soon after acquisition or later after the firm had concluded its role . Exactly how many jobs Bain Capital added compared to those lost because of these investments and buyouts is unknown , owing to a lack of records and Bain Capital 's penchant for privacy on behalf of itself and its investors . Maximizing the value of acquired companies and the return to Bain 's investors , not job creation , was the firm 's fundamental goal . Bain Capital 's acquisition of Ampad exemplified a deal where it profited handsomely from early payments and management fees , even though the subject company itself ended up going into bankruptcy . Dade Behring was another case where Bain Capital received an eightfold return on its investment , but the company itself was saddled with debt and laid off over a thousand employees before Bain Capital exited ( the company subsequently went into bankruptcy , with more layoffs , before recovering and prospering ) . Referring to the layoffs that happened , Romney said in 2007 : " Sometimes the medicine is a little bitter but it is necessary to save the life of the patient . My job was to try and make the enterprise successful , and in my view the best security a family can have is that the business they work for is strong . "
In 1990 , facing financial collapse , Bain & Company asked Romney to return . Announced as its new CEO in January 1991 , he drew a symbolic salary of one dollar ( remaining managing general partner of Bain Capital during this time ) . He oversaw an effort to restructure Bain & Company 's employee stock @-@ ownership plan and real @-@ estate deals , while rallying the firm 's one thousand employees , imposing a new governing structure that excluded Bain and the other founding partners from control , and increasing fiscal transparency . He got Bain and other initial owners who had removed excessive amounts of money from the firm to return a substantial amount , and persuaded creditors , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation , to accept less than full payment . Within about a year , he had led Bain & Company through a turnaround and returned the firm to profitability . He turned Bain & Company over to new leadership and returned to Bain Capital in December 1992 .
Romney took a leave of absence from Bain Capital from November 1993 to November 1994 to run for the U.S. Senate . During that time , Ampad workers went on strike , and asked Romney to intervene . Against the advice of Bain Capital lawyers , Romney met the strikers , but told them he had no position of active authority in the matter .
By 1999 , Bain Capital was on its way towards becoming one of the foremost private equity firms in the nation , having increased its number of partners from 5 to 18 , with 115 employees overall , and $ 4 billion under its management . The firm 's average annual internal rate of return on realized investments was 113 percent and its average yearly return to investors was around 50 – 80 percent .
Romney took a paid leave of absence from Bain Capital in February 1999 to serve as the president and CEO of the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympic Games Organizing Committee . Billed in some public statements as keeping a part @-@ time role , Romney remained the firm 's sole shareholder , managing director , CEO , and president , signing corporate and legal documents , attending to his interests within the firm , and conducting prolonged negotiations for the terms of his departure . He did not involve himself in day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the firm or investment decisions for Bain Capital 's new private equity funds . He retained his position on several boards of directors during this time and regularly returned to Massachusetts to attend meetings .
In August 2001 , Romney announced that he would not return to Bain Capital . His separation from the firm concluded in early 2002 ; he transferred his ownership to other partners and negotiated an agreement that allowed him to receive a passive profit share as a retired partner in some Bain Capital entities , including buyout and investment funds . The private equity business continued to thrive , earning him millions of dollars in annual income .
= = = Personal wealth = = =
As a result of his business career , Romney and his wife have a net worth of between $ 190 and $ 250 million , including their retirement account , worth between $ 20 and $ 100 million . Most of that wealth has been held in blind trusts since 2003 , some of it offshore . An additional blind trust , valued at $ 100 million in 2012 , exists in the name of their children . In 2010 , Romney and his wife received about $ 22 million in income , almost all of it from investments such as dividends , capital gains , and carried interest ; and they paid about $ 3 million in federal income taxes , for an effective tax rate of 14 percent . For the years 1990 – 2010 , their effective federal tax rates were above 13 percent with an average rate of about 20 percent .
Romney has tithed to the LDS Church regularly , and donated to LDS Church @-@ owned BYU . In 2010 , for example , he and his wife gave $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the church . The Romney family 's Tyler Charitable Foundation gave out about $ 650 @,@ 000 in that year , some of which went to organizations that fight diseases . For the years 1990 – 2010 , the Romneys ' total charitable donations as portions of their income averaged 14 percent .
= = Local LDS Church leadership = =
During his business career , Romney held several positions in the local lay clergy . In 1977 , he became a counselor to the president of the Boston Stake . He served as bishop of the ward ( ecclesiastical and administrative head of his congregation ) at Belmont , Massachusetts , from 1981 to 1986 . As such , in addition to home teaching , he also formulated Sunday services and classes using LDS scriptures to guide the congregation . After the destruction of the Belmont meetinghouse by a fire of suspicious origins in 1984 , he forged links with other religious institutions , allowing the congregation to rotate its meetings to other houses of worship during the reconstruction of their building .
From 1986 to 1994 , Romney presided over the Boston Stake , which included more than a dozen wards in eastern Massachusetts with almost 4 @,@ 000 church members altogether . He organized a team to handle financial and management issues , sought to counter anti @-@ Mormon sentiments , and tried to solve social problems among poor Southeast Asian converts . An unpaid position , his local church leadership often took 30 or more hours a week of his time , and he became known for his considerable energy in the role . He earned a reputation for avoiding any overnight travel that might interfere with his church responsibilities .
Romney took a hands @-@ on role in general matters , helping in domestic maintenance efforts , visiting the sick , and counseling burdened church members . A number of local church members later credited him with turning their lives around or helping them through difficult times . Others , rankled by his leadership style , desired a more consensus @-@ based approach . Romney tried to balance the conservative directives from church leadership in Utah with the desire of some Massachusetts members to have a more flexible application of religious doctrine . He agreed with some requests from the liberal women 's group that published Exponent II for changes in the way the church dealt with women , but clashed with women whom he felt were departing too much from doctrine . In particular , he counseled women to not have abortions except in the rare cases allowed by LDS doctrine , and encouraged single women facing unplanned pregnancies to give up their baby for adoption . Romney later said that the years spent as an LDS minister gave him direct exposure to people struggling financially and empathy for those with family problems .
= = 1994 U.S. Senatorial campaign = =
For much of his business career , Romney did not take public , political stances . He had kept abreast of national politics since college , though , and the circumstances of his father 's presidential campaign loss had irked him for decades . He registered as an Independent and voted in the 1992 presidential primaries for the Democratic former senator from Massachusetts , Paul Tsongas .
By 1993 , Romney had begun thinking about entering politics , partly based upon Ann 's urging and partly to follow in his father 's footsteps . He decided to challenge incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy , who was seeking re @-@ election for the sixth time . Political pundits viewed Kennedy as vulnerable that year – in part because of the unpopularity of the Democratic Congress as a whole , and in part because this was Kennedy 's first election since the William Kennedy Smith trial in Florida , in which the senator had suffered some negative public relations regarding his character . Romney changed his affiliation to Republican in October 1993 and formally announced his candidacy in February 1994 . In addition to his leave from Bain Capital , he stepped down from his church leadership role in 1994 .
Radio personality Janet Jeghelian took an early lead in polls among candidates for the Republican nomination for the Senate seat , but Romney proved the most effective fundraiser . He won 68 percent of the vote at the May 1994 Massachusetts Republican Party convention ; businessman John Lakian finished a distant second , eliminating Jeghelian . Romney defeated Lakian in the September 1994 primary with more than 80 percent of the vote .
In the general election , Kennedy faced the first serious re @-@ election challenger of his career . The younger , telegenic , and well @-@ funded Romney ran as a businessman who stated he had created ten thousand jobs and as a Washington outsider with a solid family image and moderate stances on social issues . When Kennedy tried to tie Romney 's policies to those of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush , Romney responded , " Look , I was an independent during the time of Reagan @-@ Bush . I 'm not trying to take us back to Reagan @-@ Bush . " Romney stated , " Ultimately , this is a campaign about change . "
Romney 's campaign was effective in portraying Kennedy as soft on crime , but had trouble establishing its own consistent positions . By mid @-@ September 1994 , polls showed the race to be approximately even . Kennedy responded with a series of ads that focused on Romney 's seemingly shifting political views on issues such as abortion ; Romney would respond on the latter by stating , " I believe that abortion should be safe and legal in this country . " Other Kennedy ads centered on layoffs of workers at the Ampad plant owned by Romney 's Bain Capital . The latter was effective in blunting Romney 's momentum . Kennedy and Romney held a widely watched late @-@ October debate that had no clear winner , but by then , Kennedy had pulled ahead in polls and stayed ahead afterward . Romney spent $ 3 million of his own money in the race and more than $ 7 million overall . In the November general election , despite a disastrous showing for Democrats nationwide , Kennedy won the election with 58 percent of the vote to Romney 's 41 percent , the smallest margin in any of Kennedy 's re @-@ election campaigns for the Senate .
The day after the election , Romney returned to Bain Capital , but the loss had a lasting effect ; he told his brother , " I never want to run for something again unless I can win . " When his father died in 1995 , Mitt donated his inheritance to BYU 's George W. Romney Institute of Public Management . He also joined the board , as vice @-@ chair , of the Points of Light Foundation , which had incorporated his father 's National Volunteer Center . Romney felt restless as the decade neared a close ; the goal of simply making more money was becoming inadequate for him . Although no longer in a local leadership position in his church , he still taught Sunday School . During the long and controversial approval and construction process for the $ 30 million Mormon temple in Belmont , he feared that , as a political figure who had opposed Kennedy , he would become a focal point for opposition to the structure . He thus kept to a limited , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in attempts to ease tensions between the church and local residents .
= = 2002 Winter Olympics = =
In 1998 , Ann Romney learned that she had multiple sclerosis ; Mitt described watching her fail a series of neurological tests as the worst day of his life . After experiencing two years of severe difficulties with the disease , she found – while living in Park City , Utah , where the couple had built a vacation home – a combination of mainstream , alternative , and equestrian therapies that enabled her to lead a lifestyle mostly without limitations . When her husband received a job offer to take over the troubled organization responsible for the 2002 Winter Olympics and Paralympics , to be held in Salt Lake City in Utah , she urged him to accept it ; eager for a new challenge , as well as another chance to prove himself in public life , he did . On February 11 , 1999 , the Salt Lake Organizing Committee for the Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games of 2002 hired Romney as their president and CEO .
Before Romney took the position , the event was running $ 379 million short of its revenue goals . Officials had made plans to scale back the Games to compensate for the fiscal crisis , and there were fears it might be moved away entirely . Additionally , the image of the Games had been damaged by allegations of bribery against top officials including prior committee president and CEO Frank Joklik . The Salt Lake Organizing Committee forced Joklik and committee vice president Dave Johnson to resign . Utah power brokers , including Governor Mike Leavitt , searched for someone with a scandal @-@ free reputation to take charge of the Olympics , and chose Romney based on his business and legal expertise as well as his connections to both the LDS Church and the state . The appointment faced some initial criticism from non @-@ Mormons , and fears from Mormons , that it represented cronyism or made the Games seem too Mormon @-@ dominated . Romney donated to charity the $ 1 @.@ 4 million in salary and severance payments he received for his three years as president and CEO , and also contributed $ 1 million to the Olympics .
Romney restructured the organization 's leadership and policies . He reduced budgets and boosted fundraising , alleviating the concerns of corporate sponsors while recruiting new ones . Romney worked to ensure the safety of the Games following the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks by coordinating a $ 300 million security budget . He oversaw a $ 1 @.@ 32 billion total budget , 700 employees , and 26 @,@ 000 volunteers . The federal government provided approximately $ 400 million to $ 600 million of that budget , much of it a result of Romney 's having aggressively lobbied Congress and federal agencies . It was a record level of federal funding for the staging of a U.S. Olympics . An additional $ 1 @.@ 1 billion of indirect federal funding came to the state in the form of highway and transit projects .
Romney emerged as the local public face of the Olympic effort , appearing in photographs , in news stories , on collectible Olympics pins depicting Romney wrapped by an American flag , and on buttons carrying phrases like " Hey , Mitt , we love you ! " Robert H. Garff , the chair of the organizing committee , later said " It was obvious that he had an agenda larger than just the Olympics , " and that Romney wanted to use the Olympics to propel himself into the national spotlight and a political career . Garff believed the initial budget situation was not as bad as Romney portrayed , given there were still three years to reorganize . Utah Senator Bob Bennett said that much of the needed federal money was already in place . An analysis by The Boston Globe later stated that the committee had nearly $ 1 billion in committed revenues at that time . Olympics critic Steve Pace , who led Utahns for Responsible Public Spending , thought Romney exaggerated the initial fiscal state to lay the groundwork for a well @-@ publicized rescue . Kenneth Bullock , another board member of the organizing committee and also head of the Utah League of Cities and Towns , often clashed with Romney at the time , and later said that Romney deserved some credit for the turnaround but not as much as he claimed . Bullock said : " He tried very hard to build an image of himself as a savior , the great white hope . He was very good at characterizing and castigating people and putting himself on a pedestal . "
Despite the initial fiscal shortfall , the Games ended up with a surplus of $ 100 million . President George W. Bush praised Romney 's efforts and 87 percent of Utahns approved of his performance as Olympics head . It solidified his reputation as a " turnaround artist " , and Harvard Business School taught a case study based around his actions . U.S. Olympic Committee head William Hybl credited Romney with an extraordinary effort in overcoming a difficult time for the Olympics , culminating in " the greatest Winter Games I have ever seen " . Romney wrote a book about his experience titled Turnaround : Crisis , Leadership , and the Olympic Games , published in 2004 . The role gave Romney experience in dealing with federal , state , and local entities , a public persona he had previously lacked , and the chance to relaunch his political aspirations .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
= = = 2002 gubernatorial campaign = = =
In 2002 , plagued by political missteps and personal scandals , the administration of Republican Acting Governor of Massachusetts Jane Swift appeared vulnerable , and many Republicans viewed her as unable to win a general election . Prominent party figures – as well as the White House – wanted Romney to run for governor and the opportunity appealed to him for reasons including its national visibility . A poll by the Boston Herald showed Republicans favoring Romney over Swift by more than 50 percentage points . On March 19 , 2002 , Swift announced she would not seek her party 's nomination , and hours later Romney declared his candidacy , for which he would face no opposition in the primary . In June 2002 , the Massachusetts Democratic Party challenged Romney 's eligibility to run for governor , noting that state law required seven years ' consecutive residence and that Romney had filed his state tax returns as a Utah resident in 1999 and 2000 . In response , the bipartisan Massachusetts State Ballot Law Commission unanimously ruled that he had maintained sufficient financial and personal ties to Massachusetts and was , therefore , an eligible candidate .
Romney again ran as a political outsider . He played down his party affiliation , saying he was " not a partisan Republican " but rather a " moderate " with " progressive " views . He stated that he would observe a moratorium on changes to the state 's laws on abortion , but reiterated that he would " preserve and protect a woman 's right to choose " and that his position was " unequivocal " . He touted his private sector experience as qualifying him for addressing the state 's fiscal problems and stressed his ability to obtain federal funds for the state , offering his Olympics record as evidence . He proposed to reorganize the state government while eliminating waste , fraud , and mismanagement . The campaign innovatively utilized microtargeting techniques , identifying like @-@ minded groups of voters and reaching them with narrowly tailored messaging .
In an attempt to overcome the image that had damaged him in the 1994 Senate race – that of a wealthy corporate buyout specialist out of touch with the needs of regular people – the campaign staged a series of " work days " , in which Romney performed blue @-@ collar jobs such as herding cows and baling hay , unloading a fishing boat , and hauling garbage . Television ads highlighting the effort , as well as one portraying his family in gushing terms and showing him shirtless , received a poor public response and were a factor in his Democratic opponent , Massachusetts State Treasurer Shannon O 'Brien , leading in the polls as late as mid @-@ October . He responded with ads that accused O 'Brien of being a failed watchdog for state pension fund losses in the stock market and that associated her husband , a former lobbyist , with the Enron scandal . These were effective in capturing independent voters . O 'Brien said that Romney 's budget plans were unrealistic ; the two also differed on capital punishment and bilingual education , with Romney supporting the former and opposing the latter .
During the election , Romney contributed more than $ 6 million – a state record at the time – to the nearly $ 10 million raised for his campaign overall . On November 5 , 2002 , he won the governorship , earning 50 percent of the vote to O 'Brien 's 45 percent .
= = = Tenure , 2003 – 07 = = =
The swearing in of Romney as the 70th governor of Massachusetts took place on January 2 , 2003 . He faced a Massachusetts state legislature with large Democratic majorities in both houses , and had picked his cabinet and advisors based more on managerial abilities than partisan affiliation . He declined a governor 's salary of $ 135 @,@ 000 during his term . Upon entering office in the middle of a fiscal year , he faced an immediate $ 650 million shortfall and a projected $ 3 billion deficit for the next year . Unexpected revenue of $ 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 billion from a previously enacted capital gains tax increase and $ 500 million in new federal grants decreased the deficit to $ 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 billion . Through a combination of spending cuts , increased fees , and removal of corporate tax loopholes , the state achieved surpluses of around $ 600 – 700 million during Romney 's last two full fiscal years in office , although it began running deficits again after that .
Romney supported raising various fees , including those for drivers ' licenses and gun licenses , to raise more than $ 300 million . He increased a special gasoline retailer fee by two cents per gallon , generating about $ 60 million per year in additional revenue . Opponents said the reliance on fees sometimes imposed a hardship on those who could least afford them . Romney also closed tax loopholes that brought in another $ 181 million from businesses over the next two years and over $ 300 million for his term . He did so in the face of conservative and corporate critics who viewed these actions as tax increases .
The state legislature , with the governor 's support , cut spending by $ 1 @.@ 6 billion , including $ 700 million in reductions in state aid to cities and towns . The cuts also included a $ 140 million reduction in state funding for higher education , which led state @-@ run colleges and universities to increase fees by 63 percent over four years . Romney sought additional cuts in his last year as governor by vetoing nearly 250 items in the state budget ; a heavily Democratic legislature overrode all the vetoes .
The cuts in state spending put added pressure on localities to reduce services or raise property taxes , and the share of town and city revenues coming from property taxes rose from 49 to 53 percent . The combined state and local tax burden in Massachusetts increased during Romney 's governorship . He did propose a reduction in the state income tax rate that the legislature rejected .
Romney sought to bring near @-@ universal health insurance coverage to the state . This came after Staples founder Stemberg told him at the start of his term that doing so would be the best way he could help people . Another factor was that the federal government , owing to the rules of Medicaid funding , threatened to cut $ 385 million in those payments to Massachusetts if the state did not reduce the number of uninsured recipients of health care services . Although the idea of universal health insurance had not come to the fore during the campaign , Romney decided that because people without insurance still received expensive health care , the money spent by the state for such care could be better used to subsidize insurance for the poor .
Determined that a new Massachusetts health insurance measure not raise taxes or resemble the previous decade 's failed " Hillarycare " proposal at the federal level , Romney formed a team of consultants from diverse political backgrounds to apply those principles . Beginning in late 2004 , they devised a set of proposals that were more ambitious than an incremental one from the Massachusetts Senate and more acceptable to him than one from the Massachusetts House of Representatives that incorporated a new payroll tax . In particular , Romney pushed for incorporating an individual mandate at the state level . Past rival Ted Kennedy , who had made universal health coverage his life 's work and who , over time , had developed a warm relationship with Romney , gave the plan a positive reception , which encouraged Democratic legislators to cooperate . The effort eventually gained the support of all major stakeholders within the state , and Romney helped break a logjam between rival Democratic leaders in the legislature .
On April 12 , 2006 , the governor signed the resulting Massachusetts health reform law , commonly called " Romneycare " , which requires nearly all Massachusetts residents to buy health insurance coverage or face escalating tax penalties , such as the loss of their personal income tax exemption . The bill also established means @-@ tested state subsidies for people who lacked adequate employer insurance and whose income was below a threshold , using funds that had covered the health costs of the uninsured . He vetoed eight sections of the health care legislation , including a controversial $ 295 @-@ per @-@ employee assessment on businesses that do not offer health insurance and provisions guaranteeing dental benefits to Medicaid recipients . The legislature overrode all eight vetoes , but the governor 's office said the differences were not essential . The law was the first of its kind in the nation and became the signature achievement of Romney 's term in office .
At the beginning of his governorship , Romney opposed same @-@ sex marriage and civil unions , but advocated tolerance and supported some domestic partnership benefits . A November 2003 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court decision required the state to recognize same @-@ sex marriages ( Goodridge v. Department of Public Health ) . Romney reluctantly backed a state constitutional amendment in February 2004 that would have banned those marriages but still allowed civil unions , viewing it as the only feasible way to accomplish the former . In May 2004 , in compliance with the court decision , the governor instructed town clerks to begin issuing marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples . However , citing a 1913 law that barred out @-@ of @-@ state residents from getting married in Massachusetts if their union would be illegal in their home state , he said no marriage licenses were to be issued to those people not planning to move to Massachusetts . In June 2005 , Romney abandoned his support for the compromise amendment , stating that it confused voters who opposed both same @-@ sex marriage and civil unions . Instead , he endorsed a ballot initiative led by the Coalition for Marriage and Family ( an alliance of socially conservative organizations ) that would have banned same @-@ sex marriage and made no provisions for civil unions . In 2004 and 2006 , he urged the U.S. Senate to vote in favor of the Federal Marriage Amendment .
In 2005 , Romney revealed a change of view regarding abortion , moving from the pro @-@ choice positions expressed during his 1994 and 2002 campaigns to a pro @-@ life one in opposition to Roe v. Wade . Romney attributed his conversion to an interaction with Harvard University biologist Douglas Melton , an expert on embryonic stem cell biology , although Melton vehemently disputed Romney 's recollection of their conversation . Romney subsequently vetoed a bill on pro @-@ life grounds that expanded access to emergency contraception in hospitals and pharmacies ( the legislature overrode the veto ) . He also amended his position on embryonic stem cell research itself .
Romney used a bully pulpit approach towards promoting his agenda , staging well @-@ organized media events to appeal directly to the public rather than pushing his proposals in behind @-@ doors sessions with the state legislature . He dealt with a public crisis of confidence in Boston 's Big Dig project – that followed a fatal ceiling collapse in 2006 – by wresting control of the project from the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority . After two years of negotiating the state 's participation in the landmark Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative that instituted a cap @-@ and @-@ trade arrangement for power plant emissions in the Northeast , Romney pulled Massachusetts out of the initiative shortly before its signing in December 2005 , citing a lack of cost limits for industry .
During 2004 , Romney spent considerable effort trying to bolster the state Republican Party , but it failed to gain any seats in the state legislative elections that year . Given a prime @-@ time appearance at the 2004 Republican National Convention , political figures began discussing him as a potential 2008 presidential candidate . Midway through his term , Romney decided that he wanted to stage a full @-@ time run for president , and on December 14 , 2005 , announced that he would not seek re @-@ election for a second term . As chair of the Republican Governors Association , Romney traveled around the country , meeting prominent Republicans and building a national political network ; he spent all , or parts of , more than 200 days out of state during 2006 , preparing for his run .
The Governor had a 61 percent job approval rating in public polls after his initial fiscal actions in 2003 , although his approval rating subsequently declined , driven in part by his frequent out @-@ of @-@ state travel . Romney 's approval rating stood at 34 percent in November 2006 , ranking 48th of the 50 U.S. governors . Dissatisfaction with Romney 's administration and the weak condition of the Republican state party were among several factors contributing to Democrat Deval Patrick 's 20 @-@ point win over Republican Kerry Healey , Romney 's lieutenant governor , in the 2006 Massachusetts gubernatorial election .
Romney filed to register a presidential campaign committee with the Federal Election Commission on his penultimate day in office as governor . His term ended January 4 , 2007 .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
Romney formally announced his candidacy for the 2008 Republican nomination for president on February 13 , 2007 , in Dearborn , Michigan . Again casting himself as a political outsider , his speech frequently invoked his father and his family , and stressed experiences in the private , public , and voluntary sectors that had brought him to this point .
The campaign emphasized Romney 's highly profitable career in the business world and his stewardship of the Olympics . He also had political experience as a governor , together with a political pedigree courtesy of his father ( as well as many biographical parallels with him ) . Ann Romney , who had become an advocate for those with multiple sclerosis , was in remission and would be an active participant in his campaign , helping to soften his political personality . Media stories referred to the 6 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) Romney as handsome . Moreover , a number of commentators noted that with his square jaw and ample hair graying at the temples , he physically matched one of the common images of what a president should look like .
Romney 's liabilities included having run for senator and serving as governor in one of the nation 's most liberal states and having taken positions in opposition to the party 's conservative base during that time . Late during his term as governor , he had shifted positions and emphases to better align with traditional conservatives on social issues . Skeptics , including some Republicans , charged Romney with opportunism and a lack of core principles . As a Mormon , he faced suspicion and skepticism by some in the Evangelical portion of the party .
For his campaign , Romney assembled a veteran group of Republican staffers , consultants , and pollsters . He was little @-@ known nationally , though , and stayed around the 10 percent support range in Republican preference polls for the first half of 2007 . He proved the most effective fundraiser of any of the Republican candidates and also partly financed his campaign with his own personal fortune . These resources , combined with the mid @-@ year near @-@ collapse of nominal front @-@ runner John McCain 's campaign , made Romney a threat to win the nomination and the focus of the other candidates ' attacks . Romney 's staff suffered from internal strife ; the candidate himself was at times indecisive , often asking for more data before making a decision .
During all of his political campaigns , Romney has avoided speaking publicly about Mormon doctrines , referring to the U.S. Constitution 's prohibition of religious tests for public office . But persistent questions about the role of religion in Romney 's life , as well as Southern Baptist minister and former Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee 's rise in the polls based upon an explicitly Christian @-@ themed campaign , led to the December 6 , 2007 , " Faith in America " speech . In the speech Romney declared , " I believe in my Mormon faith and endeavor to live by it . My faith is the faith of my fathers . I will be true to them and to my beliefs . " Romney added that he should neither be elected nor rejected based upon his religion , and echoed Senator John F. Kennedy 's famous speech during his 1960 presidential campaign in saying , " I will put no doctrine of any church above the plain duties of the office and the sovereign authority of the law . " Instead of discussing the specific tenets of his faith , he said he would be informed by it , stating : " Freedom requires religion just as religion requires freedom . Freedom and religion endure together , or perish alone . " Academics would later study the role religion had played in the campaign .
The campaign 's strategy called for winning the initial two contests – the January 3 , 2008 , Iowa Republican caucuses and the adjacent @-@ to @-@ his @-@ home @-@ state January 8 New Hampshire primary – and propelling Romney nationally . However , he took second place in both , losing Iowa to a vastly outspent Huckabee who received more than twice the evangelical Christian votes , and losing New Hampshire to the resurgent McCain . Huckabee and McCain criticized Romney 's image as a flip flopper and this label would stick to Romney through the campaign ( one that Romney rejected as unfair and inaccurate , except for his acknowledged change of mind on abortion ) . Romney seemed to approach the campaign as a management consulting exercise , and showed a lack of personal warmth and political feel ; journalist Evan Thomas wrote that Romney " came off as a phony , even when he was perfectly sincere . " The fervor with which Romney adopted his new stances and attitudes contributed to the perception of inauthenticity that hampered the campaign . Romney 's staff would conclude that competing as a candidate of social conservatism and ideological purity rather than of pragmatic competence had been a mistake .
A win by McCain over Huckabee in South Carolina , and by Romney over McCain in childhood @-@ home Michigan , set up a pivotal battle in the Florida primary . Romney campaigned intensively on economic issues and the burgeoning subprime mortgage crisis , while McCain attacked Romney regarding Iraq policy and benefited from endorsements from Florida officeholders . McCain won a 5 percentage point victory on January 29 . Although many Republican officials were now lining up behind McCain , Romney persisted through the nationwide Super Tuesday contests on February 5 . There he won primaries or caucuses in several states , but McCain won in more and in larger @-@ population ones . Trailing McCain in delegates by a more than two @-@ to @-@ one margin , Romney announced the end of his campaign on February 7 .
Altogether , Romney had won 11 primaries and caucuses , receiving about 4 @.@ 7 million votes and garnering about 280 delegates . He spent $ 110 million during the campaign , including $ 45 million of his own money .
Romney endorsed McCain for president a week later , and McCain had Romney on a short list for vice presidential running mate , where his business experience would have balanced one of McCain 's weaknesses . McCain , behind in the polls , opted instead for a high @-@ risk , high @-@ reward " game changer " , selecting Alaska Governor Sarah Palin . McCain lost the election to Democratic Senator Barack Obama .
= = Activity between presidential campaigns = =
Romney supported the Bush administration 's Troubled Asset Relief Program in response to the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis , later saying that it prevented the U.S. financial system from collapsing . During the U.S. automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 10 , he opposed a bailout of the industry in the form of direct government intervention , and argued that a managed bankruptcy of struggling automobile companies should instead be accompanied by federal guarantees for post @-@ bankruptcy financing from the private sector .
Following the 2008 election , Romney laid the groundwork for a likely 2012 presidential campaign by using his Free and Strong America political action committee ( PAC ) to raise money for other Republican candidates and pay his existing political staff 's salaries and consulting fees . A network of former staff and supporters around the nation were eager for him to run again . He continued to give speeches and raise funds for Republicans , but fearing overexposure , turned down many potential media appearances . He also spoke before business , educational , and motivational groups . From 2009 to 2011 , he served on the board of directors of Marriott International , founded by his namesake J. Willard Marriott . He had previously served on it from 1993 to 2002 .
In 2009 , the Romneys sold their primary residence in Belmont and their ski chalet in Utah , leaving them an estate along Lake Winnipesaukee in Wolfeboro , New Hampshire , and an oceanfront home in the La Jolla district of San Diego , California , which they had purchased the year before . The La Jolla home proved beneficial in location and climate for Ann Romney 's multiple sclerosis therapies and for recovering from her late 2008 diagnosis of mammary ductal carcinoma in situ and subsequent lumpectomy . Both it and the New Hampshire location were near some of their grandchildren . Romney maintained his voting registration in Massachusetts , however , and bought a smaller condominium in Belmont during 2010 . In February 2010 , Romney had a minor altercation with LMFAO member Skyler Gordy , known as Sky Blu , on an airplane flight .
Romney released his book , No Apology : The Case for American Greatness , in March 2010 , and undertook an 18 @-@ state book tour to promote the work . In the book , Romney writes of his belief in American exceptionalism , and presents his economic and geopolitical views rather than anecdotes about his personal or political life . It debuted atop The New York Times Best Seller list . Romney donated his earnings from the book to charity .
Immediately following the March 2010 passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , Romney attacked the landmark legislation as " an unconscionable abuse of power " and said the act should be repealed . The antipathy Republicans felt for it created a potential problem for the former governor , since the new federal law was in many ways similar to the Massachusetts health care reform passed during Romney 's term ; as one Associated Press article stated , " Obamacare ... looks a lot like Romneycare . " While acknowledging that his plan was an imperfect work in progress , Romney did not back away from it . He defended the state @-@ level health insurance mandate that underpinned it , calling the bill the right answer to Massachusetts ' problems at the time .
In nationwide opinion polling for the 2012 Republican Presidential primaries , Romney led or placed in the top three with Palin and Huckabee . A January 2010 National Journal survey of political insiders found that a majority of Republican insiders and a plurality of Democratic insiders predicted Romney would be the party 's 2012 nominee . Romney campaigned heavily for Republican candidates in the 2010 midterm elections , raising more money than the other prospective 2012 Republican presidential candidates . Beginning in early 2011 , Romney presented a more relaxed visual image , including more casual attire .
= = 2012 presidential campaign = =
On April 11 , 2011 , Romney announced , via a video taped outdoors at the University of New Hampshire , that he had formed an exploratory committee for a run for the Republican presidential nomination . Quinnipiac University political science professor Scott McLean stated , " We all knew that he was going to run . He 's really been running for president ever since the day after the 2008 election . "
Romney stood to benefit from the Republican electorate 's tendency to nominate candidates who had previously run for president , and thus appeared to be next in line to be chosen . The early stages of the race found him as the apparent front @-@ runner in a weak field , especially in terms of fundraising prowess and organization . Perhaps his greatest hurdle in gaining the Republican nomination was party opposition to the Massachusetts health care reform law that he had shepherded five years earlier . As many potential Republican candidates with star power and fundraising ability decided not to run ( including Mike Pence , John Thune , Haley Barbour , Mike Huckabee , and Mitch Daniels ) , Republican party figures searched for plausible alternatives to Romney .
On June 2 , 2011 , Romney formally announced the start of his campaign . Speaking on a farm in Stratham , New Hampshire , he focused on the economy and criticized President Obama 's handling of it . He said , " In the campaign to come , the American ideals of economic freedom and opportunity need a clear and unapologetic defense , and I intend to make it – because I have lived it . "
Romney raised $ 56 million during 2011 , more than double the amount raised by any of his Republican opponents , and refrained from spending his own money on the campaign . He initially pursued a low @-@ key , low @-@ profile strategy . Michele Bachmann staged a brief surge in polls , which preceded a poll surge in September 2011 by Rick Perry who had entered the race the month before . Perry and Romney exchanged sharp criticisms of each other during a series of debates among the Republican candidates . The October 2011 decisions of Chris Christie and Sarah Palin not to run effectively settled the field of candidates . Perry faded after poor performances in those debates , while Herman Cain 's ' long @-@ shot ' bid gained popularity until allegations of sexual misconduct derailed it .
Romney continued to seek support from a wary Republican electorate ; at this point in the race , his poll numbers were relatively flat and at a historically low level for a Republican frontrunner . After the charges of flip @-@ flopping that marked his 2008 campaign began to accumulate again , Romney declared in November 2011 : " I 've been as consistent as human beings can be . " In the final month before voting began , Newt Gingrich experienced a significant surge – taking a solid lead in national polls and most of the early caucus and primary states – before settling back into parity or worse with Romney following a barrage of negative ads from Restore Our Future , a pro @-@ Romney Super PAC .
In the initial contest , the 2012 Iowa caucuses of January 3 , election officials announced Romney as ahead with 25 percent of the vote , edging out a late @-@ gaining Rick Santorum by eight votes ( an also @-@ strong Ron Paul finished third ) . Sixteen days later , however , they certified Santorum as the winner by a 34 @-@ vote margin . A week after the Iowa caucuses , Romney earned a decisive win in the New Hampshire primary with a total of 39 percent of the vote ; Paul finished second and Jon Huntsman , Jr. third .
In the run @-@ up to the South Carolina Republican primary , Gingrich launched ads criticizing Romney for causing job losses while at Bain Capital , Perry referred to Romney 's role there as " vulture capitalism " , and Sarah Palin pressed Romney to prove his claim that he created 100 @,@ 000 jobs during that time . Many conservatives rallied in defense of Romney , rejecting what they inferred as criticism of free @-@ market capitalism . During two debates in the state , Romney fumbled questions about releasing his income tax returns , while Gingrich gained support with audience @-@ rousing attacks on the debate moderators . Romney 's double @-@ digit lead in state polls evaporated ; he lost to Gingrich by 13 points in the January 21 primary . Combined with the delayed loss in Iowa , Romney 's admitted poor week represented a lost chance to end the race early , and he quickly decided to release two years of his tax returns . The race turned to the Florida Republican primary , where in debates , appearances , and advertisements , Romney launched a sustained barrage against Gingrich 's past record and associations and current electability . Romney enjoyed a large spending advantage from both his campaign and his aligned Super PAC , and after a record @-@ breaking rate of negative ads from both sides , Romney won Florida on January 31 , gaining 46 percent of the vote to Gingrich 's 32 percent .
Several caucuses and primaries took place during February , and Santorum won three in a single night early in the month , propelling him into the lead in national and some state polls and positioning him as Romney 's chief rival . Days later , Romney told the Conservative Political Action Conference that he had been a " severely conservative governor " ( while during his term in 2005 he had maintained that his positions were moderate and characterized reports that he was shifting to the right to attract conservative votes a media distortion ) . Romney won the other five February contests , including a closely fought one in his home state of Michigan at the end of the month . In the Super Tuesday primaries and caucuses of March 6 , Romney won six of ten contests , including a narrow victory in Ohio over a vastly outspent Santorum . Although his victories were not enough to end the race , they were enough to establish a two @-@ to @-@ one delegate lead over Santorum . Romney maintained his delegate margin through subsequent contests , and Santorum suspended his campaign on April 10 . Following a sweep of five more contests on April 24 , the Republican National Committee put its resources to work for Romney as the party 's presumptive nominee . Romney clinched a majority of the delegates with a win in the Texas primary on May 29 .
Polls consistently indicated a tight race for the November general election . Negative ads from both sides dominated the campaign , with Obama 's proclaiming that Romney shipped jobs overseas while at Bain Capital and kept money in offshore tax havens and Swiss bank accounts . A related issue dealt with Romney 's purported responsibility for actions at Bain Capital after taking the Olympics post . Romney faced demands from Democrats to release additional years of his tax returns , an action a number of Republicans also felt would be wise ; after being adamant that he would not do that , he released summaries of them in late September . During May and June , the Obama campaign spent heavily and was able to paint a negative image of Romney in voters ' minds before the Romney campaign could construct a positive one .
In July 2012 , Romney visited the United Kingdom , Israel , and Poland , meeting leaders in an effort to raise his credibility as a world statesman . Comments Romney made about the readiness of the 2012 Summer Olympics were perceived as undiplomatic by the British press . Israeli Prime Minister ( and former BCG colleague ) Benjamin Netanyahu , embraced Romney , though some Palestinians criticized him for suggesting that Israel 's culture led to their greater economic success .
On August 11 , 2012 , the Romney campaign announced the selection of Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin as his vice @-@ presidential running mate .
On August 28 , 2012 , the 2012 Republican National Convention in Tampa , Florida , officially nominated Romney as their candidate for the presidency . Romney became the first Mormon to be a major @-@ party presidential nominee .
In mid @-@ September , a video surfaced of Romney speaking before a group of supporters in which he stated that 47 percent of the nation pays no income tax , are dependent on the federal government , see themselves as victims , and will support President Obama unconditionally . Romney went on to say : " And so my job is not to worry about those people . I 'll never convince them that they should take personal responsibility and care for their lives . " After facing criticism about the tone and accuracy of these comments , he at first characterized them as " inelegantly stated " , then a couple of weeks later commented : " I said something that 's just completely wrong . " Exit polls published following the election showed that voters never saw Romney as someone who cared about people like them .
The first of three 2012 presidential election debates took place on October 3 , in Denver . Media figures and political analysts widely viewed Romney as having delivered a stronger and more focused presentation than did President Obama . That initial debate overshadowed Obama 's improved presentation in the last two debates later in October , and Romney maintained a small advantage in the debates when seen as a whole .
The election took place on November 6 , and Obama was projected the winner at about 11 : 14 pm Eastern Standard Time . Romney garnered 206 electoral college votes to Obama 's 332 , losing all but one of nine battleground states , and 47 percent of the nationwide popular vote to Obama 's 51 percent . Media accounts described Romney as " shellshocked " by the result . He and his senior campaign staff had disbelieved public polls showing Obama narrowly ahead , and had thought they were going to win until the vote tallies began to be reported on the evening of the election . But Romney 's get out the vote operation had been inferior to Obama 's , both in person @-@ to @-@ person organization and in voter modeling and outreach technology ( the latter exemplified by the failure of the Project Orca application ) . In his concession speech to his supporters , he said , " Like so many of you , Paul and I have left everything on the field . We have given our all to this campaign . I so wish that I had been able to fulfill your hopes to lead this country in a different direction , but the nation chose another leader . " Reflecting on his defeat during a conference call to hundreds of fundraisers and donors a week after the election , Romney attributed the outcome to Obama 's having secured the votes of specific interest groups , including African Americans , Hispanic Americans , young people , and women , by offering them what Romney called " extraordinary financial gifts . " The remark drew heavy criticism from prominent members of the Republican party .
= = = Political positions = = =
In addition to calling for cuts in federal government spending to help reduce the national debt , Romney proposed measures intended to limit the growth of entitlement programs , such as introducing means testing and gradually raising the eligibility ages for receipt of Social Security and Medicare . He supported substantial increases in military spending and promised to invest more heavily in military weapons programs while increasing the number of active @-@ duty military personnel . He was very supportive of the directions taken by the budget proposals of Paul Ryan , although he later proposed his own budget plan .
Romney pledged to lead an effort to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( " Obamacare " ) and replace it with a system that gives states more control over Medicaid and makes health insurance premiums tax @-@ advantaged for individuals in the same way they are for businesses . He favored repeal of the Dodd – Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Sarbanes – Oxley Act and intended to replace them with what he called a " streamlined , modern regulatory framework " .
He also promised to seek income tax law changes that he said would help to lower federal deficits and would stimulate economic growth . These included : reducing individual income tax rates across the board by 20 percent , maintaining the Bush administration @-@ era tax rate of 15 percent on investment income from dividends and capital gains ( and eliminating this tax entirely for those with annual incomes less than $ 200 @,@ 000 ) , cutting the top tax rate on corporations from 35 to 25 percent , and eliminating the estate tax and the Alternative Minimum Tax . He promised that the loss of government revenue from these tax cuts would be offset by closing loopholes and placing limits on tax deductions and credits available to taxpayers with the highest incomes , but said that that aspect of the plan could not yet be evaluated because details would have to be worked out with Congress .
Romney opposed the use of mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions to deal with global warming . He stated that he believed climate change is occurring , but that he did not know how much of it could be linked to human activity . He was a proponent of increased domestic oil drilling , hydraulic fracturing ( " fracking " ) , building more nuclear power plants , and reducing the regulatory authority of the Environmental Protection Agency . He believed North American energy independence could be achieved by 2020 .
Romney labeled Russia as America 's " number one geopolitical foe " , and asserted that preventing Iran from obtaining a nuclear capability should be America 's " highest national security priority " . Romney stated his strong support for Israel . He planned to formally label China a currency manipulator and take associated counteractions unless that country changed its trade practices . Romney supported the Patriot Act , the continued operation of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , and use of enhanced interrogation techniques against suspected terrorists . Romney opposed same @-@ sex marriage and civil unions , although he favored domestic partnership legislation that gives certain legal rights to same @-@ sex couples , such as hospital visitation . In 2011 , he signed a pledge promising to seek passage of an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to define marriage as the union of one man and one woman .
Since 2005 , Romney described himself as " pro @-@ life " . In that year , he wrote : " I believe that abortion is the wrong choice except in cases of incest , rape , and to save the life of the mother . " During his 1994 campaign for the senate , Romney had said , " I believe that abortion should be safe and legal in this country , " a stance he reiterated during his 2002 campaign for governor . While Romney would prefer to see passage of a constitutional amendment that would outlaw abortion , he did not believe the public would support such an amendment ; as an alternative , he promised to nominate Supreme Court justices who would help overturn Roe v. Wade , allowing each state to decide on the legality of abortion .
Romney said that he would appoint federal judges in the mold of U.S. Supreme Court justices John Roberts , Clarence Thomas , Antonin Scalia , and Samuel Alito . He advocated judicial restraint and strict constructionism as judicial philosophies .
= = Subsequent activities = =
During the first year following the election defeat , Romney generally kept a low profile , with his ordinary daily activities around San Diego being captured via social media glimpses . In December 2012 , he joined the board of Marriott International for a third stint as a director . In March 2013 , Romney gave a reflective interview on Fox News Sunday , stating , " It kills me not to be there , not to be in the White House doing what needs to be done " . He again expressed regret at the " 47 percent " remark , saying " There 's no question that hurt and did real damage to my campaign . " ( He was still echoing both of these sentiments a year later . ) Romney began working as executive partner group chairman for Solamere Capital , a private capital firm in Boston owned by his son Tagg . He was also involved in supporting several charitable causes .
The Romneys bought a home again in the Deer Valley area of Park City , Utah , followed by a property in Holladay , Utah , where they plan to tear down an existing house and build a new one . They also gained long @-@ sought permission to replace their La Jolla home with a much bigger one , including a car elevator that had brought some derision during the 2012 campaign . In addition , Romney and his siblings continue to own a cottage in the gated community called Beach O ' Pines located south of Grand Bend , Ontario , which has been in the family for more than sixty years . With the new acquisitions the couple briefly had five homes , located near each of their five sons and respective families , and the couple continued to spend considerable time with their grandchildren , who by 2013 numbered 22 . They then sold the condominium in Belmont and decided to make their main residence in Utah , including switching voter registration . The 2014 documentary film Mitt showed a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes , family @-@ based perspective on both of Romney 's presidential campaigns and received positive notices for humanizing the candidate and illustrating the toll that campaigning takes .
Romney himself thought he might be branded a " loser for life " and fade into an obscurity like Michael Dukakis ( a similar figure with no obvious base of political support who had lost what his party considered a winnable presidential election ) but , to the surprise of many political observers , that did not happen . Romney re @-@ emerged onto the political scene in the run @-@ up to the 2014 U.S. midterm elections , endorsing , campaigning , and fundraising for a number of Republican candidates , especially those running for the U.S. Senate .
By early 2014 , the lack of a clear mainstream Republican candidate for the 2016 presidential election led some supporters , donors , and pollsters to suggest Romney stage a third run . Regarding such a possibility , Romney at first responded , " Oh , no , no , no . No , no , no , no , no . No , no , no . " Nevertheless , speculation continued : the continuing unpopularity of Obama led to buyer 's remorse among some voters ; the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine made Romney 's " No. 1 geopolitical foe " remark look prescient ; and an August 2014 poll of Iowan Republicans showed Romney with a large lead there over other potential 2016 candidates . By early 2015 , Romney was actively considering the idea and contacting his network of supporters . In doing so he was positioning himself in the invisible primary – the preliminary jockeying for the backing of party leaders , donors , and political operatives – against former Florida governor Jeb Bush , who had already set a likely campaign in motion and would be a rival to Romney for establishment Republican support . Despite support in some quarters for a third bid for the presidency , there was a backlash against him from conservatives who wanted a fresher face without a history of presidential losses , and many of Romney 's past donors were not willing to commit to him again . Romney announced on January 30 , 2015 that he would not run for president in 2016 , saying that while he thought he could win the nomination , " one of our next generation of Republican leaders " would be better positioned to win the general election .
As the Republican presidential nomination race went into the primaries season , Romney had not endorsed anyone but was one of the Republican establishment figures who were becoming increasingly concerned about the front @-@ runner status of Donald Trump . Romney publicly criticized Trump for not releasing his taxes , saying there might be a " bombshell " in them . Trump responded by calling Romney " one of the dumbest and worst candidates in the history of Republican politics . " Then Romney gave a speech on March 3 , 2016 , at the Hinckley Institute of Politics , that represented a scathing attack on Trump 's personal behavior , business performance , and domestic and foreign policy stances . He said Trump was " a phony , a fraud ... He 's playing members of the American public for suckers " and that " If we Republicans choose Donald Trump as our nominee , the prospects for a safe and prosperous future are greatly diminished . " In response Trump dismissed Romney as a " choke artist " . Romney 's speech represented an unprecedented attack by a major U.S. party 's most recent presidential nominee against the party 's current front @-@ runner for the nomination . Romney encouraged Republicans to engage in tactical voting , by supporting whichever of the remaining rivals had the best chance to beat Trump in any given state , and as such Romney announced he was voting for , although not endorsing , Ted Cruz for president prior to the March 22 Utah caucus . As the race went on there was some evidence of tactical voting occurring , and some partial arrangements were formed among candidates , but by May 3 Trump had defeated all his opponents and became the party 's presumptive nominee . Romney then announced that he would not support Trump in the general election , saying , " I am dismayed at where we are now , I wish we had better choices " .
= = Awards and honors = =
Romney has received a number of honorary doctorates , including in business from the University of Utah in 1999 , in law from Bentley College in 2002 , in public administration from Suffolk University Law School in 2004 , in public service from Hillsdale College in 2007 , and in humanities from Liberty University in 2012 . He also received one from Southern Virginia University in 2013 and ones in 2015 from Jacksonville University , Utah Valley University , and Saint Anselm College .
People magazine included Romney in its 50 Most Beautiful People list for 2002 , and in 2004 , a foundation that promotes the Olympic truce , gave him its inaugural Truce Ideal Award . The Cranbrook School gave him their Distinguished Alumni Award in 2005 . In 2008 , he shared with his wife Ann , the Canterbury Medal from The Becket Fund for Religious Liberty , for " refus [ ing ] to compromise their principles and faith " during the presidential campaign .
= = Published works = =
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= George Campbell ( American football ) =
George Campbell IV ( born October 27 , 1996 ) is an American football wide receiver for the Florida State Seminoles . He is rated as the tenth best player ( and # 1 rated athlete ) by ESPN and as a top @-@ 10 wide receiver by Scout.com and Rivals.com in the national high school class of 2015 . He completed his junior season at East Lake High School during the 2013 – 14 school year . He committed to Michigan prior to his high school junior season , but decommitted following the season and is currently committed to FSU . He has also accepted an invitation to participate in the 2015 Under Armour All @-@ America Game .
= = High school = =
Son of Joyce Nix and George Campbell III , George , at the age of 5 and after his father 's imprisonment , developed a close bond with his uncle Ahmad Jackson . Nix is a certified nurse .
= = = Freshman = = =
Before his freshman season , he nearly attended Clearwater Central Catholic High School , as well as IMG Academy , but decided to attend his zoned school , East Lake High School in Tarpon Springs , Florida . As a freshman he played varsity football for East Lake , but mostly on defense . He had 1 reception for a 26 @-@ yard touchdown , 2 interceptions and 81 tackles , including 2 forced fumbles . That season East Lake compiled a 9 – 4 record before losing in the 2011 Florida High School Athletic Association ( FHSAA ) Class 8A region final in overtime to Plant High School on December 2 , 2011 . Plant had won state championships in 2006 , 2008 and 2009 . Plant went on to become state champion that year , marking four consecutive years it had reached a championship game . Campbell accumulated statistics in 12 of the 13 games ( not the November 4 game at Palm Harbor University High School ) . He was named a MaxPreps 2011 U.S. Air Force Freshman All @-@ American first team selection at linebacker , although his true position was safety . He was not selected to the Tampa Bay Times 2011 All @-@ Suncoast Region Football team for Hernando , Pasco , Hillsborough and Pinellas counties or even the Times 2011 All @-@ Pinellas County football team .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In 2012 , East Lake improved to 11 – 2 , but again lost in the FHSAA Class 8A region final , this time to Dr. Phillips High School on November 30 by a 31 – 21 margin . In the first game of the season , when starter Artavis Scott injured his ankle , Campbell stepped in at wide receiver . Later in the season , when the team struggled to get pressure on the quarterback , Campbell moved from safety to defensive end . As a sophomore , his tackle total declined to 56 , but his 764 receiving yards earned him 27 major Division I scholarship offers . His offers included Arkansas , Auburn , Boston College , Clemson , Florida , Florida State , Georgia , Georgia Tech , Illinois , Louisville , Miami ( FL ) , Mississippi , Mississippi State , North Carolina State , Notre Dame , Ohio State , South Florida , Tennessee , Texas A & M , UCF , UCLA , Vanderbilt , West Virginia . East Lake junior offensive lineman Mason Cole committed to Michigan 's class of 2014 on February 25 , which was one day before Cole was invited to participate in the 2014 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl . That year Campbell played basketball and ran track for East Lake before having surgery on his left wrist on April 19 . The following summer , he ran a 4 @.@ 36 second 40 yard dash . His 4 @.@ 36 time was on artificial turf , while he was timed a 4 @.@ 37 on grass on the same day . He was also measured at 37 inches ( 94 @.@ 0 cm ) in his vertical leap . He was a second team All @-@ Suncoast region and first team All @-@ Pinellas County team selection .
= = = Junior = = =
Prior to his junior season , he verbally committed to the University of Michigan where he would play for Michigan Wolverines football as a freshman for the 2015 team via Twitter . At the time , he still attended East Lake High School , where he was about to play his junior year for the 2013 football team . At the time of his July 27 , 2013 verbal commitment , he was ranked as the number one athlete and number three player in the class of 2015 by ESPN . When Scout.com released its first list of 5 @-@ star rated football players on August 12 , 2013 , Campbell was included among the 20 players listed and the only wide receiver included . At the end of that summer prior to his junior year football season , he was one of two juniors selected to the 2013 USA Today preseason All @-@ USA team . He accepted an invitation to participate in the 2015 Under Armour All @-@ America Game in St. Petersburg before the end of October 2013 . The November 15 FHSAA Class 7A region quarterfinal that East Lake won 13 – 12 ended with an alleged punch by a Palmetto High School coach that left Campbell with a cut inside his mouth . Other players were involved in the altercation , which is being investigated by the FHSAA . On November 19 , 2013 , ESPN moved Campbell up to the number two overall position in the class of 2015 . This moved him ahead of Kevin Toliver II , but he remained behind Jashon Cornell . In Campbell 's third time in the FHSAA , East Lake finally got past the regional finals ( defeating Port Charlotte High School ) , only to lose the following week on December 6 , 2013 , in the state semifinals in overtime to Dwyer High School 31 – 24 , despite a 65 @-@ yard touchdown reception by Campbell . Following the season , Campbell decommitted from Michigan on December 13 .
= = = Senior = = =
He subsequently named the 10 schools he was considering , while excluding Michigan on July 28 , 2014 . The 10 schools were LSU , Alabama , Florida , FSU , Georgia , Clemson , UCLA , Ole Miss , Auburn , and Maryland . On September 5 , he selected Florida State .
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= Paracetamol toxicity =
Paracetamol toxicity is caused by excessive use or overdose of the medication paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) . Most people with paracetamol toxicity have no symptoms in the first 24 hours following overdose . Others may initially have nonspecific complaints such as vague abdominal pain and nausea . With time , signs of liver injury may develop ; these include low blood sugar , low blood pH , easy bleeding , and hepatic encephalopathy . Some will spontaneously resolve , although untreated cases may result in death . In the United States and the United Kingdom it is the most common cause of acute liver failure . Paracetamol toxicity is one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide .
Damage to the liver , or hepatotoxicity , results not from paracetamol itself , but from one of its metabolites , N @-@ acetyl @-@ p @-@ benzoquinoneimine ( NAPQI ) . NAPQI decreases the liver 's natural antioxidant glutathione and directly damages cells in the liver , leading to liver failure . Risk factors for toxicity include excessive long term alcohol intake , fasting , anorexia nervosa , and the use of certain drugs such as isoniazid .
Treatment is aimed at removing the paracetamol from the body and replacing glutathione . Activated charcoal can be used to decrease absorption of paracetamol if the patient presents for treatment soon after the overdose ; the antidote acetylcysteine acts as a precursor for glutathione , helping the body regenerate enough to prevent damage to the liver . N @-@ acetylcysteine can neutralize NAPQI by itself as well . A liver transplant is often required if damage to the liver becomes severe . Patients treated early have a good prognosis , whereas patients that develop major liver abnormalities typically have a poor outcome . Efforts to prevent paracetamol overdose include limiting individual sales of the drug and combining paracetamol with methionine , which is converted into glutathione in the liver .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The signs and symptoms of paracetamol toxicity occur in three phases . The first phase begins within hours of overdose , and consists of nausea , vomiting , pallor , and sweating . However , patients often have no specific symptoms or only mild symptoms in the first 24 hours of poisoning . Rarely , after massive overdoses , patients may develop symptoms of metabolic acidosis and coma early in the course of poisoning .
The second phase occurs between 24 and 72 hours following overdose and consists of signs of increasing liver damage . In general , damage occurs in hepatocytes as they metabolize the paracetamol . The individual may experience right upper quadrant pain . The increasing liver damage also alters biochemical markers of liver function ; International normalized ratio ( INR ) and the hepatic transaminases ALT and AST rise to abnormal levels . Acute kidney failure may also occur during this phase , typically caused by either hepatorenal syndrome or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome . In some cases , acute kidney failure may be the primary clinical manifestation of toxicity . In these cases , it has been suggested that the toxic metabolite is produced more in the kidneys than in the liver .
The third phase follows at 3 to 5 days , and is marked by complications of massive hepatic necrosis leading to fulminant hepatic failure with complications of coagulation defects , hypoglycemia , kidney failure , hepatic encephalopathy , cerebral edema , sepsis , multiple organ failure , and death . If the third phase is survived , the hepatic necrosis runs its course , and liver and kidney function typically return to normal in a few weeks . The severity of paracetamol toxicity varies depending on the dose and whether appropriate treatment is received .
= = Cause = =
The toxic dose of paracetamol is highly variable . In general the recommended maximum daily dose for healthy adults is 3 grams . Higher doses lead to increasing risk of toxicity . In adults , single doses above 10 grams or 200 mg / kg of bodyweight , whichever is lower , have a reasonable likelihood of causing toxicity . Toxicity can also occur when multiple smaller doses within 24 hours exceed these levels . Following a normal dose of 1 gram of paracetamol four times a day for two weeks , patients can expect an increase in alanine transaminase in their liver to typically about three times the normal value . It is unlikely that this dose would lead to liver failure . Studies have shown significant hepatotoxicity is uncommon in patients who have taken greater than normal doses over 3 to 4 days . In adults , a dose of 6 grams a day over the preceding 48 hours could potentially lead to toxicity , while in children acute doses above 200 mg / kg could potentially cause toxicity . Acute paracetamol overdose in children rarely causes illness or death , and it is very uncommon for children to have levels that require treatment , with chronic larger @-@ than @-@ normal doses being the major cause of toxicity in children . Intravenous doses should be smaller than those taken orally , all other things being equal .
In rare individuals , paracetamol toxicity can result from normal use . This may be due to individual ( " idiosyncratic " ) differences in the expression and activity of certain enzymes in one of the metabolic pathways that handle paracetamol ( see paracetamol 's metabolism ) .
= = = Risk factors = = =
A number of factors can potentially increase the risk of developing paracetamol toxicity . Chronic excessive alcohol consumption can induce CYP2E1 , thus increasing the potential toxicity of paracetamol . In one study of patients with liver injury , 64 % reported alcohol intakes of greater than 80 grams a day , while 35 % took 60 grams a day or less . Whether chronic alcoholism should be considered a risk factor has been debated by some clinical toxicologists . For chronic alcohol users , acute alcohol ingestion at the time of a paracetamol overdose may have a protective effect . For non @-@ chronic alcohol users , acute alcohol consumption had no protective effect .
Fasting is a risk factor , possibly because of depletion of hepatic glutathione reserves . The concomitant use of the CYP2E1 inhibitor isoniazid increases the risk of hepatotoxicity , though whether 2E1 induction is related to the hepatotoxicity in this case is unclear . Concomitant use of other drugs that induce CYP enzymes , such as antiepileptics including carbamazepine , phenytoin , and barbiturates , have also been reported as risk factors .
= = Pathophysiology = =
When taken in normal therapeutic doses , paracetamol has been shown to be safe . Following a therapeutic dose , it is mostly converted to nontoxic metabolites via Phase II metabolism by conjugation with sulfate and glucuronide , with a small portion being oxidized via the cytochrome P450 enzyme system . Cytochromes P450 2E1 and 3A4 convert approximately 5 % of paracetamol to a highly reactive intermediary metabolite , N @-@ acetyl @-@ p @-@ benzoquinoneimine ( NAPQI ) . Under normal conditions , NAPQI is detoxified by conjugation with glutathione to form cysteine and mercapturic acid conjugates .
In cases of paracetamol overdose , the sulfate and glucuronide pathways become saturated , and more paracetamol is shunted to the cytochrome P450 system to produce NAPQI . As a result , hepatocellular supplies of glutathione become depleted , as the demand for glutathione is higher than its regeneration . NAPQI therefore remains in its toxic form in the liver and reacts with cellular membrane molecules , resulting in widespread hepatocyte damage and death , leading to acute hepatic necrosis . In animal studies , hepatic glutathione must be depleted to less than 70 % of normal levels before hepatotoxicity occurs .
= = Diagnosis = =
A person 's history of taking paracetamol is somewhat accurate for the diagnosis . The most effective way to diagnose poisoning is by obtaining a blood paracetamol level . A drug nomogram developed in 1975 , called the Rumack @-@ Matthew nomogram , estimates the risk of toxicity based on the serum concentration of paracetamol at a given number of hours after ingestion . To determine the risk of potential hepatotoxicity , the paracetamol level is traced along the nomogram . Use of a timed serum paracetamol level plotted on the nomogram appears to be the best marker indicating the potential for liver injury . A paracetamol level drawn in the first four hours after ingestion may underestimate the amount in the system because paracetamol may still be in the process of being absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract . Therefore , a serum level taken before 4 hours is not recommended .
Clinical or biochemical evidence of liver toxicity may develop in one to four days , although , in severe cases , it may be evident in 12 hours . Right @-@ upper @-@ quadrant tenderness may be present and can aid in diagnosis . Laboratory studies may show evidence of hepatic necrosis with elevated AST , ALT , bilirubin , and prolonged coagulation times , particularly an elevated prothrombin time . After paracetamol overdose , when AST and ALT exceed 1000 IU / L , paracetamol @-@ induced hepatotoxicity can be diagnosed . In some cases , the AST and ALT levels can exceed 10 @,@ 000 IU / L.
= = = Detection in body fluids = = =
Paracetamol may be quantified in blood , plasma , or urine as a diagnostic tool in clinical poisoning situations or to aid in the medicolegal investigation of suspicious deaths . The concentration in serum after a typical dose of paracetamol usually peaks below 30 mg / l , which equals 200 µmol / L. Levels of 30 – 300 mg / L ( 200 @-@ 2000 µmol / L ) are often observed in overdose patients . Postmortem blood levels have ranged from 50 – 400 mg / L in persons dying due to acute overdosage . Automated colorimetric techniques , gas chromatography and liquid chromatography are currently in use for the laboratory analysis of the drug in physiological specimens .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Combination with other agents = = =
One strategy for reducing harm done by acetaminophen overdoses is selling paracetamol pre @-@ combined in tablets either with an emetic or an antidote .
Paradote was a tablet sold in the UK which combined 500 mg paracetamol with 100 mg methionine , an amino acid formerly used in the treatment of paracetamol overdose .
There have been no studies so far on the effectiveness of paracetamol when given in combination with its most commonly used antidote , acetylcysteine .
Calcitriol , the active metabolite of vitamin D3 , appears to be a catalyst for glutathione production . Calcitriol was found to increase glutathione levels in rat astrocyte primary cultures on average by 42 % , increasing glutathione protein concentrations from 29 nmol / mg to 41 nmol / mg , 24 and 48 hours after administration ; it continued to have an influence on glutathione levels 96 hours after administration . It has been proposed that co @-@ administration of calcitriol , via injection , may improve treatment outcomes .
= = = Limitation of availability = = =
Limiting the availability of paracetamol tablets has been attempted in some countries . In the UK , sales of over @-@ the @-@ counter paracetamol are restricted to packs of 32 x 500 mg tablets in pharmacies , and 16 x 500 mg tablets in non @-@ pharmacy outlets . Pharmacists may provide up to 100 tablets for those with chronic conditions at the pharmacist 's discretion . In Ireland , the limits are 24 and 12 tablets , respectively . Subsequent study suggests that these interventions have had a significant effect in reducing poisoning deaths from paracetamol overdose .
One suggested method of prevention is to make paracetamol a prescription @-@ only medicine , or to remove it entirely from the market . However , overdose is a relatively minor problem ; for example , only 0 @.@ 08 % of the UK population present with paracetamol overdose each year . In contrast , paracetamol is a safe and effective medication that is taken without complications by millions of people . In addition , alternative pain relief medications such as aspirin are more toxic in overdose , whereas non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs are associated with more adverse effects following normal use .
= = = Acetaminophen replacements = = =
Paracetamol ester prodrug with L @-@ pyroglutamic acid ( PCA ) , a biosynthetic precursor of glutathione , has been synthesized to reduce paracetamol hepatotoxicity and improve bioavailability . The toxicological studies of different paracetamol esters show that L @-@ 5 @-@ oxo @-@ pyrrolidine @-@ 2 @-@ paracetamol carboxylate reduces toxicity after administration of an overdose of paracetamol to mice . The glutathione hepatic values in mice induced by intraperitoneal injection of the ester are superimposable with the GSH levels recorded in no @-@ treated mice control group . The mice group treated with an equivalent dose of paracetamol showed a significative decrease of gluthathione of 35 % ( p < 0 @.@ 01 vs untreated control group ) . The oral LD50 was found to be greater than 2000 mg kg @-@ 1 , whereas the intraperitoneal LD50 was 1900 mg kg @-@ 1 . These results taken together with the good hydrolysis and bioavailability data show that this ester is a potential candidate as a prodrug of paracetamol .
= = = Other = = =
Reducing publicity about paracetamol and the inclusion of warnings on packs of paracetamol have also been suggested as strategies to reduce overdose .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Gastric decontamination = = =
In adults , the initial treatment for paracetamol overdose is gastrointestinal decontamination . Paracetamol absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is complete within two hours under normal circumstances , so decontamination is most helpful if performed within this timeframe . Gastric lavage , better known as stomach pumping , may be considered if the amount ingested is potentially life @-@ threatening and the procedure can be performed within 60 minutes of ingestion . Activated charcoal is the most common gastrointestinal decontamination procedure as it adsorbs paracetamol , reducing its gastrointestinal absorption . Administering activated charcoal also poses less risk of aspiration than gastric lavage .
It appears that the most benefit from activated charcoal is gained if it is given within 30 minutes to two hours of ingestion . Administering activated charcoal later than 2 hours can be considered in patients that may have delayed gastric emptying due to co @-@ ingested drugs or following ingestion of sustained- or delayed @-@ release paracetamol preparations . Activated charcoal should also be administered if co @-@ ingested drugs warrant decontamination . There was reluctance to give activated charcoal in paracetamol overdose , because of the concern that it may also absorb the oral antidote acetylcysteine . Studies have shown that 39 % less acetylcysteine is absorbed into the body when they are administered together . There are conflicting recommendations regarding whether to change the dosing of oral acetylcysteine after the administration of activated charcoal , and even whether the dosing of acetylcysteine needs to be altered at all . Intravenous acetylcystine has no interaction with activated charcoal .
Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac has no role in paracetamol overdose because the vomiting it induces delays the effective administration of activated charcoal and oral acetylcysteine . Liver injury is extremely rare after acute accidental ingestion in children under 6 years of age . Children with accidental exposures do not require gastrointestinal decontamination with either gastric lavage , activated charcoal , or syrup of ipecac .
= = = Acetylcysteine = = =
Acetylcysteine , also called N @-@ acetylcysteine or NAC , works to reduce paracetamol toxicity by replenishing body stores of the antioxidant glutathione . Glutathione react with the toxic NAPQI metabolite so that it does not damage cells and can be safely excreted . NAC was usually given following a treatment nomogram ( one for patients with risk factors , and one for those without ) but the use of the nomogram is no longer recommended as evidence base to support the use of risk factors was poor and inconsistent and many of the risk factors are imprecise and difficult to determine with sufficient certainty in clinical practice . Cysteamine and methionine have also been used to prevent hepatotoxicity , although studies show that both are associated with more adverse effects than acetylcysteine . Additionally , acetylcysteine has been shown to be a more effective antidote , particularly in patients presenting greater than 8 hours post @-@ ingestion .
If the patient presents less than eight hours after paracetamol overdose , then acetylcysteine significantly reduces the risk of serious hepatotoxicity and guarantees survival . If acetylcysteine is started more than 8 hours after ingestion , there is a sharp decline in its effectiveness because the cascade of toxic events in the liver has already begun , and the risk of acute hepatic necrosis and death increases dramatically . Although acetylcysteine is most effective if given early , it still has beneficial effects if given as late as 48 hours after ingestion . In clinical practice , if the patient presents more than eight hours after the paracetamol overdose , then activated charcoal is not useful , and acetylcysteine is started immediately . In earlier presentations , charcoal can be given when the patient arrives and acetylcysteine is initiated while waiting for the paracetamol level results to return from the laboratory .
In United States practice , intravenous ( IV ) and oral administration are considered to be equally effective and safe if given within 8 hours of ingestion . However , IV is the only recommended route in Australasian and British practice . Oral acetylcysteine is given as a 140 mg / kg loading dose followed by 70 mg / kg every four hours for 17 more doses , and if the patient vomits within 1 hour of dose , the dose must be repeated . Oral acetylcysteine may be poorly tolerated due to its unpleasant taste , odor , and its tendency to cause nausea and vomiting . If repeated doses of charcoal are indicated because of another ingested drug , then subsequent doses of charcoal and acetylcysteine should be staggered .
Intravenous acetylcysteine is given as a continuous infusion over 20 hours for a total dose 300 mg / kg . Recommended administration involves infusion of a 150 mg / kg loading dose over 15 to 60 minutes , followed by a 50 mg / kg infusion over four hours ; the last 100 mg / kg are infused over the remaining 16 hours of the protocol . Intravenous acetylcysteine has the advantage of shortening hospital stay , increasing both doctor and patient convenience , and allowing administration of activated charcoal to reduce absorption of both the paracetamol and any co @-@ ingested drugs without concerns about interference with oral acetylcysteine . Intravenous dosing varies with weight , specifically in children . For patients less than 20 kg , the loading dose is 150 mg / kg in 3 mL / kg diluent , administered over 60 minutes ; the second dose is 50 mg / kg in 7 mL / kg diluent over 4 hours ; and the third and final dose is 100 mg / kg in 14 mL / kg diluent over 16 hours .
The most common adverse effect to acetylcysteine treatment is an anaphylactoid reaction , usually manifested by rash , wheeze , or mild hypotension . Adverse reactions are more common in people treated with IV acetylcysteine , occurring in 4 to 23 % of patients . Rarely , severe life @-@ threatening reactions may occur in predisposed individuals , such as patients with asthma . If an anaphylactoid reaction occurs the acetylcysteine is temporarily halted or slowed and antihistamines and other supportive care is administered .
= = = Liver transplant = = =
In patients who develop fulminant hepatic failure or who are otherwise expected to die from liver failure , the mainstay of management is liver transplantation . Liver transplants are performed in specialist centers . The most commonly used criteria for liver transplant was developed by physicians at King 's College Hospital in London . Patients are recommended for transplant if they have an arterial blood pH less than 7 @.@ 3 after fluid resuscitation or if a patient has Grade III or IV encephalopathy , a prothrombin time greater than 100 seconds , and a serum creatinine greater than 300 mmol / L In a 24 @-@ hour period . Other forms of liver support have been used including partial liver transplants . These techniques have the advantage of supporting the patient while their own liver regenerates . Once liver function returns immunosuppressive drugs are commenced and they have to take immunosuppressive medication for the rest of their lives .
= = Prognosis = =
The mortality rate from paracetamol overdose increases two days after the ingestion , reaches a maximum on day four , and then gradually decreases . Acidemia is the most important single indicator of probable mortality and the need for transplantation . A mortality rate of 95 % without transplant was reported in patients who had a documented pH less than 7 @.@ 30 . Other indicators of poor prognosis include renal insufficiency , grade 3 or worse hepatic encephalopathy , a markedly elevated prothrombin time , or an elevated blood lactic acid level . One study has shown that a factor V level less than 10 % of normal indicated a poor prognosis ( 91 % mortality ) , whereas a ratio of factor VIII to factor V of less than 30 indicated a good prognosis ( 100 % survival ) . Patients with a poor prognosis are usually identified for likely liver transplantation . Patients that do not die are expected to fully recover and have a normal life expectancy and quality of life .
= = Epidemiology = =
Paracetamol is contained in many preparations , available as both over @-@ the @-@ counter and as prescription @-@ only medications . Because of its wide availability paired with comparably high toxicity , ( compared to ibuprofen and aspirin ) there is a much higher potential for overdose . Paracetamol toxicity is one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide . In the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , and New Zealand , paracetamol is the most common cause of drug overdoses . Additionally , in both the United States and the United Kingdom it is the most common cause of acute liver failure .
In England and Wales an estimated 41 @,@ 200 cases of paracetamol poisoning occurred in 1989 to 1990 , with a mortality of 0 @.@ 40 % . It is estimated that 150 to 200 deaths and 15 to 20 liver transplants occur as a result of poisoning each year in England and Wales . Paracetamol overdose results in more calls to poison control centers in the US than overdose of any other pharmacological substance , accounting for more than 100 @,@ 000 calls , as well as 56 @,@ 000 emergency room visits , 2 @,@ 600 hospitalizations , and 458 deaths due to acute liver failure per year . A study of cases of acute liver failure between November 2000 and October 2004 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA found that paracetamol was the cause of 41 % of all cases in adults , and 25 % of cases in children .
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= Tropical Storm Odette ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Odette was a rare off @-@ season tropical storm that affected the Caribbean Sea in December 2003 . The 15th tropical storm of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season , Odette formed near the coast of Panama a few days after the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season , and ultimately made landfall on the Dominican Republic as a moderate tropical storm .
The storm caused heavy damage throughout the Dominican Republic from unusually heavy rainfall in December . Preparation preceding Odette 's landfall resulted in only eight deaths and 14 injuries . Total damage is unknown , though crop damage in the Dominican Republic totaled to over $ 8 million ( 2003 USD , $ 10 @.@ 3 million 2015 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
By November 30 , the last day of the Atlantic hurricane season , a stationary front extended across eastern Cuba into the southwestern Caribbean Sea . On December 1 , a low pressure area developed within the frontal zone just north of Panama , and an anticyclone aloft produced good outflow over the low @-@ level center . The low remained nearly stationary for the next several days , and it gradually became separated from the stationary front . Convection increased across the area due to moisture from the eastern Pacific Ocean and moderate divergence . Increased wind shear deteriorated the system on December 2 , though convection redeveloped as the system started a northeast drift . On December 3 a mid @-@ level circulation developed about 140 miles ( 225 km ) north of the surface center . Convection increased and became better organized as a weak tropical wave reached the area , and it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Twenty at around 1200 UTC on December 4 while located about 345 miles ( 560 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica ; initially , the depression was forecast to track north @-@ northeastward and pass over western Haiti .
Upon being classified as a tropical cyclone , the depression was embedded within the southwesterly flow between a ridge over the eastern Caribbean Sea and a mid @-@ latitude trough , which caused a steady east @-@ northeast motion . The convection organized into a central dense overcast with a well @-@ defined cloud band wrapping partially around the center , and based on satellite imagery estimates the depression was upgraded to tropical storm status ; late on December 4 , the National Hurricane Center named the storm Odette . After being named , the storm intensified despite moderate southwesterly wind shear , and an eye feature became evident on microwave satellite imagery . Additionally , about three – fourths of a mid @-@ level eyewall developed . The storm was assessed with winds of 40 – 50 mph ( 65 – 85 km / h ) , though the National Hurricane Center remarked the winds could have been stronger due to lack of structural data . The eye feature diminished as the convective structure deteriorated slightly , and Hurricane Hunters first flew into the storm at around 1200 UTC on December 5 . Odette tracked over an area of warm sea surface temperatures , and the overall cloud pattern gradually improved ; the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory predicted the storm to attain hurricane status . Early on December 6 , a TRMM overpass showed an 80 % closed eyewall , and at 0600 UTC Odette attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) while located about 245 miles ( 395 km / h ) southwest of Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic .
Upon reaching peak intensity , Odette had begun accelerating northeastward , which decreased wind shear and slightly increased its southwesterly outflow . The low @-@ level center decelerated as it approached Hispaniola , though the convection continued quickly northeastward . Failing to maintain vertical organization , Odette weakened slightly and made landfall on Jaragua National Park , in the Pedernales Province of the Dominican Republic , around 2300 UTC on December 6 with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The circulation became disrupted as it crossed the country , and on December 7 it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It accelerated to the northeast ahead of an approaching cold front , and late on December 7 Odette transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as its center became embedded within the front . The remnants continued quickly northeastward before losing its identity within the frontal zone on December 9 ; the frontal zone that absorbed Odette also absorbed Tropical Storm Peter a few days later .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to Odette 's predicted arrival , the Dominican Republic government issued for the evacuation of more than 10 @,@ 000 people , mostly from those living near rivers . At least 2 @,@ 000 shelters were set up , capable of housing up to 800 @,@ 000 people . In addition , the government mobilized the army to force those unwilling to leave from their homes . Such precautions were taken due to already saturated grounds from heavy rainfall three weeks prior .
A tropical storm watch was issued between Santo Domingo and the Dominican Republic / Haiti border on December 4 , 56 hours prior to landfall . This was raised to a tropical storm warning on December 5 while 32 hours before landfall . In addition , tropical storm warnings were issued for all of the Haitian coastline and Jamaica .
= = Impact = =
While over the southwestern Caribbean Sea , Odette dropped heavy rainfall , including prior to its formation . For several days , the storm caused rains in Panama , Costa Rica , and the east coast of Nicaragua . In Colombia , the storm caused rainfall totals of up to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in Puerto Colombia . In Jamaica , the storm dropped moderate rainfall , flooding several roads in Saint Ann and Saint Mary Parishes . Odette caused moderate damage and 8 deaths in the Dominican Republic .
= = = Dominican Republic = = =
Winds from Tropical Storm Odette were relatively light across the Dominican Republic , with a peak gust of 60 mph occurring in Santo Domingo . The storm dropped heavy rainfall for several hours , amounting to a maximum of 9 @.@ 07 inches ( 230 mm ) in Isla Saona . Several other locations reported over 4 inches as well . The rainfall caused mudslides and flash flooding , forcing several rivers to overflow in combination with previous rains . In addition , a tornado was reported near Santo Domingo , destroying one house and uproofing several others .
The flooding and mudslides damaged up to 60 @,@ 000 homes and destroyed 34 . Gusty winds caused power outages . River flooding caused two bridges to collapse , isolating several communities . Landslides buried several roads , though authorities quickly repaired them . The rainfall also flooded fields , resulting in severe crop damage . As much as 85 % of the banana crop was lost , while the coffee crop suffered losses shortly before harvest season . Crop damage totaled to around $ 8 million ( 2003 USD ) . In addition , excess flooding contaminated water supplies , leaving several areas without clean water or sanitation .
In all , Tropical Storm Odette caused 8 deaths and 14 injuries , mostly due to flash flooding and mudslides . In addition , two indirect deaths are associated with the storm due to heart attacks . Neighboring Haiti experienced little from the storm .
= = = Puerto Rico and United States Virgin Islands = = =
Though Odette passed 280 miles to the west of Mayagüez , Puerto Rico , the storm caused moderate rainfall across Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands . Rainfall in Puerto Rico was heaviest in the southeast , where a peak of 8 @.@ 73 in ( 221 @.@ 74 mm ) was recorded in Jajome Alto . The storm also caused up to 2 @.@ 2 in ( 55 @.@ 9 mm ) of rainfall in Christiansted on Saint Croix .
Odette 's rainfall caused flooding throughout the island 's rivers . The river flooding destroyed three bridges , resulting in $ 20 @,@ 000 in damages ( 2003 USD ) . The flooding also caused a mudslide near a cemetery in Humacao . The rainfall also covered numerous roads , though overall damage was minimal throughout Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands .
= = Aftermath and records = =
In all , 65 @,@ 000 people were affected by Tropical Storm Odette . The Dominican Republic Red Cross and Red Crescent deployed 105 volunteers to the impacted areas , primarily in the area of Monte Cristi . The organization provided food and hygiene kits to thousands of people , as well as mosquito nets . The Red Cross also gave a 5 @,@ 000 liter water tank for the citizens in Monte Cristi , an area without clean water or sanitation .
When Odette formed on December 4 , it became the first tropical storm since the beginning of the modern tropical cyclone record to form in the Caribbean Sea in the month of December ; a documented December Caribbean hurricane occurred in 1822 . However , Tropical Storm Karen , which formed in November 1989 , persisted until December while located in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . In addition , Odette was the first Atlantic storm to form in the month of December since Hurricane Lili in 1984 .
The 2003 season was the first season since 1953 to have a pre @-@ season storm and a post @-@ season storm , with Ana in April and Odette .
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= Svalbard Airport , Longyear =
Svalbard Airport , Longyear ( IATA : LYR , ICAO : ENSB ; Norwegian : Svalbard lufthavn , Longyear ) is the main airport serving Svalbard in Norway . It is located 1 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 3 km ) northwest of Longyearbyen , and it is the northernmost airport in the world with public scheduled flights . The first airport near Longyearbyen was constructed during World War II . In 1959 , it was first taken into use for occasional flights , but could only be used a few months a year . Construction of the new airport at Hotellneset started in 1973 , and the airport was opened on 2 September 1975 . It is owned and operated by state @-@ owned Avinor .
In 2014 , the airport had 154 @,@ 261 passengers . Scandinavian Airlines operates daily flights to Tromsø and Oslo in mainland Norway . Lufttransport provides services to the two other airports on Svalbard : Ny @-@ Ålesund and Svea , using Dornier Do 228 turboprop aircraft . There are also regular charter flights .
= = History = =
= = = Adventdalen = = =
The first air strip on Svalbard was constructed in Adventdalen , near Longyearbyen , by the Luftwaffe during World War II . This was not used after the war ; during the summer the archipelago was served by ships , but was completely isolated from November to May . In the early 1950s , the Norwegian Air Force started postal flights using a Catalina aircraft that departed from Tromsø and dropped postal parcels at Bear Island and at Longyearbyen . However , these aircraft never landed until 9 February 1959 , when a resident had become seriously ill , and needed to be flown to mainland Norway for treatment . The mining company Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani cleared the runway at Adventsdalen and the 14 @-@ hour flight and landing was successful . A second landing , this time for delivery of post , was made on 11 March .
While the Catalina was suitable for postal flights , it was not suitable for a permanent solution for transporting passengers and freight , mainly due to its small size . Store Norske contacted the domestic airline Braathens SAFE for a regular service . The first trial flight was made on 2 April 1959 with a Douglas DC @-@ 4 with 54 passengers from Bardufoss Airport . Store Norske cleared a 1 @,@ 800 by 40 metres ( 5 @,@ 910 by 130 ft ) runway for the aircraft . The next flight was done in 1962 , followed by one in 1963 and two in 1964 . Due to lack of runway lights , flights could only be done during daylight , thus hindering flights during parts of December and January , when the sun never rises . By April , the runway could melt , and no flights could be done during summer . Navigation was conducted using radio signals from Bear Island and Isfjord .
The first night landing was made on 8 December 1965 . The DC @-@ 4 took off from the new Tromsø Airport and dropped mail at Bear Island before continuing to Longyearbyen . The runway was lit up using paraffin lamps and lights from cars parked along the runway . A radio transmitter was also installed at Hotellneset . During the 1965 – 66 season , Braathens SAFE made 16 flights to Svalbard . The following two seasons , the contract was awarded to Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) , but after that they reverted to Braathens SAFE . Fred . Olsen Airtransport made its first flight to Svalbard in 1966 . By 1969 , a total of 50 flights had been made to Svalbard , and by 1972 , the 100th was made . By then , Braathens SAFE had started using Douglas DC @-@ 6B aircraft . During these years , Store Norske also installed permanent lights . The first jet plane , to land in Adventdalen was a Fred Olsen Flyselskap Dassault Falcon 20 , LN @-@ FOI . The landing was in 1971 , and the aircraft brought in 1700 lbs of mail and passengers , picking up a geological survey party . A Fokker F @-@ 28 , landed on 29 April 1972 . From 1974 , Boeing 737 @-@ 200C aircraft were taken into use . It had a side cargo door , allowing easy loading of cargo into the main cabin . Braathens SAFE built a small depot with spare parts and up to 90 @,@ 000 litres ( 20 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 24 @,@ 000 US gal ) fuel . Aeroflot started flights to Adventdalen in 1973 to serve the neighboring Russian community of Barentsburg .
= = = Hotellneset = = =
The Svalbard Treaty specifies that no military installations are permitted on the archipelago . The Soviet authorities were concerned that a permanent civilian airport could also be used by Norwegian and NATO forces . But the Soviets also needed an airport to serve their settlements at Barentsburg and Pyramiden , and by the early 1970s , an understanding was reached between the two countries .
Construction started in 1973 . The airport needed to be built on permafrost . The runway is insulated against the ground , so it will not melt during the summer . The hangar is frozen into the ground , with the pillars being melted into place and then being frozen stuck . The runway was plagued with frost heave due to an incorrect construction method , forcing the airport to regularly re @-@ asphalt the runway . In 1989 , parts of the runway were re @-@ insulated , giving these areas that previously had been the worst an acceptable solution . In 2006 , this measure was conducted on the remaining parts of the runway . An upgrade to the terminal building to allow larger capacity was completed in 2007 .
= = = Services = = =
Both Braathens SAFE and SAS applied for the concession to fly from the mainland to Norway . This was granted to SAS , who would have one weekly service . From the airport was taken into use until the official opening , Braathens SAFE continued to fly charter flights for Store Norske . The first landing at the new airport was made on 14 September 1974 with a Fokker F @-@ 28 , and Braathens SAFE continued to fly until 1 September 1975 . Russian authorities granted a concession for a semi @-@ weekly service by Aeroflot from Murmansk Airport . The first attempt to officially open the airport was made with a SAS Douglas DC @-@ 9 on 14 August 1975 . Among the guests on board was King Olav V , but thick fog at Longyearbyen forced the airplane to return . On 1 September , a Fokker F @-@ 27 from Braathens SAFE was used to calibrate the runways ; on board were pilots from SAS and Aeroflot to learn about the landing conditions . The following day , the second attempt to open the airport was successful . In addition to the scheduled services , Store Norske chartered cargo flights from Fred Olsen Air Transport .
Lufttransport has been at the airport since 1976 . In 1984 , two Bell 212 helicopters were stationed at the airport on contract with the Governor of Svalbard . The company signed an agreement with the Norwegian Coast Guard to have a Partenavia Spartacus planes stationed at Longyearbyen for fishery surveillance . Since 1994 , the company has had a Dornier Do 228 stationed at the airport , and two since 2001 .
On 14 August 1987 , Braathens SAFE re @-@ entered the market , flying in parallel with SAS to Tromsø and Oslo . For the first time , the scheduled flights to Oslo were offered as day flights instead of the night flights offered by SAS . In 2002 , after SAS bought Braathens , the subsidiary took over all flights to Longyearbyen for the group . From May 2004 , they merged to SAS Braathens , that again became SAS from 1 June 2007 . From 1 April to 1 November 2004 , Norwegian Air Shuttle introduced three weekly services to Longyearbyen to Tromsø and Oslo , using Boeing 737 @-@ 300 aircraft , but the service was terminated due to low loads . A new service was started on 27 March 2008 , with two direct services to Oslo , using larger Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft. but again the route was terminated later the same year . As of 2014 , Norwegian is again flying to Svalbard from Oslo . Finnair announced to begin flights from Helsinki in summer 2016 , but Norwegian authorities did not allow this route as it was not in bilateral agreement on air traffic between Finland and Norway .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located 1 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 0 km ; 1 @.@ 8 mi ) northwest of Longyearbyen , the largest settlement on Svalbard . The airport also serves the nearby Russian settlement of Barentsburg . The mainland Norway is part of the Schengen Area , but Svalbard is excluded , so from 2011 there is passport control at the airport . A passport , a national ID card indicating nationality , or a Norwegian ID card is needed .
There are 200 free outdoor parking spaces at the airport . There are taxis , rental cars and airport coaches available at the airport ( a shuttle bus operates to hotels and guesthouses in Longyearbyen and Nybyen ) . Scandinavian Airlines provides handling services through SAS Ground Services .
The runway is 2 @,@ 483 metres ( 8 @,@ 146 ft ) long and aligned 10 / 28 ( roughly east – west ) , equipped with instrument landing system , but there are no taxiways . The 45 metres ( 148 ft ) wide runway has two culverts that allow water from the mountain Platåberget to drain under it . About one third of the runway is dug into the terrain , while about two @-@ thirds is built on an embankment . A layer of frost @-@ stable fill , varying from 1 to 4 metres ( 3 ft 3 in to 13 ft 1 in ) is under the runway to hinder the soil from unfreezing during summer .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
Lufttransport has a base at Svalbard Airport with two 19 @-@ seat Dornier Do 228 @-@ 202K aircraft and 15 employees . The airline flies daily trips to Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben on behalf of Kings Bay with research personnel and about thirty trips per week to Svea Airport on behalf of Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani with mining personnel . These routes involve transport of 21 @,@ 000 passengers and 500 tonnes of cargo per year . On behalf of the Norwegian Coast Guard , Lufttransport flies about 400 hours annual of aerial surveillance . Scandinavian Airlines flies six times a week to Tromsø Airport and onwards to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . The Barentsburg mine has a Mi @-@ 8 helicopter used for travel to and from the Longyearbyen airport and more . The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is located a few miles south of the airport .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 10 October 1986 , a Cessna 185 from Antarctax crashed immediately after leaving Svalbard Airport en route to Ny @-@ Ålesund , killing all six on board .
On 29 August 1996 , Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 from Vnukovo Airport , Moscow , crashed into a mountain about 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from the airport . All 141 people on board the Tupolev Tu @-@ 154M died . It is the worst air crash in Norwegian history .
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= Seattle =
Seattle ( / siˈætəl / ) is a West Coast seaport city and the seat of King County , Washington . With an estimated 684 @,@ 451 residents as of 2015 , Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America . In July 2013 , it was the fastest @-@ growing major city in the United States and remained in the Top 5 in May 2015 with an annual growth rate of 2 @.@ 1 % . The Seattle metropolitan area is the 15th largest metropolitan area in the United States with over 3 @.@ 7 million inhabitants . The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound ( an inlet of the Pacific Ocean ) and Lake Washington , about 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of the Canada – United States border . A major gateway for trade with Asia , Seattle is the third largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015 .
The Seattle area was previously inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4 @,@ 000 years before the first permanent European settlers . Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers , subsequently known as the Denny Party , arrived from Illinois via Portland , Oregon , on the schooner Exact at Alki Point on November 13 , 1851 . The settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named it " Seattle " in 1852 , after Chief Si 'ahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes .
Logging was Seattle 's first major industry , but by the late @-@ 19th century , the city had become a commercial and shipbuilding center as a gateway to Alaska during the Klondike Gold Rush . By 1910 , Seattle was one of the 25 largest cities in the country . However , the Great Depression severely damaged the city 's economy . Growth returned during and after World War II partially due to the local Boeing company , which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing . The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s , with companies like Microsoft becoming established in the region . In 1994 , Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle . The stream of new software , biotechnology , and Internet companies led to an economic revival , which increased the city 's population by almost 50 @,@ 000 between 1990 and 2000 .
Seattle has a noteworthy musical history . From 1918 to 1951 , nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street , from the current Chinatown / International District , to the Central District . The jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles , Quincy Jones , Ernestine Anderson , and others . Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4 @,@ 000 years . By the time the first European settlers arrived , the people ( subsequently called the Duwamish tribe ) occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay .
The first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver , in May 1792 during his 1791 – 95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest . In 1851 , a large party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River ; they formally claimed it on September 14 , 1851 . Thirteen days later , members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party . Members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28 , 1851 . The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland , Oregon and landed on Alki point during a rainstorm on November 13 , 1851 .
= = = Duwamps 1852 – 1853 = = =
After a difficult winter , most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present @-@ day Pioneer Square , naming this new settlement Duwamps . Charles Terry and John Low remained at the original landing location and reestablished their old land claim and called it " New York " , but renamed " New York Alki " in April 1853 , from a Chinook word meaning , roughly , " by and by " or " someday " . For the next few years , New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance , but in time Alki was abandoned and its residents moved across the bay to join the rest of the settlers .
David Swinson " Doc " Maynard , one of the founders of Duwamps , was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth ( " Seattle " ) of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes .
= = = Incorporations = = =
The name " Seattle " appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23 , 1853 , when the first plats for the village were filed . In 1855 , nominal land settlements were established . On January 14 , 1865 , the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of trustees managing the city . The town of Seattle was disincorporated January 18 , 1867 and remained a mere precinct of King County until late 1869 , when a new petition was filed and the city was re @-@ incorporated December 2 , 1869 with a Mayor @-@ council government . The corporate seal of the City of Seattle carries the date " 1869 " and a likeness of Chief Sealth in left profile .
= = = Timber town = = =
Seattle has a history of boom @-@ and @-@ bust cycles , like many other cities near areas of extensive natural and mineral resources . Seattle has risen several times economically , then gone into precipitous decline , but it has typically used those periods to rebuild solid infrastructure .
The first such boom , covering the early years of the city , rode on the lumber industry . ( During this period the road now known as Yesler Way won the nickname " Skid Road " , supposedly after the timber skidding down the hill to Henry Yesler 's sawmill . The later dereliction of the area may be a possible origin for the term which later entered the wider American lexicon as Skid Row . ) Like much of the American West , Seattle saw numerous conflicts between labor and management , as well as ethnic tensions that culminated in the anti @-@ Chinese riots of 1885 – 1886 . This violence originated with unemployed whites who were determined to drive the Chinese from Seattle ( anti @-@ Chinese riots also occurred in Tacoma ) . In 1900 , Asians were 4 @.@ 2 % of the population . Authorities declared martial law and federal troops arrived to put down the disorder .
Seattle achieved sufficient economic success that when the Great Seattle Fire of 1889 destroyed the central business district , a far grander city @-@ center rapidly emerged in its place . Finance company Washington Mutual , for example , was founded in the immediate wake of the fire . However , the Panic of 1893 hit Seattle hard .
= = = Gold Rush , World War I , and the Great Depression = = =
The second and most dramatic boom and bust resulted from the Klondike Gold Rush , which ended the depression that had begun with the Panic of 1893 ; in a short time , Seattle became a major transportation center . On July 14 , 1897 , the S.S. Portland docked with its famed " ton of gold " , and Seattle became the main transport and supply point for the miners in Alaska and the Yukon . Few of those working men found lasting wealth , however ; it was Seattle 's business of clothing the miners and feeding them salmon that panned out in the long run . Along with Seattle , other cities like Everett , Tacoma , Port Townsend , Bremerton , and Olympia , all in the Puget Sound region , became competitors for exchange , rather than mother lodes for extraction , of precious metals . The boom lasted well into the early part of the 20th century and funded many new Seattle companies and products . In 1907 , 19 @-@ year @-@ old James E. Casey borrowed $ 100 from a friend and founded the American Messenger Company ( later UPS ) . Other Seattle companies founded during this period include Nordstrom and Eddie Bauer . Seattle brought in the Olmsted Brothers landscape architecture firm to design a system of parks and boulevards .
The Gold Rush era culminated in the Alaska @-@ Yukon @-@ Pacific Exposition of 1909 , which is largely responsible for the layout of today 's University of Washington campus .
A shipbuilding boom in the early part of the 20th century became massive during World War I , making Seattle somewhat of a company town ; the subsequent retrenchment led to the Seattle General Strike of 1919 , the first general strike in the country . A 1912 city development plan by Virgil Bogue went largely unused . Seattle was mildly prosperous in the 1920s but was particularly hard hit in the Great Depression , experiencing some of the country 's harshest labor strife in that era . Violence during the Maritime Strike of 1934 cost Seattle much of its maritime traffic , which was rerouted to the Port of Los Angeles .
Seattle was also the home base of impresario Alexander Pantages who , starting in 1902 , opened a number of theaters in the city exhibiting vaudeville acts and silent movies . His activities soon expanded , and the thrifty Greek went on and became one of America 's greatest theater and movie tycoons . Between Pantages and his rival John Considine , Seattle was for a while the western United States ' vaudeville mecca . B. Marcus Priteca , the Scottish @-@ born and Seattle @-@ based architect , built several theaters for Pantages , including some in Seattle . The theaters he built for Pantages in Seattle have been either demolished or converted to other uses , but many other theaters survive in other cities of the U.S. , often retaining the Pantages name ; Seattle 's surviving Paramount Theatre , on which he collaborated , was not a Pantages theater .
= = = Post @-@ war years : aircraft and software = = =
War work again brought local prosperity during World War II , this time centered on Boeing aircraft . The war dispersed the city 's numerous Japanese @-@ American businessmen due to the Japanese American internment . After the war , the local economy dipped . It rose again with Boeing 's growing dominance in the commercial airliner market . Seattle celebrated its restored prosperity and made a bid for world recognition with the Century 21 Exposition , the 1962 World 's Fair . Another major local economic downturn was in the late 1960s and early 1970s , at a time when Boeing was heavily affected by the oil crises , loss of Government contracts , and costs and delays associated with the Boeing 747 . Many people left the area to look for work elsewhere , and two local real estate agents put up a billboard reading " Will the last person leaving Seattle – Turn out the lights . "
Seattle remained the corporate headquarters of Boeing until 2001 , when the company separated its headquarters from its major production facilities ; the headquarters were moved to Chicago . The Seattle area is still home to Boeing 's Renton narrow @-@ body plant ( where the 707 , 720 , 727 , and 757 were assembled , and the 737 is assembled today ) and Everett wide @-@ body plant ( assembly plant for the 747 , 767 , 777 , and 787 ) . The company 's credit union for employees , BECU , remains based in the Seattle area , though it is now open to all residents of Washington .
As prosperity began to return in the 1980s , the city was stunned by the Wah Mee massacre in 1983 , when 13 people were killed in an illegal gambling club in the International District , Seattle 's Chinatown . Beginning with Microsoft 's 1979 move from Albuquerque , New Mexico to nearby Bellevue , Washington , Seattle and its suburbs became home to a number of technology companies including Amazon.com , RealNetworks , Nintendo of America , McCaw Cellular ( now part of AT & T Mobility ) , VoiceStream ( now T @-@ Mobile ) , and biomedical corporations such as HeartStream ( later purchased by Philips ) , Heart Technologies ( later purchased by Boston Scientific ) , Physio @-@ Control ( later purchased by Medtronic ) , ZymoGenetics , ICOS ( later purchased by Eli Lilly and Company ) and Immunex ( later purchased by Amgen ) . This success brought an influx of new residents with a population increase within city limits of almost 50 @,@ 000 between 1990 and 2000 , and saw Seattle 's real estate become some of the most expensive in the country . In 1993 , the movie Sleepless in Seattle brought the city further national attention . Many of the Seattle area 's tech companies remained relatively strong , but the frenzied dot @-@ com boom years ended in early 2001 .
Seattle in this period attracted widespread attention as home to these many companies , but also by hosting the 1990 Goodwill Games and the APEC leaders conference in 1993 , as well as through the worldwide popularity of grunge , a sound that had developed in Seattle 's independent music scene . Another bid for worldwide attention — hosting the World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 — garnered visibility , but not in the way its sponsors desired , as related protest activity and police reactions to those protests overshadowed the conference itself . The city was further shaken by the Mardi Gras Riots in 2001 , and then literally shaken the following day by the Nisqually earthquake .
Yet another boom began as the city emerged from the Great Recession . Amazon.com moved its headquarters from North Beacon Hill to South Lake Union and began a rapid expansion . For the five years beginning in 2010 , Seattle gained an average of 14 @,@ 511 residents per year , with the growth strongly skewed toward the center of the city , as unemployment dropped from roughly 9 percent to 3 @.@ 6 percent . The city has found itself " bursting at the seams " , with over 45 @,@ 000 households spending more than half their income on housing and at least 2 @,@ 800 people homeless , and with the country 's sixth @-@ worst rush hour traffic .
= = Geography = =
With a land area of 83 @.@ 9 square miles ( 217 @.@ 3 km ² ) , Seattle is the northernmost city with at least 500 @,@ 000 people in the United States , farther north than Canadian cities such as Toronto , Ottawa , and Montreal , at about the same latitude as Salzburg , Austria .
The topography of Seattle is hilly . The city lies on several hills , including Capitol Hill , First Hill , West Seattle , Beacon Hill , Magnolia , Denny Hill , and Queen Anne . The Kitsap and the Olympic peninsulas along with the Olympic mountains lie to the west of Puget Sound , while the Cascade Range and Lake Sammamish lie to the east of Lake Washington . The city has over 5 @,@ 540 acres ( 2 @,@ 242 ha ) of parkland .
= = = Cityscape = = =
= = = Topography = = =
Seattle is located between the saltwater Puget Sound ( an arm of the Pacific Ocean ) to the west and Lake Washington to the east . The city 's chief harbor , Elliott Bay , is part of Puget Sound , which makes the city an oceanic port . To the west , beyond Puget Sound , are the Kitsap Peninsula and Olympic Mountains on the Olympic Peninsula ; to the east , beyond Lake Washington and the eastside suburbs , are Lake Sammamish and the Cascade Range . Lake Washington 's waters flow to Puget Sound through the Lake Washington Ship Canal ( consisting of two man @-@ made canals , Lake Union , and the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks at Salmon Bay , ending in Shilshole Bay on Puget Sound ) .
The sea , rivers , forests , lakes , and fields surrounding Seattle were once rich enough to support one of the world 's few sedentary hunter @-@ gatherer societies . The surrounding area lends itself well to sailing , skiing , bicycling , camping , and hiking year @-@ round .
The city itself is hilly , though not uniformly so . Like Rome , the city is said to lie on seven hills ; the lists vary but typically include Capitol Hill , First Hill , West Seattle , Beacon Hill , Queen Anne , Magnolia , and the former Denny Hill . The Wallingford , Mount Baker , and Crown Hill neighborhoods are technically located on hills as well . Many of the hilliest areas are near the city center , with Capitol Hill , First Hill , and Beacon Hill collectively constituting something of a ridge along an isthmus between Elliott Bay and Lake Washington . The break in the ridge between First Hill and Beacon Hill is man @-@ made , the result of two of the many regrading projects that reshaped the topography of the city center . The topography of the city center was also changed by the construction of a seawall and the artificial Harbor Island ( completed 1909 ) at the mouth of the city 's industrial Duwamish Waterway , the terminus of the Green River . The highest point within city limits is at High Point in West Seattle , which is roughly located near 35th Ave SW and SW Myrtle St. Other notable hills include Crown Hill , View Ridge / Wedgwood / Bryant , Maple Leaf , Phinney Ridge , Mt . Baker Ridge , and Highlands / Carkeek / Bitterlake .
North of the city center , Lake Washington Ship Canal connects Puget Sound to Lake Washington . It incorporates four natural bodies of water : Lake Union , Salmon Bay , Portage Bay , and Union Bay .
Due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire , Seattle is in a major earthquake zone . On February 28 , 2001 , the magnitude 6 @.@ 8 Nisqually earthquake did significant architectural damage , especially in the Pioneer Square area ( built on reclaimed land , as are the Industrial District and part of the city center ) , but caused only one fatality . Other strong quakes occurred on January 26 , 1700 ( estimated at 9 magnitude ) , December 14 , 1872 ( 7 @.@ 3 or 7 @.@ 4 ) , April 13 , 1949 ( 7 @.@ 1 ) , and April 29 , 1965 ( 6 @.@ 5 ) . The 1965 quake caused three deaths in Seattle directly and one more by heart failure . Although the Seattle Fault passes just south of the city center , neither it nor the Cascadia subduction zone has caused an earthquake since the city 's founding . The Cascadia subduction zone poses the threat of an earthquake of magnitude 9 @.@ 0 or greater , capable of seriously damaging the city and collapsing many buildings , especially in zones built on fill .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 142 @.@ 5 square miles ( 369 km2 ) , 83 @.@ 9 square miles ( 217 km2 ) of which is land and 58 @.@ 7 square miles ( 152 km2 ) , water ( 41 @.@ 16 % of the total area ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Seattle 's climate is classified as oceanic or temperate marine , with cool , wet winters and warm , relatively dry summers . Like much of the Pacific Northwest , according to the Köppen climate classification it has a warm @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) . Other climate classification systems , such as Trewartha , place it in the Oceanic zone ( Do ) , like much of Western Europe . The city and environs are part of USDA hardiness zone 8b , with isolated coastal pockets falling under 9a .
Hot temperature extremes are enhanced by dry , compressed wind from the west slopes of the Cascades , while cold temperatures are generated mainly from the Fraser Valley in British Columbia .
Temperature extremes are moderated by the adjacent Puget Sound , greater Pacific Ocean , and Lake Washington . The region is largely shielded from Pacific storms by the Olympic Mountains and from Arctic air by the Cascade Range . Despite being on the margin of the rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains , the city has a reputation for frequent rain . This reputation stems from the frequency of light precipitation in the fall , winter , and spring . In an average year , at least 0 @.@ 01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) of precipitation falls on 150 days , more than nearly all U.S. cities east of the Rocky Mountains . It is cloudy 201 days out of the year and partly cloudy 93 days . Official weather and climatic data is collected at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , located about 19 km ( 12 mi ) south of downtown in the city of SeaTac , which is at a higher elevation , and records more cloudy days and fewer partly cloudy days per year .
From 1981 to 2010 , the average annual precipitation measured at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport was 37 @.@ 49 inches ( 952 mm ) . Annual precipitation has ranged from 23 @.@ 78 in ( 604 mm ) in 1952 to 55 @.@ 14 in ( 1 @,@ 401 mm ) in 1950 ; for water year ( October 1 – September 30 ) precipitation , the range is 23 @.@ 16 in ( 588 mm ) in 1976 – 77 to 51 @.@ 82 in ( 1 @,@ 316 mm ) in 1996 – 97 . Due to local variations in microclimate , Seattle also receives significantly lower precipitation than some other locations west of the Cascades . Around 80 mi ( 129 km ) to the west , the Hoh Rain Forest in Olympic National Park on the western flank of the Olympic Mountains receives an annual average precipitation of 142 in ( 3 @.@ 61 m ) . Sixty miles ( 95 km ) to the south of Seattle , the state capital Olympia , which is out of the Olympic Mountains ' rain shadow , receives an annual average precipitation of 50 in ( 1 @,@ 270 mm ) . The city of Bremerton , about 15 mi ( 24 km ) west of downtown Seattle , receives 56 @.@ 4 in ( 1 @,@ 430 mm ) of precipitation annually .
In November , Seattle averages more rainfall than any other U.S. city of more than 250 @,@ 000 people ; it also ranks highly in winter precipitation . Conversely , the city receives some of the lowest precipitation amounts of any large city from June to September . Seattle is one of the five rainiest major U.S. cities as measured by the number of days with precipitation , and it receives some of the lowest amounts of annual sunshine among major cities in the lower 48 states , along with some cities in the Northeast , Ohio and Michigan . Thunderstorms are rare , as the city reports thunder on just seven days per year . By comparison , Fort Myers , Florida reports thunder on 93 days per year , Kansas City on 52 , and New York City on 25 .
Seattle experiences its heaviest rainfall during the months of November , December and January , receiving roughly half of its annual rainfall ( by volume ) during this period . In late fall and early winter , atmospheric rivers ( also known as " Pineapple Express " systems ) , strong frontal systems , and Pacific low pressure systems are common . Light rain & drizzle are the predominant forms of precipitation during the remainder of the year ; for instance , on average , less than 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) of rain falls in July and August combined when rain is rare . On occasion , Seattle experiences somewhat more significant weather events . One such event occurred on December 2 – 4 , 2007 , when sustained hurricane @-@ force winds and widespread heavy rainfall associated with a strong Pineapple Express event occurred in the greater Puget Sound area and the western parts of Washington and Oregon . Precipitation totals exceeded 13 @.@ 8 in ( 350 mm ) in some areas with winds topping out at 209 km / h ( 130 mph ) along coastal Oregon . It became the second wettest event in Seattle history when a little over 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) of rain fell on Seattle in a 24 @-@ hour period . Lack of adaptation to the heavy rain contributed to five deaths and widespread flooding and damage .
Autumn , winter , and early spring are frequently characterized by rain . Winters are cool and wet with December , the coolest month , averaging 40 @.@ 6 ° F ( 4 @.@ 8 ° C ) , with 28 annual days with lows that reach the freezing mark , and 2 @.@ 0 days where the temperature stays at or below freezing all day ; the temperature rarely lowers to 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) . Summers are sunny , dry and warm , with August , the warmest month , averaging 66 @.@ 1 ° F ( 18 @.@ 9 ° C ) , and with temperatures reaching 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on 3 @.@ 1 days per year , although 2011 is the most recent year to not reach 90 ° F. The hottest officially recorded temperature was 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) on July 29 , 2009 ; the coldest recorded temperature was 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) on January 31 , 1950 ; the record cold daily maximum is 16 ° F ( − 9 ° C ) on January 14 , 1950 , while , conversely , the record warm daily minimum is 71 ° F ( 22 ° C ) the day the official record high was set . The average window for freezing temperatures is November 16 through March 10 , allowing a growing season of 250 days .
Seattle typically receives some snowfall on an annual basis but heavy snow is rare . Average annual snowfall , as measured at Sea @-@ Tac Airport , is 6 @.@ 8 inches ( 17 @.@ 3 cm ) . Single calendar @-@ day snowfall of six inches ( 15 cm ) or greater has occurred on only 15 days since 1948 , and only once since February 17 , 1990 , when 6 @.@ 8 in ( 17 @.@ 3 cm ) of snow officially fell at Sea @-@ Tac airport on January 18 , 2012 . This moderate snow event was officially the 12th snowiest calendar day at the airport since 1948 and snowiest since November 1985 . Much of the city of Seattle proper received somewhat lesser snowfall accumulations . Locations to the south of Seattle received more , with Olympia and Chehalis receiving 14 to 18 in ( 36 to 46 cm ) . Another moderate snow event occurred from December 12 – 25 , 2008 , when over one foot ( 30 cm ) of snow fell and stuck on much of the roads over those two weeks , when temperatures remained below 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) , causing widespread difficulties in a city not equipped for clearing snow . The largest documented snowstorm occurred from January 5 – 9 , 1880 , with snow drifting to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in places at the end of the snow event . From January 31 to February 2 , 1916 , another heavy snow event occurred with 29 in ( 74 cm ) of snow on the ground by the time the event was over . With official records dating to 1948 , the largest single @-@ day snowfall is 20 @.@ 0 in ( 51 cm ) on January 13 , 1950 . Seasonal snowfall has ranged from zero in 1991 – 92 to 67 @.@ 5 in ( 171 cm ) in 1968 – 69 , with trace amounts having occurred as recently as 2009 – 10 . The month of January 1950 was particularly severe , bringing 57 @.@ 2 in ( 145 cm ) of snow , the most of any month along with the aforementioned record cold .
The Puget Sound Convergence Zone is an important feature of Seattle 's weather . In the convergence zone , air arriving from the north meets air flowing in from the south . Both streams of air originate over the Pacific Ocean ; airflow is split by the Olympic Mountains to Seattle 's west , then reunited to the east . When the air currents meet , they are forced upward , resulting in convection . Thunderstorms caused by this activity are usually weak and can occur north and south of town , but Seattle itself rarely receives more than occasional thunder and small hail showers . The Hanukkah Eve Wind Storm in December 2006 is an exception that brought heavy rain and winds gusting up to 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) , an event that was not caused by the Puget Sound Convergence Zone and was widespread across the Pacific Northwest .
One of many exceptions to Seattle 's reputation as a damp location occurs in El Niño years , when marine weather systems track as far south as California and little precipitation falls in the Puget Sound area . Since the region 's water comes from mountain snow packs during the dry summer months , El Niño winters can not only produce substandard skiing but can result in water rationing and a shortage of hydroelectric power the following summer .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2010 United States Census , Seattle had a population of 608 @,@ 660 with a racial and ethnic composition as follows :
White : 69 @.@ 5 % ( Non @-@ Hispanic Whites : 66 @.@ 3 % )
Asian : 13 @.@ 8 % ( 4 @.@ 1 % Chinese , 2 @.@ 6 % Filipino , 2 @.@ 2 % Vietnamese , 1 @.@ 3 % Japanese , 1 @.@ 1 % Korean , 0 @.@ 8 % Indian , 0 @.@ 3 % Cambodian , 0 @.@ 3 % Laotian , 0 @.@ 2 % Pakistanis , 0 @.@ 2 % Indonesian , 0 @.@ 2 % Thai )
Black or African American : 7 @.@ 9 %
Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) : 6 @.@ 6 % ( 4 @.@ 1 % Mexican , 0 @.@ 3 % Puerto Rican , 0 @.@ 2 % Guatemalan , 0 @.@ 2 % Salvadoran , 0 @.@ 2 % Cuban )
American Indian and Alaska Native : 0 @.@ 8 %
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander : 0 @.@ 4 %
Other race : 2 @.@ 4 %
Two or more races : 5 @.@ 1 %
Seattle 's population historically has been predominantly white . The 2010 census showed that Seattle was one of the whitest big cities in the country , although its proportion of white residents has been gradually declining . In 1960 , whites comprised 91 @.@ 6 % of the city 's population , while in 2010 they comprised 69 @.@ 5 % . According to the 2006 – 2008 American Community Survey , approximately 78 @.@ 9 % of residents over the age of five spoke only English at home . Those who spoke Asian languages other than Indo @-@ European languages made up 10 @.@ 2 % of the population , Spanish was spoken by 4 @.@ 5 % of the population , speakers of other Indo @-@ European languages made up 3 @.@ 9 % , and speakers of other languages made up 2 @.@ 5 % .
Seattle 's foreign @-@ born population grew 40 % between the 1990 and 2000 censuses . The Chinese population in the Seattle area has origins in mainland China , Hong Kong , Southeast Asia , and Taiwan . The earliest Chinese @-@ Americans that came in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were almost entirely from Guangdong Province . The Seattle area is also home to a large Vietnamese population of more than 55 @,@ 000 residents , as well as over 30 @,@ 000 Somali immigrants . The Seattle @-@ Tacoma area is also home to one of the largest Cambodian communities in the United States , numbering about 19 @,@ 000 Cambodian Americans , and one of the largest Samoan communities in the mainland U.S. , with over 15 @,@ 000 people having Samoan ancestry . Additionally , the Seattle area had the highest percentage of self @-@ identified mixed @-@ race people of any large metropolitan area in the United States , according to the 2000 United States Census Bureau . According to a 2012 HistoryLink study , Seattle 's 98118 ZIP code ( in the Columbia City neighborhood ) was one of the most diverse ZIP Code Tabulation Areas in the United States .
In 1999 , the median income of a city household was $ 45 @,@ 736 , and the median income for a family was $ 62 @,@ 195 . Males had a median income of $ 40 @,@ 929 versus $ 35 @,@ 134 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 30 @,@ 306 . 11 @.@ 8 % of the population and 6 @.@ 9 % of families are below the poverty line . Of people living in poverty , 13 @.@ 8 % are under the age of 18 and 10 @.@ 2 % are 65 or older .
It is estimated that King County has 8 @,@ 000 homeless people on any given night , and many of those live in Seattle . In September 2005 , King County adopted a " Ten @-@ Year Plan to End Homelessness " , one of the near @-@ term results of which is a shift of funding from homeless shelter beds to permanent housing .
In recent years , the city has experienced steady population growth , and has been faced with the issue of accommodating more residents . In 2006 , after growing by 4 @,@ 000 citizens per year for the previous 16 years , regional planners expected the population of Seattle to grow by 200 @,@ 000 people by 2040 . However , former mayor Greg Nickels supported plans that would increase the population by 60 % , or 350 @,@ 000 people , by 2040 and worked on ways to accommodate this growth while keeping Seattle 's single @-@ family housing zoning laws . The Seattle City Council later voted to relax height limits on buildings in the greater part of Downtown , partly with the aim to increase residential density in the city centre . As a sign of increasing inner @-@ city growth , the downtown population crested to over 60 @,@ 000 in 2009 , up 77 % since 1990 .
Seattle also has large lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender populations . According to a 2006 study by UCLA , 12 @.@ 9 % of city residents polled identified as gay , lesbian , or bisexual . This was the second @-@ highest proportion of any major U.S. city , behind San Francisco Greater Seattle also ranked second among major U.S. metropolitan areas , with 6 @.@ 5 % of the population identifying as gay , lesbian , or bisexual . According to 2012 estimates from the United States Census Bureau , Seattle has the highest percentage of same @-@ sex households in the United States , at 2 @.@ 6 per cent , surpassing San Francisco .
In addition , Seattle has a relatively high number of people living alone . According to the 2000 U.S. Census interim measurements of 2004 , Seattle has the fifth highest proportion of single @-@ person households nationwide among cities of 100 @,@ 000 or more residents , at 40 @.@ 8 % .
= = Economy = =
Seattle 's economy is driven by a mix of older industrial companies , and " new economy " Internet and technology companies , service , design and clean technology companies . The city 's gross metropolitan product was $ 231 billion in 2010 , making it the 11th largest metropolitan economy in the United States . The Port of Seattle , which also operates Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , is a major gateway for trade with Asia and cruises to Alaska , and is the 8th largest port in the United States in terms of container capacity . Though it was affected by the Great Recession , Seattle has retained a comparatively strong economy , and remains a hotbed for start @-@ up businesses , especially in green building and clean technologies : it was ranked as America 's No. 1 " smarter city " based on its government policies and green economy . In February 2010 , the city government committed Seattle to becoming North America 's first " climate neutral " city , with a goal of reaching zero net per capita greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 .
Still , very large companies dominate the business landscape . Four companies on the 2013 Fortune 500 list of the United States ' largest companies , based on total revenue , are headquartered in Seattle : Internet retailer Amazon.com ( # 49 ) , coffee chain Starbucks ( # 208 ) , department store Nordstrom ( # 227 ) , and freight forwarder Expeditors International of Washington ( # 428 ) . Other Fortune 500 companies popularly associated with Seattle are based in nearby Puget Sound cities . Warehouse club chain Costco ( # 22 ) , the largest retail company in Washington , is based in Issaquah . Microsoft ( # 35 ) is located in Redmond . Weyerhaeuser , the forest products company ( # 363 ) , is based in Federal Way . Finally , Bellevue is home to truck manufacturer Paccar ( # 168 ) . Other major companies in the area include Nintendo of America in Redmond , T @-@ Mobile US in Bellevue , Expedia Inc. in Bellevue and Providence Health & Services — the state 's largest health care system and fifth largest employer — in Renton . The city has a reputation for heavy coffee consumption ; coffee companies founded or based in Seattle include Starbucks , Seattle 's Best Coffee , and Tully 's . There are also many successful independent artisanal espresso roasters and cafés .
Prior to moving its headquarters to Chicago , aerospace manufacturer Boeing ( # 30 ) was the largest company based in Seattle . Its largest division is still headquartered in nearby Renton , and the company has large aircraft manufacturing plants in Everett and Renton , so it remains the largest private employer in the Seattle metropolitan area . Former Seattle Mayor Greg Nickels announced a desire to spark a new economic boom driven by the biotechnology industry in 2006 . Major redevelopment of the South Lake Union neighborhood is underway , in an effort to attract new and established biotech companies to the city , joining biotech companies Corixa ( acquired by GlaxoSmithKline ) , Immunex ( now part of Amgen ) , Trubion , and ZymoGenetics . Vulcan Inc . , the holding company of billionaire Paul Allen , is behind most of the development projects in the region . While some see the new development as an economic boon , others have criticized Nickels and the Seattle City Council for pandering to Allen 's interests at taxpayers ' expense . Also in 2006 , Expansion Magazine ranked Seattle among the top 10 metropolitan areas in the nation for climates favorable to business expansion . In 2005 , Forbes ranked Seattle as the most expensive American city for buying a house based on the local income levels . In 2013 , however , the magazine ranked Seattle No. 9 on its list of the Best Places for Business and Careers .
Alaska Airlines , operating a hub at Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , maintains its headquarters in the city of SeaTac , next to the airport .
Seattle is a hub for global health with the headquarters of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , PATH , Infectious Disease Research Institute , Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation . In 2015 , the Washington Global Health Alliance counted 168 global health organizations in Washington state , many are headquartered in Seattle .
= = Culture = =
= = = Nicknames = = =
From 1869 until 1982 , Seattle was known as the " Queen City " . Seattle 's current official nickname is the " Emerald City " , the result of a contest held in 1981 ; the reference is to the lush evergreen forests of the area . Seattle is also referred to informally as the " Gateway to Alaska " for being the nearest major city in the contiguous US to Alaska , " Rain City " for its frequent cloudy and rainy weather , and " Jet City " from the local influence of Boeing . The city has two official slogans or mottos : " The City of Flowers " , meant to encourage the planting of flowers to beautify the city , and " The City of Goodwill " , adopted prior to the 1990 Goodwill Games . Seattle residents are known as Seattleites .
= = = Performing arts = = =
Seattle has been a regional center for the performing arts for many years . The century @-@ old Seattle Symphony Orchestra is among the world 's most recorded and performs primarily at Benaroya Hall . The Seattle Opera and Pacific Northwest Ballet , which perform at McCaw Hall ( opened 2003 on the site of the former Seattle Opera House at Seattle Center ) , are comparably distinguished , with the Opera being particularly known for its performances of the works of Richard Wagner and the PNB School ( founded in 1974 ) ranking as one of the top three ballet training institutions in the United States . The Seattle Youth Symphony Orchestras ( SYSO ) is the largest symphonic youth organization in the United States . The city also boasts lauded summer and winter chamber music festivals organized by the Seattle Chamber Music Society .
The 5th Avenue Theatre , built in 1926 , stages Broadway @-@ style musical shows featuring both local talent and international stars . Seattle has " around 100 " theatrical production companies and over two dozen live theatre venues , many of them associated with fringe theatre ; Seattle is probably second only to New York for number of equity theaters ( 28 Seattle theater companies have some sort of Actors ' Equity contract ) . In addition , the 900 @-@ seat Romanesque Revival Town Hall on First Hill hosts numerous cultural events , especially lectures and recitals .
Between 1918 and 1951 , there were nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs along Jackson Street , running from the current Chinatown / International District to the Central District . The jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles , Quincy Jones , Bumps Blackwell , Ernestine Anderson , and others .
Early popular musical acts from the Seattle / Puget Sound area include the collegiate folk group The Brothers Four , vocal group The Fleetwoods , 1960s garage rockers The Wailers and The Sonics , and instrumental surf group The Ventures , some of whom are still active .
Seattle is considered the home of grunge music , having produced artists such as Nirvana , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains , Pearl Jam , and Mudhoney , all of whom reached international audiences in the early 1990s . The city is also home to such varied artists as avant @-@ garde jazz musicians Bill Frisell and Wayne Horvitz , hot jazz musician Glenn Crytzer , hip hop artists Sir Mix @-@ a @-@ Lot , Macklemore , Blue Scholars , and Shabazz Palaces , smooth jazz saxophonist Kenny G , classic rock staples Heart and Queensrÿche , and alternative rock bands such as Foo Fighters , Harvey Danger , The Presidents of the United States of America , The Posies , Modest Mouse , Band of Horses , Death Cab for Cutie , and Fleet Foxes . Rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix , Duff McKagan , and Nikki Sixx spent their formative years in Seattle .
The Seattle @-@ based Sub Pop record company continues to be one of the world 's best @-@ known independent / alternative music labels .
Over the years , a number of songs have been written about Seattle .
Seattle annually sends a team of spoken word slammers to the National Poetry Slam and considers itself home to such performance poets as Buddy Wakefield , two @-@ time Individual World Poetry Slam Champ ; Anis Mojgani , two @-@ time National Poetry Slam Champ ; and Danny Sherrard , 2007 National Poetry Slam Champ and 2008 Individual World Poetry Slam Champ . Seattle also hosted the 2001 national Poetry Slam Tournament . The Seattle Poetry Festival is a biennial poetry festival that ( launched first as the Poetry Circus in 1997 ) has featured local , regional , national , and international names in poetry .
The city also has movie houses showing both Hollywood productions and works by independent filmmakers . Among these , the Seattle Cinerama stands out as one of only three movie theaters in the world still capable of showing three @-@ panel Cinerama films .
= = = Tourism = = =
Among Seattle 's prominent annual fairs and festivals are the 24 @-@ day Seattle International Film Festival , Northwest Folklife over the Memorial Day weekend , numerous Seafair events throughout July and August ( ranging from a Bon Odori celebration to the Seafair Cup hydroplane races ) , the Bite of Seattle , one of the largest Gay Pride festivals in the United States , and the art and music festival Bumbershoot , which programs music as well as other art and entertainment over the Labor Day weekend . All are typically attended by 100 @,@ 000 people annually , as are the Seattle Hempfest and two separate Independence Day celebrations .
Other significant events include numerous Native American pow @-@ wows , a Greek Festival hosted by St. Demetrios Greek Orthodox Church in Montlake , and numerous ethnic festivals ( many associated with Festál at Seattle Center ) .
There are other annual events , ranging from the Seattle Antiquarian Book Fair & Book Arts Show ; an anime convention , Sakura @-@ Con ; Penny Arcade Expo , a gaming convention ; a two @-@ day , 9 @,@ 000 @-@ rider Seattle to Portland Bicycle Classic ; and specialized film festivals , such as the Maelstrom International Fantastic Film Festival , the Seattle Asian American Film Festival ( formerly known as the Northwest Asian American Film Festival ) , Children 's Film Festival Seattle , Translation : the Seattle Transgender Film Festival , the Seattle Gay and Lesbian Film Festival , and the Seattle Polish Film Festival .
The Henry Art Gallery opened in 1927 , the first public art museum in Washington . The Seattle Art Museum ( SAM ) opened in 1933 ; SAM opened a museum downtown in 1991 ( expanded and reopened 2007 ) ; since 1991 , the 1933 building has been SAM 's Seattle Asian Art Museum ( SAAM ) . SAM also operates the Olympic Sculpture Park ( opened 2007 ) on the waterfront north of the downtown piers . The Frye Art Museum is a free museum on First Hill .
Regional history collections are at the Loghouse Museum in Alki , Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park , the Museum of History and Industry , and the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture . Industry collections are at the Center for Wooden Boats and the adjacent Northwest Seaport , the Seattle Metropolitan Police Museum , and the Museum of Flight . Regional ethnic collections include the Nordic Heritage Museum , the Wing Luke Asian Museum , and the Northwest African American Museum . Seattle has artist @-@ run galleries , including ten @-@ year veteran Soil Art Gallery , and the newer Crawl Space Gallery .
The Seattle Great Wheel , one of the largest Ferris wheels in the US , opened in June 2012 as a new , permanent attraction on the city 's waterfront , at Pier 57 , next to Downtown Seattle . The city also has many community centers for recreation , including Rainier Beach , Van Asselt , Rainier , and Jefferson south of the Ship Canal and Green Lake , Laurelhurst , Loyal Heights north of the Canal , and Meadowbrook .
Woodland Park Zoo opened as a private menagerie in 1889 but was sold to the city in 1899 . The Seattle Aquarium has been open on the downtown waterfront since 1977 ( undergoing a renovation 2006 ) . The Seattle Underground Tour is an exhibit of places that existed before the Great Fire .
Since the middle 1990s , Seattle has experienced significant growth in the cruise industry , especially as a departure point for Alaska cruises . In 2008 , a record total of 886 @,@ 039 cruise passengers passed through the city , surpassing the number for Vancouver , BC , the other major departure point for Alaska cruises .
= = Professional sports = =
Seattle has three major men 's professional sports teams : the National Football League ( NFL ) ' s Seattle Seahawks , Major League Baseball ( MLB ) ' s Seattle Mariners , and Major League Soccer ( MLS ) ' s Seattle Sounders FC . Other professional sports teams include the Women 's National Basketball Association ( WNBA ) ' s Seattle Storm , who won the WNBA championship in 2004 and 2010 , and the Seattle Reign of the National Women 's Soccer League .
The Seahawks ' CenturyLink Field has hosted NFL playoff games in 2006 , 2008 , 2011 , 2014 and 2015 . The Seahawks have advanced to the Super Bowl three times : 2005 , 2013 and 2014 . They defeated the Denver Broncos 43 @-@ 8 to win their first Super Bowl championship in Super Bowl XLVIII , but lost 24 @-@ 28 against the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX . Seattle Sounders FC has played in Major League Soccer since 2009 , sharing CenturyLink Field with the Seahawks , as a continuation of earlier teams in the lower divisions of American soccer . The Sounders have not won the MLS Cup but have , however , won the MLS Supporters ' Shield in 2014 and the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup on four occasions : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , and 2014 .
Seattle 's professional sports history began at the start of the 20th century with the PCHA 's Seattle Metropolitans , which in 1917 became the first American hockey team to win the Stanley Cup . Seattle was also home to a previous Major League Baseball franchise in 1969 : the Seattle Pilots . The Pilots relocated to Milwaukee , Wisconsin and became the Milwaukee Brewers for the 1970 season . From 1967 to 2008 Seattle was also home to an National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise : the Seattle SuperSonics , who were the 1978 – 79 NBA champions . The SuperSonics relocated to Oklahoma City and became the Oklahoma City Thunder for the 2008 – 09 season .
The Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game was held in Seattle twice , first at the Kingdome in 1979 and again at Safeco Field in 2001 . That same year , the Seattle Mariners tied the all @-@ time single regular season wins record with 116 wins . The NBA All @-@ Star Game was also held in Seattle twice : the first in 1974 at the Seattle Center Coliseum and the second in 1987 at the Kingdome .
The Seattle Thunderbirds hockey team plays in the Canadian major @-@ junior Western Hockey League and are based in the Seattle suburb of Kent . Seattle also boasts a strong history in collegiate sports . The University of Washington and Seattle University are NCAA Division I schools . The University of Washington 's athletic program , nicknamed the Huskies , competes in the Pac @-@ 12 Conference , and Seattle University 's athletic program , nicknamed the Redhawks , competes in the Western Athletic Conference .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Seattle 's mild , temperate , marine climate allows year @-@ round outdoor recreation , including walking , cycling , hiking , skiing , snowboarding , kayaking , rock climbing , motor boating , sailing , team sports , and swimming .
In town , many people walk around Green Lake , through the forests and along the bluffs and beaches of 535 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 2 km2 ) Discovery Park ( the largest park in the city ) in Magnolia , along the shores of Myrtle Edwards Park on the Downtown waterfront , along the shoreline of Lake Washington at Seward Park , along Alki Beach in West Seattle , or along the Burke @-@ Gilman Trail .
Gas Works Park features the majestic preserved superstructure of a coal gasification plant closed in 1956 . Located across Lake Union from downtown , the park provides panoramic views of the Seattle skyline .
Also popular are hikes and skiing in the nearby Cascade or Olympic Mountains and kayaking and sailing in the waters of Puget Sound , the Strait of Juan de Fuca , and the Strait of Georgia . In 2005 , Men 's Fitness magazine named Seattle the fittest city in the United States .
In its 2013 ParkScore ranking , the Trust for Public Land reported that Seattle had the tenth best park system among the 50 most populous US cities . ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes acreage , access , and service and investment .
= = Government and politics = =
Seattle is a charter city , with a Mayor – Council form of government . From 1911 to 2013 , Seattle 's nine city councillors were elected at large , rather than by geographic subdivisions . For the 2015 election , this changed to a hybrid system of seven district members and two at large members as a result of a ballot measure passed on November 5 , 2013 . The only other elected offices are the city attorney and Municipal Court judges . All city offices are technically non @-@ partisan .
Like most parts of the United States , government and laws are also run by a series of ballot initiatives ( allowing citizens to pass or reject laws ) , referenda ( allowing citizens to approve or reject legislation already passed ) , and propositions ( allowing specific government agencies to propose new laws / tax increases directly to the people ) . Federally , Seattle is part of Washington 's 7th congressional district , represented by Democrat Jim McDermott , elected in 1988 and one of Congress 's liberal members . Ed Murray is currently serving as mayor .
Seattle 's political culture is very liberal and progressive for the United States , with over 80 % of the population voting for the Democratic Party . All precincts in Seattle voted for Democratic Party candidate Barack Obama in the 2012 presidential election . In partisan elections for the Washington State Legislature and United States Congress , nearly all elections are won by Democrats . Seattle is considered the first major American city to elect a female mayor , Bertha Knight Landes . It has also elected an openly gay mayor , Ed Murray , and a socialist councillor , Kshama Sawant . For the first time in United States history , an openly gay black woman was elected to public office when Sherry Harris was elected as a Seattle city councillor in 1991 . The majority of the current city council is female , while white men comprise a minority .
Seattle is widely considered one of the most liberal cities in the United States , even surpassing its neighbor , Portland , Oregon . Support for issues such as same @-@ sex marriage and reproductive rights are largely taken for granted in local politics . In the 2012 U.S. general election , an overwhelming majority of Seattleites voted to approve Referendum 74 and legalize gay marriage in Washington state . In the same election , an overwhelming majority of Seattleites also voted to approve the legalization of the recreational use of cannabis in the state . Like much of the Pacific Northwest ( which has the lowest rate of church attendance in the United States and consistently reports the highest percentage of atheism ) , church attendance , religious belief , and political influence of religious leaders are much lower than in other parts of America .
Seattle also has a thriving alternative press , with the Web @-@ based daily Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , several other online dailies ( including Publicola and Crosscut ) , The Stranger ( an alternative , left @-@ leaning weekly ) , Seattle Weekly , and a number of issue @-@ focused publications , including the nation 's two largest online environmental magazines , Worldchanging and Grist.org.
In July 2012 , Seattle banned plastic shopping bags . In June 2014 the city passed a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage to $ 15 an hour on a staged basis from 2015 to 2021 . When fully implemented the $ 15 hourly rate will be the highest minimum wage in the nation .
On October 6 , 2014 , Seattle officially replaced Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples ' Day , honoring Seattle 's Native American community and controversies surrounding the legacy of Christopher Columbus .
= = Education = =
Of the city 's population over the age of 25 , 53 @.@ 8 % ( vs. a national average of 27 @.@ 4 % ) hold a bachelor 's degree or higher , and 91 @.@ 9 % ( vs. 84 @.@ 5 % nationally ) have a high school diploma or equivalent . A 2008 United States Census Bureau survey showed that Seattle had the highest percentage of college and university graduates of any major U.S. city . The city was listed as the most literate of the country 's 69 largest cities in 2005 and 2006 , the second most literate in 2007 and the most literate in 2008 in studies conducted by Central Connecticut State University .
Seattle Public Schools desegregated without a court order but continue to struggle to achieve racial balance in a somewhat ethnically divided city ( the south part of town having more ethnic minorities than the north ) . In 2007 , Seattle 's racial tie @-@ breaking system was struck down by the United States Supreme Court , but the ruling left the door open for desegregation formulae based on other indicators ( e.g. , income or socioeconomic class ) .
The public school system is supplemented by a moderate number of private schools : five of the private high schools are Catholic , one is Lutheran , and six are secular .
Seattle is home to the University of Washington , as well as the institution 's professional and continuing education unit , the University of Washington Educational Outreach . A study by Newsweek International in 2006 cited the University of Washington as the twenty @-@ second best university in the world . Seattle also has a number of smaller private universities including Seattle University and Seattle Pacific University , the former a Jesuit Catholic institution , the latter Free Methodist ; universities aimed at the working adult , like City University and Antioch University ; colleges within the Seattle Colleges District system , comprising North , Central , and South ; seminaries , including Western Seminary and a number of arts colleges , such as Cornish College of the Arts , Pratt Fine Arts Center , and The Art Institute of Seattle . In 2001 , Time magazine selected Seattle Central Community College as community college of the year , stating the school " pushes diverse students to work together in small teams " .
= = Media = =
As of 2010 , Seattle has one major daily newspaper , The Seattle Times . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , known as the P @-@ I , published a daily newspaper from 1863 to March 17 , 2009 , before switching to a strictly on @-@ line publication . There is also the Seattle Daily Journal of Commerce , and the University of Washington publishes The Daily , a student @-@ run publication , when school is in session . The most prominent weeklies are the Seattle Weekly and The Stranger ; both consider themselves " alternative " papers . The weekly LGBT newspaper is the Seattle Gay News . Real Change is a weekly street newspaper that is sold mainly by homeless persons as an alternative to panhandling . There are also several ethnic newspapers , including the The Facts , Northwest Asian Weekly and the International Examiner , and numerous neighborhood newspapers .
Seattle is also well served by television and radio , with all major U.S. networks represented , along with at least five other English @-@ language stations and two Spanish @-@ language stations . Seattle cable viewers also receive CBUT 2 ( CBC ) from Vancouver , British Columbia .
Non @-@ commercial radio stations include NPR affiliates KUOW @-@ FM 94 @.@ 9 and KPLU @-@ FM 88 @.@ 5 ( Tacoma ) , as well as classical music station KING @-@ FM 98 @.@ 1 . Other stations include KEXP @-@ FM 90 @.@ 3 ( affiliated with the UW ) , community radio KBCS @-@ FM 91 @.@ 3 ( affiliated with Bellevue College ) , and high school radio KNHC @-@ FM 89 @.@ 5 , which broadcasts an electronic dance music radio format and is owned by the public school system and operated by students of Nathan Hale High School . Many Seattle radio stations are also available through Internet radio , with KEXP in particular being a pioneer of Internet radio . Seattle also has numerous commercial radio stations . In a March 2012 report by the consumer research firm Arbitron , the top FM stations were KRWM ( adult contemporary format ) , KIRO @-@ FM ( news / talk ) , and KISW ( active rock ) while the top AM stations were KOMO ( AM ) ( all news ) , KJR ( AM ) ( all sports ) , KIRO ( AM ) ( all sports ) .
Seattle @-@ based online magazines Worldchanging and Grist.org were two of the " Top Green Websites " in 2007 according to TIME .
Seattle also has many online news media websites . The two largest are The Seattle Times and the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Health systems = = =
The University of Washington is consistently ranked among the country 's top leading institutions in medical research , earning special merits for programs in neurology and neurosurgery . Seattle has seen local developments of modern paramedic services with the establishment of Medic One in 1970 . In 1974 , a 60 Minutes story on the success of the then four @-@ year @-@ old Medic One paramedic system called Seattle " the best place in the world to have a heart attack " .
Three of Seattle 's largest medical centers are located on First Hill . Harborview Medical Center , the public county hospital , is the only Level I trauma hospital in a region that includes Washington , Alaska , Montana , and Idaho . Virginia Mason Medical Center and Swedish Medical Center 's two largest campuses are also located in this part of Seattle , including the Virginia Mason Hospital . This concentration of hospitals resulted in the neighborhood 's nickname " Pill Hill " .
Located in the Laurelhurst neighborhood , Seattle Children 's , formerly Children 's Hospital and Regional Medical Center , is the pediatric referral center for Washington , Alaska , Montana , and Idaho . The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center has a campus in the Eastlake neighborhood . The University District is home to the University of Washington Medical Center which , along with Harborview , is operated by the University of Washington . Seattle is also served by a Veterans Affairs hospital on Beacon Hill , a third campus of Swedish in Ballard , and Northwest Hospital and Medical Center near Northgate Mall .
= = = Transportation = = =
The first streetcars appeared in 1889 and were instrumental in the creation of a relatively well @-@ defined downtown and strong neighborhoods at the end of their lines . The advent of the automobile sounded the death knell for rail in Seattle . Tacoma – Seattle railway service ended in 1929 and the Everett – Seattle service came to an end in 1939 , replaced by inexpensive automobiles running on the recently developed highway system . Rails on city streets were paved over or removed , and the opening of the Seattle trolleybus system brought the end of streetcars in Seattle in 1941 . This left an extensive network of privately owned buses ( later public ) as the only mass transit within the city and throughout the region .
King County Metro provides frequent stop bus service within the city and surrounding county , as well as a South Lake Union Streetcar line between the South Lake Union neighborhood and Westlake Center in downtown . Seattle is one of the few cities in North America whose bus fleet includes electric trolleybuses . Sound Transit currently provides an express bus service within the metropolitan area , two Sounder commuter rail lines between the suburbs and downtown , and its Central Link light rail line between the University of Washington and Sea @-@ Tac Airport . Washington State Ferries , which manages the largest network of ferries in the United States and third largest in the world , connects Seattle to Bainbridge and Vashon Islands in Puget Sound and to Bremerton and Southworth on the Kitsap Peninsula .
According to the 2007 American Community Survey , 18 @.@ 6 % of Seattle residents used one of the three public transit systems that serve the city , giving it the highest transit ridership of all major cities without heavy or light rail prior to the completion of Sound Transit 's Central Link line . The city has also been described by Bert Sperling as the fourth most walkable U.S. city and by Walk Score as the sixth most walkable of the fifty largest U.S. cities .
Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , locally known as Sea @-@ Tac Airport and located just south in the neighboring city of SeaTac , is operated by the Port of Seattle and provides commercial air service to destinations throughout the world . Closer to downtown , Boeing Field is used for general aviation , cargo flights , and testing / delivery of Boeing airliners .
The main mode of transportation , however , relies on Seattle 's streets , which are laid out in a cardinal directions grid pattern , except in the central business district where early city leaders Arthur Denny and Carson Boren insisted on orienting their plats relative to the shoreline rather than to true North . Only two roads , Interstate 5 and State Route 99 ( both limited @-@ access highways ) , run uninterrupted through the city from north to south . State Route 99 runs through downtown Seattle on the Alaskan Way Viaduct , which was built in 1953 . However , due to damage sustained during the 2001 Nisqually earthquake the viaduct will be replaced by a tunnel . The 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel was originally scheduled to be completed in December 2015 at a cost of US $ 4 @.@ 25 billion . Unfortunately , due to issues with the worlds largest tunnel boring machine ( TBM ) , which is nicknamed " Bertha " and is 57 feet ( 17 m ) in diameter , the projected date of completion has been pushed back to 2017 . Seattle has the 8th worst traffic congestion of all American cities , and is 10th among all North American cities .
The city has started moving away from the automobile and towards mass transit . From 2004 to 2009 , the annual number of unlinked public transportation trips increased by approximately 21 % . In 2006 , voters in King County passed proposition 2 ( Transit Now ) which increased bus service hours on high ridership routes and paid for five bus rapid transit lines called RapidRide . After rejecting a roads and transit measure in 2007 , Seattle @-@ area voters passed a transit only measure in 2008 to increase ST Express bus service , extend the Link Light Rail system , and expand and improve Sounder commuter rail service . A light rail line from downtown heading south to Sea @-@ Tac Airport began service on December 19 , 2009 , giving the city its first rapid transit line with intermediate stations within the city limits . An extension north to the University of Washington opened on March 19 , 2016 ; and further extensions are planned to reach Lynnwood to the north , Des Moines to the south , and Bellevue and Redmond to the east by 2023 . Former mayor Michael McGinn has supported building light rail from downtown to Ballard and West Seattle .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water and electric power are municipal services , provided by Seattle Public Utilities and Seattle City Light respectively . Other utility companies serving Seattle include Puget Sound Energy ( natural gas , electricity ) ; Seattle Steam Company ( steam ) ; Waste Management , Inc and CleanScapes , Inc . ( curbside recycling and solid waste removal ) ; and CenturyLink , Frontier Communications and Comcast ( telecommunications and television ) .
About 90 % of Seattle 's electricity is produced using hydropower . Less than 2 % of electricity is produced using fossil fuels .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Seattle is partnered with :
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= Minnesota State Highway 610 =
Minnesota State Highway 610 ( MN 610 ) is an east – west freeway in the Twin Cities region of Minnesota . The freeway connects County Road 81 ( CR 81 ) and CR 130 in northern Hennepin County to U.S. Highway 10 ( US 10 ) in southern Anoka County . MN 610 crosses the Mississippi River on the Richard P. Braun Bridge between suburban Brooklyn Park and Coon Rapids . The highway is 9 @.@ 8 miles ( 15 @.@ 8 km ) long .
The freeway was authorized in 1975 , and most of the sections that are open were completed by 2000 ( 7 @.@ 2 mi or 11 @.@ 6 km ) ; the 2 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) section westward to CR 81 in Maple Grove was completed and opened in 2011 . There is a segment that is planned to extend farther to end at Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The Minnesota Department of Transportation ( Mn / DOT ) scheduled the project to start in late 2014 .
= = Route description = =
MN 610 starts at its interchange with CR 81 in Maple Grove . From this starting point , the freeway runs eastbound through the northern suburbs of the Twin Cities . MN 610 is four lanes in width and has several interchanges with local streets and county roads before expanding to six lanes and meeting the northern terminus of MN 252 on the west bank of the Mississippi River . After MN 252 interchange , the MN 610 freeway turns to the northeast and crosses the Mississippi River on the dual @-@ span , eight @-@ lane Richard P. Braun Bridge .
Across the river , the freeway runs along the south side of the Coon Rapids Dam Regional Park before curving around to the east . It continues through suburban Coon Rapids as a six @-@ lane freeway to a partial interchange with northbound MN 47 . This interchange is used by eastbound traffic transitioning to westbound US 10 . The final section east to US 10 in Blaine is four lanes . The second interchange along this section of the freeway with University Avenue is used to connect with MN 47 southbound . The last interconnected interchange is at the eastern terminus as traffic defaults onto US 10 eastbound .
Legally , MN 610 is defined as Route 333 in the Minnesota Statutes § 161 @.@ 115 ( 264 ) . The highway is not marked with this legislative route number along the actual highway . The entire route of MN 610 has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
MN 610 was proposed in the middle of the 1960s as a " North Crosstown " freeway . Studies for the highway started in the 1970s . The highway was first authorized on June 2 , 1975 . The westbound span of the Mississippi River bridge was built in 1985 , and , along with the existing freeway east of MN 252 , was opened in October 1987 . Officials in Minnesota proposed tolls as a means to fund the construction on the highway in 1989 . Local officials supported the highway construction , but opposed the tolling plans .
West of MN 252 , the freeway construction started in June 1997 . The freeway was opened to traffic in 2000 , with a traffic light at the intersection of MN 610 and US 169 initially . Construction on the second bridge over the Mississippi River for eastbound traffic started in 1999 , to be completed in 2002 .
Construction of the portion between US 169 and CR 81 was estimated to cost $ 48 million in 2010 , of which $ 27 million is being funded by federal stimulus money . The project began in October 2009 , and it was scheduled to be completed in July 2011 . The remainder of the highway to I @-@ 94 is not on a Mn / DOT schedule to be built . The new western terminus will be located at Elm Creek Boulevard in Maple Grove . The freeway continues westward from this point in the median of CR 81 , but this section will be an unused stub end past the ramps that connect to CR 81 During the 2011 Minnesota state government shutdown , construction on MN 610 was halted for 20 days . Until work stopped on July 1 , 2011 , a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony had been scheduled to open the new freeway section on July 12 . The ribbon cutting ceremony was on August 17 and the road opened on August 19 .
= = Future = =
MN 610 is planned to extend west to I @-@ 94 in Maple Grove , and the freeway 's mile markers reflect these plans , with the zero point calibrated to this future terminus . A portion of this new section is very unusual ; it is routed down the middle of the median of CR 81 in Maple Grove , forming a roadway within a roadway .
There are worries about traffic after the last extension was opened in 2011 . The local mayors are concerned with the traffic levels on CR 81 now that MN 610 is opened . " County Road 81 is already a fairly busy road without this additional traffic , and now there will be a substantial increase in traffic , " according to Maple Grove Mayor Mark Steffenson ; he is urging Mn / DOT to complete the remainder of the freeway to I @-@ 94 to alleviate these traffic concerns . Construction on this last segment of highway was scheduled to start in October 2014 .
On April 4 , 2016 , construction started on an interchange with Maple Grove Parkway . The interchange is set to open in October 2016 .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered .
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= Adelaide leak =
The Adelaide leak was the revelation to the press of a dressing @-@ room incident during the third Test , a cricket match played during the 1932 – 33 Ashes series between Australia and England , more commonly known as the Bodyline series . During the course of play on 14 January 1933 , the Australian Test captain Bill Woodfull was struck over the heart by a ball delivered by Harold Larwood . Although not badly hurt , Woodfull was shaken and dismissed shortly afterwards . On his return to the Australian dressing room , Woodfull was visited by the managers of the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) team , Pelham Warner and Richard Palairet . Warner enquired after Woodfull 's health , but the latter dismissed his concerns in brusque fashion . He said he did not want to speak to the Englishman owing to the Bodyline tactics England were using , leaving Warner embarrassed and shaken . The matter became public knowledge when someone present leaked the exchange to the press and it was widely reported on 16 January . Such leaks to the press were practically unknown at the time , and the players were horrified that the confrontation became public knowledge .
In the immediate aftermath , many people assumed Jack Fingleton , the only full @-@ time journalist on either team , was responsible . This belief may have affected the course of his subsequent career . Fingleton later wrote that Donald Bradman , Australia 's star batsman and the primary target of Bodyline , was the person who disclosed the story . Bradman always denied this , and continued to blame Fingleton ; animosity between the pair continued for the rest of their lives . Woodfull 's earlier public silence on the tactics had been interpreted as approval ; the leak was significant in persuading the Australian public that Bodyline was unacceptable .
= = Background = =
In 1932 – 33 the English team , led by Douglas Jardine and jointly managed by Pelham Warner and Richard Palairet , toured Australia and won the Ashes in an acrimonious contest that became known as the Bodyline series . The English team used contentious bowling tactics where the English pace bowlers Harold Larwood , Bill Voce and Bill Bowes bowled the ball roughly on the line of leg stump . The deliveries were often short @-@ pitched , designed to rise at the batsman 's body , with four or five fielders close by on the leg side waiting to catch deflections off the bat . Intended to be intimidating , the tactics proved difficult for batsmen to counter and were physically threatening . The primary target of Bodyline was Donald Bradman , who had overwhelmed the English bowling in the 1930 Ashes series . Leading English cricketers and administrators feared that Bradman would be unstoppable on good Australian batting wickets in 1932 – 33 , and looked for possible weaknesses in his batting technique .
Following Jardine 's appointment as England captain in July 1932 , he developed a plan based on his belief that Bradman was weak against bowling directed at leg stump and that if this line of attack could be maintained , it would restrict Bradman 's scoring to one side of the field , giving the bowlers greater control of his scoring . In a meeting , he outlined his plan to Larwood and Voce , who tried out the tactic in the remainder of the season with mixed success . Both Nottinghamshire fast bowlers were selected to tour , as was Yorkshire bowler Bill Bowes who had tried similar tactics at the end of the season . In one match , he bowled short at Jack Hobbs ; in his capacity as cricket correspondent of The Morning Post , Warner was highly critical of the Yorkshire bowlers and Bowes in particular . These remarks were seized upon by Australian opponents of Bodyline in the coming months . A fourth fast bowler , Middlesex amateur Gubby Allen , was later added to the tour . The selection of this many pace bowlers was unusual at the time , drawing comment from Australian writers , including Bradman .
In Australia , while Jardine 's unfriendly approach and superior manner caused some friction with the press and spectators , the early tour matches were uncontroversial and Larwood and Voce had a light workload in preparation for the Test series . The first signs of trouble came in the match against a representative " Australian XI " at near full strength , in which the bowlers first used Bodyline tactics . Under the captaincy of Bob Wyatt ( Jardine having rested from the match ) , the England attack bowled short and around leg stump , with fielders positioned close by on the leg side to catch any deflections . Wyatt later claimed this was not pre @-@ planned and he simply informed Jardine what had happened . The Bodyline tactics continued in the next match and several players , including Jack Fingleton , were hit . The Australian press were shocked and criticised the hostility of Larwood in particular . Some former Australian players joined the criticism , saying the tactics were ethically wrong . However , at this stage , not everyone was opposed , and the Australian Board of Control believed the English team had bowled fairly . On the other hand , Jardine increasingly came into disagreement with tour manager Warner over Bodyline as the tour progressed . Warner hated Bodyline but would not speak out against it . He was accused of hypocrisy for not taking a stand on either side , particularly after expressing sentiments at the start of the tour that cricket " has become a synonym for all that is true and honest . To say ' that is not cricket ' implies something underhand , something not in keeping with the best ideals ... all who love it as players , as officials or spectators must be careful lest anything they do should do it harm . "
Jardine 's tactics were successful in one respect : in six innings against the tourists ahead of the Tests , Bradman scored only 103 runs , causing concern among the Australian public who expected much more from him . At the time , Bradman was in dispute with the Board of Control , who would not allow players to write in newspapers unless journalism was their full @-@ time profession ; Bradman , although not a journalist , had a contract to write for the Sydney Sun . A particular irritation for Bradman was that Jack Fingleton , a full @-@ time journalist , was allowed to write for the Telegraph Pictorial , although he required permission from the Board to write about cricket . Bradman threatened to withdraw from the team unless the Board allowed him to write . Fingleton and Bradman were openly hostile towards each other . From their first meeting while playing together for New South Wales , they disliked each other . Fingleton , conscious that Bradman 's self @-@ possession and solitary nature made him unpopular with some team @-@ mates , kept his distance after a dressing room argument , while Bradman believed the more popular Fingleton had tried to turn the team against him . Later hostility arose from Bradman 's public preference for Bill Brown as a batsman , which Fingleton believed cost him a place on the 1934 tour of England . Fingleton 's writings on the Bodyline series further soured the relationship . Bradman believed some of the differences stemmed from religion ; Fingleton was a Roman Catholic , Bradman an Anglican .
Bradman missed the first Test , worn out by constant cricket and the ongoing argument with the Board of Control . The English bowlers used Bodyline intermittently in the first match , to the crowd 's vocal displeasure . Behind the scenes , administrators began to express concerns to each other . Yet the English tactics still did not earn universal disapproval ; former Australian captain Monty Noble praised the English bowling . For the second Test , Bradman returned to the team after his newspaper employers released him from his contract . England continued to use Bodyline and Bradman was dismissed by his first ball in the first innings . In the second innings , against the full Bodyline attack , he scored an unbeaten century which helped Australia to win the match and level the series at one match each . Critics began to believe Bodyline was not quite the threat that had been perceived and Bradman 's reputation , which had suffered slightly with his earlier failures , was restored . However , the pitch was slightly slower than others in the series , and Larwood was suffering from problems with his boots which reduced his effectiveness . Meanwhile , Woodfull was being encouraged to retaliate to the short @-@ pitched English attack , not least by members of his own side such as Vic Richardson , but refused to consider doing so .
= = Warner – Woodfull incident = =
= = = Woodfull 's injury = = =
During the mid @-@ afternoon of Saturday 14 January 1933 , the second day of the Third Test , Woodfull and Fingleton opened the batting for Australia in the face of an England total of 341 before a record attendance of 50 @,@ 962 people . Fingleton was caught by the wicketkeeper without scoring . The third over of the innings was bowled by Larwood with fielders still in orthodox positions . The fifth ball narrowly missed Woodfull 's head and the final ball , delivered short on the line of middle stump , struck Woodfull over the heart . The batsman dropped his bat and staggered away holding his chest , bent over in pain . The England players surrounded Woodfull to offer sympathy but the crowd began to protest noisily . Jardine called to Larwood : " Well bowled , Harold ! " Although the comment was aimed at unnerving Bradman , who was also batting at the time , Woodfull was appalled . Play resumed after a brief delay , once it was certain the Australian captain was fit to carry on , and since Larwood 's over had ended , Woodfull did not have to face the bowling of Allen in the next over . However , when Larwood was ready to bowl at Woodfull again , play was halted once more when the fielders were moved into Bodyline positions , causing the crowd to protest and call abuse at the England team . Subsequently , Jardine claimed that Larwood requested a field change , Larwood said that Jardine had done so . Many commentators condemned the alteration of the field as unsporting , and the angry spectators became extremely volatile . Jardine , although writing that Woodfull could have retired hurt if he was unfit , later expressed his regret at making the field change at that moment . It is likely Jardine wished to press home his team 's advantage in the match , and the Bodyline field was usually employed at this stage of an innings .
Shortly afterwards , a delivery from Larwood knocked Woodfull 's bat from his hands and the Australian captain seemed unsettled . Two quick wickets fell before Ponsford joined Woodfull in the middle , but having been struck by short balls several more times , Woodfull was bowled by Allen for 22 , having batted for an hour and a half . When a doctor was publicly requested , to attend an injury to Voce , many in the crowd believed it was Woodfull who required assistance , leading to a renewal of protest . In later years , Woodfull 's wife believed that his injury at Adelaide was partly responsible for his death aged 67 in 1965 .
= = = Warner 's visit to the dressing room = = =
Warner learned from twelfth man Leo O 'Brien that Woodfull was badly injured . Later in the afternoon , while Ponsford and Richardson were still batting , Warner and Palairet visited the Australian dressing room with the intention of enquiring about Woodfull 's health . Accounts vary about what followed . According to the original newspaper reports and Fingleton 's later description , Woodfull was lying on the masseur 's table , awaiting treatment from a doctor , although this may have been an exaggeration for dramatic effect . Leo O 'Brien described Woodfull as wearing a towel around his waist , having showered . Warner expressed sympathy to Woodfull but was surprised by the Australian 's response . According to Warner , Woodfull replied , " I don 't want to see you , Mr Warner . There are two teams out there . One is trying to play cricket and the other is not . " Fingleton wrote that Woodfull had added , " This game is too good to be spoilt . It is time some people got out of it . " Woodfull was usually dignified and quietly spoken , making his reaction surprising to Warner and others present . Warner recalled saying , " Apart from all that , we most sincerely hope you are not too badly hurt , " to which Woodfull replied , " The bruise is coming out . " Embarrassed and humiliated , Warner and Palairet turned and left . Fingleton noted that Woodfull spoke quietly and calmly , which increased the effectiveness of his words . He also pointed out that Warner prided himself on sportsmanship , so an accusation of " not playing cricket " would have stung the Englishman . Warner was so shaken that he was found in tears later that day in his hotel room .
According to O 'Brien , only he , Woodfull , the masseur ( who was deaf ) , Alan Kippax , and former Australian Test players Jack Ryder and Ernie Jones were present when the incident took place , but most of the Australian team were watching the match from a balcony adjoining the dressing room from where they would have been able to hear the confrontation . O 'Brien claimed that he went outside and told the group what had happened ; around twenty people were present .
Later that afternoon , Warner related the incident to Jardine , who replied that he " couldn 't care less " . The England captain then locked the dressing room doors and told the team what Woodfull had said and warned them not to speak to anyone concerning the matter . Warner later wrote to his wife that Woodfull had made " a complete fool of himself " and had been " fanning the flames " .
= = Leak = =
Sunday being a rest day , there was no play . On Monday , the exchange between Warner and Woodfull was reported in several newspapers along with the description of Woodfull 's injury . Most headlines were variations on " Woodfull Protests " , and the most extensive accounts were by Claude Corbett in The Sun and The Daily Telegraph . He wrote in the Telegraph that the " fires which have been smouldering in the ranks of the Australian Test cricketers regarding the English shock attack suddenly burst into flames yesterday . " Another newspaper , The Advertiser of Adelaide , claimed several members of the Australian team had repeated the story .
The players and officials were horrified that a sensitive private exchange had been reported to the press . Leaks to the press were practically unknown in 1933 . David Frith notes that discretion and respect were highly prized and such a leak was " regarded as a moral offence of the first order . " Woodfull made it clear that he severely disapproved of the leak , and later wrote that he " always expected cricketers to do the right thing by their team @-@ mates . " As the only full @-@ time journalist in the Australian team , suspicion immediately fell on Fingleton , although as soon as the story was published , he told Woodfull he was not responsible . Warner offered Larwood a reward of one pound if he could dismiss Fingleton in the second innings ; Larwood obliged by bowling him for a duck .
Later , Warner issued a statement to the press that Woodfull had apologised for the incident and that " we are now the best of friends " . Woodfull denied through Bill Jeanes , the Secretary of the Australian Board of Control , that he had expressed regret , but he had said there was no personal animosity between the two men .
= = = Suspects = = =
Until he read Warner 's Cricket Between Two Wars during the Second World War , Fingleton was unaware that Warner assumed he was responsible for the leak . When he found out , Fingleton wrote to Warner , who replied that although he believed Fingleton to be the source , he would publish a correction if presented with evidence to the contrary . Fingleton did not pursue the case . Australian cricketer Bill O 'Reilly wrote that during the 1948 tour of England , he and Fingleton confronted Warner , who apologised as he no longer believed Fingleton to be the culprit . Fingleton thought the belief he was responsible cost him a place on the 1934 tour to England , although there were other possible factors in his exclusion . According to Fingleton , Woodfull later told him that the controversy had led to his missing selection . A letter which Woodfull wrote to Fingleton in 1943 stated " I can assure you that I did not connect your name with the passing on of that conversation . "
In his 1978 biography of Victor Trumper , Fingleton accused Bradman of relating Woodfull 's words to the press . Fingleton claimed that Claude Corbett revealed the information to him . In Fingleton 's version of events , Bradman telephoned Corbett during the night to arrange a meeting . Bradman wrote for Corbett 's paper , Sydney 's Sun . Sitting in Corbett 's car , Bradman told the journalist about the Warner – Woodfull incident . Corbett considered the story too important to keep to himself , so shared it with other journalists . Fingleton later added that " Bradman would have saved me a lot of backlash ... had he admitted that he had given the leak . Part of his job was writing for the Sydney Sun and he had every right to leak such a vital story . "
Bradman denied this version of events . In 1983 , two years after Fingleton 's death , a book written by Michael Page , with Bradman 's close co @-@ operation , blamed Fingleton for the leak and dismissed Fingleton 's story concerning Bradman and Corbett as " an absurd fabrication " , arising from a grudge against Bradman . The book pointed out that Fingleton only made the accusation after Corbett 's death . Fingleton 's executor , Malcolm Gemmell , summarised the evidence which supported Fingleton 's accusation in a magazine article : that Bradman wrote for the Sun , was the prime target of Bodyline , and had previously urged the Australian Board of Control to object to the tactic . Fingleton 's brother supported the claim that Bradman was responsible , repeating in 1997 the alleged view of Corbett that Bradman provided the information . In 1995 , Bradman was interviewed for television , and when asked about the source of the leak , responded sharply : " It wasn 't me ! " In the same year , a biography of Bradman , written with his close co @-@ operation , by Roland Perry , said that Bradman had confronted Corbett to ask who leaked the story , to be told it was Fingleton .
O 'Reilly believed that Bradman , with whom he did not get along , was responsible , wishing to expose the English bowling he believed was designed to cause him physical injury . He also said Bradman was an expert at diverting blame . Cricket writer Ray Robinson wrote that many of the Australian team did not blame Fingleton , and they knew who met Corbett . In the early 1980s another journalist , Michael Davie , interviewed Ponsford who said that Woodfull never forgave Bradman for " a couple of things " . Davie suggests that one of these may have been leaking the Adelaide story .
Gilbert Mant , a journalist who covered the tour , investigated the leak in the mid @-@ 1990s . He died in 1997 , but had arranged for a summary of his findings to be sent to David Frith with a request not to publish the information before Bradman died . Mant believed the leak was not a serious crime and pointed out that any of the players except Ponsford and Richardson , who were batting at the time Warner entered the dressing room , could have leaked the story . Bradman , in correspondence with Mant in 1992 , continued to blame Fingleton and would never forgive the " dastardly lie he concocted about me " and hoped Mant could clear Bradman 's name . As part of his investigations , Mant contacted Corbett 's family . Corbett died in 1944 , and his son Mac said he never mentioned the leak . However , his daughter Helen related that Corbett had spoken to his wife about the affair . She had told Helen that Corbett had received the information from Bradman . Mant believed that while Corbett may have played a joke on Fingleton in naming the culprit , he would not have done so with his wife .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Many commentators and cricketers deplored the use of Bodyline bowling . Some felt frustration that Woodfull had not publicly condemned the tactics , believing that his silence was interpreted as approval . Once his opinions were revealed by the leak , opponents of Bodyline felt publicly legitimised and expressed their opinions more freely . It also revealed deep and unaccustomed divisions between the teams which had been kept from view . The leak and subsequent events in the same match brought varied opinions from journalists and former players on Bodyline into the newspapers , both for and against Bodyline tactics .
During the play on Monday , a short ball from Larwood fractured Bert Oldfield 's skull , although Bodyline tactics were not being used at the time . The Australian Board of Control contacted the MCC managers Warner and Palairet asking them to arrange for the team to cease the use of Bodyline , but they replied the captain was solely in charge of the playing side of the tour . On the Wednesday of the game , the Australian Board sent a cable to the MCC which stated " Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body by the batsman the main consideration . This is causing intensely bitter feeling between the players , as well as injury . In our opinion it is unsportsmanlike . Unless stopped at once it is likely to upset the friendly relations existing between Australia and England . " After England 's victory in the match , Jardine went to the Australian dressing room but had the door closed in his face . Speaking to his team , Jardine offered to end the use of the tactics if the players opposed them , but they unanimously voted to continue . The report in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack stated it was probably the most unpleasant match ever played .
Jardine threatened to withdraw his team from the Fourth and Fifth Tests unless the Australian Board retracted the accusation of unsporting behaviour . The MCC responded angrily to the accusations of unsporting conduct , played down the Australian claims about the danger of Bodyline and threatened to call off the tour . The series had become a major diplomatic incident by this stage , and many people saw Bodyline as damaging to an international relationship that needed to remain strong . The public in both England and Australia reacted with outrage towards the other nation . Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , the Governor of South Australia , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to J. H. Thomas , the British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons met members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour . However , correspondence continued for almost a year . Fingleton was dropped after scoring a pair in the third Test , and England won the final two matches to win the series 4 – 1 .
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= Greco @-@ Persian Wars =
The Greco @-@ Persian Wars ( also often called the Persian Wars ) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia ( modern @-@ day Iran ) and Greek city @-@ states that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC . The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when Cyrus the Great conquered the Greek @-@ inhabited region of Ionia in 547 BC . Struggling to rule the independent @-@ minded cities of Ionia , the Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them . This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike .
In 499 BC , the tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras , embarked on an expedition to conquer the island of Naxos , with Persian support ; however , the expedition was a debacle and , pre @-@ empting his dismissal , Aristagoras incited all of Hellenic Asia Minor into rebellion against the Persians . This was the beginning of the Ionian Revolt , which would last until 493 BC , progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict . Aristagoras secured military support from Athens and Eretria , and in 498 BC these forces helped to capture and burn the Persian regional capital of Sardis . The Persian king Darius the Great vowed to have revenge on Athens and Eretria for this act . The revolt continued , with the two sides effectively stalemated throughout 497 – 495 BC . In 494 BC , the Persians regrouped , and attacked the epicentre of the revolt in Miletus . At the Battle of Lade , the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat , and the rebellion collapsed , with the final members being stamped out the following year .
Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts and from the interference of the mainland Greeks , Darius embarked on a scheme to conquer Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria for the burning of Sardis . The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC , with the Persian general Mardonius successfully re @-@ subjugating Thrace and conquering Macedon before several mishaps forced an early end to the rest of the campaign . In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece , this time across the Aegean Sea , under the command of Datis and Artaphernes . This expedition subjugated the Cyclades , before besieging , capturing and razing Eretria . However , while en route to attack Athens , the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon , ending Persian efforts for the time being .
Darius then began to plan to completely conquer Greece , but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son Xerxes . In 480 BC , Xerxes personally led the second Persian invasion of Greece with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled . Victory over the Allied Greek states at the famous Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to torch an evacuated Athens and overrun most of Greece . However , while seeking to destroy the combined Greek fleet , the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the Battle of Salamis . The following year , the confederated Greeks went on the offensive , defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea , and ending the invasion of Greece .
The allied Greeks followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale , before expelling Persian garrisons from Sestos ( 479 BC ) and Byzantium ( 478 BC ) . The actions of the general Pausanias at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans , and the anti @-@ Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership , called the Delian League . The Delian League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades , beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe . At the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 BC , the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia . However , the League 's involvement in an Egyptian revolt ( from 460 – 454 BC ) resulted in a disastrous defeat , and further campaigning was suspended . A fleet was sent to Cyprus in 451 BC , but achieved little , and when it withdrew the Greco @-@ Persian Wars drew to a quiet end . Some historical sources suggest the end of hostilities was marked by a peace treaty between Athens and Persia , the so @-@ called Peace of Callias .
= = Origins of the conflict = =
The Greeks of the classical period believed that , in the dark age that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization , significant numbers of Greeks fled and had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there . Modern historians generally accept this migration as historic ( but separate from the later colonization of the Mediterranean by the Greeks ) . There are , however , those who believe the Ionian migration cannot be explained as simply as the classical Greeks claimed . These settlers were from three tribal groups : the Aeolians , Dorians and Ionians . The Ionians had settled about the coasts of Lydia and Caria , founding the twelve cities that made up Ionia . These cities were Miletus , Myus and Priene in Caria ; Ephesus , Colophon , Lebedos , Teos , Clazomenae , Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia ; and the islands of Samos and Chios . Although the Ionian cities were independent of one another , they recognized their shared heritage and supposedly had a common temple and meeting place , the Panionion . They thus formed a ' cultural league ' , to which they would admit no other cities , or even other tribal Ionians .
The cities of Ionia remained independent until they were conquered by the Lydians of western Asia Minor . The Lydian king Alyattes II attacked Miletus , a conflict that ended with a treaty of alliance between Miletus and Lydia , that meant that Miletus would have internal autonomy but follow Lydia in foreign affairs . At this time , the Lydians were also in conflict with the Median Empire , and the Milesians sent an army to aid the Lydians in this conflict . Eventually a peaceable settlement was established between the Medes and the Lydians , with the Halys River set up as the border between the kingdoms . The famous Lydian king Croesus succeeded his father Alyattes in around 560 BC and set about conquering the other Greek city states of Asia Minor .
The Persian prince Cyrus led a rebellion against the last Median king Astyages in 553 BC . Cyrus was a grandson of Astyages and was supported by part of the Median aristocracy . By 550 BC , the rebellion was over , and Cyrus had emerged victorious , founding the Achaemenid Empire in place of the Median kingdom in the process . Croesus saw the disruption in the Median Empire and Persia as an opportunity to extend his realm and asked the oracle of Delphi whether he should attack them . The Oracle supposedly replied the famously ambiguous answer that " if Croesus was to cross the Halys he would destroy a great empire " . Blind to the ambiguity of this prophecy , Croesus attacked the Persians , but was eventually defeated and Lydia fell to Cyrus . By crossing the Halys , Croesus had indeed destroyed a great empire - his own .
While fighting the Lydians , Cyrus had sent messages to the Ionians asking them to revolt against Lydian rule , which the Ionians had refused to do . After Cyrus finished the conquest of Lydia , the Ionian cities now offered to be his subjects under the same terms as they had been subjects of Croesus . Cyrus refused , citing the Ionians ' unwillingness to help him previously . The Ionians thus prepared to defend themselves , and Cyrus sent the Median general Harpagus to conquer them . He first attacked Phocaea ; the Phocaeans decided to abandon their city entirely and sail into exile in Sicily , rather than become Persian subjects ( although many later returned ) . Some Teians also chose to emigrate when Harpagus attacked Teos , but the rest of the Ionians remained , and were each in turn conquered .
In the years following their conquest , the Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule . Elsewhere in the empire , Cyrus identified elite native groups such as the priesthood of Judea – to help him rule his new subjects . No such group existed in Greek cities at this time ; while there was usually an aristocracy , this was inevitably divided into feuding factions . The Persians thus settled for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city , even though this drew them into the Ionians ' internal conflicts . Furthermore , certain tyrants might develop an independent streak and have to be replaced . The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task ; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens ' hatred , while staying in the favour of the Persians . In the past , Greek states had often been ruled by tyrants , but that form of government was on the decline . Past tyrants had also tended and needed to be strong and able leaders , whereas the rulers appointed by the Persians were simply place @-@ men . Backed by the Persian military might , these tyrants did not need the support of the population , and could thus rule absolutely . On the eve of the Greco @-@ Persian wars , it is probable that the Ionian population had become discontent and was ready for rebellion .
= = = Warfare in the ancient Mediterranean = = =
In the Greco @-@ Persian wars both sides made use of spear @-@ armed infantry and light missile troops . Greek armies placed the emphasis on heavier infantry , while Persian armies favoured lighter troop types .
= = = = Persia = = = =
The Persian military consisted of a diverse group of men drawn across the various nations of the empire . However , according to Herodotus , there was at least a general conformity in armour and style of fighting . The troops were usually armed with a bow , a ' short spear ' and a sword or axe , carried a wicker shield . They wore a leather jerkin , although individuals of high stature wore high quality metal armor . The Persians most likely used their bows to wear down the enemy , then closed in to deliver the final blow with spears and swords . The first rank of Persian infantry formations , the so @-@ called ' sparabara ' , had no bows , carried larger wicker shields and were sometimes armed with longer spears . Their role was to protect the back ranks of the formation . The cavalry probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry .
= = = = Greece = = = =
The style of warfare between the Greek city @-@ states , which dates back until at least 650 BC ( as dated by the ' Chigi vase ' ) , was based around the hoplite phalanx supported by missile troops . The ' hoplites ' were foot soldiers usually drawn from the members of the middle @-@ classes ( in Athens called the zeugites ) , who could afford the equipment necessary to fight in this manner . The heavy armour usually included a breastplate or a linothorax , greaves , a helmet , and a large round , concave shield ( the aspis or hoplon ) . Hoplites were armed with long spears ( the dory ) , which were significantly longer than Persian spears , and a sword ( the xiphos ) . The heavy armour and longer spears made them superior in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and gave them significant protection against ranged attacks . Lightly armed skirmishers , the psiloi also comprised a part of Greek armies growing in importance during the conflict ; at the Battle of Plataea , for instance , they may have formed over half the Greek army . Use of cavalry in Greek armies is not reported in the battles of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
= = = = Naval warfare = = = =
At the beginning of the conflict , all naval forces in the eastern Mediterranean had switched to the trireme , a warship powered by three banks of oars . The most common naval tactics during the period were ramming ( Greek triremes were equipped with a cast @-@ bronze ram at the bows ) , or boarding by ship @-@ borne marines . More experienced naval powers had by this time also begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous . It is not clear what this was , but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side .
The Persian naval forces were primarily provided by the seafaring people of the empire : Phoenicians , Egyptians , Cilicians and Cypriots . Other coastal regions of the Persian Empire would contribute ships throughout the course of the wars .
= = Ionian Revolt ( 499 – 493 BC ) = =
The Ionian Revolt and associated revolts in Aeolis , Doris , Cyprus , and Caria were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule , lasting from 499 to 493 BC . At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them , along with opposition to the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants , Histiaeus and Aristagoras . In 499 BC the then tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras , launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos , in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus ( both financially and in terms of prestige ) . The mission was a debacle , and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant , Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king Darius the Great .
Struggling to rule the independent @-@ minded cities of Ionia , the Persians appointed local tyrants to rule each of them . This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike . In 498 BC , supported by troops from Athens and Eretria , the Ionians marched on , captured , and burnt Sardis . However , on their return journey to Ionia , they were followed by Persian troops , and decisively beaten at the Battle of Ephesus . This campaign was the only offensive action taken by the Ionians , who subsequently went on the defensive . The Persians responded in 497 BC with a three @-@ pronged attack aimed at recapturing the outlying areas of the rebellious territory , but the spread of the revolt to Caria meant the largest army , under Darius , moved there instead . While at first campaigning successfully in Caria , this army was wiped out in an ambush at the Battle of Pedasus . This resulted in a stalemate for the rest of 496 and 495 BC .
By 494 BC the Persian army and navy had regrouped , and they made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus . The Ionian fleet sought to defend Miletus by sea , but was defeated decisively at the Battle of Lade , after the Samians had defected . Miletus was then besieged , captured , and its population was enslaved . This double defeat effectively ended the revolt , and the Carians surrendered to the Persians as a result . The Persians spent 493 BC reducing the cities along the west coast that still held out against them , before finally imposing a peace settlement on Ionia that was considered to be both just and fair .
The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire and represents the first phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold , but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support for the revolt . Moreover , seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire , he decided to embark on the conquest of all Greece .
= = First invasion of Greece ( 492 – 490 BC ) = =
After having reconquered Ionia , the Persians began to plan their next moves of extinguishing the threat to their empire from Greece ; and punishing Athens and Eretria . The resultant first Persian invasion of Greece consisted of two main campaigns .
= = = 492 BC : Mardonius 's campaign = = =
The first campaign , in 492 BC , was led by Darius 's son @-@ in @-@ law Mardonius , who re @-@ subjugated Thrace , which had nominally been part of the Persian empire since 513 BC . Mardonius was also able to force Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia ; it had previously been a vassal , but retained a broad degree of autonomy . However , further progress in this campaign was prevented when Mardonius 's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Mount Athos . Mardonius himself was then injured in a raid on his camp by a Thracian tribe , and after this he returned with the rest of the expedition to Asia .
The following year , having given clear warning of his plans , Darius sent ambassadors to all the cities of Greece , demanding their submission . He received it from almost all of them , except Athens and Sparta , both of whom instead executed the ambassadors . With Athens still defiant , and Sparta now also effectively at war with him , Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year .
= = = 490 BC : Datis and Artaphernes ' campaign = = =
In 490 BC , Datis and Artaphernes ( son of the satrap Artaphernes ) were given command of an amphibious invasion force , and set sail from Cilicia . The Persian force sailed from Cilicia first to the island of Rhodes , where a Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos , but was unsuccessful . The fleet sailed next to Naxos , to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier . Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains ; those that the Persians caught were enslaved . The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians . The fleet then proceeded to island @-@ hop across the rest of the Aegean on its way to Eretria , taking hostages and troops from each island .
The task force sailed on to Euboea , and to the first major target , Eretria . The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians from landing or advancing and thus allowed themselves to be besieged . For six days , the Persians attacked the walls , with losses on both sides ; however , on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians . The city was razed , and temples and shrines were looted and burned . Furthermore , according to Darius 's commands , the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople .
= = = = Battle of Marathon = = = =
The Persian fleet next headed south down the coast of Attica , landing at the bay of Marathon , roughly 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Athens Under the guidance of Miltiades , the general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians , the Athenian army marched to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon . Stalemate ensued for five days , before the Persians decided to continue onward to Athens , and began to load their troops back onto the ships . After the Persians had loaded their cavalry ( their strongest soldiers ) on the ships , the 10 @,@ 000 Athenian soldiers descended from the hills around the plain . The Greeks crushed the weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing the wings before turning towards the centre of the Persian line . The remnants of the Persian army fled to their ships and left the battle . Herodotus records that 6 @,@ 400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield ; the Athenians lost only 192 men .
As soon as the Persian survivors had put to sea , the Athenians marched as quickly as possible to Athens . They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing in Athens . Seeing his opportunity lost , Artaphernes ended the year 's campaign and returned to Asia .
The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten . It also highlighted the superiority of the more heavily armoured Greek hoplites , and showed their potential when used wisely .
= = Interbellum ( 490 – 480 BC ) = =
= = = Achaemenid Empire = = =
After the failure of the first invasion , Darius began raising a huge new army with which he intended to subjugate Greece completely . However , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , and the revolt forced an indefinite postponement of any Greek expedition . Darius died while preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece . Since this was to be a full @-@ scale invasion , it needed longterm planning , stockpiling and conscription . Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe , and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos ( a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC while rounding this coastline ) . These were both feats of exceptional ambition that would have been beyond the capabilities of any other contemporary state . However , the campaign was delayed by one year because of another revolt in Egypt and Babylonia .
The Persians had the sympathy of several Greek city @-@ states , including Argos , which had pledged to defect when the Persians reached their borders . The Aleuadae family , who ruled Larissa in Thessaly , saw the invasion as an opportunity to extend their power . Thebes , though not explicitly ' Medising ' , was suspected of being willing to aid the Persians once the invasion force arrived .
In 481 BC , after roughly four years of preparation , Xerxes began to muster the troops to invade Europe . Herodotus gives the names of 46 nations from which troops were drafted . The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC . The armies from the Eastern satrapies were gathered in Kritala , Cappadocia and were led by Xerxes to Sardis where they passed the winter . Early in spring , it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies . Then the army that Xerxes had mustered marched towards Europe , crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges .
= = = = Size of the Persian forces = = = =
The numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute . Most modern scholars reject as unrealistic the figures of 2 @.@ 5 million given by Herodotus and other ancient sources because the victors likely miscalculated or exaggerated . The topic has been hotly debated , but the consensus revolves around the figure of 200 @,@ 000 .
The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed , although perhaps less so . Other ancient authors agree with Herodotus ' number of 1 @,@ 207 . These numbers are by ancient standards consistent , and this could be interpreted that a number around 1 @,@ 200 is correct . Among modern scholars , some have accepted this number , although suggesting the number must have been lower by the Battle of Salamis . Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number , viewing 1 @,@ 207 as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad . These works generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean .
= = = Greek city states = = =
= = = = Athens = = = =
A year after Marathon , Miltiades , the hero of Marathon , was injured in a military campaign to Paros . Taking advantage of his incapacitation , the powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to be prosecuted for the failure of the campaign . A huge fine was imposed on Miltiades for the crime of ' deceiving the Athenian people ' , but he died weeks later from his wound .
The politician Themistocles , with a power base firmly established amongst the poor , filled the vacuum left by Miltiades 's death , and in the following decade became the most influential politician in Athens . During this period , Themistocles continued to support the expansion of Athens ' naval power . The Athenians were aware throughout this period that the Persian interest in Greece had not ended , and Themistocles 's naval policies may be seen in the light of the potential threat from Persia . Aristides , Themistocles 's great rival , and champion of the zeugites ( the ' upper hoplite @-@ class ' ) vigorously opposed such a policy .
In 483 BC , a vast new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines at Laurium . Themistocles proposed that the silver should be used to build a new fleet of triremes , ostensibly to assist in a long running war with Aegina . Plutarch suggests that Themistocles deliberately avoided mentioning Persia , believing that it was too distant a threat for the Athenians to act on , but that countering Persia was the fleet 's aim . Fine suggests that many Athenians must have admitted that such a fleet would be needed to resist the Persians , whose preparations for the coming campaign were known . Themistocles 's motion was passed easily , despite strong opposition from Aristides . Its passage was probably due to the desire of many of the poorer Athenians for paid employment as rowers in the fleet . It is unclear from the ancient sources whether 100 or 200 ships were initially authorised ; both Fine and Holland suggest that at first 100 ships were authorised and that a second vote increased this number to the levels seen during the second invasion . Aristides continued to oppose Themistocles 's policy , and tension between the two camps built over the winter , so the ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest between Themistocles and Aristides . In what Holland characterises as , in essence , the world 's first referendum , Aristides was ostracised , and Themistocles 's policies were endorsed . Indeed , becoming aware of the Persian preparations for the coming invasion , the Athenians voted to build more ships than those for which Themistocles had asked . Thus , during the preparations for the Persian invasion , Themistocles had become the leading politician in Athens .
= = = = Sparta = = = =
The Spartan king Demaratus had been stripped of his kingship in 491 BC , and replaced with his cousin Leotychides . Sometime after 490 BC , the humiliated Demaratus had chosen to go into exile , and had made his way to Darius 's court in Susa . Demaratus would from then on act as an advisor to Darius , and later Xerxes , on Greek affairs , and accompanied Xerxes during the second Persian invasion . At the end of Herodotus 's book 7 , there is an anecdote relating that prior to the second invasion , Demaratus sent an apparently blank wax tablet to Sparta . When the wax was removed , a message was found scratched on the wooden backing , warning the Spartans of Xerxes 's plans . However , many historians believe that this chapter was inserted into the text by a later author , possibly to fill a gap between the end of book 7 and the start of book 8 . The veracity of this anecdote is therefore unclear .
= = = = Hellenic alliance = = = =
In 481 BC , Xerxes sent ambassadors to city states throughout Greece , asking for food , land , and water as tokens of their submission to Persia . However , Xerxes ' ambassadors deliberately avoided Athens and Sparta , hoping thereby that those states would not learn of the Persians ' plans . States that were opposed to Persia thus began to coalesce around these two city states . A congress of states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed . This confederation had powers both to send envoys to ask for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation . Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the union but simply calls them " οἱ Ἕλληνες " ( the Greeks ) and " the Greeks who had sworn alliance " ( Godley translation ) or " the Greeks who had banded themselves together " ( Rawlinson translation ) . From now on , they will be referred to as the ' Allies ' . Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress but the interests of all the states influenced defensive strategy . Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings . Only 70 of the nearly 700 Greek city @-@ states sent representatives . Nevertheless , this was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states present were still technically at war with one another .
= = Second invasion of Greece ( 480 – 479 BC ) = =
= = = Early 480 BC : Thrace , Macedonia , and Thessaly = = =
Having crossed into Europe in April 480 BC , the Persian army began its march to Greece , taking 3 months to travel unopposed from the Hellespont to Therme . It paused at Doriskos where it was joined by the fleet . Xerxes reorganized the troops into tactical units replacing the national formations used earlier for the march .
The Allied ' congress ' met again in the spring of 480 BC and agreed to defend the narrow Vale of Tempe on the borders of Thessaly and block Xerxes 's advance . However , once there , they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly large , thus the Greeks retreated . Shortly afterwards , they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont . At this point , a second strategy was suggested by Themistocles to the allies . The route to southern Greece ( Boeotia , Attica and the Peloponnesus ) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the narrow pass of Thermopylae . This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites , despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians . Furthermore , to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea , the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium . This dual strategy was adopted by the congress . However , the Peloponnesian cities made fall @-@ back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it , while the women and children of Athens were evacuated to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen .
= = = August 480 BC : Battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium = = =
Xerxes 's estimated time of arrival at Thermopylae coincided with both the Olympic Games and the festival of Carneia . For the Spartans , warfare during these periods was considered sacrilegious . Despite the uncomfortable timing , the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they dispatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard ( the Hippeis ) of 300 men . The customary elite young men in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had children . Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Allied Peloponnesian cities , and other forces that the Allies picked up on the way to Thermopylae . The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass , rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass , and waited for Xerxes 's arrival .
When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae in mid @-@ August , they initially waited for three days for the Allies to disperse . When Xerxes was eventually persuaded that the Allies intended to contest the pass , he sent his troops to attack . However , the Allied position was ideally suited to hoplite warfare , the Persian contingents being forced to attack the Greek phalanx head on . The Allies withstood two full days of Persian attacks , including those by the elite Persian Immortals . However , towards the end of the second day , they were betrayed by a local resident named Ephialtes who revealed to Xerxes a mountain path that led behind the Allied lines . Made aware by scouts that they were being outflanked , Leonidas dismissed most of the Allied army , remaining to guard the rear with perhaps 2 @,@ 000 men . On the final day of the battle , the remaining Allies sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of the pass to slaughter as many Persians as they could , but eventually they were all killed or captured .
Simultaneous with the battle at Thermopylae , an Allied naval force of 271 triremes defended the Straits of Artemisium against the Persians , thus protecting the flank of the forces at Thermopylae . Here the Allied fleet held off the Persians for three days ; however , on the third evening the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allied troops at Thermopylae . Since the Allied fleet was badly damaged , and since it no longer needed to defend the flank of Thermopylae , the Allies retreated from Artemisium to the island of Salamis .
= = = September 480 BC : Battle of Salamis = = =
Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes ; Attica was then open to invasion . The remaining population of Athens was evacuated , with the aid of the Allied fleet , to Salamis . The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth , building a wall , and demolishing the road from Megara , abandoning Athens to the Persians . Athens thus fell to the Persians ; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated , and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be razed .
The Persians had now captured most of Greece , but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance ; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible . If Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy , he would be in a strong position to force an Allied surrender ; conversely by avoiding destruction , or as Themistocles hoped , by destroying the Persian fleet , the Allies could prevent conquest from being completed . The Allied fleet thus remained off the coast of Salamis into September , despite the imminent arrival of the Persians . Even after Athens fell , the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis , trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle . Partly because of deception by Themistocles , the navies met in the cramped Straits of Salamis . There , the Persian numbers became a hindrance , as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganised . Seizing the opportunity , the Allied fleet attacked , and scored a decisive victory , sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships , therefore ensuring the safety of the Peloponnessus .
According to Herodotus , after the loss of the battle Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the channel to attack the Athenian evacuees on Salamis , but this project was soon abandoned . With the Persians ' naval superiority removed , Xerxes feared that the Allies might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges . His general Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand @-@ picked group of troops , while Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of the army . Mardonius over @-@ wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly ; the Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt @-@ out city for the winter .
= = = June 479 BC : Battles of Plataea and Mycale = = =
Over the winter , there was some tension among the Allies . In particular , the Athenians , who were not protected by the Isthmus , but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnesus , felt that they had been treated unfairly , and so they refused to join the Allied navy in the spring . Mardonius remained in Thessaly , knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless , while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus . Mardonius moved to break the stalemate , by offering peace to the Athenians , using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediate . The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the Athenians reject the Persians ' offer . Athens was thus evacuated again , and the Persians marched south and re @-@ took possession of it . Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis . Athens , with Megara and Plataea , sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance , and threatening to accept the Persian terms if they were not aided . In response , the Spartans summoned a large army from the Peloponnese cities and marched to meet the Persians .
When Mardonius heard the Allied army was on the march , he retreated into Boeotia , near Plataea , trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry . The Allied army , under the command of the regent Pausanias , stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics . After several days of maneuver and stalemate , Pausanias ordered a night @-@ time retreat towards the Allies ' original positions . This maneuver went awry , leaving the Athenians , and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills , with the other contingents scattered further away near Plataea . Seeing that the Persians might never have a better opportunity to attack , Mardonius ordered his whole army forward . However , the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites , and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius 's bodyguard and killed him . After this the Persian force dissolved in rout ; 40 @,@ 000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly , but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Greeks , finalising the Greek victory .
Herodotus recounts that , on the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea , a rumour of their victory at that battle reached the Allies ' navy , at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia . Their morale boosted , the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mycale that same day , destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet , crippling Xerxes 's sea power , and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet . Whilst many modern historians doubt that Mycale took place on the same day as Plataea , the battle may well only have occurred once the Allies received news of the events unfolding in Greece .
= = Greek counterattack ( 479 – 478 BC ) = =
= = = Mycale and Ionia = = =
Mycale was , in many ways , the beginning of a new phase in the conflict , in which the Greeks would go on the offensive against the Persians . The immediate result of the victory at Mycale was a second revolt amongst the Greek cities of Asia Minor . The Samians and Milesians had actively fought against the Persians at Mycale , thus openly declaring their rebellion , and the other cities followed in their example .
= = = Sestos = = =
Shortly after Mycale , the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges , but found that this had already been done . The Peloponnesians sailed home , but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians . The Persians and their allies made for Sestos , the strongest town in the region . Amongst them was one Oeobazus of Cardia , who had with him the cables and other equipment from the pontoon bridges . The Persian governor , Artayctes had not prepared for a siege , not believing that the Allies would attack . The Athenians therefore were able to lay a siege around Sestos . The siege dragged on for several months , causing some discontent amongst the Athenian troops , but eventually , when the food ran out in the City , the Persians fled at night from the least guarded area of the city . The Athenians were thus able to take possession of the city the next day .
Most of the Athenian troops were sent straight away to pursue the Persians . The party of Oeobazus was captured by a Thracian tribe , and Oeobazus was sacrificed to the god Plistorus . The Athenians eventually caught Artayctes , killing some of the Persians with him but taking most of them , including Artayctes , captive . Artayctes was crucified at the request of the people of Elaeus , a town which Artayctes had plundered while governor of the Chersonesos . The Athenians , having pacified the region , then sailed back to Athens , taking the cables from the pontoon bridges with them as trophies .
= = = Cyprus = = =
In 478 BC , still operating under the terms of the Hellenic alliance , the Allies sent out a fleet composed of 20 Peloponnesian and 30 Athenian ships supported by an unspecified number of allies , under the overall command of Pausanias . According to Thucydides , this fleet sailed to Cyprus and " subdued most of the island " . Exactly what Thucydides means by this is unclear . Sealey suggests that this was essentially a raid to gather as much treasure as possible from the Persian garrisons on Cyprus . There is no indication that the Allies attempted to take possession of the island , and , shortly after , they sailed to Byzantium . Certainly , the fact that the Delian League repeatedly campaigned in Cyprus suggests either that the island was not garrisoned by the Allies in 478 BC , or that the garrisons were quickly expelled .
= = = Byzantium = = =
The Greek fleet then sailed to Byzantium , which they besieged and eventually captured . Control of both Sestos and Byzantium gave the allies command of the straits between Europe and Asia ( over which the Persians had crossed ) , and allowed them access to the merchant trade of the Black Sea .
The aftermath of the siege was to prove troublesome for Pausanias . Exactly what happened is unclear ; Thucydides gives few details , although later writers added plenty of lurid insinuations . Through his arrogance and arbitrary actions ( Thucydides says " violence " ) , Pausanias managed to alienate many of the Allied contingents , particularly those that had just been freed from Persian overlordship . The Ionians and others asked the Athenians to take leadership of the campaign , to which they agreed . The Spartans , hearing of his behaviour , recalled Pausanias and tried him on charges of collaborating with the enemy . Although he was acquitted , his reputation was tarnished and he was not restored to his command .
Pausanias returned to Byzantium as a private citizen in 477 BC , and took command of the city until he was expelled by the Athenians . He then crossed the Bosporus and settled in Kolonai in the Troad , until he was again accused of collaborating with the Persians and was recalled by the Spartans for a trial after which he starved himself to death . The timescale is unclear , but Pausanias may have remained in possession of Byzantium until 470 BC .
In the meantime , the Spartans had sent Dorkis to Byzantium with a small force , to take command of the Allied force . However , he found that the rest of the Allies were no longer prepared to accept Spartan leadership , and therefore returned home .
= = Wars of the Delian League ( 477 – 449 BC ) = =
= = = Delian League = = =
After Byzantium , the Spartans were allegedly eager to end their involvement in the war . The Spartans were supposedly of the view that , with the liberation of mainland Greece and the Greek cities of Asia Minor , the war 's purpose had already been reached . There was also perhaps a feeling that securing long @-@ term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible . In the aftermath of Mycale , the Spartan king Leotychides had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion . Xanthippus , the Athenian commander at Mycale , had furiously rejected this ; the Ionian cities were originally Athenian colonies , and the Athenians , if no @-@ one else , would protect the Ionians . This marks the point at which the leadership of the Greek Alliance effectively passed to the Athenians . With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantium , the leadership of the Athenians became explicit .
The loose alliance of city @-@ states that had fought against Xerxes 's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league . With the withdrawal of these states , a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians . This alliance , now including many of the Aegean islands , was formally constituted as the ' First Athenian Alliance ' , commonly known as the Delian League . According to Thucydides , the official aim of the League was to " avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king " . In reality , this goal was divided into three main efforts — to prepare for future invasion , to seek revenge against Persia , and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war . The members were given a choice of either supplying armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury ; most states chose the tax .
= = = Campaigns against Persia = = =
Throughout the 470s BC , the Delian League campaigned in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region , primarily under the command of the Athenian politician Cimon . In the early part of the next decade , Cimon began campaigning in Asia Minor , seeking to strengthen the Greek position there . At the Battle of the Eurymedon in Pamphylia , the Athenians and allied fleet achieved a stunning double victory , destroying a Persian fleet and then landing the ships ' marines to attack and rout the Persian army . After this battle , the Persians took an essentially passive role in the conflict , anxious not to risk battle if possible .
Towards the end of the 460s BC , the Athenians took the ambitious decision to support a revolt in the Egyptian satrapy of the Persian empire . Although the Greek task force achieved initial successes , they were unable to capture the Persian garrison in Memphis , despite a 3 @-@ year long siege . The Persians then counterattacked , and the Athenian force was itself besieged for 18 months , before being wiped out . This disaster , coupled with ongoing warfare in Greece , dissuaded the Athenians from resuming conflict with Persia . In 451 BC however , a truce was agreed in Greece , and Cimon was then able to lead an expedition to Cyprus . However , while besieging Kition , Cimon died , and the Athenian force decided to withdraw , winning another double victory at the Battle of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus in order to extricate themselves . This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia , and therefore the end of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
= = Peace with Persia = =
After the Battle of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus , Thucydides makes no further mention of conflict with the Persians , saying that the Greeks simply returned home . Diodorus , on the other hand , claims that in the aftermath of Salamis , a full @-@ blown peace treaty ( the " Peace of Callias " ) was agreed with the Persians . Diodorus was probably following the history of Ephorus at this point , who in turn was presumably influenced by his teacher Isocrates — from whom there is the earliest reference to the supposed peace , in 380 BC . Even during the 4th century BC , the idea of the treaty was controversial , and two authors from that period , Callisthenes and Theopompus , appear to reject its existence .
It is possible that the Athenians had attempted to negotiate with the Persians previously . Plutarch suggests that in the aftermath of the victory at the Eurymedon , Artaxerxes had agreed a peace treaty with the Greeks , even naming Callias as the Athenian ambassador involved . However , as Plutarch admits , Callisthenes denied that such a peace was made at this point ( c . 466 BC ) . Herodotus also mentions , in passing , an Athenian embassy headed by Callias , which was sent to Susa to negotiate with Artaxerxes . This embassy included some Argive representatives and can probably be therefore dated to c . 461 BC ( after an alliance was agreed between Athens and Argos ) . This embassy may have been an attempt to reach some kind of peace agreement , and it has even been suggested that the failure of these hypothetical negotiations led to the Athenian decision to support the Egyptian revolt . The ancient sources therefore disagree as to whether there was an official peace or not , and , if there was , when it was agreed .
Opinion amongst modern historians is also split ; for instance , Fine accepts the concept of the Peace of Callias , whereas Sealey effectively rejects it . Holland accepts that some kind of accommodation was made between Athens and Persia , but no actual treaty . Fine argues that Callisthenes 's denial that a treaty was made after the Eurymedon does not preclude a peace being made at another point . Further , he suggests that Theopompus was actually referring to a treaty that had allegedly been negotiated with Persia in 423 BC . If these views are correct , it would remove one major obstacle to the acceptance of the treaty 's existence . A further argument for the existence of the treaty is the sudden withdrawal of the Athenians from Cyprus in 449 BC , which Fine suggests makes most sense in the light of some kind of peace agreement . On the other hand , if there was indeed some kind of accommodation , Thucydides 's failure to mention it is odd . In his digression on the pentekontaetia , his aim is to explain the growth of Athenian power , and such a treaty , and the fact that the Delian allies were not released from their obligations after it , would have marked a major step in the Athenian ascendancy . Conversely , it has been suggested that certain passages elsewhere in Thucydides 's history are best interpreted as referring to a peace agreement . There is thus no clear consensus amongst modern historians as to the treaty 's existence .
The ancient sources that give details of the treaty are reasonably consistent in their description of the terms :
All Greek cities of Asia were to ' live by their own laws ' or ' be autonomous ' ( depending on translation ) .
Persian satraps ( and presumably their armies ) were not to travel west of the Halys River ( Isocrates ) or closer than a day 's journey on horseback to the Aegean Sea ( Callisthenes ) or closer than three days ' journey on foot to the Aegean Sea ( Ephorus and Diodorus ) .
No Persian warship was to sail west of Phaselis ( on the southern coast of Asia Minor ) , nor west of the Cyanaean rocks ( probably at the eastern end of the Bosporus , on the north coast ) .
If the terms were observed by the king and his generals , then the Athenians were not to send troops to lands ruled by Persia .
From the Persian perspective , such terms would not be so humiliating as they might at first seem . The Persians already allowed the Greek cities of Asia to be governed under their own laws ( under the reorganization conducted by Artaphernes , following the Ionian Revolt ) . By these terms , the Ionians were still Persian subjects , as they had been . Furthermore , Athens had already demonstrated their superiority at sea at the Eurymedon and Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus , so any legal limitations for the Persian fleet were nothing more than " de jure " recognition of military realities . In exchange for limiting the movement of Persian troops in one region of the realm , Artaxerxes secured a promise from the Athenians to stay out of his entire realm .
= = Aftermath and later conflicts = =
Towards the end of the conflict with Persia , the process by which the Delian League became the Athenian Empire reached its conclusion . The allies of Athens were not released from their obligations to provide either money or ships , despite the cessation of hostilities . In Greece , the First Peloponnesian War between the power @-@ blocs of Athens and Sparta , which had continued on / off since 460 BC , finally ended in 445 BC , with the agreement of a thirty @-@ year truce . However , the growing enmity between Sparta and Athens would lead , just 14 years later , into the outbreak of the Second Peloponnesian War . This disastrous conflict , which dragged on for 27 years , would eventually result in the utter destruction of Athenian power , the dismemberment of the Athenian empire , and the establishment of a Spartan hegemony over Greece . However , not just Athens suffered — the conflict would significantly weaken the whole of Greece .
Repeatedly defeated in battle by the Greeks , and plagued by internal rebellions that hindered their ability to fight the Greeks , after 449 BC Artaxerxes I and his successors instead adopted a policy of divide @-@ and @-@ rule . Avoiding fighting the Greeks themselves , the Persians instead attempted to set Athens against Sparta , regularly bribing politicians to achieve their aims . In this way , they ensured that the Greeks remained distracted by internal conflicts , and were unable to turn their attentions to Persia . There was no open conflict between the Greeks and Persia until 396 BC , when the Spartan king Agesilaus briefly invaded Asia Minor ; as Plutarch points out , the Greeks were far too busy overseeing the destruction of their own power to fight against the " barbarians " .
If the wars of the Delian League shifted the balance of power between Greece and Persia in favour of the Greeks , then the subsequent half @-@ century of internecine conflict in Greece did much to restore the balance of power to Persia . The Persians entered the Peloponnesian War in 411 BC forming a mutual @-@ defence pact with Sparta and combining their naval resources against Athens in exchange for sole Persian control of Ionia . In 404 BC when Cyrus the Younger attempted to seize the Persian throne , he recruited 13 @,@ 000 Greek mercenaries from all over the Greek world , of which Sparta sent 700 – 800 , believing they were following the terms of the defence pact and unaware of the army 's true purpose . After the failure of Cyrus , Persia tried to regain control of the Ionian city @-@ states , which had rebelled during the conflict . The Ionians refused to capitulate and called upon Sparta for assistance , which she provided , in 396 – 395 BC . Athens , however , sided with the Persians , which led in turn to another large @-@ scale conflict in Greece , the Corinthian War . Towards the end of that conflict , in 387 BC , Sparta sought the aid of Persia to shore up her position . Under the so @-@ called " King 's Peace " that brought the war to an end , Artaxerxes II demanded and received the return of the cities of Asia Minor from the Spartans , in return for which the Persians threatened to make war on any Greek state that did not make peace . This humiliating treaty , which undid all the Greek gains of the previous century , sacrificed the Greeks of Asia Minor so that the Spartans could maintain their hegemony over Greece . It is in the aftermath of this treaty that Greek orators began to refer to the Peace of Callias ( whether fictional or not ) , as a counterpoint to the shame of the King 's Peace , and a glorious example of the " good old days " when the Greeks of the Aegean had been freed from Persian rule by the Delian League .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories ( Godley translation , 1920 )
Commentary : W.W. How ; J. Wells ( 1990 ) . A commentary on Herodotus . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 872139 @-@ 0 .
Thucydides , History of the Peloponnesian War
Xenophon , Anabasis , Hellenica
Plutarch , Parallel Lives ; Themistocles , Aristides , Pericles , Cimon
Diodorus Siculus , Bibliotheca historica
Cornelius Nepos , Lives of the Eminent Commanders ; Miltiades , Themistocles
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= 3 Words ( song ) =
" 3 Words " is a song recorded by English singer Cheryl Cole for her 2009 debut studio album of the same name . It was released in the UK and Ireland on 20 December 2009 by Fascination Records and later in 2010 by Universal Music , sometimes serving as the lead single for 3 Words . The uptempo dance @-@ pop song was written by Cole and George Pajon . It was also written and produced by will.i.am who has guest vocals on the song . 3 Words was cited by Cole as her favourite song from the album for being different from what people expected .
" 3 Words " was praised by contemporary critics who said it was " a sophisticated love song " and the " standout track " from the album . Its unconventional production abandons the use of ' verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse ' structure instead , opting for a throbbing build up to a climax . The accompanying video , directed by Saam , features the singer in various fashion ensambles often contrasting colour with will.i.am and , paying homage to Madonna . It also makes use of split screen cinematography and camera effects for the transition of scenes .
The song was promoted on Cheryl Cole 's Night In . The single was less commercially successful compared to its predecessor " Fight for This Love " but despite not peaking at number one , it went on to become Cole 's second consecutive UK top @-@ five and Irish @-@ top ten hit . It was also a top five hit in Australia and has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and silver by the British Phonographic Industry .
= = Composition = =
" 3 Words " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song which features guest vocals from will.i.am who produced the song as well as , writing the lyrics with Cole and George Pajon . Serving as the opening and title song of Cole 's debut album , the song is written in the key of C ♯ minor with a time signature in common time and a tempo of 129 beats per minute . Noticeably missing is the standard use of a " verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse song structure " . The song 's backing track consists of a sparse yet complex chord progression of C ♯ m , G ♯ m , C ♯ and A major / C ♯ . The production features loops of acoustic guitar with a piano melody to form an " atmospheric love song " in the vocal range of G ♯ 3 to B4 .
Critics stated that the " sophisticated love song " is difficult to class by genre because it was " unconventional " , something which Cole agreed when she said , " [ its ] totally different from anything I 've done [ with Girls Aloud ] or liked before " . Some industry critics also noted that " 3 Words " was " unlike many things currently [ at that time ] on radio or being released " . Cole said that the song took its inspiration froms her newly acquired love for dance music on the charts , especially David Guetta & Kelly Rowland 's " When Love Takes Over " .
= = Critical reception = =
Cole described it as her favourite song on the album and music critics generally agreed . Tom Ewing of The Guardian called the song Cheryl 's " showcase [ ... ] built on dark loops of treated acoustic guitar and building into a claustrophobic dance track . It 's as brave and novel a song as anything Cole 's group have released . " Daniel Wilcox even went as far as to say the song was " far more interesting and innovative than anything her girl group has done in their entire careers . " " 3 Words " has been described as " mesmerizing in its listlessness " as well as being " unlike anything Cheryl or Will.I.Am have released " and " to what 's currently being played on the radio . " It was labeled a standout track by many reviewers , with Killian Fox of The Observer referring to the song as " a slick , sophisticated love song that hints at what this album could have been . " ( positive ) David Balls of Digital Spy wrote , " Snubbing traditional verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse song structure , and beginning with spare acoustic guitar strums , ' 3 Words ' builds slowly towards a throbbing and infectious , if slightly brief , arms @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air climax [ ... ] it 's hard to deny that Chez pulls off this less @-@ than @-@ obvious offering with aplomb . "
Louise McCudden of Inthenews.co.uk , however , argued that although " her voice sounds pleasant [ ... ] the song itself is too long and becomes tedious fairly fast . " Vicki Lutas had a mostly negative review for the song saying " at the end of the day it does sound like something you could have made up when you were at school " , though she did praise the backing track for being " dark , eerie and cold in a chilling way ; in an infectious way " . However she pointed out that " the vocal arrangement and the actual vocals themselves do nothing more for the song " , and respected that " it 's a brave song choice , but it 's hap @-@ hazard vocal line seems to scream ... C @-@ R @-@ I @-@ N @-@ G @-@ E. " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " 3 Words " made its official debut on the UK Singles Chart at number twenty @-@ six , following strong digital sales from the release of the album , two weeks prior . Then a day before its digital release and two days before its CD release the single climbed to number fourteen . Later during the first week of 2010 it would go on to peak at number four , giving Cole her third consecutive top @-@ five UK hit if her feature on will.i.am 's " Heartbreaker " is included . On 14 May 2010 the single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies .
The single also achieved top ten success in the Republic of Ireland , where it reached number seven becoming her third consecutive top @-@ ten single . Coincidentally , it is the second song featuring Cole 's vocals to peak at number seven in Ireland , the first being will.i.am 's " Heartbreaker " . Internationally the single peaked top five in Hungary , and Australia . In the latter it performed better than any song Cole released with Girls Aloud beating the previous best entry " Jump " by eighteen places . " 3 Words " is the only song from Cole 's debut album to peak within the top fifty of the Australian Singles Chart and was subsequently certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping 70 @,@ 000 units . Additionally it peaked at top @-@ ten in Italy . The song debuted at 14 on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand . It later rose to number 12 , staying in the charts for 12 weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
Cole filmed two music videos for " 3 Words " . The first music video was a viral version directed by Vincent Haycock , in the week beginning 19 October 2009 " on the only rainy night in Los Angeles in six months . " The second version was the official " split screener " , directed by Saam , that premiered on 27 November 2009 . The video was described as being distinctly different from that of previous single " Fight for This Love " , drawing comparisons to Madonna and Lady Gaga . The overall goal of the video was described as " tell [ ing ] the story of a couple who socialise separately and are both approached by members of the opposite sex . Despite the other person showing a romantic interest in them " . The singers go on to declare each other is ' the love of my life ' and ' through the ups and the downs ... never let go ' . " The " edgy and arty " video features " a split screen , unconventional camera angles and modern dance . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Cole sitting alongside will.i.am , wearing a " Lady Gaga @-@ inspired platinum blonde wig " and a " lace veil " . In the early scenes she " swaps her bronzed tan for alabaster skin , smokey eyes and pale lipstick " . In the next scene she can be " seen looking wistfully into the distance in a slinky floor @-@ length black dress with brown hair extensions cascading over her shoulders " , whilst in a third scene she is depicted as an " Egyptian goddess " . Each scene incorporates " dance shots interspersed with sequences in which the focus falls on the two stars alone , seemingly searching each other , as it were ... experimenting more with her looks and even taking a chance with Lady Gaga @-@ esque outfits for her dancers , including veils that cover their faces and black leotards . " It ’ s shot with a split screen , meaning Cheryl and will.i.am do not come into physical contact .
= = = Reception = = =
The video received mixed to positive reviews from critics who praised Cole 's sense of fashion but cited that the video was unoriginal . Elena Gorgan of Softpedia said " even with all this , she hardly manages to create a strong impression .. , the video fails to break any visual ground , albeit standing on its own as a stylish video . " The Daily Mail agreed saying " [ The story ] which will no doubt be interpreted by fans as an insight into Cheryl 's marriage to footballer Ashley Cole . Cheryl has ditched her street dance gear for a gown fit for a diva along with suitably styled big hair ... But as she teams up with Black Eyed Peas rapper will.i.am is sporting a more feminine look . The net result is , sorry to say it , very regal but a bit on the dull side . " Lisa McGarry of ' Unreality TV ' said the platinum wig was " strange " She also said " if it doesn ’ t look great , at least it looks shocking . " Meanwhile David Balls of ' Digital Spy ' said " [ in ] this glitzy split @-@ screen affair , Cheryl looks effortlessly classy and glam as she transforms into an Egyptian goddess and - with more success than a certain Mrs. B ( Mel B ) back in 2001 [ with " Feels so Good " ] - shows how to wear a blonde wig without looking like you 're on a dirty weekend in the Toon . Perfectly complimenting the song itself , this super @-@ glossy clip also suggests that Cole has a firm eye on global stardom over the next year . " Fame magazine called the video " a little edgier than anything Girls Aloud have done " .
= = Live performances = =
The song received its worldwide radio premiere on 13 October 2009 on BBC Radio 1 's The Chris Moyles Show . Cole performed " 3 Words " for the first time with will.i.am during her one @-@ off special for ITV , Cheryl Cole 's Night In . A reporter of The Daily Mail said Cheryl " [ performed in ] a glamorous flowing Kate Bush @-@ esque black gown a duet of her latest single ' 3 Words ' . In January 2010 Cole flew to Germany to perform " 3 Words " at German Award Ceremony , DLD Starnight at the Haus der Kunst in Munich . She also performed the song as part of a four @-@ song set at ' BBC Radio 1 Big Weekend as well as performing at the ' De Grisogono jewellery dinner party ' at the Eden Rock Hotel in Cap d 'Antibes during the Cannes Film Festival .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
" 3 Words " was recorded at Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles ( CA ) .
Producer - will.i.am
Guitar - George Pajon
Drums , synthesizer , bass - will.i.am
Engineer - Padriac " Padlock " Kerin , will.i.am
Recorded - Padriac " Padlock " Kerin
Mixing - Dylan Dresdow , will.i.am
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Twenty @-@ cent piece ( United States coin ) =
The American twenty @-@ cent piece is a coin struck from 1875 to 1878 , but only for collectors in the final two years . Proposed by Nevada Senator John P. Jones , it proved a failure due to confusion with the quarter , to which it was close in both size and value .
In 1874 , the newly elected Jones began pressing for a twenty @-@ cent piece , which he stated would alleviate the shortage of small change in the far West . The bill passed Congress , and mint director Henry Linderman ordered pattern coins struck . Linderman eventually decided on an obverse and reverse similar to that of other silver coins .
Although the coins have a smooth edge , rather than reeded as with other silver coins , the new piece was close to the size of , and immediately confused with , the quarter . Adding to the bewilderment , the obverse , or " heads " , sides of both coins were almost identical . After the first year , in which over a million were minted , there was little demand , and the denomination was abolished in 1878 . At least a third of the total mintage was later melted by the government . Numismatist Mark Benvenuto called the twenty @-@ cent piece " a chapter of U.S. coinage history that closed almost before it began " .
= = Inception and authorization = =
A twenty @-@ cent piece had been proposed as early as 1791 , and again in 1806 , but had been rejected . The 1806 bill , introduced by Connecticut Senator Uriah Tracy , sought both a two @-@ cent piece and a " double dime " . It was opposed by mint director Robert Patterson , though his opposition was more to the two @-@ cent piece , which Tracy proposed be struck in billon , low @-@ grade silver that would be difficult to recover when melting the coins . The bill passed the Senate twice , in 1806 and 1807 , but did not pass the House of Representatives . No twenty @-@ cent piece was issued prior to the 1870s , but Americans were familiar with the denomination as the two reales piece struck in Spain , known as a " pistareen " in the United States , passed for twenty cents ( its Spanish colonial equivalent passed for a quarter ) .
Several factors converged to make possible a twenty @-@ cent piece in the 1870s . The first was a shortage of small change in the far West , where base @-@ metal coins did not circulate . Government payments in silver and gold had been suspended during the economic chaos caused by the civil war — coins containing precious metal were hoarded except on the Pacific Coast , and did not pass at face value in trade . Although the base @-@ metal nickel was not widely accepted in the far West , the silver half dime had been struck in increasing numbers at the San Francisco Mint until the silver coin , which did not circulate in the East , was abolished by Congress in 1873 . A shortage of small change resulted , especially as half dimes were used in the jewelry trade ; customers complained they could not get full change for an item costing ten cents for which they paid with a quarter . Prices in the West were sometimes in bits ( 121 ⁄ 2 cents , based on the old Spanish colonial real , although those pieces no longer circulated ) , adding to the change problem . Numismatist David Lange states that a shipment of nickels out West could have solved everything , but that they might not have been accepted due to the prejudice against money which did not contain precious metal .
A second factor was the anxiety of Congress to see more silver made into coin . This was due to pressure from mining and other interests . The Coinage Act of 1873 ended the practice of allowing silver producers to have their bullion struck into silver dollars and returned to them . Although producers had not deposited much silver in the years before 1873 due to high market prices , former mint director Henry Linderman foresaw that those prices would fall as mines became accessible due to the completion of the transcontinental railroad across the United States , and that the resultant coinage would inflate the currency . He quietly urged Congress to end the practice , which it did . Within a year , silver prices had dropped , and producers tried vainly to deposit bullion at the mints for conversion into legal tender . Mining interests sought other means of selling silver to the government .
The third was American interest in aligning its currency with the Latin Monetary Union and to bring its weights for coinage into the metric system . Several times in the 1860s and 1870s , the United States Mint struck pattern coins that were to be used if America joined , in some cases with the equivalent in foreign money struck as part of the design . The twenty @-@ cent piece was to be equivalent to one French franc in that system , and if in proportion to the smaller silver coins being struck , would weigh five grams , a fact which appealed to advocates of the metric system in Congress . Another purpose for a large issue of silver coins , regardless of denomination , was to retire the fractional currency — low @-@ value paper money or " shinplasters " . Congress passed legislation in 1875 and 1876 for large quantities of silver coins for this purpose .
The father of the twenty @-@ cent piece was Nevada Senator John P. Jones . Part @-@ owner of the Crown Point Mine , he had been elected to the Senate in 1873 ; on February 10 , 1874 , he introduced a bill to authorize a twenty @-@ cent piece , one of his first legislative endeavors . In advocating for the proposal , he cited the lack of small change in the West . It was endorsed by mint director Linderman ; according to numismatic historian Walter Breen , " other legislators went along with it , largely as a favor to Sen. Jones " . The bill was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 3 , 1875 . Like other denominations of silver coin , the twenty @-@ cent piece was made legal tender up to five dollars .
= = Preparation and design = =
In anticipation of the approval of the legislation , Linderman had pattern coins prepared . In August 1874 , Philadelphia Mint superintendent James Pollock sent him patterns with an obverse showing a seated Liberty by Philadelphia sculptor Joseph A. Bailly with a reverse by chief engraver William Barber . Pollock did not approve Bailly 's proposal , deeming it too similar to the Seated Liberty design which was then on all domestic silver coinage , and so the new coin would too closely resemble the quarter . On March 31 , 1875 , after the enactment of Jones 's bill , Pollock sent Linderman additional patterns , all by Barber , and even more on April 12 . Pollock deprecated a reverse design with a shield , but Linderman liked it and stated that it would have been adopted but for the law requiring an eagle to appear on silver pieces larger than the dime . Linderman selected an obverse design near @-@ identical to the other silver coinage ( until 1916 , the silver coins were given similar appearances ) . That design , by the late chief engraver , Christian Gobrecht , following a concept by Thomas Sully and Titian Peale , was first used in 1836 and by 1840 was on all denominations of silver coins then being struck . The right @-@ facing eagle is near @-@ identical to the one which Barber had rendered for the trade dollar , which had debuted in 1873 . Linderman had realized that the difference in size between the new coin and quarter was small , and thought a scaled @-@ down version of the trade dollar suitable for the twenty @-@ cent piece ; he got his way on the reverse . The eagle carries the arrows of war in its right , or dominant claw , and the olive branch of peace in the left , in heraldry preferring war over peace .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule described the twenty @-@ cent piece 's obverse as " a pleasing synthesis of traditional elements " . He was less complimentary about the eagle on the reverse , calling it awkward and a fatter version of the eagle on 18th @-@ century American coinage . Vermeule admired the pattern designs made by Barber , especially the " Liberty by the Seashore " motif , which the historian believes owes a debt to the British copper coins of that period depicting Britannia — Barber was an Englishman by birth . He deemed it appropriate that the ship that is visible is powered by steam .
Numismatist Yancey Rayburn , in his 1970 article , wrote that the twenty @-@ cent piece is bare of much of the lettering common on US coins : neither " In God We Trust " nor " E Pluribus Unum " appears on it . At the time , " E Pluribus Unum " was required on American coins under the 1873 act ; " In God We Trust " was included on different coins at the discretion of the secretary of the treasury . The mottos were excluded as the coin was considered too small to contain them . The act creating the twenty @-@ cent piece did not dictate its design , but provided that the new coin was to be subject to the terms of the 1873 act . Rayburn also admired that the full denomination , " twenty cents " , was spelled out ; at that time the quarter and fifty @-@ cent piece had the word " dollar " abbreviated as " dol . "
= = Production , aftermath , and collecting = =
The design for the twenty @-@ cent piece was approved on April 12 , 1875 . It was , however , immediately revised to better define the olive leaves at the right end of the branch ( over the N and the T in " cents " ) ; on the original design , the leaves overlapped with each other . An amended approval was given on April 15 . Production began at Philadelphia on May 19 , on June 1 at the Carson City Mint in Jones 's home state of Nevada , and between June 1 and 17 at the San Francisco Mint . Only about 40 @,@ 000 were struck at Philadelphia ; the bulk was at the two Western mints with 133 @,@ 290 minted at Carson City , and 1 @,@ 155 @,@ 000 at San Francisco . The price of silver had not dropped to the point where Congress was willing to authorize redemption of paper money with silver coin , and would not until April 1876 , lowering the need to strike the pieces at Philadelphia . Additionally , the coin was principally intended for circulation in the West , another reason for a low mintage at Philadelphia . Mint officials had overestimated the need for the piece at San Francisco , where it saw some public acceptance and the large mintage satisfied the modest public demand until treasury officials ordered stocks melted in 1877 .
Although the mint had given the twenty @-@ cent piece a smooth rim , rather than the reeded one on the quarter , the two pieces were immediately confused . At 22 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) , the twenty @-@ cent piece was only slightly smaller than the quarter at 24 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 96 in ) , and the two pieces had near @-@ identical obverses . Mistakes in change @-@ making were widespread , and the twenty @-@ cent piece quickly became extremely unpopular . In April 1876 , when Congress began to allow the redemption of fractional currency with coin , the twenty @-@ cent piece was listed as among the denominations that could be exchanged for the low @-@ denomination paper . Nevertheless , in July , legislation was introduced to abolish the twenty @-@ cent piece . Although the bill did not pass immediately , according to numismatist Vernon Brown in his article on the piece , the pendency of the bill convinced the mint that there was no point in striking further twenty @-@ cent pieces . The mintage for 1876 was low ( coining took place at Philadelphia and Carson City ) , and only proof specimens were coined in 1877 and 1878 , at Philadelphia . Most of the 1876 Philadelphia mintage were sold as souvenirs at the Centennial Exposition .
In March 1877 , Linderman authorized the melting of 12 @,@ 359 twenty @-@ cent pieces at Carson City . This included almost the entire mintage from 1876 ( about 10 @,@ 000 ) and created one of the great American numismatic rarities , the 1876 @-@ CC twenty @-@ cent piece . Fewer than two dozen are known ; one sold at auction for $ 564 @,@ 000 in 2013 , making it the record @-@ holder for the denomination . In her 2003 article , numismatist Michele Orzano suggests that the few survivors were souvenirs obtained by visitors to the mint .
Congress abolished the twenty @-@ cent piece on May 2 , 1878 . The previous day , Linderman had ordered the mints to melt down twenty @-@ cent pieces on hand , for recoinage into other denominations . By then , forces for silver coinage had been victorious in passing the Bland – Allison Act , requiring the government to purchase large quantities of silver bullion , and strike it into dollars . The piece continued to circulate in the West for a few years , but by 1890 was rarely seen . Of the 1 @,@ 351 @,@ 540 twenty @-@ cent pieces minted for circulation , over a third were melted by the government between 1895 and 1954 , most heavily in 1933 . The least expensive twenty @-@ cent piece , according to the 2014 edition of R. S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins ( the Red Book ) , is the 1875 @-@ S , listed at $ 110 in good @-@ 4 condition . According to commentary in the Red Book , the twenty @-@ cent piece failed because " the public was confused over the coin 's similarity to the quarter dollar , which was better established as a foundation of American commerce " , that fractional currency satisfied the need for small change in the East , and because " the twenty @-@ cent piece was essentially just a substitute for two dimes " .
= = Mintages = =
The mint mark appears on the reverse beneath the eagle .
None ( Philadelphia Mint in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania )
CC ( Carson City Mint in Carson City , Nevada )
S ( San Francisco Mint in San Francisco , California )
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= Hurricane Bonnie ( 1998 ) =
Hurricane Bonnie was a major hurricane that made landfall in North Carolina , United States , inflicting severe crop damage . The second named storm , first hurricane , and first major hurricane of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season , Bonnie developed from a tropical wave that emerged off the coast of Africa on August 14 . The wave gradually developed , and the system was designated a tropical depression on August 19 . The depression began tracking towards the west @-@ northwest , and became a tropical storm the next day . On August 22 , Bonnie was upgraded to a hurricane , with a well @-@ defined eye . The storm peaked as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and around the same time , the storm slowed and turned more towards the north @-@ northwest . A large and powerful cyclone , Bonnie moved ashore in North Carolina early on August 27 , slowing as it turned northeast . After briefly losing hurricane status , the storm moved offshore and regained Category 1 @-@ force winds , although it weakened again on entering cooler waters .
Fearing a major hurricane strike , coastal locations from Florida to Virginia performed extensive preparations in advance of the storm . In addition to tropical cyclone watches and warnings , about 950 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from the Carolinas , and the military evacuated and relocated hundreds of aircraft and vessels from the storm 's projected path . Soldiers and guardsmen were deployed throughout those regions .
Hurricane Bonnie made landfall as a borderline Category 2 – Category 3 storm , with intense wind gusts of up to 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) and rainfall peaking at about 11 in ( 280 mm ) . Reports of downed trees and powerlines , as well as structural damage such as blown @-@ out windows and torn @-@ off roofs , were reported . In coastal North Carolina , the storm washed ashore tens of thousands of tires that had been part of an artificial reef . Crop damage was extensive , but the storm was overall less severe than initially feared . Total damage was estimated at $ 1 billion ( 1998 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 14 , 1998 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa just north of Dakar and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean . Initially located within cool waters , a strong high pressure area steered the disturbance on a west – southwest track over warmer waters , and convection started to develop . Several small centers of rotation existed within a broad circulation , and at 1200 UTC on August 19 , the centers consolidated and the disturbance became sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression . Despite being poorly organized , winds slightly to the north of the system 's center approached tropical storm strength shortly thereafter . Ship reports revealed a closed circulation , though the center was elongated in a northwest – southeast oriented manner . Upper @-@ level winds were favorable , which suggested that intensification was likely . The cyclone began moving on a northwestward track , and just hours later the center of circulation appeared to reform close to the convection , an indication of a strengthening storm , as good outflow existed over the western side of the storm . Deep convection slowly developed closer to the center , and at 1200 UTC on August 20 , the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Bonnie as it continued its west – northwest track around the periphery of a high pressure system over the Leeward Islands .
Late on August 20 , the first reconnaissance plane entered the storm and found a minimum central barometric pressure of 1001 mb . The storm brushed the Leeward Islands , although the main thunderstorm activity remained to the north of the storm over the open ocean . Bonnie began to organize its broad circulation early on August 21 , and within the next day the storm began to intensify . The storm began to look strong on satellite images with banding features over the north and west quadrants . The Hurricane Hunters aircraft found a minimum pressure of 987 mb and a nearly complete eyewall early on August 22 , and as a result , the tropical storm was upgraded to hurricane status . Bonnie slowed in forward speed , coinciding with previous forecasts . Later that day , storm was upgraded to a Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , which occurred with a substantial 15 mb drop in 8 hours . At the same time , steering currents weakened with the dissipation of the high pressure system ; this , combined with the effect of a nearby trough , caused the storm to turn in a more north @-@ northwestward direction around the western periphery of an anticyclone to the east . Bonnie became a Category 3 storm , a major hurricane , at 1200 UTC the next day , reaching its peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at the same time .
A mid- to upper @-@ level trough slowed the storm almost to a halt early on August 23 , before a drift to the north @-@ northwest began . The next National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) advisory then reported that the eye was becoming more distinct and well @-@ defined . This strengthening trend abated because the storm had churned up the waters over which it was passing , bringing cooler water to the surface as a result of the slow track . Another inhibiting factor may have been related to the same trough that caused the northward turn , though due to a large anticyclone situated over the hurricane , the weakening effects were not substantial . Despite wind shear , the large and powerful circulation resisted weakening for a time . Early on August 25 , the shear and the entrainment of drier air into the hurricane took its toll on Bonnie , giving it a ragged appearance on satellite imagery , and the eye briefly became cloud @-@ filled .
The storm accelerated somewhat by August 26 , and early that day , it was moving at about 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) . An approaching mid @-@ level trough steered Bonnie north @-@ northeast , and at 2100 UTC on August 26 , the eye passed east of Cape Fear , North Carolina . The hurricane once again slowed , and early the next day , it made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a strong Category 2 or weak Category 3 hurricane . Doppler weather radar displays estimated that maximum sustained winds had quickly weakened to below hurricane intensity , and the storm was briefly downgraded to a tropical storm . However , as the storm turned towards the east in response to the approaching trough , the center neared open waters and the winds began to re @-@ intensify . As a result , the cyclone re @-@ attained hurricane status at 0000 on August 28 . Offshore , the center began drifting roughly eastward . Entering colder waters , hurricane status was lost at 1800 UTC that day , followed by an acceleration to the northeast . The storm began to lose deep thunderstorm activity , and was forecast to lose tropical characteristics and become an extratropical cyclone within days . By early on August 29 , little connection remained over the western semicircle , and only a band of such activity persisted to the southeast of the center . Bonnie became extratropical around 1800 UTC on August 30 , to the southeast of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
On August 20 , a tropical storm watch was posted for the islands of Antigua , Barbuda , Anguilla , St. Maarten , Saba and St. Eustatius , though it was discontinued the next day . Shortly thereafter , a tropical storm warning was issued for the U.S. and British Virgin Islands . Tropical storm warnings and hurricane watches were put into effect for the Turks and Caicos Islands and the southeastern Bahamas . By August 24 , those tropical cyclone advisories were discontinued , and at the same time they were issued for parts of the Southeast United States . A hurricane warning was eventually posted for Murrells Inlet , South Carolina to the North Carolina – Virginia border . On August 27 , tropical cyclone watches and warnings extended as far north as Plymouth , Massachusetts ; all were discontinued early on August 29 .
= = = Florida and South Carolina = = =
Initially the storm posed a threat to Florida , where military officials kept abreast of the situation . Heavy surf advisories were posted from central portions of the state northward to Georgia , and the National Hurricane Center advised that swimming and boating should be avoided . The Mayport Naval Station ordered 25 ships out to sea in advance of the approaching storm . The Salvation Army was on standby in Jacksonville , prepared to act when needed . Hardware stores in the state reported up to a 75 % increase in the sales of emergency supplies .
Some computer forecast models initially predicted that the storm would move towards South Carolina or Georgia . Before the storm 's arrival in South Carolina , researchers at Clemson University used Bonnie to test a new method of estimating the damage a storm is likely to cause . In the state , the South Carolina National Guard put about 1 @,@ 512 men on active duty , 1 @,@ 474 being of the Army National Guard . On August 25 , the South Carolina Emergency Preparedness Division activated Level 1 operations , the highest of five levels . That same day , the State Governor declared a State of Emergency , calling for mandatory evacuations of residents east of U.S. Route 17 in Horry and Georgetown counties . Schools were closed throughout the state . Over 200 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from those counties , of which 120 @,@ 000 were tourists . About 6 @,@ 000 sought shelter at schools in Horry County . In a survey , 12 % of respondents in the state took traffic as a significant consideration in deciding if they should evacuate . On the Grand Strand , Bonnie was the first storm where buses were provided to help people evacuate .
= = = North Carolina and Virginia = = =
About 815 guardsmen were called to North Carolina , where they assisted local authorities with the extensive preparations , including evacuating 750 @,@ 000 state citizens . Mandatory and voluntary evacuations were ordered for part of the state . The Outer Banks experienced extensive evacuations ; at least 300 @,@ 000 left , bringing traffic on highways from there to the mainland to a standstill . Active duty armed forces were set to support hurricane recovery missions , and four Defense Coordinating officers were notified . Defense Department emergency centers were opened starting August 21 . Additionally , the U.S. Atlantic Command activated their 24 @-@ hour response cell . Soldiers , sailors , airmen , and Marines evacuated equipment , including hundreds of vessels and aircraft . The North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources closed several state parks , all three state aquariums , and the Division of Marine Fisheries office , with plans to reopen primarily once storm @-@ related damage at any of the locations was properly addressed .
A study was performed on the storm in eight counties in North Carolina to determine the cost of evacuation for hurricanes , and included 1 @,@ 029 households . Another study was performed regarding the actions taken during Hurricane Bonnie evacuations in the state . Tourists were interviewed , and it was found that 90 % of vacationers who were threatened by the hurricane evacuated , of which 56 % went home , 3 % stayed in public shelters , 22 % stayed with friends or relatives , 3 % stayed in hotels and motels , and 16 % stayed elsewhere . In total , 58 % stayed within North Carolina , 12 % went to Virginia , 6 % relocated to South Carolina , and 24 % stayed in other regions . Most of the evacuees left on August 25 ; 80 % left with their own vehicles , and 18 % used rental transportation . Officials in the state opened an estimated 100 shelters to accommodate the evacuating tourists and residents .
In Virginia , where 15 jurisdictions declared local emergencies , local governments took action to inform and protect citizens . Residents in mobile home parks , as well as campgrounds , were advised to evacuate , and 13 jurisdictions opened shelters by August 26 . State Governor Jim Gilmore declared a State of Emergency , and as a result , the State Emergency Operations Center was activated . Beaches and piers were shut down in Virginia Beach , Hampton , and Gloucester counties , where communities canceled some local events due to the threat of Bonnie . Voluntary evacuations throughout the state were issued , and some hotels reached maximum capacity as a result . Roughly 60 Navy ships were ordered to leave port at Norfolk , and ride out the storm far out to sea . The State of Virginia banned swimming along the coast . As Bonnie progressed northward , a tornado watch was posted for much of eastern Virginia .
= = Impact = =
While located north of the Caribbean Sea , Bonnie dropped light rainfall in Puerto Rico . The storm also produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds in The Bahamas , though no significant damage was reported . Along the U.S. East Coast , two swimmers drowned in rip currents ; numerous others were rescued . In the United States , Bonnie caused an estimated $ 1 billion in damage .
= = = South Carolina = = =
As the hurricane passed to the east of the state , rainfall ranged from 2 to 4 in ( 51 to 102 mm ) , and storm surge was around 2 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) . The highest recorded wind gust in the state was 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) at the Cherry Grove pier , and sustained winds peaked at 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) at the Myrtle Beach Pavilion . Damage was widespread in Horry County , where downed trees and power lines and structural damage was reported . The high winds blew down several trees in Charleston County , and tore the roof off a strip mall in North Myrtle Beach . A 50 @-@ year @-@ old man died near Myrtle Beach ; he was electrocuted while checking his generator after a power outage . Along the coast , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old man died in rip currents at Surfside Beach . Total damage in South Carolina was estimated to be around $ 25 million ( 1998 USD ) .
= = = North Carolina = = =
Hurricane Bonnie came ashore just at or below major hurricane intensity , bringing with it intense wind gusts of up to 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) in North Carolina , though offshore at the Frying Pan Shoals Light Tower , winds reached 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . The strongest winds were found in the precursor rainbands , where localized downbursts caused severe damage . Sustained winds officially peaked at 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) at Elizabeth City , where gusts reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) . Rainfall was heavy as a result of the storm 's slow movement , peaking at 11 in ( 280 mm ) at Jacksonville , while several totals of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) were reported . However , because the area had been experiencing drought conditions , the flooding was not as severe as it could have potentially been . The most significant flooding occurred near the Cape Fear River , where high waters were reported . The highest storm surge occurred along the beaches of Brunswick County , mostly reaching 5 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above average . Elsewhere , flooding was mostly limited to locations with poor drainage and low @-@ lying areas . Coastal flooding was not widespread , though surge in the Pungo River flooded several local homes . Other coastal flooding was reported in various harbors and coastal cities . Part of North Carolina Highway 12 was flooded and closed on Hatteras Island due to tidal flooding . At North Topsail Beach , many of the protective dunes constructed after Hurricane Fran in 1996 were destroyed , and along the Bogue Banks , tens of thousands of tires , part of an artificial reef , were washed ashore .
One direct death occurred in North Carolina ; a young girl was killed when a tree fell on her Currituck County home . Throughout eastern portions of the state , trees and powerlines were downed , and there were reports of structural damage . Numerous docks , piers and bulkheads were either damaged or destroyed , including the Iron Steamer and Indian Beach piers , which both lost large sections to the strong wind and surf . Due to the winds , the Brunswick Community Hospital lost about 3 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 280 m2 ) . of roof and an air conditioner . The storm left about 500 @,@ 000 people in the state without electric power . In some areas , vegetative and structural debris accumulated in piles several feet deep ; it is reported that thick underbrush prevented the debris from traveling further inland . Wilmington " turned into a disaster zone " , with flooded highways , and downed trees lying across roadways . Crop , particularly tobacco , damage was extensive . According to then @-@ governor Jim Hunt , " You fly along and don 't see much damage to the beach houses , and it 's easy to think we didn 't have much damage . But then you look at the tobacco in fields and you know the damage has been extensive . " The crop losses accounted for much of the overall damage . Forty @-@ seven of those who failed to evacuate in time sought shelter in the Bald Head Island lighthouse as the worst of the storm bore down . Despite the effects , Bonnie 's impact was actually less than originally predicted . Overall , property damage in the state is estimated at $ 240 million ( 1998 USD ) , with significantly higher crop damages .
Several locations received significant physical impacts . On Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina , Bonnie 's erosion caused an inlet to migrate further south . On the northern end of the inlet , a large sand bar developed , partially due to the storm moving offshore sand . Dune sediments were lost during the storm , exposing boardwalk piling . Similarly , on Topsail Beach , North Carolina , the storm breached 27 sand dunes , destroying 60 % of the dune line . Sediment from storm washover measured 50 cm ( 20 in ) thick behind the beach . Sections of many eroded dunes were re @-@ built using truck loads of sand . Strong waves ran through the foundation of two stilted homes , both of which were later reinforced to compensate for the lost sand .
= = = Virginia = = =
Bonnie passed just offshore of southeast Virginia , lashing the region with heavy rain and high winds . Sustained winds reached 81 mph ( 130 km / h ) at Cape Henry , and gusts peaked at 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . There were other reports of winds over 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) along the coast . Numerous homes suffered damage in the Hampton Roads area , and near Virginia Beach , winds blew windows out in hotels . Storm surge was generally around 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) with some higher reports , causing some coastal flooding . Rainfall was moderate to heavy , ranging from 1 to 7 in ( 25 to 178 mm ) , with the higher @-@ end totals occurring in the Norfolk area .
Between 320 @,@ 000 and 650 @,@ 000 customers lost power in the state . The power outages led to decreased production in some water and sewer plants , prompting local officials to advise residents to conserve water . In the Ocean View section of Norfolk , the winds tore the roofs off two apartment complexes , and damaged siding on other structures . Along the coast , boats were ripped from their moorings .
Throughout the Tidewater region , there were estimates of thousands of downed trees , and hundreds of homes and businesses were damaged . Of these , about 40 structures were declared uninhabitable . Debris was blown several blocks inland from the coast . Among the hardest hit locations was Sandbridge , where about 12 homes were severely damaged . It is reported that the state was unprepared for the damage , expecting a strike from a weakened tropical storm . About $ 15 @.@ 3 million ( 1998 USD ) in damage was inflicted in the Virginia Beach and Norfolk areas . Throughout the state , insured losses totaled $ 95 million ( 1998 USD ) .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England and Atlantic Canada = = =
As the storm moved offshore , outer rain bands affected the Maryland coast with gusts of up to 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) at Ocean City , and waves of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . No damage was reported . Light rainfall was also reported northward into Delaware and New Jersey . In addition , up to 0 @.@ 2 in ( 5 @.@ 1 mm ) of precipitation extended into New York . A person was caught in rip currents and drowned near Rehoboth Beach , Delaware . Along the coast of New Jersey , Bonnie produced strong waves and rip currents , resulting in hundreds of water rescues and eight injuries . The storm was at its closest position to the state on August 28 , as it passed 140 mi ( 230 km ) to the east of Atlantic City , although the rough surf began several days prior , on August 23 . Numerous beaches were closed , and swimming was banned in several communities , as well . The state also reported moderate wind gusts , generally peaking at 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Only minor beach erosion occurred . At Point Pleasant Beach , New Jersey , there were reports of a drowning in the rough seas caused by the storm ; however , the man was later spotted onshore with his fiance , and the two were charged with filing a false police report .
Bonnie moved well to the south of Cape Cod , although a significant outer rain band affected southern Plymouth County , Massachusetts . Torrential downpours produced 4 in ( 100 mm ) of precipitation at Whitehorse Beach , and other locations reported over 1 in ( 25 mm ) . Winds reached 25 to 35 mph ( 40 to 56 km / h ) , although offshore the Georges Bank Buoy reported a 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) gust . A man was killed when his rowboat capsized in rough surf of 1 to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 61 m ) ; his companion safely swam to shore .
On the afternoon of August 29 , Bonnie entered the Canadian Hurricane Centre 's area of responsibility as a tropical storm , and passed south of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . Precipitation along the coast of Nova Scotia ranged from 15 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) and winds gusted to around 102 km / h ( 63 mph ) . Slightly higher gusts were reported off the coast . On Sable Island , the storm dropped 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall . An offshore buoy recorded a wave height of 17 @.@ 9 m ( 59 ft ) .
= = Aftermath and observation = =
Following the hurricane in North Carolina , 10 counties were declared federal disaster areas , while 30 counties became eligible for public and individual assistance . Shelters were opened in 11 counties , and the Raleigh @-@ Durham International Airport briefly canceled all flights . To remove the tens of thousands of tires that washed ashore , hundreds of inmates from state prisons were sent to the Bouge Banks . Some of the tires were buried in sand , and could only be removed during low tide . About 700 more state prisoners were sent around the state to clear debris , and 39 inmate crews were deployed to help farmers salvage the severely damaged tobacco fields . In South Carolina , Horry County was declared a federal disaster area due to the damage . In Virginia , the cities of Chesapeake , Norfolk , Portsmouth , Suffolk , and Virginia Beach became eligible for individual and public assistance programs . After the storm 's departure , a thunderstorm temporarily halted power restoration by Virginia Power company crews . Virginia Governor Jim Gilmore allowed for over $ 11 million ( 1998 USD ) in state and federal funds to help five cities recover . The storm also contributed to a 13 @.@ 6 % decline in home sales across the southern United States during the month of August by " discouraging potential home buyers " in coastal areas .
Both during and after Hurricane Bonnie 's onslaught , analysis of the storm was extensive ; it was deemed " the most observed hurricane in history . " When examined with Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) satellite imagery , it was discovered that peak cloud tops surrounding the eyewall rose 59 @,@ 000 ft ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) into the atmosphere , twice as tall as Mount Everest . This was the first time that TRMM had observed such a tropical cyclone structure , according to co @-@ developer of the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , Bob Simpson . The storm was also used for collection of tropical cyclone research data . For the first time in the Atlantic , a fleet of aircraft investigated the storm 's upper @-@ levels , while other aircraft flew into the low- and middle @-@ levels . A record of over 500 parachute sensors were dropped into the storm while it was active . Each costing $ 600 ( 1998 USD ) , they sent storm data to research centers via Global Positioning System .
During the storm , the Weather Channel web site experienced substantially increased traffic . Up from an average of three million views per day , 10 million page views on August 26 led to slow download times on the website . On seven major weather providers , page views increased by 123 % from August 24 – August 26 , compared to an equal period of time during the previous week .
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= Adrian S. Fisher =
Adrian Sanford Fisher ( January 21 , 1914 – March 18 , 1983 ) was an American lawyer and federal public servant , who served from the late 1930s through the early 1980s . He was associated with the Department of War and Department of State throughout his professional career . He participated in the U.S. government 's decision to carry out Japanese @-@ American internment and the international ( 1945 – 46 ) Nuremberg trial , and in State Department Cold War activities during the Harry S. Truman administration . He was the State Department Legal Adviser under Secretary of State Dean Acheson . During the John F. Kennedy , Lyndon B. Johnson and Jimmy Carter administrations , Fisher was directly involved in the negotiations of international nuclear testing and non @-@ proliferation agreements .
= = Early life and early government career = =
Fisher was born in Memphis , Tennessee , to Hubert Fisher and Louise Sanford Fisher . He attended elite schools such as Saint Albans and Choate , Princeton University ( BA 1934 ) and Harvard Law School ( LLB 1937 ) . Fisher was known throughout his life by his nickname " Butch " , from his early days as a football player for Princeton , lettering in 1933 .
In the late 1930s Fisher lived in Arlington , Virginia , in an estate known by the name of Hockley Hall . This house was a semi @-@ famous " bachelor 's house , " with rooms rented by Fisher and various housemates such as William Bundy , William Sheldon , John Ferguson , John Oakes , Donald Hiss , Edward Prichard , Jr. and Philip Graham . Also , Hockley Hall was known as a social venue for the likes of Dean Acheson , Archibald MacLeish and Francis Biddle .
Fisher was admitted to the Tennessee Bar in 1938 , and had the distinction of clerking for two U.S. Supreme Court Justices , Louis Brandeis ( 1938 – 39 ) and Felix Frankfurter ( 1939 – 40 ) . Fisher began his legal career with his appointment as Law Clerk to Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis , who was then 82 years old . In early 1939 , Brandeis announced his retirement from the Supreme Court , and Fisher was invited to transfer to the chambers of the recently appointed Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter . Following his term as Frankfurter 's clerk in 1940 , Fisher joined the United States Department of State as the assistant chief of the Foreign Funds Control Division of the State Department , where he served until shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = World War II government and military service = =
In early 1942 , Fisher and John J. McCloy were assigned to assist implementation of the United States War Department 's legal activities for the Japanese American internment programs shortly after the United States entered World War II . In late 1942 , Fisher received an officer 's commission , and trained as a bomber navigator in the United States Army Air Forces from 1942 to 1943 , with missions over France , Belgium and Germany . In 1944 , he returned to Washington , D.C. as an assistant to the Assistant Secretary of War , John J. McCloy .
= = = Korematsu Supreme Court Case = = =
In 1944 , Fisher again was required to become involved in the U.S. 1942 @-@ 43 internment of Japanese Americans on the West Coast of the United States upon his return from Europe . At that time , the case of Korematsu v. United States , challenging the U.S. government ’ s power to exclude citizens of Japanese ancestry from military zones , came before the United States Supreme Court . While the Department of Justice 's Herbert Wechsler ( an Assistant Attorney General ) was in charge of defending the government 's position before the Supreme Court , significant consultation with Fisher was required , as he was again with the legal affairs section of the War Department . During this period , Fisher was involved in critical drafting of the government 's brief submitted to the Supreme Court .
= = = Nuremberg international trial = = =
In 1945 and 1946 , Captain Fisher served , along with James Rowe , as a legal advisor to former U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle , the United States member of the International Military Tribunal ( Nuremberg Trial ) . Fisher was principal drafter of the Tribunal 's memorandum on the Nazi leadership 's " conspiracies to engage in crimes against peace . " This document , covering the period from 1920 to November 1937 , demonstrated that the pace of re @-@ armament under Adolf Hitler showed that the Germans " were developing an economic system which was only sensible only if there should be a war . "
= = Return to Washington , D.C. and service with Dean Acheson = =
Upon his return from Europe and exit from the Army Air Force , Fisher served as Solicitor for the U.S. Department of Commerce from 1947 to 1948 . Thereafter , Fisher became general counsel of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1948 @-@ 49 . He then served as legal advisor ( with the rank of Assistant Secretary of State ) to the Department of State ( serving in the office of Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) from 1949 to 1953 . During 1952 , Mr. Fisher also served as legal advisor to the U.S. Delegation to the United Nations in Paris .
In 1952 , Fisher was also appointed by President Harry S. Truman as an original commissioner to the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization . The Commission was established in the Executive Office of the President by Executive Order 10392 " Establishing the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization " . The specific context for the 1952 commission was the enactment of the McCarren @-@ Walter Act , which was passed over President Truman 's veto . Truman 's main disagreement with the Act was its retention of the quota system that began in 1924 . After Congress passed the Act over his veto , he formed the Commission and charged it with looking into new options for immigration and naturalization policy .
Secretary of State Acheson 's appointment of Fisher as the State Department 's Legal Adviser was unique at the time , because of the closeness of the Acheson / Fisher professional relationship . Fisher 's role as Acheson 's legal adviser was explained by Michael H. Cordozo , the State Department 's Assistant Legal Adviser for Economic Affairs , 1950 @-@ 52 :
( Acheson ) insisted on having , as a legal adviser , a lawyer whose ability as a lawyer and whose judgment in politics and statesmanship could be greatly respected . He got Adrian Fisher for that , and he involved him in all of the political and other activities that he himself was involved in . The Secretary of State always is involved in a lot of controversial things , and here we had the McCarthy era , the attack on the whole concept of Foreign Service and the State Department , and a terrific controversy over what to do about China , who had " lost China . " Fisher was always at Acheson 's right hand when he was dealing with other people about these things . Wherever he went , Fisher 's office was backstopping him , getting all the necessary background information so he 'd be prepared for any kind of question that came up . Of course , Acheson 's own approach to being Secretary of State was such that when you took an agreement to him to be signed , his chief question was " By what authority do I sign this ? " And whoever brought it to him to get it signed , had to be ready with the answer that would satisfy a lawyer -- " by what legal authority " -- as well as what it provides and so forth .
= = = Building the H @-@ bomb = = =
In late 1949 , President Truman asked Dean Acheson to concentrate on the question of whether the United States should develop the hydrogen bomb . Acheson formed a working group under the United States National Security Council ( NSC ) executive secretary Sidney Souers , consisting of R. Gordon Arneson , Paul Nitze and Fisher , who served as the State Department 's legal adviser on the project . It was Arneson 's view that each member of the working group were of one mind . He said , " The four principals in the State Department were Acheson , Nitze , Fisher and myself . I don 't think it was necessary for any one of us to persuade anybody else ; we all were of a mind that there really wasn 't any choice . "
Fisher was part of this same working group which recommended that an internal NSC study be conducted on the overall U.S. foreign policy as it pertained to the newly developing Cold War . This classified study ( declassified in 1977 ) called NSC @-@ 68 , was the blueprint for the Truman Doctrine for containment of communism , which provided the overall policy concepts for the U.S. participation in the Cold War throughout the 1950s .
= = = Congressional Hearings on the firing of General Douglas MacArthur = = =
On April 11 , 1951 , President Truman announced the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur from his duties as Allied Commander of United Nations forces in the Far East . Following MacArthur 's firing and the subsequent public outcry , the Joint Committee on Armed Services and Foreign Relations of the United States Senate conducted an inquiry into removal of MacArthur . Fisher was assigned the responsibility for the coordination of the State Department Congressional testimony regarding the firing of General MacArthur .
= = = Fisher and the Acheson Capitol Hill fist @-@ fight = = =
In August 1950 , Fisher was involved in an incident between Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Senator Kenneth S. Wherry , Nebraska Republican and minority whip of the United States Senate , during a hearing before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . During the hearing , Senator Wherry began to harangue Acheson about events in Korea . Suddenly , Acheson jumped out of his chair towards Wherry , with fists raised . Fisher was required to physically hold Acheson back from striking Wherry . As the incident was told by eye @-@ witness John H. Ohly , then the Assistant Director , Office of International Security Affairs , Department of State ,
" The next day the administration threw in its big guns -- Secretary Acheson , Louis Johnson , and , from ECA , William Foster . This time the going was really rough from the Republican side of the table and Acheson consciously lost his temper over some of Wherry 's remarks and got up and tried to slug him . Adrian Fisher , State Department Legal Adviser and a close friend of Acheson , caught his arm , fortunately , because Acheson would have missed Wherry by about three feet and probably fallen flat on his face on the floor . It was a great show . "
This scene was portrayed in the film " The Manchurian Candidate " , with Frank Sinatra ( as Major Marco ) taking on Fisher 's role of restraining ( in that instance ) the United States Secretary of Defense .
= = Nuclear arms control and disarmament activities = =
From 1961 to 1968 , Fisher served as the Deputy Director of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in which he took a primary negotiations role during the Atomic Test Ban Treaty of 1963 between the U.S. and the Soviet Union . At that time he was Deputy to John J. McCloy , Adviser to the President on Disarmament . In 1968 , Fisher served as one of the chief U.S. negotiators of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , which was signed by the United States , the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , and 59 other countries on July 1 , 1968 . A collection of letters from Adrian Fisher to President Johnson and Secretary of State Dean Rusk regarding his perception and activities on arms control and disarmament is maintained by the Federation of American Scientists .
= = Return to private law practice and academics = =
In 1968 , Fisher re @-@ entered private law practice , again with Covington & Burling ( during the Dwight D. Eisenhower Administration ( 1953 – 60 ) Fisher joined the Covington firm , with Dean Acheson , for the first time ) and became General Counsel to the Washington Post . Fisher 's connection with the Washington Post arose because of his close friendship with the Post 's then @-@ owner Phillip Graham since his early days in Washington , D.C. Both Fisher and Graham had clerked for Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and had shared a rented house ( belonging to future Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) , together with Donald Hiss ( brother of Alger Hiss ) . From 1969 to 1975 , Fisher served as Dean of Georgetown University Law Center , Washington , D.C. According to a report in the Georgetown student newspaper " The Hoya " , Fisher was not solicited as a candidate for the position , but simply submitted his own name . " I heard they were looking around for a new person , so I called up and asked to be considered . " Dean Fisher was installed as the first occupant of the Francis Cabell Brown Chair in International Law of the center on January 25 , 1977 , and served as law professor from 1977 to 1980 .
= = U.S. Disarmament Representative = =
President Jimmy Carter nominated Fisher for the rank of Ambassador while serving as the U.S. Representative to the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in 1977 , where he served through 1981 . With the United States represented by Fisher , the first Special Session on Disarmament of the United Nations General Assembly was held in 1978 and led to the established in 1979 of the U.N. Conference on Disarmament as the single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum of the international community .
= = Return to academics = =
In 1981 , Fisher joined the faculty of George Mason University School of Law in Arlington , Virginia , teaching various seminars on negotiation tactics . The George Mason Law Review named its annual award for best student article in honor of Mr. Fisher . From 1981 to 1982 , Mr. Fisher also served as an advisor to John J. McCloy during the hearings of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians ( established by Congress in 1980 ) . This commission reviewed the impact of Executive Order 9066 on Japanese @-@ Americans and determined that they were the victims of discrimination by the Federal government . Fisher died on March 18 , 1983 , aged 69 , from cancer at his home in Washington , D.C.
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= Gliese 581 d =
Gliese 581 d / ˈɡliːzə / ( often shortened to Gl 581 d or GJ 581 d ) is a possible extrasolar planet orbiting the star Gliese 581 approximately 20 @.@ 4 light @-@ years away in the constellation of Libra . It is the third planet claimed in the system and ( assuming a six @-@ planet model ) the fifth in order from the star .
Though not confirmed to be a terrestrial planet and significantly more massive than Earth ( at 6 @.@ 98 Earth masses ) , the Super @-@ Earth is the first exoplanet of terrestrial mass proposed to orbit within the habitable zone of its parent star .
Assuming its existence , computer climate simulations have confirmed the possibility of the existence of surface water and these factors combine to a relatively high measure of planetary habitability .
= = Discovery = =
A team of astronomers led by Stéphane Udry of the Geneva Observatory used the HARPS instrument on the European Southern Observatory 3 @.@ 6 meter telescope in La Silla , Chile to discover the planet in 2007 . Udry 's team employed the radial velocity technique , in which the mass of a planet is determined based on the small perturbations it induces in its parent star ’ s orbit via gravity .
= = = Formerly disputed = = =
In September 2012 , Roman Baluev filtered out the " red noise " from the Keck data and concluded that this planet 's existence is probable only to 2 @.@ 2 standard deviations .
That same year , however , a team from the USNO confirmed the existence of the planet with a much higher probability .
A study in 2014 concluded that Gliese 581 d is " an artifact of stellar activity which , when incompletely corrected , causes the false detection of planet g . " In 2015 , a study by Dr Guillem Anglada @-@ Escudé concluded that the planet could exist .
= = Orbital characteristics = =
Gliese 581 d orbits Gliese 581 at 0 @.@ 21847 AU , approximately a fifth of the distance that the Earth orbits the Sun , though its orbital eccentricity has not been confirmed . There are currently two models for its orbit , a circular one like Earth 's , and an eccentric one like Mercury 's . These are based on the four planet and six planet model for the Gliese 581 system , respectively . Under the four planet model Gliese 581 d would most probably be in a spin @-@ orbit resonance of 2 : 1 , rotating twice for each orbit of its parent star . Therefore , the day on Gliese 581 d should approximately be 67 Earth days long .
The orbital distance places it at the outer limits of the habitable zone , the distance at which it is believed possible for water to exist on the surface of a planetary body . At the time of its discovery , the planet 's orbit was originally thought to be farther out . However , in late April 2009 the original discovery team revised its original estimate of the planet 's orbital parameters , finding that it orbits closer to its star than originally determined with an orbital period of 66 @.@ 87 days . They concluded that the planet is within the habitable zone where liquid water could exist . Moreover , the data also suggested that the proposed exoplanet could have at least one or more large oceans .
= = Possible confirmation = =
The planet 's existence has been disputed due to inaccurate analysis from stellar activity , but later reanalysis of data suggests planet Gliese 581 d could really exist , despite stellar variability , exciting astronomers .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The motion of the parent star indicates a minimum mass for Gliese 581 d of 5 @.@ 6 Earth masses ( earlier analyses gave higher values ) . Dynamical simulations of the Gliese 581 system assuming that the orbits of the three planets are coplanar show that the system becomes unstable if the masses of the planets exceed 1 @.@ 6 – 2 times the minimum values . Using earlier minimum mass values for Gliese 581 d , this implies an upper mass limit for Gliese 581 d of 13 @.@ 8 Earth masses . The composition of the planet , however , is not known .
= = = Climate and habitability = = =
As the planet is not known to transit from Earth and atmospheric conditions are not observable with current technology , no atmosphere for the planet has been confirmed to date . As such , all climate predictions for the planet are based on predicted orbits and computer modelling of theoretical atmospheric conditions .
Because Gliese 581 d was believed to orbit outside the habitable zone of its star it was originally thought to be too cold for liquid water to be present . With the 2009 revised orbit , climate simulations conducted by researchers in France in 2011 indicated possible temperatures suitable for surface water at sufficient atmospheric pressure According to Stéphane Udry , " It could be covered by a ' large and deep ocean ' ; it is the first serious ocean planet candidate . "
On average , the light that Gliese 581 d receives from its star has about 30 % of the intensity of light the Earth receives from the Sun . By comparison , sunlight on Mars has about 40 % of the intensity of that on Earth . That might seem to suggest that Gliese 581 d is too cold to support liquid water and hence is inhospitable to life . However , an atmospheric greenhouse effect can significantly raise planetary temperatures . For example , Earth 's own mean temperature would be about − 18 ° C without any greenhouse gases , ranging from around 100 ° C on the day side to − 150 ° C at night , much like that found on the Moon . If the atmosphere of Gliese 581 d produces a sufficiently large greenhouse effect , and the planet 's geophysics stabilize the CO2 levels ( as Earth 's does via plate tectonics ) , then the surface temperature might permit a liquid water cycle , conceivably allowing the planet to support life . Calculations by Barnes et al. suggest , however , that tidal heating is too low to keep plate tectonics active on the planet , unless radiogenic heating is somewhat higher than expected .
Gliese 581 d is probably too massive to be made only of rocky material . It may have originally formed on a more distant orbit as an icy planet that then migrated closer to its star . Its equilibrium temperature is 181 Kelvin .
= = Messages from Earth = =
In October 2008 , members of the networking website Bebo beamed A Message From Earth , a high @-@ power transmission at Gliese 581 , using the RT @-@ 70 radio telescope belonging to the National Space Agency of Ukraine . This transmission is due to arrive in the Gliese 581 system 's vicinity by the year 2029 ; the earliest possible arrival for a response , should there be one , would be in 2049 .
As part of the 2009 National Science Week celebrations in Australia , Cosmos magazine launched a website called Hello From Earth to collect messages for transmission to Gliese 581 d . The maximum length of the messages was 160 characters , and they were restricted to the English language . In total , 25 @,@ 880 messages were collected from 195 countries around the world . The messages were transmitted from the DSS @-@ 43 70 m radio telescope at the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex at Tidbinbilla , Australia , on 28 August 2009 .
= = Gallery = =
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= DevilDriver =
DevilDriver are an American heavy metal band from Santa Barbara , California , formed in 2002 , consisting of vocalist Dez Fafara ( the only remaining original member ) , guitarists Mike Spreitzer and Neal Tiemann , bassist Diego " Ashes " Ibarra and drummer Austin D 'Amond . The band was originally named Deathride , however , due to copyright issues and the name being taken by several bands , Deathride changed its name to DevilDriver , which refers to bells Italian Wiccans used to drive evil forces away .
= = Biography = =
Fafara hosted several barbecues after moving from Orange County to Santa Barbara and would jam with musicians he met , which led to the formation of the band . " I met Evan we struck up a friendship and started jamming , " said Fafara Guitarist Evan Pitts met Fafara in a restaurant and gave him his phone number for a jam session , while John Boecklin who originally played 2nd guitar then went to playing drums , met Fafara at a bar .
The band was originally known as Deathride , but later changed their name to DevilDriver because Fafara felt there were too many bands with that name ; a band in Norfolk , Virginia , and a bicycle racing team . Another problem was that the band 's label , Roadrunner Records were unable to secure copyright . The members compiled a list of roughly two hundred names to go for a more original approach . Fafara 's wife had a book by Italian witchcraft author Raven Grimassi on Stregheria , and came across the term " devil driver " . The term " devil driver " refers to bells Italian witches used to drive evil forces away . Fafara thought it was appropriate because it sounded " evil " , and thought the term " suits his life " . The band 's logo is the Cross of Confusion , which has existed for thousands of years and refers to " question religion , question authority , question everything around you " . Fafara was brought up to " question everything " and was exposed to Italian witchcraft through his grandparents .
DevilDriver 's debut record was originally going to be called Thirteen , and then Straight to Hell . However , Fafara claims it was changed " for so many reasons that I can 't even go into . " The band 's self @-@ titled debut DevilDriver , was released on October 21 , 2003 under Roadrunner Records , and entered the Top Heatseekers chart at number 17 . Guitarist Pitts wrote roughly 90 % of the music , according to Mike Spreitzer , who replaced Pitts after his departure from the band . Music critics response to the album was generally negative . Allmusic reviewer Johnny Loftus commented that elements in the songs " Die ( And Die Now ) " and " Swinging the Dead " redeem an otherwise disappointing album and hoped the band would focus less on the mainstream .
= = = The Fury of Our Maker 's Hand ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
The band returned to the studio in 2005 to record their follow @-@ up to DevilDriver . The album was produced at Sonic Ranch Studios , a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ acre ( 5 @.@ 7 km2 ) pecan ranch , 40 miles ( 64 km ) away from El Paso , Texas . The band members wanted to be isolated when recording the album so they could solely focus on the music as friends , family , managers and girlfriends would constantly interrupt . Roughly 30 songs were written which were narrowed down to 15 by the band . The 15 songs were then played for producer Colin Richardson who wanted to begin tracking immediately .
The name of the album was thought of by Fafara who believed that The Fury of Our Maker 's Hand refers to the " storm " his life has been the past 10 years , " You have your maker 's hand and I have my maker 's hand and we both living in our fury , the fury of our maker 's hand . It explains my life " . The album was released on June 28 , 2005 and debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 117 , with sales of 10 @,@ 402 in its first week . The album also debuted at number 1 on the Top Heatseekers chart . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic described the album as " a severe turn away from the falter of their first album " and said that the band made their " true debut the second time around " . Dom Lawson of Kerrang ! gave the album a positive review describing the album as a " fresh and exhilarating approach to modern metal " .
The band toured extensively in support of the album , which included shows in the United States , Europe , and Australia in support of bands such as In Flames , Fear Factory , and Machine Head . The band played for the first time as a headliner in the Burning Daylight Tour . On October 31 , 2006 , The Fury of Our Maker 's Hand was re @-@ released to include three new studio tracks , including " Digging up the Corpses " which was featured on the soundtrack to Resident Evil : Apocalypse . The release also contained three live recordings of previously released , a DVD of all of the band 's music videos , new cover art , and inside liner notes .
= = = The Last Kind Words ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
The band reunited at Sonic Ranch Studios while they recorded their third studio effort , The Last Kind Words , which was released in June 2007 . The album 's first single " Not All Who Wander Are Lost " was directed by Nathan Cox for free . Cox 's career began when he created Coal Chamber 's music video " Loco " , so he re @-@ paid a favor to Fafara and the band . Cox now directs music videos for bands such as Linkin Park and Korn . The first song to be previewed was " Horn of Betrayal " which debuted on Sirius Satellite 's Hard Attack channel on May 16 , 2007 . The Last Kind Words entered the German charts at number 92 , and peaked at number 48 on the Billboard 200 , with over 14 @,@ 000 copies sold .
DevilDriver promoted the album at the 2007 Download Festival at Donington Park alongside headliners Linkin Park , Iron Maiden , and My Chemical Romance . A Guinness world record was attempted by the band for the " largest circle pit " at the festival . Guinness responded to the query and denied the request stating they receive over 60 @,@ 000 requests a year and there is no way to physically define where a circle pit starts and ends . They considered the proposal fully in the context of the subject area and stated that " our decision is final in this matter " . The band also appeared at 2007 's Ozzfest . Fafara had been planning to take his first six weeks off in 11 years , but Sharon Osbourne , who had managed Fafara 's previous band Coal Chamber , persuaded him to appear . At a concert in Detroit , Michigan , a recording was made with the intention of releasing a live DVD in 2008 although this has yet to be released .
DevilDriver 's songs " Devil 's Son " and " Driving Down the Darkness " were featured in the TV show Scrubs , and in 2008 they covered the Iron Maiden song " Wasted Years " for the Kerrang ! compilation Maiden Heaven : A Tribute to Iron Maiden . The song " Clouds Over California " became available as a download for the music video game Rock Band .
= = = Pray for Villains ( 2009 ) = = =
Their fourth album Pray for Villains was released on August 11 , 2009 , debuting at No. 35 on the Billboard 200 , with estimated sales of around 14 @,@ 600 , improving on their previous effort , The Last Kind Words , which debuted at No. 48 .
On February 21 , 2009 , the band performed in Australia at the Soundwave Festival with bands such as Lamb of God and In Flames . After finishing their Melbourne show , they announced that their new album would be released August 11 , 2009 . The band also toured in the Midwest states in mid @-@ May 2009 with bands such as Slipknot , 3 Inches of Blood and All That Remains before headlining the ' Thrash and Burn ' Tour with Emmure , Despised Icon , MyChildren MyBride , Oceano , Kittie , and Thy Will Be Done amongst others . They also completed a European Tour with several other bands such as Behemoth and Suicide Silence .
In January and February 2010 , DevilDriver embarked on their headlining ' Bound By The Road ' Tour with Suffocation , Goatwhore , and Thy Will Be Done .
In March 2010 , DevilDriver participated in 2010 's Getaway Rock festival , which was held in Gävle , Sweden and began on July 8 and ended on the 10th . The band will also be included in an extensive UK tour in November 2010 with 36 Crazyfists .
= = = Beast ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
DevilDriver 's fifth album Beast was recorded at Sonic Ranch studios in Tornillo , Texas with producer Mark Lewis , and released February 22 , 2011 . John Boecklin confirmed that the new album was mixed by Andy Sneap at his Backstage studio in Derbyshire , England in July . DevilDriver went on a tour in Australia with bands such as Iron Maiden , Slayer , All That Remains and Nonpoint for the Soundwave Festival in February and March 2011 . Jonathan Miller , the band 's bassist was fired on tour in the UK by unanimous vote within the band and sent home from tour . On March 30 , it was announced that Miller and DevilDriver would part ways permanently , in the interest of Miller 's continuing recovery . DevilDriver opened for Danzig along with 2Cents in 2011 supporting Danzig 's 2010 release , Deth Red Sabaoth , and are preparing for a North America tour with Chthonic and Skeletonwitch supporting Arch Enemy .
= = = Winter Kills , lineup changes and hiatus ( 2012 – 2016 ) = = =
DevilDriver headlined the 2012 Metal Alliance Festival Tour in the spring .
On February 9 , 2012 , guitarist Jeff Kendrick announced via his Twitter account that himself , John Boecklin ( drums ) and Mike Spreitzer ( guitars ) had " begun to compose and demo songs for DevilDriver 's 6th album . We are extremely excited ! ! ! " . In March 2012 , during an interview with Nick Azinas from Peek from the Pit , vocalist Dez Fafara announced that the band was looking for a new record label . This announcement officially ended the eight @-@ year relationship between Devildriver and Roadrunner Records . On July 8 it was announced that DevilDriver has signed with Napalm Records for the upcoming sixth album . On February 18 , 2013 Dez announced on his Twitter account that Chris Towning who has been filling in on bass for the past year has been made the band 's official bassist . In a March 2013 interview with Get Your Rock Out guitarist Jeff Kendrick announced that an album title was " very close " , adding that the record was currently being mixed with only a couple of pieces of vocal recording to be done before the album is mastered . On 28 May 2013 , DevilDriver released the cover artwork and release date for the new album , Winter Kills . The album was released on 27 August 2013 by Napalm Records , their first album release since leaving Roadrunner .
On October 28 , 2014 , Dez Fafara announced that drummer John Boecklin and guitarist Jeff Kendrick left the band . He also announced that the band will be on hiatus until 2016 , when the new album will be released , to focus on his reunion with Coal Chamber .
On January 7 , 2015 , it was announced that past member Chimaira drummer Austin D 'Amond had joined the band as the new drummer . On March 19 , 2015 , Neal Tiemann was announced as the replacement for Jeff Kendrick on Guitars . Tiemann started his career with Midwest Kings and has spent time playing with Caroline ’ s Spine , Burn Halo and Uncle Kracker among others .
= = = Trust No One ( 2016 @-@ present ) = = =
On May 2 , 2015 , Dez Fafara said that there were 12 new songs written for the next DevilDriver album . They were anticipating recording them in October – November 2015 and Spring @-@ Summer 2016 for a release date later in 2016 . Dez Fafara continued that DevilDriver had to get back into their normal recording cycle ; he did not want DevilDriver sitting around too long although they did need to take a break after releasing Winter Kills .
On November 19 , 2015 , DevilDriver revealed the title for the upcoming album , Trust No One , along side with the album art . The album is set to be released on May 13 , 2016 . In March , DevilDriver announced that former Static @-@ X guitarist , Diego " Ashes " Ibarra , would be filling in for the recently departed Chris Towning on bass for upcoming shows in the US , and on European and UK dates in support of the new album .
On March 18 , 2016 , DevilDriver released their first single from upcoming album , Trust No One , titled ' Daybreak ' , through their official YouTube channel .
= = Musical style = =
DevilDriver 's music has been widely described an amalgamation of groove metal and melodic death metal . All of the members have stated they are influenced by several types of music ( some not even found within the heavy metal genre ) , Miller 's influences include Metallica , Opeth , Slayer and In Flames , and states that many of the bands he tours with influences his songwriting . Fafara 's influences include Johnny Cash , and Motörhead , stating he likes people with " low voices " . Members of DevilDriver can be seen on Machine Head 's Elegies DVD citing Machine Head as an influence . Boecklin 's main inspiration into becoming a percussionist came from his enjoyment of Metallica , Primus and Ministry .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
EPs
= = Music videos = =
" I Could Care Less "
" Nothing 's Wrong ? "
" Hold Back the Day "
" End of the Line "
" Not All Who Wander Are Lost "
" Clouds Over California "
" Pray for Villains "
" Fate Stepped In "
" Another Night in London "
" Dead to Rights "
" The Appetite "
" Daybreak "
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= The Great Money Caper =
" The Great Money Caper " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' twelfth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 10 , 2000 . In the episode , Homer , along with his son Bart , con people out of their money in order to pay for Homer 's broken car . However , after having paid for the repairs , the two decide to continue grifting , which leads to some troublesome situations .
The episode was written by Carolyn Omine and directed by Michael Polcino . The episode 's title is a parody on The Great Muppet Caper . The episode features American actor Edward Norton as con artist Devon Bradley , and would feature The Doors guitarist Robby Krieger as himself , however the scene in which he appeared was removed because Mike Scully , the show runner for the episode , felt the scene was unnecessary . In its original American broadcast , the episode received a 9 @.@ 7 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research .
= = Plot = =
The family goes to a magic @-@ themed restaurant . While there , Marge gets drunk on Long Island Iced Teas and Bart becomes so fascinated with magic that he buys a magician 's kit from the gift shop . On the way home , a sturgeon falls from the sky ( implicitly from the space station Mir ) onto the family car 's hood , which is severely damaged . Homer and Bart start their magic show as a way to make money , but the act becomes a failure , and Homer leaves Bart to do the rest of the act on his own . Bart is left out on the street , and people begin giving him money so he can get home on public transportation .
As Homer drives home , he sees Bart in a taxi , and when he gets home he sees him eating a steak dinner . They decide they can make money grifting , however Marge and Lisa begin suspecting of them after they " worked " without Bart 's kit , which they both left behind at home . Homer and Bart continue to grift after they have fixed the car , and Grampa volunteers to help them grift , since he was a con @-@ artist during the Great Depression . Grampa , Homer and Bart grift the residents at the Springfield Retirement Castle . While performing the grift , they are arrested by an FBI agent . When Homer and Bart get to jail , they realize the FBI agent himself is a con man , and conned them out of their money and the car .
Homer and Bart say the car was stolen in the church parking lot . The next morning they are surprised however to learn that Groundskeeper Willie was arrested for stealing the car , as he matched the description they gave of the carjacker as a " foreign loner with a wild , bushy hair " . Not wanting to admit they were conned , Homer and Bart go along with Marge 's theory . At the trial , the Blue Haired Lawyer leads Homer to say that it was Willie who stole the car . After Willie is proven guilty , he snatches Wiggum 's gun and shoots Principal Skinner . At this point Homer finally confesses that he got conned but Marge and the townspeople themselves tell Homer and Bart that they set up the trial and the carjacking to teach them a lesson on conning people , revealing that Skinner was not really shot ( it was a fake blood pack ) , the judge was Grampa wearing a latex mask , and the con man who stole their car was an actor called Devon Bradley . As Lisa is ready to explain why the town , media and police officials had " nothing better to do " than show them the consequences of their actions , Otto runs through the courtroom doors , shouting , ' Surf 's Up ! ' . The scene then cuts to Springfield at the beach , with characters from the episode surfing , including the waiter from the restaurant , the two astronauts from the Mir space station and the sturgeon swimming in the sea . Watching July 7 .
= = Production = =
" The Great Money Caper " was written by Carolyn Omine and directed by Michael Polcino . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 10 , 2000 .
Originally , the episode would be about pool hustling , however as writing ensued , the script went through several incarnations until the Simpsons writers settled on the grifting story seen in the episode . Omine read several books about grifters for preparation for writing the episode . The other writers also prepared themselves by watching several heist films , including House of Games , Paper Moon and The Sting , the latter two of which are referenced in the episode . For example , the revelation that Devon Bradley , the FBI agent in the episode who is revealed to be a con artist , was inspired by such films .
In a scene in the episode , Homer and Bart exit the Magic Palace 's gift shop , only to end up in another gift shop . The scene was based on an experience of the episode 's show runner Mike Scully , who , in order to exit the Lance Burton Theatre after a magic show , had to pass through a gift shop . The ending scene of the episode went through several changes and was as a result completed late in the episode 's production . The writers had conceived the courtroom scene , but they were stuck trying to come up with an ending after Skinner had been shot . They eventually decided that the trial was a scam staged by the townspeople , and Simpsons writer George Meyer pitched the surfing scene that closed the episode .
= = = Casting = = =
A scene that was eventually dropped from the episode featured Robby Krieger , guitarist of the American rock band The Doors , as himself . Krieger had been promised a guest role on The Simpsons after the staff were allowed to use the Doors song " The End " for the season 11 episode " Hello Gutter , Hello Fadder " . However , during production , Scully thought that the scene stood out too much and that Krieger 's cameo felt " too obviously shoe @-@ horned in , " so the scene ended up being cut from the episode . The scene was later included in The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season DVD set . To this day , Krieger has not officially been featured in an episode of The Simpsons . The con artist Devon Bradley was portrayed by American actor and director Edward Norton . Scully hired Norton for the role after James L. Brooks , one of The Simpsons ' producers , told Scully that Norton was " a big fan of the show " and was willing to guest star in an episode . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Scully noted that Norton was very versatile and could imitate many Simpsons characters perfectly . The announcer at the " Magic Palace " who says the line " Folks , this is not part of the act " was voiced by Scully . According to him , the line was " a last @-@ minute addition " to the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's plot is loosely based on the American comedy film Paper Moon , which was also the inspiration for Bart and Homer 's swindle of Ned Flanders in the episode . The title of the episode is a parody of the 1981 film The Great Muppet Caper . The title was pitched by Simpsons writer Matt Selman . The episode 's ending lampoons the cliche of having twist endings at the end of heist films . ” Magic Palace ” , the magic @-@ themed restaurant that the Simpsons visit in the beginning of the episode , is a parody on The Magic Castle , a nightclub in the Hollywood district of Los Angeles , California . Marge 's line " I didn 't say that for clapping " is a reference to a speech given by John Wayne while he was intoxicated . Homer wants to buy a singing rubber fish after their first con . At the end of the episode , Bart exclaims “ Cowabunga ! ” , a catch @-@ phrase of the main characters in the animated television series Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . In the scene where Grampa joins Bart and Homer , Grampa mentions the film The Sting II .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on December 10 , 2000 , " The Great Money Caper " received a 9 @.@ 7 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , meaning it was seen by 9 @.@ 7 % of the population at the time of its broadcast . Among children , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 8 million viewers .
In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season DVD box set , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide praised the episode . He wrote that , unlike other episodes in the season , " The Great Money Caper " did not " rely on too many gimmicks " and therefore felt more realistic , even though he does not consider grifting an " everyday activity . " He concluded his review by writing that the episode " does well for itself . " Jason Bailey of DVD Talk described the episode as being one of the season 's highlights . On the other hand , Matt Haigh of Den of Geek cited " The Great Money Caper " as one of the worst episodes of the season , as well as the whole series . In his review , Haigh criticized the Simpsons writers for not making sense of the story , and denounced the episode 's ending for being " abrupt " . He described the episode as " a bad stain on an otherwise great franchise " .
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= Kuiper belt =
The Kuiper belt / ˈkaɪpər / or Dutch pronunciation : [ ' køypǝr ] , sometimes called the Edgeworth – Kuiper belt , is a circumstellar disc in the Solar System beyond the planets , extending from the orbit of Neptune ( at 30 AU ) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun . It is similar to the asteroid belt , but it is far larger — 20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive . Like the asteroid belt , it consists mainly of small bodies , or remnants from the Solar System 's formation . Although many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal , most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles ( termed " ices " ) , such as methane , ammonia and water . The Kuiper belt is home to three officially recognized dwarf planets : Pluto , Haumea , and Makemake . Some of the Solar System 's moons , such as Neptune 's Triton and Saturn 's Phoebe , are also thought to have originated in the region .
The Kuiper belt was named after Dutch @-@ American astronomer Gerard Kuiper , though he did not actually predict its existence . In 1992 , 1992 QB1 was discovered , the first Kuiper belt object ( KBO ) since Pluto . Since its discovery , the number of known KBOs has increased to over a thousand , and more than 100 @,@ 000 KBOs over 100 km ( 62 mi ) in diameter are thought to exist . The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the main repository for periodic comets , those with orbits lasting less than 200 years . However , studies since the mid @-@ 1990s have shown that the belt is dynamically stable , and that comets ' true place of origin is the scattered disc , a dynamically active zone created by the outward motion of Neptune 4 @.@ 5 billion years ago ; scattered disc objects such as Eris have extremely eccentric orbits that take them as far as 100 AU from the Sun .
The Kuiper belt should not be confused with the theorized Oort cloud , which is a thousand times more distant and is mostly spherical . The objects within the Kuiper belt , together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects , are collectively referred to as trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) .
Pluto is the largest and most @-@ massive member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second @-@ most @-@ massive known TNO , surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc . Originally considered a planet , Pluto 's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006 . It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt , and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs , known as " plutinos " , that share the same 2 : 3 resonance with Neptune .
= = History = =
After the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , many speculated that it might not be alone . The region now called the Kuiper belt was hypothesized in various forms for decades . It was only in 1992 that the first direct evidence for its existence was found . The number and variety of prior speculations on the nature of the Kuiper belt have led to continued uncertainty as to who deserves credit for first proposing it .
= = = Hypotheses = = =
The first astronomer to suggest the existence of a trans @-@ Neptunian population was Frederick C. Leonard . Soon after Pluto 's discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 , Leonard pondered whether it was " not likely that in Pluto there has come to light the first of a series of ultra @-@ Neptunian bodies , the remaining members of which still await discovery but which are destined eventually to be detected " . That same year , astronomer Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto " may be one of many long @-@ period planetary objects yet to be discovered . "
In 1943 , in the Journal of the British Astronomical Association , Kenneth Edgeworth hypothesized that , in the region beyond Neptune , the material within the primordial solar nebula was too widely spaced to condense into planets , and so rather condensed into a myriad of smaller bodies . From this he concluded that " the outer region of the solar system , beyond the orbits of the planets , is occupied by a very large number of comparatively small bodies " and that , from time to time , one of their number " wanders from its own sphere and appears as an occasional visitor to the inner solar system " , becoming a comet .
In 1951 , in an article for the journal Astrophysics , Gerard Kuiper speculated on a similar disc having formed early in the Solar System 's evolution ; however , he did not think that such a belt still existed today . Kuiper was operating on the assumption common in his time that Pluto was the size of Earth and had therefore scattered these bodies out toward the Oort cloud or out of the Solar System . Were Kuiper 's hypothesis correct , there would not be a Kuiper belt today .
The hypothesis took many other forms in the following decades . In 1962 , physicist Al G.W. Cameron postulated the existence of " a tremendous mass of small material on the outskirts of the solar system " . In 1964 , Fred Whipple , who popularised the famous " dirty snowball " hypothesis for cometary structure , thought that a " comet belt " might be massive enough to cause the purported discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus that had sparked the search for Planet X , or , at the very least , massive enough to affect the orbits of known comets . Observation , however , ruled out this hypothesis .
In 1977 , Charles Kowal discovered 2060 Chiron , an icy planetoid with an orbit between Saturn and Uranus . He used a blink comparator , the same device that had allowed Clyde Tombaugh to discover Pluto nearly 50 years before . In 1992 , another object , 5145 Pholus , was discovered in a similar orbit . Today , an entire population of comet @-@ like bodies , called the centaurs , is known to exist in the region between Jupiter and Neptune . The centaurs ' orbits are unstable and have dynamical lifetimes of a few million years . From the time of Chiron 's discovery in 1977 , astronomers have speculated that the centaurs therefore must be frequently replenished by some outer reservoir .
Further evidence for the existence of the Kuiper belt later emerged from the study of comets . That comets have finite lifespans has been known for some time . As they approach the Sun , its heat causes their volatile surfaces to sublimate into space , gradually dispersing them . In order for comets to continue to be visible over the age of the Solar System , they must be replenished frequently . One such area of replenishment is the Oort cloud , a spherical swarm of comets extending beyond 50 @,@ 000 AU from the Sun first hypothesised by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort in 1950 . The Oort cloud is thought to be the point of origin of long @-@ period comets , which are those , like Hale – Bopp , with orbits lasting thousands of years .
There is , however , another comet population , known as short @-@ period or periodic comets , consisting of those comets that , like Halley 's Comet , have orbital periods of less than 200 years . By the 1970s , the rate at which short @-@ period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with their having emerged solely from the Oort cloud . For an Oort cloud object to become a short @-@ period comet , it would first have to be captured by the giant planets . In 1980 , in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , Uruguayan astronomer Julio Fernández stated that for every short @-@ period comet to be sent into the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud , 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space . He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50 AU would be required to account for the observed number of comets . Following up on Fernández 's work , in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan , Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud . They found that the Oort cloud could not account for all short @-@ period comets , particularly as short @-@ period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System , whereas Oort @-@ cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky . With a " belt " , as Fernández described it , added to the formulations , the simulations matched observations . Reportedly because the words " Kuiper " and " comet belt " appeared in the opening sentence of Fernández 's paper , Tremaine named this hypothetical region the " Kuiper belt " .
= = = Discovery = = =
In 1987 , astronomer David Jewitt , then at MIT , became increasingly puzzled by " the apparent emptiness of the outer Solar System " . He encouraged then @-@ graduate student Jane Luu to aid him in his endeavour to locate another object beyond Pluto 's orbit , because , as he told her , " If we don 't , nobody will . " Using telescopes at the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and the Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory in Chile , Jewitt and Luu conducted their search in much the same way as Clyde Tombaugh and Charles Kowal had , with a blink comparator . Initially , examination of each pair of plates took about eight hours , but the process was sped up with the arrival of electronic charge @-@ coupled devices or CCDs , which , though their field of view was narrower , were not only more efficient at collecting light ( they retained 90 % of the light that hit them , rather than the 10 % achieved by photographs ) but allowed the blinking process to be done virtually , on a computer screen . Today , CCDs form the basis for most astronomical detectors . In 1988 , Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii . Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii 's 2 @.@ 24 m telescope at Mauna Kea . Eventually , the field of view for CCDs had increased to 1024 by 1024 pixels , which allowed searches to be conducted far more rapidly . Finally , after five years of searching , on August 30 , 1992 , Jewitt and Luu announced the " Discovery of the candidate Kuiper belt object " ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 . Six months later , they discovered a second object in the region , ( 181708 ) 1993 FW .
Studies conducted since the trans @-@ Neptunian region was first charted have shown that the region now called the Kuiper belt is not the point of origin of short @-@ period comets , but that they instead derive from a linked population called the scattered disc . The scattered disc was created when Neptune migrated outward into the proto @-@ Kuiper belt , which at the time was much closer to the Sun , and left in its wake a population of dynamically stable objects that could never be affected by its orbit ( the Kuiper belt proper ) , and a population whose perihelia are close enough that Neptune can still disturb them as it travels around the Sun ( the scattered disc ) . Because the scattered disc is dynamically active and the Kuiper belt relatively dynamically stable , the scattered disc is now seen as the most likely point of origin for periodic comets .
= = = Name = = =
Astronomers sometimes use the alternative name Edgeworth – Kuiper belt to credit Edgeworth , and KBOs are occasionally referred to as EKOs . However , Brian G. Marsden claims that neither deserves true credit : " Neither Edgeworth nor Kuiper wrote about anything remotely like what we are now seeing , but Fred Whipple did " . David Jewitt comments : " If anything ... Fernández most nearly deserves the credit for predicting the Kuiper Belt . "
KBOs are sometimes called kuiperoids , a name suggested by Clyde Tombaugh . The term trans @-@ Neptunian object ( TNO ) is recommended for objects in the belt by several scientific groups because the term is less controversial than all others — it is not an exact synonym though , as TNOs include all objects orbiting the Sun past the orbit of Neptune , not just those in the Kuiper belt .
= = Structure = =
At its fullest extent , including its outlying regions , the Kuiper belt stretches from roughly 30 to 55 AU . However , the main body of the belt is generally accepted to extend from the 2 : 3 mean @-@ motion resonance ( see below ) at 39 @.@ 5 AU to the 1 : 2 resonance at roughly 48 AU . The Kuiper belt is quite thick , with the main concentration extending as much as ten degrees outside the ecliptic plane and a more diffuse distribution of objects extending several times farther . Overall it more resembles a torus or doughnut than a belt . Its mean position is inclined to the ecliptic by 1 @.@ 86 degrees .
The presence of Neptune has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt 's structure due to orbital resonances . Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System , Neptune 's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects that happen to lie in certain regions , and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the scattered disc or interstellar space . This causes the Kuiper belt to have pronounced gaps in its current layout , similar to the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt . In the region between 40 and 42 AU , for instance , no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times , and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently .
= = = Classical belt = = =
Between the 2 : 3 and 1 : 2 resonances with Neptune , at approximately 42 – 48 AU , the gravitational influence of Neptune is negligible , and objects can exist with their orbits essentially unaltered . This region is known as the classical Kuiper belt , and its members comprise roughly two thirds of KBOs observed to date . Because the first modern KBO discovered , ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 , is considered the prototype of this group , classical KBOs are often referred to as cubewanos ( " Q @-@ B @-@ 1 @-@ os " ) . The guidelines established by the IAU demand that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation .
The classical Kuiper belt appears to be a composite of two separate populations . The first , known as the " dynamically cold " population , has orbits much like the planets ; nearly circular , with an orbital eccentricity of less than 0 @.@ 1 , and with relatively low inclinations up to about 10 ° ( they lie close to the plane of the Solar System rather than at an angle ) . The cold population also contain a concentration of objects , referred to as the kernel , with semi @-@ major axes at 44 – 44 @.@ 5 AU . The second , the " dynamically hot " population , has orbits much more inclined to the ecliptic , by up to 30 ° . The two populations have been named this way not because of any major difference in temperature , but from analogy to particles in a gas , which increase their relative velocity as they become heated up . Not only are the two populations in different orbits , the cold population also differs in color and albedo , being redder and brighter , has a larger fraction of binary objects , has a different size distribution , and lacks very large objects . The difference in colors may be a reflection of different compositions , which suggests they formed in different regions . The hot population is proposed to have formed near Jupiter , and to have been ejected out by movements among the giant planets . The cold population , on the other hand , has been proposed to have formed more or less in its current position . Although it has been suggested that the cold population was also swept outwards by Neptune during its migration , particularly if Neptune 's eccentricity was transiently increased , the loose binaries among the cold population are unlikely to survive encounters with Neptune during this migration . Although the Nice model appears to be able to at least partially explain a compositional difference , it has also been suggested the color difference may reflect differences in surface evolution .
= = = Resonances = = =
When an object 's orbital period is an exact ratio of Neptune 's ( a situation called a mean @-@ motion resonance ) , then it can become locked in a synchronised motion with Neptune and avoid being perturbed away if their relative alignments are appropriate . If , for instance , an object orbits the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits , and if it reaches perihelion with Neptune a quarter of an orbit away from it , then whenever it returns to perihelion , Neptune will always be in about the same relative position as it began , because it will have completed 1 1 ⁄ 2 orbits in the same time . This is known as the 2 : 3 ( or 3 : 2 ) resonance , and it corresponds to a characteristic semi @-@ major axis of about 39 @.@ 4 AU . This 2 : 3 resonance is populated by about 200 known objects , including Pluto together with its moons . In recognition of this , the members of this family are known as plutinos . Many plutinos , including Pluto , have orbits that cross that of Neptune , though their resonance means they can never collide . Plutinos have high orbital eccentricities , suggesting that they are not native to their current positions but were instead thrown haphazardly into their orbits by the migrating Neptune . IAU guidelines dictate that all plutinos must , like Pluto , be named for underworld deities . The 1 : 2 resonance ( whose objects complete half an orbit for each of Neptune 's ) corresponds to semi @-@ major axes of ~ 47.7AU , and is sparsely populated . Its residents are sometimes referred to as twotinos . Other resonances also exist at 3 : 4 , 3 : 5 , 4 : 7 and 2 : 5 . Neptune has a number of trojan objects , which occupy its Lagrangian points , gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing it in its orbit . Neptune trojans are in a 1 : 1 mean @-@ motion resonance with Neptune and often have very stable orbits .
Additionally , there is a relative absence of objects with semi @-@ major axes below 39 AU that cannot apparently be explained by the present resonances . The currently accepted hypothesis for the cause of this is that as Neptune migrated outward , unstable orbital resonances moved gradually through this region , and thus any objects within it were swept up , or gravitationally ejected from it .
= = = " Kuiper cliff " = = =
The 1 : 2 resonance appears to be an edge beyond which few objects are known . It is not clear whether it is actually the outer edge of the classical belt or just the beginning of a broad gap . Objects have been detected at the 2 : 5 resonance at roughly 55 AU , well outside the classical belt ; however , predictions of a large number of bodies in classical orbits between these resonances have not been verified through observation .
Based on estimations of the primordial mass required to form Uranus and Neptune , as well as bodies as large as Pluto ( see below ) , earlier models of the Kuiper belt had suggested that the number of large objects would increase by a factor of two beyond 50 AU , so this sudden drastic falloff , known as the " Kuiper cliff " , was completely unexpected , and its cause , to date , is unknown . In 2003 , Bernstein and Trilling et al. found evidence that the rapid decline in objects of 100 km or more in radius beyond 50 AU is real , and not due to observational bias . Possible explanations include that material at that distance was too scarce or too scattered to accrete into large objects , or that subsequent processes removed or destroyed those that did . Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University has claimed that the gravitational attraction of an unseen large planetary object , perhaps the size of Earth or Mars , might be responsible .
= = Origin = =
The precise origins of the Kuiper belt and its complex structure are still unclear , and astronomers are awaiting the completion of several wide @-@ field survey telescopes such as Pan @-@ STARRS and the future LSST , which should reveal many currently unknown KBOs . These surveys will provide data that will help determine answers to these questions .
The Kuiper belt is thought to consist of planetesimals , fragments from the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into planets and instead formed into smaller bodies , the largest less than 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) in diameter . Studies of the crater counts on Pluto and Charon suggest that such objects formed directly as sizeable objects in the range of tens of kilometers in diameter rather than being accreted from much smaller , roughly kilometer scale bodies . Hypothetical mechanisms for the formation of these larger bodies include the gravitational collapse of clouds of pebbles concentrated between eddies in a turbulent protoplanetary disk or in streaming instabilities . These collapsing clouds may fragment , forming binaries .
Modern computer simulations show the Kuiper belt to have been strongly influenced by Jupiter and Neptune , and also suggest that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed in their present positions , because too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass . Instead , these planets are estimated to have formed closer to Jupiter . Scattering of planetesimals early in the Solar System 's history would have led to migration of the orbits of the giant planets : Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune drifted outwards , whereas Jupiter drifted inwards . Eventually , the orbits shifted to the point where Jupiter and Saturn reached an exact 2 : 1 resonance ; Jupiter orbited the Sun twice for every one Saturn orbit . The gravitational repercussions of such a resonance ultimately destabilized the orbits of Uranus and Neptune , causing them to be scattered outward onto high @-@ eccentricity orbits that crossed the primordial planetesimal disc . While Neptune 's orbit was highly eccentric , its mean @-@ motion resonances overlapped and the orbits of the planetesimals evolved chaotically , allowing planetesimals to wander outward as far as Neptune 's 2 : 1 resonance to form a dynamically cold belt of low @-@ inclination objects . Later , after its eccentricity decreased , Neptune 's orbit expanded outward toward its current position . Many planetesimals were captured into and remain in resonances during this migration , others evolved onto higher @-@ inclination and lower @-@ eccentricity orbits and escaped from the resonances onto stable orbits . Many more planetesimals were scattered inward , with small fractions being captured as Jupiter trojans , as irregular satellites orbiting the giant planets , and as outer belt asteroids . The remainder were scattered outward again by Jupiter and in most cases ejected from the Solar System reducing the primordial Kuiper belt population by 99 % or more .
While the original version of the currently most popular model , the " Nice model " , reproduces many characteristics of the Kuiper belt such as the " cold " and " hot " populations , resonant objects , and a scattered disc , it still fails to account for some of the characteristics of their distributions . The model predicts a higher average eccentricity in classical KBO orbits than is observed ( 0 @.@ 10 – 0 @.@ 13 versus 0 @.@ 07 ) and its predicted inclination distribution contains too few high inclination objects . In addition , the frequency of binary objects in the cold belt , many of which are far apart and loosely bound , also poses a problem for the model . These are predicted to have been separated during encounters with Neptune , leading some to propose that the cold disc formed at its current location .
A recent modification of the Nice model has the Solar System begin with five giant planets , including an additional ice giant , in a chain of mean @-@ motion resonances . About 400 million years after the formation of the Solar System the resonance chain is broken . Instead of being scattered into the disc , the ice giants first migrate outward several AU . This divergent migration eventually leads to a resonance crossing , destabilizing the orbits of the planets . The extra ice giant encounters Saturn and is scattered inward onto a Jupiter @-@ crossing orbit and after a series of encounters is ejected from the Solar System . The remaining planets then continue their migration until the planetesimal disc in nearly depleted with small fractions remaining in various locations .
As in the original Nice model , objects are captured into resonances with Neptune during its outward migration . Some remain in the resonances , others evolve onto higher @-@ inclination , lower @-@ eccentricity orbits , and are released onto stable orbits forming the dynamically hot classical belt . The hot belt 's inclination distribution can be reproduced if Neptune migrated from 24 AU to 30 AU on a 30 Myr timescale . When Neptune migrates to 28 AU , it has a gravitational encounter with the extra ice giant . Objects captured from the cold belt into the 2 : 1 mean @-@ motion resonance with Neptune are left behind as a local concentration at 44 AU when this encounter causes Neptune 's semi @-@ major axis to jump outward . If Neptune 's eccentricity remains small during this encounter the chaotic evolution of orbits of the original Nice model is avoided and a primordial cold belt is preserved . In the later phases of Neptune 's migration a slow sweeping of mean @-@ motion resonances removes the higher @-@ eccentricity objects from the cold belt truncating its eccentricity distribution .
= = Composition = =
Being distant from the Sun and major planets , Kuiper belt objects are thought to be relatively unaffected by the processes that have shaped and altered other Solar System objects ; thus , determining their composition would provide substantial information on the makeup of the earliest Solar System . However , due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth , the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine . The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is spectroscopy . When an object 's light is broken into its component colors , an image akin to a rainbow is formed . This image is called a spectrum . Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths , and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled , dark lines ( called absorption lines ) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light . Every element or compound has its own unique spectroscopic signature , and by reading an object 's full spectral " fingerprint " , astronomers can determine what it is made of .
Analysis indicates that Kuiper belt objects are composed of a mixture of rock and a variety of ices such as water , methane , and ammonia . The temperature of the belt is only about 50 K , so many compounds that would be gaseous closer to the Sun remain solid . The densities and rock – ice fractions are known for only a small number of objects for which the diameters and the masses have been determined . The diameter can be determined by imaging with a high @-@ resolution telescope such as the Hubble Space Telescope , by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star , or , most commonly , by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions . The masses are determined using the semi @-@ major axes and periods of satellites , which are therefore known only for a few binary objects . The densities range from less than 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 6 g / cm3 . The least dense objects are thought to be largely composed of ice and have significant porosity . The densest objects are likely composed of rock with a thin crust of ice . There is a trend of low densities for small objects and high densities for the largest objects . One possible explanation for this trend is that ice was lost from the surface layers when differentiated objects collided to form the largest objects .
Initially , detailed analysis of KBOs was impossible , and so astronomers were only able to determine the most basic facts about their makeup , primarily their color . These first data showed a broad range of colors among KBOs , ranging from neutral grey to deep red . This suggested that their surfaces were composed of a wide range of compounds , from dirty ices to hydrocarbons . This diversity was startling , as astronomers had expected KBOs to be uniformly dark , having lost most of the volatile ices from their surfaces to the effects of cosmic rays . Various solutions were suggested for this discrepancy , including resurfacing by impacts or outgassing . However , Jewitt and Luu 's spectral analysis of the known Kuiper belt objects in 2001 found that the variation in color was too extreme to be easily explained by random impacts . The radiation from the Sun is thought to have chemically altered methane on the surface of KBOs , producing products such as tholins . Makemake has been shown to possess a number of hydrocarbons derived from the radiation @-@ processing of methane , including ethane , ethylene and acetylene .
Although to date most KBOs still appear spectrally featureless due to their faintness , there have been a number of successes in determining their composition . In 1996 , Robert H. Brown et al. acquired spectroscopic data on the KBO 1993 SC , which revealed that its surface composition is markedly similar to that of Pluto , as well as Neptune 's moon Triton , with large amounts of methane ice . For the smaller objects only colors and in some cases the albedos have been determined . These objects largely fall into two classes : gray with low albedos , or very red with higher albedos . The difference in colors and albedos is hypothesized to be due to the retention or the loss of hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) on the surface of these objects , with the surfaces of those that formed far enough from the Sun to retain H2S being reddened due to irradiation .
The largest KBOs , such as Pluto and Quaoar , have surfaces rich in volatile compounds such as methane , nitrogen and carbon monoxide ; the presence of these molecules is likely due to their moderate vapor pressure in the 30 – 50 K temperature range of the Kuiper belt . This allows them to occasionally boil off their surfaces and then fall again as snow , whereas compounds with higher boiling points would remain solid . The relative abundances of these three compounds in the largest KBOs is directly related to their surface gravity and ambient temperature , which determines which they can retain . Water ice has been detected in several KBOs , including members of the Haumea family such as 1996 TO66 , mid @-@ sized objects such as 38628 Huya and 20000 Varuna , and also on some small objects . The presence of crystalline ice on large and mid @-@ sized objects , including 50000 Quaoar where ammonia hydrate has also been detected , may indicate past tectonic activity aided by melting point lowering due to the presence of ammonia .
= = Mass and size distribution = =
Despite its vast extent , the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low . The total mass is estimated to range between 1 / 25th and 1 / 10th the mass of the Earth . Conversely , models of the Solar System 's formation predict a collective mass for the Kuiper belt of 30 Earth masses . This missing > 99 % of the mass can hardly be dismissed , because it is required for the accretion of any KBOs larger than 100 km ( 62 mi ) in diameter . If the Kuiper belt had always had its current low density these large objects simply could not have formed by the collision and mergers of smaller planetesimals . Moreover , the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits makes the encounters quite " violent " resulting in destruction rather than accretion . It appears that either the current residents of the Kuiper belt have been created closer to the Sun or some mechanism dispersed the original mass . Neptune 's current influence is too weak to explain such a massive " vacuuming " , though the Nice model proposes that it could have been the cause of mass removal in the past . Although the question remains open , the conjectures vary from a passing star scenario to grinding of smaller objects , via collisions , into dust small enough to be affected by solar radiation . The extent of mass loss by collisional grinding , however , is limited by the presence of loosely bound binaries in the cold disk , which are likely to be disrupted in collisions .
Bright objects are rare compared with the dominant dim population , as expected from accretion models of origin , given that only some objects of a given size would have grown further . This relationship between N ( D ) ( the number of objects of diameter greater than D ) and D , referred to as brightness slope , has been confirmed by observations . The slope is inversely proportional to some power of the diameter D :
<formula> where the current measures give q = 4 ± 0 @.@ 5 .
This implies ( assuming q is not 1 ) that
<formula>
( The constant may be non @-@ zero only if the power law doesn 't apply at high values of D. )
Less formally , if q is 4 , for example , there are 8 ( = 23 ) times more objects in the 100 – 200 km range than in the 200 – 400 km range , and for every object with a diameter between 1000 and 1010 km there should be around 1000 ( = 103 ) objects with diameter of 100 to 101 km .
If q is 1 or less , the law implies an infinite number and mass of large objects in the Kuiper belt . If 1 < q ≤ 4 there will be a finite number of objects greater than a given size , but the expected value of their combined mass would be infinite . If q is 4 or more , the law would imply an infinite mass of small objects . More accurate models find that the " slope " parameter q is in effect greater at large diameters and lesser at small diameters . It seems that Pluto is somewhat unexpectedly large , having several percent of the total mass of the Kuiper belt . It is not expected that anything larger than Pluto exists in the Kuiper belt , and in fact most of the brightest ( largest ) objects at inclinations less than 5 ° have probably been found .
Of course , only the absolute magnitude is actually known , the size is inferred assuming a given albedo ( not a safe assumption for larger objects ) .
Recent research has revealed that the size distributions of the hot classical and cold classical objects have differing slopes . The slope for the hot objects is q |
= 5 @.@ 3 at large diameters and q =
2 @.@ 0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km . The slope for the cold objects is q |
= 8 @.@ 2 at large diameters and q =
2 @.@ 9 at small diameters with a change in slope at 140 km . The size distributions of the scattering objects , the plutinos , and the Neptune trojans have slopes similar to the other dynamically hot populations , but may instead have a divot , a sharp decrease in the number of objects below a specific size . This divot is hypothesized to be due to either the collisional evolution of the population , or to be due to the population having formed with no objects below this size , with the smaller objects being fragments of the original objects .
As of December 2009 , the smallest Kuiper belt object detected is 980 m across . It is too dim ( magnitude 35 ) to be seen by Hubble directly , but it was detected by Hubble 's star tracking system when it occulted a star .
= = Scattered objects = =
The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region , overlapping with the Kuiper belt but extending to beyond 100 AU . Scattered disc objects ( SDOs ) have very elliptical orbits , often also very inclined to the ecliptic . Most models of Solar System formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial belt , with later gravitational interactions , particularly with Neptune , sending the objects outward , some into stable orbits ( the KBOs ) and some into unstable orbits , the scattered disc . Due to its unstable nature , the scattered disc is suspected to be the point of origin of many of the Solar System 's short @-@ period comets . Their dynamic orbits occasionally force them into the inner Solar System , first becoming centaurs , and then short @-@ period comets .
According to the Minor Planet Center , which officially catalogues all trans @-@ Neptunian objects , a KBO , strictly speaking , is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition . Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects . However , in some scientific circles the term " Kuiper belt object " has become synonymous with any icy minor planet native to the outer Solar System assumed to have been part of that initial class , even if its orbit during the bulk of Solar System history has been beyond the Kuiper belt ( e.g. in the scattered @-@ disc region ) . They often describe scattered disc objects as " scattered Kuiper belt objects " . Eris , which is known to be more massive than Pluto , is often referred to as a KBO , but is technically an SDO . A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached , and this issue remains unresolved .
The centaurs , which are not normally considered part of the Kuiper belt , are also thought to be scattered objects , the only difference being that they were scattered inward , rather than outward . The Minor Planet Center groups the centaurs and the SDOs together as scattered objects .
= = = Triton = = =
During its period of migration , Neptune is thought to have captured a large KBO , Triton , which is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit ( it orbits opposite to Neptune 's rotation ) . This suggests that , unlike the large moons of Jupiter , Saturn , and Uranus , which are thought to have coalesced from rotating discs of material around their young parent planets , Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space . Gravitational capture of an object is not easy : it requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object 's gravity . A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune . ( Many KBOs are members of binaries . See below . ) Ejection of the other member of the binary by Neptune could then explain Triton 's capture . Triton is only 14 % larger than Pluto , and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that their surfaces are largely composed of similar materials , such as methane and carbon monoxide . All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its outward migration .
= = Largest KBOs = =
Since 2000 , a number of KBOs with diameters of between 500 and 1 @,@ 500 km ( 932 mi ) , more than half that of Pluto ( diameter 2370 km ) , have been discovered . 50000 Quaoar , a classical KBO discovered in 2002 , is over 1 @,@ 200 km across . Makemake and Haumea , both announced on July 29 , 2005 , are larger still . Other objects , such as 28978 Ixion ( discovered in 2001 ) and 20000 Varuna ( discovered in 2000 ) measure roughly 500 km ( 311 mi ) across .
= = = Pluto = = =
The discovery of these large KBOs in similar orbits to Pluto led many to conclude that , aside from its relative size , Pluto was not particularly different from other members of the Kuiper belt . Not only are these objects similar to Pluto in size , but many also have satellites , and are of similar composition ( methane and carbon monoxide have been found both on Pluto and on the largest KBOs ) . Thus , just as Ceres was considered a planet before the discovery of its fellow asteroids , some began to suggest that Pluto might also be reclassified .
The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of Eris , an object in the scattered disc far beyond the Kuiper belt , that is now known to be 27 % more massive than Pluto . ( Eris was originally thought to be larger than Pluto by volume , but the New Horizons mission found this not to be the case . ) In response , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) , was forced to define what a planet is for the first time , and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have " cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit " . As Pluto shared its orbit with so many KBOs , it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit , and was thus reclassified from a planet to a member of the Kuiper belt .
Although Pluto is currently the largest known KBO , there is at least one known larger object currently outside the Kuiper belt that probably originated in it : Neptune 's moon Triton ( which , as explained above , is probably a captured KBO ) .
As of 2008 , only five objects in the Solar System ( Ceres , Eris , and the KBOs Pluto , Makemake and Haumea ) are listed as dwarf planets by the IAU . However , 90482 Orcus , 28978 Ixion and many other Kuiper @-@ belt objects are large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium ; most of them will probably qualify when more is known about them .
= = = Satellites = = =
Of the five largest TNOs , four ( Eris , Pluto , Makemake and Haumea ) are known to have satellites , and two have more than one . A higher percentage of the larger KBOs have satellites than the smaller objects in the Kuiper belt , suggesting that a different formation mechanism was responsible . There are also a high number of binaries ( two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting " each other " ) in the Kuiper belt . The most notable example is the Pluto – Charon binary , but it is estimated that around 11 % of KBOs exist in binaries .
= = Exploration = =
On 19 January 2006 , the first spacecraft to explore the Kuiper belt , New Horizons , was launched , which flew by Pluto on 14 July 2015 .
Scientists awaited data from the Pan @-@ STARRS survey project to ensure as wide a field of options as possible . The Pan @-@ STARRS project , partially operational since May 2010 , will , when fully online , survey the entire sky with four 1 @.@ 4 gigapixel digital cameras to detect any moving objects , from near @-@ Earth objects to KBOs . To speed up the detection process , the New Horizons team established Ice Hunters , a citizen science project that allowed members of the public to participate in the search for suitable KBO targets ; the project has subsequently been transferred to another site , Ice Investigators , produced by CosmoQuest .
On 15 October 2014 , it was revealed that Hubble 's search had uncovered three potential targets , provisionally designated PT1 ( " potential target 1 " ) , PT2 and PT3 by the New Horizons team . All are objects with estimated diameters in the 30 – 55 km range , too small to be seen by ground telescopes , at distances from the Sun of 43 – 44 AU , which would put the encounters in the 2018 – 2019 period . The initial estimated probabilities that these objects are reachable within New Horizons ' fuel budget are 100 % , 7 % , and 97 % , respectively . All are members of the " cold " ( low @-@ inclination , low @-@ eccentricity ) classical Kuiper belt , and thus very different from Pluto . PT1 ( given the temporary designation " 1110113Y " on the HST web site ) , the most favorably situated object , is magnitude 26 @.@ 8 , 30 – 45 km in diameter , and will be encountered around January 2019 . A course to reach it will require about 35 % of New Horizons ' available trajectory @-@ adjustment fuel supply . A mission to PT3 was in some ways preferable , in that it is brighter and therefore probably larger than PT1 , but the greater fuel requirements to reach it would have left less for maneuvering and unforeseen events . Once sufficient orbital information was provided , the Minor Planet Center gave official designations to the three target KBOs : 2014 MU69 ( PT1 ) , 2014 OS393 ( PT2 ) , and 2014 PN70 ( PT3 ) . By the fall of 2014 , a possible fourth target , 2014 MT69 , had been eliminated by follow @-@ up observations . PT2 was out of the running before the Pluto flyby .
On 26 August 2015 , the first target , 2014 MU69 , was chosen . Course adjustment took place in late October and early November 2015 , leading to a flyby in January 2019 . In order to complete the mission , funding will need to be secured following a senior review of planetary science missions in 2016 , with the results of that review to be announced in August or September 2016 .
On 2 December 2015 , New Horizons detected 1994 JR1 from 270 million kilometres ( 170 × 10 ^ 6 mi ) away , and the photographs show the shape of the object and one or two details .
= = Extrasolar Kuiper belts = =
By 2006 , astronomers had resolved dust discs thought to be Kuiper belt @-@ like structures around nine stars other than the Sun . They appear to fall into two categories : wide belts , with radii of over 50 AU , and narrow belts ( tentatively like that of the Solar System ) with radii of between 20 and 30 AU and relatively sharp boundaries . Beyond this , 15 – 20 % of solar @-@ type stars have an observed infrared excess that is suggestive of massive Kuiper @-@ belt @-@ like structures . Most known debris discs around other stars are fairly young , but the two images on the right , taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in January 2006 , are old enough ( roughly 300 million years ) to have settled into stable configurations . The left image is a " top view " of a wide belt , and the right image is an " edge view " of a narrow belt . Computer simulations of dust in the Kuiper belt suggest that when it was younger , it may have resembled the narrow rings seen around younger stars .
|
= 2014 – 15 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team =
The 2014 – 15 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team represented the University of Michigan during the 2014 – 15 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The team played its home games in Ann Arbor , Michigan for the 48th consecutive year at the Crisler Center , which has a capacity of 12 @,@ 707 . This season marked the program 's 99th season and its 98th consecutive year as a member of the Big Ten Conference . The team was led by 8th year head coach John Beilein , who was voted 2014 Big Ten Coach of the Year by the Big Ten media . The 2013 – 14 team was Big Ten champion , earning the school 's first outright title since 1986 . The program entered the season coming off its winningest two @-@ year stretch , having won 59 games in the two previous seasons . The team was also coming off four consecutive NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament appearances .
The 2014 – 15 team needed to replace the losses of Nik Stauskas , Mitch McGary and Glenn Robinson III to the 2014 NBA draft and Jon Horford and Jordan Morgan to graduation . It began the season ranked in both the AP Poll ( # 24 ) and Coaches ' Poll ( # 23 ) . Guard Caris LeVert was named a preseason All @-@ American according to numerous media outlets and preseason All @-@ Big Ten according to the Big Ten media . LeVert , however , suffered a season @-@ ending foot injury in January . At the end of that month , Derrick Walton was sidelined for the season . The team struggled without two of its leaders as it went from a 6 – 3 win – loss record in conference to finish 8 – 10 . After falling in the quarterfinals of the 2015 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament the team 's season ended with a 16 – 16 record .
= = Roster changes = =
= = = Departures = = =
Jordan Morgan graduated after using all of his eligibility . Horford announced on April 10 that he would use his 5th year of redshirt eligibility by transferring to a graduate program at another school for the 2014 – 15 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . On April 26 , Horford announced he was transferring to play for the Florida Gators men 's basketball team .
On April 15 , in a joint press conference on the Big Ten Network , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas announced that they were declaring themselves eligible for the 2014 NBA draft . On April 25 , Mitch McGary declared for the draft . He was facing a season @-@ long NCAA suspension after testing positive for marijuana after the Wolverines ' NCAA tournament win over Tennessee , a game for which he dressed but was not able to play . When all three players were drafted , it marked the first time Michigan had at least three draft picks since the 1990 NBA draft .
= = = 2014 – 15 team recruits = = =
After Stauskas and Robinson declared for the NBA , Michigan signed Muhammad Ali Abdur @-@ Rahkman on April 19 . On April 28 , Michigan signed Aubrey Dawkins , son of former Duke Naismith College Player of the Year , National Basketball Association point guard and Stanford head coach Johnny Dawkins .
= = = Future recruits = = =
On August 6 , Duncan Robinson announced that he would transfer to Michigan with three years of eligibility remaining and sit out the 2014 – 15 season after Division III Williams College head coach Mike Maker announced his departure to coach at Marist . On August 8 , 2014 , 6 @-@ foot @-@ 11 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 11 m ) Jon Teske became Michigan basketball 's first class of 2016 commit .
= = Post @-@ tournament predictions = =
Immediately following the 2014 NCAA Tournament , the earliest predictions started being made by the media despite draft status uncertainty . While uncertainty about Stauskas ' , Robinson 's and McGary 's returns remained speculation , projections abounded : 9 by Yahoo ! Sports , 14 by Bleacher Report , 17 by ESPN , 18 by USA Today , 20 by NBC Sports and CBS Sports . Following the April 27 NBA draft entry deadline , revised predictions had Michigan a little lower : 19 by Bleacher Report , 24 by ESPN and NBC Sports , unranked by CBS Sports and USA Today . Despite the projected rankings the Las Vegas 2015 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament betting lines showed only 11 schools with shorter odds than Michigan who was in a 6 @-@ way tie for 12th place at 33 : 1 on April 29 .
= = Offseason = =
On May 12 , LeVert underwent surgery to repair a stress fracture in his foot . He was expected to be sidelined for 8 – 10 weeks , but be available for the team 's August trip to play in Europe . Beilein announced on June 3 that Max Bielfeldt had undergone hip surgery and was expected to miss most of the summer . On August 6 , D. J. Wilson was sidelined for 4 – 6 weeks following surgery on his pinky finger . This announcement came prior to the team 's August 15 departure for its summer trip to Italy .
The team participated in a four @-@ game exhibition tour of Italy that included stops in Rome , Verona , Vicenza , Venice and Lake Como from August 15 – 24 . On August 28 , Beilein became the 2013 – 14 recipient of the NCAA 's Bob Frederick Sportsmanship Award , which honors " an NCAA member institution coach or administrator who exhibits a lifelong commitment to sportsmanship and ethical conduct , leading by example and promoting positive fan involvement in and out of competition . "
= = Preseason = =
Michigan began the season ranked number 23 in the Coaches ' Poll and number 24 in the AP Poll . In the Sports Illustrated preseason top 25 ranking Michigan was listed # 25 . ESPN 's Jeff Goodman expected Michigan to be Wisconsin 's main competition in the conference despite all of the talent it lost . Athlon Sports and Blue Ribbon College Basketball Yearbook ranked Michigan 23 in their preseason rankings . Bleacher Report listed Michigan at number 20 .
Caris LeVert was a preseason All @-@ Big Ten selection . He was an NBCSports.com Preseason All @-@ American first team selection , a SB Nation , Sports Illustrated , Bleacher Report , Athlon Sports , Blue Ribbon College Basketball Yearbook , and CBSSports.com second team selection and a USA Today third team selection . He was also named to the Lute Olson Award and John R. Wooden Award preseason watchlists . LeVert also was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy Watch List on November 24 and the Naismith Award Top 50 list on December 3 .
In its preseason top 100 player rankings , ESPN ranked LeVert # 13 and Walton # 87 . Prior to the season LeVert and Spike Albrecht were named co @-@ captains .
= = Roster = =
In July , the team reclassified Max Bielfeldt from a redshirt junior to a senior , which freed up Bielfeldt 's scholarship for the Class of 2015 , implying Bielfeldt would play his final year of eligibility elsewhere . In November , Beilein announced that the team would redshirt Andrew Dakich so that he could play a fifth year somewhere else . However , a pair of January backcourt injuries caused Dakich 's services to be needed and he played instead of redshirting . D. J. Wilson missed most of the season due to a knee injury and was redshirted .
= = Schedule = =
Michigan played the 2014 – 15 Arizona Wildcats on the road at McKale Center as part of their home @-@ and @-@ away that had begun at home against the 2013 – 14 Wildcats . Michigan played a home @-@ and @-@ away with the 2014 – 15 and 2015 – 16 SMU Mustangs with the 2014 game being played on December 20 , 2014 at Crisler Center , and trip in December 2015 to face the 2015 – 16 Mustangs in Dallas . On July 15 , the non @-@ conference schedule was announced . On August 21 , the team announced the conference schedule , which included three ESPN Super Tuesday broadcasts .
November
On November 10 , Michigan won an exhibition game against Wayne State . The biggest storyline was that Austin Hatch scored for the team . Hatch had survived two plane crashes at ages 8 and 16 ; the first killed his mother and both of his siblings , and the second killed his father and stepmother and left him in a coma for two months . After raising its 2014 Big Ten Championship banner on November 15 , Michigan opened its season with a 92 – 68 victory over Hillsdale College . The game was the first time the team had had three 20 @-@ point scorers ( Derrick Walton @-@ 22 , Zak Irvin @-@ 21 , and Caris LeVert @-@ 20 ) since the 2011 – 12 team defeated the Oakland Golden Grizzlies on December 10 , 2011 behind Trey Burke , Tim Hardaway , Jr. and Evan Smotrycz . On November 17 , the team opened the Progressive Legends Classic at home against Bucknell . The game was highlighted by Max Bielfeldt 's career @-@ high 18 @-@ point performance and Irvin 's second consecutive 20 plus @-@ point performance . In the second home game of the Legends Classic on November 20 , Michigan faced a Detroit Titans team that was led by Juwan Howard , Jr . — the son of former Michigan star Juwan Howard . Detroit led at the half and tied the score with 5 : 39 remaining before Michigan went on to win 71 – 62 despite 24 points and 8 rebounds from Howard . In the semifinals of the Legends Classic at the Barclays Center on November 24 , Michigan defeated Oregon . The next day , Michigan lost to ( # 12 AP Poll / # 11 Coaches Poll ) Villanova in the championship game . This was the first meeting between the two teams since the quarterfinals of the 1985 NCAAA Tournament , which Villanova also won . Villanova went on a 9 – 0 run to end the first half , and led by as many as 13 points early in the second half . Michigan cut the lead to 35 – 31 following an 11 – 2 run . Michigan led by as many as eight points with just under six minutes left in the game , before Villanova came back to retake the lead for good with 13 seconds remaining . Caris LeVert helped lead the second half comeback scoring eight of his 16 points in the second half , including Michigan 's final six points of the game . On November 29 , the team defeated Nicholls State as five players scored in double figures .
December
On December 2 , Michigan defeated Syracuse in a ACC @-@ Big Ten Challenge game that went down to the wire . After blowing a 10 @-@ point second half lead Michigan needed a three point shot from Albrecht with 31 seconds remaining for the victory . On December 6 , Michigan suffered its first home loss of the season to the New Jersey Institute of Technology by a 72 – 70 margin , despite a career @-@ high 32 points by Levert . With the loss , Michigan 's 30 @-@ game home win streak versus unranked opponents was snapped . NJIT shot 11 @-@ for @-@ 17 on its three @-@ point shots in the game . The team lost its three subsequent games to Eastern Michigan , ( # 3 ) Arizona , and SMU . The loss to Eastern Michigan , which is separated from the University of Michigan by a 6 @-@ mile stretch of Washtenaw Avenue , ended a Big Ten @-@ high 59 @-@ game streak without consecutive losses . Eastern Michigan was led in assists ( 6 ) by Michael Talley , son of Michigan Basketball point guard and alum Michael Talley , Jr . The December 9 80 – 53 loss to # 3 ranked Arizona was one point shy of being the largest defeat of the Beilein era . The December 20 SMU game marked the first career start by Ricky Doyle . On December 22 , the team snapped its 4 @-@ game losing streak with a victory over Coppin State who was coached by Michael Grant , the brother of former Wolverine and Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year Gary Grant . One of the game 's big storylines was the first regular season point by Austin Hatch . Doyle 's game @-@ high 16 points marked the first time he led the team in scoring . Michigan won its Big Ten Conference home opener against Illinois in overtime on December 30 on the day it announced Jim Harbaugh would become the new Michigan Wolverines football head coach . Aubrey Dawkins , who had a career total of 15 points entering the game , scored a game @-@ high 20 @-@ points .
January
Michigan lost to Purdue on January 3 , by making only 4 second half field goals after taking an 8 @-@ point half time lead . The team defeated Penn State on January 6 with Albrecht in the starting lineup in place of Chatman . On January 10 , the team wore throwback uniforms honoring the 1988 – 89 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team that won the 1989 NCAA Tournament . Michigan was down 49 – 40 with less than nine minutes remaining , before coming back to defeat Minnesota by a margin of 62 – 57 . Michigan lost to ( Receiving votes / # 25 ) Ohio State on January 13 . On January 17 Michigan defeated Northwestern , but lost LeVert for the season after he reinjured the foot that he had had surgery on the prior May . In the game , Muhammad @-@ Ali Abdur @-@ Rahkman made his first start ( in place of an ailing Albrecht ) and made the game winning three @-@ point shot . At the time of his injury , LeVert led Michigan in scoring ( 14 @.@ 9 ) , rebounds ( 4 @.@ 9 ) , assists ( 3 @.@ 7 ) , steals ( 1 @.@ 7 ) and minutes ( 35 @.@ 8 ) . Nonetheless , the team defeated Rutgers in its first game without LeVert and with Dawkins making his first start . With LeVert absent , Walton scored 10 of the team 's 15 points as it rallied from a 42 – 37 deficit to assume a 52 – 44 lead with just 32 @.@ 5 seconds left . On January 24 , Michigan fell to ( AP # 6 / Coaches # 5 ) Wisconsin in overtime after Walton , who had a team @-@ high 17 points , scored Michigan 's final seven points , including a game @-@ tying three point shot with 1 @.@ 3 seconds remaining in regulation . The game had been the featured College GameDay game of the week . On January 27 with Walton and Mark Donnal sidelined Michigan defeated Nebraska , as Irvin recorded his first career double @-@ double , leading the team with 14 points and a career @-@ high 12 rebounds . Eventually , Walton missed final 12 of the season due to a toe injury . Due to the backcourt injuries , Dakich burned his redshirt season . Michigan finished the first half of its conference schedule with a 6 – 3 record .
February
Michigan began February with 5 consecutive Big Ten Conference losses . On February 1 , the team lost a rivalry game in overtime to Michigan State , despite career @-@ high 18 @-@ point performances by Albrecht and Abdur @-@ Rahkman and a career best 9 @-@ rebound performance by Max Bielfeld . On February 5 and February 8 , Michigan lost to Iowa and Indiana . February 5 marked the return of Donnal to the lineup . On February 12 against Illinois , Michigan lost in overtime after surrendering a 7 @-@ point lead with a little more than 3 minutes remaining . Illinois finished the game on a 21 – 2 run that was only spoiled by Michigan free throws with 13 seconds remaining . The 17 @,@ 087 in attendance established a record for the State Farm Center . On February 17 , Michigan lost again to Michigan State . On February 22 , Michigan ended its losing streak by defeating ( # 24 / # 23 ) Ohio State . On February 28 , Michigan ended February with a loss to ( # 14 / # 14 ) Maryland in the first Big Ten Conference game between the two teams and Senior night for Maryland .
March
On March 3 , Michigan tied a school record with its fifth overtime game of the season ( the first multiple overtime game since March 20 , 2006 ) against Northwestern on Northwestern 's Senior night . Michigan gave up last second game @-@ tying three @-@ point shots by Tre Demps in both regulation and the first overtime before losing in double overtime , despite career @-@ high 28 @-@ point and 21 @-@ point performances by Irvin and Dawkins , respectively . Irvin posted his own and the team 's second double @-@ double of the season . On March 7 , Michigan won its Big Ten Conference finale against Rutgers to finish the regular season at 15 – 15 ( 8 – 10 Big Ten ) . The game marked career @-@ high scoring efforts by Dawkins ( 31 ) and Chatman ( 13 ) , career @-@ high assist efforts by Bielfeldt ( 3 ) and Albrecht ( 9 ) and a career @-@ high rebounding effort by Bielfeldt ( 13 ) . Bielfeldt made his first career start on this Senior night effort . Freshmen team managers Jon Rubenstein and Ryan Kapustka played in the game . Dawkins ' 31 points was the most by a Michigan freshman since Trey Burke had 32 in 2012 and his 8 three pointers was the second most in school history , the most by a Wolverine since Glen Rice posted 8 in the 1989 NCAA Tournament and the most by a Big Ten player during the season , earning Dawkins the final Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor . In the second round of the 2015 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament on March 12 , Michigan defeated Illinois after splitting a pair of overtime games won by the home teams during the regular season . The game marked Michigan 's ninth consecutive win in its opening round of the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament and Michigan 's largest margin of victory over a conference opponent this season . In the quarterfinals of the Big Ten Tournament on March 13 , Michigan lost to No. 1 seeded Wisconsin , despite a double @-@ double and game @-@ high 21 points and 11 rebounds by Irvin .
= = Statistics = =
The team posted the following statistics :
= = Rankings = =
= = Awards = =
The United States Basketball Writers Association named Michigan 's Austin Hatch as its recipient for the men 's version of its Most Courageous Award for 2015 . Dawkins earned the final Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor on March 9 .
= = Postseason = =
Michigan did not participate in any postseason tournaments , ending a streak of four consecutive NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament appearances . Following the season , Spike Albrecht had offseason surgery on his right hip to correct for a genetic condition that may also necessitate left hip surgery . Albrecht and Irvin were voted team co @-@ MVPs . On April 21 , LeVert announced that he would return for his senior season .
= = = Team players drafted into the NBA = = =
Sources :
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= Strapping Young Lad =
Strapping Young Lad was a Canadian extreme metal band formed by Devin Townsend in Vancouver , British Columbia in 1994 . The band started as a one @-@ man studio project ; Townsend played most of the instruments on the 1995 debut album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing . By 1997 , he had recruited permanent members ; this line @-@ up , which consisted of Townsend on vocals and guitar , Jed Simon on guitar , Byron Stroud on bass , and Gene Hoglan on drums , lasted until the band 's dissolution .
Containing elements of death metal , thrash metal , black metal , progressive metal and industrial metal , Strapping Young Lad 's music was characterized by the use of complex time signatures , polyrhythmic guitar riffing and drumming , blast beats and Wall of Sound production . The band 's musical direction was mainly determined by Townsend , whose battle with bipolar disorder and dark sense of humour were major influences on his songwriting . Townsend was also noted for his eccentric appearance and on @-@ stage behaviour , which greatly contributed to the band 's intense live performances .
The band gained critical success and a growing underground fan base from their 1997 album City . After a hiatus between 1999 and 2002 , the band released three more albums , reaching their commercial peak with the 2006 effort , The New Black . Townsend disbanded Strapping Young Lad in May 2007 , announcing his decision to retreat from public view while continuing to record solo albums .
= = History = =
= = = Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing and City ( 1994 – 1998 ) = = =
Strapping Young Lad began in 1994 as a solo project of Canadian musician Devin Townsend . Following his work as vocalist on Steve Vai 's 1993 album Sex & Religion and its 1994 tour , Townsend believed he had been a " musical whore " , spending " the first five years of [ his ] career working at the behest of other people " . During a brief stint as touring guitarist for The Wildhearts , Townsend received a phone call from an A & R representative for Roadrunner Records , expressing an interest in his demos and an intention to sign him . The offer was ultimately rescinded by the head of Roadrunner , who regarded Townsend 's recordings as " just noise " . He faced further rejection by Relativity Records , the label behind Vai 's Sex & Religion , who saw no commercial appeal in his music . Century Media Records subsequently contacted the musician , offering him a contract to " make us some extreme albums " . Townsend agreed to a five @-@ album deal with the record label .
Following his tour with The Wildhearts , Townsend began recording and producing his debut album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , under the moniker Strapping Young Lad . According to Townsend , the recording process took " about a week " . Embracing The Wildhearts ' anarchist approach , " while focusing on dissonance and just being as over @-@ the @-@ top as [ he ] could " , Townsend sang on the record and performed the majority of its instrumental tracks ( with the assistance of a drum machine ) . A few songs , however , featured local session musicians , including guitarist Jed Simon , Townsend 's future band mate .
Released on April 4 , 1995 , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing was not widely recognized in the metal community . The album sold 143 copies in its first six months , but received favorable reviews from the heavy metal press . Its unusual musical ideas — a synthesis of death , thrash , and industrial metal influences — prompted Andy Stout from Metal Hammer to call it " one of the most disturbing albums you 'll hear for a very long time " . Nevertheless , Townsend has repeatedly expressed his distaste for the recording . He dismissed the album in the liner notes of the record 's 2006 reissue , contending it contained only two great songs . He also deemed its production poor in interviews , referring to the album as " basically a collection of demos that were remixed " . When Century Media advertised the reissue of Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing as the " rebirth of a genre @-@ defying classic " , Townsend called it " record company bullshit " .
Townsend recruited a permanent line @-@ up for the second album : Jed Simon on guitar , Byron Stroud on bass , and Gene Hoglan on drums . City was released on February 11 , 1997 , and received highly favorable critical reception . Kerrang ! praised the album for its heaviness , claiming it sounded like " sticking your head into the jet nozzle of a Stealth Bomber " , while Metal Hammer ranked it No. 13 on its " Top 20 Albums of 1997 " list . The album soon gained a cult following and a loyal fan base for the band . City is considered to be the band 's best effort by a large number of fans and critics alike . In 2002 , the album was No. 45 on Revolver magazine 's " 69 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time " list , and also appeared on their " Must Have Metal Albums " list in 2005 . It also appeared on the " 100 Most Important Albums of the Nineties " list conducted by Terrorizer . Townsend himself stated City " is the real Strapping record . That 's the ultimate one out of all of them " .
The band embarked on a world tour in 1997 to promote the album , which included dates in Europe , the US and Australia . On May 30 , 1998 , they performed at the Dynamo Open Air festival in Eindhoven , Netherlands , then continued touring the next month in Europe . In June 1998 , the group released No Sleep ' till Bedtime , a live album containing songs performed at a 1997 performance at the HiFi Bar and Ballroom in Melbourne , Australia . Century Media was not initially interested in releasing a live record , but impressed with Townsend 's production , the label agreed to release it . The band closed the year playing a few more dates in Japan and Australia .
= = = On hiatus ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
At the end of 1998 , Townsend placed Strapping Young Lad on hiatus to concentrate on his solo career and on his work as a record producer . He had already released two solo albums , Ocean Machine : Biomech in 1997 and Infinity in 1998 and produced several other artists ' albums . Townsend explained numerous conflicts with Century Media , and his struggle with bipolar disorder ( for which he checked himself into a psychiatric hospital in early 1998 ) , contributed to the curtailment of Strapping Young Lad 's activities :
What happened ? I signed a shitty deal , but luckily it was non @-@ exclusive . I got tired of doing Strapping so I said , ' I can 't do it anymore . ' Then I freaked out and went into a hospital . My lawyer said that I was under mental duress when I signed the contract so the contract is void . At that point it was like , ' I just won 't do another Strapping record . ' Yeah , I went down saying ' CM was the shittiest label ever . ' And they went down as saying that I was ' a complete , arrogant psychopath.'
Townsend remained productive between 1999 and 2002 , recording two more solo albums , Physicist in 2000 and Terria in 2001 , and producing albums for Zimmers Hole , Stuck Mojo and Soilwork , among others . Although Strapping Young Lad was officially on hiatus , they gave occasional live performances , including an appearance on the Foot In Mouth Tour in 2001 with Fear Factory . During this period , Townsend 's bandmates were active musically ; both Stroud and Hoglan recorded with other bands , and all three were involved in Townsend 's solo efforts as studio musicians and as part of his live band as well . Hoglan and Simon also formed a side project called Tenet with Grip Inc. bassist Stuart Carruthers and Interzone frontman Rob Urbinati in early 2002 .
In December 2001 Townsend announced , contrary to his earlier public statements , a new Strapping Young Lad album would be released in 2002 . He emphasized he was not " forcing " his product upon fans to generate record sales , arguing his band — and its contract with Century — was never a lucrative endeavor . Instead , Townsend 's motivation was the " creative anger " sparked by the September 11 , 2001 attacks and further cultivated during their 2001 tour . For the first time , the album would be a product of collaborative writing ; the band wrote " about half " of the material on the 2001 Foot In Mouth Tour , and the rest at home , starting January 2002 . After playing a small number of festivals in 2002 , Strapping Young Lad entered the studio in September of that year , to record their third album .
= = = Strapping Young Lad and Alien ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
The self @-@ titled Strapping Young Lad was released on February 11 , 2003 , and became the band 's first charting album , entering Billboard 's Top Heatseekers at No. 97 . The album received moderate critical success , Nate Smith from Rockzone.com called it a " solid addition to the Townsend catalog " , but " not an instant classic " , Xander Hoose from Chronicles of Chaos called it " a good album " , but also pointed out it is inferior to City . Strapping Young Lad differed from City because it was less industrial and more reminiscent of death metal ; the humor pervading the previous two albums became more subdued . The song Devour would later appear on the soundtrack for the 2005 film Alone in the Dark .
The band toured heavily throughout 2003 and 2004 , making stops in the United States , Europe , Canada , and Australia . Although Townsend stated Strapping Young Lad might be the last album , the band re @-@ signed with Century Media Worldwide in March 2004 and announced plans for a new album . On November 2 , 2004 , Strapping Young Lad released a DVD entitled For Those Aboot to Rock : Live at the Commodore , which documented the band 's January 16 , 2004 , performance at the Commodore Ballroom in Vancouver . Bonus features included two music videos , " Relentless " and " Detox " , and interviews with band members .
Alien was released on March 22 , 2005 , selling 3 @,@ 697 copies in its first week . It reached No. 32 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart , and No. 35 on the Top Independent Albums chart . Critics praised Townsend 's inventiveness and the dynamism of the songs in which " melody and discord meet midway " ; Adrien Begrand of PopMatters wrote that " Strapping Young Lad have raised the bar yet again " , while Blabbermouth.net 's Krista G. called it one of the best albums of the year . Townsend and Hoglan were the primary writers of the album , since Simon and Stroud were busy with other commitments . To prepare for the recording of Alien , Townsend had stopped taking the medication prescribed to treat his bipolar disorder ; he explained the experimental noise track " Info Dump " is a reflection on the panicked state of mind that ensued after he stopped taking his medication . The making of Alien was documented and made viewable online on Century Media 's official site in February 2005 . It was also available as a bonus DVD of the limited first edition of the album .
" Love ? " was chosen as the sole single from the album . Its accompanying music video , inspired by the cult horror film , The Evil Dead , was directed by Joe Lynch . The video garnered the band wider attention , and helped " Love ? " become one of their most recognizable songs . Jed Simon admitted to having produced a video for this particular song because it had " the most commercial potential " . " Love ? " was originally one of two confirmed songs for an EP that was supposed to contain four new songs and four covers . Although planned for release in 2003 , the EP was eventually canceled . A music video was also filmed for Zen ; the video itself would also appear in the 2007 film Shoot ' Em Up .
The band embarked on a headlining tour in the United States in April and May 2005 , then went on to tour in Europe . Starting at the end of June , they toured North America as part of the Sounds of the Underground tour , then joined Fear Factory on the Transgression Tour in the U.S. Throughout the tour , Fear Factory bassist Stroud performed with both bands at every concert . Strapping Young Lad concluded the year with a tour in the UK . While on tour , the band started writing the next album , then continued the work in January 2006 , and finished the album by May . In the same month , Townsend announced his intention to " take a hiatus from making records for a while " after the end of touring due to exhaustion from continuous recording and producing for the past ten years .
= = = The New Black ( 2006 ) = = =
The New Black , Strapping Young Lad 's fifth and final studio album , was released on July 11 , 2006 . Century Media imposed a strict deadline on the release date of the album ; it was to be ready before the 2006 Ozzfest . Despite this , Townsend stated the recording was not rushed , and The New Black became a critical , as well as a commercial , success . It was more melodic than any of the band 's previous albums and brought back the debut album 's tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor . Having sold more than 4 @,@ 000 copies during its first week , The New Black reached No. 200 on the Billboard 200 chart , No. 15 on the Top Independent Albums , and No. 8 on the Top Heatseekers charts . Stylus Magazine 's Cosmo Lee described it as " heavy , catchy , and with no filler " , and About.com 's Chad Bowar was also positive , stating that " this is a CD that 's dense and heavy , but also has some memorable hooks " .
A music video was shot in late May to accompany the sole single from the album , " Wrong Side " . In June 2006 Strapping Young Lad embarked on a short festival tour of Europe , including performances at the Rock am Ring and Rock im Park festivals in Germany and the Download Festival in England , which was followed by a second stage appearance at Ozzfest in July and August , where they played to some of their largest audiences in their career .
= = = Dissolution ( 2006 ) = = =
Townsend recalls that after Alien , he already knew that he wouldn 't want to continue SYL as a project , and that he already wished to abandon SYL after the release of City already , considering the project 's purpose fulfilled . In an interview conducted by Terrorizer in August 2006 , Townsend explained why he decided to put the band on hold :
At the end of the day , man , I 'm just tired , and old , and bald , and fat , and grouchy , and bored . You know ? So I was just like , I 'm going to make this record , and do this stupid Ozzfest thing , and tell a bunch of stupid jokes in front of a lot of people at Download , then I 'm just going to fuck off for a while . The bigger this gets , the less I care , to the point where I just need to go spend some time with my family . I don 't wanna bastardise Strapping and all these other projects by doing it for the money . Strapping was about the big middle finger , and it still is , but I don 't think it needs to go any further than this .
Although Hoglan initially denied the definitive break @-@ up of the band , saying they would go on tour in March 2007 , he later stated Strapping Young Lad is on " extended hiatus " , and might never reunite again . In May 2007 , during a press conference held to promote his new solo album , Ziltoid the Omniscient , Townsend announced his plans to retreat from public view , including giving interviews and touring , to concentrate on his family , and producing solo albums , as well as other people 's music . As a result , Strapping Young Lad were effectively disbanded . Townsend discussed his future projects in a May 2007 Metal Hammer interview , where he stated " there may be some stuff I do in the future that is as brutal and heavy as Strapping , it 's just not going to be Strapping " .
The remastered 10th anniversary edition of City was released on June 7 , 2007 , in similar vein to the 2006 remaster of Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , with bonus tracks and extended liner notes by Townsend . A career spanning best of album , entitled 1994 – 2006 Chaos Years , was released on March 31 , 2008 , with a bonus DVD of live performances and all of the band 's music videos .
During his career @-@ retrospective concert The Retinal Circus in October 2012 , Townsend introduced Jed Simon on stage and performed two SYL songs , " Love ? " and " Detox " . Townsend has since stated that this was a one off performance and that he is not interested getting SYL back together or playing songs at future shows . He posted to Twitter that he no longer feels the same connection to SYL 's music and that this performance was closure for him and Strapping . In an interview on the Metal Hammer podcast , Townsend said that while he still connects to the music , SYL required him to go to extremes that took a toll on him . On his own website , he reiterates that SYL was a project that he eventually perceived to be harmful to his mental and physical health . In 2013 , he played Love ? at concerts in Mexico and Chile as a " cover song " , but later expressed regretting the decision saying it " confuses people " .
Townsend also performed an acoustic version of Love ? during his " An Evening with Devin Townsend " shows through the UK in 2015 .
= = Musical style = =
Strapping Young Lad 's music was a diverse mix of extreme metal genres ; death metal , thrash metal , black metal , progressive , experimental and industrial metal . Many of the band 's songs showcased Townsend 's versatile vocal style , often changing from screaming , and growling to clean vocals , or even falsetto , within the course of a single song . According to Townsend , the band functioned as his " outlet to freak out " , and his two main projects , the more melodic The Devin Townsend Band and the aggressive Strapping Young Lad were " supposed to be the positive and the negative " . To achieve a chaotic and cacophonic sound the band utilized complex time signatures , polyrhythmic composition , blast beats , sampling , keyboard effects and intricately layered production . Townsend used the newest technology available , such as Pro Tools , Steinberg Cubase and Logic Pro , when recording , mixing and producing the band 's songs . As a self @-@ proclaimed " fan of multitracking " , he created an atmospheric , layered " wall of sound " , which became a hallmark of the band 's production style ( with the exception of their self @-@ titled album which featured no samples , or vocal layering ) . Townsend 's musical ideas and production style have drawn comparisons to Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . Strapping Young Lad mostly eschewed guitar solos until The New Black , which featured a more heightened emphasis on melody than their previous albums .
= = = Influences = = =
Strapping Young Lad drew influence from a wide range of music genres , most prominently , but not exclusively , heavy metal . Townsend cited , amongst others , Judas Priest , Jane 's Addiction , Zoviet France , Grotus , and Frank Zappa as his influences , and also expressed his admiration for Meshuggah on several occasions , calling them " the best metal band on the planet " . Simon and Stroud listed classic hard rock bands , like AC / DC , Led Zeppelin and Kiss , and old school thrash and death metal bands , like Exodus , Slayer and Morbid Angel among their influences , while Hoglan 's influences range wildly in style from Stevie Wonder to progressive rock drummers like Neil Peart , Terry Bozzio and Nick Mason . Townsend stated his main influences for Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing were Napalm Death and Fear Factory , City was influenced by bands such as Foetus and White Noise , and The New Black 's influences were Meshuggah , and " more traditional metal " like Metallica .
= = = Lyrical themes = = =
Townsend was the band 's primary songwriter . While the first two albums were solely his work , subsequent albums featured a minority of " riffs , lyrical ideas , and song titles " by his band mates .
Despite the brutality of Strapping Young Lad 's music , their songs contain hints of tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor and self @-@ parody . Frequently , Townsend 's lyrics approached serious personal or political issues with a morbid sense of humor . He has likened the band 's sense of silliness to that of " Weird Al " Yankovic . Townsend 's lyrical influences covered a wide range of themes , including warfare , mathematical theorems , and movies . He also used the technique of cross @-@ referencing , repeating lines from his own works , such as older Strapping Young Lad , or solo material .
= = Live performances = =
Strapping Young Lad was known for its energetic live performances , mostly owing to the eccentric appearance and persona of Devin Townsend . Adrian Begrand of PopMatters wrote " Nobody in metal today has the same kind of commanding stage presence as the self @-@ professed Bald Bastard , Devin Townsend " , and called Strapping Young Lad " one of the best live bands around " . Townsend was famous for his on @-@ stage antics ; he integrated his ironic and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor into live shows and interacted heavily with the audience . He would deliver comical , and often insulting remarks to them , organize circle pits , and parody heavy metal clichés as well as the genre itself .
The band 's humorous approach was also evidenced by a song frequently performed live from 1997 , entitled " Far Beyond Metal " , a parody of classic heavy metal . It became a live staple and a fan favorite , with lyrics changing practically every performance . Although it was recorded live on No Sleep ' till Bedtime , and on the For Those Aboot to Rock DVD , a studio version was not recorded until 2006 during The New Black sessions . The band was also sarcastic about their own Canadian heritage , they used " Blame Canada " , a comedic anti @-@ Canada song from South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut as intro music at many concerts in 2003 and 2004 .
For a period of time , Strapping Young Lad also played Townsend 's solo material live . In 1998 , after the release of Infinity , they began performing both Strapping Young Lad and Townsend 's solo songs , as two separate sets . It was not until the 2003 release of Accelerated Evolution when Townsend formed a separate band , called The Devin Townsend Band , to act as his full @-@ fledged solo band .
= = Discography = =
Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing ( 1995 )
City ( 1997 )
Strapping Young Lad ( 2003 )
Alien ( 2005 )
The New Black ( 2006 )
= = Band members = =
= = = Final line @-@ up = = =
Devin Townsend – guitar , lead vocals , keyboards ( 1994 – 2007 )
Jed Simon – guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – 2007 )
Byron Stroud – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1996 – 2007 )
Gene Hoglan – drums ( 1996 – 2007 )
= = = Former members = = =
Adrian White – drums ( 1994 – 1995 )
Ashley Scribner – bass ( 1994 – 1995 )
Mike Sudar – guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
= = = Session members = = =
Chris Bayes – drums ( 1994 )
Smokin ' Lord Toot – drums ( 1994 )
Chris Meyers – keyboards ( 1994 )
Note : The pre @-@ City touring line @-@ up consisted of Townsend , Simon , White , Scribner , Sudar and Meyers .
Dave Young - Keyboards ( 2005 ) ( played on Alien )
= = = Touring members = = =
John Morgan – keyboards ( 1997 )
Matteo Caratozzolo – keyboards ( 1997 – 1998 , 2003 )
Jamie Meyer – keyboards ( 1998 – 1999 )
Jason Filipchuk – keyboards ( 1999 )
Chris Valagao – keyboards ( 2002 )
Will Campagna – keyboards ( 2002 , 2005 – 2006 )
Munesh Sami – keyboards ( 2003 – 2004 )
Jon Miller – bass ( substituting Byron Stroud , July 14 – 31 , 2005 )
James MacDonough – bass ( substituting Byron Stroud , August 1 – 13 , 2006 )
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= Evan Turner =
Evan Marcel Turner ( born October 27 , 1988 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was drafted second overall by the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2010 NBA draft and played for them until he was traded in February 2014 to the Indiana Pacers . Turner plays the point guard , shooting guard and small forward positions .
Turner was a first @-@ team 2010 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American and the 2010 National Player of the Year while playing at Ohio State University . Turner was also a two @-@ time Big Ten Conference scoring champion and the 2010 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . He was twice the only player named as a unanimous first @-@ team selection by both the coaches and the media to the All @-@ Big Ten team ( 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10 ) . By finishing first in scoring and second in both rebounds and assists in the conference in the 2009 – 10 season , he was the first men 's basketball player to finish in the top two in each of these categories and the first to finish in the top five in each category in the same season . He is the conference record @-@ holder for most career and single @-@ season record for Conference Player of the Week awards .
Turner attended St. Joseph High School in Westchester , Illinois . By his senior season , he was one of the top high school basketball players at his position in the nation . As a true freshman , he helped lead the Buckeyes to the 2008 National Invitation Tournament championship . The following year , he was the Big Ten Conference scoring champion for the 2008 – 09 season and was a first @-@ team 2009 All @-@ Big Ten selection . That season , he was also an honorable mention All @-@ American and was selected as a member of the 2009 All @-@ Big Ten Conference Tournament team , and he became one of five Big Ten players to have been among the top ten in the conference in average points , rebounds , and assists in the same season . He is the conference record @-@ holder for most career Player of the Week awards and despite missing over a month of his junior season for the 2009 – 10 Ohio State Buckeyes men 's basketball team he also set the single @-@ season record for Player of the Week awards . As a pro , he has participated in the Rising Stars Challenge and helped the 76ers reach the NBA playoffs in his first two NBA seasons . During his third season he became an everyday starter . With an impending free agent status , he was traded to Indiana during his fourth season .
= = Early life = =
Turner was born weighing 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) . Within his first year , he endured chicken pox , pneumonia , asthma , and measles . The 1989 Chicago measles epidemic caused Turner to desperately need emergency room services . He encountered severe breathing problems that required the removal of his adenoids and tonsils . At the age of three , he was hit by a car , resulting in a concussion and stitches . Oversized baby teeth and an overbite caused a speech impediment that necessitated speech therapy .
= = High school career = =
Before high school , Turner and fellow NBA player Iman Shumpert were teammates on the 8th grade basketball team at Gwendolyn Brooks Middle School in Oak Park , Illinois . Turner was a star on the 2002 – 03 Brooks 's 8th grade boys basketball team that finished the 2002 – 03 season with a record of 23 – 2 . He played in the Summer 2004 AAU Boys 15 @-@ under Basketball National Championship Tournament for the Illinois Knights . As a high school sophomore , he helped lead St. Joseph to a run in the Illinois AA Boys High School basketball tournament , which helped him get the attention of NCAA Division I basketball coaches . At St. Joseph 's , which had once produced Isiah Thomas , he was part of a Chicago area sophomore class that was considered to be the best in the history of the state of Illinois . It included Derrick Rose , and his St. Joseph 's teammate Demetri McCamey , who overshadowed him as the second best Chicago area prospect in the class behind Rose . The class of 2007 was compared to the Chicago area class of 1979 that included Thomas , Terry Cummings , and Darrell Walker as well as the class of 1998 that included Quentin Richardson , Corey Maggette , Frank Williams , Bobby Simmons , Michael Wright .
Turner started getting major Division I offers early in his junior year , and he and McCamey attended 2005 Midnight Madness with the Wisconsin Badgers men 's basketball team . At the beginning of his junior season , Chicago Tribune named him to its annual top Chicago metropolitan area basketball players list , and it ranked St. Josephs number three in the area . The team went to the state sectional final before its season ended with a 75 – 72 sectional final loss to Proviso East High School . After his junior season , he was considered one of the top 25 prospects in the country in his class according to one scout , and he was given special mention by the Chicago Tribune and honorable mention by the Associated Press for all @-@ state honors . During the summer of 2006 , he committed to Ohio State , which is located in Columbus , Ohio . Turner 's decision was influenced by his relationship with his father , James Turner , who lived in Columbus , Ohio and whom Turner had visited every summer since he was ten years old .
During his senior season , his team was listed second to Rose 's Simeon Career Academy in the preseason Tribune Chicago area high school basketball team rankings . That season , he and Rose were both named to the first @-@ team Associated Press 2006 – 07 Class AA all @-@ state team , a day before Rose 's Simeon eliminated Turner 's St. Joseph in the Illinois Class AA supersectional . Turner and McCamey finished third and sixth to Rose in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting , and the Chicago Tribune chose both of them as first team All @-@ state selections along with Rose . Turner was ranked as the # 7 , # 13 and # 16 small forward in the nation as a high school senior by ESPN , rivals.com , and scout.com respectively . He received scholarship offers from five Big Ten Conference basketball programs , as well as Wake Forest , DePaul and Notre Dame .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman year = = =
As a freshman , he averaged 27 @.@ 1 minutes per game , 8 @.@ 5 points per game , and 4 @.@ 4 rebounds per game over the course of the season and finished second on the team in assists and third in steals . Turner recorded his first career double double on January 19 , 2008 at Thompson @-@ Boling Arena against the Tennessee Vols with his first 20 @-@ point game and first 10 @-@ rebound game . That season , he helped Ohio State win the 2008 National Invitation Tournament by averaging 18 @.@ 5 points , 7 rebounds , 4 @.@ 5 assists and 3 steals in the tournament 's semifinal and final round at Madison Square Garden . He had also scored in double digits in the quarterfinal round . He was also in the starting lineup for the other two NIT games . He contributed at least 24 minutes as a starter in each of the five tournament games .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
As a sophomore , Turner was named player of the week three times during the 2008 – 09 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season ( December 8 , 2008 , February 2 , 2009 , and February 9 , 2009 ) . On February 26 , Turner became the only Big Ten player selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) as a Top 15 finalist for the Oscar Robertson Trophy . As a guard / forward for the Ohio State Buckeyes men 's basketball team of the Big Ten Conference , he led his team in the following per @-@ game statistical categories : points , rebounds , assists , and steals . Turner led the Big Ten in scoring as a sophomore . He and Manny Harris became the 4th and 5th players in conference history to finish in the top ten in the conference in points , rebounds and assists since assists became a statistic in 1983 – 84 , following Steve Smith , Jim Jackson , and Brian Evans .
Although he was not selected as a preseason All @-@ Big Ten conference player , he was the only person chosen as a unanimous first @-@ team All Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media at the end of the regular season . On March 5 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches honored Turner as a District 7 ( Big Ten ) first @-@ team selection along with four other sophomores . He was also chosen on March 10 by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association for its 2008 – 09 Men 's Division I District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based on voting from its national membership . He was selected as a 2009 All @-@ American honorable mention by the Associated Press . On March 15 , he was selected to the 2009 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament team , despite Ohio State 's loss in the final game to Purdue . Turner played for the 2009 Junior USA World University Championships team , along with conference foes Robbie Hummel of Purdue and Talor Battle of Penn State . He helped them to the bronze medal and a 6 – 1 record .
= = = Junior year = = =
His junior season began with numerous accolades . ESPN chose both Kalin Lucas and Turner to its 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season preseason second @-@ team All @-@ American list . FOX Sports preseason All @-@ American list included him on its fifth team . Turner was named among the 50 preseason Wooden Award watch list nominees and the 50 preseason Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist nominees . The 24 @-@ member Big Ten media panel selected him as a first @-@ team preseason All @-@ Big Ten team member .
Turner , nicknamed " The Villain " , opened the season by recording the first triple double by a Big Ten player since January 13 , 2001 , and the second in school history ( Dennis Hopson was the first ) during the Coaches vs. Cancer classic against Alcorn State University . This earned him his fourth career Big Ten player of the week honor and first of the 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season . The following week , he ran his streak of double doubles to four to earn back @-@ to @-@ back player of the week honors . Two weeks after his first triple @-@ double , he repeated the feat at home against Lipscomb University on November 24 . This earned him his third consecutive Big Ten player of the week award . On December 5 , 2009 , in the fourth week of the season , he suffered transverse process fractures of the second and third lumbar vertebrae in his back , which was expected to cause him to be inactive for two months . Turner returned early from his injury on January 6 , 2010 . This occurred two days after Ohio State fell out of the top 25 in the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings on January 4 in his absence . With Turner back in the lineup , Ohio State returned to the top 25 on January 18 , and Turner earned his fourth Big Ten Player of the Week award on the same day after leading his team to wins over two ranked conference foes . Then on February 8 , Turner established a new Big Ten Conference record with his eighth career Conference Player of the Week award , surpassing Glenn Robinson and Jackson . The fifth of the season also tied Robinson 's single @-@ season record . Two weeks after tying the single @-@ season record , he broke the record when he averaged 24 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 5 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists against two ranked conference opponents ( No. 4 Purdue and at No. 11 Michigan State ) . Then he won the award again on March 1 .
Turner helped lead the Buckeyes to the regular @-@ season co @-@ championship of the Big Ten Conference and helped them earn the number one seed in the 2010 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament . On March 12 , 2010 , in their first game in the tournament , Turner helped the Buckeyes get a win over their arch @-@ rival Michigan Wolverines with a last @-@ second 37 @-@ foot three @-@ pointer . In the second game , against Illinois , Turner scored 31 points , scoring the game @-@ tying points to send the game to overtime and then the final four points in overtime to send the game into double overtime . Turner scored a total of 12 points in overtime . He then led Ohio State to victory in the championship game against Minnesota with another 31 points . Turner was named Tournament Most Outstanding Player and part of the All @-@ Tournament team . Turner also repeated as the Big Ten scoring champion , and although he lost the rebounding championship to Mike Davis ( 9 @.@ 167 to 9 @.@ 161 ) , he led the conference in defensive rebounds . He also ranked second in assists and third in steals . He improved upon his sophomore showing by becoming the first player to finish in the top two in average points ( 1st , 20 @.@ 4 ) , rebounds ( 2nd , 9 @.@ 2 ) and assists ( 2nd , 6 @.@ 0 ) , becoming the first men 's basketball player to do so and the first to finish in the top five in all three categories .
= = = = Awards = = = =
Turner was selected as a Midseason Top @-@ 30 finalist for the 2010 John Wooden Award in January . He was included on the March 15 , 26 @-@ man final national ballot for the Wooden Award . From that ballot he was selected to the ten @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team . Then the list was shortened to five finalists ( Turner , Sherron Collins , John Wall , Wesley Johnson and Da 'Sean Butler ) who were flown out to Los Angeles for the announcement . On April 9 , Turner was announced as the winner . In February , he was named a midseason Top 30 candidate for the Naismith College Player of the Year and was announced the recipient of the award in Indianapolis April 5 , 2010 . Turner won the USBWA 's Robertson Trophy as the consensus choice by voters in all nine geographical districts . Fox , Associated Press and Sporting News selected him as their National Player of the Year . He earned 54 of the 65 Associated Press panel members ' votes . He was recognized the National Association of Basketball Coaches ' Division I Player of the Year .
By winning the Wooden , Naismith , Robertson , Fox Sports , NABC , TSN , and AP Player of the Year awards , he nearly swept all of the major player of the year awards . Wall won the Adolph Rupp Trophy ( and Yahoo ! Sports player of the year ) . Turner was again the only person chosen as a unanimous first @-@ team All Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media at the end of the regular season and was selected as the 2010 Big Ten Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . Turner was also selected as the Big Ten Conference male Athlete of the Year for all sports .
Turner was selected as a first @-@ team 2010 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American by Associated Press , Sporting News , Fox Sports , National Association of Basketball Coaches , United States Basketball Writers Association and Yahoo ! Sports . He was also selected in March as one of six finalists for the Bob Cousy Award .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Philadelphia 76ers ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = =
On April 7 , 2010 , Turner held a press conference and announced that he would forgo his final season of collegiate eligibility and enter the 2010 NBA draft , where he was expected to be selected as one of the top 3 draft picks . Turner signed with Michael Jordan 's agent , David Falk .
He was selected with the 2nd overall pick by the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2010 NBA draft , and signed a 2 @-@ year deal with a third @-@ year option worth an estimated $ 12 million .
On October 27 , 2010 , in his debut on the Philadelphia 76ers ( also his 22nd birthday ) , Turner recorded 16 points , 7 rebounds , and 4 assists , coming off the bench for 30 minutes to lead the team in scoring in a 97 – 87 loss to the Miami Heat . On November 7 , 2010 , Turner got his first NBA start and ended the game with a double @-@ double , recording 14 points and 10 rebounds to go with his 3 assists , in a 106 – 96 win over the New York Knicks in place of the injured Andre Iguodala . On December 29 , 2010 , Turner scored a career @-@ high 23 points in a 123 – 110 win against the Phoenix Suns , going 9 – 12 from the field and a perfect 4 – 4 from the free throw line . He ended the season with fourteen starts and two double @-@ doubles . The team had gone 27 @-@ 55 the previous season , but were able to improve to 41 @-@ 41 in Turner 's first season . They reached the 2011 NBA Playoffs as the seventh seed , and were matched up against the new @-@ look Miami Heat led by LeBron James and Dwyane Wade . Turner was praised for his aggressiveness in the series , handling Wade on the defensive side , and scoring 17 points and six rebounds on 50 % shooting in the Sixers win in Game 4 . That would be Philadelphia 's only win of the series however , as they fell to the eventual Eastern Conference Champions Miami in five games .
On February 8 , 2012 , Turner was selected to play in the 2012 Rising Stars competition . During the game , he unveiled a new model of Li @-@ Ning shoes . On March 7 , 2012 , in only his second start of the season , Turner recorded a career @-@ high , 26 points , against the Boston Celtics . On March 9 , 2012 , and March 11 , 2012 , against the Utah Jazz and the New York Knicks , he posted back @-@ to @-@ back double doubles in his third and fourth consecutive start . He again scored 26 points on April 3 , 2012 , against the Miami Heat . On April 25 , 2012 , he recorded another double @-@ double while setting a career @-@ high with 29 points and adding 13 rebounds . Over the course of the season , he made twenty starts and recorded five double @-@ doubles . He posted his first postseason double double on May 12 , 2012 , against the Boston Celtics in the first game of the Eastern Conference semifinals of the 2012 NBA Playoffs , with 16 points and 10 rebounds . He repeated the feat on May 21 in game five of the series , recording 10 rebounds and 11 points . He started 12 of Philadelphia 's 13 playoff games , but the team was eliminated in the second round of the playoffs .
Turner started all 82 games during the 2012 – 13 NBA season and tallied 14 double @-@ doubles , while averaging a career high 13 @.@ 3 points 6 @.@ 3 rebounds and 4 @.@ 3 assists . On December 7 , 2012 , he posted a 26 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound double @-@ double against the Boston Celtics and made the game @-@ winning shot in overtime with 3 @.@ 9 seconds remaining . On March 1 , 2013 , he fell one assist short of a triple @-@ double with 22 points , 10 rebounds and 9 assists against the Golden State Warriors .
The 76ers did not sign Turner to an extension prior to the October 31 , 2013 , deadline , meaning that the 76ers had the right to make him a restricted free agent at the end of the season . On November 9 , 2013 , Turner established a new career high with 31 points , including the game @-@ tying basket with 8 @.@ 7 seconds remaining in the first overtime against the Cleveland Cavaliers . Turner hit the game @-@ winning buzzer beater on December 20 against the Brooklyn Nets . Turner sat out on December 28 due to knee soreness , but he returned to the lineup the following night against the Los Angeles Lakers with 22 points , 7 rebounds and 6 assists . On January 22 , 2014 , Turner recorded a career @-@ high 34 points in a 110 @-@ 106 win over the New York Knicks , he also recorded 11 rebounds in the game . Turner hit the game @-@ winning buzzer beater on January 29 , 2014 against the Boston Celtics .
= = = Indiana Pacers ( 2014 ) = = =
On February 20 , 2014 , Turner and Lavoy Allen were traded to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Danny Granger and a second @-@ round draft pick . Turner debuted for the Pacers on February 25 , 2014 . He scored 13 points and added 6 rebounds as part of the Pacers bench that scored a season @-@ high 50 points against the Los Angeles Lakers . When the Pacers benched their entire starting lineup on April 6 , he scored 23 to help the team to a win over the Milwaukee Bucks . Turner was reported to have an acrimonious relationship with Indiana teammate Lance Stephenson because both were " free agents to be ... looking for their first big contract " who played the same style and they were both trying to fill the role of " next big thing " . The conflict led to a fist fight between the two on April 21 , 2014 , in a team practice on the eve of the team 's second game of the first round of the 2014 NBA Playoffs . Stephenson has a reputation for irritating people however . Less than a month earlier , Turner had come to the rescue when Stephenson had derailed against Dwyane Wade . In game 6 of the first round series against Atlanta with Indiana trailing 3 – 2 , head coach Frank Vogel changed the rotation and Turner was left out , playing no minutes , while some of his playing time went to Rasual Butler . In Round 2 against the Washington Wizards , he returned to the lineup . In the first game of Round 3 against the two @-@ time defending champion Miami Heat , he sat out with strep throat .
= = = Boston Celtics ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
After Indiana elected not to make Turner an $ 8 @.@ 7 million qualifying offer , he became an unrestricted free agent . According to his agent , Turner agreed to sign with the Boston Celtics on July 21 , 2014 . He officially signed with the Celtics on September 29 , 2014 . He began the season as a reserve , but when Marcus Smart and Rajon Rondo endured concurrent injuries , Turner scored a team @-@ high 19 points in a starting role in a win against the Chicago Bulls . On December 8 , 2014 , against the Washington Wizards , Turner forced overtime by sinking a three @-@ point shot with 0 @.@ 9 seconds left in regulation , but missed a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) jump shot with 0 @.@ 9 seconds remaining in the second overtime which would have given the Celtics the lead . When he was inserted into the starting lineup at point guard on December 31 , 2014 , against the Sacramento Kings , he posted a double double with 11 assists and 10 points . Chicago native Turner posted a season @-@ high 29 points at the United Center against the Chicago Bulls on January 3 . Turner hit his fourth ( in eight attempts ) career last second game winning shot with a three @-@ pointer with 1 @.@ 9 seconds left as his team trailed 89 – 87 against the Portland Trail Blazers on January 22 , 2015 . Then on February 11 , 2015 , he hit a game winner with 0 @.@ 2 seconds left against Atlanta Hawks . Evan Turner posted his first career triple double on February 25 , 2015 , against the New York Knicks with 10 points , 10 assists and 12 rebounds . On March 13 , 2015 , Turner scored 24 of his season @-@ high 30 points in the second half , including 16 in the fourth quarter to help the Celtics rally past the Orlando Magic . He posted two more triple doubles on March 23 against the Brooklyn Nets ( 19 points , 10 rebounds , and 12 assists ) and on April 1 against the Indiana Pacers ( 13 points , 11 rebounds , and 12 assists ) . On April 10 , he recorded a career @-@ high 13 assists against the Cleveland Cavaliers . Turner played every game in the 2014 – 15 season and finished with averages of 9 @.@ 5 points , 5 @.@ 1 rebounds , and a career @-@ high 5 @.@ 5 assists per game . During the offseason , he was named as a participant in the first @-@ ever NBA Africa Game .
On January 4 , 2016 , Turner started in place of an injured Avery Bradley and posted a 12 @-@ point , 11 @-@ rebound double @-@ double against the Brooklyn Nets . He posted a 14 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound double @-@ double off the bench against Boston on February 2 . On February 16 , at halftime of the Ohio State – Michigan game at Value City Arena , Turner 's collegiate number , 21 , was retired by Ohio State . On March 26 , Turner posted a 17 @-@ point , 11 @-@ rebound double @-@ double and blocked Devin Booker 's potential game @-@ tying shot with 3 @.@ 9 seconds left against the Phoenix Suns .
= = = Portland Trail Blazers ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On July 6 , 2016 , Turner signed a four @-@ year , $ 70 million contract with the Portland Trail Blazers .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Personal life = =
Turner 's mother is Iris James , and he has two older brothers named Darius and Richard .
On August 23 , 2010 , CNBC reported that Turner had signed a multi @-@ year endorsement contract with Chinese apparel maker Li Ning Company Limited .
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= Ted Frank =
Theodore H. " Ted " Frank ( born December 14 , 1968 ) , is an American lawyer , activist , legal writer , and blogger , based in Washington , D.C .. He is noted for writing the vetting report of vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin for the John McCain campaign in the 2008 presidential election . He is the founder and president of the Center for Class Action Fairness ( CCAF ) , established in 2009 . The New York Times calls him the " leading critic of abusive class @-@ action settlements " ; the Wall Street Journal has referred to him as " a leading tort @-@ reform advocate . "
Frank graduated from Brandeis University in 1991 , and the University of Chicago Law School in 1994 with a Juris Doctor . A litigator from 1995 to 2005 , and a former clerk for Frank H. Easterbrook on the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals , Frank was a director and fellow of the Legal Center for the Public Interest at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington , D.C. Since 2011 , he has been an adjunct fellow at Manhattan Institute ’ s Center for Legal Policy , where he is also editor of the Institute 's web magazine , PointofLaw.com. He is also on the Executive Committee of the Federalist Society 's Litigation Practice Group and contributes regularly to conservative legal weblogs , and , as of 2008 , is a member of the American Law Institute .
= = Background and early career = =
Frank was born in 1968 . He is a grandson of journalist Nelson Frank , a nephew of author Johanna Hurwitz , and a cousin of the politics editor of The Atlantic Online , Garance Franke @-@ Ruta .
He graduated from the Benjamin Franklin High School in New Orleans , then earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics from Brandeis University in May 1991 . He wrote columns for his campus newspaper and political magazines and was a member of the student senate . He objected to a campaign to stop serving pork at the Jewish university , which was noted in The New York Times .
In 1994 Frank earned his Juris Doctor with high honors from the University of Chicago Law School . At Chicago he earned Order of the Coif and served on the law review . While at Chicago Law , he was a known presence on Usenet groups and researched urban legends ; he was an early contributor to the Baseball Prospectus collective through essays on the Usenet group rec.sport.baseball. He has also been described as one of the most notorious contributors along with snopes to an activity then known as " trolling for newbies " ( the term " trolling " was not negative in connotation ) .
After clerking for Judge Frank H. Easterbrook of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit , Frank entered private practice between 1995 and 2005 as a litigator on class action tort cases at law firms Kirkland & Ellis , Irell & Manella , and O ’ Melveny & Myers . Among his earliest cases were two sudden acceleration cases , where he represented the automakers . As part of his practice , Frank defended a lawsuit filed by the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) to delay the 2003 California gubernatorial recall election , defended Vioxx liability cases , and served on defense teams for antitrust and patent cases .
= = Advocacy of tort reform = =
In 2003 , Frank began contributing regularly to Overlawyered , a legal weblog edited by Walter Olson that advocates tort reform ; he continued there through 2010 .
Frank joined the American Enterprise Institute in 2005 when AEI offered him a fellowship to research the effects of the Class Action Fairness Act . As the director of the AEI Legal Center for the Public Interest he spoke and wrote about civil justice issues and liability . Frank also sits on the Executive Committee of the Federalist Society 's Litigation Practice Group .
Frank is a leading proponent for tort reform in the United States . According to Frank , he became disillusioned at class action tactics , and the willingness of judges to approve settlements he felt were poor for consumers . He has strongly criticized obesity lawsuits , calling them " rent @-@ seeking vehicles that are neither good law nor good public policy . "
In April 2008 , several members of Congress brought up the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act under Title VII , a revision of law " to state that prior acts outside the 180 day statute of limitations could be included " , affecting employment financial issues . Frank was against the revision , saying that wages and hiring would be reduced to counter the possibility of litigation from a hired employee . The law was eventually passed in January 2009 .
In February 2011 , Frank was part of a three @-@ member panel at Vanderbilt University in Tennessee which consisted of himself , James Blumstein , who is a law professor at the university , and Charlie Ross , a former State Senator in Mississippi , presenting their perspectives on how the business and people of the state would benefit from tort reform . Frank and the other panelists argued that " Tennessee ’ s current civil justice system is both inconsistent and unsustainable " and it was argued that , based on reforms in other states , a reform in this area could result in 30 @,@ 000 jobs a year or 577 jobs each week in Tennessee and significantly improve the health system .
= = = Issues and conflicts = = =
In 2006 , Frank published an op @-@ ed in The Washington Post arguing for various tort reforms and criticizing the Association of Trial Lawyers of America for " show [ ing ] much more of an interest in benefiting trial lawyers than in fairness or justice . Jon Haber , CEO of ATLA , responded in the Post , accusing Frank of proposing to destroy " the nation 's civil justice system to benefit the insurance industry , drug companies and other corporate powers " , of a " laughable " claim that too many lawsuits " may transform the nation into a ' banana republic ' " , of " find [ ing ] the fight for justice trivial " and making " nothing more than an attack on the Constitution of the United States " . The next day , Frank described Haber 's op @-@ ed as " a collection of ad hominems and insults and non sequiturs " , " purport [ ing ] to be responding to [ Frank , but ] in fact responding to a fictional straw @-@ man " . He accused Haber of " dishonest change of subject : at no point does Haber defend the lawsuits I actually criticize " , and ended by noting that Haber did not respond to " the most important part of my op @-@ ed " about " trial lawyers ... trying to undo [ the concept that a deal is a deal ] retroactively " .
In a Wall Street Journal opinion piece in 2007 , Frank said that the Department of Treasury and SEC should urge the Supreme Court to reject expanded securities litigation liability in Stoneridge v. Scientific @-@ Atlanta . Congressmen John Conyers , Jr. and Barney Frank criticized this op @-@ ed in their saying that Frank 's argument substituted policy considerations for the plain text of statute . Frank rebutted the allegation on the Overlawyered weblog . Also in 2007 , Frank posted an article regarding tort trial lawyer Arthur Alan Wolk on Overlawyered , a website he has regularly posted on since 2003 about tort reform issues , that prompted Wolk to sue Frank for defamation . The case was dismissed as barred by the one year statute of limitations . On appeal , the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press , the Society of Professional Journalists , the American Society of News Editors , the New York Times , the Washington Post , the Associated Press , and law professors and First Amendment experts Eugene Volokh and Glenn Reynolds , among others , filed amicus briefs in support of the defendants saying that there was no actionable claim of libel .
Frank , who worked on the Vioxx case early in his career , was called " perhaps the loudest critic of the Vioxx litigation , " and debated trial lawyer Mark Lanier about the issue . Frank continued his criticism in a 2011 article . " A final sordid chapter in the tort litigation over Vioxx closed , as Judge Eldon Fallon divvied up $ 315 million to be paid to the plaintiffs ' attorneys who worked on the litigation . This sum was in addition to the more than $ 1 @.@ 2 billion already paid to such attorneys . When you add in what Merck paid to plaintiffs and for its own attorneys , the Vioxx litigation cost it more than $ 7 billion . Yet Merck almost certainly did not do anything wrong . Even as an unsympathetic corporate defendant , it won the vast majority of cases that went to trial , and another dozen or more that plaintiffs ' attorneys dismissed on the eve of trial rather than risk the publicity of a certain loss . Even in the handful of cases that Merck lost at trial , such as the $ 253 million verdict in the Ernst case that generated much of the publicity that led to tens of thousands of cases being filed , Merck won reversals of most of those on appeal because the verdicts were based on conclusory junk @-@ science expert testimony that should not have been admitted into evidence . " Lanier defended the settlement as fair .
= = Sarah Palin vetting = =
According to the book Game Change : Obama and the Clintons , McCain and Palin , and the Race of a Lifetime , on the weekend before John McCain made his vice @-@ presidential pick , McCain 's advisor Arthur Culvahouse asked Ted Frank to prepare a written report on Sarah Palin , " Thrown together from scratch in less than forty hours , the document highlighted her vulnerabilities : " Democrats upset at McCain 's anti @-@ Obama ' celebrity ' advertisements will mock Palin as an inexperienced beauty queen whose main national exposure was a photo @-@ spread in Vogue in February 2008 . Even in campaigning for governor , she made a number of gaffes , and the Anchorage Daily News expressed concern that she often seemed ' unprepared or over her head ' in a campaign run by a friend . " " The book also says that Frank worked on the vetting of Senator Joe Lieberman . The report was widely criticized ; GQ has cited the report as " the most infamous document in veep @-@ vetting history . " In Mark Halperin and John Heilemann 's book Race of a Lifetime : How Obama Won the White House ( 2011 ) , they describe the vetting at length . Frank has defended the report as " exhaustive " and covering " almost everything that would eventually dog her on the campaign trail . " In the HBO film Game Change , Frank was played by Brian d 'Arcy James .
= = Center for Class Action Fairness = =
In 2009 , Frank founded the non @-@ profit Center for Class Action Fairness ( CCAF ) to represent consumers dissatisfied with their counsel in class actions and class action settlements . According to The American Lawyer , as of March 2013 , the CCAF had successfully challenged two dozen settlements .
Frank founded CCAF after his successful objection to the proposed class action settlement in the Grand Theft Auto consumer fraud case . Under the settlement , class members who had bought a Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas video game with a hidden , sexually explicit easter egg would have received less than $ 30 @,@ 000 , while the plaintiffs ' attorneys would receive $ 1 million in legal fees . The court rejected the settlement on other grounds , but the case spurred Frank to devote himself to objecting to class action settlements , and he left AEI .
CCAF has objected to settlements throughout the United States , in cases where class action lawyers receive cash payments but the plaintiff class receives only discount coupons for further products and services from the defendant company . CCAF argues in those cases that few of the coupons are ever used , so the actual payment to plaintiffs is much lower than the stated amounts . In 2010 , CCAF successfully objected to a coupon settlement in a Central District of California class action alleging consumer fraud in the sale of Honda Civic Hybrids ; the settlement would have provided $ 2 @.@ 95 million in attorneys ' fees , but only coupons to the class . Frank was reported to have said , " coupons are nearly worthless because so few of the intended beneficiaries will find it worthwhile to fill in all the necessary paperwork . " The CCAF has also been involved in the case surrounding the allegations of email spamming by Ameritrade in 2009 . The case brought Frank before Northern District of California Chief Judge Vaughn Walker , where he challenged the fairness of a TD Ameritrade settlement , which consists of coupons for antivirus software . Frank " argued that the court should not award , or should at least limit , the requested $ 1 @.@ 87 million in attorney fees . " Judge Walker rejected the Ameritrade settlement in October 2009 .
= = Gay rights activism = =
In response to the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A same @-@ sex marriage controversy , Frank created the " Chicken Offset " website to permit gay @-@ rights supporters to offset their purchases of Chick @-@ fil @-@ A with donations to charities that supported gays . Frank also co @-@ hosted a benefit to protect same @-@ sex marriage in Maryland .
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= The Slave Community =
The Slave Community : Plantation Life in the Antebellum South is a book written by American historian John W. Blassingame . Published in 1972 , it is one of the first historical studies of slavery in the United States to be presented from the perspective of the enslaved . The Slave Community contradicted those historians who had interpreted history to suggest that African American slaves were docile and submissive " Sambos " who enjoyed the benefits of a paternalistic master @-@ slave relationship on southern plantations . Using psychology , Blassingame analyzes fugitive slave narratives published in the 19th century to conclude that an independent culture developed among the enslaved and that there were a variety of personality types exhibited by slaves .
Although the importance of The Slave Community was recognized by scholars of American slavery , Blassingame 's conclusions , methodology , and sources were heavily criticized . Historians criticized the use of slave narratives that were seen as unreliable and biased . They questioned Blassingame 's decision to exclude the more than 2 @,@ 000 interviews with former slaves conducted by the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) in the 1930s . Historians argued that Blassingame 's use of psychological theory proved unhelpful in his interpretation . Blassingame defended his conclusions at a 1976 meeting of the Association for the Study of Afro @-@ American Life and History and in 1979 published a revised and enlarged edition of The Slave Community . Despite criticisms , The Slave Community is a foundational text in the study of the life and culture of slaves in the antebellum South .
= = Historiographic background = =
Ulrich Bonnell Phillips wrote the first major historical study of the 20th century dealing with slavery . In American Negro Slavery ( 1918 ) , Phillips refers to slaves as " negroes , who for the most part were by racial quality submissive rather than defiant , light @-@ hearted instead of gloomy , amiable and ingratiating instead of sullen , and whose very defects invited paternalism rather than repression . " American Negro Slavery is infused with racial rhetoric and upholds perceptions about the inferiority of black people common in the southern United States at the time . Although African American academics such as W. E. B. Du Bois criticized Phillips 's depiction of slaves , the book was considered the authoritative text on slavery in America until the 1950s .
Phillips 's interpretation of slavery was challenged by Kenneth M. Stampp in The Peculiar Institution : Slavery in the Ante @-@ Bellum South ( 1956 ) and Stanley M. Elkins in Slavery : A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life ( 1958 ) . Stampp 's study lacks the racist interpretation found in American Negro Slavery and approaches the issue from the position that there is no innate difference between blacks and whites . He questions the reality of plantation paternalism described by Phillips : " the reality of ante @-@ bellum paternalism ... needs to be separated from its fanciful surroundings and critically analyzed . " Elkins also dismisses Phillips 's claim that African American slaves were innately submissive " Sambos " . He argues that slaves had instead been infantilized , or " made " into Sambos , by the brutal treatment received at the hands of slaveowners and overseers . Elkins compares the process to the infantilization of Jews in Nazi concentration camps .
Like Phillips , Stampp and Elkins relied on plantation records and the writings of slaveowners as their main primary sources . Stampp admits that " few ask what the slaves themselves thought of bondage . " Historians dismissed the written works of slaves such as the 19th century fugitive slave narratives as unreliable and biased because of their editing by abolitionists . Scholars also ignored the 2 @,@ 300 interviews conducted with former slaves in the late 1930s by the WPA Federal Writers ' Project . As historian George P. Rawick points out , more weight was often given to white sources : the " masters not only ruled the past in fact " but also " rule its written history . "
The 1970s , however , witnessed the publication of revisionist studies that departed from the traditional historiography of slavery . Focusing on the perspective of the slave , new studies incorporated the slave narratives and WPA interviews : George Rawick 's From Sunup to Sundown : The Making of the Black Community ( 1972 ) , Eugene D. Genovese 's Roll , Jordan , Roll : The World the Slaves Made ( 1974 ) , Peter H. Wood , Black Majority : Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion ( 1974 ) , Leslie Howard Owens 's This Species of Property : Slave Life and Culture in the Old South ( 1976 ) , Herbert G. Gutman 's The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom , 1750 – 1925 ( 1976 ) , and Lawrence W. Levine 's Black Culture and Black Consciousness : Afro @-@ American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom ( 1977 ) . One of the more controversial of these studies was John W. Blassingame 's The Slave Community .
= = Blassingame 's argument = =
In The Slave Community , Blassingame argues that " historians have never systematically explored the life experiences of American slaves . " He asserts that by concentrating on the slaveowner , historians have presented a distorted view of plantation life that " strips the slave of any meaningful and distinctive culture , family life , religion , or manhood . " Blassingame outlines that the reliance on planter sources led historians like Elkins to mimic planter stereotypes of slaves such as the " submissive half @-@ man , half child " Sambo . Noting the agency slaves possessed over their lives , he contends , " Rather than identifying with and submitting totally to his master , the slave held onto many remnants of his African culture , gained a sense of worth in the quarters , spent most of his time free from surveillance by whites , controlled important aspects of his life , and did some personally meaningful things on his own volition . "
= = = African cultural retention and slave culture = = =
According to Blassingame , African culture was not entirely removed from slave culture through the process of enslavement and " was much more resistant to the bludgeons that was slavery than historians have hitherto suspected . " " African survivals " persisted in the form of folk tales , religion and spirituality , music and dance , and language . He asserts that the retention of African culture acted as a form of resistance to enslavement : " All things considered , the few Africans enslaved in seventeenth- and eighteenth @-@ century America appear to have survived their traumatic experiences without becoming abjectly docile , infantile , or submissive " and " since an overwhelming percentage of nineteenth @-@ century Southern slaves were native Americans , they never underwent this kind of shock [ the Middle Passage ] and were in a position to construct psychological defenses against total dependency on their masters . "
Blassingame asserts that historians have discussed " what could be generally described as slave ' culture , ' but give little solid information on life in the quarters . " He argues that culture developed within the slave community independent of the slaveowners ' influence . Blassingame notes , " Antebellum black slaves created several unique cultural forms which lightened their burden of oppression , promoted group solidarity , provided ways for verbalizing aggression , sustaining hope , building self @-@ esteem , and often represented areas of life largely free from the control of whites . "
Blassingame notes that many of the folk tales told by slaves have been traced by African scholars to Ghana , Senegal , and Mauritania to peoples such as the Ewe , Wolof , Hausa , Temne , Ashanti , and Igbo . He remarks , " While many of these tales were brought over to the South , the African element appears most clearly in the animal tales . " One prominent example discussed by Blassingame is the Ewe story of " Why the Hare Runs Away " , which is a trickster and tar @-@ baby tale told by southern slaves and later recorded by writer Joel Chandler Harris in his Uncle Remus stories . Southern slaves often included African animals like elephants , lions , and monkeys as characters in their folk tales .
As Christian missionaries and slaveowners attempted to erase African religious and spiritual beliefs , Blassingame argues that " in the United States , many African religious rites were fused into one — voodoo . " Voodoo priests and conjurers promised slaves that they could make masters kind , harm enemies , ensure love , and heal sickness . Other religious survivals noted by Blassingame include funeral rites , grave decorating , and ritualistic dancing and singing .
Slaveowners and state governments tried to prevent slaves from making or playing musical instruments because of the use of drums to signal the Stono Rebellion in 1739 . Blassingame , however , points out that in spite of restrictions , slaves were able to build a strong musical tradition drawing on their African heritage . Music , songs , and dances were similar to those performed or played in Africa . Instruments reproduced by slaves include drums , three @-@ stringed banjos , gourd rattles , and mandolins .
Still , Blassingame concludes that cross @-@ cultural exchanges occurred on southern plantations , arguing that " acculturation in the United States involved the mutual interaction between two cultures , with Europeans and Africans borrowing from each other . " Blassingame asserts that the most significant instance revolved around Protestant Christianity ( primarily Baptist and Methodist churches ) : " The number of blacks who received religious instruction in antebellum white churches is significant because the church was the only institution other than the plantation which played a major role in acculturating the slave . " Christianity and enslaved black ministers slowly replaced African religious survivals and represented another aspect of slave culture which the slaves used to create their own communities . While ministers preached obedience in the presence of the slaveowners and other whites , slaves often met in secret , " invisible " services unsupervised by whites . In these " invisible churches " , slaves could discuss freedom , liberty , and the judgment of God against slaveowners .
= = = Slave families = = =
Slave marriages were illegal in southern states , and slave couples were frequently separated by slaveowners through sale . Blassingame grants that slaveowners did have control over slave marriages . They encouraged monogamous relationships to " make it easier to discipline their slaves . ... A black man , they reasoned , who loved his wife and his children was less likely to be rebellious or to run away than would a ' single ' slave . " Blassingame notes that when a slave couple resided on the same plantation , the husband witnessed the whipping and raping of his wife and the sale of his children . He remarks , " Nothing demonstrated his powerlessness as much as the slave 's inability to prevent the forcible sale of his wife and children . "
Nevertheless , Blassingame argues that " however frequently the family was broken it was primarily responsible for the slave 's ability to survive on the plantation without becoming totally dependent on and submissive to his master . " He contends :
While the form of family life in the quarters differed radically from that among free Negroes and whites , this does not mean it failed to perform many of the traditional functions of the family — the rearing of children being one of the most important of these functions . Since slave parents were primarily responsible for training their children , they could cushion the shock of bondage for them , help them to understand their situation , teach them values different from those their masters tried to instill in them , and give them a referent for self @-@ esteem other than the master .
Blassingame asserts that slave parents attempted to shield infants and young children from the brutality of the plantation . When children understood that they were enslaved ( usually after their first whipping ) , parents dissuaded angry urges to run away or seek revenge .
Children observed fathers demonstrating two behavioral types . In the quarters , he " acted like a man " , castigating whites for the mistreatment of himself and his family ; in the field working for the master , he appeared obedient and submissive . According to Blassingame , " Sometimes children internalized both the true personality traits and the contradictory behavioral patterns of their parents . " He believes that children recognized submissiveness as a convenient method to avoid punishment and the behavior in the quarters as the true behavioral model . Blassingame concludes , " In [ the slave father 's ] family , the slave not only learned how to avoid the blows of the master , but also drew on the love and sympathy of its members to raise his spirits . The family was , in short , an important survival mechanism . "
= = = Personality types = = =
Blassingame identifies three stereotypes in the literature of the antebellum south :
Sambo was a combination of the Uncle Remus , Jim Crow , and Uncle Tom figures who represented the faithful , submissive , and superstitious slave .
Jack worked faithfully until he was mistreated , then he became uncooperative and occasionally rebellious . Rationally analyzing the white man 's overwhelming physical power , Jack either avoided contact with him or was deferential in his presence .
Nat was the perpetual runaway and rebellious slave feared by slaveowners . Named after Nat Turner , the Nat character retaliated against slaveowners and was subdued and punished only when overcome by greater numbers .
Directly challenging Elkins 's infantilization thesis , Blassingame argues that historians have focused too much on the Sambo personality type and the role of paternalism . " The Sambo stereotype was so pervasive in antebellum Southern literature that many historians , without further research , argue that it was an accurate description of the dominant slave personality . "
According to Blassingame , the Sambo figure evolved from white Americans ' attitudes toward Africans and African Americans as innately barbaric , passive , superstitious , and childlike . Southern writers felt a need to defend slavery from allegations of abuse and brutality leveled by northern abolitionists , so Sambo became a common portrayal to justify and explain the need for plantation paternalism . Finally , slaveowners used the Sambo stereotype to alleviate their own fears and anxieties about the potential rebelliousness of their slaves . Blassingame remarks , " In this regard , Nat , the actual and potential rebel , stands at the core of white perceptions of the slave . With Nat perennially in the wings , the creation of Sambo was almost mandatory for the Southerner 's emotional security . Like a man whistling in the dark to bolster his courage , the white man had to portray the slave as Sambo . "
Despite slaveowner paternalism and charges of submissiveness , Blassingame contends , " There is overwhelming evidence , in the primary sources , of the Negro 's resistance to his bondage and of his undying love for freedom . " Blassingame outlines efforts of slaves to run away and rebel , particularly the Stono Rebellion of 1739 , Charles Deslondes 's revolt in 1811 , Nat Turner 's revolt of 1831 , and the participation of fugitive slaves in Florida fighting with Seminoles during the Seminole Wars . Blassingame concludes that the Sambo and Nat stereotypes " were real . " He explains , " The more fear whites had of Nat , the more firmly tried to believe in Sambo in order to escape paranoia . "
Blassingame concludes that there were a variety of personality types exhibited by slaves positioned on a scale between the two extremes of Sambo and Nat . He argues that variations present in plantations , overseers , and masters gave the slave " much more freedom from restraint and more independence and autonomy than his institutionally defined role allowed . Consequently , the slave did not have to be infantile or abjectly docile in order to remain alive . " Blassingame compares slavery on southern plantations to the treatment of prisoners in Nazi concentration camps in an effort to demonstrate that " the most important factor in causing infantilism , total dependency , and docility in the camps was the real threat of death which left few , if any , alternatives for the inmates . " He remarks , " Placed on a continuum of total institutions , the concentration camp is far removed from the Southern plantation . " According to Blassingame , the goal of the irrationally organized and understaffed plantation was not the systematic torture and extermination of its laborers , who were " worth more than a bullet " .
= = Methodology and sources = =
In The Slave Community , Blassingame uses psychologist Harry Stack Sullivan 's interpersonal theory to interpret the behavior of slaves on antebellum plantations . Sullivan claims that " significant others " , persons with the most power to reward and punish individual behavior , were primarily responsible for determining behavior . Interpersonal theorists argue that " behavioral patterns are determined by the characteristics of the situation , how the person perceives them , and his behavioral dispositions at the time . " The most important component of personality is self @-@ esteem . Blassingame explains , " Our sense of self @-@ esteem is heightened or lowered by our perception of the images others have of us . " Interpersonal behavior revolves around the dominant @-@ submissive axes : " One form of behavior tends to elicit its complement : dominance leads to submission and vice versa . The extent of submissiveness often depends on the structure of the group to which the person belongs . "
Another psychological theory used by Blassingame is role theory . According to this theory , " a person 's behavior is generally determined by the socially defined roles or the behavioral patterns expected of him in certain situations . " Blassingame asserts that through applying interpersonal and role theory to the fugitive slave narratives , historians can determine " the extent to which slaves acted the way their masters expected them to behave " and how the Sambo , Jack , and Nat personality types can be misleading .
Blassingame contends that historians have " deliberately ignored " autobiographies of ex @-@ slaves , particularly the fugitive slave narratives . " Consequently " , argues Blassingame , " a great deal of emphasis has been placed on non @-@ traditional sources in this study in an effort to delineate more clearly the slave 's view of bondage and to discover some new insights into the workings of the system . " He relies heavily on narratives by Henry Bibb , Henry Clay Bruce , Elizabeth Keckley , Samuel Hall , Solomon Northup , Charles Ball , Jermain Wesley Loguen , William Wells Brown , John Brown , Robert Anderson , William Grimes , Austin Steward , and Frederick Douglass . Blassingame 's discussion of the African slave trade , Middle Passage , and African culture is based on Olaudah Equiano 's The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano , or Gustavus Vassa , the African ( 1794 ) .
Rather than accepting the fugitive slave narratives without question , Blassingame admits to scrutinizing his reading of the texts . He notes that arguments against the use of these autobiographies used by historians revolve around reliability : " Many historians refuse to use these accounts because they have felt the fugitive , as the primary sufferer in the institution , was unable to give an objective account of bondage . " Still , Blassingame defends his reliance on autobiographies , noting , " The portrait of the institution of slavery which emerges from the narratives is not the simple picture of hell on earth that most historians have led us to believe they contain . Instead , the fugitives ' plantations are peopled with the same range of heroes and villains , black and white , which one generally finds in the human race . " Therefore , Blassingame concludes :
Like most personal documents , the autobiography provides a window to the larger world . In this sense , the slave writers present a participant observers ' comments on the larger slave society . As an eyewitness , the autobiographer brings the historian into contact with almost all kinds of slaves . When the autobiographies are accepted both as records of the unique experiences of each individual author and as eyewitness accounts of several slave communities , they are clearly " representative " .
Besides fugitive slave narratives , Blassingame uses abolitionist periodicals such as The Liberator , National Anti @-@ Slavery Standard , Pennsylvania Freeman , Anti @-@ Slavery Bugle , and Genius of Universal Emancipation . According to Blassingame , these periodicals printed slave interviews , letters , and autobiographies , but " gave even more coverage to white Southerners than to slaves and frequently reprinted articles , letters , and proceedings from a large number of Southern newspapers " .
A primary source that Blassingame did not consult in his study was the WPA slave interviews . While he admits that " slave interviews rival autobiographies in their revelations about the internal dynamics of bondage , ... the heavy editing of the WPA interviews makes them far more difficult to utilize than black autobiographies . " He elaborates on his criticism of the interviews in a 1975 article in the Journal of Southern History . He describes how white interviewers often deleted material contrary to the paternalistic image of the antebellum South which they wanted to present . Blassingame concludes , " Uncritical use of the interviews will lead almost inevitably to a simplistic and distorted view of the plantation as a paternalistic institution where the chief feature of life was mutual love and respect between masters and slaves . "
Blassingame builds on the historiography of Phillips , Stampp , and Elkins , but he acknowledges the influence of Charles S. Sydnor 's Slavery in Mississippi ( 1933 ) , Orville W. Taylor 's Negro Slavery in Arkansas ( 1958 ) , Eugene D. Genovese 's The Political Economy of Slavery ( 1961 ) , and Ann J. Lane 's anthology of essays The Debate Over Slavery : Stanley Elkins and His Critics ( 1971 ) .
= = Reception and influence = =
The importance of The Slave Community as one of the first studies of slavery from the perspective of the slave was recognized by historians . The book nonetheless received heavy criticism by academics who disagreed with Blassingame 's conclusions , methodology , and sources . Historian George P. Rawick noted in 1976 , however , that the criticism " should not obscure the fact that [ Blassingame 's ] book was of such merit as to warrant spending our time criticizing it four years after its publication . Yet , like many good books , it should have been better . "
= = = Criticism = = =
In The History Teacher , Keith Polakoff comments that " only with the publication of Blassingame 's work do we obtain for the first time a detailed examination of the daily lives of the slaves on large plantations , with some intelligent speculation about the forces to which they were subjected . David Goldfield writes in Agricultural History that the book was the most impressive and balanced attempt to understand the slave 's responses to plantation life to date . Carl N. Degler writes in the Washington Post that Blassingame 's study comes " closer than any previous study to answering the question ' what was it like to be a slave ? ' "
Still , Blassingame 's conclusions , methodology , and sources received substantial criticism from historians . Marian DeB . Kilson 's review in the American Historical Review described Blassingame 's aims as " imperfectly realized " because he " lacks a clear analytical perspective " . She found his discussion of slave personality types " fascinating " and " his methodological aims ... important " but " not systematically pursued " . Kilson believes that Blassingame ultimately failed in his analysis because " his intellectual integration of social and psychological orientations has yet to be fully achieved . " Orville W. Taylor contends in the Journal of Negro History that Blassingame had a tendency to overgeneralize and make " unsubstantiatable claims to originality and uniqueness " .
In the Journal of Political Economy , economic historian Stanley L. Engerman complains that the book is not " written by or for economists " and makes " limited use of economic analysis " . He continues , " Given the concern with the ' personal autonomy ' and culture of the slave , much of the book is devoted to the African heritage ; to slave music , religion , and folklore ; and to the discussion of the slave family and other personal relationships . " Engerman concedes that The Slave Community " is a book written at a time of transition in the interpretation of slavery and black culture " , but " the author at times seems unsure of the direction in which he is pointing . " He concludes that Blassingame 's " analysis is incomplete in its presentation of a different and more complex scene " even though he " effectively shows the difficulties of the concentration @-@ camp image and the Sambo myth " .
Historians criticized Blassingame for dismissing the WPA slave interviews and relying solely on fugitive slave narratives . In the Journal of American History , Willie Lee Rose writes that Blassingame 's use of the fugitive slave narratives is marred by his neglect of the WPA interviews . Kenneth Wiggins Porter regards Blassingame 's dependence on printed sources as a " major weakness " and believes he does not use enough white sources like plantation records and travel narratives , particularly Frederick Law Olmsted 's account of life in the antebellum South . According to George Rawick , " We desperately need work that depicts and analyzes the lives of black women under slavery . We have had very largely a male @-@ dominated literature about slavery . " He notes , " Blassingame , unfortunately , does not help us at all in this task . " Rawick surmises that if Blassingame had consulted the WPA slave interviews , he would have developed a picture of the " heroic struggles of black women on behalf of themselves and of the whole black community " .
Historians exhibited varying responses to Blassingame 's use of psychological theory . In a review in the William and Mary Quarterly , George Mullin is especially critical of Blassingame 's use of psychology , stating that Blassingame " reduc [ es ] slave behavior and culture to a question of roles and psychological characteristics " . He concludes that an " E. P. Thompson for the American Black community during slavery is still off @-@ stage " , and that the topic needs exploration by a social or economic historian . Rawick states that Blassingame 's " first major error lies in adopting the very questionable deterministic social psychological role theories associated with ... Irving Goffman and Henry Stack Sullivan . " He complains that it " parodies the basic complexity of the ' psychology ' of the oppressed who simultaneously view themselves in socially negative terms while struggling against the view of themselves and their behavior " . Rawick is convinced that Blassingame would have reached the same conclusions from the sources without the use of psychology " because the historical evidence as seen through an unadulterated commitment to the struggles of the slaves and an equally uncompromising hostility to the masters would have led him there . " On the other hand , Eugene D. Genovese and Earl E. Thorpe praised Blassingame for his use of psychological theory , but admit they prefer Freudian and Marxist interpretations over Sullivanian theory .
= = = Influence = = =
In 1976 , the Association for the Study of Afro @-@ American Life and History met in Chicago and held a session on The Slave Community . Panelists included Mary Frances Berry , Herbert Gutman , Leslie Howard Owens , George Rawick , Earl Thorpe , and Eugene Genovese . Blassingame responded to questions and critiques from the panel . The discussion led to the publication of an anthology edited by Al @-@ Tony Gilmore called Revisiting Blassingame 's The Slave Community : The Scholars Respond ( 1978 ) . The book includes essays by the panelists as well as James D. Anderson , Ralph D. Carter , John Henrik Clarke , and Stanley Engerman . Blassingame 's essay , " Redefining The Slave Community : A Response to Critics " appears in the volume .
Since its publication in 1972 and revision in 1979 , The Slave Community has influenced subsequent historiographical works on slavery in the United States . In a 1976 edition of Roll , Jordan , Roll , Eugene Genovese explains that Blassingame 's book " demonstrates that the published accounts of runaway slaves can be illuminating " . The authors of Reckoning with Slavery ( 1976 ) use Blassingame 's findings to challenge the assertions of Robert William Fogel and Stanley Engerman in Time on the Cross : The Economics of American Negro Slavery ( 1974 ) . In Slave Religion : The " Invisible Institution " in the Antebellum South ( 1978 ) , Albert J. Raboteau comments , " We should speak of the ' invisibility ' of slave religion with irony : it is the neglect of slave sources by historians which has been the main cause of this invisibility . " Raboteau credits Blassingame and others for demonstrating the value of slave sources . Historian Charles Joyner 's influential study Down by the Riverside : A South Carolina Slave Community ( 1984 ) is reinforced by the findings of The Slave Community and relies on similar evidence .
Historian Deborah Gray White builds on Blassingame 's research of the family life of the slaves in Ar 'n't I a Woman ? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South ( 1985 ) . Her argument is similar to Blassingame 's : " This present study takes a look at slave women in America and argues that they were not submissive , subordinate , or prudish and that they were not expected to be so . " White discusses the Mammy and Jezebel stereotypes often applied to African American women by white Americans . She calls The Slave Community " a classic " but remarks that " Blassingame stressed the fact that many masters recognized the male as the head of the family . He observed that during courtship men flattered women and exaggerated their prowess . There was , however , little discussion of the reciprocal activities of slave women . " She concludes that Blassingame " described how slave men gained status in the family , but he did not do the same for women . "
Elizabeth Fox @-@ Genovese makes similar observations in Within the Plantation Household : Black and White Women of the Old South ( 1988 ) . She notes that The Slave Community , like other historiography produced in the 1960s and 70s , " did not directly address women 's history , even though many of the historians were sensitive to women 's experience . Most of the male authors had done a large part of their work before the development of women 's history as a discipline , and even the most sensitive were hampered by a paucity of sources and by unfamiliarity with the questions feminists would soon raise . "
= = Revised edition = =
After the 1976 Association for the Study of Afro @-@ American Life and History meeting and the publication of Revisiting Blassingame 's The Slave Community in 1978 , Blassingame produced a revised and enlarged edition of The Slave Community in 1979 . In the new preface , Blassingame asserted that the book had to be revised because of George Bentley , an enslaved , pro @-@ slavery Primitive Baptist minister from Tennessee who pastored a white church in the 1850s . Blassingame wanted to " solve the myriad dilemmas posed by George Bentley " , but he also wanted to answer the questions , challenges , and critiques raised by scholars since the publication of The Slave Community .
Blassingame explains that he incorporated the suggestions published in Revisiting Blassingame 's The Slave Community " without long protestation or argument " . The most significant changes made to the text involve further discussion of African cultural survivals , slave family life , slave culture , and acculturation . Blassingame added a chapter titled " The Americanization of the Slave and the Africanization of the South " where he draws parallels between the acculturation of African American slaves in the American South , African slaves in Latin America , and European slaves in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire . He compares the conversion of slaves in the southern states to Protestant Christianity , European slaves in North Africa to Islam , and African slaves in Latin America to Catholicism .
Blassingame addresses the historiography of slavery published between 1972 and 1978 in the revised edition . For instance , he challenges Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman 's economic and statistical study of slavery in Time on the Cross . Blassingame writes :
Contemporaries often have a greater appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of statistics than do the scholars who utilize them decades after they are compiled . ' Numbers ' and ' accuracy ' are not two interchangeable words : Statistical truths are no more self @-@ evident than literary ones . In fact , statistical analyses rely so heavily on inferences that one must carefully examine the data bases to evaluate the conclusions based on them . Whether compiled by planters , doctors , clergymen , army officers , or census takers , statistics on slavery mean little until combined with literary material . The dry bones of historical analysis , statistics acquire life when filtered through the accounts left by eyewitnesses .
Reviewing the revised edition in the Journal of Southern History , Gary B. Mills suggests , " All controversy and revision aside , The Slave Community remains a significant book , and the author 's position that the bulk of both slaves and slaveowners lay between the stereotyped extremes proves durable . Their exact location on a scale of one to ten will always remain a matter of opinion . "
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= Hurricane Helene ( 1958 ) =
Hurricane Helene was the most intense tropical cyclone of the 1958 Atlantic hurricane season , as measured by minimum barometric pressure . The eighth tropical storm and fourth hurricane of the year , Helene was formed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on September 21 , 1958 . Moving steadily westward , the storm slowly intensified , attaining hurricane strength on September 24 . As conditions became increasingly favorable for tropical cyclone development , Helene began to rapidly intensify . Nearing the United States East Coast , the hurricane quickly attained Category 4 intensity on September 26 , before it subsequently reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 84 inHg ) . The intense hurricane came within 10 mi ( 15 km ) of Cape Fear , North Carolina before recurving out to sea . Accelerating northward , Helene gradually weakened , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it passed over Newfoundland on September 29 . Helene 's extratropical remnants traversed eastwards across the Atlantic Ocean before dissipating near Great Britain on October 4 .
Despite not making landfall on North Carolina , its close proximity to land caused extensive damage across the US East Coast . Strong winds resulted in widespread power outages , cutting telecommunications along the coast . A weather station in Wilmington , North Carolina reported a wind gust of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , setting a new record for fastest wind gust reported there . Though mostly concentrated in North Carolina , rainfall was widespread , reaching as far north as Maine . In the United States , damages reached $ 11 @.@ 2 million and there was one indirect death . After impacting the US , Helene produced strong winds and heavy rain across much of Atlantic Canada . In Cape Breton Island on Nova Scotia , the storm was considered the worst in at least 21 years . Power outages cut most communications from the island to the mainland , and property damage in Sydney , Nova Scotia totaled to C $ 100 @,@ 000 . At Helene 's landfall in Newfoundland , strong gusts peaking at 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) in Naval Station Argentia were reported , and loss of power severed communications . Damage across there totaled to at least C $ 100 @,@ 000 . Total damages associated with Helene in the United States and Canada amounted to $ 11 @.@ 4 million , making Helene the costliest storm of the season .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Helene can be traced back to an easterly wave that formed near Cape Verde on September 16 . Moving towards the west due to trade winds associated with the Hadley cell , the disturbance gradually intensified . On September 20 , ships in the system 's vicinity reported widespread shower activity and generally low barometric pressures . Early the following day , a reconnaissance flight reported evidence of a weak circulation , with gusts of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) in heavy squalls surrounding the circulation center . At 0200 UTC later that day , the United States Weather Bureau office in San Juan , Puerto Rico began issuing bulletins on the system for public interests . In HURDAT , the tropical wave was first classified as a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on September 21 , well east of the Leeward Antilles . At the time , the depression had maximum sustained winds of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) .
Moving on a west @-@ northwest track at roughly 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) early on September 22 , the storm initially changed little in intensity . However , a large upper tropospheric anticyclone developed over the southern Atlantic coast , producing the favorable wind shear needed for tropical cyclone development . A second reconnaissance flight reported an intensifed tropical cyclone , indicating that the storm system had reached tropical storm strength . At 0000 UTC on September 23 , the depression attained tropical storm strength , with maximum winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a central minimum pressure of 1013 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 92 inHg ) . The US Weather Bureau issued their first advisory on the newly developed tropical storm at 1600 UTC later that day , giving the storm the name Helene . Despite the storm 's poor organization , Helene gradually intensified in favorable conditions generated by the large anticyclone . Throughout the day , a second anticyclone moved eastward until it was situated off of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , while a mean trough in the lower levels of the atmosphere became situated over the United States East Coast . This would set up a path for Helene to pass very close to the United States . The tropical storm attained hurricane intensity by 2200 UTC on 2200 UTC on September 24 , while located 425 mi ( 685 km ) east of Fort Pierce , Florida . However , in post @-@ season analysis , it was found that Helene reached hurricane intensity earlier that day , by 1200 UTC . At the time , gale @-@ force winds extended up to 220 mi ( 355 km ) out from the storm 's center of circulation .
The hurricane steadily strengthened as it moved towards the northwest around the western periphery of the Azores High on September 25 . Encountering the anticyclone situated off of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , Helene began to curve slightly towards the west . The lack of strong steering currents in the storm 's vicinity caused the hurricane to move very slowly throughout the day , giving the hurricane time to significantly intensify . By 0000 UTC on September 26 , Helene strengthened to the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane , with a minimum pressure of 980 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) . Moving slowly towards The Carolinas , the hurricane rapidly intensified . A recon flight reported a minimum pressure of 948 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 00 inHg ) , a drop of 40 mbar ( hPa ; 1 @.@ 18 inHg ) from the previous day . As the hurricane neared the coast , its eye became apparent on coastal long @-@ range WSR @-@ 57 weather radar images . By 1800 UTC on September 26 , Helene strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane and then to a Category 4 hurricane the following day . The major hurricane continued to strengthen before reaching its peak intensity on September 27 with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . However , Helene 's lowest barometric pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 84 inHg ) was recorded earlier during the day . Still moving northwestward due to the influence of the Azores High , the hurricane came within 10 mi ( 15 km ) of the US East Coast before recurving towards the northeast out to sea .
As Helene recurved and accelerated towards more northerly latitudes , it steadily weakened . By 1200 UTC on September 28 , Helene was no longer a major hurricane . The hurricane 's wind field also expanded from the storm 's center as it weakened . By midday on September 29 , Helene had weakened to minimal hurricane strength , and later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 1800 UTC that day , though it still maintained hurricane @-@ force winds . At roughly the same time , Helene passed over Newfoundland , with gale force winds having expanded 500 mi ( 800 km ) from the system 's center , coinciding with the US Weather Bureau 's final advisory on the system . Helene 's extratropical remnants continued eastward across the Atlantic , becoming a dominant synoptic feature , before entirely dissipating by 0600 UTC on October 4 just west of Great Britain .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the storm 's formation , the Weather Bureau cautioned ships in Helene 's path of the impending conditions , and did so throughout the storm 's duration . As the storm moved west on September 23 , advisories specified for small craft in northern islands of The Bahamas to remain in " protected places . " After Helene was forecast to remain north of the archipelago , notifications were lifted except for small craft along the coast of the South Atlantic States . Nearing the US East Coast , the Weather Bureau began to issue special bulletins for press radio and television stations early on September 24 . At the same time , small craft were warned of the storm from The Carolinas southward . The following day , the weather forecast office ( WFO ) in Charleston , South Carolina began to issue local statements regarding the hurricane , while small craft alerts were shifted northward to coastal regions between Cape Hatteras , North Carolina and Daytona Beach , Florida . The first hurricane watch was issued on 1000 UTC on September 26 for the entirety of the Georgian coast to Charleston , South Carolina . A gale warning was posted at the same time for coastal areas from Daytona Beach , Florida to Wilmington , North Carolina . Small craft alerts continued to shift northwards along with Helene .
As the storm began to quickly intensify on September 26 , areas of the watch from Savannah , Georgia to Cape Fear , North Carolina were upgraded to a hurricane emergency area at 1600 UTC . Affected communities were advised to begin precautionary measures immediately and evacuate . Shipping and small craft were told to exercise " extreme caution . " Gale warnings were changed to warn areas between Fernandina , Florida to Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The heightened warnings caused WFOs to issue local bulletins regarding the impending hurricane . At the time , the Weather Bureau projected Helene to make landfall in South Carolina . These landfall forecasts shifted further north along the coast over time , before they were stopped after Helene recurved away from the coast entirely . At 0400 UTC on September 27 , hurricane warnings were extended to include areas between Cape Fear and Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Gale warning issuance reflected the changes and were too shifted northwards to the Virginia Capes area , while hurricane watches covered both warning areas . At 1600 UTC later that day , hurricane emergency and gale warnings were extended north to Manteo , North Carolina , while hurricane watches were continued for coastal regions from Savannah , Georgia to Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . After Helene began recurving away from the coast , all warnings south of Wilmington , North Carolina were discontinued at 2200 UTC on September 27 . As Helene passed certain areas , warnings were discontinued upon the storm 's passage . At 1000 UTC the next day , all onshore hurricane warnings were either downgraded to gale warnings or discontinued . However , offshore gale warnings were still issued for oceanic regions from the Virginia Capes to Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Shortly after , all warnings , with the exception of the offshore gale warnings , were discontinued . Remaining warnings lasted until 2200 UTC on September 28 . Despite not issuing any warnings , the Weather Bureau cautioned interests in Newfoundland , and forecasted hurricane @-@ force winds to effect the island .
Due to the potential impacts from Helene , the Weather Bureau began to advise prompt emergency evacuation in their advisories . Areas between Beaufort , South Carolina and Cape Fear , North Carolina were urged to begin evacuation procedures immediately . The Southeastern American Red Cross sent ten field staff warnings to locations in Georgia and South Carolina in order to assist in setting up emergency shelters . The Red Cross held 27 hurricane preparation conferences to plan preparation procedures . Other civil defense organizations also mobilized hurricane preparation staff and equipment . The Weather Bureau sent a mobile weather station to Charleston , South Carolina in order to monitor weather conditions and alert surrounding populations with short @-@ range radio equipment . Beaches on North Carolina 's coast , including Wrightsville Beach and Carolina Beach , were completely evacuated during the night of September 27 . In Wilmington , North Carolina , 100 members of the United States National Guard were dispatched to monitor waterfront property , while 60 others were kept on standby . Civilian vehicles attempting to enter Myrtle Beach , South Carolina were sent back by highway patrol 15 mi ( 25 km ) outside the city borders , following an order issued by Governor of South Carolina George Bell Timmerman , Jr . The order was issued to minimize casualties and prevent looting . Approximately 100 members of the National Guard and local police were kept to patrol the beach . Despite repeated orders for mandatory evacuation , a few people remained in Myrtle Beach . Civil Defense authorities forcibly evacuated stragglers , but others were permitted to remain .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = United States East Coast = = =
Despite not making landfall , Helene 's close proximity to the United States resulted in impacts along the East Coast . Impacts were most severe in North Carolina , where the hurricane made its closest approach . Wind impacts were felt primarily from South Carolina to Virginia , though a frontal zone aided in bringing precipitation as far north as Maine . In the United States , Helene caused $ 11 @.@ 2 million in damages and one indirect fatality .
= = = = North Carolina = = = =
Roughly paralleling the North Carolina coast beginning on September 26 , Helene 's slow movement and strong intensity resulted in moderate to heavy impacts in coastal areas of the state . Despite the hurricane 's Category 4 hurricane intensity , due to its closest approach to land remaining offshore , its storm surge remained less than initially forecast . The hurricane 's track also placed its strongest storm surge in the eastern hemisphere of the storm , away from any landmasses . Surge heights peaked at 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) near Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point . In Wilmington , Helene produced ocean swells at the coast 2 @.@ 5 – 3 times per minute , indicative of a strong hurricane . There , the cumulative sea level was roughly 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) above normal . However , as a result of the storm striking at low tide , damage caused by storm surge was mostly mitigated . Despite this , sand dunes in southern areas of Fort Fisher , were mostly destroyed by waves . On Cedar Island , strong winds produced by the hurricane pushed waves inland , inundating homes . Elsewhere , minor beach erosion occurred .
Further inland , several weather stations reported hurricane @-@ force winds . The Weather Bureau office in Wilmington , North Carolina , reported maximum sustained winds of 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) and a peak gust of 135 mph ( 220 km / h ) , exceeding the previous record for fastest measured wind speed of 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) set during Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . Beach resorts there were heavily damaged . In Wrightsville Beach , located 10 mi ( 15 km ) of Wilmington , 12 houses were flattened by the hurricane . Damage to homes there were estimated by police to cost $ 300 @,@ 000 , and extensive damage to the water system was reported . In Long Beach , damage was less severe , with only minor property damage . Waves pushing past sand dunes caused cracks in seaside roads . Though surveys made no damage estimates , damage in Holden Beach was reported to have been worse than in Long Beach . A 300 ft ( 90 m ) pier and a pavilion in Ocean Isle Beach were destroyed . In Topsail Beach and Kure Beach , several homes and businesses were either unroofed or destroyed . Yaupon Beach and Shallotte also had similar reports of unroofed homes . Two homes on Topsail Island were demolished , and extensive property damage was reported in Atlantic Beach . At Cape Fear , winds were estimated at 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , with gusts as high as 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , well into Category 3 intensity . The powerful winds forced power to be cut off in Wilmington as a precautionary measure . As a result , 7 @,@ 000 telephones were knocked out of service . Damage to the Southern Bell Telephone Company 's offices cost $ 150 @,@ 000 . Total damages in the city was estimated to cost nearly $ 2 million . In Morehead City , a roof was blown from a yacht shed and multiple structures . Long @-@ distance telephone services were also cut off . Off the coast on Ocracoke Island , power and communications failed during the storm after the island was battered by winds of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Power outages were commonplace in other areas as well . In Southport , metal debris was scattered across city streets , and the damage there was described as worse than Hurricane Hazel . Half of its pier was swept away by the rough seas , and other buildings collapsed or sustained heavy damage . Numerous trees , including live oak , were uprooted by the winds . The United States Army provided the port with a temporary electrical generator , which provided power for water pumps and light . In Cape Hatteras , Helene caused an estimated $ 1 million in damages . Although damage to infrastructure tapered off 10 mi ( 15 km ) from the coast , crop damage was observed 40 mi ( 65 km ) inland . Corn was the crop most affected by Helene .
Rainfall associated with Helene was primarily concentrated in coastal regions North Carolina , peaking at 8 @.@ 29 in ( 211 mm ) in Wilmington International Airport . In Hatteras , 4 @.@ 85 in ( 123 @.@ 2 mm ) of rain was measured . Rainfall totals of at least 3 in ( 76 mm ) were commonplace elsewhere along the North Carolina coast . An indirect death occurred when a car skidded off a flooded highway , killing the driver . In the state , damages from Helene amounted to $ 11 million .
= = = = South Carolina = = = =
Effects from Helene in South Carolina were less severe than in North Carolina . Helene made its closest approach to the state on September 27 , 85 mi ( 135 km ) . In Charleston , sustained winds reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) and there was minor damage reported Trees and street signs were blown down , and beach houses suffered shingle damage . Sporadic and small power outages occurred throughout the city . Damage became progressively worse from Georgetown to Little River , with automobile accidents , torn roofs , and damaged piers . On Harbor Island , 50 percent of structure were reported to have roof damage , causing and estimated $ 125 @,@ 000 in damages . Elsewhere along the South Carolina coast , beach erosion occurred due to the strong waves , and sections of pier were swept into sea . In Windy Hill and Cherry Grove Beach , three fishing piers were damaged . Damage was minor in Myrtle Beach , and was limited to roof and window damage . Further inland , in Columbia , damage was minimal , with no rainfall reported . Light damage to crops was reported inland , particularly in Marion County . Across the state , damages were estimated at $ 200 @,@ 000 from the hurricane , though this did not include beach erosion or damage to sand dunes .
= = = = Elsewhere in the United States = = = =
As a result of Helene recurving away from the United States East Coast , damage in the United States outside of the Carolinas was less severe . In Virginia , damage was relatively minor . A peak gust of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) was reported in Norfolk . In Hampton Roads , damage was minor , and was confined to downed utility wires and marginal infrastructural damage . Although rainfall was primarily concentrated in the Carolinas , 1 @,@ 434 official rain gauges measured precipitation in coastal areas from South Carolina to Maine . Precipitation was further increased by a frontal zone to the hurricane 's north . In the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 29 in ( 134 @.@ 4 mm ) in Myerstown , Pennsylvania . Outside of Pennsylvania or the Carolinas , no weather station reported rainfall exceeding 5 in ( 125 mm ) . In the New England region , rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 11 in ( 104 @.@ 4 mm ) in Hyannis , Massachusetts . Elsewhere in Massachusetts , rainfall totals ranging from 1 – 4 in ( 25 – 100 mm ) caused minor flooding and road washouts . The minor floods led to several automotive accidents . Other states in New England reported rainfall peaks of at least 1 in ( 25 mm ) , with the lowest peak occurring at a weather station in Machias , Maine , which reported 1 @.@ 16 in ( 29 @.@ 5 mm ) of rainfall .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
As Helene approached Atlantic Canada in the process of transitioning into an extratropical storm , it produced heavy rainfall and strong winds along the islands . Passing just east of Nova Scotia on September 29 , Helene dropped at least 1 in ( 25 mm ) across the entire province , peaking at 3 @.@ 48 in ( 88 @.@ 5 mm ) in Cape Breton Island . Gusts peaked at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) across Cabot Strait , 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) at CFB Shearwater and 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) at Summerside , Prince Edward Island . The storm damaged power lines on the island but they were quickly repaired . The strong winds uprooted trees in the Halifax and Dartmouth , Nova Scotia area . In Nova Scotia , Helene 's worst effects were felt in Cape Breton Island , where the storm was considered the worst in at least 21 years . Only one communication line from the island to the mainland was effective after the storm passed . Numerous downed power lines resulted in minor fires , and schools were closed throughout the island . In Sydney , Nova Scotia , there was considerable property damage , and as many as 700 people lost power . The lack of sufficient electricity forced the suspension of publications of the Cape Breton Post and disrupted normal restaurant cooking procedures . Damages in the community amounted to C $ 100 @,@ 000 . Offshore , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police cutter Fort Walsh , measuring 115 ft ( 35 m ) in length , was washed ashore on the coast of Scatarie Island . The fishing wharf in Caribou , Nova Scotia was destroyed by rough seas generated by Helene , and at least 1 @,@ 000 lobster traps were carried into the Northumberland Strait as a result . In New Brunswick , the hurricane 's impacts were relatively minor , and rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 56 in ( 39 @.@ 5 mm ) .
Quickly accelerating northwards , Helene made landfall on Newfoundland late on September 29 . Rainfall peaked at 3 @.@ 05 in ( 77 @.@ 5 mm ) in northern parts of the island , while rainfall amounts were generally minimal across the Avalon Peninsula . A weather station in Naval Station Argentia reported maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a gust of 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . The winds severed communications in southwestern Newfoundland and cut communications in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador from the mainland . Bell Island was cut off from the rest of Newfoundland due to rough seas generated by Helene , which resulted in the destruction of piers and lack of boat service . Damage caused by the hurricane on the island were estimated to be in excess of C $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , Governor of North Carolina Luther H. Hodges and United States Senator from North Carolina B. Everett Jordan requested a disaster declaration for the state . President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower designated portions of North Carolina impacted by the storm as a disaster area . According to the American Red Cross , at least 5 @,@ 000 people were kept in shelters after Helene . Following the large @-@ scale evacuation procedures and resulting low loss of life after the storm , the Weather Bureau recommended that certain organizations be awarded the Outstanding Service to the Public certificate due to their cooperation with the Weather Bureau during the hurricane 's duration . The recommended recipients were the radio stations WPTF and WRAL , and the North Carolina State Highway Patrol .
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= Sonnet 18 =
Sonnet 18 , often alternatively titled Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day ? , is one of the best @-@ known of 154 sonnets written by the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare . Part of the Fair Youth sequence ( which comprises sonnets 1 – 126 in the accepted numbering stemming from the first edition in 1609 ) , it is the first of the cycle after the opening sequence now described as the procreation sonnets .
In the sonnet , the speaker compares his beloved to the summer season , and argues that his beloved is better . He also states that his beloved will live on forever through the words of the poem . Scholars have found parallels within the poem to Ovid 's Tristia and Amores , both of which have love themes . Sonnet 18 is written in the typical Shakespearean sonnet form , having 14 lines of iambic pentameter ending in a rhymed couplet . Detailed exegeses have revealed several double meanings within the poem , giving it a greater depth of interpretation .
= = Paraphrase = =
The poem starts with a flattering question to the beloved — " Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day ? " The beloved is both " more lovely and more temperate " than a summer 's day . The speaker lists some negative things about summer : it is short — " summer 's lease hath all too short a date " — and sometimes the sun is too hot — " Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines . " However , the beloved has beauty that will last forever , unlike the fleeting beauty of a summer 's day . By putting his love 's beauty into the form of poetry , the poet is preserving it forever . " So long as men can breathe , or eyes can see , So long lives this , and this gives life to thee . " The lover 's beauty will live on , through the poem which will last as long as it can be read .
= = Structure = =
Sonnet 18 is a typical English or Shakespearean sonnet . It consists of three quatrains followed by a couplet , and has the characteristic rhyme scheme : abab cdcd efef gg . The poem reflects the rhetorical tradition of an Italian or Petrarchan Sonnet . Petrarchan sonnets typically discussed the love and beauty of a beloved , often an unattainable love , but not always . It also contains a volta , or shift in the poem 's subject matter , beginning with the third quatrain .
The couplet 's first line exemplifies a regular iambic pentameter rhythm :
× / × / × / × / × /
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see , ( 18 @.@ 13 )
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